Handbook of Research on Aestheticization of Violence, Horror, and Power [1 ed.] 1799846555, 9781799846550

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Handbook of Research on Aestheticization of Violence, Horror, and Power M. Nur Erdem Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Nihal Kocabay-Sener İstanbul Commerce University, Turkey Tuğba Demir İzmir Kavram Vocational School, Turkey

A volume in the Advances in Media, Entertainment, and the Arts (AMEA) Book Series

Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2021 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Erdem, M. Nur, 1976- editor. | Kocabay Şener, Nihal, 1985- editor. | Demir, Tugba, 1984- editor. Title: Handbook of research on aestheticization of violence, horror, and power / M. Nur Erdem, Nihal Kocabay-Sener, and Tugba Demir, editors. Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book brings together two different concepts which seem incompatible: Aesthetics and violence with the aim to analyze, research and study the aesthetics of violence from an interdisciplinary perspective”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020018642 (print) | LCCN 2020018643 (ebook) | ISBN 9781799846550 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799846567 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Violence. | Violence in mass media. | Violence in art. | Aesthetics. Classification: LCC HM1116 .H357 2021 (print) | LCC HM1116 (ebook) | DDC 303.6--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020018642 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020018643 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Media, Entertainment, and the Arts (AMEA) (ISSN: 2475-6814; eISSN: 2475-6830) British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

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Titles in this Series

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Describing Nature Through Visual Data Anna Ursyn (University of Northern Colorado, USA) Information Science Reference • © 2021 • 367pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799857532) • US $195.00 Multidisciplinary Perspectives on New Media Art Celia Soares (University Institute of Maia (ISMAI), Portugal & Polytechnic Institute of Maia (IPMAIA), Portugal) and Emília Simão (Escola Superior Gallaecia University (ESG), Portugal & Portuguese Catholic University (FFCS-UCP), Portugal) Information Science Reference • © 2020 • 279pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799836698) • US $185.00 Well-Being Design and Frameworks for Interior Space Valeria Minucciani (Politecnico di Torino, Italy) and Nilüfer Saglar Onay (Politecnico di Torino, Italy) Information Science Reference • © 2020 • 292pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799842316) • US $165.00 Contemporary Art Impacts on Scientific, Social, and Cultural Paradigms Emerging Research and Opportunities Janez Strehovec (Institute of New Media Art and Electronic Literature, Ljubljana, Slovenia) Information Science Reference • © 2020 • 177pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799838357) • US $145.00 Navigating Fake News, Alternative Facts, and Misinformation in a Post-Truth World Kimiz Dalkir (McGill University, Canada) and Rebecca Katz (McGill University, Canada) Information Science Reference • © 2020 • 375pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799825432) • US $195.00 Cultural, Theoretical, and Innovative Approaches to Contemporary Interior Design Luciano Crespi (Politecnico di Milano, Italy) Information Science Reference • © 2020 • 459pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799828235) • US $195.00 Handbook of Research on Combating Threats to Media Freedom and Journalist Safety Sadia Jamil (Khalifa University, UAE) Information Science Reference • © 2020 • 408pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799812982) • US $265.00 Deconstructing Images of the Global South Through Media Representations and Communication Floribert Patrick C. Endong (University of Calabar, Nigeria) Information Science Reference • © 2020 • 469pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522598213) • US $195.00

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Editorial Advisory Board Işıl Baş, Boğaziçi University, Turkey Onur Bekiroğlu, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Mete Çamdereli, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Mim Kemal Öke, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Alev Fatoş Parsa, Ege University, Turkey Meliha Nurdan Taşkıran, Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey Neşe Kars Tayanç, Istanbul University, Turkey Niyazi Usta, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

List of Reviewers Enes Abanoz, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Yusuf Acar, Aksaray University, Turkey Gülten Arslantürk, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Sena Aydın, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Nagihan Çakar Bikiç, Istanbul Kültür University, Turkey Nursel Bolat, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Yetkin Bulut, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Ömer Çakın, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Hilal Özdemir Çakır, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Berk Çaycı, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Dilan Çiftçi, Near East University, Cyprus Ersin Diker, Gümüşhane University, Turkey Betül Önay Doğan, Istanbul University, Turkey Ihsan Eken, Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey Metin Eken, Erciyes University, Turkey Başak Gezmen, Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey Ufuk Inal, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Handan Güler Iplikçi, Manisa Celal Bayar University, Turkey H. Burcu Önder Memiş, Istanbul Arel University, Turkey Ahmet Oktan, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey 



Gözde Öymen, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Ilknur Doğu Öztürk, Doğuş University, Turkey Rukiye Gülay Öztürk, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Ala Sivas, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Erol Subaşı, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Turkey Nurdan Taşkıran, Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey Erdem Tatlı, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Filiz Erdoğan Tuğran, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Hasan Turgut, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Yakup Varış, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Ferhat Zengin, Istanbul Gelişim University, Turkey

List of Contributors

Abanoz, Enes / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey........................................................................... 501 Agocuk, Pelin / American University of Cyprus, Cyprus.................................................................. 156 Arısoy, Eda / Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University, Turkey.............................................................. 192 Bolat, Nursel / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey.............................................................................. 19 Çakın, Ömer / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey............................................................................ 324 Çay, Merve / İstanbul Bilgi University, Turkey.................................................................................. 259 Çeçen, Ahmet Faruk / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey................................................................ 303 Çelebi, Esra / Independent Researcher, Turkey................................................................................. 520 Ceyhan, Ezgi Gül / Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Turkey................................................................. 1 Ciftci, Dilan / Cyprus International University, Cyprus.................................................................... 156 Demir, Tuğba / İzmir Kavram Vocational School, Turkey................................................................. 119 Erdem, M. Nur / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey......................................................................... 215 Erdoğan Tuğran, Filiz / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey............................................................ 280 Gökmen, Esma / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey........................................................................ 192 Gölbey, Aslı Güneş / Architecture Faculty, Izmir Demokrasi University, Turkey.............................. 141 Gümüş, İlknur / Nişantaşı University, Turkey..................................................................................... 36 Günay, Mehmet A. / Gümüşhane University, Turkey......................................................................... 324 Gurses, Munevver Elif / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey....................................................... 73, 592 Hodge, Matthew / William Peace University, USA............................................................................. 50 Kapır, Bahadır / Marmara University, Turkey.................................................................................. 484 Kaylı, Ayşenur / İzmir Demokrasi University, Turkey....................................................................... 141 Kocabay-Sener, Nihal / Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey....................................................... 440 Memiş, H. Burcu Önder / İstanbul Arel University, Turkey.............................................................. 369 Sahin, Sena / Ondokuz Mayis University, Turkey.............................................................................. 592 Sanli, Tugce / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey............................................................................. 347 Sirer, Esennur / Usküdar University, Turkey..................................................................................... 174 Subasi, Erol / Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Turkey.................................................................. 394 Subasi, Selda Tunc / Independent Researcher, Turkey....................................................................... 394 Turgut, Hasan / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey................................................................. 417, 460 Ünal, Aylin Tutgun / Üsküdar University, Turkey.............................................................................. 543 Varış, Yakup Alper / Ondokuz Mayıs Unıversity, Turkey.................................................................... 98 Yaman, Deniz / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey.......................................................................... 234 Yayla, Neslihan / Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey................................................................ 417, 567 Zengin, Ferhat / Gelisim University, Turkey..................................................................................... 484



Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................xxiii Section 1 Aesthetics of Violence in Visual and Audial Arts/Culture Chapter 1 (A)Esthetics and Violence Psychology: “Individual and Object”........................................................... 1 Ezgi Gül Ceyhan, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Turkey Chapter 2 Technical Structure of Fear in the Visual Narrative.............................................................................. 19 Nursel Bolat, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Chapter 3 The Coexistence of Violence and Aesthetics in Performance Art: The Forms of Catharsis................. 36 İlknur Gümüş, Nişantaşı University, Turkey Chapter 4 Staging Theatrical Child-Centric Violence: Aesthetic Ownership in The Pillowman.......................... 50 Matthew Hodge, William Peace University, USA Chapter 5 The Rise of Artistic Uncanny: Tattoos................................................................................................... 73 Munevver Elif Gurses, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Chapter 6 Reflections of Violence in Music........................................................................................................... 98 Yakup Alper Varış, Ondokuz Mayıs Unıversity, Turkey Chapter 7 Illustration as a Visual Communication Culturel Product Aesthetic Line in Visual Representation.. 119 Tuğba Demir, İzmir Kavram Vocational School, Turkey

 



Chapter 8 Urbanization Violence to Nature: Reconciliation With Nature........................................................... 141 Aslı Güneş Gölbey, Architecture Faculty, Izmir Demokrasi University, Turkey Ayşenur Kaylı, İzmir Demokrasi University, Turkey Chapter 9 Myths, Tales, and Symbols: Anatolian Legends and Cultural Memory in the Footsteps of the Past.. 156 Pelin Agocuk, American University of Cyprus, Cyprus Dilan Ciftci, Cyprus International University, Cyprus Section 2 Aesthetics of Violence and Horror in Mass Media Chapter 10 Violence Aestheticized in Sports Publications and Broadcasts........................................................... 174 Esennur Sirer, Usküdar University, Turkey Chapter 11 Meaning of Space in Cinema: An Analysis on Dogtooth.................................................................... 192 Eda Arısoy, Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University, Turkey Esma Gökmen, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Chapter 12 The Tale of Fabled Creatures: Penny Dreadful.................................................................................... 215 M. Nur Erdem, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Chapter 13 Dystopic Pleasure: Aestheticization of Fear........................................................................................ 234 Deniz Yaman, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Chapter 14 Tainted Away: Violence Over Nature in the Anime of Hayao Miyazaki............................................. 259 Merve Çay, İstanbul Bilgi University, Turkey Chapter 15 The Unbearable Aesthetics of Violence That Comes From Another Dimension: Gotham City......... 280 Filiz Erdoğan Tuğran, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Section 3 Aesthetics of Power Chapter 16 Context and Space as the Tools to Legitimize and Produce Violence: Broadening Hassan’s Perspective on East-West Dichotomy.................................................................................................. 303 Ahmet Faruk Çeçen, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey



Chapter 17 The Aesthetics of Fear and Power in Soviet Posters............................................................................ 324 Ömer Çakın, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Mehmet A. Günay, Gümüşhane University, Turkey Chapter 18 Aestheticization Through Representation of Power in Built Environment: Urban Public Spaces as Site of Display...................................................................................................................................... 347 Tugce Sanli, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Chapter 19 Aestheticization of Fear and Violence via Public Relations: A Study Case on 12th of September Military Coup in Turkey...................................................................................................................... 369 H. Burcu Önder Memiş, İstanbul Arel University, Turkey Chapter 20 State, Masculinity, and the Aestheticization of Violence: An Alternative Reading of Behzat Ç........ 394 Erol Subasi, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Turkey Selda Tunc Subasi, Independent Researcher, Turkey Chapter 21 Ottomentality as Technology of Self: How Do Mobile Games Aestheticize the Entrepreneurial Self?..................................................................................................................................................... 417 Hasan Turgut, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Neslihan Yayla, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Section 4 Aesthetics of Violence Beyond Power Chapter 22 Resisting With Art: The Surveillance Art Against Surveillance......................................................... 440 Nihal Kocabay-Sener, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Chapter 23 Why Should We Still Be Hopeful? Aestheticization of Power and Resistance................................... 460 Hasan Turgut, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Chapter 24 Aestheticizing Violence Within Transmedia Storytelling Context: V For Vendetta Case................... 484 Ferhat Zengin, Gelisim University, Turkey Bahadır Kapır, Marmara University, Turkey Chapter 25 The Aestheticization of Counterpower: The Iconography of New Social Movements in Network Society.................................................................................................................................................. 501 Enes Abanoz, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey



Chapter 26 Transposition of the Public Events With Violent Visual: Case of PETA............................................ 520 Esra Çelebi, Independent Researcher, Turkey Section 5 Perceptions and Searches for Aesthetics Chapter 27 Aesthetics Perceptions of Social Media Generations.......................................................................... 543 Aylin Tutgun Ünal, Üsküdar University, Turkey Chapter 28 Homo Aestheticus’ Search for Violence: An Examination on the Aestheticization and Reception of Violence in Digital Games.............................................................................................................. 567 Neslihan Yayla, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Chapter 29 Reality Augmented Nightmares or Experiences of Fear..................................................................... 592 Munevver Elif Gurses, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Sena Sahin, Ondokuz Mayis University, Turkey Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 621 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 685 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 692

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................xxiii Section 1 Aesthetics of Violence in Visual and Audial Arts/Culture Chapter 1 (A)Esthetics and Violence Psychology: “Individual and Object”........................................................... 1 Ezgi Gül Ceyhan, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Turkey The two concepts, aesthetics and violence, produce each other and give an idea of the individual’s object orientations. Therefore, it seems necessary to analyze these two concepts. In this chapter, violence and aesthetics are discussed on the assumption that violence and aesthetics affect the inner backwardness and tension under the advanced activism of the individual, how violence and aesthetics work abstractly. The performing arts chosen to analyze the concepts of violence and aesthetics are discussed to understand this area. The chapter aims to look at the foundations of the relationship between aesthetics and violence and open a place of thinking in the literature within the framework of a new meaning. The two concepts to be used in this study are used outside of the basic meaning of violence and aesthetics. Chapter 2 Technical Structure of Fear in the Visual Narrative.............................................................................. 19 Nursel Bolat, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey In the process of transferring meaning, visual narrative arts such as painting, theater, dance, architecture, photography, cinema, and television are built on language images. This language, which is called the visual language, makes sense with visuals, that is, the visual language. Lighting is one of the vital elements in the creation of images as well as natural light. The director makes formal arrangements on light and lighting, one of the important elements of cinematography, creating meaning and especially fear with images. Camera angles are also important in the installation of the fear element. These elements of fear are constructed from an artistic and aesthetic point of view. In the visual narrative, light and camera angles are revealed in aesthetic structure that provides desired effect besides obtaining a certain lighting and shooting process. The aim of this study is to investigate how two cinematographic elements such as illumination and camera angles are used to create meaning in images.

 



Chapter 3 The Coexistence of Violence and Aesthetics in Performance Art: The Forms of Catharsis................. 36 İlknur Gümüş, Nişantaşı University, Turkey During the performances based on performance art, the audience and the performers are in interactive communication. Along with the performance art, artistic communication becomes symmetrical and the artist with the audience share an emotional and mutual sharing. Performance art is an important example of artistic communication model. In addition, the art of performance opposes the social, physical, spiritual borders we are in, and deals with issues such as supervision policies, religious and ideological exploits, identity and gender discrimination, diseases, unemployment, economic and ecological problems. It is seen that performance art frequently uses the aesthetics of violence while addressing these issues. In this chapter, two important representatives, who use violent of aesthetics in their performing arts, Marina Abramovic and Hermann Nitsch, will be the subjects. Chapter 4 Staging Theatrical Child-Centric Violence: Aesthetic Ownership in The Pillowman.......................... 50 Matthew Hodge, William Peace University, USA Prolific and controversial British-Irish playwright Martin McDonagh has built a prominent career on genre-bending works that combine irreverent humor and aggressive violence. His award-winning black comedy play The Pillowman, which premiered in 2003 at London’s renowned National Theatre, is one of the playwright’s most well-known and divisive pieces of theatre. Arguably, the play’s most memorable moments involve segments reenacting original twisted fairy tale-esque stories. The majority of McDonagh’s dark tales center on children characters enduring acts of violence and cruelty, ultimately concluding with disturbing endings. The Pillowman script offers few instructions in its storytelling scenes, allowing—even demanding—artistic ownership of each production’s unique aesthetic approach to the unsettling material. This chapter discusses the divisiveness of McDonagh’s work, his inspiration from violence in historical fairy tales, and the sensitive considerations and controversies theatre leadership teams must ponder when staging fictionalized child-centric violence. Chapter 5 The Rise of Artistic Uncanny: Tattoos................................................................................................... 73 Munevver Elif Gurses, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey “Pictorial bodies,” which until recently were the symbol of contradictory images and marginalized groups, are now far from this context. The uncanny image that began to shine in the 1980s began to rise in global media such as cinema, music, and television. Then it spread to daily life. This evolution of the image of uncanny has of course also been experienced in tattooed bodies. These tattooed bodies, which were previously contrary and were hesitant to communicate with people have become very demanding and people who want to be friends, and even people who stay away from tattoos have been tattooed. In addition to the aforementioned situations, even with the tattooed image, even the tattoo making process is anesthetized; the number of those who only want tattoos for tattoos is undeniably increasing. They are often praised for the pain and the sound of the tattoo machine; the whole process is narrated and shared with praise. At this point, the idea stage, design and production process, and finally the image that the tattoo imposes on the body have become a whole narrative.



Chapter 6 Reflections of Violence in Music........................................................................................................... 98 Yakup Alper Varış, Ondokuz Mayıs Unıversity, Turkey One of the ways that the violence reaches every point in our lives and becomes an aesthetic thing is music, and this aestheticization of violence reaches its peak with music. Music, which has been one of the most powerful means of expression, reflection, and healing throughout history for mankind trapped in primitive self, confronts the reality of violence on individuals and society by revealing the factors feeding the violence, creates awareness by determining the direction of violence, is considered as a phenomenon that has positive or negative effects. This study is focused on these features of music and also the relationship between music and violence within the context of aesthetics. It is aimed to examine the reflections of violence on aesthetic creation via violent musical production materials and the musical reflections of violence and related items that have been handled through various examples. Chapter 7 Illustration as a Visual Communication Culturel Product Aesthetic Line in Visual Representation.. 119 Tuğba Demir, İzmir Kavram Vocational School, Turkey The formal setup of this study is primarily based on the connection between visuality, visual communication, and visual culture. Subsequently, information is given about illustration as a visual culture product. How illustrations focusing on the problems of the modern world can present a visual message with aggressive drawings will be analyzed through examples and shown. This study deals with the representation of the image through representation and explores the meaning behind the depiction of the messages to be conveyed through illustration in visual communication. The illustration chosen for limiting the study focuses on the problems of the modern world and conveys the focus on the subject with a critical line in the reflection of aggressive linear violence. Chapter 8 Urbanization Violence to Nature: Reconciliation With Nature........................................................... 141 Aslı Güneş Gölbey, Architecture Faculty, Izmir Demokrasi University, Turkey Ayşenur Kaylı, İzmir Demokrasi University, Turkey With the uncontrollable population growth in the cities, the rising need for settlement has increased the needs of the cities, as well as making the cities consumption centres. The housing intensity of urbanization were damaged at first, then the farms and agricultural production areas in the city periphery, and then it directly affected the natural resources such as air, water, soil, flora, and fauna. However, nature did not remain unresponsive to these events and responded to human beings with various natural disasters. Eventually, the human violence on nature has turned into the abuse nature exerts on human beings, with disasters such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, and fire as a kind of revenge of nature. The future of humanity becomes dependent on reconciliation with nature and adaptation to a sustainable lifestyle. This chapter examines the violence between human nature and urbanization with its causes and possible consequences and offers reconciliation suggestions for a sustainable life.



Chapter 9 Myths, Tales, and Symbols: Anatolian Legends and Cultural Memory in the Footsteps of the Past.. 156 Pelin Agocuk, American University of Cyprus, Cyprus Dilan Ciftci, Cyprus International University, Cyprus Since the emergence of humanity, symbolic communication has been considered a creative language that has attracted the attention of many different disciplines. Due to the indifference of culture, the phenomenon of folk tales and legends claims that there is more space in literature. The purpose of this study is to create a knowledge base for spatial and cultural memory and to define the cultural heritage of Anatolia, which has hosted many civilizations, through historical periods. This study, which will contribute to a better understanding of the causes of cultural memory in terms of transferring stories for generations, aims to explain the relationship between space and cultural memory through Anatolian legends. For this reason, the study will explain folk tales with a semantic approach in terms of symbols and values. Within the scope of Anatolian legends, the codes and secrets of myths, fairy tales, and legends will be explained using qualitative research method and document analysis technique, and the relationship between space and cultural memory will be examined. Section 2 Aesthetics of Violence and Horror in Mass Media Chapter 10 Violence Aestheticized in Sports Publications and Broadcasts........................................................... 174 Esennur Sirer, Usküdar University, Turkey The most important thing that human beings enjoy doing is playing games. Maybe the game culture, which is an activity as old as human history, has been going on for centuries. Another activity that has been going on for centuries is the sports shows that are aestheticized. Especially football matches, which are loved and liked by large masses, take the individual away from the stress of daily life and experience some kind of catharsis due to the pleasure obtained while watching or watching by nature. Football matches returning to the mass purification field can also be a charging area of violence. In order to keep this field alive, all actors of football support violence, knowingly or not. Football player, manager, referee, audience, and media are the leading actors. In particular, it offers sports shows and aesthetics on the field to increase the number of television viewers. Chapter 11 Meaning of Space in Cinema: An Analysis on Dogtooth.................................................................... 192 Eda Arısoy, Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University, Turkey Esma Gökmen, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Spaces are the basic components of communal and cultural life. Beyond its sheer physicality, a space finds its existence in the communal living space through the meaning universe it creates. The conceptual framework of space and place, therefore, feature lexical distinctions; what distinguishes space or perhaps makes it superior is the fact that humans can interact with it. A place gains spacious characteristic via relations and meanings attributed to it. While the physical presence of a space is interpreted merely at the geometrical level, the meaning created in the space can be best revealed by scrutinizing individuals and relations which gain existence there. This is what depicts and personalizes the space. In this context, this study aims to examine how space relates with the cognitive aspect of cinema and in what way it



contributes to the meaning creation in cinema as well as to reveal its connection with the ideology of the film. Chapter 12 The Tale of Fabled Creatures: Penny Dreadful.................................................................................... 215 M. Nur Erdem, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Violence has been a part of daily life in both traditional and digital media. Consequently, neither the existence of violence in the media nor the debates on this subject are new. On the other hand, the presentation of violence in fictional content should be viewed from a different point of view, especially in the context of aesthetization. Within this context, in this chapter, the serial of Penny Dreadful is analyzed. As analyzing method, Tahsin Yücel’s model of the “space/time coordinates of narrative” is used. And the subject of “aestheticization of violence” is analyzed through a serial with the elements of person, space, and time. Thus, the role of not only physical beauty but also different components in the aestheticization of violence is examined. Chapter 13 Dystopic Pleasure: Aestheticization of Fear........................................................................................ 234 Deniz Yaman, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey In the 1980s and 1990s, there were indispensable elements for the science fiction movies: cyborgs. This half-biologic and half-machine species had fully developed intelligence. And there was such a future fiction that appeared in these films that, on the one hand, raised admiration for the technologies that have not yet emerged, and on the other hand raised serious future concerns. The purpose of this study is to discuss the interaction of fear, artificial intelligence, and humans. And it is also aimed to research the way of representation of this interaction via aestheticization. Because of this, The Lawnmower (1992) has been chosen and analyized within the context of Production of Space Theory by Lefebvre. The Lawnmower has an importance about the imagining of dystopic and aesthetic way artificial intelligence technology would affect human life in the near future. Chapter 14 Tainted Away: Violence Over Nature in the Anime of Hayao Miyazaki............................................. 259 Merve Çay, İstanbul Bilgi University, Turkey Global climate change and its effects on the planet attract attention by policymakers as well as scholars. Global ecological crises are gradually being examined both in cultural and scientific terms all over the world as a concept as the relationship between nature and people is examined further. Japanese animation director Hayao Miyazaki stands out with his critical approach to the relationship between humans and nature. Miyazaki’s animated films such as Princess Mononoke, Spirited Away, and Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind provide us with a different perspective on Mother Earth and the relationship between nature and people in connection to “past,” “present,” and “future.” In this chapter, Miyazaki’s three films are examined through three approaches in ecocriticism—deep ecology, ecofeminism, and dark ecology—to show how Miyazaki maintains a unifying, and a not discriminatory, narrative in our perception of nature by finding balancing solutions to dichotomies such as nature-man, human-nonhuman, man-woman, technology-nature.



Chapter 15 The Unbearable Aesthetics of Violence That Comes From Another Dimension: Gotham City......... 280 Filiz Erdoğan Tuğran, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey In the 2000s, when the possibilities of cinema increased considerably, many violent stories became animatable with the help of technology. The Joker has been seen as the enemy of Batman and the city called Gotham City with unjustified violent acts. The film The Joker focuses on the Joker’s life before all the acts of violence and how he went through the processes before doing these acts. In other words, the script of the film turned into the cause of the violence and took action to find the main reasons why the Joker turned into such a brutal character. This chapter will focus on the aesthetization of violence in cinema based on the Joker character and The Joker film that released in 2019. It will try to shed light on the relationship between art and violence based on the question of how the violence presented in many works of cinema can be approved. Section 3 Aesthetics of Power Chapter 16 Context and Space as the Tools to Legitimize and Produce Violence: Broadening Hassan’s Perspective on East-West Dichotomy.................................................................................................. 303 Ahmet Faruk Çeçen, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Hassan thought the reason of the never-ending clash between East and West is the difference between their varied time perception. Albeit accepting many of Hassan’s claims, the author believes the difference between their time perception cannot be the sole reason of the conflict. Examining the conflict through power relations and seeing violence as a tool of it, the study aimed to show how structural violence helps sustaining global, national, local, and domestic economic, social, and cultural inequalities. As far as we know, the legal structures that sustained state-mandated overt discrimination have been dismantled in the West, meaning the equal treatment of all races and religions under the law. However, it is obvious that there are structural obstacles preventing the law from being practiced the way it is intended. Through the concepts ‘context’ and ‘space’, the researcher will try to explain how discriminative practices are sustained, produced, legitimized, which pave the way for the conflicts to go on (e.g., East and West). Chapter 17 The Aesthetics of Fear and Power in Soviet Posters............................................................................ 324 Ömer Çakın, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Mehmet A. Günay, Gümüşhane University, Turkey The concept of aesthetics has been one of the most discussed topics from past to present. Marxists saw aesthetics as an aesthetic assimilation of nature and reality and defined it as the laws of artistic culture. In this sense, Russian artists did not compromise on aesthetics in the paintings and posters which they produced. In these artworks, where aesthetics are not ignored, it is possible to see how the government creates the hegemony over fear. On this account, governments can easily manage this orientation process by establishing domination of individuals and institutions with fear. The posters produced in the Soviet Union, which also functioned to direct the society, became one of the most important propaganda tools of the government. These posters, presented with an aesthetic value, played an important role in reflecting the will of the government to the society. This study reveals how the fear and power had been transformed into an aesthetic appearance in the Soviet posters through the semiotics analysis method.



Chapter 18 Aestheticization Through Representation of Power in Built Environment: Urban Public Spaces as Site of Display...................................................................................................................................... 347 Tugce Sanli, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey The concepts of power, aesthetics, and fear beyond the boundaries of art reveals tangible and intangible existence through urban space, and public space stands as the centre of attention due to its transforming meaning and spatiality reflecting the global-local thresholds of economic, political, and social compositions of different time periods. The research aims to unfold the layers of ‘power’ that are capable of manifesting through built environment using state apparatuses, that is, urban planning, land-use changes, architecture, securitization, and pacification of symbolic and socially constructed meanings and connotations of particular urban spaces, each of which upholds its own aesthetic formation that is unstable, sensational, and perceptual. Turkey is chosen for its rich and yet complex social and political history as the case concentrating on Kızılay Square in Ankara due to its potential of reflecting a rich historical passage starting with a modernisation implication of a new capital to tyranny of forms of institutional, political, and representational power at display. Chapter 19 Aestheticization of Fear and Violence via Public Relations: A Study Case on 12th of September Military Coup in Turkey...................................................................................................................... 369 H. Burcu Önder Memiş, İstanbul Arel University, Turkey Fear is a human emotion that allows a person to survive. It has a function to ensure the continuity of life. The definition of fear has changed over time. Along with human development, transition to sedentary life, the industrial revolution, and modern life, fear and the things feared have changed. Fear has started to be marketed, especially in post-industrial societies. The governments have seen that fear and violence work to regulate, control, and passivate people. Political governments have had the unique opportunity to use fear as a mechanism for control and surveillance. The governments have aestheticized the fear and presented it indirectly with the support of media. The masses have been shaped as weak, scared, anxious, and helpless in the shadow of fear and violence. This study tries to shed light on the attempt to persuade the society about the legitimacy of the military government by presenting fear and violence to people in aestheticized forms in the 1980s in Turkey. Chapter 20 State, Masculinity, and the Aestheticization of Violence: An Alternative Reading of Behzat Ç........ 394 Erol Subasi, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Turkey Selda Tunc Subasi, Independent Researcher, Turkey Violence is a fundamental bio-sociological phenomenon. It can take many forms including psychological, emotional, economic, gender-based, religious, cultural, and political. The latter is primarily associated with the state. Historically, all states exercised violence in accordance with their law. Thus, law is the codification of violence. State and violence are also associated with masculinity, which is not fixed biological but rather a flexible sociological category. Masculinity is concretized in specific patterns of behaviors. In this perspective, the present study analyzes the famous Turkish TV Series, Behzat Ç: An Ankara Detective Story. It argues that since the Turkish law system could not function of its violence due to the struggles of various socio-political actors within the state, the protagonist, Behzat, aestheticizes and mimics state violence through his masculine performances. That is, state violence is materialized in the masculinity of Behzat who by resorting to violence brings the justice that the state fails to provide.



Chapter 21 Ottomentality as Technology of Self: How Do Mobile Games Aestheticize the Entrepreneurial Self?..................................................................................................................................................... 417 Hasan Turgut, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Neslihan Yayla, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Extreme-right populist tendencies are getting stronger day by day. Although there are various factors that make the extreme-right populist tendencies stronger, the fact that cannot be ignored is that these tendencies must be reproduced discursively (history, culture, etc.) by the ruling power structures. Today, digital media and especially games are the primary areas where this reproduction process is most visible. Mobile games, in particular, turn into dominant cultural phenomena related to daily life beyond leisure, entertainment, and mind refreshing functions. Within this view, it is claimed that the mobile games based on the historical narratives in Turkey work as technology of self to contribute to the discourse of neo-Ottomanism. In order to test this claim, the three most downloaded mobile games (Game of Sultans, Magnificent Ottoman, and Age of Ottomans) in the Appstore and Android markets are selected as examples, and the aesthetic production realized through the structural elements of the game will be analyzed. Section 4 Aesthetics of Violence Beyond Power Chapter 22 Resisting With Art: The Surveillance Art Against Surveillance......................................................... 440 Nihal Kocabay-Sener, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Surveillance has become an element of everyday life. Modern society is used to surveillance. It has become inconspicuous. But art makes surveillance apparent. In this chapter, the notion of surveillance art was debated, and surveillance art was evaluated as activist art. In surveillance art, there are artworks created by singular artists or art groups. In this chapter, two groups were analyzed: Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers. The two art groups focused on CCTV. Surveillance Camera Players tried to take attention by playing in front of the CCTV in the public sphere. Surveillance Camera Players created awareness for surveillance cameras that normalized in everyday life. Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers also invited to make a film via CCTV footage. The manifesto noticed to determine with the act. Consequently, surveillance art creates social awareness, and it is a way to resist surveillance. Chapter 23 Why Should We Still Be Hopeful? Aestheticization of Power and Resistance................................... 460 Hasan Turgut, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey As dispositif, power has to make itself aesthetics in three planes: desire, body, and space. Firstly, desire makes mobilization possible in which power is constituted, whether it is regarded as a deficiency or as a production-machine of socius. Secondly, space provides publicity and timelessness to power. Finally, the omnipresence ability of power is revealed by the body. Actualizing of power come in sight throughout the synchronic relationality of these three planes. So, the aestheticization and actualization of power are the same processes. Therefore, power is in need of organization of images and feelings. This is what aestheticization of power is. So, the study is based on the claim that the aesthetics of power and the aesthetics of resistance are immanent. Within the framework of the theoretical analyses, the chapter discusses whether aestheticizations of power and resistance will provide opportunities for hopefulness.



Chapter 24 Aestheticizing Violence Within Transmedia Storytelling Context: V For Vendetta Case................... 484 Ferhat Zengin, Gelisim University, Turkey Bahadır Kapır, Marmara University, Turkey In this study, V for Vendetta (2006) directed by James McTeigue, is analysed based on Henry Jenkins’s transmedia storytelling terms. Henry Jenkins defines re-creating a story with different media tools as “transmedia storytelling” and evaluates this new storytelling form that emerged in the digital age as a new aesthetic linked with active participation that creates new demands on the consumer. V for Vendetta with a large fan audience has a story that became the symbol of the social movements that emerged against totalitarian regimes created in the modern state and social organisation. The story V for Vendetta that was first published at the beginning of 1980s as a dystopic comic book prioritising violence and terror experienced changes in the story with the effect of different narrative media. Within this context, this study with Henry Jenkins’s transmedia storytelling theoretical basis analyzes how the main narrative elements of the story such as terror, violence, fear, and freedom are reflected in the V for Vendetta movie by using semiotic methods. Chapter 25 The Aestheticization of Counterpower: The Iconography of New Social Movements in Network Society.................................................................................................................................................. 501 Enes Abanoz, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey The impact of new communication technologies—especially social networks such as Twitter, YouTube, and Facebook—on democracy and mass movements has been a core subject in the area of social and political research ever since these technologies have started to play a crucial role in dissemination of ideas that go beyond the limits of mass media and foster symmetrical communication on an unprecedented scale. One of the important features of these technologies is the image sharing ability with network members. It is a propulsive force to turn a crowd into a mass with creating a collective subjectivity (the we) of mass through image, which turns into an iconography. This iconography is per se an aesthetic medium of ideology that is against the political totalizations in new digital public sphere. Thus, in this chapter, the authors focus on the formation of new social movements in network societies, then the aesthetic dimension of iconographic images in these movements. Chapter 26 Transposition of the Public Events With Violent Visual: Case of PETA............................................ 520 Esra Çelebi, Independent Researcher, Turkey People who are sensitive to the subject realize the seriousness of the situation and made an effort to raise awareness of the society. In order to increase the awareness, activism movements against social events have started and the organizastion of activist protests has become more visible with the use of digital platforms and spread to the large masses has accelerated. In this chapter the element of violence existing in the advertising poster works of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), activists, and artists are semantically analyzed by using the semiotic method. Indicators are a form of interpretation used to understand and explicate the truth behind what we see. The importance of image is rather important in visual semiotics. In addition, it will explain the targeted messages given to the public by using violence indicator and common sense, but contrarily, the situation projected innocent by drawing an aesthetic framework. Awareness will be raised to those messages that are shown innocently.



Section 5 Perceptions and Searches for Aesthetics Chapter 27 Aesthetics Perceptions of Social Media Generations.......................................................................... 543 Aylin Tutgun Ünal, Üsküdar University, Turkey This chapter aimed to investigate the online value and behavior transfer of generations who use social media with the phenomenon of aestheticization. By examining the social media generations’ preferences, usage habits, the levels of acceptance of differences and the effects of social media use on the work life in the light of researches, generations’ togetherness and differences on the online network are revealed. In social networks, generations can provide power by affecting each other’s moods, and can easily impose violence, aggression, and power factors on others by making fun. When compared to older generations, the fact that young generations prefer social media environments that are with more photo and video sharing makes for them to produce/consume many emotions that have been made usual with aestheticization, especially the information that contains violence. At the end of this chapter, some suggestions are made including family communication and trust model named “5S+1M.” Chapter 28 Homo Aestheticus’ Search for Violence: An Examination on the Aestheticization and Reception of Violence in Digital Games.............................................................................................................. 567 Neslihan Yayla, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Homo-Aestheticus is a term that describes human art aesthetics and evolution under its effect. When we look at the artworks that came to our date million years ago, the similarities we encounter are the signs that our aesthetic preferences, understanding of beauty, and our tastes are a legacy from our ancestors. Aesthetic is not only an understanding adopted by our cultures; it has been with us for centuries. Similarly, violence appears as a concept that has been part of humanity for ages. It is an interdisciplinary concept that is center of attention of scientific fields particularly social sciences, art, sociology, psychology. As a result of digital developments, virtual reality, anonymous identities and together with the fantasy of the virtual world emerging with uncontrolled digital media eases presentation of the violence in digital medias. In video games, violence is presented to the player in an aesthetic way. This study aims to reveal how the aesthetics of violence in video game are received by the players and fill the gap in the literature. Chapter 29 Reality Augmented Nightmares or Experiences of Fear..................................................................... 592 Munevver Elif Gurses, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Sena Sahin, Ondokuz Mayis University, Turkey Virtual reality- and augmented reality-supported games can be used to appeal to all tastes and audiences, especially for people who seek adventure, adrenaline, and fear and who want to take a break from their daily life with action. The element of fear, which has been used frequently in every branch of art, has



been indispensable in the field of entertainment and art, although it is far from the functioning of this feeling. When we look at the purpose of fear, it is an unconscious sensation that allows the person to take action against a situation that threatens or endangers the life of the person. The person is afraid of danger and develops a reaction to the situation. Fear within the boundaries of entertainment and art, although parallel to this situation, is a controlled and safe form of true fear. Fear of man in the face of art or game area creates emotional satisfaction because it will not cause a life threat. For this reason, films and games created, especially in the genre of fear, are indispensable for the masses. Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 621 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 685 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 692

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Violence can be defined as a cultural element that can be seen in every part of daily social life. Although we oftenly encounter violence in traditional and digital media; it also can be seen in works of art such as painting and sculpture, architecture, music, etc. Because, violence can not just simply explained with brute force. Violence is also a phenomenon which has dimensions such as political violence, gender violence, pornographic violence, oral violence, visual violence, etc. It is also can be seen as an inspection mechanism, a part of punishment and controlling system, or a regulation mechanism; surely within the context of political power. And even, sometimes violence is seen as sacred, otherworldly and religious. On the other hand, the violence scenes that we faced are mostly aestheticized. In other words, violence has also another dimension: aesthetics. This book focused on this theme. Violence often carries aesthetic elements with itself. Human beings are very interested in witnessing violence against their own kind (or other species), they instigates their instinctive tendencies (with a Freudian point of view) with this testimony. However, there are also some consequences of this testimony. First of all, the human being is not successful about to face with the consequences of violence that he / she resorted himself / herself; or by the others. The individual avoids the act of violence because of sometimes to avoid this feeling, and sometimes to avoid punishment legally; or with other reasons. The individual seeks the ways to repress the sense of violence within him / her; and fantasmagoric environments is the best way of this. And because of this, he / she resort to the media channels, oftenly. However, there are other elements that can witness violence. He / she can also accept these elements more easily than encountering the real consequences of real violence. The hunger of the individual for the violence is a trigger for generating of violence content by media, owners of political power, owners of religious power, etc. However, they create this content by considering the individual’s sensitivities. The content of violence in which an individual is required to witness should be received by him / her. However, at the same time, the violence taken by the individual should not have different consequences in him / her. Violence is therefore precisely esthetized. Earlier, it has been said that the aesthetics of violence appear in different fields and in different forms. In order to analyze this, an interdisciplinary perspective is required. The reason for the creation of this book is precisely to address the issue within the framework of this interdisciplinarity. The Handbook of Research on Aestheticization of Violence, Horror, and Power brings together two different concepts which seem incompatible: Aesthetics and violence. On the other hand, this togetherness can also be seen in many fields such as media contents, urban design and architecture, art, mythology, etc. The aim of this book is to reveal this togetherness with different methods, researches, analyses, and findings in these different fields. In order to analyze, research and study the aesthetics of violence, an interdisciplinary perspective is required. The book focuses on the basic motives of aestheticizing and presenting violence in different fields and genres and the role of audience reception at this point. 

Preface

The target audience of this book will be composed of professionals and researchers working in the field of media, culture, art, politics, architecture, aesthetics, history, cultural anthropology, musicology and so on, in various disciplines. The Handbook of Research on Aestheticization of Violence, Horror, and Power includes 29 chapter that focus on different fields. We can briefly introduce the sections as follows:

(A)Esthetics and Violence Psychology: “Individual And Object” The two concepts ‘’Aesthetics and Violence’’ produce each other and give an idea of the individual’s object orientations. Therefore it seems necessary to analyze these two concepts. In this chapter, violence and aesthetics are discussed on the assumption that violence and aesthetics affect the inner backwardness and tension under the advanced activism of the individual, how violence and aesthetics work abstractly. The performing arts chosen to analyze the concepts of violence and aesthetics are discussed to understand this area. The chapter aims to look at the foundations of the relationship between aesthetics and violence and open a place of thinking in the literature within the framework of a new meaning. The two concepts to be used in this study are used outside of the basic meaning of “violence and aesthetics”.

Technical Structure of Fear in the Visual Narrative In the process of transferring meaning, visual narrative arts such as painting, theater, dance, architecture, photography, cinema and television are built on language images. This language, which is called the visual language, makes sense with visuals, that is, the visual language. Lighting is one of the vital elements in the creation of images as well as natural light. The director makes formal arrangements on light and lighting, one of the important elements of cinematography, creating meaning and especially fear with images. Camera angles are also important in the installation of the fear element. These elements of fear are constructed from an artistic and aesthetic point of view. In the visual narrative, light and camera angles are revealed in aesthetic structure that provides desired effect besides obtaining a certain lighting and shooting process. The aim of this study is to investigate how two cinematographic elements such as illumination and camera angles are used to create meaning in images.

The Coexistence of Violence and Aesthetics in Performance Art: The Forms of Catharsis During the performances based on performance art, the audience and the performers are in interactive communication. Along with the performance art, artistic communication becomes symmetrical and the artist with the audience share an emotional and mutual sharings. Performance art is an important example of artistic communication model. In addition, the art of performance opposes the social, physical, spiritual borders we are in, and deals with issues such as supervision policies, religious and ideological exploits, identity and gender discrimination, diseases, unemployment, economic and ecological problems. It is seen that performance art frequently uses the aesthetics of violence while addressing these issues. In this article, two important representatives, who use violent of aesthetics in their performing arts, Marina Abramovic and Hermann Nitsch will be the subject.

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Staging Theatrical Child-Centric Violence: Aesthetic Ownership in The Pillowman Prolific and controversial British-Irish playwright Martin McDonagh has built a prominent career on genre-bending works that combine irreverent humor and aggressive violence. His award-winning black comedy play The Pillowman, which premiered in 2003 at London’s renowned National Theatre, is one of the playwright’s most well-known and divisive pieces of theatre. Arguably the play’s most memorable moments involve segments reenacting original twisted fairy tale-esque stories. The majority of McDonagh’s dark tales center on children characters enduring acts of violence and cruelty, ultimately concluding with disturbing endings. The Pillowman script offers few instructions in its storytelling scenes, allowing—even demanding—artistic ownership of each production’s unique aesthetic approach to the unsettling material. This chapter discusses the divisiveness of McDonagh’s work, his inspiration from violence in historical fairy tales, and the sensitive considerations and controversies theatre leadership teams must ponder when staging fictionalized child-centric violence.

The Rise of Artistic Uncanny: Tattoos “Pictorial bodies”, which until recently became the symbol of contradictory images and marginalized groups; it is now far from this context. The uncanny image that began to shine in the 80s began to rise in global media such as cinema, music and television. then he spread to daily life. This evolution of the image of uncanny; it has ofcourse also been experienced in tattooed bodies. These tattooed bodies, which were previously contrary and were hesitant to communicate with people; they have become very demanding and people who want to be friends; and even people who stay away from tattoos have been tattooed. In addition to the aforementioned situations, even with the tattooed image, even the tattoo making process is aesthetized; the number of those who only want tattoos for tattoos is undeniably increasing. They are often praised for the pain and the sound of the tattoo machine; the whole process is narrated and shared with praise. At this point, the idea stage, design and production process, and finally the image that the tattoo imposes on the body becomes a whole narrative.

Reflections of Violence on Music One of the ways that the violence reaches every point in our lives and becomes an aesthetic thing is music; and this aestheticization of violence reaches its peak with music. Music, which has been one of the most powerful means of expression, reflection and healing throughout history for mankind trapped in primitive self, confronts the reality of violence on individuals and society by revealing the factors feeding the violence, creates awareness by determining the direction of violence, is considered as a phenomenon that has positive or negative effects. In this study, it is focused on this features of music and also the relationship between music and violence within the context of aesthetics. It is aimed to examine the reflections of violence on aesthetic creation via violent musical production materials and the musical reflections of violence and related items that have been handled through various examples.

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Illustration as a Visual Communication Cultural Product Aesthetic Line in Visual Representation Illustrations are today, although it is fed by digital possibilities, at present, it is the hand drawing ability and aesthetic skill that add meaning to the technical use skill. The formal setup of this study is primarily based on the connection between visuality, visual communication, and visual culture. Subsequently, information is given about illustration as a visual culture product. How illustrations focusing on the problems of the modern world can present a visual message with aggressive drawings will be analyzed through examples and shown. This study deals with the representation of the image through representation and explores the meaning behind the depiction of the messages to be conveyed through illustration in visual communication. The illustration chosen for limiting the study focuses on the problems of the modern World and conveys the focus on the subject with a critical line in the reflection of aggressive linear violence.

Urbanization Violence to Nature: Reconciliation With Nature With the uncontrollable population growth in the cities, rising need for settlement has increased the needs of the cities, as well as making the cities consumption centres. The housing intensity of urbanization damaged at first, the farms and agricultural production areas in the city periphery and then directly affected the natural resources such as air, water and soil, flora, and fauna. However, nature did not remain unresponsive to these events and responded to human beings with various natural disasters. Eventually, the human violence on nature has turned into the abuse of nature exerts on human beings, with disasters such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, and fire as a kind of revenge of nature. The future of humanity becomes dependent on reconciliation with nature and adaptation to a sustainable lifestyle. This chapter examines the violence between human-nature and urbanization with its causes and possible consequences and offers reconciliation suggestions for a sustainable life.

Myths Tales and Symbols: Anatolian Legends and Cultural Memory in the Footsteps of the Past Since the emergence of humanity, symbolic communication has been considered a creative language that has attracted the attention of many different disciplines. Due to the indifference of culture, the phenomenon of folk tales and legends claims that there is more space in literature. The purpose of this study is to create a knowledge base for spatial and cultural memory and to define the cultural heritage of Anatolia, which has hosted many civilizations, through historical periods. This study, which will contribute to a better understanding of the causes of cultural memory in terms of transferring stories for generations, aims to explain the relationship between space and cultural memory through Anatolian legends. For this reason, the study will explain folk tales with a semantic approach in terms of symbols and values. Within the scope of Anatolian legends, the codes and secrets of myths, fairy tales and legends will be explained using qualitative research method and document analysis technique, the relationship between space and cultural memory will be examined.

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Violence Aestheticized in Sports Publications and Broadcasts The most important thing that human beings enjoy doing is playing games. Maybe the game culture, which is an activity as old as human history, has been going on for centuries. Another activity that has been going on for centuries is the sports shows that are aesthetized. Especially football matches, which are loved and liked by large masses, take the individual away from the stress of daily life and experience some kind of catharsis due to the pleasure obtained while watching or watching by nature. Football matches returning to the mass purification field can also be a charging area of violence. In order to keep this field alive, all actors of football support violence, knowingly or not. Football player, manager, referee, audience and media are the leading actors. In particular, it offers sports shows and aesthetics on the field to increase the number of television viewers.

Meaning of Space in Cinema: An Analysis on Dogtooth Spaces are the basic components of communal and cultural life. Beyond its sheer physicality, a space finds its existence in the communal living space through the meaning universe it creates. The conceptual framework of space and place, therefore, feature lexical distinctions; what distinguishes space or perhaps makes it superior is the fact that humans can interact with it. A place gains spacious characteristic via relations and meanings attributed to it. While the physical presence of a space is interpreted merely at the geometrical level, the meaning created in the space can be best revealed by scrutinizing individuals and relations which gain existence there. This is what depicts and personalizes the space. In this context, this study aims to examine how space relates with the cognitive aspect of cinema and in what way it contributes to the meaning creation in cinema as well as to reveal its connection with the ideology of the film.

The Tale of Fabled Creatures: Penny Dreadful Violence has been encountering as a phenomenon which is a part of daily life in both traditional and digital media. Consequently, neither the existence of violence in the media nor the debates on this subject are new. On the other hand, the presentation of violence in fictional content should be viewed from a different point of view, especially in the context of aesthetization. Within this context, in this chapter, the serial of Penny Dreadful is analyzed. As analyzing method, Tahsin Yücel’s model of the “space/time coordinates of narrative” is used. And the subject of “aestheticization of violence” is analyzed through a serial with the elements of person, space and time. Thus, the role of not only physical beauty but also different components in the aestheticization of violence is examined.

Dystopic Pleasure: Aestheticization of the Fear In the process between the years 1980’s and 90’s, there were indispensable elements for the science fiction movies: Cyborgs. These half biologic and half machine species kinds had extremely fully developed intelligence. And there was such a future fiction that appeared in these films that, on the one hand, raised admiration for the technologies that have not yet emerged, and on the other hand raised serious future concerns. The purpose of this study is to discuss the interaction of fear, artificial intelligence and human. And it is also aimed to research the way of representation of this interaction via aestheticization. Because of this, The Lawnmower film (1992) has been chosen and analized within the context of Production of xxvii

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Space Theory by Lefebvre. The Lawnmower, when especially it is thought of its releasing year, has an importance about the imagining of dystopic and aesthetic way artificial intelligence technology’s effects on human’s life in the near future.

Tainted Away: Violence over Nature in the Anime of Hayao Miyazaki Global climate change and its effects on the planet attract attention by policymakers as well as scholars. Global ecological crises are gradually being examined both in cultural and scientific terms all over the world as a concept as the relationship between nature and people is examined further. Japanese animation director Hayao Miyazaki stands out with his critical approach to the relationship between humans and nature. Miyazaki’s animated films such as Princess Mononoke, Spirited Away, and Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, provide us with a different perspective on Mother Earth and the relationship between nature and people in connection to “past”, “present” and “future”. In this chapter, Miyazaki’s three films are examined through three approaches in Ecocriticism: Deep Ecology, Ecofeminism, and Dark Ecology to show how Miyazaki maintains a unifying, and a not discriminatory narrative in our perception of nature by finding balancing solutions to dichotomies such as nature-man, human-nonhuman, man-woman, technology-nature.

The Unbearable Aesthetics of Violence That Comes From Another Dimension: Gotham City Sitting in their safe seats aware that the actors and themselves will not be harmed, going to the cinema will undoubtedly disappear in the film they are watching, reality will be suspended and affected by the presentation of the scenes of violence. In the 2000s when the possibilities of cinema increased considerably, many violent stories became animatable with the help of technology. The Joker has been seen as the enemy of Batman and the city called Gotham City with unjustified violent acts. This film focuses on the Joker’s life before all the acts of violence and how he went through the processes before doing these acts. In other words, the script of the film turned into the cause of the violence and took action to find the main reasons why the Joker turned into such a brutal character. This article will focus on the aesthetization of violence in cinema based on the Joker character and the Joker film that release in 2019. It will try to shed light on the relationship between art and violence based on the question of how the violence presented in many works of cinema can be approved.

Context and Space as the Tools to Legitimate and Produce Violence: Broadening Hassan’s Perspective on East-West Dichotomy Hassan thought the reason of the never-ending clash between East and West is the difference between their varied time perception. Albeit accepting many of Hassan’s claims, the author believes the difference between their time perception cannot be the sole reason of the conflict. Examining the conflict through power relations and seeing violence as a tool of it, study aimed to show how structural violence helps sustaining global, national, local and domestic economic, social and cultural inequalities. As far as we know the legal structures that sustained state-mandated overt discrimination have been dismantled in the West, meaning the equal treatment of all races and religions under the law. However, it is obvious that there are structural obstacles preventing the law is practiced the way it is intended. Through the concepts xxviii

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‘context’ and ‘space’ the researcher will try to explain how discriminative practices are sustained, produced, legitimized which pave the way for the conflicts to go on e.g. East and West.

The Aesthetics of Fear and Power in the Soviet Posters The concept of aesthetics has been one of the most discussed topics from past to present. Marxists saw aesthetics as an aesthetic assimilation of nature and reality and defined it as the laws of artistic culture. In this sense, Russian artists did not compromise on aesthetics in the paintings and posters which they produced. In these artworks, where aesthetics are not ignored, it is possible to see how the government creates the hegemony over fear. On this account, governments can easily manage this orientation process by establishing domination of individuals and institutions with fear. The posters produced in the Soviet Union, which also functioned to direct the society, became one of the most important propaganda tools of the government. These posters, presented with an aesthetic value, played an important role in reflecting the will of the government to the society. This study reveals how the fear and power had been transformed into an aesthetic appearance in the Soviet Posters through the semiotics analysis method.

Aestheticization Through Representation of Power in Built Environment: Urban Public Spaces as Sites of Display The concepts of power, aesthetics and fear beyond the boundaries of art reveals tangible and intangible existence through urban space, and public space stands as the centre of attention due to its transforming meaning and spatiality reflecting the global-local thresholds of economic, political and social compositions of different time periods. The research aims to unfold the layers of ‘power’ that is capable of manifesting itself through built environment using state apparatuses i.e. urban planning, land-use changes, architecture, securitisation and pacification of symbolic and socially constructed meanings and connotations of particular urban spaces each of which upholds its own aesthetic formation that is unstable, sensational and perceptual. Turkey is chosen for its rich and yet complex social and political history as the case concentrating on Kızılay Square in Ankara due to its potential of reflecting a rich historical passage starting with a modernisation implication of a new capital to tyranny of forms of institutional, political and representational power at display.

Aestheticization of Fear and Violence via Public Relations: A Study Case on 12th of September Military Coup in Turkey Fear is a human emotion that allows a person to survive. It has a function to ensure the continuity of life. The definition of fear has changed over time. Along with human development, transition to sedentary life, the industrial revolution and modern life, fear and the things feared have changed. Fear has started to be marketed, especially in post-industrial societies. The governments have seen that fear and violence work to regulate, control and passivate people. Political governments have had the unique opportunity to use fear as a mechanism for control and surveillance. The governments have estheticized the fear and presented it indirectly with the support of media. The masses have been shaped as weak, scared, anxious and helpless in the shadow of fear and violence. This study tries to shed light on the attempt to persuade the society about the legitimacy of the military government by presenting fear and violence to people in estheticized forms in the 1980s in Turkey. xxix

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State, Masculinity, and the Aestheticization of Violence: An Alternative Reading of Behzat Ç Violence is a fundamental bio-sociological phenomenon. It can take many forms including, psychological, emotional, economic, gender-based, religious, cultural and political. The latter is primarily associated with the state. Historically, all states exercised violence in accordance with their law. Thus, law is the codification of violence. State and violence are also associated with masculinity which is not a fixed, biological rather a flexible sociological category. Masculinity is concretized in specific patterns of behaviors. In this perspective, the present study analyzes the famous Turkish Tv Series, Behzat Ç: An Ankara Detective Story. It argues that since the Turkish law system could not function of its violence due to the struggles of various socio-political actors within the state, the protagonist, Behzat, aestheticizes and mimics state violence through his masculine performances. That is, state violence is materialized in the masculinity of Behzat who by resorting to violence brings the justice that the state fails to provide.

Ottomentality as Technology of Self: How Do Mobile Games Aestheticize the Entrepreneurial Self? Extreme-right populist tendencies are getting stronger day by day. Although there are various factors that make the extreme-right populist tendencies stronger, the fact that cannot be ignored is that these tendencies must be reproduced discursively (history, culture, etc.) by the ruling power structures. Today, digital media and especially games are the primary areas where this reproduction process is most visible. Mobile games, in particular, turn into dominant cultural phenomena related to daily life beyond leisure, entertainment and mind refreshing functions. Within this view, it is claimed that the mobile game based on the historical narratives in Turkey work as technology of self to contribute to the discourse of neoOttomanism. In order to test this claim, the most downloaded three mobile games (Game of Sultans, Magnificent Ottoman and Age of Ottomans) in the appsotre and android markets are selected as examples and the aesthetic production realized through the structural elements of the game will be analyzed.

Resisting With Art: The Surveillance Art Against Surveillance Surveillance has become an element of everyday life. Modern society used to surveillance. It became inconspicuous. But art make surveillance apparent. In this chapter, notion of surveillance art was debated and surveillance art was evaluated as activist art. In surveillance art, there are artworks created by singular artists or art groups. In this chapter, two groups were analyzed: Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers. The two art groups focused on CCTV. Surveillance Camera Players tried to take attention by playing in front of the CCTV in the public sphere. Surveillance Camera Players created awareness for surveillance cameras that normalized in everyday life. Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers also invited to make a film via CCTV footage. The manifesto noticed to determine with the act. Consequently, surveillance art provides to create social awareness and it is a way of to resist surveillance.

Why Should We Still Be Hopeful? Aestheticization of Power and Resistance As dispositif, power has to make itself aesthetics in three planes: desire, body and space. Firstly, desire makes mobilization possible in which power is constituted, whether it is regarded as a deficiency or as a xxx

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production-machine of socius. Secondly, space provides publicity and timelessness to power. Finally, the omnipresence ability of power is revealed by the body. Actualizing of power come in sight throughout the synchronic relationality of these three planes. So, the aestheticization and actualization of power are the same processes. Therefore power is in need of organization of images and feelings. This is what aestheticization of power is. So the study is based on the claim that the aesthetics of power and the aesthetics of resistance are immanent. Within the framework of the theoretical analyzes, it will be tried to discuss whether aestheticizations of power and resistance will provide opportunities for hopefulness.

Aestheticizing Violence Within Transmedia Storytelling Context: V for Vendetta Case In this study, V for Vendetta (2006) movie directed by James McTeigue is analysed based on Henry Jenkins’ transmedia storytelling terms. Henry Jenkins defines re-creating a story with different media tools as “transmedia storytelling” and evaluates this new storytelling form that emerged in the digital age as a new aesthetic linked with active participation that creates new demands on the consumer. V for Vendetta movie with a large fan audience has a story that became the symbol of the social movements that emerged against totalitarian regimes created in the modern state and social organisation. The story V for Vendetta that was first published at the beginning of 1980s as a dystopic comic book prioritising violence and terror experienced changes in the story with the effect of different narrative media. Within this context, this study with Henry Jenkins’ transmedia storytelling theoretical basis analysis how main narrative elements of the story such as terror, violence, fear, freedom are reflected V for Vendetta movie by using semiotic methods.

The Aestheticization of Counterpower: The Iconography of New Social Movements in Network Society The impact of new communication technologies -especially social networks such as Twitter, YouTube and Facebook- on democracy and mass movements has been a core subject in area of social and political research ever since these technologies have started to play a crucial role in dissemination of ideas, that go beyond the limits of mass media and foster symmetrical communication on an unprecedented scale. One of the important features of these technologies is the image sharing ability with network members. It is a propulsive force to turn a crowd into a mass with creating a collective subjectivity (the we) of mass through image which turns into an iconography. This iconography is per se an aesthetic medium of ideology that is against the political totalizations in new digital public sphere. Thus, in this chapter, we will focus on the formation of new social movements in network societies, then the aesthetic dimension of iconographic images in these movements.

Transposition of the Public Events With Violent Visual: Case of PETA People who are sensitive to the subject realize the seriousness of the situation and made an effort to raise awareness of the society. In order to increase the awareness, activism movements against social events have started and the organizastion of activist protests has become more visible with the use of digital platforms and spread to the large masses has accelerated. In this article; element of violence existing in the advertising poster works of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ”(PETA), activists and artists xxxi

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semantic analyse was made by using the semiotic method. Indicators are a form of interpretation used to understand and explicate the truth behind what we see. The importance of image is rather important in visual semiotics. In addition, it will be explained the targeted messages given to the public by using violence indicator and disturbing for common sense but contrarly the situation projected innocent by drawing an aestehetic framework. Awareness will be raised to those messages that are shown innocently.

Aesthetics Perceptions of Social Media Generations This chapter aimed to investigate the online value and behavior transfer of generations who use social media with the phenomenon of aestheticization. By examining the social media generations’ preferences, usage habits, the levels of acceptance of differences and the effects of social media use on the work life in the light of researches; generations’ togetherness and differences on the online network are revealed. In social networks, generations can provide power by affecting each other’s moods, and can easily impose violence, aggression and power factors on others by making them fun. When compared to older generations, the fact that young generations prefer social media environments that are with more photo and video sharing makes for them to produce/consume many emotions that have been made usual with aestheticization, especially the information that contains violence. At the end of this chapter, some suggestions are made including family communication and trust model named “5S+1M”.

Homo Aestheticus’ Search for Violence: An Examination on the Aestheticization and Reception of Violence in Digital Games Homo-Aestheticus is a term that describes human art aesthetics and evolution under its effect. When we look at the artworks that came to our date million years ago, the similarities we encounter are the signs that our aesthetic preferences, understanding of beauty and our tastes are a legacy from our ancestors. Aesthetic is not only an understanding adopted by our cultures, it has been with us for centuries. Similarly, violence appear as a concept that has been part of humanity for ages. It is an interdisciplinary concept that is center of attention of scientific fields particularly social sciences, art, sociology, psychology. As a result of digital developments, virtual reality, anonymous identities and together with the fantasy of the virtual world emerging with uncontrolled digital media, eases presentation of the violence in digital medias. In video games violence is presented to the player in an aesthetic way. This study aims to reveal how the aesthetics of violence in video game are received by the players and fill the gap in the literature.

Reality Augmented Nightmares or Experiences of the Fear Virtual reality and augmented reality supported games that can be used for games to appeal all tastes and audiences; especially for people who seek adventure, adrenaline and fear and who want to take a break from their daily life with action. The element of fear, which has been used frequently in every branch of art since the past, has been indispensable in the field of entertainment and art, although it is far from the functioning of this feeling. When we look at the purpose of fear; It is an unconscious sensation that allows the person to take action against a situation that threatens or endangers the life of the person. The person is afraid of danger and develops a reaction to the situation. Fear within the boundaries of entertainment and art, although parallel to this situation is a controlled and safe form of true fear. Fear of

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man in the face of art or game area; it creates emotional satisfaction because it will not cause a life threat. For this reason, films and games created especially in the genre of fear are indispensable for the masses. In terms of human history, the first two decades of the 21st century can be defined as the period when violence was not the most experienced but the most visible. Because the violent incidents that take place almost everywhere in the world have taken place in daily life through the media and furthermore continue to maintain this place. Fictional or real violence elements have an important place in all visual, auditory, audio-visual media. In interdisciplinary fields such as communication sciences, this has been the subject of discussion since the beginning. On the other hand, the same situation is valid for some concepts and phenomena: Horror/Fear and Power. And mostly, these concepts and phenomena are in a relationship in many kinds. In this book, it is focused on this relationship and its reflections in society. The concepts of violence, horror and power have become the subject of many researches and theories. However -although such a connection is made for violence- there has not been a study that deals with the concept of aesthetics and a relationship between horror and power in detail. In this book, it is aimed to present a a broad perspective for the violence, horror and power and their aestheticized forms in different ways in society. With this reason, with our authors from many different fields of science such as communication, media, architecture, music, fine arts, folklore, etc., we tried to compound the different point of views in an interdisciplinary book. It has been also tried to give a place to researches about not only the elements of popular culture, but also different and local cultures. This book provides a different perspective to the readers. This book provides a different perspective to the readers who study on culture, arts and especially in media. At the same time, this book can be described as a beginning point for the future researches. M. Nur Erdem Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Nihal Kocabay-Sener Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey Tuğba Demir Izmir Kavram Vocational School, Turkey

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Aesthetics of Violence in Visual and Audial Arts/Culture

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(A)Esthetics and Violence Psychology: “Individual and Object” Ezgi Gül Ceyhan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7367-4987 Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The two concepts, aesthetics and violence, produce each other and give an idea of the individual’s object orientations. Therefore, it seems necessary to analyze these two concepts. In this chapter, violence and aesthetics are discussed on the assumption that violence and aesthetics affect the inner backwardness and tension under the advanced activism of the individual, how violence and aesthetics work abstractly. The performing arts chosen to analyze the concepts of violence and aesthetics are discussed to understand this area. The chapter aims to look at the foundations of the relationship between aesthetics and violence and open a place of thinking in the literature within the framework of a new meaning. The two concepts to be used in this study are used outside of the basic meaning of violence and aesthetics.

INTRODUCTION This chapter is not just a study focusing on psychology, philosophy and art. However, the reason I need the knowledge of all these areas is that I am interested in understanding the synthesis of the notions of “violence and aesthetics” in political psychology. Although violence and aesthetics evoke many different concepts, it is necessary to address the idea that aesthetics symbolize a different value from their accepted meanings of beauty, interest, curiosity, great values, and supreme thing. Violence carries all values in the negative impact of concrete and abstract situations and contains external and intrinsic negative influences. However, violence is not defined as a physical visible area. It effectively works between a spiritual decline and, as a result, an obligation to activate (movement, behavior). It consists of variations of acceptance by overcoming, intrinsic violence by revealing making aesthetic valuations, even the existence of the world, conditions, even its existence. So, how does this happen? DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch001

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When aesthetics are the dominant element of violence (spiritual, ritual, ideological, psychological, etc.-mass, and individual areas), it has the function of filling spiritual gaps. These fields can be added to all abstract and concrete fields. These aesthetic and violent notions, which are located in an abstract line of decline, should not be considered independent of all inputs (psychological transformation, interest, orientation, activity, etc.) that affect the existence of the individual. How does it include the practices of transforming all values (religious, ideological, artistic and political, etc.)? Understanding how objects and images stand in the directional field and searching within the subjective worlds of individuals seems quite difficult. However, in this area of art, artists/work of arts, and participants/audiences, this area as a very useful area for analysis by making the difficulty of this area fun. The human will is quite complex and mysterious, art will be helpful in this field. The analysis doesn’t focus on artists. It is only about subjects based on the search for the attractive spiritual characteristics of the way their work is presented. To address the issue in a multifaceted way, there were occasional references to some academic fields. Because of my priority in addressing the synthesis and contexts of violence and aesthetics, their subjects (audience-participants as emotional recipients) understanding the processes that lead to experience these works, disturbing videos for many of you have been included in the analysis process. I have to make a distinction to avoid confusion. Violence is accepted as violence that appeals to emotions over anything that can turn into a fetish object. But discussing the problem of aesthetics in the same context emphasizes the transformative characteristic of violence and aesthetics spiritually. Areas such as politics, economics, society, etc., which are inclusive values, have a great impact on violence and aesthetic notions. Therefore, violence and aesthetic notions within inclusive values involve political legitimacy, so it needs a different study. Art-based on can be seen as explanatory in terms of revealing such areas and reflecting psychological and sociological situations. Art is a reflection of the image of the subjectivity. Depending on the individual’s own imagination and the basics of thought, leaves the individual to the system of objects and images. Reflection is not composed independently of the subjective judgments and eidetic image of the artist (creator). When the creation process presents an eidetic image as psychological outcomes, a supreme value is often given to the audience (participants). We need analysis between concepts here because what we have individually is effective in understanding what we see. What is abstracted here should be not an artist-work of art, but to isolate the audience from these two and reunite it with artist-work of art. Because the artist not only creates a work of art but also hosts the whole world as socio-political, psychopathological or perceptual and orientation (objects system). When you create a work of art, it’s a very normal process, but can a work of art create an artist? As Spinoza (Deleuze, 2008) points out, the process is easy to process thanks to the audience (spiritual automats who have the ability to choose the situation of encounters here). History is full of sanctities. In short, it presents the struggles, wars, religious rituals and rituals aesthetically to us in the analysis of all spiritual (action) areas. Fears and anxieties were very effective in the field of action, as the idea of sanctity and the practice of outward reflection. In addition to fear and anxiety in history, there are also processes and practices of pleasure and violence, aesthetically transforming in mind and soul. There’s a spiritual presentation circulating between the images. There’s a point of view that covers everything that’s spiritual to the individual. It contains fragmentation as a whole; as a spiritual expression of the pain of existential pleasure. Concepts that are unlikely to come side by side with violence and aesthetics. It refers to a process that is supersensuous, and that’s why understanding the process is about understanding how it works. Psychological pleasure is a feeling that allows you to keep an individual in the mode of constant existence on a deep basis. And that feeling strives to make

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everything that will make the good of creation and contribute to it. The result of this effort is the emergence of aestheticization processes. Aesthetic and Violent Psychology expresses the point out adaptation of the constant emotions and emotions to its own opinions and “self” and even self-psychology as a spiritual will. The difference between legitimizing here is to seek spiritually in coordinating itself into harmony with sanctity, in an effort to exist in a spiritual process of creation. Therefore, it contains a process away from the opportunist traces evoking by the concept of legitimacy and shows psychological and subjective transformations. Therefore, aesthetic and violent synthesis is discussed with a different perspective; not used in a criminal sense. It is important the relationship between violence and aesthetic concepts, for this reason, are literature reviews from methodological analysis, as a result of the emergence of basic arguments, it will be easy to determine these relations in future research aspects. From qualitative research techniques, in addition to literature reviews, visual analyses are including in the second topic.

(A)ESTHETICS AND VIOLENCE: EXISTENCE As aesthetic fields, cases of creation, interest, and beauty refer to the process of transforming psychologically internal conditions. We need to put this concept in a place other than art, but by taking advantage of its place in art. Therefore, in philosophy, the function of aesthetics seems quite large in this perspective. There a lot of philosophers who address the aesthetic problem. However, Kant (Agamben, 2019: p. 13), which takes the problem from the artist to external perception not intrinsic, included took the audience’s perspective to the concept of beauty. Beauty which purged from attention and benefit, it means that beauty is pleasant. Witnessing an interest and interest-free beauty experience, seeing the fascination devoid of an intellectual basis. In other words, it interests and thoughts seem effective in creating an aesthetic emotional design. However, what we call fascination means to perceive a design that is separate from thought and cannot be handled in the context of an idea. It seems that beauty must be separated from aesthetics. The work of art keeps the individual he confronts in the form of images. Therefore, we express that the work is a spiritual presentation circulating among the images. This spiritual presentation of aesthetics is about how individuals capture it. Thus, we need to put aside an artistic aestheticism. Taking advantage of philosophy is very important to explain aesthetics. The connection between subject, object, and design is linked to the ability to feel pleasure and pain. The desire power is the cause of the design object in the subject. First, we desire the object as a result of the idea of the object. According to Kant (Baker, 2015: pp. 148-163), objects, they should be suitable for the subject. It can be said that this process determines aesthetic and moral values. The power to feel pleasure and pain is effective in the existence of the subject. The tension between mind and emotion parallel to the tension between aesthetics and morality. Imagination, one of the powers of the mind, is very important in the internotion links. The ability to feel pleasure and pain is committed by judgments. These abilities are not obligated to be based on information in terms of feeling. An important distinction for the concept of aesthetics is seen in Kant’s analyses. Kant’s famous concept of “sublime” describes the distinction between nature and art. Two notions as differ from each other”Submission to god” sense of nature, and the work of art is “feeling of beauty”. “An apple is a work of art to the extent that it doesn’t arousal the need to eat it’’. A moment there is occurred in and existence and being between emotional variations and concepts is what it calls “sublime”. The feeling of desire is replaced by notion transition. Critique of the Judgement forms the basis of art philosophy. Bergson (Durant, 3

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1973: p. 285) also notes that the perception that arises in “the moment” also contains connotations of past perceptions. it underlines enchainment of perception as a specially. Croce (1992, Durant, 1973: pp. 400-402) incorporates the concept of imagination in aesthetics, revealing its imagination and aesthetic bond in a separate way from creation (from processes of work of arts). Kierkegaard (Durant, 1973: p. 413) pointed out that “truth is subjectivity”, creating an individual’s own spiritual realities. This is where interest and curiosity are combined with aesthetics. In addition, according to Jaspers (1932, Durant, 1973: pp. 414, 417-418), human knowledge is lacking, its power is limited. Such abstract obstacles point out a reason why the knowledge of the object and perceptual causes is included in the aestheticization processes. Jaspers (1932) places concepts such as “death, crime, pain, struggle”, sees as the causes of existence’s limitations. Thus, inadequacies and boundaries are effective on creativity. All of these are express positioned in longing for immortality. Art, science, and culture are produced to compensate for inadequacies. Aesthetic and violent psychology refers to the effort to achieve balance on incompetence and existential boundaries. Emotional connections can be effective in this balance. Therefore, artistic creativity reflects spiritual regressions outwards, reveals “archaic, childish, unconscious’’ spiritual content. If it wasn’t for boundaries and inadequacies, it wouldn’t have been consciousness. Creativity arises from the tensions between existential limitations and existential inadequacies (May, 2019: pp. 56, 61, 105, 126-127). Therefore, the expression of the existential situation reflects the struggle to overturn negative emotions. Creativity is nothing more than depiction variations of this struggle. The perception will occur in those who have recognized that feeling. The perception of idea and “own”, is functional in aesthetic and moral concepts. The phenomenon of violence expresses the interactions the individual has on the psychology of “self”. A sense of pain; becomes aestheticized when it returns to the good formation, which is a symbol of indifference and greater existence. The person who lives in the system of objects and images lives with interest in eternity and curiosity of truth. The world of objects and sensation between art and the audience eliminates all objects. The artist carries the objects of truth in self and represents them in self. Thus, the self emerges as the subject of an experiential moment. How do aesthetic judgment and subjectivity create their own subject of representation? The fact that individuals positioning, their own self of being in figure and ground can explain this. It points out the creative processes of representation and objects of representation in inner worlds. Representation object can be emotional, as well as in the concrete object-image synthesis. The work of art (especially the most extreme performing arts) is important in the movement of subjective representations among individuals by revealing the sense of pain within sacred values. The concept of aesthetics as the intersection of violence and pleasure can be said to provide a spiritual purification. If violence and aesthetic notions are formed at the limits of pleasure, they are created for fetish objects. When fetish objects evoke psychological subjective images, being in the world for the individual is to be with images in “moment”. The perception of existence creates and adapts images of desire. Thus, pleasure and violence can give rise to aesthetics, as well as aesthetic pleasure can lead to violence. We have to add to the notions of violence and aesthetics for the explain of aggression and sexuality instinct (Freud, 2019), also eros and civilization (Marcuse, 2016), which is the main motive of ours. Object desire is essential for emotional orientations, which is the most primitive form of fetishization process. Civilization has severed such desires from object processes. The example of aesthetic transformation in the mind and soul is that desires are independent of objects. Marcel Duchamp (Cabanne, 1987), pointed out that the displacement of objects. He changed customary images by removing objects from the design process from their natural state. The reference to the mental processes of objects, the destruction of the habitual object-ground dualism, was the subject of interest and curios4

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ity. Aesthetics and object perception reflects the whole of complex relationships. Some examples that refer to thinking about object perception are important. Rene Magritte’s (Chambers et al., 1995) famous “Ceci n’est pas une pipe (This is not a pipe)’’ and “Ceci n’est pas une pomme (This is not an apple)’’ are a good example of about object. Objects are defined by their contrasts. It can mean a lot within many variables. Apple and pipe are presentation against their true meaning, often using their objects. Apple can express appetite and desires; can be perceived religiously and sexually. The pipe can be perceived as relational with intelligence or can be seen as a harmful habit. Such perceptions are linked to the interactions of objects on feelings. What do we do when we encounter art like that when we’re told that it’s not the object we meet? The emotional experience calls images depending on the encounter. Because contradiction eliminates certainty. Emotions are objects, objects are emotions, and beyond them, there are images that provide continuity of emotions and objects. Emotion-object and image synthesis differ in every geography. Human is born, lives, and dies within economic, sociological, and political values. The relationship between emotion and object can be better understood when these values are taken into consideration in the psychology of life and death relatively. The water object, where access to water is not encountered with any difficulties is easy to turn into an object of pleasure: pools, jacuzzis, etc. But in areas where access to water is difficult, water is a necessary resource for life, it doesn’t ever become an object of pleasure. This example shows two different statuses of existence. The things that can acquire which get easily, become an object of pleasure in our lives. As well as individual psychology, among emotions and values, the object plays a role in national values, All these values cannot be isolated from the subconscious areas. In the creation of emotional realities, it is important that all values and judgments related to the object. For these reasons, the power of emotions, and emotional realities, on object-subject dualisms be seen quite important. Salvador Dali (Nerret, 2015) approaches objects in his paintings as emotional rationalities. Objects are presented with an image of their own meaning. And they create relative realism among subjects. An authentic object’s expressions circulate between reality and fiction. Harmony is holistic, within the meaning. Duchamp, Magritte, Dali’s works of arts find reflexes sides of inside the emotional and spiritual conditions. Artists reflect their relationship with their world on an existential psychological basis. The unconscious can be defined as the latent powers of actions and awareness that as an individual cannot make real (May, 2019: pp. 74, 77). However, it can be artistically designed. It can represent a fictional reality. Projection gives the idea of seeing or designing with emotions about subjective judgments and object relationships, while introjection, it’s “being”, reflects the match of attributes and the compatibility of attributes and feelings. This gives us an idea of the power of emotions. Chodorow’s (2007: pp. 25-34) expresses ‘’the power of emotions’’ at creating personal sense, our unconscious spiritual necessity. Emotions that form our unconscious inner life includes unconscious fantasies that motivate our attempts to change inner life to reduce and to withdraw from in self, disturbing or frightening emotions and to motivate. The abilities required for ‘’transference, reflecting, introjection, and unconscious fantasy’’ indicate that it is actually an ability that improves in interaction with others, as from the birth of the individual. In reflection and projective identification, emotions, and beliefs are loaded into parts of our own self, the previously created inner object or partial object, thought, symbol, any understanding or existence. Each projection and introjection reveals unconscious fantasies. This fantasy is filled with emotion images or narration. Fantasy, anxiety, love, hatred, and defenses are connected to object relationships. Transference, reflection, introjection, and fantasy are processes that are constantly functioning. Thanks to these processes, we have the ability to give many emotional and cognitive meaning to perception and experience at any time. Fantasy is undertaking the job of reviving the 5

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world and it personally becomes meaningful. Fantasies cannot be considered separate from the positions of spiritual and thought-in existence of emotional subjects, in their own and world relations. Behaviors, thoughts and attitudes towards a particular purpose can be positioned between pain and pleasure for that purpose. However, the aim offers pleasure and pain in itself at the same time. Therefore, pleasure is taken to the extent permitted by the purpose. According to Bentham (1988), pleasure is the ultimate aim of everything. Lipps (1906a,1906b), pointed to it’s mean ‘’perception and sensation (Einfühlung)’’ that the person reflected self on the object and felt it in it and understood the object by taking it into itself. On the other hand, the individual’s identification with objects and other individuals meant the situation of settling objects and individuals into the inner world, to feel that they felt. Aesthetic pleasure is the pleasure we sense from ourselves in an object, the expression point to the subjective codes that are based on pleasure. Self-psychology perceives the characteristics of harmony between the object and itself. Perception and selecting an object does not express a spontaneous state. Individual and object encounters are based on the selectivity of the individual’s intellectual infrastructure. This can be used to describe objects that we remain indifferent to, with the union depending on many variables. According to Vischen (1873) indicated that the ‘’sensation (Einfühlung)’’ was a representation of the energy of existence. As an expression of our efforts to reverse the emotions we feed most of the emotions that we suffer, we can state that our energy is generated according to negative or positive emotions. Thus, empathy, sympathy or antipathy notions are based on the perception of feeling. This situation Spinoza (2011) shows the distinction between inadequate and adequate knowledge. This distinction shows, the distinction between ‘’action and passion (Affectio&Affectus)’’. Kandinsky’s (1911) ‘’feeling -mood with an object (Objekt Stimmung)’’ and ‘’objectless feeling-mood (Objektlose Stimmung)’’ is equivalent to Spinoza’s analysis. In the world of objects and images system, the individual can perceive everything. However, it is very different to define the sense and object relationship or even the object’s holistic ideas. Gestalt Theorisians (Tuck, 2010)– particularly, Koffka&Wertheimer&Kohler– point out to the figure-ground the relationship of perception and indicate the tendency of the person who perceives the simplest. Perception contributes to the state of existence. Heidegger (2008) says has no choice but to explore the world for the individual who has just been left into the world. Anxiety in its analysis of existence is seen therefore important. Sartre (2009: pp. 25-26, 36, 40), divides consciousness into two ‘’ontic-ontologically’’. What he points out from The ontic to the ontological one is the establishment and recognition of the person, who has the ability to understand the ontological meanings of everything that exists in the distinction of “self” and “the other”. Visibility and being what it looks like (related to the phenomenon), the existence of the presence of the appearance is his appearance,’’ the statement points out the pre-recognized expression. The existence of appearance is its appearance. Perception (Percipere) and perceived (Percipi), and perceiver (Percipiens), three of which highlight is known information. It means the object and their appearance are one. These appearances are demand a non-appearance entity, according to Sartre. But there’s a point here, how do we explain the whole existence of objects and appearances with subjective psychology? There is no integrity in appearances, it can be said that there is psychological separation from the whole within. In the perceived world notion, Merleau-Ponty’s (1996) pointed out that the object has become mysterious as a result of the fact that its objects are not perceived as a whole. This situation could be the subject of psycho-pathological obsessions. The difficulty of understanding the knowledge of causes has an important role in the aesthetic understanding of human beings (experiential or mental). Any sanctity and beliefs that cannot be defined, can give a mysterious power and role by 6

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aestheticizing violence, or can be perceived as mysterious and sacred. Such theories and actions mean nothing when isolated from emotions. The concept of emotional variations in Spinoza (2011, Deleuze, 2008), indicated to works together with the eidetic image of the object system. However, this object-image perception is not independent of the subjective experiential world. Therefore, psychologically, no object is innocent in us, so it has no absolute knowledge of itself. It works with the world of experiential life (practical), imagination, and design (theoretical). However, this union excludes uncertainty and tends to seek a coherent meaning. We synthesize the subtle distinction between knowing and believing with an actional experience. That’s why the designs created by objects vary with how I use it. The object’s uses create its attributes. We create objects with qualities of something. The function of art is emerging here. We transform our world through our emotions (Sartre, 1986: p. 87). This situation, which we can say that aestheticization experiences, refers to indifference and internalization processes as a result of the acceptance of all negative emotions with a positive perspective for existence. In order to use fear and anxiety in art, the phenomenon of violence, and aestheticism that arises at the end of the spiritual period (Historical and sociological) can be explained in this respect. The world, which has passed through periods of politics, economics, religious crisis and crisis, it is necessary to accept its investment in art as a result of the experience and knowledge of the past era of mental depression in order to overcome mental crises. The psychological infrastructure here should be regarded as an answer to the practice of aestheticism and aestheticization from spiritual areas to the status quo as an effort to overcome the notions of spiritual violence on individuals and as a reflection of art as a practice of transcending it. Art, which was used as a tool to reflect the values of the status quo in the 20th century, created the aestheticism of policies in the opposite way. In addition, they have played an important role in the process of creating violent notions. Ideologies have affirmation itself in art. In this respect, art can also be used in the position of a means that reflects reality by making it aesthetic. Every time, violence and aesthetics don’t emerge as a synthesis. In some cases, it is necessary to consider that the external world pushes individuals into aesthetic transformations, such as individual mental violence (regression, depression, etc.). This situation occurs in political psychology, where individuals are a tendency to maintain their own position in the illusion that their habits are conditioned for the basis. These situations, where socio-economic and political conditions are effective, reveal spiritual aestheticism. This Situation points out that it depends on the conditions that affect its presence, a tendency for classical conditioning. The best example of art being culturally and politically effective is the art movement of expressionism, where emotion (human) and the inner world (the essence of the human) feature. Expressionism is an art movement that appeared during the period of political instability and economic collapse in Germany, contrary to objective realism. Within periods and conditions are effective in our emotions and inner world. Lukacs’s (Brooker&Thacker, 2013: p. 707) text titled, “Expressionism: Its Significance and Decline”, published in The Internationale Literatur (Moscow, 1934) shows the synthesis of ideology and art equal to the notions of violence and aesthetics. Lukacs (Bloch&Lukacs et al., 2016: pp. 24-28) stated that if İt had followed the expressionism own logic, it would have been in fascism. In expressionism, Goebbels “could find the basis of some solid ideas, because expressionism was based on irrational mythology, as the literary style that equal to imperialism, showing the characteristics of activism’’. Lukacs (Bloch&Lukacs et al., 2016) has said “Abstract pacifism in expressionism is pointed out bohemian bourgeois and ideology of avoiding facts”. The expressionist insurgency carried a purely objective dimension and depicted objects in an expressionist style, pointed out abstract mysteries beneath them rather than the essence of objects. The most striking factor was the formlessness of expressionism. The great value of aesthetic sensitivity between subject and object was holistic of images, before expres7

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sionism. Thus, seeking and emotions towards the essence of the human, it attributed new meanings to values considered supreme in the field of aesthetics. Rosenkranz’s (2017) ‘’Aesthetics of Ugliness’’ work of book, points out the aesthetics of the ugly. This is an expression of awareness that the world of mankind will not always turn to beauty. Sometimes ugliness is the subject of diversity and sanctity. This notion is mainly seen in Ancient Greek and Mayan, Aztec and Inca civilizations, and even in Asian religions where religious visions are torn apart as a whole. Religious contents, in addition to the function of continuing the status quo in an actively, as the concept of spiritual purification from body and sin image is seen to rise. Even today, these images are embedded into symbols in our culture. In fact, life with association of ideas. The sanctity of violence and aesthetics, it has always been a tool to politics as a carrier of spiritual sanctity and power. Concretely violence and aesthetics were concepts of the ritual world. Today, ritual designs are still preserved but by carrying features from the pre-modern world. De Quincey (Burwick, 2001: p. 71), who analyzes the aestheticism of ugliness with violence, imprisons it into charm and pleasure, making it the subject of visible individual violence. He takes it in reality and all criminal events adapt to art. The use of pain and pleasure to determine the power of the existence of its own is expressed as a deviation from social norms in terms of psychopathology. But if it’s in contact with accepted areas, it makes it easier for subjects to accept their spiritual spheres and create actional areas, we have to talk about other realities here. If the perpetrator-victim, artist-work of art, violent-aesthetic, object and image concepts show up as a relation to the body? So if the first concept is always the reason for the second concept, or if the first concept creates the second concept in itself, as an objecting of the body, it designs the “self” through the body image. Where should we look at it from that perspective? (A)esthetic transformations do not reflect naturalness. The more move away from natural it is within the cognitive process, the more effective esthetic perception emerges. This formula is based on the naturalness of emotions and is reflected over from their naturalness. One reason individuals use spiritual aesthetic transformations is an effort to naturalize the unnatural. Natural aesthetics and unnatural aesthetic transformations are different. The natural one acts in accordance with its nature as it should be. As the intrinsic formations of existential anxiety, we express the world of unnatural aesthetic designs. Therefore, non-aesthetic designs express an escape from negative emotions. And natural aesthetics include separation of their qualities from their nature. It is important that Hegel (2011: pp. 35, 44-45) defines beauty as a purely subjective pleasure, because one sees and designs itself in an ontic and ontological context and has a thinking consciousness. Individuals mark the inside self into externality effectively. Self-producing in the external things, objectifying the inner world of humans and the external world for known itself, a way that it can recognize itself, it indicates upgrade to spiritual consciousness. That’s a mental requirement. The sensuality of opposite and contradictory interactions is thus explained. If art, has an idea of the formation of processes, it captures individuals there. For this reason, the places where it captures individual appeal (emotions) and the participant-subjects (audiences) that ensure this appeal provide us a good field for analysis about violence and aesthetics. So we have to disconnected art from art and look at emotional forms. It is important to remind that subjects, emotional recipients, are subjects of reality within fiction. We express that the relationship between fiction and reality is formed in parallel with the theory and practical field, to get out of the guidance of the mind and to act in the guidance of emotions.

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PERFORMING ARTS: BETWEEN FETISHISM AND EMOTIONS Violence and aesthetics operate within the framework of the principle of pleasure. This principle extends the exhibition of pleasure, by including the meet of the work (bodily) or the creation of “self”, with ‘’others”, and sanctity to its sentimentality. “Self” exhibits all its subjective forms in itself, as to be while both creative subject and an object. Pleasure is not just an emotional feeling, it contains emotional processes loaded with messages and images. The difference between pleasure and passion is becoming important here. From pain and fear, pleasure can be obtained. In addition, pleasure comes to mean the internal discharge process caused by tensions. Passion on the other hand, occurs with a degree difference and expresses a strong desire to maintain positive designs such as serenity and maturity. Therefore, theoretically, it makes a reference to emotional experiences. The artist’s pleasure becomes the creation of the fetish object in the participants, and the fetish object for the artist is made visible. Sometimes it’s part of a body, sometimes images brought from the past, sometimes as the creation of proponents of actionability in the practical field of abstract sensation theories. However, it puts itself in creation depending on the action-readiness of the participants or the audience. The art of performance, with the inclusion of audience-participants, often turns into a ritual. This situation should be sought in the effect of holiness on the existing efforts. The fact that the participants identify with the work of art is the psychological reflection of violence and aesthetics. With the emotionalization of the figure-ground, the existence of an external purpose is not becoming important. Because being in the world turns into “at moment”. The whole aim is to turn to the inside itself and the object to feeling instrumentalization. In some practices, subjective traumas, which we notion as victimization in political psychology, are included in the process. The concept of the congregation of art seems quite appropriate to explain it. Faith systems are functional as a means of creating a sense of trust in the individual and social sphere and relaxing on problems. When they’re an emotional tool of trust, they appeal to the crowds. Therefore, faith and aestheticization produce each other. The unclear line between life and death translates the theory of things that we believe, (religious, non-religious areas, ideas, etc.) into practicalities aimed at achieving the purpose beyond life and death. Physical and spiritual efforts, together with the intermediary notions, are very effective on aim. Performing arts include experiences of existence. It includes activities that involve the subject, allowing the emergence of new objects. Critchley (2010: pp. 25, 29) explains the notions of approval (consent) and demand, and these concepts include “ethical experience” notion. “The ethical experience begins with the experience of a request that I approve”. Demand is seen as demand only by the self-confirming it. It attracts individuals to confirm it, as in the performance art. Or it connects what is demanded to sociopsychological situations and affects the emotional experiences of feeling designs. Being free from certain emotions or deprivation can be determinant in the individual’s relationship with the world. It works with the principles of dedication, apathy, indifference, pleasure, enthusiasm purification, and deprivation. Fetishism depends on the creation and production of feelings objects. When such objects are embodied in the feelings of the crowds, the representation of pain and the representation of pleasure is often produced together. Nation, religion, nationalism; fields such as feelings of glory and honor determine the designs of pain and embody pain and pleasure as supreme values in future notions. A sense of pain is often seen as an individual, lonely experience (Ahmed, 2015: p. 33; Kotarba, 1983: p. 15). In the nation, religion, and nationalism, these feelings are shared to the extent that they reveal sacrifice. Subjective well-being is not independent of the feelings of love, altruism, identification. Things that can’t be repeated or substitutable can reveal emotional neutralization. The insufficient feelings over time trigger 9

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the individual’s constant production of emotions in its relationship with the world, the substitution of objects if not produced, and emotional reflections. Religious and national demands (values, judgments, customs and traditions, citizenship awareness, etc.) are a good demand for individuals. The experiences of pleasure produce ‘’good’’ notions to answer the purpose. Thus, pleasure and good notions are syntheses (Ahmed, 2016: p. 39; Locke, 1690). Feelings of pain and pleasure need images and objects (traumas and experiences), while happiness does not need them. Expectations exist to the extent that it serves existence in pain and happiness. Performing arts make promises of the collective subconscious processes (Jung, 1981). The phenomenon of pain and make promises include the notions of massization, as well as making it easier for certain groups or individual characteristics to enter the conduct of congregationalization. When similar emotions appear in others, a relatively, enthusiastic relief can arise. According to Critchley (2010: p. 72) ‘’If the demand leaves a mark on me, I consent that demand.‘’ Yoko Ono’s “Cut piece, (as a video 1965)’’ stage-women and scissors in the art of performance, within the framework of themes of obedience and defenselessly, indicate to the participants that they can take a piece of herself. Each participant cuts a piece off with scissors from her dress. Shows the way the work was created, Ono leaves itself to the participants as an improvisational as a work. Thus, defenselessness is a parts that completes obedience. The connotations of the scissor object and image have undertaken an aesthetic notion as a means of helping to exhibit the curious on hers has a thing. But in the end, the anxiety that occurs in that arises from her, emerges as a fetish of deciphering. There’s a mutual interaction of body and emotions. The relationship between the mind (design), body (object), emotion (image) be a one on whole. Such demonstrations include arts containing political images: work of arts that involves protest and demonstration experience and combine emotion and political existence. Petr Pavlensky, known for his political performance art called “Actions”, is famous for using the art of performance against the government’s policies. His use of the body as a political field reflects the politicization of pain. Reflecting on the power of the state, the monopoly of violence (Hanke et all, 2019), performs counter-act. He criticizes and reflects the situations in which society is indifferent. The forms of pain and pleasure that are reflected are different. Chris Burden ’’Shoot (1971)’’ shot on stage to by his assistant with a gun to test the limits of art and life. Shooting someone for art emphasizes the reflection of “physical pain”. But some artists can make both human nature and boundaries appear sociologically and psychologically in a broader way. The most remarkable performance of these is Marina Abromovic’s “Rhythm 0 (1974)’’ work. In this art of performance, 72 objects placed on the table are asked to be used on the immobile woman (Marina). She lets the audience do anything they wants. But it’s not the art of performance that’s disturbing here. How individuals use 72 objects on the female body seems psychologically important. The most basic (primitive emotions) emotions are becoming visible and performance is ending. There are objects of love and pain on the table presented to the audience. So most people not hesitate to use their painful objects. So what this performance shows is that its humanitarian actions do not form independent of other actions before reaching acts. If the individual is not to be held responsible for his actions, he will not refrain from displaying his destructive impulses. This situation is difficult to happen individually within the community. The transmission of feelings, incitement, suspension of morality (Le Bon, 2015), indoctrination and libidinal orientation to objects of love and hate, the disappearance of instinctive constraints (Freud, 2016), the desires of modern culture (Gasset, 2014), mysticism and sexuality (Reich, 2014) such from fields should not be considered independently. Another reason why these areas are made visible is that the individual should be sought in the emotional positioning of the individual in the world. It is not surprising that existential themes have such attractiveness to individuals. 10

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On despair, Rudolf Schwarzkogler, who presented the death and life with an existential depiction,‘’4. Aktion (1965)’’ work, presents a mixture of death and life synthesis. Using objects in an associatively, Rudolf processes the theme of dead creatures and blood, with feelings of pain and inability. He, attacks traditional themes in modernism, which frequently caused using outdated totems and religious images; ‘’Marriage (Hochzeit)’’ as in his work, breaks down traditional themes. Mao Sugiyama, who performs in traditional themes and psychology synthesis, connects sexualism and appetite. It associates libidinal orgasm with appetite. It reflects the practices of embodied art. The embodiment of the link between asexualism and appetite is the elimination of internal tensions. Attacking natural abilities such as attacking humane characteristics and reproduction, the artist presented his art to the buyers, offering to cook his genitals and put it up for sale. The fact that sexuality is the subject of appetite gives another idea of violence and aestheticism. Aesthetic “being and existence” on the body can feed the severity. The history of the body is the subject of aesthetic depictions dates from ancient Greece to the present day. In the history of philosophy, it is supposed considered visible, sinner and dirty. Platon’s Timaios (1989: 33/d) dialog, which points out to body for the training of the soul. The desire or appetite attributed to the soul was the cause of bodily sins. The fact that the body became the main object of all art was the search for the visible image and icon relationship. The body image used in art always embodies the pleasure tension between violence and aesthetics in the audience. All objective areas representing the body can be the subject of psychological depictions. The creation and ownership of pain depend on the artist’s self-presentation as subject and audience as an object in itself. The “present time” of all the suffering that can be experienced in life existentially serves as the elimination of future spiritual uncertainties. Orlan’s “Body Of Theater” on the stage as a surgery performance art removes the distinction between pain and interest. On stage, surgery turns into a ritual. It is presented to the audience in the duo of surgeons and priests. Here, the aesthetics and violent connection of sanctity are based on object and fetishism. Therefore, every object attributed to sanctity is fetishes and becomes the subject of violence and aestheticism. The will and the birth of pain become important. This performance, which refers to death in life, and life within death, combines outdated images with modern images to make sense of life. This is based on making a choice. By eliminating all the intermediaries of sanctity, it shows that herself in sanctity is the subject and object. What if happen this kind of action had to be separated from art? Hermann Nitsch’s “Orgien Mysterien Theater”, contains performances arts of massacres, religious victims, crucifixion, blood and meat-related themes. The use of taboo objects and images reveals admiration for the intensity of nudity, bloody scenes and religious emotions. His use of acceptable and habitual areas to show his admiration for violence also refers to the design of his participants as followers. This led him to use aesthetic notions such as sanctity and religion. These notions are very fed from the religious area and are based on images that the audience is used to. From history to the present, all painful experience is preserved by leaving their place to celebrations. This is due to its acceptance as rapture and thankful objects when sanctity is attributed to the sense of pain and occurs in religious images. The sensitivity of the representation of traditional values shows a violent case of religious pleasure in individuals who are in truth and who are physically representative of it. If reality had presented itself as absolute, it would have left the factuality of pleasure into anxiety and fear and would have transformed. It can be said that art leads to congregationalization and worship, creating spiritual followers and the sheik of the artist. As a color, the use of white often refers to purification and innocence. In a sinful world, an individual’s existence reflects his struggle to stay clean. Being innocent is something that is both avoided and must be owned. It is not surprising that crucifixion, experiencing the depiction of bodily pain is one of the themes. That’s where the sense of pain and penance comes in. The main theme is a 11

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cleansing and purification that extends from the tensions of spiritual areas to a sublime value. There’s a point that separates this kind of performance arts from other art, can’t be imitate. As seen in the examples of performance art, in the situation of ecstasy, the body, mind, and soul become activated at the same time, it participates in this situation as one. Ecstasy, the integration of unconscious life with conscious: it is not integrity in fiction, it refers to a dynamic, unmediated combination. Understanding is realized by emotional objective connections. Everything perceived is not effective outside the consciousness, because most perceptions remain ineffective on aesthetic sensitivity. “Ecstasy is the surpass of subject-object dualities” (May, 2019: pp. 71, 81, 86-87, 107). Hume (1955, 1975) was discussing the question of mind or emotion/passion, which underlie our actions and choices to explain moral values. Rationalist opposes human understanding and expresses the role of emotions and passions at the source of actions. According to Hume, in an action, the mind alone is not the driving force: “Mind is a slave of passion”. Emotions/passions can’t be equated to moral reality. The “Principle of Causality” is based on the experience of the consecutiveness between cause and result. Therefore, the principle of causality is quite different from Spinoza (2011) analyzing mental and emotional notions on the basis of reaching the causes. Hume’s causality principle attribute characterized the experience. However, in object relationships, experiences do not occur independently of subjective judgments. Within the framework of orientation, reflection concepts, objects are perceived and selected with the reference of past experiences. However, for the perception of these objects, it is important not only for emotional experiences but also in mental experiences. Therefore, it seems appropriate to address the fact that the consecutiveness between cause and outcome of people in the management of emotions cannot reach the experience and knowledge of the object relationships and to explain the concepts of will and psychology. In addition to revealing primitive impulses and stimulations of the performing arts discussed in this section, it is important seems another feature is that it allows individuals to participate in the artist’s work and that it is a practical therapy for individuals. “Moment” and “being” notions, represents an unattainable level of the audience’s own mental state in everyday life. We see that sanctity is a reference to the severity of pleasure. As a result of the combination of the moral things with the immorality things, a universal will, has an effect on aestheticization practices. Sanctity is not created for the audience involved in the process of creation of sanctity. it’s about the uncover of sanctity, the transmission, and the spread of feelings of the audience. Thus, it should be sought to turn individuals into objects of pleasure in sanctity, in the same way that ritualization is the same as the subjects. Individuals creates sanctity. For individuals who have the anxiety of existence, this anxiety is transformed into an experiential pleasure. Burke (1998: p. 44), says that interest and curiosity are directed at things we’ve never seen before and that we can’t make real them. That’s why watching these things makes individuals satisfied. There is a mismatch between aesthetics and morality. So that’s where the pleasure of aesthetics, is pushed out of society. Therefore, it can be stated that internal effects are more functional than the determinative of external effects. When spiritual desperation, combined with existential anxiety, it becomes quite easier to become visible in practical actional fields. pleasure is reflected, outward as a result of the disappearance of instinctive constraints. Sexual stimulation and tensions are effective in religious emotion stimulation, in the ideology of religious punishment, in the state of obedience, emotion or belief in mystical authoritarianism. It creates the individual’s inability to enjoy the pleasures and happiness of this world with the belief of the other world and sees them as areas that should be avoided because of the impropriety of their tension and sexual energy. Therefore, it has to take hold more tightly to beliefs that will support and protect it. This condition leads to physical tensions. Again and again, libidinally routes are sought and that goes on and on for to free from these 12

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tensions. Satiation, and relaxation can reveal an obsession tendency. Self-punishment and self-harm are motivated by a willing desire for emotional relief without their own fault. Passive pain notions should also be sought here. Strong emotional stimulation, combined with bodily stimulation, reveals the state of incitement (Reich, 2014: pp. 162-166).

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The arguments that able to basic laws can be provided to be supported by observational data. Moreover, behaviors and orientations can be examined through experimental research method in the social sciences. Therefore, it will be important to be the subject of quantitative research methods and their contribution to the analysis and progression of the study. I am of the opinion that in the sociology, philosophy, and psychology, with the importance and inclusion of violence and aesthetics concepts, and that different perspectives and criticisms will add enrich to violent and aesthetic analyses. Moreover, these two concepts can be adapted into multidisciplinary fields. It can find a place in political, gender and women’s studies, political culture and political consciousness, and democracy and media studies. The concept of violence and aesthetics has been an effective concept since the existence of humanity. As a social scientist, I think that putting these two concepts in the center to explain human nature in areas such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, political science, and multidiscipline studies of these fields can help many analyses.

CONCLUSION From philosophy to art, the concept of (a)esthetics was used as an expression of artistic pleasure and a concept that means beautiful sense. However, an individual’s subjective psychological worlds and object orientations, pleasure and beauty perception, reflection, and presentation practices are different from the notions of “beautiful, good, ugly, bad”. We refer to conversion processes, which are linked to make suitable (or adaptation), indifference, inability to overcome the existential incompatibilities of the individual, etc., or believing in them by producing the qualifications of their position to be conditioned. In the sense of a spiritual reduction in the practice of overcoming these efforts and the presence of spiritual (intrinsic or external) abstract violence, we conceived conceptualize the process of going from reduction notions to an increase, or the process of conscious or unconscious functioning of the sensation as aesthetic and violent psychology. Aesthetic and violent notions play a determinant role in the human relationship with the world. However, while this relationship is widely produced in spiritual areas, it is also effective in social and historical outcomes. From the past to the present, spiritually, we live within areas where theory creates the practice (thought and actionability). We see that the individual, who has the notion of violence and aesthetic synthesis, such as fine arts, wars, religious rituals, has transformed all sanctity and self-belief systems aesthetically to overcome the situation in which it is the environment. Both notions relationship between the individual and the world makes it psychologically necessary. This should not be considered to be independent of one’s ability to understand and explain. In fact, it can be said that implementing their own psychological fiction and situation within the framework of the principles of reality refers to self-defense notions. The aesthetic notion, which emerges here, depends on the creation of intrinsic tension intensity as emotional discharge areas of orientation 13

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to intellectual and selected objects. The concept of aesthetics emerging here depends on the creation of these areas as emotional discharge areas in the orientation of intrinsic tension intensity, intellectual and selected objects. As an upper level of violent and aesthetic synthesis, we see that fetishes and sanctity are created. Negative emotions such as spiritual desperation, motivational obstructions: the tendency to submit with the formation of incompetence in the anxious individual make it easier for them to turn to objects that can overcome these feelings. Although this is often expressed as pleasure, it is seen that it resorts to violent and aesthetic transformations that can create pleasure, on the other hand, as an effort to overcome spiritual decline. However, the creation of this pleasure is becoming a growing violence notion. Because of the tension of achieving satisfaction and relief for overcome regression, individuals are found with existential obedience in the synthesis of violence and aesthetics. In the context of creating emotional meaning, the concepts of violence and aestheticization, spiritual devotion and incompetence, fear and anxiety when they begin to be relatively comfortable (transition to settle life and embrace monotheistic Religions) have been the subject and subject of individual and social productions such as pain and pleasure, melancholy state. In this determination, everything that exhibits holistic characteristics within a system serves the mechanisms of the formation of violent and aesthetic concepts. From one’s most basic individual motives and values to all the political and political social values it includes, aestheticism creates itself in forms. The concept of aesthetics and violence psychologically refers to the practices of order, understanding, transformation, and transfer. First, individual spiritual transformation practices trigger the production of aesthetic forms as overcoming the spiritual severity of decreased and devolution. Secondly, the spiritual and actively limited, inadequate, and felt emotional forms of these forms are effective in producing each other with constant violence. Individual and social (sociological and anthropological) results are effective in both concepts, culture, and collective memory. Violence and aesthetic notions enable individuals both to be created as emotional recipients and as objects that serve the period as outputs of this creation. Therefore, satiation and relaxation are linked to the creation of fetish (ideological, intellectual, objective, etc.) and sanctities (religious and non-religious general belief systems). All of these are fields spiritual change be added to their energies. The intellectual foundations of satiation and relaxation notions determine object orientations (Nationalism, Religion, Art, Mythology, Political Actions, etc.). These conditions, where experiences and traumas can be effective, can create notions of spiritual decline (depression, melancholy, pessimism, etc.), on the other hand, can also reveal enthusiastic situations. World design is established on base on the fact that all individual spiritual areas affect each other according to the laws of emotion and affect, violence and aesthetic notions are based on the fact that the intrinsic and external areas affect each other. Although the individual carries and transforms all the characteristics of synthesis in violent and aesthetic notions, this is evident in psychological, sociological, political, etc. crowds such as group/mass. Therefore, individual transformation synthesis becomes important if a crowd emerges as dominant energies. To understand the notion of violence and aesthetics; it is meaning to recognize oneself and how to try to recognize to know oneself. Harmony and tensions between self and the other can affect negative and positive experiences in object relationships, emotional orientations. Therefore, violence and aesthetic notions are at the heart of these orientations. negative experiences (including individual, social trauma), which are often undefined and incomprehensible, are not in the psychology of a phenomenon and the trace of an event left by us, it is manifested as an intrinsic tension and regression. Thus, the aesthetics of negative experiences are brought into open, as excitement, fear, anxiety, and pleasure. The mutual recurrence of objects and sanctities determines the areas of compassion. This state of compassion cre14

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ates practical pleasures of what has been thought out, which will relieve internal tensions and decline. The suffering and humiliation, arising out of the regression, allows them to hold on to the concepts that will help overcome it in external influences. Violence seems necessary to create aesthetic forms. From this perspective, it can be looked at on the shaping of individual and social fields, such as art, science, culture, etc., which are embodied in human history as a result of violence and aestheticization. Since the existence of humanity, the concept of human will, which is the subject of thoughts among the concepts of reason and emotion, has been placed in a relationship with the other, such as aggression, sexuality, love, and relationship with the others. However, this placement can also be seen as a reason for the formation of moral, ethical discourse, and systems among the concepts of mind and emotion. relational connecting (object or others) should be seen as self-recognition. However, this concept of self-awareness, psychological state and designs tend to search outside ourselves. The concept of desire, which is often based on relational connecting, refers to aesthetic notions between self and the others. Aesthetic and violent notions show existential spiritual positions. In the most extreme performing arts, it can be expressed that emotions and pleasures play a role than the mind, and that the concepts of violence and aesthetics produce rapture status against all kinds of rituals, not just religiously. In the most extreme performing arts, we can express that emotion play a role than the mind, and that the concepts of violence and aesthetics at the heart of this role reveal an enthusiastic relief not only religiously, but against all kinds of rituals. Fantasy and fetishes are the design of the inner world within the outside world. In everyday life, transforming our negative experiences through unconscious fantasies also shows that aesthetic and violent notions works. At the moments of emotional captivating, the mind works effectively when emotional situations starting to decrease. Individuals who are emotionally recipient try to create a practice (knowledge of experiences) from every theory (interest, curiosity, obedience, etc.). Spiritual foundations are conducted by emotions, while form and design notions appear with emotion and mental. But there is always no absolute transformation in the mentally. If it were, there wouldn’t be so much diversity in explaining the concepts of sanctity, fantasy, and fetishism. The existential struggle of the individual in general emotional forms also shows the struggle of emotions with values. Behavior, ideas, and emotions are automated by technical advances increasingly. Value judgment and notion of self-esteem, it selects certain influences within the system and leads to stereotyped reactions accordingly. Systems encompass psychological and spiritual life. All systems are organized not only in the individual psychological areas but also socially, according to areas of spiritual deprivation. The life form is constantly directed at a certain base point, these base points are the focus that affects the life form and reduced the existence of the individual in practice. In cases and events in which the individuals feel insecure, active itself by reference from the past. It can be said that individual and object relationships arise depending on the creation of values that serve their own notions, such as trust, pleasure, happiness, relief. All systems can be reread in light of these two concepts, as the concepts of aesthetics and violence include theories and practices such as transformation, revealing, transferring, and reflecting primitive impulses and emotions such as sexuality and aggression.

REFERENCES Agamben, G. (2019). İçeriksiz adam (K. Atakay, Trans.). Monokl. Ahmed, S. (2015). Duyguların kültürel politikası (S. Komut, Trans.). İstanbul: Sel.

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Ahmed, S. (2016). Mutluluk vaadi (D. Mayadağ, Trans.). İstanbul: Sel. Baker, U. (2015). Sanat ve arzu. İletişim. Bentham, J. (1988). The principles of morals and legislation. Prometheus Publisher. Bloch, E., Lukacs, G., Brecht, B., Benjamin, W., & Adorno, T. (2016). Estetik ve politika (E. Gen, T. Blege, & B. Aksoy, Trans.). İletişim. Brooker, P., & Thacker, A. (Eds.). (2013). The Oxford critical and cultural history of modernist magazines: Europa 1880-1940 (Vol. 3, Part I). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso bl/9780199654291.001.0001 Burke, E. (1998). Philosophical inquiry to the origin of our ideas of the sublime and the beautiful. Oxford. Oxford University Press. Burwick, F. (2001). Thomas De Quincey: knowledge and power. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230005808 Cabanne, P. (1987). Dialogues with Marcel Duchamp (R. Padgett, Trans.). Da Capo Press. Chambers, J., Hood, M., & Peake, M. (1995). A work of art: creative activities inspired by famous artists. Belair Publications. Chodorow, N. J. (2007). Duyguların gücü: psikanalizde, cinsiyette ve kültürde kişisel anlam (J. Özata Dirlikyapan, Trans.). İstanbul: Metis. Critchley, S. (2010). Sonsuz talep: bağlanma etiği, direniş siyaseti (T. Birkan, Trans.). Metis. Croce, B. (1992). The aesthetics as the science of expression and of the linguistic in general (C. Lyas, Trans.). Cambridge University Press. Deleuze, G. (2008). Spinoza üzerine 11 ders (U. Baker, Trans.). Kabalcı. Durant, W. (1973). Felsefe kılavuzu (E. Gürol, Trans.). İstanbul: Milliyet Bilim Kitaplığı 5. Freud, S. (2016). Kitle psikolojisi (K. Şipal, Trans.). İstanbul: Say. Freud, S. (2019). Haz ilkesinin ötesinde (A. N. Babaoğlu, Trans.). Metis. Gasset, J. O. (2014). Kitlelerin ayaklanması (N. G. Işık, Trans.). Kültür. Hanke, E., Scaff, L., & Whimster, S. (Eds.). (2019). The Oxford handbook of Max Weber. Oxford University Press. Hegel, G. W. F. (2011). Estetik üzerine dersler (A. Yardımlı, Trans.). İdea. Heidegger, M. (2008). Varlık ve zaman (K. H. Ökten, Trans.). Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi. Agora. Hendel, C. W. (Ed.). (1955). David Hume, an ınquiry concerning human understanding. The Liberal Art Press. Hume, D. (1975). Enquiries concerning human understanding and concerning the principles of morals. Clarendon Press. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780198245353.book.1

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Jaspers, K. (1932). Philosophie. Berlin: Academic Press. Jung, C. G. (1981). The archetypes and the collective unconscious (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). In Collected Works of C.G. Jung (2nd ed., Vol. 9). Princeton University Press. Kandinsky, V. (1911). Über das geistige ın der kunst: ınsbesondere ın der malerei [Concerning the Spiritual in Art Especially in Painting]. Munich: R. Piper & Co. Kotarba, J. A. (1983). Chronic pain: ıts social dimensions. Sage Publications Le Bon, G. (2015). Kitleler psikolojisi (H. Can, Trans.). Tutku. Lipps, T. (1906a). Asthetik: psychologie des schönen und der kunst, zweiter teil: die asthetische betrachtung und die bildende kunst. Liepzig. Leopold Voss. Lipps, T. (1906b). Einfühlung und Asthetischer Genuss. Die Zukunft, 54(16), 100–114. Locke, J. (1690). An essay concerning human understanding. Penguin. doi:10.1093/oseo/instance.00018020 Marcuse, H. (2016). Eros ve uygarlık: Freud üzerine felsefi bir inceleme (A. Yardımlı, Trans.). İdea. May, R. (2019). Yaratma cesareti (A. Oysal, Trans.). Metis. Merleau-Ponty, M. (1996). Phenomenology of perception (C. Smith, Trans.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Nerret, G. (2015). Dali. Taschen GmbH. Platon. (1989). Timaios (E. Güne & L. Ay, Trans.). İstanbul: MEB. Reich, W. (2014). Faşizmin kitle psikolojisi (Y. Pazarkaya, Trans.). Cem Psikoloji. Rosenkranz, K. (2017). Aesthetics of ugliness (A. Pop & M. Widrich, Trans.). Bloomsburg Academic. Sartre, J. P. (1986). The emotions outline of a theory (B. Frechtman, Trans.). Citadel. Sartre, J. P. (2009). Varlık ve hiçlik (T. Ilgaz & G. Çankaya Eksen, Trans.). İstanbul: İthaki. Schuster, O. (1912). VI. Die Einführungstheorie von Theodor Lipps und Schopenhauers ästhetik. Archiv Für Geschichte Der Philosophie, 25(1), 104-116. Doi:10.1515/agph-1912-0107 Spinoza, B. B. (2011). Ethica (H. Z. Ülken, Trans.). Dost. Tuck, M. (2010). Gestalt principles applied in design. Six Revisions, (17). Vischen, R. (1873). Über das optische formgefühle: ein beitrag zur aesthetik. Hermann Credner.

ADDITIONAL READING Chul Han, B. (2017). Psychopolitics: neoliberalism and new technologies of power (E. Butler, Trans.). Verso.

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Clark, T. (1997). Art and propaganda: poitical image in the twentieth century. Harry N. Abrams. Curtis, R., & Koch, G. (Eds.). (2009). Einfühlung: Zu Geschichte und Gegenwart eines Asthetischen Konzepts. Fink. doi:10.30965/9783846745885 Gregg, M., & Seigworth, G. J. (2010). The affect theory reader. Duke University Press. doi:10.1215/9780822393047 Rancier, J. (2007). The politics of aesthetics: the distribution of the sensible. Continuum Publishing.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aesthetics: Perceived and selected by the synthesis of emotion and mind. Have perspectives, determined by the power of emotions, in the orientations of inner tension and subjective judgments. Spiritually, transformation in the synthesis of existence and perception, under the feeling of change and reflection. Eidetic Image: The first process of creating and objectifying images of desire. Fetishism: The embodiment and importance of the link between faith and desire-based idolize (or worship) and emotional saturation in similar areas. Objectivation: Practices that carried the subject’s track and stamp in light of internalization and identification notions that go into the fields of orientation. Materialize of values and judgments. The effort and process of effectuation and realization of psychological situations by reflecting on an area or something. Primitive Emotions: Emotions such as aggression, sexuality, desire, obedience, which are decisive in the basic impulses and motives in violent and aesthetic processes. Regression: Will and mind suspension, spiritual backward linkage. Violence: The regression and decrease feeling in the spiritual and psychological subconscious processes except for the violence that is concrete and visible.

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Chapter 2

Technical Structure of Fear in the Visual Narrative Nursel Bolat Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT In the process of transferring meaning, visual narrative arts such as painting, theater, dance, architecture, photography, cinema, and television are built on language images. This language, which is called the visual language, makes sense with visuals, that is, the visual language. Lighting is one of the vital elements in the creation of images as well as natural light. The director makes formal arrangements on light and lighting, one of the important elements of cinematography, creating meaning and especially fear with images. Camera angles are also important in the installation of the fear element. These elements of fear are constructed from an artistic and aesthetic point of view. In the visual narrative, light and camera angles are revealed in aesthetic structure that provides desired effect besides obtaining a certain lighting and shooting process. The aim of this study is to investigate how two cinematographic elements such as illumination and camera angles are used to create meaning in images.

INTRODUCTION Vehicles such as cinema and television establish their narratives with visual elements. These tools base their subjects on the realities of life, as in many narrative fields, or construct them through the stories that emerge from life. Visual language and the way it is created is important for environments such as cinema and television that make up the visual language using visual narrative elements. The image directs people’s emotions and thoughts by undertaking much more important functions than showing them something. The stories covered in the images necessarily have a visual narrative in themselves, whether they are real or fictional. In this visual narrative setup process, narratives are made accordingly, by determining opinions about how stories are organized with images, what to choose, how to tell. The tools used for shooting play an important role in creating the language of the movie. Although its structure is complex and requires special knowledge to use, the film camera functions like the writer’s typewriter or stylus. The camera is a tool that processes the director’s wishes, emotions, and thoughts DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch002

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(Arijon, 2000; İlerialkan & Yılmaz, 2015: pp. 21-25). There are several factors that make cinema powerful and effective in terms of reproducing meaning. Among these elements, visuality, oudio ve moving images are at the forefront (Akmeşe & Akmeşe, 2020: p. 196). All these elements turn into meaningful visual bey the director with camera angles, light, fiction and cinema shooting scales. The location where the director has set up the camera, the shooting angle she has prepared or the shooting scale she has taken affect the narrative and emotional intensity of the director’s story. The narrative styles in film or television can be seen in two forms as narratives with “Event Plane” and “Style Plane”. The plane of events covers the content of movies or television programs. The format plane is the format of the movie or program. The shape plane covers all the elements and narrative tools that the filmmaker uses to tell the audience a real or fictional story (Foss, 2012). The shape plane assessment of Foss covers a very large area. Camera angles, shooting scales, camera movements, color and monochromatic, lighting, special image effects, fiction, sound effects, soundtrack etc. besides many technical features, narrative tools such as accessories and decor are also included.

VIOLENCE AND FEAR IN CİNEMA FROM VISUAL ARTS In terms of word meaning, cinema is an abbreviation of the word cinematography. Greek is composed of the words atos and graphein and it has meanings such as recording motion and detecting motion. At the time the camera was invented, the Lumiere brothers and all other inventors gave the camera names in terms of movement, vitality and life. This reflects the new invention movement as it is. Cinema has become a concept that covers both the screening location and all the cinema works as time goes on. However, the main function of the cinema is to record the movement of the camera and show it to the audience. Recording and transferring the movement has decorated people’s dreams for years and has been achieved after long studies (Pearson, 2003: pp. 30-38). At the end of this process, cinema conveys what is happening in the world or what is wanted to be explained to the masses with the art of cinema. In addition, cinema has been in continuous development in the process of recording and transferring the image. Cinema continued to improve itself technically and aesthetically. Although cinema is constantly developing, it is not an art that has completed itself in terms of both technical and narrative elements (Arslantepe, 2009: p. 7). Although cinema includes all the traditional arts from past to present, it also reveals its own narrative language. The most important process in the recognition of cinema as an art lies in the use of constantly developing technical tools to establish its own visual narrative language. It is distinguished from the other branches of art it has benefited from, especially with the methods used by the cinema during the shooting process and editing stage, through its own visual and narrative language. Therefore, cinema uses its own narrative language as an art branch with its technical features and the way it handles its subjects in parallel with these techniques. She establishes her subjects with aesthetic points of view in order to present the most beautiful to her audience with cinema techniques. Violence and fear that exist in all areas of human life are the main issues presented to the audience aesthetically among the main themes of the cinema.

The Aestheticization of Violence by Technique Aggressive instinct is one of the basic components of life. This behavior, which is a part of nature, is suppressed by many people thanks to the world established as a human. Some people, instead of sup20

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pressing this, turn their actions into violence, which is a more destructive form of aggressive behavior (Yılmaz & Erdem, 2018: p. 370). Violence is to do or do something other than its will by applying force or pressure to a person. Violence can also be defined as coercion, assault, using brute force, suffering physical or psychological pain or torture, hitting, injuring (Ünsal, 1996: p. 29). According to another definition, violence is the use of power that a person possesses or possesses in order to harm others or deprive others of certain rights (Öğülmüş, 2006). The concept of violence exists in society in different forms today. While violence was perceived only physically, today it has gained a dimension with different meanings including social, psychological and verbal violence (Çakın & Bolat, 2018: p. 341). It involves the act of harming the opponent in any way, be it psychological or brute force. Violence with a broad concept contains many features depending on the social structure (Bolat & Çakın, 2018: p. 322). Violence has existed in every period and continues to exist. In visual arts, each period has dealt with violence as a subject. While visual arts treat violence as subject material, it has been tried to be presented by aestheticizing from painting art to cinema. According to Heidegger, Plato and Aristotle have been functioning as “the most perfect conceptual scheme for all kinds of art and aesthetics” to date, the distinction between matter and form is eroded in Platios and Tarkovsky with a mysterious aesthetic. Traditionally understood as the aesthetics of an external form, “beauty” is perceived as synonymous with concepts such as grandeur or elegance (BotzBornstein, 2009: p. 147). When the concept of aesthetics is examined etymologically, it is evaluated about being affected and affected from the oldest to the newest. The aesthetic concept is based on the ancient Greek philosophers who made important observations in the first works of art, and especially in the theater, which affected the masses (Ulutaş, 2017). The concept of aesthetics is generally used in relation to a person’s taste about objects or in a relationship with aesthetic judgment. These objects can be a visual in the natural environment or an ordinary production or an art object. In terms of this use, the word aesthetics shows a ‘quality’ specific to any person rather than a term (Bolla, 2001: p. 17). Aesthetics, in this context, gains a significant value in the level of pleasure of more people. Today, the basic understanding difference between the concepts of aesthetics, artistic aesthetics and traditional aesthetics emerges in the process of determining the aesthetic subject. Violence is produced through the body in the performances by moving to new dimensions by being seen in the fields of art such as Feminist Art, with the process starting and developing with the Vienna School. Besides violence, blood, body secretion and everything develop inseparably with art. In another aspect of the incident, the most important fact in violence is the incongruity it creates, the contradiction it shows, and as a result, ‘shock’ emerges. He also calls the shock state appearing by the hero as “the severity of aesthetics”. Humanity has been living with this fact for almost a hundred years. Aesthetics constantly gives violence to people from architecture to painting, from performance to industrial design, to theater and cinema. Violence internalizes this violence by bringing people face to face with things they never expected (Erol, 2016: pp. 198 - 199). Art, which is a long-term narrative space, is not independent of the violence that exists in the life process of humanity. Art and especially visual arts operate on the tendencies of human tendencies. Violence, which is one of them, forms a narrative language in every field of art with an aesthetic approach. For this reason, it takes place in open or implicit works of art such as many emotions. For the artworks to have an aesthetic existence, the spiritual dimension that can be expressed as emotion, thought or spirit and turns into a mental activity as imagination takes shape (Ulutaş, 2017). Concepts such as artwork and aesthetics change with the technological innovations brought by the age in the modern era. The concepts of art and aesthetics shift from painting to the first technological art, 21

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photography, in connection with technological development. The continuation of the development of this new field of art reveals the art of cinema. With its emergence, cinema reveals its own narrative language in creating its own aesthetic narrative. According to Dudley Ardrev, color attraction is based on stylistic conventions, meaning a temporalaesthetic grammar. While some of the cinema directors use color images for scenes showing the present time, they prefer to use black and white images for conditional times such as past or fear, dream. This is an advanced contract that has been added rather than the natural dimension of the cinema narrative. In this case, the cinema is in a black and white show position (Botz-Bornstein, 2009: p. 202). Cinema uses black and white images to increase fear in the audience in order to emphasize the horror element and increase the effect. While using all these features, cinema is strengthened based on the knowledge acquired by the audience in social structure over time. Socially, dark, black and gray tones are associated with night and fear. Cinema encodes, reinforces, reproduces, criticizes and questions the society, the individual and various discourses with representations. At the same time, cinema organizes violence, which has an important place in the components of the society, in various ways without being connected with a single reality. Cinema sometimes aesthetizes phenomena such as fear, pain and violence, and sometimes shows them in an uncomfortable manner. Cinema sometimes uses violence in a way that leaves no cause-effect relationship even though it contains all the violence (Atasoy, 2013: p. 19). In cinema, the feeling of fear instinctively present in man in the formation of fear, tension and violence is influenced by the formation of knowledge gained over time and experiences gained over time. While creating her narratives, cinema used the murder as a visual motif and also an element of violence. However, the murder scenes are not so catchy. In addition, the use of unconscious violence is not even an ordinary influencer rather than an art. When it comes to murder, the name of Alfred Hitchcock is one of the masters who use this work well and offer aesthetics (Dorsay, 1999: p. 84). Although Brian de Palma wanted to make films like Alfred Hitchcock, on the contrary, she made a career with imitations of her superficial sides. In his films, he exhibited misogyny and violence, a shame for the audience he abused (Kolker, 1999: p. 249). While some of the directors’ ways of reflecting violence are evaluated negatively, on the other hand, the art that tries to show all the existence of violence in life presents violence in an aesthetic way. When violence is not aesthetized in artistic visuals, its viewing rate remains quite low. For this reason, while presenting the violence of art and especially cinema, it turns it into a viewable image. While doing this, cinema is aesthetizing the violence with its own technical narrative language.

Building Fear in Cinema Fear has been the universal emotion of man and has existed from the first man to the present. It has become a mandatory field of study for many disciplines alongside developing branches of science. In this sense, fear is the field of study of the branches of psychology, sociology and social psychology both individually and socially (Yurdigül, 2018: p. 33). She could not stay away from the issue of fear and the presentation of fear in cinema, which is the field of work and art related to people and society. Fear has become an important theme in cinema as an art in addition to many sciences. Cinema presented fear very effectively and aesthetically. The twenties when American horror cinema based its foundations and techniques in many respects; especially “The Expressionist German Cinema” contains many features of the horror type developed by Hollywood. The “Das Kabinett des Doctor Caligari”, produced in 1920 by director Robert Wiene, which 22

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had a great influence on the birth of Expressionist German Cinema, is important at this stage. This movie, which was shot before the creature films started to be shot, is considered the first “real” horror movie in some sources. The use of light and shadow created a horror movie model with set design and makeup work (Akbulut, 2012: pp. 53 - 54). In German Expressionist Cinema, which is one of the most original examples of horror genre, low level illumination is used in a very characteristic way. Das Kabinnett des Doctor Caligari supports the mysterious and frightening atmosphere of the film with this lighting format that also matches the subject. Another unique lighting method used in the film is to paint the shadows and put them in the frame. Not only the decor, but even the shadows on the actors’ faces were painted in the film. Among the main functions of lighting, functions such as raising image aesthetics, adding dimensions to objects, creating an emotional effect, emphasizing the texture and attracting the attention of the audience reveal the aesthetic aspect of the film (Bayram, 2013: p. 9). The importance of the film lies in the processing of the aesthetic approach to the finest detail with the methods used in visual arrangements, as well as the fear elements that it reveals with lighting. In Expressionist German cinema, the most prominent features are seen as the way the decors are designed, the use of light and very successful acting. In this film, it is tried to add a new dimension to the aesthetic structure. The type of horror in the cinema, as can be understood from its name, is a type that processes people, events, situations that awaken fear in the audience. Scary events, vampires, ghouls, ghosts, werewolves, strange creatures are the main elements of such movies (Özön, 1984: p. 148). These creatures are generally seen at night, and the element of fear is made with special lighting. Fear is especially at night. Darkness and evil come from the night. However, aesthetic elements are prioritized in this lighting. Images such as the moonlight effect and tree branches that aesthetize it are used. For this, besides fresnel lighting, the backlight is used as dim environments and shadow light. Long shadows and dark spots formed due to these lighting methods emerge as the basic narratives of fear and tension. When the concepts of fear are taken into consideration, the thought of “death” is dominant. When the process that produces fear is analyzed, it is the power to end the person’s existence precisely, which is seen as a source of fear. Beyond that, different arrangements of fear offer diversity according to the source of fear (Akbulut, 2012: p. 114). These issues, situations and powers, which are born out of human fears, doubts, increasingly superstitions and different traditions, and which are fed by imagination, are the most important building blocks of fantastic cinema (Scognamillo, 2006: 37). Cinema, which tries to reveal this horror element, uses both fiction and other cinematographic tools to create any emotion in the audience. These techniques have become an important cinema source, especially fear or tension, to affect human psychology. Fear is an emotion that can show from person to person. Therefore, in Horror Cinema, various elements are brought to the fore in order to scare the audience. These elements can also be defined as scare elements. The element of fear arises from unlimited variety of concepts and emotions. Every object we encounter in nature can be turned into a potential horror element. In fact, this is the process of how the person perceives the object in front of her, but also how it is transferred from the screen to the person in the cinema (İnal, 2017: pp. 2004 - 2005). Visual arts in a broad sense, cinema in a special sense use the excitement created by fear. Cinema creates artificially created fear and excitement. Since the audience knows that this is artificial, it is willing to take that fear. In other words, he wants to be intentionally afraid (Akbulut, 2012: p. 114). There were crowds gathering, applauding and excited to watch executions and tortures in the big squares. Today, it is no different from the crowd in the big squares in the creepy masses of the white screen (Scognamillo, 1996: p. 65). Therefore, people seek and monitor fear in every period. Crowds gathered to follow executions and tortures in the past, were following a truth 23

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and applauding. Today, however, a trail follows the imaginary narrative while watching the same violence from the mass screen. While the audience watches them, they get nervous and frightened and feel uncomfortable. In addition, the creatures that the viewer watches on screen or on television return to her real life after corpses and brutality. It is not possible to make a horror movie without visuals. However, visuality cannot be limited to digital effects. Fear is also supported by visual elements such as fiction, story language, metaphysical factors, the transfer of moments of psychological change, and the atmosphere of fear (Tutar, 2015: p: 267). Fear is never monotonous as a source of excitement. In this aspect, it is attractive, even stimulating, for most people. This can be seen in all aspects, especially in the nineteenth-century romantic. Especially in the art of painting, aesthetics, beautification and even glorification of death (fear for the audience) is a dominant perspective (Akbulut, 2012: p. 114). The fictional structure of horror cinema is predominantly based on dying, killing, and extinction. This perhaps causes the fear of death related to the person to be exposed. In cinema, it offers aesthetics of death and killing concepts like other visual arts. In doing so, it reveals the subconscious feeling in the audience in a more artistic way.

CREATING NARRATIVE WITH IMAGE TECHNIQUES An image is a narrative tool that conveys certain content and it is the smallest meaningful unit of cinema. The director conveys what he wants to tell the audience through images. The shot consists of the indexing of many images and the image alone has no value. Moving image is basically a photo that gives 1/24 of any movement per second. When images are lined up in a row to create a shot, the meaning is also revealed in cinema. A single image is nothing more than just a still photo (Onaran, 1999: p. 28). As a result, the moving images of the cinema or television make sense with the rapid arrangement of many images in succession. Cinema tells narration through emotion, story, image, and sound. The fact that one period of cinema is silent has taught scriptwriters and directors many things. In this process, visual expression comes to the fore. The visual narration takes place in the form of presenting the story, event, or emotions to the audience completely through the image (Öngören, 1996: p. 44) . Narrative over images emerges as the most important feature of cinema. It establishes narrative techniques and narrative language through her artistic and aesthetic narrative images. In the process of creating aesthetic and artistic images, visual expression tools and techniques such as camera use, camera angles, decor, accessories, cinema shooting scales, the lighting of the scene, image effects, costume, make-up. The basis of the concept of image is the camera. However, it is important in the light used for the camera to take images or to reflect the atmosphere of the narrative. In establishing the aesthetics of art or art in cinema, creating violence and fear, decor and spaces are also very important besides camera and light. In the cinema of fear and violence, dark, sub-angles, foggy streets and little light are created to support the narrative in the aesthetics and expression of violence and fear. The shooting scales, which are realized by framing in creating meaning with the image, are realized in different sizes according to the proximity of the camera to the person or the object. These shots are usually created such as head plan, shoulder plan, chest plan, waist plan, knee plan, height plan, general plan, distant plan, and detail shot. These cinema shooting scales add different meanings to the way they create the narrative. It provides dramatic, fear, tension, and violence psychological the narrative support to narration in relation to space and decor. Close-up, shoulder and chest plans are used to increase the 24

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impact on horror cinema and strengthen artistic narrative. Close-up, shoulder, and chest plans are used to increase the impact on horror cinema and strengthen the artistic narrative. These plans are frequently used to explain the mental state and increase the psychological effect.

Aesthetic Presentation of the Expression of Violence and Fear With Light Lighting is one of the most basic elements of image creation. It is not possible to get a good image when correct and good lighting is not provided. Lighting is required primarily for the subject, person, or subject to be visible during shooting. After the subject appears with lighting, with some lighting methods, the effect of the third dimension can be given to the two-dimensional frame. Lighting is also required to create a dramatic effect on the film (Arslantepe, 2009: p. 119). In addition, the visual effect we want to tell is possible with the correct setup and effective representation of lighting. In the narrative of the film, fear, joy, violence, or tension are supported by the correct light pattern. Lighting design, which is one of the main elements of cinematography, is used both to obtain a technical necessity, visual aesthetics, and to add meaningful dimensions to the story. This understanding can be seen even in the early stages of cinema history. For example, Griffith, who created the beginning of the firsts in the development of cinema language, defined the movie art as “play with light”. The light intensities that contrast and integrate into the cinema narrative are used creatively with other visual elements (Sözen, 2013: p. 153). Although it looks like a contradiction, creative lighting creates shadows and darkening as well as selective lighting. Each shade emerges from a light intensity but emerges in different ways (Millerson, 2007: p. 85). The direction of light is important in creating a shade of light and creating the effects of light. In the use of light, there are front light, lateral front, side, top, bottom, side back, and full backlighting forms. Depending on the lighting aspects, these changes in the meanings that it adds to the narrative. Each adds aesthetic, violent or fear to the narrative. “The most important element in creating a healthy image and creating the desired atmosphere in the image is lighting” (Zettl, 1981: p. 161). Shade, which has an important place in creating an atmosphere, can be created in an object, half of which is illuminated and the other half is not illuminated. This type of shade is a type of shade called dark shade (Millerson, 2007: p. 86). The shadow, which is used very effectively especially in horror cinema, draws attention as the shadow in the dark. Clarity of the image, darkness and shadow trigger fear. In chiaroscuro lighting, the emphasis is on size. The goal is to convey a strength and depth effect. This effect is created by carefully controlled tonal steps, tonal distinctions in-depth areas, progressive tonal values, shadow formations and tactile control. When applied effectively, the theme and scene look completely three-dimensional. The painting has a convincing vitality that captures people. Many painters, including Rembrandt, Caravaggio, and Dali, have created extraordinary illusions with the help of chiaroscuro techniques (Millerson, 2007: p. 251). This aesthetic lighting technique, which starts with painting from visual arts, is also used extensively in photography and cinema. These lighting techniques, which are used to create special narratives and effects, are used especially in the aesthetics of war and death themes in the painting and are used in the cinema for the same purpose today. When it comes to cinema art and visuality, “light” and “shadow” come to mind first. The lighter and darker areas in the frame help every shot form the entire composition, thus allowing us to pay attention to certain objects and actions (Bordwell ve Thompson, 2009: p. 124). A symbolic, sometimes special environment can only be evoked by light and shadow spots. Too few decor pieces can be used or not at all. When the brightness falls on the wall, the prison environment can be used, branch and leaf shadows 25

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can be used to evoke a wooded place, and the light effect reflected by the waves can be used to define the edge of the water. Decorative effects can evoke the dream of the man (Millerson, 2007: p. 256). In order to increase the decorative effect and highlight the fears of the human or to control the effect of violence, the directions of light are also effective. Side lighting outshines one side of the object. Lighting from above provides long shadows. In addition, overhead lighting establishes a connection between death and gloom. Lighting from below reveals the mystery by giving volume to the object or person. Backlighting gives depth to the image. Each lighting has its own shadows. Artistic and psychological effects of a scene can be created with the use of shadow. Normally, it is aimed to affect the human more by using the image of living things whose sizes are known, by extending the shadows of objects, by enlarging them in large and deformed forms. Instead of someone approaching from behind a person walking with a knife in her hand, her shadow creates a more terrible effect. At the same time, the shade can prepare surprises for the audience, as it hides the identity of the person with the knife (Sözen, 2013: p. 36). Emotions can be revealed with light. Some details are shown with light, while others can be left in the shade. By changing the angle of light, textures, and shapes can be exaggerated or destroyed. At night, the face can be seen in the light of a lit cigarette or match. In addition, a flashing lightning bolt or flashing car headlight flashes the scene for a moment and the dramatic effect can peak (Millerson, 2007: p. 261). Since the night is used synonymously with fear, it contains violence and fear. Fear and violence provide an aesthetic and artistic narrative with shadows used alongside light. The lighting created for the purpose of creating a psychological environment is addressing the viewer’s feelings in the image in connection with the light being hard, bright, soft or monotonous or cold. Accordingly, emotions such as happiness, sadness, discomfort, and peace are reflected. The psychological effects that illumination creates on the image are affected by the direction, amount, or type of light. The dramatic or spiritual composition can be intensified in the scene revealed by the lighting (Kafalı, 2000: p. 109). For example, people are generally accustomed to overhead lighting. The most important lighting source, the sun illuminates from above. The audience is disturbed when the lower illumination is made as to the opposite of the upper illumination. One of the illuminations that provides uncertainty that creates different emotions in the audience is silhouette lighting. With this lighting, all the superficial details are destroyed while focusing on the outlines of the image. Given the subject in complete darkness, it appears as black on a white background. In this image, it creates dramatic, mysterious, decorative effects (Millerson, 2007: p. 250). Silhouettes are usually created over a bright background. The fact that the image is not clear and the person or object stays in the dark also emphasizes the mystery element. It also provides an aesthetic contribution to the image. Various techniques, different types of light, are positioned and guided to create designs with lighting. The main element of this process is what kind of narrative the film will be transferred to the audience. The lighting orientation of the films made in comedy, horror or romantic style is undoubtedly quite different from each other (Barnwell, 2011: p. 138). The types of light used and the way they are used in each narrative have very different characteristics. Lighting styles are as important as the types of light used in these narratives. There are aesthetic usage forms of light that come out with painting, continue to be used with photography, and then pass to the cinema. There are three factors that determine the psychological effects of light. These are the direction of light, the amount of light, and the type of light. Lighting is an important element in creating a psychological situation, creating a dramatic environment in space, and explaining a complex, different situation and events. There are different values ​​reflected and represented by darkness and light; In this respect, illumination can strengthen the expression in affecting human psychology and emotions (Bayram, 2009: 26

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p. 128). The background values ​​created by light in the image are effective in the reaction of the person to the film. The precise highlight of tonal contrast distinguishes areas and makes them more distinctive. The high contrast gives the theme a harder, brutal, more angular look. The overall effect is sharpness, hardness, clarity, liveliness, and dynamism (Millerson, 2007: p. 262). Therefore, light contains psychological features. The light, which enables us to understand and see the shape and volume, size of the objects in the environment, also contributes to the narrative in terms of psychology. In this context, the light begins its journey of expression with painting and continued with photography, cinema and television. A visual arts expert should use light effectively regardless of which visual art she performs. Light is among the most important aesthetic elements. Alfred Hitchcock films, which have an important place in lighting, fear and violence concepts and cinema connection, aim to shake the audience between security and insecurity. Glowing lights often create dazzling scenes of violence. In the movie ‘North by Northwest’, while the hero walks outside, he faces the same shadow in every corner. This situation reveals a sense of insecurity in the audience. However, nothing bad happens to the hero. After all this shady night, the hero relaxes the audience on a sunny moment when the sun is on the hill. But in this bright place, which is thought to be safe, the hero faces danger (Güçhan, 1999: pp. 42 - 43). With this method, Hitchcock breaks the dark and fear structure that the viewer gets used to, hitting the viewer in the opposite direction. In addition, violence is hidden by intense bright light, the meaning is given aesthetics in different ways.

Artistic Approach to Fear and Violence Through Camera Movements A film is created by editing several shots in a row. The camera should be placed in the most suitable place by the director or cinematographer to record the actors used in the shooting, the décor, and the movement. The location of the camera varies according to the feeling you want to reflect. The angle of the camera determines both the viewpoint of the viewer and the area shown during shooting (Mascelli, 2007: p. 13). Apart from these, the camera angle has an important place in expressing images and it should definitely be. Perspective is also used as an important element in creating the meaning of the movie. With each shot, the image size is reflected on the screen with the field of view and the camera angle. The field of view in shooting is the area covered by the camera’s angle of view. Depending on the field of view, the theme appears on the screen in different sizes, on the shooting scales. Therefore, the camera angle occurs when the camera is looking at the object taken at a certain angle. The camera angle takes place in the form of looking at the object at eye level or from above, from below. The camera angle reveals the personal style in terms of the director. The camera angle determines the viewer’s perspective and the area to see. Issues such as sadness, fears, joy, crisis, power, oppression, and violence are determined by camera angles (Kılıç, 2000: p. 50). Therefore, the camera angle is very important in horror cinema and reflecting violence and presenting it aesthetically. Correct and aesthetic use of camera angles controls fear and violence accordingly. The camera is often used with a lower angle to create fear and tension in the cinema. Because a camera shot created at a lower angle or from behind disturbs and scares the viewer. When choosing camera angles, it is also necessary to pay attention to aesthetic factors. All the items related to the composition; players, hardware, furniture, decor, background, tools etc. it is evaluated taking into account the actors’ movements and the overall motion of the stage. To make storytelling, it is necessary to take advantage of all the lines, forms, and movements for the composition (Kars, 2003: pp. 114 - 115). After the installation of all these storytelling tools, the camera becomes important in the process of capturing images and conveying meaning through this setup. 27

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Adjusting the camera height according to the subject provides some artistic, dramatic and psychological contributions to the story to be told. The recording of the camera from eye level, below the subject or above the subject may cause different effects on the audience (Mascelli, 2007: p. 38). A top angle shot is used to bring out the psychological, dramatic, and aesthetic feelings that need to be created within the scene. In addition, such angles cause slow motion in the scene (Öngören, 1976: p. 75). The lower angle is used to give a strong or intimidating feeling in the image, as well as to create a sense of being in a high position due to the camera looking up (Bornwell, 2011: p. 72). Here, the camera shoots below normal eye level, so the subject is seen in an exaggerated way, and strong perspective creates an effect, revealing a sense of power, superiority, authority, and the image dominates the viewer (Bolat, 2019: p. 23). The lower angle is also used as an effective method used to create various effects and illusions in cinema. The lower angles create surprise or excitement in the audience. In addition, it increases the size or speed of the subject. By using the sky as a background in daytime shooting, actors and objects are placed, preventing the viewer from seeing the details of unwanted or unnecessary views on the stage. Besides all these, it creates a much more effective perspective effect by disrupting the lines in the composition created. Bottom angle, effective atmosphere, dramatic weather, is an effective method when it is desired to create deformation and fear in the image (Kafalı, 2000: p. 178). In shooting with the lower angle, people and objects appear larger than they are. It gives the viewer a sense of superiority besides the big, strong and enthusiastic aspects of the narrative (Özön, 1984: p. 63). Therefore, it is a camera angle that is psychologically effective in the lower angle. The magnitude obtained with the lower angle is used to increase the fear and increase the tension besides the power. Especially in order to create an effect of psychological violence and attract the attention of the viewer, to present the visual aesthetics, the camera is shot with a lower angle camera. In addition to the commonly used camera angles, seen in some shots camera angles with oblique angles are also effective in scenes where fear, violence and tension are given. The oblique angle used especially in high scenes of fear and tension is presented to the audience by giving an extraordinary effect to the narrative of the event. The oblique angle can be used mostly in subjective shots, which is the shot that the camera replaces the player. It can be given as a drunken, dizzy or uncontrolled dangerous person following the hero (Mascelli, 2007: p. 50). It is often used in movies to show that something is wrong and is used quite often in horror movies. Artistic and aesthetic images are obtained when the tilted camera angle is used correctly and effectively. The oblique angle is also an effective camera angle to highlight psychological violence. While the frame is primarily determined by the boundaries of the image, the human view reveals naturally infinite. “There is no limit to the real field of view of man,” Arnhaim said. Our field of vision is unlimited and infinite in practice. ”It emphasizes that framing, choosing in the image, placing it in the frame, certain parts of this natural unlimited environment are purposefully broken and an unlimited asset limit is drawn to it (Arnhaim, 2007: p. 50). Framing is one of the technical features that play an important role in creating image text. Although the special features or definitions that focus on framing are different, it is stated that the definitions put forward in a meaningful way are expressed as organizing, highlighting and interpreting in the form of excluding news stories and different discourses. While creating a visual narrative with images, it becomes important to show the audience what. Therefore, it is very important in the process of creating narratives in the framework. The director must fill the frame she has made visually and create a good composition. Whether film, photography; These principles, which are applied to all kinds of visual designs, whether painting, drawing, work in different ways in mutual interaction, adding depth, motion, and visual strength to the frame elements (Sirer, 2019: 28

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p. 351). The contribution of the equipment and shooting techniques used in the image recording process to the narrative is important. The camera angles and scales used here, the established perspective, the location and perspective of the camera, what is included in the frame, and many more parameters are decisive in image framing (Akmeşe, 2020: p. 215). Especially in the process of reflecting violence and fear, those who are outside the framework are as important as those in the framework. In some images, those who are outside the frame in terms of more aesthetic and artistic presentations are more effective in showing violence and fear to the audience. In the image, it adds the viewer to the narrative in those who are taken into the created frame besides the ones outside the frame.

Creating Violence and Fear With Editing Techniques Editing has started to be used since the first days of cinema. In the cinema, the first fictions are made by adding images with different features in a similar motion to create a good narrative. However, in this simple form of editing that was made a short time later, it was observed that the features specific to the fiction could not be reflected. Therefore, editing, which is basically a selection and correction process, has become an important means of influence with the correct use and application of today’s technology (Özkoçak, 2011: p. 9). Although important fictional achievements were achieved in the first years of the cinema by trying in quite different techniques, today’s point has shown great changes in connection with technological developments. After the shooting of a movie is finished, the director has a pile of footage and sound. All these images and sounds alone do not make sense in terms of cinema narration. When these raw materials are arranged for specific purposes, they become cinematic narratives and a movie emerges. This editing process turns into a narrative with the selection of the best and most suitable repetitions, angles and scales among the shooting stacks available to the director who aims to create a motion picture (Monaco, 2001: p. 128; Yıldırım, 2019: p. 1917). This process also covers the fiction’s creation of an aesthetic narrative from these shots. Every assumption or theoretical view put forward on fiction has an aesthetic evaluation feature. In the historical process of cinema, although there is not much theory on fiction, general aesthetic views are created with editing. After the shooting, the most loved ones are selected from the raw images available. By going through the rough and fine editing process, materials such as sound and image are combined in ‘Post Production, and generic and trailer operations are performed with additional sound recording or special effects to the required scenes. Re-shooting is possible for scenes that are considered to be inadequate or deemed insufficient in the Post Production stage (Can, 2005: p. 42). Editing is important for cinema in terms of movement and expression. After shooting, the raw images are combined with many different combinations and offer alternatives for the director in cinema narration. It is a structure applied to present and create the best since the first days of editing cinema. Editing provides cinema with an aesthetic point of view and art with different usage styles. Editing, besides giving integrity to the film, is also determining in adding real and psychological effects. The effects used to increase the effectiveness in the editing process are computer-generated images. These effects are the technique of applying images that cannot be created in normal ways or rather risky. Not all visuals prepared with computer effects are fictitious. Explosions with visual effects are synthetic particle systems and are three - dimensionally modeled objects in collapsed buildings (Erdem, 2015: p. 284). In addition, while visual effects are used to show fear, tension and violence, they are diversified with artistic, and aesthetic elements. 29

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In the images prepared with technical expression tools, the viewer can be directed and influenced by the camera and lighting. The camera can increase or decrease fear and violence with some of its unique features. This technique is not only limited to the camera, but can also be effectively offered by methods such as lighting and shooting scales. Sometimes those outside the frame reinforce narrative as much as those inside the frame. With all these technical narrative tools, fear and violence are reflected more intensely and effectively. With the technical expression tools, the director creates her own visual expression language depending on what the audience wants to see. While the audience thinks she sees the truth, she can actually see the narrative that the director has arranged for her. For this reason, the viewer is afraid and stretched with the images she sees.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Cinema uses many technical features while aestheticizing fear and violence. In this study, only the camera angles, lighting, editing, fiction framing and shooting scales and aesthetic presentation of fear and violence were examined. However, there are other technical features used in aesthetic presentation in the presentation of violence and fear in visual arts and especially in cinema. These are camera movements, music, sound, color, effects, etc. With many technical features, fear and violence are strengthened and presented in aesthetics. In a future study, it can be examined how other technical elements not covered in this article are used in the aesthetic presentation of fear and violence. In addition, While each director creates his own visual narrative language, he can reflect technical features in different ways. It is this unique language of the director, which is another issue that needs to be emphasized in the aesthetic presentation of violence and fear.

CONCLUSION The process of presenting her narrative through images goes back to the first cave paintings. The narration of violence and fear through images coincides with the same period in history. The spells that people have made against their fears manifest themselves in these murals. In addition, violence is in another important language in these first visual narratives. In a way, these are hunting scenes and spells made for survival. The visual narrative, which has shifted to the art of painting over time, has not been able to stay away from fear and violence. However, the presentation of fear and violence that started in the art of painting is evolving towards an aesthetic presentation for the audience. The phenomenon of violence has been the subject of works of art for different purposes throughout the history of art. In connection with technological development, the aesthetic presentation of fear and violence passes into visual narrative fields such as photography and cinema. While violence always exists in artworks, it reflects its destructive feature within the framework of aesthetic perception. Violence is not independent of people, it is not independent in terms of art and aesthetics. There has always been hate like the presence of love in human life. Therefore, violence is always intertwined with art and uses it aesthetically. Cinema art seeks beauty as art and reveals its works in accordance with aesthetic taste. Therefore, in order to create aesthetics, he uses and exploits the technique to create beauty. Cinematography is 30

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carried out using technical tools and devices, each of which requires special expertise, in connection with technological development. The director, production team and technical teamwork in tandem with a process that seems very complicated with these technological tools. The art, which is performed with a brush by a painter, is performed by the director with technical devices. While the director reveals her artistic work, she prepares it as a visual feast for the audience to watch. Whether it is a horror, thriller or a musical movie, the director presents every work in an artistic aesthetic. Therefore, fear and tension have always existed in art throughout history. Like many other concepts, the concept of violence has become an issue that cinema cannot give up just as it is in life. However, it is not possible to use violence in the form of real- life in cinema. Despite this, the emotion created by violence is used in cinema. Although there is a field of study for many disciplines due to its cinema audience-oriented work, the creation process is a very difficult field to formulate. This art field, where the expectations of the audience are important, can reach its target audience as long as the violence offers aesthetics. It does this with the techniques it creates in the visual language. In this, cinema receives support from technical creation tools. Every technique involved in the film making process is used in the aesthetic presentation of this art. While creating the visual language, the camera uses light, editing and colors in its art in the most aesthetic way and becomes unusual in real life. Cinema is a visual art and technical tools in the process of creating a motion picture should be used to create a visual narrative language. Each of the technical tools used in the production of the motion pictures has its own narrative language. The process of image editing in cinema is important for the establishment of the narrative language. Cinema basically carries the anxiety of conveying an aesthetic and effective narrative to the audience through image and image techniques. Picture and display language, which is not used aesthetically and effectively, can move the viewer away from the film. For this reason, the image and the elements that complement the image should be arranged and applied within the framework of certain rules accepted by the filmmakers. Presenting the image aesthetically and effectively or using it as a narrative tool is possible with many technical items such as lighting, camera movements, framing, shooting scales and editing to create the image and language correctly.

REFERENCES Akbulut, D. (2012). Sinemanın İlkleri: Korku Sineması. Etik Publication. Akmeşe, E., & Akmeşe, Z. (2020). Mizahla Estetize Edilen Egemen İdeolojinin Tezahürü: Muhsin Bey, Sosyal. Beşeri ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 3(3), 194–207. Akmeşe, Z. (2020). Televizyonda Çerçevelemenin Anlam ve İçeriğe Etkisi. In E. Sirer (Ed.), Televizyon 4.0 Toplum 5.0 Döneminde Yeni İzlence Yeni İzlerkitle (pp. 203–218). Literatürk. Arijon, D. (2000). Film Dilinin Grameri 1. Es Publication. Armes, R. (2011). Sinema ve Gerçeklik. Doruk Publacition. Arnhaim, R. (2007). Görsel Düşünme (R. Öğdül, Trans.). Metis Publication. Arslantepe, M. (2009). Bir Film Çekmek ve Masaüstü Filmciliğe Giriş. Beta Publication.

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Atasoy, D. A. (2013). Sinema Ve Televizyonda Görsel Haz Ve Sinemasal Çözümlemeler. The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication, 3(3), 18 – 25. Barnwell, J. (2011). Film Yapımının Temelleri. Literatür Publication. Bayram, F. (2009). Işık ve Aydınlatma: Işığın Televizyon Ve Sinemada İşlevsel Kullanımı Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme. Erciyes İletişim Dergisi, 1(2), 122–131. Bayram, N. (2013). Film Dili, Film ve Video Kültürü İçinde. Anadolu University Publication. Bolat, N. (2019). A Study in Image Creation Techniques in the Context of Visual Literacy. In M. N. Taşkıran (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Multidisciplinary Approaches to Literacy in the Dijital Age (pp. 18–35). IGI Global Publication. Bolat, N., & Çakın, Ö. (2018). Televizyon Dizilerinde Bir Pazarlama Motifi Olarak ‘Şiddet’: Sen Anlat Karadeniz Dizisi Örneği. In A. Solak (Ed.), Sanal Alem Medya Şiddeti ve Doğurduğu Sosyal Travmalar (pp. 318–336). HEGEM Publication. Bolla, P. de (2001). Sanat ve Estetik (K. Koş, Trans.). Ayrıntı Publication. Bordwell, D., & Thompson, K. (2009). Film Sanatı (E. Yılmaz & E. S. Onat, Trans.). De Ki Publication. Bornwell, J. (2011). Film Yapımının Temelleri (G. Altıntaş, Trans.). Literatür Publication. Botz-Bornstein, T. (2009). Filmler ve Rüyalar: Tarkovski, Bergman, Sokurov, Kubrick ve Wong Kar-Wai. Metis Publication. Çakın, Ö., & Bolat, N. (2018). Sosyal Medya ve Şiddet İçerikli Paylaşımlara Yönelik Bir Çözümleme. In A. Solak (Ed.), Sanal Alem Medya Şiddeti ve Doğurduğu Sosyal Travmalar (pp. 337–347). HEGEM Publication. Can, A. (2005). Kısa Film. Tablet Publication. Dorsay, A. (1999). 100 Yılın 100 Filmi. Remzi Publication. Erdem, S. (2015). Gerçekliğin Yeniden İnşasında Görsel Efekt Kullanımı: Spartaküs Televizyon Dizisi Örneğinde Mekân Kurgusu. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, 3(2), 275–296. Foss, B. (2012). Sinema ve Televizyonda Anlatım Teknikleri ve Dramaturji (M. K. Gerçeker, Trans.). Hayalperest Publication. Güçhan, G. (1999). Tür Sineması Görüntü ve İdeoloji. Anadolu University Publication. İlerialkan, D., & Yılmaz, R. (2015). Senaryo: Nasıl Yazılır? Nasıl Yazıyorlar? Alfa Publication. İnal, U. (2017). Dabbe, Gen ve Ada: Zombilerin Düğünü Filmleri Üzerinden Türk Korku Sinemasında Anlatı Yapısı. Ulakbilge, 5(18), 2001–2026. Kafalı, N. (2000). Tv Yapımlarında Teknik ve Kuramsal Temeller. Ümit Publication. Kars, N. (2003). Televizyon Programı Yapalım Herkes İzlesin. Derin Publication. Kılıç, L. (2000). Görüntü Estetiği. İnkılap Publication.

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Kolker, P. (1999). Yalnızlık Sineması (E. Yılmaz, Trans.). Öteki Publication. Mascelli, J. V. (2007). Sinemanın 5 Temel Öğesi (H. Gür, Trans.). İmge Publication. Millerson, G. (2007). Sinema ve Televizyon İçin Aydınlatma Tekniği. Es Publication. Monaco, J. (2001). Bir Film Nasıl Okunur? (E. Yılmaz, Trans.). Oğlak Publication. Öğülmüş, S. (2006). Okullarda Şiddet Ve Alınabilecek Önlemler. Eğitime Bakış, 2(7), 16–24. Onaran, A. Ş. (1999). Sinemaya Giriş. Maltepe Üniversitesi Publication. Öngören, M. T. (1976). Televizyon Film Yapım Yöntemleri. Ankara Universty Publication. Öngören, M. T. (1996). Senaryo ve Yapım. Alan Publication. Özkoçak, Y. (2011). Kurgu Estetiği ve Teknikleri. Derin Publicatin. Özön, N. (1984). 100 Soruda Sinema Sanatı. Gerçek Publication. Özön, N. (2008). Sinema Sanatına Giriş. Agora Kitaplığı Publication. Pearson, R. (2003). Sinemanın İlk Dönemi. In G. Nowell-Smith (Ed.), Dünya Sinema Tarihi (FehmiA., Trans.; pp. 30–41). Kabalcı Publication. Scognamillo, G. (2006). Canavarlar Yaratıklar Manyaklar. +1 Kitap Publication. Sirer, E. (2019). Reading the Television Broadcasts on Sports. In N. Taşkıran (Ed.), Multidisciplinary Approaches to Literacy in the Digital Age (pp. 348–366). IGI Global Publication. Sözen, M. F. (2013). Sinemada Anlam Yaratan Bir Öğe Olarak Işık Tasarımı ve Örnek Çözümlemeler. Selçuk İletişim, 7(3), 152–168. Tutar, C. (2015). Türk Korku Sinemasının Yapısal Engelleri: Sosyo-Kültürel Bir Bakış. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektornik Dergisi, 3(2), 247–274. Ulutaş, S. (2017). Sinema Estetiği Gerçeklik ve Hakikat. Hayalperest Publication. Ünsal, A. (1996). Genişletilmiş Bir Şiddet Tipolojisi. Cogito, 6(7), 29 – 37. Yıldırım, C., & Sim, Ş. (2019). Türk Sinemasında Kurgu Biçimleriyle Öne Çıkan İki Film: Nokta Ve Sen Aydınlatırsın Geceyi, MANAS. The Journal of Social Studies, 8(2), 1916–1937. Yılmaz, R., & Erdem, M. N. (2018). Reklamda Şiddet Kodlamaları Üzerine Bir İnceleme. In A. Solak (Ed.), Sanal Alem Medya Şiddeti ve Doğurduğu Sosyal Travmalar (pp. 370–381). HEGEM Publication. Yurdigül, A. (2018). Medya ve Korku Kültürü, Korku Kültürünün Yaratım Sürecinde Televizyon Haberleri. Cinius Publication. Zettl, H. (1981). Television Production Handbook. Wadsworth Publishing Company.

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ADDITIONAL READING Barnwell, J. (2011). Film Yapımının Temelleri. Literatür Publication. Bergman, I. (1990). Büyülü Fener. Afa Publication. Brown, B. (1996). Motion Picture and Video Lighting. Focal Press. Brown, B. (2008). Sinematografi- Kuram ve Uygulama. Hil Publication. Butler, A. M. (2011). Film Çalışmaları. Kalkedon Publication. Candemir, A. (2008). Video Kamera: Stüdyo Ortamı ve Dış Çekimler. Anadolu Üniversitesi Publication. Carriere, J. (2000). Sinemanın Gizli Dili (S. Güneş, Trans.). Der Publication. Dmytryk, E. (1993). Sinemada Kurgu (Z. Özden, Trans.). Afa Publication. Dmytryk, E. (2003). Sinemada Yönetmenlik (İ. Şener, Trans.). İzdüşüm Yay Publication. Gökçe, G. (1997). Televizyon Program Yapımcılığı ve Yönetmenliği. Der Publication. Güngör, A. Ş. (1994). Sinemada Görüntü Yönetmeni. Kitle Publication. Heidegger, M. (1998). Tekniğe İlişkin Soruşturma. Paradigma Publications. Hunt, R. E. (2012). Film Dili. Literatür Publications. Hunt, R. E. (2012). Kurmaca Yönetmenliği. Literatür Publications. Kracauer, S. (1974). From Caligari to Hitler, A Psychological History of the German Film (1st ed.). Princeton University Press. Krishnamurti, J. (2000). Korku Üzerine, Toplu Eserleri 6 (A. Tatlıer, Trans.). Ayna Publication. Lelord, F., & Andre, C. (2003). Zor Kişiliklerle Yaşamak (R. Madenci, Trans.). İletişim Publication. Leppert, R. (2002). Sanatta Anlamın Görüntüsü – İmgelerin Toplumsal İşlevi (İ. Türkmen, Trans.). Ayrıntı Publication. Radford, B. (2004). Medya Nasıl Yanıltıyor? Güncel Publication. Scognamillo, G. (1998). Türk Sinema Tarihi 1896-1997. Kabalcı Publication. Scognamillo, G., & Demirhan, M. (2005). Fantastik Türk Sineması. Kabalcı Publication. Smith, G. N. (2003). Dünya Sinema Tarihi (A. Fethi, Trans.). Kabalcı Publication. Timuçin, A. (1193). Estetik, İstanbul, Turkey: BDS Publication. Towsend, D. (2002). Estetiğe Giriş (S. Büyükdüvenci, Trans.). İmge Kitabevi Publication. Tunalı, İ. (1989). Estetik. Remzi Kitabevi Publication. Vardar, B. (2006). Sinema ve Televizyon Görüntüsünün Temel Öğeleri. Beta Publication.

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Wheeler, P. (2010). Uygulamalı Sinematografi (S. Taylaner, Trans.). Es Publication.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aesthetics: Aesthetics is used in a sense that indicates a person’s taste about objects or is associated with aesthetic judgment. These objects can be natural, as well as an ordinary production of man or an object of art. In this use, the word “aesthetics” indicates a quality that any person has, rather than a term meaning. Camera Angle: The angle of the camera determines both the viewpoint of the viewer and the area shown during shooting. The camera angle defines the area shot and the area the viewer sees. So every move and where the camera is positioned is an important component for cinematic narrative. Editing: Editing can be defined as harmonious coordination between shots. Moving image and editing are two basic elements that form the basis of cinema. While editing is defined as the arrangement and arrangement of shots according to specific conditions and time, the ordering process is “a scientific reproduction of meaning”. Meaning is scientific because it is not a natural phenomenon, it is a human product. Fear: Fear arises from the fear of being destroyed and damaged. Basically, it is the result of the human tendency to survive alive, and the attack against warnings that give a signal of danger is also the escape from it, the expression of fear. Lighting: Lighting in cinema is primarily used to create a high-quality image. Insufficient or too much light used during shooting may cause the desired images to not appear during the assembly of the film. The light used should be in the same proportion in all camera movements used and the shots taken from different angles of the same scene. Otherwise, a rupture occurs on the stage. Good lighting enhances dramatic effect. Violence: Violence, doing or having someone do something other than their will by applying force or pressure, violent acts of action are defined as coercion, assault, brute force, physical or psychological suffering or torture, striking and injury.

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Chapter 3

The Coexistence of Violence and Aesthetics in Performance Art: The Forms of Catharsis İlknur Gümüş Nişantaşı University, Turkey

ABSTRACT During the performances based on performance art, the audience and the performers are in interactive communication. Along with the performance art, artistic communication becomes symmetrical and the artist with the audience share an emotional and mutual sharing. Performance art is an important example of artistic communication model. In addition, the art of performance opposes the social, physical, spiritual borders we are in, and deals with issues such as supervision policies, religious and ideological exploits, identity and gender discrimination, diseases, unemployment, economic and ecological problems. It is seen that performance art frequently uses the aesthetics of violence while addressing these issues. In this chapter, two important representatives, who use violent of aesthetics in their performing arts, Marina Abramovic and Hermann Nitsch, will be the subjects.

INTRODUCTION ‘Art is not to do but is to be’ –Marina Abromovic An artistic work created with aesthetic indicators is an effective tool for understanding and interpreting the universe. Art communication, compared to other communication elements, joins the influence of popular culture and shows more changes in every period, leaving aesthetic impressions in the audience’s senses of seeing, hearing and feeling. Communication, which is an indispensable element of socialization, reveals a very effective type of reaching the masses when it integrates with the common feature of art. Especially, a communication process created through the stage integrates with the dynamic transfer DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch003

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 The Coexistence of Violence and Aesthetics in Performance Art

of artistic elements dynamically and meeting them again in a dynamism. The communication procedure created especially through stage unites with a dynamic reception by dynamically transferring the artistic element which is also dynamic themselves. Art is a planned way of communication. While every element in fictional mechanism contains artistic content, the one that transfers and the transmitted one are both inside the aesthetic atmosphere. Artistic communication is created by giving an artistic meaning to the artistic components in the basic communication sequence and by transferring indicators that have artistic elements to senses. The characteristic pattern of the notion of art is reflected by providing primarily a flow of senses instead of a flow of information. Information transferred through art become more memorable because they are apprehended through senses. The transfer of an artwork by the artist through stage, spectator reactions, influences and noises are the artistic indicators in the basic communication sequence. The main points of the communication methods such as the message attracting the attention of the target audience, the message contains both the symbols of the recipient and the field of experience of the source, the message warns the basic requirements of the recipient and has the potential to satisfy them, and the way the requirements suggested by the communicator are met with the social status of the recipient. When evaluated in terms of artistic communication, it can be ensured that the values in this communication types are perceived better. In artistic communication, the message is the created artwork. In terms of visual and auditory presentation of the colorful world brought by the popular process, one of the elements that ensure a good communication is to present a work with criteria that will attract the attention of the target audience. This is the strategic planning in art. In interpersonal communication, the message is not expected to reach the recipient with pleasure. However, appreciation is an important concept in works of art. It is a matter of concern that the work created with aesthetic values meets an emotional team requirements. The fact that the message has the potential to bring the receiver in artistic sense is one of the important factors in the establishment of artistic communication. This is the reason why the subject of Aesthetics of Violence is mentioned in this article. Performance art is an important example of artistic communication model. The art of performance opposes the social, physical, spiritual borders we are in, and deals with issues such as supervision policies, religious and ideological exploits, identity and gender discrimination, diseases, unemployment, economic and ecological problems. It is seen that performance art frequently uses the aesthetics of violence while addressing these issues. In this article it is going to be mention that performance art is the way of artistic communication which includes interactive and symmetrical communication. Artistic communication uses the aesthetics of violence in order to create performance more attractive. This article gives more attention to aesthetics of violence becomes a miror of Marina Abromovic and Hermann Nitsch’s own catharsis.

BACKGROUND Performance word in Latin: ‘Perfunger’, in English and French: ‘Performance’, in German while it corresponds to the words ‘leistung’ and means ‘to do, finish, accomplish, enforce’, it is also used in Turkish to mean ‘any success, fulfillment, processing, artwork, game, number’. (Bayazıt, 1997: p. 1443) Performance art, in other words, the art of performance, in this sense, is “performing above all a performance or event, as well as performing a successful work, staging anything whether there is a stage or not. According to Germaner (1997: p. 59), art performance means “the completion of that work of art

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by the audience without requiring any special skills, without special function and expression”. In this regard, if the performance art wishes, it has a structure that can combine many disciplines, benefit from the materials and possibilities it desires, and does not contain a definitive definition, which is already the form of the performance art. The destructions experienced in the First World War and the new World order formed were met with a number of reactions by the artists as in every segment of the society. These reactions, whose roots go back to the Dada movement at the beginning of the 20th century, to the Surrealist and Futurist performances of the 1920s and 1930s, are characterized by the groups they formed, the manifestos they wrote, and the social and political actions they performed. The art of performance, which was accepted as a form of artistic expression in the 1970s, has developed in various geographies and in different ways until today; Happening has appeared in various performances under titles like Action Painting, Fluxus and Body Art. Within this framework, the art of performance; It continues to exist as a language of expression, which covers many areas such as dance, music, theater, poetry, video and plastic arts, especially with the support of sponsors in various venues and events as the artist’s live shows in front of the audience, using the body, with the support of sponsors. Performance art is a form of art that is performed live in front of its audience at the time and is exhibited by its artist or artists using the body. These activities, also called Happening or Formation; ıt is not possible to buy, sell or transport the product, which is different from the traditional and formalist understanding. Since it does not have a repetition, it is archived by photographing or recording with a video camera. Although they have common aspects in terms of performing and performing arts and performing some movements in the body, they are made regardless of any text such as theater. The Art of Performance, which started to gain popularity in the 1960s, has its roots in the 20th century. It extends from the early Dada movement to the surrealist and futuristic performances of the 1920s and 1930s. In order to reveal the thought intended by the artist, the event thought before will start, continue and finish at the chosen venue. If desired, it has an interdisciplinary feature in terms of utilizing approaches such as poetry, music and dance. It is a way of conveying the artist’s thoughts in an unusual and strikingly direct way, unlike traditional forms of art. The transmitted thought is completed by the audience without any special effort. In this art form, the viewer is actively assigned a role. Its ideas extend back to Conceptual Art, whose ideas came to the fore in the 1970s. Action Picture, also known as Action Painting, is a description made by American critic H. Rosenberg. The symbolized character of the abstract expressionist movement was used to describe the attitude of the American painter Jackson Pollock.1 Such pictures are not created by classical drawing and painting methods, but by actions such as spraying, dropping, sprinkling of paint (Sözen, 2001: p. 11). The painting is the final version of the artist’s work, as a result of the bodily movements that involve a certain process during the artist’s strolling on the canvas cloths on the ground and fixing the paints with rhythmic or sudden movements, developing techniques such as splashing, splashing, and pouring. The movements that the artist makes in the process of producing his work constitute the painting itself. Expressed as Happening or Formation, the art form is the actions that do not have any scenario, develop with current impulses and continue as improvisations. There are types that can be experienced only visually, such as dance, music, slide shows, and sensory or emotional or spiritual experiences such as smell and taste. One of its most important features is that it is realized with the participation of the audience and a reaction is desired against the stimuli in the audience. Artists such as Allan Kaprow, John Cage, Jim Dine, Claes Oldenburg, Robert Rauschenberg, Robert Whitman, Carolee Schneemann and Red Grooms can be listed as people known for their Happening.

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Fluxus is a movement that tells about continuous change in nature and human life, constant habits and renewal, and resisting stagnation. According to this statement, the work of art is not a completed work, it is a constantly progressing and developing process. The artists refused to make the market works to be sold by aiming to provide experiences that leave deep traces in the memories of the audience they want to participate in the action (Demirkol, 2008, 64-162). The movement, originated by George Maciunas and his friends, was recognized in the field of visual arts as well as experimental music and poetry (Lucie, 1996: p. 288). The movement that started and continued with the philosophy of saving art from bourgeois diseases, removing dead art and starting a revolutionary trend in art is known as one of the most radical movements of the 1960s (Antmen, 2008: p. 203). John Cage2, Joseph Beuys, Yoko Ono and Nam June Paik are among the most famous Fluxus artists. The work titled “Four Minutes Thirty Three Seconds” put forward by John Cage in 1952 is one of the examples that can be given to the Fluxus movement; It is a musical work consisting of three parts. It is written for any instrument, and it is stated in the partition that musicians should never play their instruments through three sections. The pianist comes to the stage alone, sits on the piano with a stopwatch, closes the cover of the piano. It waits by following the time with the stopwatch, opening and closing the cover of the piano in the second and third sections. The work consists of voices from listeners in the venue during this quiet period. According to Eroğlu (2007: p. 407), Fluxus artists carried an understanding of art that introduced unknown forms of communication until then with the motto of changing people to change the world and brought a new perspective to avant-garde thought. Body Art, which is made with the logic that the body is treated as a canvas, includes items such as paintings, tattoos, etchings or piercings on the bodies that are mostly related to reasons such as individuals’ beliefs, cultural characteristics, positions, and intellectual life. Performance artists generally include the human body; they questioned issues such as gender, sexuality, race, ethnicity, reproductive rights, gender equality, social problems, political problems, violence, and beauty, and used them as a means of conveying some thought-provoking messages. The body itself, which is the focal point in Body Art, by the artists in 1960, Yves Klein was positioned as a subject in many ways, such as the movements of the painted bodies, Gilbert & George’s singing sculptures in 1969, and Joseph Beuys telling his pictures to a dead rabbit. In Dennis Oppenheim’s 3 performance called “Two Stage Transfer Drawing”, the lines drawn on the back region are perceived by the senses and the transferred lines are transferred to another body or on a different surface. In this way, the concrete expression of the kinetic response generated by the stimuli obtained from the sensory system of the body takes place. This style of art, in which the artist’s body is the main material, also includes masochistic elements from time to time. Between the years 1960 and 1980, the performances that the artists created with the violence they applied to their bodies peaked in the works of names such as Vito Acconci, Terry Fox, Chris Burden and Ana Mandieta (Sözen, 2001: p. 72). Marina Abramovic’s “Rhythm 10”, violence by Carolee Schneemann, “Interior Scroll” in which she exhibited the female body, “Sentimental Action” where Gina Pane 4shows the cotton that scratches and wipes her blood, Hermann Nitsch “Orgiastic Mysteries Theater”, which shows blood washing and animal sacrifices for rites, has remained in mind like many more examples such as performances, violence and pain that include Orlan’s body reshaping her body with a series of aesthetic surgeries.

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PERFORMANCE ART AND ARTISTIC COMMUNICATION MODEL Performing arts are one of the most important areas where communication is aesthetized. As one of the factors that make impression strong, it is an important phenomenon that creates a strong bond between the audience and the art. Art is the meeting of aesthetic values by blending the data that people receive from nature, society and the culture in which they live, at the level of consciousness and subconsciously. All aesthetic reflections in the art have the quality to affect the masses. Communication, which is an indispensable element of socialization, reveals a very effective type of reaching the masses when it integrates with the common feature of art. The expression “Communication is a dynamic process that enables the transfer of social values and the sharing of experiences through transfer of meaning” (Peltekoğlu, 2004: p. 178) can be considered as one of the most suitable narratives for artistic communication. Communication processes at the intersection of many disciplines attract the attention of many different sciences such as philosophy, history, geography, psychology, sociology, budgetary science, economics, political science, biology, cybernetics or cognitive sciences. Art, which expresses itself in different ways, is also intertwined with communication. Communication is the main goal in any artistic field; art is made for its audience. Contrary to the reflection of the unplanned body language in daily life, especially in dance performances that are integrated with the harmony of intelligence, emotion and body, there is a completely planned message transfer by integrating with artistic elements. The audience plays an important role in the consumption process of an artistic product. Emotionality is the most influential element in the communicative dimension of art. While providing communication with the audience in performances that require performance mostly depends on technical factors, it is primarily emotional satisfaction. Every move touched by the audience’s emotion center receives applause. Applause is a supportive and positive outcome of aesthetic judgment. In this way, the audience-artist companionship, which goes from the scene to the audience and meet in a common sharing, contributes to the interactive communication between the audience and the scene. This interactive communication is strong enough to eliminate all prejudices. According to Nurçay Türkoğlu, who divides the definitions about communication into two groups; It is seen that the explanations that are not a transfer process and a mechanical transfer process with a certain effect between the sender and the message, but the meaning created as a result of common perceptions (Türkoğlu, 2007: p. 21) coincide with the artistic communication process. Art communication, which occurs when the social communication gains an aesthetic appearance, by revealing the fact that the transfer process between the audience and the dancer exhibiting the work gains integrity through artistic elements and it can be achieved by using its kinesthetic intelligence well and concentrating. The basis of the communication is emphasized as the message attracts the attention of the target audience, the message contains both the symbols of the recipient’s and the source’s experience, the message warns the basic requirements of the recipient and has the potential to satisfy them, the way the requirements suggested by the communicator are met with the social status of the recipient. When the subjects are evaluated in terms of artistic communication, values of this type of communication can be perceived better. In artistic communication, the message is the created artwork. In terms of visual and auditory presentation of the colorful world brought by the popular process, one of the elements that ensure a good communication is to present a work with criteria that will attract the attention of the target audience. This is a strategic planning in art. Today’s audience has expectations to feel themselves in the game. Compared to the past, the integrity of technological possibilities attracts the buyer’s more attention. When the visual and audio elements are presented in the appeal of Broadway musicals, which are generally appreciated by 40

 The Coexistence of Violence and Aesthetics in Performance Art

the countries of the world, they are enchanted by the originality of the choice of the subject when it is presented with the visual and audio effects. An artistic message needs to appeal to the soul and emotions of the recipient. Indicators of the content of the subject will direct the buyer to more works. These abstract or concrete indicators help to perceive and adopt the message by touching common emotional points with a cross-section of life in line with cultural features. In interpersonal communication, the message is not expected to reach the recipient with pleasure. However, appreciation is an important concept in works of art. It is a matter of concern that the work created with aesthetic values meets an emotional team requirements. One of the important features of artistic communication is its interactive quality like other types of communication. With the right interaction, the content does not change, but the presentation quality of the work increases. The semantic variations loaded on the artistic work will also vary during the perception process. There is a deep-rooted relationship and communication between art, people and life; The artist turns to the life of the art buyer through his work of art. Certain types of information are transmitted in this area. However, the type of information conveyed by art only exists within the form of art. Artistic communication includes components such as interpersonal communication. In this communication system, which will be handled especially in terms of performing arts, every component must be artistic. Analysis of political scientist Harold Lasswell (DeVito 1995: p. 10-19), who evaluates communication with five basic questions, is essential to find an answer when adapted to the artistic system. 1. Source: Communication planners in the artwork containing artistic codings; artist, creative team, composer, costume and makeup designers, décor and accessories responsible, technical team.. 2. Massage: Art work; all performances based on performance intended to be exhibited in performing arts and formatted content loaded with meaning. 3. Medium: The space in which the stage or the performance in question is displayed or broadcast as far as possible and without losing messages, in brief, meeting with the target audience. 4. Target (Audience): Spectator; active participant. The point to reach the messages… 5. Effect: Positive or negative comments and evaluations that may change the direction of the communication process, therefore, in the performances that include positive or negative aesthetic values, especially live performances, and which are effective in ensuring its continuity with subsequent evaluations. In the sociocultural environment where an artwork based on a common cultural base is presented, communication will proceed on the right path. However, performing arts do not require cultural partnership. He had the power to create a common language such as understanding, appreciating, interpreting and evaluating the elements in communication with the performing arts for each society.

Aesthetics of Violence: ’Catharsis’5 What does it mean to have aesthetic violence?, ‘What does aesthetics of violence mean?, ‘’How does aesthetics of violence appear in performing arts?’, ’ Does aesthetics of violence a kind of way for communication in performance art? or ‘Does aesthetics of violence symbolize artistic catharsis?’ All these questions are the guide of this article. Violence is one of the most basic motives in humans since its existence and is a phenomenon that manifests itself in all areas of life. In this respect, violence is at least as old as human history. Even in the first pictures drawn on the cave walls, it is seen that people are

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trying to visualize their hunting stories. This effort continued to manifest itself in different forms with the step-by-step development of civilization. Although violence is characterized and criticized by all people from a negative perspective, it manifests itself in all areas of life. Whether it is claimed that man has a tendency to violence from creation, or that it is the result of acquired thoughts and behaviors that can be learned later.Underline, it is possible to come across violence - not traces of violence - not only in the daily life of people, but also in the production of people. From the point of view that the content of performing arts is an ideological transfer, it is inevitable to see all forms of violence in the media outlets. The ideological transfer here can be the normalization of violence, showing the bad aspects of violence, or even catharsis. In terms of visual arts, violence is often represented by artists in painting, photography, cinema and performing arts. Since the 1960s, radical changes in the existing artistic classifications have been replaced by new alternative forms. With Marcel Duchamp, art and object began to stand out from their formal priorities and the intellectual structure behind the image of the object gained importance. The object of the work of art that has been glorified and included in aesthetic categories by being traditionalized, in this sense, the meaning attributed to the art object has changed over time by purifying all these enacted values.It has undergone. The passive nature of the audience along with the changing roles of the work of art and the artist has been questioned, and the audience has been included in the narrative with the enforcement of the material and technical limits. In this article, the artist’s performance art, which mostly involves the audience in his narration, using his own body, is realized through the instrumentality of violence will be studied as an art movement and as the way of catharsis. Performance art, which has been accepted as a new artistic genre since the second half of the 20th century, means to show, make and finish, but it is completed by the audience and takes place in an instant. The absence of repetition made it important to record the time period in which performance took place, by continuing in the viewer’s mind. This formation, which is based on the process, cannot be evaluated within the limits of any existing artistic expression by feeding from theater, photography, visual arts, dance, poetry and music. Along with conceptual art, traditional forms of expression have changed. While artistic formations shaped by ideological approaches find audiences in galleries and museums,performance artists used their bodies as a kind of ideological tool. This opposing attitude turned art out of galleries and museums into a categorized understanding of art, an undefined “moment” and artistic material into a body. During this transformation, the possibilities of expression were challenged and violence was reflected in performances with an artistic instrumentation. According to Tönel (1996: p. 364), it is now manifested as art rather than reflecting violence. The artist has pushed the boundaries of art and violence, perhaps even exceeded. In this context, the art of using violence to alert the audience shaking, anxiety, hatred, disgust and it is provided through pain. Life in the violence,is also found in all its nakedness in art and life so that the limit become once again uncertain.

Marina Abramovic: Absence of Borders The pleasure of aesthetic experience is the pleasure of getting it. It is the pleasure of understanding, of seeing connections, of comfortably knowing one’s way about. It is the pleasure that comes from recognizing the purposiveness, or integrity or meaning, of the work. This meaning or purposiveness was there all along but hidden in plain sight. So this explains also Abramovic’s view on the art of performance. Abramović relentlessly pursued her fascination for exploring states of presence. Meaning exists within the experience; it is contained within the continuous flow of experience and makes connections between

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experiences that belong to different time intervals and happen in different contexts. The artist turned herself into a site of presence; she seeks to achieve for both herself and public’s total presence. This type of presence requires complete attentiveness, bodily, affective and sensual engagement, unification of artist’s and audience’s body into one body, which intensifies the performance, flows and circulates the contact. Performance art is the experience of heightened vitality, it strengthens connection and communication with the world and “at its height it signifies complete interpenetration of self and the world of objects and events”. Marina Abramovic is a performance artist and art filmmaker. Her work explores body art, endurance art and feminist art, the relationship between performer and audience, the limits of the body, and the possibilities of the mind. She pioneered a new notion of identity by bringing in the participation of observers, focusing on “confronting pain, blood, and physical limits of the body. She is one of the most important representative of performance art is Marina Abromovic. The artist mostly use the aesthetics of violence to express herself. Aesthetics of violence is one of the important element of The Theory of Maria Abramovic. The artist describe performance art is an instrument for cleaning our houses. Performing art is cleaning the inside and outside of our houses. The houses means here our body and soul. House is our body and for her there is no form of art. Abramovic defines the performance art like art is not to do but is to be.6 Marina Abramovich instrumentalized the blood and violence in her art through her own body. forced stop of the body, and the pain threshold of the artist’s death.It is determined by the audience in the performance. Often at the end of the artist’s performance it is altered state of consciousness toward unconsciousness. Abramović’s performances are generally defined with “openness, mobility, indefatigable, exploration of the physical and mental limits as well as the potential of the human body”. She took the first steps toward her artistic and personal growth with the Rhythm7 series. In Rhythm series, she has started to question the role of the spectators in performance. She has broken the voyeuristic stance of the spectatorship and has assigned them active role in the performance event. She has manifested her body in the site of struggle, pain, pressure, danger and contingencies, and through this manifestation she becomes present both as subject and object (Birringer, 2003: 66) In her performance series Rhythm 10,she put her left hand onto a thick paper and started stabbing a knife on the gaps of her fingers. She recontextualized this popular drinking game among Yugoslav and Russian peasants Each time she misses the gap and cuts one of her fingers she changed the knife and continued till she used all twenty knives in the same regulation. Once she completed the first round, she replicated the same action with all its brief pauses of moans by listening the tape she recorded during the first instance. During her early solo performance pieces, Abramović has explored the performance art sphere and the possibilities of experimenting with the idea of consciousness. She realized that exploring consciousness requires being willing to enter the state of unconscious. The performance’s fierce and painful force illustrated the whole series of the Rhythm performances that Abramović was about to engage in. Rhythm 5 8is witnessed one of the most canonical imagery through Abramović’s performance career. She lied in the center of a five-pointed-star, which was set in fire and typically associated with communism, and because the flames consumed all the oxygen she lost her consciousness and almost died. She was rescued by one of the audiences, which led the artist to think about the unnecessity of the consciousness or control, for the completion of the performance itself. After that point of realization, her performances have become more in search of the ways to reserve the conscious as a provocative anchoring point but at the same time as an insignificant and distant criterion. The use of the five-pointed

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star symbol cannot be perceived separate from Abramović’s family roots, but she sought for a personal liberation more than a political one. Rhythm 5 is an indicator of a novel approach to the performance of self, construction of identity and the experience of a body that exists in the social sphere of the hypermediated 21st century. Abramović was engaged in painful and highly individualized acts of body art, which carry certain significance back in that period9. Due to the political conditions in the East, performers only had chance to perform in enclosed spaces and groups until the end of the 1970s and in 1990s with the dissolution of communism, globalization and the creation of a new Europe performance art 10has started to be realized in the public realm. In her works and performances, Abramovic examines herself about the limits of exident, fear, emotions, fear of pain. She wants to reach the point of fearness of dieing. She speaks without speaking through her performances. She believes in relationship which is built by art. We, as human beings, can only learn and share with relationships. Time is really important for her becouse she believes wrong thing, wrong time, wrong place does not work.11

Herman Nıtsch: The Ritual of Reality With religious beliefs and traditions all over the world, it is possible to come across interesting ceremonies.The forms of these shows organized for religious purposes are artistic. Those who attend mass prayers, especially dhikr ceremonies,They pass through themselves with prayers and prayers. In some, the degree of somatic violence is advanced. It can be visualized through the Hermann Nitsch example, where there is a close resemblance between tribal rituals and performance art, with the aim of some sort of purification by the end of performance. Hermann Nitsch is an Austrian avant-garde artist who works in experimental and multimedia modes. Nitsch’s abstract ‘splatter’ paintings, like his performance pieces, are inspired by his neutral perspective on humanity and being human. In the 1950s, Nitsch conceived of the Orgien Mysterien Theater (which roughly translates as Theatre of Orgies and Mysteries or The Orgiastic Mystery Theater), staging nearly 100 performances between 1962 and 1998. Nitsch’s act of sacrifice in their performance takes place through animals and people. In front of the symbolically sacrificed person are the animals that are brutally killed in blood. With her ritualistic performances, where the limits of general acceptance are challenged, the artist aimed to purify violence, blood and sexual drives from all primitive taboos.In his performances organized like a religious ritual, the artist mostly used sacred symbols of religious beliefs. Animal organs adhering to the human body, the inside of the bodies, the feelings of blood, music, pain, lust and disgust are presented to the people living in their own world for purification. According to Nitsch, all art disciplines should be intertwined with each other as much as possible. Art should address our senses as a whole. The threshold between art and life is a very tough problem to overcome. The pain that will destroy the sanctuary taboos. 80. With the Show “Action”, blood is poured on the artist, whose eyes are closed and crucified. All the internal organs of a cattle were removed in the ritual atmosphere in front of the audience. Violence and violence are monitored by visualization using the same path.12 Hermann Nitsch is an Austrian artist known for his visceral performance art practice, often based on the ritualistic practice of sacrifice. Nitsch’s outrageous works are referred to as Orgien Mysterien Theater and involve blood, animal entrails, and nudity. “I want my work to stir up the audience, the participants of my performances. I want to arouse them by the means of sensual intensity and to bring them an understanding of their existence,” the artist has said. Born on August 29, 1936 in Vienna,

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Austria the artist originally conceived of his aktionen, or action performances after having experienced World War II as child. Interested in the intensity of his memories, he has sought religious themes and customs to convey his emotions since the 1950s.13 Within the scope of the events of the 100th anniversary of the Çanakkale Wars, the exhibition of the Austrian artist Hermann Nitsch, “Monument to No War”, opened in Çanakkale in Turkey. Hermann Nitsch, a 76-year-old Australian performance artist, worked for 1 year and granted the Çanakkale Governor’s right to use indefinitely his 27 works, which he prepared exclusively for the 100th anniversary of the Çanakkale wars.14 The exhibition titled ‘No Monument to War’, consisting of the artist’s works, was opened in the old bonito store on Nalbantlar Street in Fevzipaşa District, which was converted into an art gallery. This exhibition shows that aesthetics of violence are also preferred by performance artists to take an activist stance.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In order to have better understanding the art of performance on intellectual ground, interdisciplinary reading should be given priority. From the years of 1960-1970, concepts such as performance art, conceptual art, poor art, fluxus, which oppose formalism and give importance to thought have emerged. The art was moved from its traditional atmosphere to the intellectual ground. It is our individual worlds full of collective and images that are fed from many archives of emotions and information within our intellectual worlds. Understanding the performing arts individually is through understanding both the artist’s culture and the geography and ideologies he/she has had throughout his/her life. In order to have this understanding, it is necessary to conduct detailed research about the artist before watching the art of performance. Performance art can bring together many disciplines, The prescriptive, which can take advantage of materials and possibilities, has a structure that does not include a definitive definition, which is already the form of performance art. Indeed, expression has no artistic form, it is like an endless manifesto, and each performer defines what he does himself. This is actually the case for all current arts, including performance art. It would be more correct to say experimental for contemporary art today. In addition, it is a reflex made with contemporary art materials and the artist now thinks with materials, not concepts. For this reason, besides paint and pattern, photographs, digital works and videos are also included in the contemporary art. Contemporary art not only combines the material in a different way for this, but, as already mentioned, it also combines arts. This is especially the case in performance art. Therefore, in this article, it is recommented to think interdisciplinary to understand, analyze and interpret the performing arts and artists, which are shown as examples of the aesthetics of violence.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS •

More research is needed on artistic communication. It is difficult to find a resource in the context of artistic communication, especially in Turkish. There is a need to analyze and understand artistic communication with the theories of communication theorists. Thus, the communication of art and art should become a controversial area for public relations, which is the field of science.

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• •

•

Researches should start with interpersonal communication in order to put artistic communication into theory. During the production phase of an artwork, it is in contact with the artist and its buyers as subjectobject. This relationship is based on every different understanding, period, trend, etc. may differ depending on. Artists or subjects in general are aesthetically existent, form, technical, psychological, sociological, real and subjective-objective relations emerge by associating the subject with their own lives as an unrealistic situation perceived only by the subjects. It is not only the creators of the artistic work that produce new forms of meaning, but also the audience, where mutual communication is established; visual and auditory senses are received as messages that vary from person to person. Artistic communication includes components such as interpersonal communication. The artistic quality of each component in this communication system, which will be discussed especially in terms of performing arts. There is a need to analyze and understand artistic communication with the theories of communication theorists. Thus, the communication of art and art should become a controversial area for public relations, which is the field of science.

CONCLUSION In this article, it is mentioned that, performance art prefers aesthetics of violence to express itself. Along with the performance art, the body has become an area of action as a political tool.The performance artist often performed various blood and violent demonstrations to break the overwhelming power of the mechanisms of power with the meanings and interventions that he placed on his body. During the performances based on performance art, the audience and the performers are in interactive communication. Along with the performance art, artistic communication becomes symmetrical and the artist with the audience share an emotional and mutual sharings. Performance art is an important example of artistic communication model. In addition, the art of performance opposes the social, physical, spiritual borders we are in, and deals with issues such as supervision policies, religious and ideological exploits, identity and gender discrimination, diseases, unemployment, economic and ecological problems. It is seen that performance art frequently uses the aesthetics of violence while addressing these issues. The artist, using his judgment on his body. The figure on the canvas surface is now on stage and with all its naturalness it makes the audience a part of the show. It can be said that the art of performance, which allows the value of the art object to change with the shocking contact it establishes with the audience, has freed the artist and his work in this way. The point of enduring physical and psychological pain was examined through the shows of Nitsch and Abramovic. During the performances based on performance art, the audience and the performers are in interactive communication. Along with the performance art, artistic communication becomes symmetrical and the artist with the audience share an emotional and mutual sharings. Performance art is an important example of artistic communication model. In addition, the art of performance opposes the social, physical, spiritual borders we are in, and deals with issues such as supervision policies, religious and ideological exploits, identity and gender discrimination, diseases, unemployment, economic and ecological problems. It is seen that performance art frequently uses the aesthetics of violence while addressing these issues. As a field of art that directly reaches the audience, eliminates mediators such as galleries and critics, and becomes independent from the object of performance, it has created an area where artists can easily express themselves and benefit from all kinds of

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materials and disciplines. Especially artists often resort to performance to break down the categories. Performance art, which is the result of postmodernism’s efforts to combine high art with popular art, continues to develop in line with an understanding that includes young culture. In the academic sense, the art of performance has also gained an official acceptance in the present day when the platforms related to performance were established and publications were made. With all this, with the spread of the internet, performance studies can reach more people and many artists can do collective works through the internet. In short, it continues its way as an interdisciplinary approach with the possibilities and support of the age of performance art. As can be seen, performing art is a reaction to the understanding of the capitalist system, such as conceptual art, that transforms the artwork into a commodity. And the purpose of the actions is to reach a much wider audience, people on the streets, through an art form that can not be taken under protection in museums.

REFERENCES Abramovic, M. (1970). Rhythm 5. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from https://www.guggenheim.org/ artwork/5190 Abramovic, M. (1975). Lips of Thomas. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from https://imma.ie/collection/ lips-of-thomas/ Abramovic, M. (2020). Retrospective. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from https://www.hurriyetdailynews. com/abramovic-retrospective-opening-new-horizons-151623 Antmen, A. (2008). Yüzyıl batı sanatında akımlar. Sel Press. Bayazıt. (1997). Performans. Eczacıbaşı sanat ansiklopedisi (3rd volume). Yem Press. Birringer, J. (2003). Marina Abramović on the ledge. PAJ a Journal of Performance and Art, 25(2), 66–70. doi:10.1162/152028103321781565 Cage, J. (1952). 4’33. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gN2zcLBr_ VM Catharsis Definition. (2020). Retrieved 23 February 2020, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/ tr/s%C3%B6zl%C3%BCk/ingilizce/catharsis Demirkol, C. (2008). Batı sanatında modernizm ve postmodernizm. Doğa Basın Press. DeVito, J. A. (1995). The interpersonal communication book. Harper Collins College Publishers. Eroğlu, Ö. (2007). Sanat tarihi. Kolaj Press. Germaner, S. (1997). 1960 sonrası sanat: akımlari eğilimler,gruplar,sanatçılar. Kabalcı Press. Kocabaş, F., Elden, M., & Yurdakul, N. (1999). Reklam ve halkla ilişkilerde hedef kitle. İletişim Press. Lucie, E. (1996). 20.yüzyılda görsel sanat. Akbank Kültür ve Sanat Press.

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Nitsch, H. (1938). Biography. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from http://www.artnet.com/artists/hermannnitsch/ Nitsch, H. (1984). 80. Eylem. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from http://www.sanattarihci.com/wpcontnt/ uploads/2014/07/0000.jpg Nitsch, H. (2010a). Biography. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from https://www.marcstraus.com/artists/ hermann-nitsch/ Nitsch, H. (2010b). Schuttbild. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from https://news.artnet.com/market/ hermann-nitsch-marc-straus-gallery-331267 Nitsch, H. (2018). Exhibition. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from https://www.nitsch-foundation.com/ exhibition/ Oppenheim, D. (1971). Two stage transfer drawing. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from https://www. wikiart.org/en/dennis-oppenheim/two-stage-transfer-drawing-1971 Peltekoğlu, F. B. (2004). Halkla ilişkiler nedir? Beta Press. Pollock, J. (1930a). Action painting with Jackson Pollock. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from https:// classroomcanvas.weebly.com/whats-happening-in-art/action-painting-withjackson-pollock Pollock, J. (1930b). Convergence. Retrieved 23 February 2020, from http://www.jacksonpollock.org/ convergence.jsp&prev=search Sözen, M. (2001). Sanat sözlüğü. Remzi Press. Tönel, A. (1996). Sanatçı reflexi,happening ve şiddet. Cógito (Salvador), (67), 364–367. Türkoğlu, N. (2007). Toplumsal iletişim. Kalemus Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Abramovic, M. (2017). The Cleaner. Hatje Cantz Publishers. Abramovic, M. (2018). Walk through Walls: A memoir. Three Rivers Press. Fischer-Lichte, E. (2008). The transformative power of performance: a new aesthetics (S. I. Jain, Trans.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203894989 Gürcan, A. (2015). Performans sanatı. Tekhne Yayınları. Hopkins, D. (2018). After Modern Art: 1945-2017. Oxford University Press. Tunalı, İ. (2018). Estetik. Remzi Bookstore. Whitham, G., & Pooke, G. (2010). Understand contemporary art. Teach Yourself. Wilson, M. (2013). How to read contemporary art: Experiencing the art of the 21st century. Thames & Hudson.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Activism: The art of performance is a kind of activist movement. Aesthetics of Violence: It is a way of self-expression. Artistic Communication Model: It is one of public relations model in order to build communication between audience and artist. Catharsis: Catharsis is emotional cleaning. Its purpose is to make the bad characters get better. Exploration: Finding self-identity through artistic expressions. Flux: Experimental composition in art works.

ENDNOTES 1



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Look for image: https://classroomcanvas.weebly.com/whats-happening-in-art/action-paintingwithjackson-pollock Look for image: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gN2zcLBr_VM Look for image: https://www.wikiart.org/en/dennis-oppenheim/two-stage-transfer-drawing-1971 Look for image: http://ars.mkp.emokykla.lt/Ars2/9h_xx2/kuno_menas.htm Catharsis: The process of releasing strong emotions througha particular activity or experience, such as writing or theatre, in a way that helps you to understand those emotions. A Catharsis is an emotional discharge through which one can achieve a state of moral or spiritual renewal, or achieve a state of liberation from anxiety and stress. Catharsis is a Greek word meaning “cleansing.” In literature, it is used for the cleansing of emotions of the characters. It can also be any other radical change that leads to emotional rejuvenation of a person. Originally, the term was used as a metaphor in Poetics by Aristotle, to explain the impact of tragedy on the audiences. He believed that catharsis was the ultimate end of a tragic artistic work, and that it marked its quality. (https://literarydevices. net/catharsis/), (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/tr/s%C3%B6zl%C3%BCk/ingilizce/catharsis) Marina Abramović at Art Meets Science and Spirituality in a Changing Economy, excerpted from Marina Abramović: Archival Interviews, 16’25 which is shown in AKBANK SANAT Documentary Gallery in Turkey. Look for image: https://blog.singulart.com/en/2019/06/25/giving-it-all-the-art-of-marina-abramovic/ Look for image: https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/5190 Look for exhibitions image: https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/abramovic-retrospective-openingnew-horizons-151623 Look for image: https://imma.ie/collection/lips-of-thomas/ Look for the documentary: [Dangerous Games], 4’43’’, 200, Director is Marina Abramovic, is which is shown in AKBANK SANAT Documentary Gallery in Turkey. Look for Image: https://www.nitsch-foundation.com/exhibition/ Look for image: http://www.artnet.com/artists/hermann-nitsch/ Look for image: https://www.haberler.com/nitsch-in-savasa-hayir-aniti-sergisi-canakkale-de7210730-haberi/

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Chapter 4

Staging Theatrical ChildCentric Violence:

Aesthetic Ownership in The Pillowman Matthew Hodge William Peace University, USA

ABSTRACT Prolific and controversial British-Irish playwright Martin McDonagh has built a prominent career on genre-bending works that combine irreverent humor and aggressive violence. His award-winning black comedy play The Pillowman, which premiered in 2003 at London’s renowned National Theatre, is one of the playwright’s most well-known and divisive pieces of theatre. Arguably, the play’s most memorable moments involve segments reenacting original twisted fairy tale-esque stories. The majority of McDonagh’s dark tales center on children characters enduring acts of violence and cruelty, ultimately concluding with disturbing endings. The Pillowman script offers few instructions in its storytelling scenes, allowing—even demanding—artistic ownership of each production’s unique aesthetic approach to the unsettling material. This chapter discusses the divisiveness of McDonagh’s work, his inspiration from violence in historical fairy tales, and the sensitive considerations and controversies theatre leadership teams must ponder when staging fictionalized child-centric violence.

INTRODUCTION Highly acclaimed Irish playwright Martin McDonagh is well-known for his controversial black comedy narratives consisting of irreverent humor, disturbing content, and aggressive shock values. His plays have been described by theater critics as “grotesque,” “unsettling,” “intense,” “provocative,” “overwhelming,” “brutal,” “uncomfortable,” “harsh,” “nauseating,” “disturbing,” “draining,” and “challenging,” even within praise-filled reviews (Moore, 2007; Wolf, 2003; Crawley, 2015; Clarke, 2019; Newmark, 2015; Bochicchio, 2016; Schkloven, 2015; Kenah, 2007; Stuhlbarg, 2006). Considered “one of the most distinguished living playwrights,” McDonagh’s writing frequently tells narratives involving amoral characters, sharp naturalistic dialogue, and cruel acts (Mohammed, 2014: p. 22; Hodges, 2003). The playwright’s DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch004

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meteoric rise began in 1996 with the premiere of his provocative play The Beauty Queen of Leenane, a black comedy depicting a toxic co-dependent relationship between a mother and daughter that ends with the daughter torturing her mother with hot oil before aggressively bashing in her head with a fire poker. McDonagh rejects the notion that he attempts pure shock for its own sake, instead crediting his writing style with a refusal to censor his imagination, stating, “I’m more worried about boring people than offending them” (Pacheco, 2005). The black comedy playwright also puts equal importance on the humor in his violent stories, explaining, “The jokes are as important to me as the violence and the sadness” (Crawley, 2016). McDonagh’s award-winning black comedy play The Pillowman, which premiered in 2003 at London’s renowned National Theatre before transferring to New York City’s Broadway in 2005, is considered a peak example of the playwright’s irreverent sensibilities. During its initial tenures in New York City and London, the divisive play earned both high praise and deep criticism—even outrage—from critics and audiences, including walkouts during its Broadway run (Pacheco, 2005; Shalom, 2015: p. 1). The play’s reputation successfully survived the controversy, earning financial profits and esteemed recognition from theatre’s highest awarding institutions, including winning the 2004 ‘Best New Play’ Olivier Award and the 2005 ‘Best Foreign Play’ New York Drama Critic’s Circle Award, and being nominated for the 2005 ‘Best Play’ Tony Award and the 2005 ‘Outstanding Play’ Drama Desk Award (Gans and Simonson, 2005; Brantley, 2005; Olivier Awards, n.d.; Tony Awards, n.d.). Additionally, the play won specific awards for its actors and technical designs, including the 2005 ‘Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play’ and ‘Outstanding Sound Design’ Drama Desk Awards, the 2005 ‘Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play’ Outer Critics Circle Award, and the 2005 ‘Best Scenic Design of a Play’ and ‘Best Lighting Design of a Play’ Tony Awards (Olivier Awards, n.d.; Tony Awards, n.d.). The successful London and Broadway runs of the play placed McDonagh’s controversial work at a foreground of theatre conversations, earning him descriptors ranging from “prestigiously talented” and “brilliant” to “upsetting” and “a sick mind” (Rooney, 2005; Stuhlbarg, 2006; Pacheco, 2005). The organization and methodology of this chapter explore the evolution of violence in aesthetic onstage performance, summarizes The Pillowman and its specific controversies, explores McDonagh’s inspiration in historical fairy tales, and discusses interviews between this chapter’s author and three directors of recent productions of The Pillowman who detail their aesthetic visions and ownerships for the violent piece of theatre. These explorations further necessary discussions of the perceived merits of violence in modern theatre by navigating McDonagh’s The Pillowman—one of the most controversial and violent plays offered to modern audiences in 21st-century commercial theatre.

THEATRE ART: AESTHETIC PERFORMANCE AND VIOLENCE Since theatre is traditionally a physical, live presentation in front of spectators, theatrical aesthetics can be defined through various fragmented or collective perspectives. Philosophy, sociology, psychology, and even semiology can all own rightful claim in the shared aesthetics of performance art, leading some contemporary philosophers to “put forward an analytical aesthetics that no longer seeks to define art, but to establish how the spectator and the context decide that they are looking at art” (Pavis, 2016: pp. 4-5). Contemporary theatre is inherently interactive and collaborative artistry that is simultaneously experienced and witnessed. Subsequently, those who define the existence and value of staged aesthetics include the director (the person heading a production’s artistic vision), the designers and performers 51

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(the people creatively executing the director’s vision), and the audience (the people who are ultimately consuming and critiquing the performed art). At any given moment, every aesthetic component from process to performance is personally interpreted by those in a theatre production’s cast, crew, or audience, granting members of each group the chance to define any perceive aesthetical meanings. Violence has historically been a common aesthetical element of staged drama. Ancient Greek tragedies often constructed themselves on plots involving combat, suicide, or murder. Early traditional Asian theatre told stories of abuse and wrongful executions. Dramatic presentations in the ancient Roman world contained bloody spectacles. Shakespeare plays depicted acts of brutality and grotesqueness. As live entertainment evolved through contemporary decades into modern theatre, on-stage violence became increasingly more realistic, gorier, and irreverent. Violence is a globally-common discussion and presentation throughout cultures, societies, and their stories told on stage. However, among these commonalities lies stark differences: how and why violence is depicted. During ancient theatre eras, violent acts were typically performed off-stage, often for various religious or cultural reasons. The violence of traditional theatre was also seen as a therapeutic and educational shared experience for audiences to mentally and emotionally grapple with trauma, being reflected upon by theatre critics as a “communal response to suffering” and “helping the community come to terms with the violence they’ve experienced, and the violence they’ve perpetuated” (Mandell, 2015). As societies modernized theatre over the coming centuries, stories depicted violence more on-stage and seemingly satisfied purposes of entertainment, spectacle, and shock. This evolution culminated in audiences being increasingly fed violent imagery and visuals in often aggressive ways. In the 21st century, modern theatergoers experience fully uncensored on-stage brutality and unsettling gore that consistently push industry boundaries. Consequently, contemporary audiences are challenged to debate the merits of the on-stage violence they are witnessing by pondering if it is merely titillating or if it provokes an interrogation of their own relationship with violence (Mandell, 2015).

The Pillowman Overview The Pillowman’s setting is an unnamed totalitarian state resembling a “vaguely East European-sounding country” (Rooney, 2005). Its plot centers on a writer, Katurian, being brutally interrogated after a series of recent child-murders bear uncanny similarities to his stories—which are all but one unpublished. The three-act play consistently alternates between depicting ‘reality’ and ‘fiction’ scenes. The play’s reality involves interactions between Katurian, Michal (Katurian’s mentally disabled brother, and a prime suspect in the child-murders), and Tupolski and Ariel (the two interrogating police officers). In contrast, intermittent fictional segments depict interpretive reenactments of Katurian’s disturbing fairy tale-esque stories, which frequently involve mental and physical violence toward child characters and conclude with tragic endings. Ultimately, Michael confesses to Katurian that he did murder the children, professing, “you told me to” through the stories (McDonagh, 2003: p. 34). Consequently, Katurian smothers Michael to death and falsely confesses to Tupolski and Ariel that he is the child murderer to save his brother from a more horrific execution. Although the police detectives discover Katurian is not guilty of the crimes, they still sentence him to execution upon learning that Katurian did murder his and Michael’s parents. Katurian pleads for his stories to not be destroyed, exclaiming, “I was a good writer. It was all I ever wanted to be” (McDonagh, 2003: p. 67). Ariel proceeds to shoot Katurian dead. Although he proclaimed he would burn Katurian’s stories after killing him, Ariel instead preserves the writings in a case file that remains unopened for approximately fifty years. The play concludes with 52

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deceased Katurian addressing the audience and describing Ariel’s act of letting his stories survive yet remain unread as being both a fulfilling and unfulfilling ending, stating the act “would have ruined the writer’s fashionably downbeat ending, but was somehow…somehow…more in keeping with the spirit of the thing” (McDonagh, 2003: p. 69). McDonagh’s stories in The Pillowman are reminiscent of classic tales penned by the German sibling writers Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm, albeit perhaps more grotesque and uncomfortable. The accomplished siblings, commonly referred to as the Brothers Grimm, were nineteenth-century writers whose published collections of fairy tales made the stories prolific in the western world (Grimm and Grimm, 2014: p. xix). Their series of publications throughout the mid-1800s became one of the most influential folklore works, leading to the siblings being considered the writers who “saved the fairy tale” (Zipes, 2015). In addition to the Brothers Grimm, McDonagh’s stories in The Pillowman are also comparable to the writings of Franz Kafka, a twentieth-century Czech-born German author most notable for his fantasy-realism literature such as his famous 1915 published novella The Metamorphosis (Brod, 1995; Crawley, 2015; Brantley, 2005). The theatrical interpretations of The Pillowman’s unsettling tales with twisted morals are arguably the play’s most impactful and memorable moments for live audiences. McDonagh believes The Pillowman’s structure of “stories within stories” makes the play his most “cinematic” stage work, and ranks as one of the playwright’s personal favorites among his works (Lyttelton, 2012; Crawley, 2016). Moreover, the creative freedom permitted in portraying these macabre stories liberates each staged production from narrative boundaries and allows—or even demands—artistic ownership of desired violent aesthetics, whether nuanced or forceful.

FAIRY TALE VIOLENCE McDonagh seemingly found inspiration for his cinematic script in traditional fairy tales. A majority of the tales within The Pillowman begin with the massively popular stock phrase “Once upon a time,” which historically is a traditional opening line for a story, especially in children’s literature and fairy tales (Knowles, 1999: p. 556; McDonagh, 2003). Moreover, McDonagh acknowledges his fascination with the underlying darkness within traditional folk and fairy tales before their twentieth-century sanitized commercialization (Zipes, 1988: pp. 24-26; O’Toole, 1998: pp. 65-66). During a 1998 interview with Bomb Magazine, the playwright discusses his perception of fairy-tales and their purposes of being “a short story quickly told, and told with elements of strange danger” (O’Toole, 1998: p. 65). The interviewer explains his observation of the “fairy tale dimension” to McDonagh’s works, arguing the writer’s plays “work with speed and violence and a slightly surreal feeling” (O’Toole, 1998: p. 65). McDonagh responds to the observation by describing his personal relationship with fairy-tales: When I was starting out, trying to write short stories and such, most of those were fairy-tale-like stories…I’d start getting into trying to retell the fairy tales I’d remembered as a kid, but to tell them in a more truthful way than I remember them having been told. There’s something dark about them that doesn’t quite come through…In re-reading the Grimm’s [Fairy Tales], they’re pretty bloody dark. (O’Toole, 1998: p. 65) During the same interview response, McDonagh laments the contemporary sanitizing of fairy-tales that were initially dark and violent, producing “cleaned up versions” of tales that prompts revisionist 53

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history of older stories (O’Toole, 1998: p. 66). The playwright then proceeds to offer the fairy tale Little Red Riding Hood as a prime example of a traditional tale that fell victim to modern cultural sanitation: ‘Little Red Riding Hood’ is a bloody dark story. And in the original it’s quite horrific at the end; they cut the wolf open. I like the details. They cut the wolf open, took out Little Red Riding Hood and her friend. They put rocks in the wolf’s stomach, and sewed him back up with green wire. They watched him as he awoke, and waited until he jumped out of bed in fright at everybody watching him, and dropped down dead ‘cause the stones were grating against his intestines! I would love to write something as horrific as that if I could. (O’Toole, 1998: p. 66) Although The Pillowman was not initially produced until 2003, McDonagh wrote his play between 1994 and 1995, meaning McDonagh’s fairy tale inspired play was already in existence when the playwright stated “I would love to write something as horrific as that if I could” (Lyttelton, 2012; O’Toole, 1998: p. 66). Furthermore, McDonagh initially wrote the tales found in The Pillowman for unmaterialized screen projects before actually writing the play as a whole, validating that the playwright’s fairy tale-esque stories were always the heartbeat that brought the play to life (James, 2005). McDonagh is accurate in his assertion that traditional tales were much darker than their contemporary retellings in children’s literature. Historically, folk and fairy tales, such as ones popularized by the Brothers Grimm, consistently depicted horrific acts of cruelty and violence, including cannibalism, suicide, self-mutilation, and sexual assault. Many of these dark stories told of children finding themselves in threatening situations. Cultures often utilized tales of children in danger as cautionary lessons for young people, such as the risks of talking to strangers, the dangers of seduction, and the threats of unknown locations. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, school curriculums introduced fairy tales into their literature, and by the twentieth century, fairy tales became staple readings in education (Zipes, 1988: p. 24). This inclusion in education bled into the entertainment industry when institutions such as The Walt Disney Company brought to life fairy tale stories in more comfortable censored versions. The mass marketing of these stories in both worlds of education and entertainment established a canon of “classical” fairy tales (Zipes, 1988: p. 24). Well-known contemporary versions of classic fairy tales often differ significantly from their older historical versions, especially for purposes of softening descriptions of violence and cruelty. For example, in the Brothers Grimm’s original Snow White tale, the evil queen commands her huntsman to stab seven-year-old Snow White to death and bring back the child’s internal organs (including her liver and lungs) so the queen may eat them; when her plan is foiled, the queen is forced to wear hot iron shoes and feel her feet burn while dancing in them until she dies (Grimm and Grimm, 2014: pp. 170-178). In Cinderella, another famous Brothers Grimm tale, the titular character’s two evil stepsisters—at the advice of their mother—self-mutilate themselves with a knife so their feet will fit the mysterious slipper and allow them to marry the Prince; one stepsister cuts off her heel while the other stepsister cuts off her toe (Grimm and Grimm, 2014: pp. 69-76). Other aggressive moments found in the Grimms’ popular tales include a prince being blinded after throwing himself off of a tower in Rapunzel, children cannibalism in Hansel and Gretel, and insidious mentalities towards infants in Rumpelstiltskin and Briar Rose (more commonly known as Sleeping Beauty) (Grimm and Grimm, 2014: pp. 37-38, 43-48, 162-164, 181-182). Even more egregious acts of cruelty are found in the Grimms’ lesser-known stories such as a cowardly father chopping off his daughter’s hands to save himself from the devil in Maiden Without Hands, a devil-possessed stepmother decapitating her stepson in The Juniper Tree, and a group of male 54

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robbers (led by a corrupt prince) dismembering and eating women in The Robber Bridegroom (Grimm and Grimm, 2014: pp. 99-102, 135-136, 148-157). Although the Grimm Brothers are perhaps the most prolific writers of fairy tales, they were not the only nineteenth-century European writers penning twisted tales. The darker original version of The Little Mermaid, written by Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen, ends with the mermaid protagonist choosing death—essentially committing suicide—instead of stabbing her beloved Prince in the heart with a knife (as instructed by the sea witch) (Andersen, 2002: pp. 1-23). Similarly dark, German author Heinrich Hoffmann’s Struwwelpeter contains a tale about a boy named Conrad who is permanently cured of his thumb-sucking by a tailor cutting off his thumb with giant scissors (Isaacs, 2013). An additional example is the iconic Beauty and the Beast tale with several interpretations throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by the French writers Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve and Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont, the German Grimm Brothers, and the Sottish author Andrew Lang; these various adaptations depict story aspects darker than the famous Disney version, including Beauty’s jealous-filled sisters who plot her death through being devoured by the Beast (Beaumont, Villeneuve, Grimm, Grimm, & Lang, 2017; Gilbert, 2017; Fallon, 2017). Fairy tales, in their original historical versions, are often considered “too twisted” for children, which is why contemporary societies understandably prefer censored “disneyfied” versions of the stories for their children (Evans, 2014). However, aggressive violence found in older versions of folk and fairy tales were not purposefully twisted for pure shock value or to abrasively embed morals into children’s brains. These stories also taught children how to survive in a harsh world filled with hardships; thus, violence occurred in these stories because it “corresponds to lived reality” (Martin, 2008: p. 1015). Fairy tales were violent because the world was considered violent.

THE PILLOWMAN STORIES The Pillowman contains discussions of nine tales written by the Katurian character, some being more detailed than others. Five of the nine stories describe violence towards children. The following are synopses of those five stories, in the order of which they appear in the play’s script.

“The Little Apple Men” “The Little Apple Men” is told in Act One, Scene 1 of The Pillowman (McDonagh, 2003: p. 11). The story opens with a little girl giving a present to her abusive father: a set of apples carved into the shape of little men, all adorned with tiny fingers, eyes, and toes. She instructs her father not to eat them, but instead cherish them as a memento of her childhood. The spiteful father predictably ignores her request and eats several of the apple men, unaware that razor blades are hidden inside them. Consequently, the father dies an agonizing death. That night, the little girl is awakened by the remaining apple men who have come alive and are walking up her body. The vengeful apple men force the girl’s mouth open and climb down her throat while mourning, “You killed our little brothers” (McDonagh, 2003: p. 11). Against her will, the young girl swallows the little apple men with disguised razor blades, subsequently choking to death on her own blood.

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“The Tale of the Town on the River” “The Tale of the Town on the River” is told in Act One, Scene 1 of The Pillowman (McDonagh, 2003: pp. 16-17). The story tells of a bullied little boy who lives in poverty with his alcoholic parents in a “tiny cobble-streeted town on the banks of a fast-flowing river” (McDonagh, 2003: p. 16). One night, the boy is resting on the wooden bridge that leads into town when a mysterious hooded stranger cloaked in dark garments approaches the bridge. As the rider nears the boy, the kind-hearted child offers to share his small sandwich with the visitor. Touched by the gesture, the dark figure sits with the boy, eats with him, and enjoys his company. As the stranger prepares to leave, he tells the boy that he will repay his kind gesture with something “the worth of which today you may not realise, but one day, when you are a little older, perhaps, I think you will truly value and thank me for” (McDonagh, 2003: p. 17). The mysterious figure then tells the boy to close his eyes and proceeds to violently mutilate the child by crashing a sharp meat cleaver down onto the boy’s right foot, severing all five toes. The horrified child sits in silent shock as the dark stranger gathers up the bloody toes, throws them in the gutters for the numerous rats that were beginning to gather, and silently rides across the bridge towards the town’s entrance. The story ends with the revelation that the town’s name is “Hamelin,” meaning this story is actually a prologue to the classic Pied Piper of Hamelin tale about a mysterious outsider who lures Hamelin’s children away with his magic flute as retribution for the adults not paying for his services of magically luring rats away (McDonagh, 2003: p. 17; Hamelin, n.d.). “The Tale of the Town on the River” ends with a dark twist that insinuates the violence thrust upon the young boy was ultimately beneficial by handicapping the child’s ability to be hypnotically led away from the town when the Piper plays his magic flute—an act that the Piper seemingly knows he will perform.

“The Writer and the Writer’s Brother” “The Writer and the Writer’s Brother” is told in Act One, Scene 2 of The Pillowman (McDonagh, 2003: pp. 22-25). The story opens by describing a privileged young boy who lives with his seemingly loving and attentive parents in a spacious toy-filled house in the middle of a beautiful forest. The little boy enjoys writing stories and shows great talent in writing. It is then revealed that the boy’s impressive creativity becomes at the center of a shocking experiment being conducted by his parents. When the boy is seven years old, he begins hearing terrifying nightly sounds coming from the padlocked room next to his bedroom; these noises include “the low whirring of drills, the scritchety-scratch of bolts being tightened, the dull fizz of unknown things electrical, and the muffled screams of a small gagged child” (McDonagh, 2003: p. 23). Each time the boy questions the sounds, his mother assures him the noises are only in his imagination and that only extremely talented boys hear such abominable sounds; the child accepts this premise and continues to write. As time goes by, the boy’s stories become progressively darker due to the nightly relentless sounds of a child being tortured; his writing talent also improves due to the loving encouragement he receives from his parents. When the boy turns fourteen years old, he sees a note slip out from under the door of the padlocked room. The note is written in blood and reads “They have loved you and tortured me for seven straight years for no reason other than as an artistic experiment, an artistic experiment which has worked”—the note concludes with being signed “Your brother” (McDonagh, 2003: pp. 23-24). Horrified, the boy breaks into the locked room to discover his parents sitting there alone and smiling; his father creates drilling sounds while his mother mimics the muffled cries of a gagged child. The parents tell their 56

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son that the note is written with pig’s blood and instructs him to turn the note over; the boy flips the note and reads that he has won first place in a writing competition he was entered. The boy and his parents celebrate his victory and laugh together at the revelation that the parents were behind the nightly terrorizing sounds that ultimately inspired their son’s creativity and turned him into an extraordinary writer. The family eventually moves out of the house, and the boy grows up to be an accomplished young man who finds success as a writer of dark stories. On the day of his first book’s publication, he decides to revisit his childhood home where his writing talent was born and nurtured. Upon entering the mysterious room that had remained locked for his entire childhood, he initially laughs to himself at the absurdity of believing he had a secret brother being consistently tortured by his parents. Then suddenly, he discovers the rotting corpse of a young teenager hidden under a mattress, revealing that he actually did have a secret brother. The lifeless body displays several broken bones and is covered in burns and bruises. In the corpse’s hand is a story written in blood; the shocked writer reads the story and is astonished at the writing: And the boy read that story, a story that could only have been written under the most sickening of circumstances, and it was the sweetest, gentlest thing he’d ever come across, but what was even worse, it was better than anything he himself had ever written. Or ever would. (McDonagh, 2003: p. 24) Overwhelmed, the young writer covers back up his brother’s dead body, burns the discovered story, and never mentions a word of what he saw to anyone. Katurian, who has been narrating his tale “The Writer and the Writer’s Brother,” concludes by informing the audience that the story is semibiographical. However, in real life, Katurian did actually discover his parents were hiding and torturing a secret brother, Michal, which was the cause of Michal’s brain damage. Katurian confesses to the audience that the evening he discovered Michal, he murdered his parents by suffocating them both with a pillow.

“The Pillowman” “The Pillowman” is told in Act Two, Scene 1 of The Pillowman (McDonagh, 2003: pp. 30-33). The play’s titular story tells of an oversized fantasy creature made of “pink fluffy pillows” who convinces children to kill themselves before growing up to become suicidally depressed adults (McDonagh, 2003: p. 30). The creature—referred to as “the Pillowman”—visits depressed adults who have had “dreadful and hard” lives and desire to “take their own lives and take all the pain away…by razor, or by bullet, or by gas…by whatever preferred method of suicide” (McDonagh, 2003: p. 31). The Pillowman visits these adults right before their moment of suicidal attempts, sits with them, gently embraces them, and slowly time-travels back to when they were children before “the life of horror they were to lead hadn’t quite yet begun” (McDonagh, 2003: p.31). The Pillowman then convinces the children to commit suicide in order to avoid the painful years they would endure until ultimately arriving at their suicidal moment in adulthood. The Pillowman instructs the children to kill themselves in ways that look like tragic accidents, so their deaths are more easily understood and accepted by their parents. However, not all children are convinced by the creature’s argument. An example is given of a young girl who does not accept the creature’s assertion that her life would become awful, and so she rejects the notion of killing herself. After the girl sends the Pillowman away, she is visited by a man who begins visiting her room whenever her mother is away from home (insinuating acts of frequent molestation). 57

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The girl grows up wounded and depressed, and is revisited by the Pillowman as an adult right before she commits suicide; he is unable to save her. The creature is ultimately disheartened by the inevitable unfulfillment of his burdensome responsibility: “When the Pillowman was successful in his work, a little child would die horrifically…when the Pillowman was unsuccessful, a little child would have a horrific life, grow into an adult who’d also have a horrific life, and then die horrifically” (McDonagh, 2003: p. 32). No longer able to bear the emotional weight of his work, the depressed Pillowman journeys back in time to when he was a happy young Pillowboy filled with hopeful aspirations of helping people. The Pillowman convinces his younger self to commit suicide so he will not have to grow up and perform his awful tasks. As the Pillowboy sets himself on fire, the last sounds he hears are the cries of the thousands of children he had persuaded to commit suicide resurrecting and aging into adulthood up to the final moments of their adult suicides, screaming and crying alone without the Pillowman by their sides.

“The Little Jesus” “The Little Jesus” is told in Act Two, Scene 2 of The Pillowman (McDonagh, 2003: pp. 46-49). The story depicts a six-year-old girl who, despite being raised by non-religious parents, firmly believes she is “the second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ” (McDonagh, 2003: p.46). The little girl wears a fake beard and sandals while walking around town performing blessings rituals and consorting with various people that her loving parents find inappropriate for a child to engage with, such as alcoholics and drug addicts. One tragic day, her parents are beheaded in a horrific automobile accident. The young orphan girl is sent to live in the woods with abusive foster parents who loath religion. Subsequently, the foster parents attempt to thwart the girl’s Christ-inspired behaviors in various ways, including stealing the girl’s sandals, including stealing the girl’s sandals (so she has to walk to church barefoot through roads filled with broken glass), and beating her for numerous reasons such as sharing food with her poor school friends and befriending kids who are considered ugly. Despite the foster parents’ frequent attempts to physically and emotionally punish the little girl, the child never waivers in her belief that she is the second coming of Christ. Consequently, the foster parents severely heighten their abuse by thrusting upon the child the same physical torments that Christ was put through during his crucifixion process. These cruel acts include forcing the little girl to wear a crown of thorns (handmade of barbed wire), endure whip lashings, carry a heavy wooden cross relentlessly until her legs break, be nailed to that same cross, and be stabbed with a spear in her side (McDonagh, 2003: p. 47-48). After each horrific torment, the foster parents sinisterly ask “Do you still want to be like Jesus?,” to which the girl always replies through her tears, “Yes, I do” (McDonagh, 2003: p. 48). Frustrated, the foster parents execute one last horrific act of burying the girl alive in a tiny wooded coffin containing just enough air to survive for three days, proclaiming, “Well, if you’re Jesus, you’ll rise again in three days” (McDonagh, 2003: p. 48). The little girl lies buried underground for three days, clawing and scratching the wooden coffin lid until her fingers are merely bones. On the third day, a blind man walking through the woods stumbles over the fresh grave, but does not think it anything unordinary due to his blindness, and carries on his walk, not hearing the horrific sounds of little bones scratching wood.

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AESTHETIC FREEDOM AND OWNERSHIP The Pillowman script offers little direction on how Katurian’s stories are to be told, giving the director, actors, and designers pure creative freedom and autonomy in determining how these tales will be presented to live audiences.

Interviews With Directors The author of this chapter conducted written interviews with three theatre directors who have directed staged productions of Martin McDonagh’s The Pillowman in recent years. Each director guided a different aesthetic approach towards the play and the reenactment of its stories. The following are excerpts from the directors’ responses to the same questions asked of all of them.

Director #1 Rachel Pottern Nunn directed a 2017 production of The Pillowman produced by the theatre group Dramatic Irony—housed under William Peace University’s Theatre Department—in Raleigh, North Carolina. Nunn’s aesthetic approaches to the play’s stories involved utilizing a large shadow screen that created a backdrop for actors to appear as shadow figures. The following are questions asked by this chapter’s author (MH) and the responses given by Rachel Pottern Nunn (RPN). MH: What was your overall artistic and aesthetic approaches to directing your production? RPN: My aesthetic for the show revolved around portraying the shadow side of humanity and of society. I was interested in exploring the question, what are we like when we feel anonymous? This informed my use of the shadow puppets and screen for telling the stories; the muted colors onstage (to indicate shadows, darkness, secrecy); and the way my actors and I conducted character work. Costumes were generic and drab to reinforce that these characters could be any unremarkable-looking person you pass on the street; their horrific inner demons are not worn on their sleeves. During character work sessions, the cast and I had long discussions where we dove into the backstories of each character, making choices that informed how they are tied to each other and to the rest of humanity—as much as they would like to feel safely anonymous. Against the script’s backdrop of a mysterious totalitarian dictatorship where identities and motives are being called into question, I wanted to play with the idea that our true self is the one that emerges when we feel anonymous. (R. Nunn, personal communication, December 10, 2019) MH: How did you approach the telling of the stories within the play? How did the violence within the stories (especially violence centered on children characters) affect your artistic and aesthetic visions for presenting the stories to an audience? RPN: I chose shadow figures against a backdrop because my concept for the show revolved around exploring the shadow self (cost and equipment were also factors, but I think even with a bigger budget, I would have simply built a more elaborate shadow screen and used the same method). The violence of the stories did influence my decision to keep the storytelling method highly stylized; while I didn’t shy away from the violence in the script, I also didn’t want to play up the shock factor in a way that was

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gratuitous or distracting. Additionally, I wanted some visual separation between the violence that occurs in the stories and offstage versus the violence that occurs onstage (Ariel brutalizing Katurian, Katurian smothering Michal, etc.). (R. Nunn, personal communication, December 10, 2019) MH: What commentary (if any) about the staged portrayal of violence do you believe exists in the play? RPN: One of the reasons ‘Pillowman’ is fascinating to me is that it raises the question “what do we do with violent art?” and allows the audience to feel as though they can debate the question...however, they have already answered it simply by coming to a production of ‘Pillowman’: as long as the staged portrayal of violence fascinates people, it will be created, performed, and viewed. This is the exterior manifestation of the shadow-self theme within the play: it’s our shadow-selves that are riveted by art like ‘Pillowman’; it’s the parts of ourselves that we don’t tend to acknowledge that are drawn to representations of violence. Looking past his clever trap, I think McDonagh absolutely argues for the representation of violence on stage in ‘Pillowman.’ The character of Katurian strikes me as a thinly veiled portrait of McDonagh himself, struggling for freedom of self-expression in a world that would prefer he keep things G-rated. But ultimately, I think McDonagh is telling us this about staged portrayals of violence: it doesn’t matter what we think we should or should not portray in art. It’s the art that gets bought, sold, viewed, and talked about that is effective art. And you’ve already proved his point by getting this far into a discussion about ‘Pillowman.’ (R. Nunn, personal communication, December 10, 2019)

Director #2 Tony Robinson directed a 2016 production of The Pillowman produced by the theatre company Generic Theater in Norfolk, Virginia. Robinson’s aesthetic approaches to the play’s stories involved utilizing onscreen animation. The following are questions asked by this chapter’s author (MH) and the responses given by Tony Robinson (TR). MH: What was your overall artistic and aesthetic approaches to directing your production? TR: My “aesthetic” was first and foremost informed by my space limitations. We are a black box theater performing in a space that is often needed by the theater upstairs that hosts the Broadway touring shows. So, we get our space when we get it. Our run of ‘The Pillowman’ was three weekends over the course of five weeks. So, we had to take the set down at the end of each weekend. Obviously, this required a fairly basic set. Fortunately, and perhaps by design, this show fits that need beautifully. It has simple requirements, requirements that we fulfilled primarily with pipe and drape and technical solutions. The darkness of the set fits the stark nature of the environment. Also, I tasked my costumer with the idea of creating uniforms that looked like they belonged to an authoritarian governmental regime, but without any tie to any real-world example. I wanted the authoritarianism to be universal. This could be anywhere, anytime. (T. Robinson, personal communication, December 13, 2019) MH: How did you approach the telling of the stories within the play? How did the violence within the stories (especially violence centered on children characters) affect your artistic and aesthetic visions for presenting the stories to an audience?

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TR: The stories were what drew me to directing ‘The Pillowman.’ I had no preconceived ideas about ‘The Pillowman.’ I was not familiar with the script before it was handed to me to consider directing. What hit me right away, more than the violence of the stories, was the idea that art is not art until it is received by an audience. That idea shaped my entire production concept. My stage had two basic sections, the scene area and the shadow area. Over the scene area was a projection screen. When stories were told within the context of a scene (i.e., ‘The Little Apple Men,’ ‘The Three Gibbet Crossroads,’ ‘The Tale of the Town on the River,’ and ‘The Little Green Pig’) they were presented in animation on the projection screen over the scene while the narration was live. The idea was that the animation was the scene playing out inside the mind of the hearer, and the hearer layered their own interpretation on to them. Since the first three were heard by Tupolski, the animation had an extremely dark style. My animator used the Edward Gorey cartoons as an inspiration for these stories. ‘The Little Green Pig,’ however, since it was being heard by Michal, was bright and cheery. For the stories told as scenes of and within themselves (i.e. ‘The Writer and the Writer’s Brother’ and ‘The Little Jesus’), my idea was that these would be solely in the mind of the storyteller, and as such not fully formed works of art. These were presented with a cast of shadow actors while Katurian stood in the spotlight to the side of the screen narrating. (T. Robinson, personal communication, December 13, 2019) MH: What commentary (if any) about the staged portrayal of violence do you believe exists in the play TR: I read it as the audience is as responsible, if not more so, for what they do with what the artist has presented them. There are, of course, concepts like violence begets violence, a violent society visits its violence on its inhabitants, etc. But I think those things are just a by-product of discussing violence. They are undeniable realities. The message I received was more pointed. (T. Robinson, personal communication, December 13, 2019)

Director #3 Jaimelyn Gray directed a 2018 production of The Pillowman produced by the theater company The Constructivists in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Gray’s aesthetic approaches to the play’s stories involved utilizing live reenactments. The following are questions asked by this chapter’s author (MH) and the responses given by Jaimelyn Gray (JG). MH: What was your overall artistic and aesthetic approaches to directing your production? JG: We wanted to make the production feel now, or just beyond now. That the threat of Totalitarianism is still very much real and very much a threat. We work within intimate environments and try to make productions feel close and real. (J. Gray, personal communication, January 16, 2020) MH: How did you approach the telling of the stories within the play? How did the violence within the stories (especially violence on around children characters) affect your artistic and aesthetic visions for presenting the stories to an audience? JG: We thought about the various ways to approach the storytelling, but ultimately ended up using live dramatizations. I’m happy things ended up that way. Our work with the Constructivists is founded in

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intimacy, and I feel this reinforced our aesthetics, rather than giving a “safer space” (possibly) with film or animation. We did lean into a more stylized choreography out of pragmatism, but it was still a powerful representation with live actors. We had a wall that opened up to take us to the “other world” of the storytelling scenes—a set design assisted with beautiful lighting design. (J. Gray, personal communication, January 16, 2020) MH: What commentary (if any) about the staged portrayal of violence do you believe exists in the play? JG: Violence begets violence. Child abuse is carried into adult life and perpetuates more trauma in various ways. (J. Gray, personal communication, January 16, 2020)

Additional Interpretations Further examples of aesthetic freedoms are observed in previous productions of The Pillowman. Irish stage and screen director John Crowley directed both the acclaimed 2003 London and 2005 Broadway runs of The Pillowman, earning him a nomination for the 2005 ‘Best Direction of a Play’ Tony Award (Tony Awards, n.d.). For both productions, Crowley alternated between solo dramatic storytelling narration of certain stories and live actor portrayals of other stories silently depicted in picturesque tableaux decorated with colorful, sometime cartoon-inspired storybook visuals (Rooney, 2005; James, 2005; Stuhlbarg, 2006). Additionally, Crowley continued experimenting with the visualization of the stories’ reenactments throughout both London and Broadway productions. One example of change was his aesthetic direction for the “Little Jesus” segment. In the London production, Crowley costumed the young actress in a white robe to be the visual embodiment of the seven-year-old girl who endures Christ’s crucifixion process; for the New York production, Crowley dressed the actress in a “pretty little dress” which gave a heavier unsettling emphasize on the child’s young age (James, 2005). Another editing example from Crowley was his vision for “The Pillowman” story. Initially, for the London production, the director chose to have a live actor on stage dressed in a pink Pillowman costume, believing the visual would appear “quite spooky and scary”; however, the director realized after two performances that the costume was cartoonish and “looked nothing like the Pillowman of [the audiences’] imaginations” (James, 2005). Consequently, the concept of a Pillowman costume was permanently cut. Desiring to capture a more cinematic approach to McDonagh’s writing, stage director Ravyn JazperHawke incorporated films into her 2014 production of The Pillowman with Epiphany Theatre Company in Portland, Oregon. Jazper-Hawke worked with award-winning filmmaker Cameron Harrison to produce live-action short films of specific story segments—including “The Writer and the Writer’s Brother” and “The Little Jesus”—that were played for audiences during the staged performance (“Epiphany Theatre Company 2014,” n.d.; OuchMouth, 2014a; OuchMouth, 2014b). A seemingly age-appropriate child actor portrayed the central young boy character in “The Writer and the Writer’s Brother”; conversely, an older female teenager portrayed the young girl character in “The Little Jesus.” The film segments stylistically presented themselves as a somewhat collection of indie horror movies, emphasizing the cinematic distress of the play. In a different artistic direction, Peter Welch directed a 2009 production of The Pillowman at Lawrence University in Appleton, Wisconsin, in which he utilized oversized puppets as primary storytelling tools. After experiencing studying abroad in Ireland, Welch believed elaborated puppetry added to the dark comedy elements of the play written by an acclaimed Irish playwright in a way that reflects the Irish’s 62

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history of combining humor and distress, stating, “The Irish have this interesting sense about comedy. Culturally, they seem to have a light opinion about their hardship” (Hendricks, 2009). Welch believed fantastical puppetry would help focus the comedic lens of the play and “add to the element of dark comedy that might otherwise be lost on viewers” (Hendricks, 2009). In a similar whimsical direction, director Gary Amos led a 2018 production of The Pillowman at the Playhouse Theatre Northampton in England. Amos’s intimate execution used the same condensed stage space for the ‘real’ scenes and the ‘fictional’ story scenes, primarily differentiated through bold lighting changes and live actors in costumes (Amos, 2019). In a surprising twist, Amos’s artistic vision for “The Pillowman” tale forewent a live reenactment for a more amusing interpretation through colorful “toy theatre,” a popular nineteenth European invention that allowed children and adult theatre fans to bring home souvenir miniature paper-made replicas of plays (“Toy Theatre,” n.d.; “Make Your Own Toy Theatre,” n.d.). Amos’s use of toy theatre brought a comical levity and a childishness to the darker tones of “The Pillowman” story by presenting the narrative to the audience in the historical fashion of a fairy tale retelling for 19th-century European children (“Review of The Pillowman,” 2018). Other arts fields, such as visual illustration and dance, have been primary narrative tools in The Pillowman stagings. In a 2012 production by Springs Ensemble Theatre in Colorado Springs, Colorado, director Max Ferguson employed various visual presentations to depict each play’s unique tale. “The Little Jesus” story was depicted as a series of illustrated ink drawings by a graphic novel artist (Wallinger, 2012; Wright, 2012). In contrast, “The Pillowman” segment was presented as a film (Wallinger, 2012; Wright 2012). Furthermore, other tales were presented in more unique stylistic ways, including stiff-limbed Balinese shadow puppets and delicate ballet dancing (Wallinger, 2012; Wright, 2012). Ferguson believed the combination of the different artistic visual interpretations allowed the production to “build for the audience a sense of how imaginative Katurian really is, relative to the world in which he lives” (Wright, 2012). The artistic scope of The Pillowman stories has also reached beyond traditional theatre stagings of the play. In 2013, the award-winning Olympic Heights Community High School Theatre Department, located in Florida’s Palm Beach County, performed the “The Little Jesus” scene as a stand-alone theatrical ensemble piece during the Florida Thespian Competition. The presentation of McDonagh’s antiparable tale consisted of over a dozen students dressed in all black executing intricate choreographed movement work while highlighted student actors provided the narration and character dialogue (Kayla Marie, 2013). The performance was enhanced by a crescendoing recording of the famously dramatic orchestral piece “Lux Aeterna” (written by composer Clint Mansell for the 2000 psychological drama film Requiem for a Dream) (Smith, 2015).

Aesthetic Considerations Amateur and professional productions of Martin McDonagh’s The Pillowman have executed their individualized aesthetics to McDonagh’s twisted tales. Some productions chose a cinematic approach, playing pre-recorded or pre-edited live-action film adaptations of the stories on large screens; other productions projected original animated sequences. In contrast to pre-developed media, several stagings focused on live portrayals of the stories, though in different executions. Some productions opted for traditional stagings of visible actors acting out the stories like mini-plays, while other interpretations utilized more fantasyesque innovations such as shadow screens and elaborate puppetry. Moreover, some stagings opted for more intimate depictions through physical storytelling involving dramatic choreography and blocking, or 63

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through oral storytelling involving voice narration (live or recorded) heightened by strategic lighting and sound designs. The Pillowman productions must also weigh the merits of cohesiveness and consistency that thread the stories. Some directors chose one primary visual method of story reenactment—such as shadow screens, puppetry, films, or live-actor portrayals—which helps to clearly differentiate between the one ‘reality’ world and the one ‘fictional’ world. Conversely, other directors desired to incorporate a combination of various artistic mediums, allowing each story to live in its own unique world while still all being connected through a fictional fantasy thread. Every production’s unique aesthetic design for McDonagh’s stories evokes specific genre moods and impacts for its audiences. Live-action film projections can resemble horror movies, while projected animated segments can be reminiscent of children’s entertainment such as Disney films, albeit a disturbing R-rated version. In contrast, live stagings of these stories through interpretative physicality could be perceived as a living art piece, while a sole emphasis on voice narration could reflect the tone of a scary campfire story in the woods at night. Any aesthetic decisions made by those involved in a production of The Pillowman create a desired relationship between the audience and the depicted child-centric violence within the play’s stories. The purposeful experiences designed for the play inspire audiences’ psychological reactions towards the fictional violence, ranging from numbingly detached to aggressively confrontational. Another major decision in the aesthetic vision of The Pillowman is the visual realism of both character and grotesqueness. When live actors depict the disturbing tales (either on-screen or stage), directors must decide if age-appropriate actors should portray the child characters. Some productions used actual young actors to play the young characters being thrust into mental and physical violence, while other productions used youthful-looking adult actors to portray the roles. Furthermore, much of the stories’ violent acts would cause grotesque gore in real-life; thus, directors must ponder if the stories’ depictions should remain imaginary-looking with no manufactured visual grotesqueness, or should bloody visuals enhance the performance. Every story’s artistic design can drastically change a production’s aesthetic outcome. Consider “The Little Jesus” story, for instance. An audience would arguably emotionally react differently to witnessing the horror of a crucified child if the actor is a young girl versus an adult woman pretending to be young. Furthermore, an audience’s connection to the violence might feel different if they are viewing a child’s crucifixion on a two-dimensional screen versus live on-stage in front of them. Moreover, an audience’s level of uncomfortableness may rise to various heights if an on-stage child actor pretending to scream during her faux crucifixion is accompanied by squirting fake blood versus no visible gore. Additionally, an audience could potentially allow themselves more emotional detachment if a child’s crucifixion is portrayed in a non-realistic whimsical way through animation, shadows, or puppetry. Alternatively, in complete contrast, an audience member’s own imagination might be more horrific when merely hearing the descriptive narration of a young girl nailed to a cross versus seeing any visual representation of the violent act.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS When considering the individuality and autonomy of each theatrical production, there are no specific solutions that must be executed when facing the difficult task of staging violent material. Instead, solutions and recommendations come in the form of artistic and intelligent considerations from directors, 64

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designers, and cast. Several factors should be considered when creating an aesthetic vision in staging controversial theatre, such as The Pillowman. Geographical location, venue size, budget limitations, and audience demographics can all influence decisions regarding sensitive components of unsettling storytelling, such as how violent fairy tale-esque segments present themselves on a stage. Tighter budgets may lend themselves to less expensive fantastical presentations such as shadow screens or creative movement by live actors. Smaller venues with limited-stage areas may require space-saving presentations such as audio narration or projected pre-filmed videos. Geographical locations or audience demographics that veer towards younger ages or more conservative cultures may prefer to witness staged violence that is more stylized or insinuated instead of realistic and gory. Each theatrical production is accompanied with unique freedoms and limitations that require creative solutions and artistic ownership.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Further research could expand this chapter’s scope of discussions and explorations through multiple means. Firstly, more directors could be interviewed about their unique artistic interpretations and approaches towards their past productions of The Pillowman. Secondly, actors and production designers from recent productions could be interviewed regarding their perspectives of bringing the play’s fairy tale-esque stories to life on stage. Increasing the number of productions and people surveyed might result in observable aesthetic patterns among category groups such as geographical location, venue size, budget limitations, and anticipated audience demographics. Moreover, audience and critical responses towards future productions could lead to discussions about any noticeable differences in reactions throughout the decades since the play’s premiere.

CONCLUSION When considering historical darker versions of folk and fairy tales, The Pillowman is not unique in offering up stories involving grotesque actions, especially involving children characters. Several traditional tales depict physical and mental horrors towards children for various insidious, vengeful, or religious motivations. McDonagh also frequently presents his violence within the framework of black comedy, aligning humor and violence in similar ways found in older fairy tales (Martin, 2008, p.1015). However, McDonagh rebels against traditional fairy tale “happy endings” narratives and pushes the edge of uncomfortableness by concluding The Pillowman’s stories with tragic and unjust endings, which contrast to typical fairy tale conclusions that bring justice, peace, or clarity for protagonists, revealing an insightful moral or lesson for the reader (Bottigheimer, 2009; Pavlovic, 2014). McDonagh’s central character, Katurian, acknowledges his stories are “fashionably downbeat” with horrific endings that provide a “bit of a twist,” proclaiming “there are no happy endings in real life” (McDonagh, 2003: pp. 11, 24, 41). McDonagh’s characters in The Pillowman use storytelling and fictional narratives “to shape their sense of their own experience, to compensate for the pain of living…to control their suffering and compensate for their losses” (Cadden, 2007: pp. 678-679). McDonagh went on to revisit navigating his fondness for “stories-within-stories” narratives in his 2012 film Seven Psychopaths (Godfrey, 2012; Pacheco, 2005). Additionally, McDonagh continued embracing irreverent humor and aggressive violence in his plays proceeding The Pillowman, including such topics as cruel dismemberment in A Behanding in Spokane 65

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(2010) and vengeful murder by hanging in Hangmen (2015) (Als, 2010; O’Hagan, 2015). Moreover, McDonagh’s recent 2018 play A Very Very Very Dark Matter—a black comedy fictionalizing a sinister secret life of prolific fairy tale writer Hans Christian Andersen—mixes macabre fairy tale fantasy, controversial comedy, acts of cruelty, and clever meta storytelling that strongly echoes essences of The Pillowman (Felperin, 2018). This mixture of gothic fantasy, cruelty, and dark humor is an established stylistic formula that critics now perceive as “McDonagh tropes” (Trueman, 2018; O’Dell, 2018). Despite having a perceived artistic commentary on how violence begets violence, McDonagh rejects the notion that the violence in The Pillowman—or any of his plays—bears any responsibility for inspiring potential cruelty in real life, stating in a 2009 interview: I think [The Pillowman] does say that creativity is beautiful and worthwhile for its own sake. But in terms of responsibility? I don’t think that Martin Scorsese can be held responsible because John Hinckley saw ‘Taxi Driver’ many times and became obsessed with Jodi Foster. If something happened to a child after a person saw ‘Pillowman,’ I’d definitely feel guilty about it, but I wouldn’t be culpable. (Pacheco, 2005) McDonagh’s simultaneous acknowledgment of his violent art and rejection of his art’s culpability is representative of the argument within the broader entertainment industry. The phrase “violence begets violence”—coined famously by Martin Luther King Jr.—is often interpreted as violent people or behavior bring about more violent people or behavior (King, 2007, p. 426). However, several contemporary debates reframe the notion to include an insinuation that violent art begets violent people. Much research has been done on the societal and psychological impacts of rising depictions of violence, brutality, and cruelty in entertainment. A 2014 published case study regarding psychological reactions to media violence concluded that the way a viewer’s brain responds to violent media (including entertainment) depends upon whether the person is aggression by nature (Alia-Klein et al., 2014; Carroll, 2014). Professor Nelly Alia-Klein, the study’s lead author, stated, “Just as beauty is in the eye of the beholder, environmental stimuli are in the brain of the beholder” (Carroll, 2014). Alia-Klein speculates the results show viewing violent entertainment might impact enhancement of an individual’s existing internal aggression, stating, “At the right time, when they become violent, they may act out some of the ideas they have seen” (Carroll, 2014). Thus, if portrayals of violence in our entertainment does not directly cause aggression among individual audience members, Alia-Klein argues it can still enhance aggression. Public debates about the responsibility of violent artforms have heavily circulated in recent decades, with arguments ranging from the importance of first amendment freedoms to a need for government censorship (Nagle, 2009: p. 44). While artistic freedom remains a fundamental right, audiences are the ultimate judge and jury for the purpose and meaning of theatre, especially in divisive works such as McDonagh’s plays. In their 2006 published article “The Pillowman and the Ethics of Allegory,” Hana Worthen and William Worthen ultimately find “the question of the ethics of such violence cannot be answered by the work itself. The meaning of violent representation depends on how we make it mean, usually by claiming the plays’ metonymic, allegorical, relation to the world beyond the stage” (Worthen and Worthen, 2006: p. 156). McDonagh acknowledges the irony that his career launched with theatre since he only started writing plays out of frustration for his unsuccessful works for other mediums (including film scripts and a radio play) (O’Hagan, 2015). McDonagh had disdain for theatre at a young age, believing it to be “the worst of all the art forms” (O’Hagan, 2015). A few years later, the 27-year-old found himself praised as “the most exciting new voice in British theatre” while achieving the historical precedent of being “the 66

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first playwright since Shakespeare to have four plays performed simultaneously on the London stage” (O’Hagan, 2015). Now, after a successful career that has spanned over two decades, the playwright looks back at his theatre work—especially The Pillowman—with fondness and appreciation; in February of 2020, McDonagh expressed, “The Pillowman is a play that’s always been very close to my heart, in terms of its combination of the darkest of dark comedy with its exploration of the nature of storytelling itself” (Lefkowitz, 2020). The Pillowman is consistently being experienced in fresh ways for newer audiences through continuous productions throughout multiple countries. In 2021, the comedy-horror play is seeing its highly publicized West End premiere in London, making this the work’s first major revival (Daniels, 2020; Gans, 2020). During a press statement, McDonagh described the excitement for The Pillowman to reach a new audience, stating, “I feel it’s the perfect time to find out what a whole new generation makes of this peculiar tale” (Lefkowitz, 2020). The revival will be directed by Matthew Dunster, a frequent collaborator with McDonagh who directed the previous London and New York productions of McDonagh’s plays Hangmen and A Very Very Very Dark Matter. A representative from the company producing The Pillowman’s upcoming revival stated, “I really hope that with this play, this cast and for this production, we can welcome both established and new playgoers into the West End” (Hemley, 2020). Since the play’s original Broadway run attracted younger audiences in comparison to most Broadway plays, this new publicized 2021 run may very well bring in younger and newer audiences who might be considered nontraditional visitors for West End theatre plays (Pacheco, 2005). Once the anticipated revival premiers, theatergoers will be able to experience and react to whatever unique aesthetic ownership Dunster and his creative team create. Martin McDonagh’s The Pillowman has captivated and divided audiences since its premiere nearly two decades ago. Receiving prestigious award wins and nominations, as well as seeing several annual staged productions around the world, validates that critics and audiences alike find fascination with the controversial play. Few pieces of theatre have found such success while treading the disturbing waters of depicted child-centric violence in unapologetic aggressive ways. However, the combination of the violence’s doubled-down fictionalization as stories-within-a-story, the fairy tale-esque narratives blanketing the horrific details, and the limitless production freedom allow theaters and their audiences to feel ownership of the play’s unique aesthetical experiences. With dialogue including such lines as “The only duty of a storyteller is to tell a story,” “I was a good writer. It was all I ever wanted to be,” and “It isn’t about being or not being dead. It’s about what you leave behind,” McDonagh seemingly projects an empathy for the Katurian character who ultimately finds freedom and importance in telling honest—and if necessary, violent—stories (McDonagh, 2003: pp. 8, 41, 67). Each production of The Pillowman requires confident leadership who conveys aesthetic ownership in staging the violent child-centric tales. Whether experiencing McDonagh’s twisted stories is ultimately perceived by audiences as emotionally moving or gratuitous, it will undoubtedly be hard to forget—which appears to be the playwright’s primary goal, since he is “more worried about boring people than offending them” (Pacheco, 2005). The Pillowman may not be real, but its lasting effects sure can be.

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ADDITIONAL READING Chambers, L., & Jordan, E. (Eds.). (2006). The theatre of Martin McDonagh: A World of Savage Stories. Carysfort Press. Lonergan, P. (Ed.). (2012). The theatre and films of Martin McDonagh. Bloomsbury Publishing. doi:10.5040/9781408166581 McDonagh, M. (1996). The beauty queen of Leenane. Dramatists Play Service. doi:10.5040/9781472 515674.00000003 McDonagh, M. (2011). A behanding in spokane. Dramatists Play Service. McDonagh, M. (2017). Hangmen. Faber & Faber. McDonagh, M. (2018). A very very very dark matter. Faber & Faber. doi:10.5040/9780571354900.00 000002 Middeke, M., & Schnierer, P. P. (Eds.). (2010). The methuen drama guide to contemporary Irish playwrights. Methuen Drama. Russell, R. R. (Ed.). (2007). Martin McDonagh: A Casebook. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203935859

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Broadway: A simplified term in the theatre industry referring to the 41 professional theatres, each having 500 or more seats, located in the Times Square area in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, New York. Broadway theatre, along with London West End theatre, is considered the highest level of commercial theatre in the English-speaking regions of the world. Fairy Tale: A literary genre consisting of fantastical and imaginative fictional stories typically geared towards children. Play: A written work of drama intended to be staged as a theatrical performance rather than just read. Playwright: A person who writes plays. A playwright can also be referred to as a dramatist. Staging: The method of presenting a theatrical work on the stage in a stylized or realistic presentation that is physically safe for actors. Violence: Exercising force intended to cause physical pain, damage, or destruction towards someone or something. West End: A simplified term in the theatre industry referring to the 39 large professional theatres located in and near the West End district of Central London, England. London West End theatre, along with Broadway theatre, is considered the highest level of commercial theatre in the English-speaking regions of the world.

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Chapter 5

The Rise of Artistic Uncanny: Tattoos

Munevver Elif Gurses Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT “Pictorial bodies,” which until recently were the symbol of contradictory images and marginalized groups, are now far from this context. The uncanny image that began to shine in the 1980s began to rise in global media such as cinema, music, and television. Then it spread to daily life. This evolution of the image of uncanny has of course also been experienced in tattooed bodies. These tattooed bodies, which were previously contrary and were hesitant to communicate with people have become very demanding and people who want to be friends, and even people who stay away from tattoos have been tattooed. In addition to the aforementioned situations, even with the tattooed image, even the tattoo making process is anesthetized; the number of those who only want tattoos for tattoos is undeniably increasing. They are often praised for the pain and the sound of the tattoo machine; the whole process is narrated and shared with praise. At this point, the idea stage, design and production process, and finally the image that the tattoo imposes on the body have become a whole narrative.

INTRODUCTION Tattoos are one of the oldest treatments, dating back to the early ages of human history. The tattoo culture reflected on the body in many aspects, such as the transition to adolescence, strength, masculinity, femininity, group affiliation, and identity construction, has undergone many changes in the historical process and has evolved dramatically in recognition of use. This body art, which was previously preferred for different purposes, is mostly applied for identity construction and individual expression in today’s postmodern world. Nowadays, identity construction is intertwined with consumer culture. A lot of things are used as a tool in the construction mentioned, from clothing to living spaces, from the personal image to eating and drinking habits. A permanent and image-based implementation, such as a tattoo, has been one of the most efficient ways. In the postmodern era, which is currently dominated by images, the tattoo being an image-driven implementation is gaining ever-increasing popularity in individual expression DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch005

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and interpretation. Therefore, examining the tattoo from a body sociology perspective, and since it is an artistic expression based on images, to evaluate it aesthetically would be accurate. As Kevin Robins spoke, we live entirely in an “age of images.”1 Images that have become almost a universal language by digitalized communication and globalization penetrates every part of the universe and spreads to every point of the sphere, just like particles released in the atmosphere. It can also be seen from almost every point in the sphere. Within this context, the particle structure, one of the essential features of the postmodern period when “image language” is on the rise, has been integrated into human life and identity construction. Individual identities in which commodities of different styles are created by coming together are precisely the reflection of the age. In the globalizing world, the composite structure that occurs through the erosion of cultural boundaries reveals itself in post-identities and postmodern bodies. The postmodern person, who has turned to a “differentiated similarities” surface, prefers to convey bodily expression, interpretation, and identity building by this image language using the art of tattoo. Diverse styles of tattoos, separated from different cultures through globalization, can now be united in one body. While tattoos made only for aesthetic beauty purposes, they have a lot of meaning regarding their subtext and usage purpose. It would be wrong to consider the tattoo subject only as of the end product. Yet, tattoo implementation is a whole process with the idea, artistic and application preparation, process, care phase, and finally, its healed state. While the construction phase only moves some people, some can focus on the end product, and even some can only love the pain in practice and get the tattoo done accordingly. Besides, from the perspective of body sociology, tattooing can sometimes transform into a revolution for social domination and sometimes through an individual rule on the body. Tattoos that can be made for dozens of purposes as social expressions, while made at the beginning of the era to receive group loyalty or uncanny image. Today, in addition to these purposes, it has also risen in terms of aesthetics. Today, the number of people who only have a tattoo for a beautiful or rebellious appearance is considerably high. The “uncanny” image evolves by Hollywood movies, serials, video clips, games, books, social media, and advertisements. Thus, making the uncanny attractive for people who prefer their role models over these channels. For reasons such as the vampires that used to be scary being sexy and making barbarians and murderers attractive, the number of people who want to imitate them is increasing. The aesthetics of mentioned and many more characters and narratives’ romanticization cause the masses to sympathize with these characters and address them. As Freud puts it, the uncanny’s image, a product of fear and curiosity towards the unknown, leaves its body as the unknown becomes known. Today, the rise of uncanny and the increase of curiosity in the social environment for individuals who have this image make these individuals popular in their daily lives. In today’s world, where the attractiveness of fear and curiosity is an unquestionable fact, tattooed bodies meet what is expected. But long-time studies point out that the perception of tattooed bodies is different in social practices than in the media. Until today, tattoos have been frequently studied and discussed in fields such as sociology, psychology, art, philosophy, and pathology. However, the concepts of subject-body and subjectsociety, which cannot be thought differently when it comes to tattooing, make it inevitable to maintain the discussion topic with psychology and sociology. In this sense, the prepared study proposes to discuss the artistic and aesthetic value of the tattoo and its psychological and sociological background, centering principally on the historical evolution of tattooing.

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BACKGROUND Depending on their long history and developing implementation purposes, tattoos have been the subject of research from various fields. While it was mostly covered with cultural and sociological issues until the early modern period, in the current and postmodern periods when tattoos began to be applied by individual decisions, it was mostly studied within the framework of psychology, pathology, sociology, and communication, art. Questions like why people get tattoos, health risks, determination of the behavioral patterns and stereotypes of those who get tattoos, judgments against tattooed people in the social field, and whether tattooing is art were tried to be answered. Many people start to get tattoos due to traditional media and new media products, as well as popular culture emerging with the widespread communication network, and the spread of tattoo implementations. Of course, the reasons mentioned were mediated to people with tattoos and to be found frequently in society. Yet, mainly in the last two decades, studies show that contradictory judgments against tattooed bodies have not been diminished as much as anticipated. Difficulties and obstacles faced by tattooed people in working life, beliefs that they have bad character traits, ideas about alcohol, smoking, and drug use and that they are prone to risk-taking behavior are still in question. It is among the results of the studies that there are negative judgments about being inconsistent, unreliable, suicidal, sexually unstable, ugly, or faithless. Along with these results, whether the tattoo is an art or not, and its place in communication is still quite discussed. In the light of all these results and opinions, done with personal decision and purpose, such as obtaining own pleasure and aesthetic appearance, making sense, expressing, embracing the body, rebellion, and belonging, tattoos need a more precise positioning. Whether negative or positive, while considering the place of tattoos in communication, it is impossible to ignore the mentioned judgments. Likewise, when evaluating tattoos as art, it would not be proper to exclude both judgments and communicative quality from the subject. This study’s purpose is to discuss without excluding any of the contexts mentioned. In this context, first of all, it is aimed to establish a tattoo-art relationship by mentioning the change tattoo has gone through over time, together with social judgments and the body’s place in communication. The point that makes the work unique is the discussion of art from the subject’s perspective and tattoo body, not tattoo artists or tattoo making. The discussed originality allows the tattoo to be handled within the same study both in communication and psychological terms.

THE BLOODLINE OF THE TATTOO For centuries, tattooing has been one of the oldest implementations that have taken place in the human body. A precise start date for the history of this implementation cannot be given. The reason is that tattoo is limited to the material life of the human body. Herein, it is challenging to make inferences concerning the tattoo’s past. Yet, the tattoo tools and drawings found during the excavations can provide us clues about the history of the tattoo. In an excavation carried out in 1943, many forging tools and equipment from the Upper Paleolithic period were found (Aaron, Marczak and Green. Çerikan & Alanko, 2016: p.170). Archaeological research reveals that the history of tattoo applications in the European region dates back to 6000 BC. In 1558, in the study conducted by James Mellaart, ruins from the 6th and 7th centuries BC were found. These ruins were built in Çatalhöyük, one of the first places where settled life was established and belong to the Neolithic period. Evidence of a tattoo was discovered in the Hittites inscriptions and goddess figurines of the mentioned period. It reveals the significance of the tattoo in 75

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Anatolian culture since the first periods of settled life. In Anatolia, the tattoo has been used both as worship and a religious item and as a stigma in crime and slavery situations. Two thousand years after the mentioned date, tattoo implementation reveals itself in Ancient Egypt. Tattoos implemented in Egypt are mostly discovered in hieroglyphs and the bodies of female mummies generally. Apart from these, there is evidence that tattoos were practiced in treatment, mysticism, slavery, and dedication ceremonies. In the studies conducted in Siberia in 1948, tattoos consisting of black lines and animal figures were observed on their native bodies. These bodies belong to the 5th century BC (Sanders & Vail, 2008: p.9). In the excavations carried out in Assyria and Babylon, “iron stamps” belonging to 3000s BC were discovered. These stamps were mostly applied to stigmatize criminals. In the Code of Hammurabi, one of the oldest laws of humanity in Babylon, iron stamps were again utilized to determine the property rights of the slaves and mark the criminals (Çerikan & Alanko, 2016: pp.172-173). In the early 2000s BC, tattooing began to spread from the Middle East to the Pacific Islands. While Samoan explorers adopted the tattoo, they had seen from their western trips and carried it to Fiji, New Zealand, Australia, and the Hawaiian Islands. Recently, South American explorers brought the tattoos they noticed on their trips to the west to New Zealand and Poland. During the excavations in Peru, various tattoo remains were observed on mummy bodies belonging to the 1st century AD (Sanders & Vail, 2008: pp.9-10). Between 800 and 600 BC, men of northern and eastern Scotland used to paint their bodies blue or tattooed to look terrifying at war. It is also known that until they were banned in the 3rd century AD, Roman soldiers had various tattoos on their bodies to look terrifying and psychologically affect the war (Çerikan & Alanko, 2016: p.176). The tattoos on the bodies of the Maori in New Zealand consist of patterns with various motifs and diverse structures in men and women’s bodies. The predominant purpose of the tattoos, as mentioned earlier, was to define the social status of their carriers and to reveal this within the tribe. Furthermore, since these tattoo implementations are painful procedures, they have been applied as a way for individuals to prove their courage. Thus, tattoos were frequently done on the bodies at the end of puberty and transition to adulthood. If the tribe member was not tattooed, he was still considered as a little boy (Sanders & Vail, 2008: p.11). Tattoos also bear religious and mystical meanings. Tattoos for the protection of the body in post-death life usually consisted of symbols. For example, if a woman died in Fiji with a body without tattoos, she would be the gods’ food and chewed by spirits (Hambly Sanders & Vail, 2008: p.11). Besides, in tribal communities, it was believed that tattoos would bring more enjoyment to the afterlife and bring good fortune to its carrier. Still, getting the tattoo for “body decoration” dates back to the 5th century BC. In tattoos implemented for decorative art, Japan has reached the best level according to its time. It has been observed that tattooing in ruins discovered in Osaka was made for decorative, religious, or status determination purposes in Japan. However, tattoos applied until the 5th century AD later disappeared in Japan. The re-emergence of tattoo implements in Japan reached the 13th century AD, but this time it was preferred by criminals and those who were excluded from social life. In the early periods of the 17th century, it was referred to as “irebokuro” 2 in Japan and has reached large masses. Although pictures of this style are not applied, tattoo implementations have been made for loyalty and love (Sanders & Vail, 2008: p.12). British explorer Captain James Cook’s travel through the South Pacific started the “modern” history of tattooing in Europe. The seeds planted by James Cook, who saw the tattoo during his discovery journey 76

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in 1770 and introduced it to Europe, began to spread only in the late 19th century with the invention of the electric tattoo machine. After the 1930s, tattoo began to be linked with lower classes and heresy. In the next period, the tattoo had an application area among tattoo gang members, prisoners, and male cyclists. Tattoos on poor women’s bodies were perceived as a stigma, a stain. In the opposing atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s, tattooing gained importance for the youth and associated with rebellion. As Daniel Wojcik states, Punk, with its confrontational and destructive character, used tattoo, piercing, and skin peeling in opposing ways (Çabuklu, 2006: pp.54-55) Primarily starting from the 18th and 19th centuries, tattoos were implemented for various purposes throughout its history, and have been associated with “contradictory,” “oppositional” and “uncanny” images in different cultures. Tattoos made by the subcultural groups and gangs in Japan on behalf of belonging created a tremendous impression in Europe to display a rebellious and opposing stance. The uncanny and marginal stance assumed by tattooed bodies throughout modernism has given its place to an object of fashion and consumption through popular culture in postmodernism. Although the tattoo has transformed into a “fashion” trend in postmodern culture, it is considered art from the perspective of the masses and tattooists.

THE RISE OF THE UNCANNY IN THE POSTMODERN AGE Throughout history, tattoos, which have been applied for various purposes such as group affiliation, mysticism, the transition to puberty, stigmatization, or punishment, have expanded in the postmodern age we are in than before. Still, the prevalence of tattoos, especially among marginalized groups, criminals, and dangerous people 3just before the period we live in, caused prejudice against tattooed bodies in society. The marginal, dangerous, unreliable, and uncanny image carried by the tattooed was dedicated to the tattoo practice itself and marked it as “unpleasant” by the community. Besides, the pure body was believed to be god data, mainly in the early modern period, when people were confused and depressed within religious beliefs and scientific developments. Human-made interventions were also viewed as a rebellion against God, and the idea that tattooed people betray their creator emerged. Within this context, being tattooed has become “the shunned” in society. So how did the tattoo got through of its “uncanny” image and become so popular and widespread today? The answer to this question is hidden in the consumption culture that evolved with the changing age. Changing consumption habits, primarily through media and globalization, have affected the tattoo culture as are in many other things, and brought these images that appear in the human body into circulation by commodifying them. Tattoo practices, which started to become widespread among the opposition and contradictory groups, especially with modernism, turned into a symbol of revolt against management and the system. The fact that men preferred the tattoo gave it a more masculine image. Nevertheless, in later periods, women who advocated feminism also turned to tattoo applications for self-expression and rebellion, and in this way, tattoos became widespread among women. During the periods mentioned above, the tattoo remained to maintain its uncanny and contradictory image, and tattooed people continued to be undesirable and unwilling in the community. 77

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Tattoo being the fashion trend dates back to the 1970s. With the introduction of it as a “new fashion trend” in widely acclaimed magazines, the tattoo has become popular, especially among young people; thus, it has become more prevalent. Although it has become popular, in the following periods the fact that tattooing takes place in the bodies of rock music artists, which is a “contradictory” form of music, and society having prejudices against these artists and their lifestyles; caused tattoo practices to remain in the “rebellious” and “uncanny” category. The golden age of tattoo applications was the postmodern period. New lifestyles, urbanization, and subsequent individualization spread across the globe within the globalized media have removed the barriers to people’s desire to be different. The consumer culture has begun to produce commodities continually and commodify everything it can sell to meet these requests. In this context, tattoos that were seen as “marginal,” “contrary,” and “uncanny,” have also appeared in Hollywood movies, music clips, and fashion magazines. The rising fan culture by global media has created an effort for people who identify with the characters they watch, hear and read to resemble them. Therefore, tattooed bodies became popular in many places around the globe, especially in cities, and began to normalize in society. Although tattoos’ view has begun to normalize, the fact that tattooed bodies consist of people with marginal and contradictory images did not end the prejudice against tattooing, but only softened it. With the weakening of social ties with postmodernism, the change in consumption habits and the usevalue of commodities, lifestyles, and identities are now built through consumed commodities. Decreased verbal communication in crowded city life has been replaced by more agile visual communication, and people have begun to express themselves through the commodities they consume. Primarily with the development of the internet and social media, the image language that has become almost a “global language” has gained ground not only in digital media but also in daily life. In such an environment, the body, acting as an “interface” in human relations, has got within the range of producers and fashion more than ever. The postmodern human, whose surroundings are equipped with the motives of “limited and unique life,” pursue being distinctive in this restricted life, and thus the value of being marginal and authentic has increased. Therefore, the demand for everything attached, and worn to the body, which is an interface in interpersonal communication, has raised. Human relations, in which bodily appearance is almost the dominant factor, can now be established by the individual’s preferences through the possibility of “bending and twisting.” Thanks to scientific and technological developments, the opportunity to transform into what they want also offers people the chance to maneuver in social 4 relations. Then, what is the importance of the body in social relationships? In this context, it would be appropriate to refer to O’Neill’s views. According to him, We are continually being influenced and dealt with by the incarnated appearance of things, mainly with the aspect of ourselves and others. As sociologists, we cannot ignore the social construction of embodied appearances that we engage as individuals. We see, hear, and feel from other people is the first foundation for our interaction with them. It is the bodily ground for our social knowledge. Because society is not an image separated from the body, we interact socially based on sensory and aesthetic impressions from the very beginning (quot. in Ertan, 2017: pp.25-26). As O’Neill stated, it is impossible to separate social relations from bodily existence. Since the first stage of communication in the social field realizes through the body. Thus, human beings have pursued beautifying their bodies throughout the ages and continue to do so. 78

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In the postmodern era, we live in; people now value more on consumption to express themselves to the society in the quickest way, to customize their identities and bodies, and to make sense of their lives. Postmodern man is discontent with the given and shapes it through images, objects, and performances. According to Ümer; Identity is fiction for postmodern subjects, although they follow bodily fatalism in some ways. Accordingly, being a woman or a man indicates accepting an identity produced. It is, therefore, not essential to be something. Instead of realizing the potential to be other things, capturing the moments by transforming them into a different process, roughly summarizes contemporary thinking’s glamorous subjectivity (2018: pp.32-33). Postmodern human beings, who were purged of the rules that prevented and restricted the body’s domination in past ages, apply this opportunity to the fullest in the period we live. Kevin Robins claims that today’s world is an “age of images”; now appearance is everything, and even being is no longer visible. Thus, postmodern human has become almost obsessed with his appearance. Moreover, continuously updating his appearance over and over again, just as he does with his identity. The human loves to sprinkle images and objects on his body that display his identity and express it to society in no time. Because he knows that time is of the essence. Life is short, and meanwhile, many identities and appearances should be experienced. He must travel a lot, know many people, and start over whenever he wants. In the postmodern era, where beauty and aesthetic appearance are glorified, the man takes the plunge than ever before to bend and twist the “given.” Herein, today’s human beings who try many ways to be different, express themselves, and make sense, cures in experiences, marginal lifestyles, different styles, and bodily practices. Aesthetic operations, body modifications, piercings, and tattoos are involved in the scope of body applications that vary from other choices in the context of “permanence.” Among the mentioned applications, tattooing and piercing history date back to very ancient times, and no matter how long the application change throughout the ages, it maintains its place in human life. Such that, these applications have gained ground far and wide from the transition of adolescence to punishment and stigmatization, from heroism to group affiliation, from mysticism to fashion. Still, tattoo applications’ diversity and popularity have gained a global dimension as never before. Besides, the patterns used, and application places find their postmodern bodies by breaking away from different segments of history and other points on the sphere. Today, we can see old pagan patterns in the Turk body, or we can find the Far Eastern motifs in the body of a European. Such “synthesis bodies” are a reflection of the particle structure of the postmodern era that touches every aspect of life. Postmodernism producing and reproducing everything by reducing them to an object or image makes it possible to create lifestyles, identities, and bodies by adding the produced particles like a Lego piece. The inclusion of art products in these objects and images causes leakage of art into life and blurring the boundaries within art and real-life (Featherstone, 1996). The fact that almost every area of life, including health, can be secured and lost its excitement, today pushes people to the limits to get excited and be marginal. In this context, apart from the sense of the tattoo, the pain felt during the implementation, even taking into account the deterrent effects like the short recovery period, the risk of disease, and the application being permanent causes the tattooed body to be perceived as “uncanny.” Regardless of whether a side effect or already desired, in the transition from modernism to postmodernism, the leading effects of a tattooed body shines out as “marginality” and “uncanny.” Accordingly, these effects cause the tattooed people to be isolated from society and form 79

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communities within themselves initially; but being tattooed nowadays makes the mentioned people as cool, different, and brave. The most significant effect in the transformation of this image was undoubtedly due to the media. The popularization and domestication of the uncanny and the normalization of having a tattooed body have taken place, primarily through cinema, television, and social media channels. The circulation of contents such as movies and series where scary and uncanny creatures are reduced to human bodies and made charismatic, social media accounts where freedom and marginality gain plenty of followers, music videos featuring tattooed and attractive rock stars in a way that can be seen from every point of the sphere through digitalization has laid the foundation for the uncanny to be desired. Again, the increased freedoms and the possibility to be in contradiction have become an indicator of courage and originality in the individualized world. However, besides all this popularity, tattoos have been at the center of research with many subjects, including hygiene and health risks from tattooed people’s perspective, motivations for tattooing, marginal styles, religious orientations, deviant behavior, psychological and pathological illnesses, tentation, alcohol and cigarette consumption, drug abuse and sexual life. Meanwhile, working and recruitment processes were examined, together with issues of reliability, acceptance, attractiveness, consistency, and risky behavior, to identify existing attitudes towards tattooed people. Although negative judgments against tattooed people seem to have diminished over time, they continue to exist (Broussard & Harton, 2017). Not employing tattooed in various occupational groups or those working in these occupational groups getting their tattoos done on areas of their bodies where they can hide, preferably being hired in positions where they cannot communicate with the customer (Timming, 2014) proves the existence of negative judgments. In the research conducted among customers, the existence of the opinion that white-collar workers (such as bankers, nurses, accountants) with tattoos are less professional and competent than those without tattoos has been proved. The fact that blue-collar employees (such as workers, barbers, or bartenders) were tattooed did not affect the customers negatively (Dean, 2010). It may be due to the belief that tattooed people risk their health, lack of confidence in their character, and the use of alcohol and drugs. Likewise, tattooed people are thought to have negative character traits (Wohlrab, Fink, Kappeler, and Brewer, 2009). Besides, the research results among university students in America revealed that women with tattoos are judged to be less faithful than those with tattoos, to have a low level of intellectuality, to be less honest (Resenhoeft, Villa, and Wiseman, 2008). The study conducted in France showed that men find tattooed women more prone to “sexual activity after the first meeting” (Guéguen, 2013). In the study conducted in England, tattooed women were judged to be less selective, less attractive and more alcohol drinkers than those without tattoos (Swami & Furnham, 2007). Studies conducted in recent years reveal that adverse opinions against people with tattoos still exist. Despite its increasing popularity, tattooing still cannot make itself “normal” in social practices among different age groups, members of different professions, religious orientations, ethnic groups, and genders. In 2017, Broussard and Harton conducted a social psychological study called ‘‘Tattoo or Taboo? Tattoo Stigma and Negative Attitudes Toward Tattooed Individuals’’ to position negative and positive views towards tattoos. The first step of the study was carried out with university students who have not yet graduated, and the second step was with the employees of a company of various age groups and ethnicities. The data analysis of Broussard and Harton revealed exciting results regarding the tattoo position in community practices. In the first study conducted with university students, it has been discovered that people with tattoos give a more negative impression than those without tattoos. Simultaneously, while negative judgments against tattooed people are expected to differ according to age, it has been 80

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observed that young people are as prejudiced as older people. Nevertheless, it has been observed in the study conducted among young people that women with tattoos create a more ‘’independent’’ and ‘’strong’’ impression, unlike men with tattoos. However, students found tattooed people more prone to deviant and dominant behavior (such as alcohol use) than those without a tattoo. The second step of the study was carried out among employees of various ages and ethnic backgrounds connected to the same organization. Negative judgments still exist among employees as much as students, according to the data analysis. However, unlike students, it was concluded that both tattooed men and women were regarded as “more independent” and “stronger.” One of the most interesting results of the study is that tattooed people have negative judgments against “other” tattooed people (Broussard & Harton, 2017). As Broussard and Harton emphasize, to attribute the mentioned results to the general, a much more comprehensive study must be conducted. However, seeing the tattoo as a “controlled stigma 5” indicates the persistence of prejudices against tattooed people. The realization of tattooing by individual decision and acceptance as a controlled stigma maintains negative judgments against tattooed people (Larsen, Patterson and Markham, 2014). According to Hardt and Negri, applications such as body modifications, tattoos, and piercings, the tools for the radical transformation of the body, are a disgrace or rejection of regular lifestyles and monotonous flow (Hardt & Negri, 2001). However, even though being tattooed revolts around society, an uncanny and rebellious image, this is not an image of the tattoo itself, but the currents, groups, or subcultures associated with it. The fact that criminals, rock musicians, and people belonging to marginal bands and gang members were mostly tattooed when it became popular made tattooed bodies unreliable in the eyes of the public. One of the “uncanny” aspects of being tattooed in parallel with the aforementioned comes from the painful implementation. This painful practice, which many people define as “normal,” will not resort to transforming themselves, has been discussed for quite some time, particularly in psychology and health sciences. The probability of people with tattoos being individuals who are prone to self-injury, crime, or suicide is emphasized. However, Le Breton emphasized the pain of the tattoo with the following words; Often… There is rarely pain. In this context, the aim is to end suffering even if the individual is not aware of it. Because the individual is in the anesthesia of his action, he first desires a relief; and wants to get rid of tension. Here the pain performs as a paradox by fighting effectively against the suffering. It alleviates the suffering (Le Breton, 2011: pp.29-30). In this context, tattoo application being in line with both personal preference and a specific objective aims at reducing spiritual suffering through physical pain. Since it is emotional satisfaction, the motivation of the experienced pain turns into a “ritual of transition” instead of destroying the body. At this point, it would be appropriate to mention Paul Ricoeur’s “Body-subject.” According to him, the subject and the body should not be considered dialectically apart. Ricoeur suggests “life” as one of the prerequisites of bodily involuntary. Life is not something known or felt. Ricoeur explains this situation with pain. When the subject has a pain in his foot, he says “my foot hurts”, not “foot hurts”. The connection between the subject and the body manifests itself through feeling. What is felt is “existence” (Ricoeur, 1966: pp.411-412). Although being tattooed begins to normalize in the flow of everyday life, it has an “uncanny” image dating back. Although the prejudices are diminished, as Hardt and Negri argue, tattoos, which are in

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defiance of the normal, maintain the impression of ‘’uncanny’’ with the addition of the ‘’contradictory’’ image to the painful and permanent practice.

ON THE AESTHETICS OF THE UNCANNY As it has a negative image in the known sense, “uncanny” was explored in depth in Freud’s famous article. According to Freud, “uncanny” concept, which is the anxiety felt towards the unknown, is the doorsill of the “canny.”6 Making the unknown known makes the uncanny canny. Freud’s concept of “uncanny” finds itself in Lacan as “outer-intimacy”. Lacan subtracts ‘’in’’ from the concept of “intimate”, that is, “intimacy”, and replaces “ex” with the word “extimate”, that is, “outer-intimacy.” ‘’Extimacy” refers to the fading of the contrast between inner and outer in psychoanalysis. Accordingly, a situation showing ‘extimacy’ is neither inside nor outside. ‘Extimacy’ is when a situation is inside and outside, or vice versa ‘’ (Ümer, 2018: p.66). The situation, in Freud, while navigating the frontier with the familiar and the alien-unknown, in Lacan, it is equivalent to the fading of the line between inside and outside. Freud examining the uncanny from the perspective of psychoanalysis and states that many things that are new and unknown in human life can evoke a sense of uncanny. Even the sun can be uncanny for someone who sees it for the first time. In his famous article, he describes the concept of “uncanny” (unheimlich) as follows; The German word unheimlich is the apparent opposite of the words “heimlich”, which means familiar, native, and it is tempting to conclude that the “uncanny” is scary because it is unfamiliar. Admittedly, not everything local and unfamiliar has to be terrifying, but this relationship cannot be reversed. We can only say that unusual things can easily be scary and haunting; some new things can be scary too, but not in any way. For unusual and unfamiliar things to be uncanny, something needs to be added to them (Freud, 2019: p.35). According to Freud, the uncanny is the return of what is known but forgotten, suppressed or prevented. This return can create confusion and fear in humans and cause instant inhibition. Although the uncanny effect can create a traumatic state of anxiety in real life; when it takes place in art, it can be a source of pleasure. For this reason, the uncanny created by fictional means has attracted attention for centuries and continues to do so. While Freud reflects on the uncanny in his article, he explains it by art. Exploring the uncanny by Hoffman’s famous Sand Man and other works, Freud explains how “uncanny” was created in works of art and what effect it had on audience/listener/reader through psychoanalytic terminology. At this point, while Freud views “uncanny”, he also puts it into an aesthetic perspective. Reasoning Freud’s view of art, Eagleton states art being related to the libidinal processes that form daily life. For Freud, art is not only an imaginary consolation but also the polish of deep discharges that reveal individual division and incompleteness (Eagleton, quot. in Ümer, 2018: p.56). In this context, Freud examines the works of art as if he were analyzing, and in this way, he brought psychoanalysis and aesthetics closer together. Similarly, Murielle Gagnebin mentions the partnership between aesthetics and psychoanalysis. According to him, these two areas are concerned with what cannot be represented. Gagnebin also argues that aesthetics and psychoanalysis follow a similar method. While psychoanalysis concerns uncertainties in the patient’s statements; aesthetics deals with what is 82

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visible and not visible in the work of art. Engin Ümer, in his book Uncanny and Representation, quotes Gagnebin’s statements as follows; The ‘undercoat’ of the ‘nonrepresentative’ are the linguistic and aesthetic, visual, linguistic and auditory types of psychoanalysis’s representation. Accordingly, representation includes a situation that cannot be represented in it. The suggestion that Gagnebin brought to the idea that representation shows something missing is aesthetic, ‘a desire that cannot be sustained, allowed or represented in the source of the work.’ There is “a desire that every work tries to hide, but it reappears with different disguises each time, and the artist cannot notice because of the brutality of the repression” (Ümer, 2018: p.57). By taking the psychoanalysis Freud’s works of art, Gagnebin goes one step further and establishes a secure link between psychoanalysis and aesthetics in terms of method. Gagnebin argues that there are parallels in the methods of the psychoanalyst and aestheticist. According to him, a similar relationship within the psychoanalyst and the patient is between aesthetics and a work of art. Both psychoanalysis and aesthetics focus on the invisible/unrepresentative of the subject it deals. While psychoanalysis reaches behind the patient’s gestures, expressions, and words; aesthetics endeavors to reach the hidden narrative by looking at the technique, style, time, place and what the artwork tells (Gagnebin, 2011: p.121). When viewed from this perspective, performing both psychoanalytic and aesthetic analysis on a tattooed body is possible. Psychoanalytically, the tattooed subject is a person who can express himself. In terms of aesthetics, the transformation of the same person’s body into a work of art makes the stated situation possible. What connects the two areas on this body is the tattoo practice ritual itself for sure. Tattooing, which is a voluntarily injured procedure basically, is ventured for the beauty of the artistic product to be obtained. While the money spent, the experienced pain and the healing process being not too short may be deterrent in getting a tattoo, it becomes almost a source of motivation for others. In this context, the tattoo application that man decides based on pleasure, and psychological structure yields in the field of art. Freud, who describes the uncanny and its place in the work of art, argues that this image is frequently used. According to him, the application of the mentioned image in the artwork arouses curiosity on the viewer/reader/listener. When the ‘’mysterious’’ effect that the uncanny conveys by the meaning of the word finds its place in the work of art, it creates an impact of curiosity in the perspective of the audience/ reader/listener and pushes them to solve the mystery. So, why is it uncanny, scary in real life, but intriguing in the artwork? The answer to this question underlies in the realization of the fear created by art within safe limits. The subject knows that the work of art cannot harm him. The danger in the work of art can approach, but not touch. Hence, the fear created through art turns into satisfaction in the subject. The distance from the scary to the subject tames the feeling of fear that he avoids experiencing in everyday life. Reflecting on Fear and the Supreme, Edmund Burke provides a perspective on how fear and tension create pleasure within the boundaries of art. According to him, fear in real life can harm people. Feeling fear of a position endangering life does not generate pleasure. Though, the fear experienced within the limits of art and the fictional environment is harmless. Knowing this causes excitement and pleasure in man, by approaching danger but also being safe (Swendsen, 2017). Oscar Wilde, having ideas parallel to Burke’s views, also mentions that emotions such as fear, danger, violence and pain should be experienced through art, that it is safer, and at this point, art should be preferred to life. According to him, art desolate us, but does not hurt, scares but is not dangerous. The fear experienced by art has been tamed (Swendsen, 2017: p.102). Herein, the uncanny and unreliable effect felt when a tattooed body was first 83

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seen, disappears through both narration of the person mentioned and the narratives about the attractiveness and boldness of the tattooed person presented by the media today. The uncanny moves away from the subject, cover the distance, and the tattooed body takes on an aesthetic appearance. On the other hand, the image of “uncanny” brought about by being tattooed is based on being contradictory as Hardt and Negri have mentioned. Also, it is based on the image of “bad” that comes from associating the practice of tattoos with criminals, rock music, rebellion against religion and psychological illnesses. In this context, being tattooed both in society and in scientific world has been associated with frequent self-harm and suicide until recently. However, this is not the case for Le Breton. According to him, The conflict with boundaries that concerns us here is not in any way a hidden desire to die, but a desire to live, a desire to escape death that clings to the soul to save its life. There is no doubt that there is a contradiction here. Man’s pursuit of himself leads him to uneven roads. To give birth to oneself, man must sometimes risk disappearing, not because he chooses, but because of internal necessity, because pain or a gap in life gnaws man and separates him from living. In the context of the attitudes and behaviors considered here, it is about producing a personal meaning and playing with death or pain to be at peace with life. But one should not be afraid of being burned in this life. Sometimes one can reach the worst and ultimately get a relaxed version of himself (Le Breton, 2011: p.11). According to Le Breton, the pain that the individual makes on his own body at his personal decision aims at suppressing/forgetting the inner pain experienced by the subject and start over. The painful experience of the subject is not about getting closer to death or giving up life but holding on to life. As previously quoted by Le Breton, the pain caused by tattoo application is a tolerable and chosen form of pain, having the purposes of spiritual emptiness, self-expression, proving, remembering and interpretation, It is what distinguishes tattooing from the pain pathways felt by other “subject’s own decision”. It is an impaired/damaged skin that occurs in applications such as self-injury, cutting, stamping, scraping. But when it comes to tattoos, it is seen as decorated from the outside, even if the skin is deformed. But the desire to get and get more tattoos is more profound than just the purpose of decorating. The ‘tattoo’ section of the documentary ‘’ Explained ‘’ published on the Netflix platform, dated August 20187, centers the historical evolution of tattoos, while including interviews with tattoo artists and tattooed people. Especially in tattooed people’s interviews, the answers to “why do you get a tattoo?” show that the majority of them are united under the same reasons. These are “expressing yourself” and “embracing the body”. Alessandra Lemma clarifies this issue in her book Under the Skin, where she studies at body modifications from a psychoanalytic perspective. According to her, when observed from a psychoanalytic perspective, the desire to dominate the body is frequently based on tattoos and other body modifications. Although the family, society, traditions suppress the body, and even the body’s borders, tattoos have an essential place in the context of the subject’s power and control over his own body (Lemma, 2010). From a psychoanalytic perspective, by opposing control over the neutral body, the subject has, tattoos act as a tool to make it yourself. This situation creates a “rebirth” feeling in the subject. The subject expresses its dominance over the skin by equipping it with signs that will reveal itself. The pain felt during tattoo implementation refers to the subject’s rebirth, just like a baby. In this context, the subject who constructs a second skin over his body given with a method different from “normal” people, through pain and permanent marks; at first, can create the impression of “uncanny”. But, as Freud puts it, “uncanny” is the doorsill of the “canny”.

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When viewed from both a social and an individual perspective, as shown by the work of Broussard and Harton (2017), tattoos made in the name of “differentiation” can even form negative judgments in tattooed people. In the individual world built over the “I” and the “other”, knowing the reason for the actions of the “I” but not knowing the causes of the “other” leads to the positioning of the “other” as foreign. But the existence of negative judgments is an undeniable fact, not only amongst tattooed people but also between people without tattoos. Although Freud’s article has often been discussed within the aesthetic and psychoanalytic fields, Anneleen Masschelein has brought a social perspective to ‘uncanny’ (2011). According to her, it is also possible to see some dilemmas in societies as uncanny. The blurring of the boundaries among the stranger and the familiar in the urban setting where people from various races, religions, lifestyles, sexual orientations and different socio-economic classes live in a mixed state can cause anxious moods in people (Masschelein, 2011: p.147). The coexistence of other people living in common areas makes “I” and “the other” both foreign and familiar. In this context, according to Masschelein, some dilemmas existing in the social field have become the appearance of the uncanny in our age. As Masschelein discusses in her social aspect, the uncanny appearances take place through both selectable and non-selectable differences. Yet, particularly selectable differences can trigger more negative judgments in the social sphere. The main reason for this is in all probability to empathize with the differences people cannot choose. Still, differences that come to life in line with individual preferences such as tattoos are not generally recognized by people who are far from these preferences. From past to present, many psychological, sociological, and pathological research on people with differences based on individual preferences such as tattoos is evidence of the situation mentioned. At this point, it is possible to assume that the body plays a significant role in choices, differences, and styles. The responsibility of the body, which undertakes the “interface” task of the subject in the community, disappears and is liberated, now belongs to the subject itself.

WHAT THE SKIN SAYS An interview with Anthropologist Nina G. Jablonski for The New York Times in 2007 explains the importance of skin8. Jablonski speaks of the human skin in the community that gives man the “humanity” and addresses the microscopic anatomy lesson he teaches at the University of Hong Kong. Students must first cut the skin for examination on the cadaver. However, at this stage, students have difficulties. When the skin disappears, the students relax and begin to examine the internal organs. This incident reveals the key role of the skin, which acts as the subject’s interface in society. According to Didier Anzieu, “I” as subject, 9 exists only with “skin-ego”. According to him, ‘’to be ego’’ is to feel the capacity to spread messages heard by others. To possess a “ego” is to be able to bear on yourself (Anzieu, 2008: p.103). At this point, while the subject spreads messages that others perceive, it also assimilates the messages it “spreads by itself.” In other words, the skin is an interface that facilitates the exchange within the interior and the exterior. According to Anzieu, skin allows the import of information from the outside world. In this context, it is possible to approach Anzieu’s view about Le Breton’s debate on “injury and tattoo.” According to Le Breton, the pain felt in tattoo implementation is an attempt to fill the gaps subject lives from inside and to relieve mental pain through physical pain. Although the tattoo decision belongs to the subject, the implementation is made on the skin by another person and with the help of a tool. Therefore, the tattoo application, which takes its source from the outside world, finds its place on the skin surface 85

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with the meaning of the subject’s inner world. In other words, the tattoo, which is applied to the skin with the feeling of pain, from the outside world, mediates the location of the part that the subject feels lacking “as if it were destined.” The area of existence of the tattoo comes to life at the intersection of the interior and exterior. “Skin is a battlefield between” I “and” the other, “especially” the other in me”, says Le Breton (Le Breton, 2011: p.27). There is an “I” and “the other” here. It is not difficult to understand this. “I” is the subject, “the” other” society. However, Le Breton’s main emphasis is “the other in me”. It is possible to look at “the other in me” from two different perspectives. One of them is the neutral body of the subject and the subject without interference. The subject is in constant interaction with this “given” body. It dominates this body by decorating, injuring, painting, dressing, and processing it. The second perspective is social norms as “the other in me”. As previously quoted from Lemma, many body modifications are carried out with the desire to dominate the body. In this context, skin becomes the domain of personal power, freedom, and domination games over family pressure, social norms, traditions, and the boundaries of the body. However, in the second perspective, the subject’s “other in me” is not “external factors” but “auto control” caused by the mentioned external factors. So, viewed from both perspectives, skin becomes the surface of the war, the subject enters’ among the ‘given’ and ‘about to be given.’

TATTOOED BODIES AS WORKS OF ART The person’s effort to bend and bend the given through the domination of the “given” on the body is the return of the postmodern era. The postmodern man has the opportunity to touch everything, including identities and lifestyle, but is continually pursuing to build “his life as a work of art”1011 One of the most visible agents of this is of course the body. So, is tattoo an art? Why is the tattoo application, which is seen as art by tattoo artists and tattooed bodies, is not accepted from the perspective of art theorists? First of all, it is an indisputable fact that tattooing requires skill and technical knowledge. The rising popularity of tattoos, particularly in the postmodern era, caused the spread of tattoo studios and increased interest in the profession. In a period of such diversity, the importance of being different and unique among tattooists has increased, and people who have received art education have transitioned to tattooing. When originality is one of the initial efforts, as a result of the increase in art educated tattooists today, differentiation and individuality became critical, and “personalized”, “design” tattoos have gained importance. These tattoos are generally shaped within the framework of the professions, memories, experiences, lifestyles, or beliefs of individuals and designed by individual aesthetic taste. Personalized tattoos, which reflect the style of the tattoo artist is who designs and applies it simultaneously, are unique in this context. Still, artistic evaluation is not sufficient for art theorists, even if it is based on personal tattoos. At this point, tattoo artists who want to carry their work further in the context of art make designs and address the customer or make personalized designs within the framework of their aesthetic tastes and unique styles. These designs are exhibited in social media accounts or tattoo studios and offered to customers who want to carry the design in their bodies. The customer who desires to make the design cannot make any changes to the ready drawing. From this perspective, the drawings prepared for tattoo application are no different from an artistic illustration. The drawing prepared with the artist’s subjective taste and aesthetic perspective is unique, and also finds its place in the body with the technical knowledge and talent of his art.

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Trying to describe the place of tattoo application in the art world, Nicolas Michaud evaluates tattoos according to three art theories. These are Art World Theory, Formalism and Expressionism. According to Art World Theory, if a work is considered a work of art, it must first be accepted by the art world, art history, and art experts. The work being exhibited in a museum and its permanence is also crucial in this evaluation. From this point of view, tattoos do not have a place in the art world or art history. So, it is not possible to call a tattoo according to Art World Theory. The fact that the human body is limited to its organic life and that it cannot be exhibited in museums are obstacles to tattooing. Yet, the widespread use of tattoo applications and replica patterns is also among the reasons it is not considered a work of art. Although Michaud cites the tattoo museum in San Francisco as an example, this museum is not an art museum, according to Art World Theory advocates (Michaud, 2012: p.31). “Permanence,” which is shown as one of the points distinguishing tattoo applications from other traditional artworks, was limited to the organic life process of the human body until recently. But through organizations such as The National Association for the Preservation of Skin Art (NAPSA) and later Save My Ink Forever (SMIF), the tattoo has become an artistic and exhibitable object, not limited to human life. Based on the donation principle, these organizations take the tattooed skin from their bodies after the volunteers die and turn it into a structure that will not deteriorate. Tattooed skin is framed and exhibited after being kept in various chemical solutions, just like in a picture. In this context, artistic discussions in terms of permanence of tattoos are not valid (Krutak & Deter-Wolf, 2017: pp.132-134). Another event is a response to the exhibition held at The International Tattoo Convention in London in 2014. In the exhibition, The Human Gallery, where the famous tattoo artist Cally-Jo is responsible, people with tattoos entered the frame-shaped spaces opening to the walls. Cally-Jo displayed the tattooed parts of their bodies through these frames. Thus, visitors could walk through the frames and examine the tattooed bodies as if they were visiting a painting museum. But no matter how many of these examples are reproduced, according to The World Art Theory, it seems impossible for tattoos to be art according to art history or art experts. Another theory that Michaud touches is Formalism. According to the theory, for a work to be considered a work of art, it is necessary to look at the parts and its formal features. These pieces consist of elements such as shadows, lines, perspective, and lighting. And the artwork is a work of art if it provides the viewer/listener an aesthetic pleasure in the combination of these pieces. However, when it comes to artwork, the priority has to be the artwork itself. Michaud argues that, in terms of formalism, the tattoo can be considered a work of art. The formal features of some tattoos and the parts that make up it, as in other accepted artworks, form a whole that can be evaluated from an aesthetic point of view. But not every painting can be counted as a work of art, nor can every tattoo be considered a work of art by the formalists (Michaud, 2012: p.32). The last theory in Michaud’s assessment is Expressionism. Contrary to the formalists, if the subject is a work of art, the important thing is not the work itself, but the emotions it causes. If an artwork can offer its audience/listener a feeling, it can be considered a work of art. In this context, tattoos may or may not be works of art, according to expressionists. According to the expressions, tattoos describing a feeling, memory, or experience can be considered a work of art. Still, a commonly applied pattern (such as a butterfly, anchor) will not be viewed as a work of art, since it will not give any impression to the audience (Michaud, 2012: p.33). At this point, the place of the tattoo in the art borders remains ambiguous. Though there are various views, the tattoo is a work of art from the perspective of tattoo artists and tattooed bodies. Every tattoo is unique. Whether the applied pattern is typical or cliché, the expression for the person made makes it 87

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unique. Besides, differences occur when considering factors such as the variety of the skin on which the tattoo is applied, the place of application, the final state after recovery, and the technique of the tattoo artist performing the application. According to Michaud, a tattoo, even a known pattern, can become meaningful with the story behind it, making the other person feel something. In this context, it is possible to evaluate the tattoo as performance art than to assess it as visual art (Michaud, 2012: p.34). Though it is challenging to incorporate the tattoo application within traditional art boundaries, it may be possible to call tattoo art considering the contemporary arts. Arthur Danto, a famous art critic and philosopher, focuses on what art is and what is useful in determining the work of art in his books. In his book titled “What is Art?” Danto answers the question of what a work of art is, “however, artworks are embodied meaning and meaning is intricately intertwined with the material object, just as the soul is intertwined with the body” (Danto, 2014: pp.72-73). In parallel with these words, Danto states; (Continuing his criticism of the painting the Death of Marat) there may be some who say that being painted on the canvas is not about meaning; it is just a kind of support/surface on which the picture is drawn. The canvas is not part of the meaning, but part of the object that embodies sense. The explanation that transforming an object into a work of art is embodied meaning applies to both Warhol’s and David’s work. This explanation is valid for anything that is art. Philosophers assumed that there was no standard quality shared by the artworks; they were only looking for visible attributes. But it is invisible qualities that make something art (2014: p.50). In this context, the state of performance art that Michaud spoke about can be supported by Danto’s words, “It is the invisible qualities that make something art.” Whether the aim of the tattoo is social status, building identity, aesthetic appearance, group belonging, or memories, it can only be seen as a drawing. Yet, it turns into art in the meaning it contains for the subject who has a tattooed body, which lies behind the embodied appearance of the tattoo. What makes the tattoo art are “invisible qualities” just like Danto puts it. These qualities come to life in the context of art, with the subject presenting the tattoo.

TATTOOED BODIES AS ARTISTIC PERFORMANCES In the postmodern era we are in, art, like many other things, has undergone a great transformation. Especially the new artistic performances and works that have emerged have unique and different structures. Body-art, one of the most extreme examples of this, is the applications artist has done/get on his body in front of the audience. In the performance field, the artist’s body is transformed, painted, and even injured or beaten with particular objects. Tattoo applications, where the body hosts the name of art, are parallel to Body-art in the digital age. Live broadcasts, sharing of videos or photos taken during tattoo application turn into a performance jointly performed by the tattoo artist and the host of the tattoo. Besides, many factors such as seeing the pain or displaying courage during the tattoo application that takes place in front of the eyes of the audience, the technique, and style of the tattoo artist, the attitude he adopts during the application, the location and style of the tattoo studio, the style of the tattoo; through digital networks, the mentioned artistic performance can reach the audience at every point of the sphere. In this way, tattoo application can turn into a virtual Body-art performance today.

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It also produces while consuming a tattooed body. So how does this happen? Whether the tattoo applied is a typical pattern or an original design, it comes to life as the subject makes sense. The presentation of the visual form and the meaning attributed to the tattoo have a performative quality. For example; A simple paw tattoo might be pointless at first for the audience. Yet, if the tattooed person tells the audience that it is a trace of the deceased pet and explains the meaning for him, the simple pattern seen turns into a narrative. Thus, it can evoke emotions against the paw, which is a typical pattern in the audience. According to Michaud, this situation is similar to the presentation of the work with movements, intonations, and sometimes various dance figures, just as in poetry readings performance. Tattoo, moving with the body, narrating the meaning it expresses for the subject, turn it into a performance art rather than a visual art (Michaud, 2012: pp.34-35). It is impossible to discuss the subject, body, and tattoo in parts due to their integral qualities. The integrity of the subject and tattoo is represented through the body and positioned in society. Thus, it would be appropriate to assess the tattooed body from the social perspective in the context of performativity. In the postmodern era, we are in; tattooing is one of the most “contradictory” ways in the hands of a person who can build his identity again and again independently from the “given.” The subject, who created his identity through performances, can destroy this at any time and start over. The concept of “performative,” which Butler mentions in his book “Gender Trouble,” is mainly addressed from a gender perspective. In this context, regardless of the “given” of the body in the social field, the meaning is built based on performance and repetition. According to her, performativity is the presentation of the identity that the subject wants to construct, independently from the “given” ones, through acts, bodily movements, and performances and depending on stylized repetitions. Butler explains performativity in her book as follows; ‘’… Performance, bodily movement, and performances are generally performative. That is, the self or identity they act as if they are expressing is productions produced and maintained through bodily signs and other discursive ways” (Butler, 2008: p.224). Besides, according to Butler, performative activity does not have to be permanent. The continually changing nature of the subject breaks the permanence walls and causes new identities to be built through original performances. At this point, the tattooed body has a performative quality that it already carries. The tattooed body is uncanny, contradictory, marginal and wants it to be seen by the community. Besides, the different meanings of his tattoos reflect the identity of the subject he is trying to construct. These messages, which are given through tattoos before verbal communication, also enable the tattooed subject to be resolved faster in the minds of other people in the cosmopolitan city life. “Transience,” one of the attributes of Butler’s concept of performativity, is now possible in the name of tattooed bodies. Thanks to the advancing technological possibilities, tattoo removal applications, which are not as fast as other performed factors, allow a tattooed body to start over according to its wishes. Besides, the ability to tattoo the areas of the body under clothing allows the tattooed subject to appear as if he does not have a tattoo in social life and business life and eliminates all the images it brings. Eventually, a tattooed body can build, demolish, and rebuild over and over again, the simulations it wants to show to society by performances and practices. In this context, when viewed from an artistic, social, and communicative perspective, tattooing is a performative activity. If art is ‘’embodied meaning”, as Danto defends, when it comes to tattoo, ‘meaning’ ‘is performativity that connects’ to ‘object.’

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THE VIEW OF THE ARTWORK According to Freud, in the “Uncanny and Aesthetics of Uncanny” section, as conveyed from Eagleton’s discourses, art is “not only an imaginary consolation, but also the polish of deep discharges that reveal human division and incompleteness”. It is an indisputable fact that this view is similar to the motivations behind tattooing. Tattoos made for meaning, identification, positioning, embracing, rebellion, and being different parallels the motivations behind “making art.” Merleau-Ponty puts forward arguments between subject-body and artist-artwork that support the mentioned ideas. It appears possible to discuss the perspective, one of the main elements of Merleau-Ponty philosophy, in the context of subject-art work from the perspective of tattoos. If we discuss the work of art, the view rises to a different position from its daily meaning. However, if we consider a body with tattoos as a work of art, it changes from looking at art to “not looking as art.” “It is necessary to compare the body with a work of art, not a physical object,” says Merleau-Ponty (Merleau-Ponty, 2017: p.216). Just as a canvas needs colors to be a painting, or words to be a music song, a body needs gestures, expressions, signatures to become a subject. According to him, A novel, a poem, a painting, or a piece of music are individuals. We cannot be separated from expression, and their meaning can only be achieved through direct contact, they do not leave their place in time and space, but their markers sparkle. In this sense, the body can be compared with the work of art. The body is a living node of markings, not the law of a certain number of terms that vary with each other (2017: p.217). Having a tattooed body is both a creation and a state of creation, and this means a process that can continue. In this context, the tattooed body is both an artist looking at his work and work looking at the outside world. The process of decorating and creating, which can continue as long as the bodily canvas allows, is made more meaningful from the perspective of a painter, with the following words expressed by Maurice Merleau-Ponty; ‘’It is said that a person was born at the moment when only a robust visible state in his main body was apparent to him and us. The painter’s view is an ongoing birth’’ (MerleauPonty, 1996: p.40). A tattooed body carries and displays art particles attached to the canvas given to man. What is essential at this point is that just as a painter paints what he wants to express on a canvas, a tattooed body reveals what the soul possessing this body wants to show. Just as a painter sees what he should have in the world, he attaches his soul to what he should have in his body. In line with Freud’s view of art, Merleau-Ponty writes in his book: ‘’The eye sees the world, and what is missing in the world to be a painting, and what is missing to be itself in the picture, and the palette, the color painting is waiting. And when it is finished, it sees the painting that responds to all these deficiencies and sees the tables of others, the answers of others to other shortcomings’’ (Merleau-Ponty, 1996: p.36). The soul, which survives in the space of a tattooed body, reflects its skin, which is the lining of its soul, in line with its lifestyle, character traits, and aesthetic tastes. Now it becomes the outside for the skin and the inside of the outside.12 The body, the soul’s performance field, is no longer just a shell, but also its artistic performance. In Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy, the body is the link between the subject and the world. According to him, body is both subject and object. According to Merleau-Ponty, the body bridges the gap between the inner (subject) and the outer (world). The body is the intersection point of the inner and outer. “Our body is much more than a tool for us: it is our expressions in the world, the visible form of our intentions 90

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and orientations” (Merleau-Ponty, 2017: p.22). Therefore, the body can be both a subject and an object. From a similar perspective, Merleau-Ponty says: “I know others through their bodies, what I remember when I think of someone else is what draws his spiritual portrait, his body. Someone else is a soul in our eyes that rests on a body” (Merleau-Ponty, 2017: p.48). Just like between artist and artwork, there is a similar bond between tattoo and subject. As a subject, the artist desires to create what he sees or feels missing in the world by expressing it. Merleau-Pony expresses this as “an ongoing birth” (Merleau-Ponty, 1996: p.40). Similarly, Darien Leader says in the context of psychoanalysis and art; We are born in a universe of signs. From a psychoanalytic perspective, one of the main effects of this is the loss experience: the loss of the mother by the prohibitions of the Oedipus complex, the loss of body pleasure by the limitations of education, and the different forms of loss involved in speech and language. And the lost desire creates the longing to find some things that we once believed to have. Art provides a special space to symbolize this quest in civilization and to elaborate on it (Leader, 2004: p.77). Of course, when it comes to tattoos, desire is not only a past or a desire to find a loss. The tattoo can also be an expression of what the subject wants, is, or hopes to be. At this point, it would be appropriate to mention the “temporality” that Merleau-Ponty mentioned in his Phenomenology of Perception (2017). According to him, time in the subject does not consist of past, present, or future, respectively. The consciousness of the subject is at the moment. The relationship with the past, present or future flows in consciousness to the present. Remembering the past, foreseeing, or planning about the future based on the past brings the moments to the present. Still, this does not mean that the past, present, and future are composed of the sorted present. Consciousness about moments carries them out of order, to the present, where the being is located. Merleau-Ponty explains how this situation works: Suppose the traces of the bodily process accompanying one of my perceptions are preserved in my brain, and the flow of nerves passes through this previously opened path. In that case, my perception will reappear; it will be a new perception. This perception may be weakened and unrealistic, but in no case is this perception that now exists. If I do not have an opinion that would allow me to describe it as a souvenir, it would not indicate a past event (Merleau-Ponty, 2017: p.553). If mental and body traces of these moments are present, the moments that take place in consciousness will be carried by the subject much more clearly by now. Of course, in the absence of traces, it is possible to move to now. However, it makes the bonds between tracks, moments and now stronger. Physical traces such as tattoos are coded into both the skin and the memory of the subject. It is in the memory of the body and the subject. Because the moment the tattoo is made, the pain felt, its purpose, the underlying meaning, and the time attributed are encoded in the skin. When the subject looks at the tattoo, that glance already opens a corridor in consciousness to “that moment.” Tattoos are the gates of memory, the body that has opened up to now. A tattooed body carries the present over it through art and calls out ‘’ those moments ‘’ performatively whenever it desires.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The attitude towards art and tattoos has changed over time in light of different trends, ideas, and styles. The dynamic nature of both art and tattoo and its connection with human beings prove the continuity of this change and transformation. The change that art borders from traditional to contemporary has undergone is proof of this. Moreover, it seems possible that negative perceptions persisting against tattoos may also change. While tattoos are being addressed in the future, it can be expected that the uncanny factor will lose its effect. However, the connection and dynamic nature of tattoos with both humans and art indicate that tattoos should be handled together with art and psychology for future research. This study, prepared with a qualitative method and based on past arguments, requires to be supported by more professional opinions and more research in the field to gain more clarity. Thus, it will be possible to consolidate the targeted positioning effort in this study.

CONCLUSION From past to present, tattoos have existed in different ages, cultures, and for various purposes. Sometimes used to stigmatize criminals and slaves, for mystical and religious purposes, and sometimes for group affiliation and rebellion, tattoos have gained popularity more than ever thanks to traditional and digital media channels. Though tattooed bodies, which are frequently encountered in the flow of daily life, seem normalized in the postmodern period, the mysterious, dangerous, unregulated, and negative image of the tattoo from the recent history has not entirely disappeared. Studies confirming these images’ existence frequently focused on the relationship of tattoos with pathological, psychological, and sociological problems. Today, negative judgments against tattooed bodies have softened, but have not disappeared. One of the most interesting results of the study conducted by Broussard and Harton (2017) is that even tattooed people have negative judgments against other tattooed people. It demonstrates the clarity of the boundaries between the “I” and the “other,” particularly in areas such as cities where differences exist. The negative judgments of tattoos and the effort to determine the position of tattoos in the field of art today have made “uncanny” the inspiration of this study. The uncanny concept Freud discusses in the axis of psychoanalysis and aesthetics has been the subject of many studies. Yet, as discussed in this study, the uncanny is located amongst the triangle of subject-body, art-artwork, and self-other. In this study, both the alien and familiar nature of the uncanny set it off from its starting point, psychoanalytic, and aesthetics; brought it to the endpoint concerning the subject, body, self, other, art, artwork, image, performance, and gaze. Uncanny, when viewed from a psychoanalytic perspective, can be associated with the aesthetic pleasure in the work of art, with the “self” and “other” in the social field. Thus, it was found appropriate to examine tattooed bodies in the same study as psychoanalytic for the subject, aesthetically in terms of their place in the field of art, and communicative and sociological in terms of their place in the social area. The negative image of tattoos has been addressed as uncanny. Unlike other studies, the art context has been discussed from the perspective of both tattoo artists and tattooed bodies. Ultimately, arguments accepted in the past were taken as the basis. The ambiguity of tattoos in art, society, psychology, and communication has been tried to be eliminated. In this context, when the relationship between tattoos, psychology, and sociology are examined, the much-discussed subject, that is, the connection of tattoos with psychological disorders has been questioned. Still, it has been observed that tattoos and other acts of injury have the purposes of holding on to life, 92

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rebirth, beginning, and meaning rather than psychological disturbance or suicidal tendencies. However, negative judgments against tattoos continue to exist in business life, social life, interpersonal and family relationships. The main reasons for this are the insecurities of the tattooed people’s psychological state, their attitude towards life, their consistency and beliefs. Of course, it is not possible to generalize the mentioned situation. However, it will not be possible to ignore it. From the perspective of tattooed people, it has been observed that the motivations behind tattooing are making sense of life, owning the body, building identity, obtaining an aesthetic appearance, rebellion, being different, group belonging, or just subjective pleasure. Tattoos is made by subjective decisions in the postmodern social life where the body assumes the role of “interface”; it has become one of the tools of visual communication. However, being a painful and permanent application and consisting of images makes tattooing in need of performative expression in the field of communication. At this point, subject and body, which cannot be considered separately, express their coexistence in the social field through performance. The artistic position of the tattoo remains ambiguous no matter how diversified the discussions. The reason is that the uncertainty about what is art cannot be eliminated. The existence of artistic views, movements, techniques, and borders that cannot be drawn are the obstacles to determining the position of tattoo in art. However, contemporary arts, which stand out with their “rule-breaking” feature compared to traditional arts, seem ready to receive a warmer welcome for tattoos. Based on Michaud’s argument, the fact that tattoos left outside by traditional arts taking place in exhibitions, fairs, and even frames (freed from the organic lifespan of the body), is the product of the effort to shorten the distance between tattoos and art. Also, personalized designs, ready-made drawings, the involvement of art educated people, selling the designs at high prices, tattoos made by adhering to specific artistic techniques, and even tattoos (directly or interpreted) accepted by traditional art shows that it is possible to look at tattoos as art in the postmodern era. However, one of the main aims of this study is to position the tattooed body as a work of art and the subject as an artist rather than discussing whether tattooing is an art or not. Michaud’s defense of performance art; Danto, making the work of art and it’s material inseparable, with the statement that “it is the invisible qualities that make something art”; Freud and Leader defining the artist’s shortcomings and incompleteness as the motivation behind the work of art; as for Merleau-Ponty, identifying the body directly with the work of art is one of the main points of this study. Body-subject integrity, which is impossible to overlook even in social practices, is the proof of the expression of “skin,” the visible lining of the body,13 “the thing that gives man his” humanity. ” Everything drawn, attached, and worn on the skin transmits messages to both the outside world and the subject itself. When considered in the context of tattoos, the images on the skin send messages to the outside world and, at the same time, help the subject to absorb these messages. The effort of completing what the subject sees as lacking in himself, through tattooing, becomes a whole with the performative technique of individual identities. In this context, when the performative technique of communication and the artistic qualities of the tattoo are combined, it is possible to position the tattooed body’s expressions as “performance art.” The communicative qualities of tattoos among the subject and the world attribute responsibility for negative judgments to the subject, but hold behind many meanings, including individual pleasure. Tattoo’s dependence on expression in both social and artistic contexts puts it in the triangle of art, communication, and performance. Ultimately, it can be said that when the mentioned triangle is taken into the center, the tattooed body gains the competence of “an art of performative communication.”

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REFERENCES Anzieu, D. (2008). Deri-Ben (N. Tura, Trans.). Metis. Broussard, K. A., & Harton, H. C. (2017). Tattoo or Taboo? Tattoo Stigma and Negative Attitudes Toward Tattooed Individuals. The Journal of Social Psychology, 158(5), 521–540. doi:10.1080/0022454 5.2017.1373622 PMID:28934022 Butler, J. (2008). Cinsiyet Belası (B. Ertür, Trans.). Metis Yayıncılık. Çabuklu, Y. (2006). Bedenin Farklı Halleri. Kanat Yayınları. Cole, A. (2003). Exhibition Review: Skin Deep: A History of Tattooing. The Journal of Fashion Theory, 7(3-4), 275–280. doi:10.2752/136270403778051989 Danto, A. (2014). Sanat Nedir? (Z. Baransel, Trans.). Sel Yayınları. Dwane, H. D. (2010). Consumer Perceptions of Visible Tattoos on Service Personnel. Managing Service Quality, 20(3), 294–308. doi:10.1108/09604521011041998 Ertan, C. (2017). Dövmeli Bedenler: Bir Beden Sosyolojisi Kitabı. Phoenix. Featherstone, M. (1996). Postmodernizm ve Tüketim Kültürü (M. Küçük, Trans.). Ayrıntı. Gagnebin, M. (2011). Psikanalitik Bir Estetik İçin (S. Ongan, Trans.). Yapı Kredi. Guéguen, N. (2013). Effects of a Tattoo on Men’s Behavior and Attitudes Towards Women: An Experimental Field Study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(8), 1517–1524. doi:10.100710508-013-0104-2 PMID:23657810 Hardt, M. N. A. (2001). Empire. Harvard University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvjnrw54 Jentsch, E., & Freud, S. (2019). Tekinsizliğin Psikolojisi Üzerine – Tekinsizlik Üzerine (H. Şahin, Trans.). Laputa. Krutak, L., & Deter-Wolf, A. (Eds.). (2017). Acient Ink: The Archaeology of Tattooing. University of Washington Press. Larsen, G., Patterson, M., & Markham, L. (2014). A Deviant Art: Tattoo-Related Stigma in an Era of Commodification. Psychology and Marketing, 31(8), 670–681. doi:10.1002/mar.20727 Le Breton, D. (2011). Ten ve İz: İnsanın Kendini Yaralaması Üzerine (İ. Yerguz, Trans.). Sel. Leader, D. (2004). Mona Lisa Kaçırıldı/Sanatın Bizden Gizledikleri (H. Akdemir, Trans.). Ayrıntı. Lemma, A. (2010). Under the Skin: A Psychoanalytic Study of Bodymodification. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203857984 Masschelein, A. (2011). The Unconcept: The Freudian Uncanny in Late-Twentieth-Century Theory. State University of New York Press. Merleau-Ponty, M. (1996). Göz ve Tin (A. Soysal, Trans.). Metis.

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Merleau-Ponty, M. (2017). Algının Fenomenolojisi (E. Sarıkartal & E. Hacımuratoğlu, Trans.). İthaki. Michaud, A. (2012). Are Tattoos Art? In R. Arp (Ed.), Tattoos: Philosophy for Everyone (pp. 29–38). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. doi:10.1002/9781118252789.ch3 Nietzsche, F. (2003). Şen Bilim (L. Özşar, Trans.). Asa. Resenhoeft, A., Villa, J., & Wiseman, D. (2008). Tattoos Can Harm Perceptions: A Study and Suggestions. Journal of American College Health, 56(5), 593–596. doi:10.3200/JACH.56.5.593-596 PMID:18400674 Ricoeur, P. (1966). Freedom and Nature: The Voluntary and the Involuntary. Northwestern University Press. Robins, K. (1999). İmaj: Görmenin Kültür ve Politikası (N. Türkoğlu, Trans.). Ayrıntı. Sanders, C., & Vail, A. (2008). Customizing The Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing. Temple University Press. Svendsen, L. (2017). Korkunun Felsefesi (M. Erşen, Trans.). Redingot. Swami, V., & Furnham, A. (2007). Unattractive, Promiscuous and Heavy Drinkers: Perceptions of Women with Tattoos. Body Image, 4(4), 343–352. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.06.005 PMID:18089280 Timming, A. R. (2014). Visible Tattoos in the Service Sector: A New Challenge to Recruitment and Selection. Work, Employment and Society, 29(1), 60–78. doi:10.1177/0950017014528402 Uğur Çerikan, F., & Alanko, M. (2016). Dövme’’nin Çeşitli Dillerdeki Etimolojisi ve Kısa Tarihçesi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 25(1), 166–193. Ümer, E. (2018). Tekinsiz ve Temsil: Romantizmden Postmodernizme Bir İnceleme. Parodi. Wohlrab, S., Fink, B., Kappeler, P. M., & Brewer, G. (2009). Differences in Personality Attributions Toward Tattooed and Nontattooed Virtual Human Characters. Journal of Individual Differences, 30(1), 1–5. doi:10.1027/1614-0001.30.1.1

ADDITIONAL READING Anzieu, D. (2008). Le Moi-Peau. Dunod. Broussard, K. A., & Harton, H. C. (2017). Tattoo or taboo? Tattoo Stigma and Negative Attitudes Toward Tattooed Individuals. The Journal of Social Psychology, 158(5), 521–540. doi:10.1080/0022454 5.2017.1373622 PMID:28934022 Dean, D. H. (2010). Consumer Perceptions of Visible Tattoos on Service Personnel. Managing Service Quality, 20(3), 294–308. doi:10.1108/09604521011041998 Gagnebin, M. (1994). Pour une Esthetique Psychanalytique: L’artiste, Stratege de L’inconscient. Presses Universitaires de France. doi:10.3917/puf.gagn.1994.01

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Jentsch, E. (1906). On the Psychology of the Uncanny. In J. Collins & J. Jervis (Eds.), Uncanny Modernity Cultural Theories, Modern Anxieties (SellarsR., Trans.; pp. 216–228). PalGrave. Larsen, G., Patterson, M., & Markham, L. (2014). A Deviant Art: Tattoo-Related Stigma in an Era of Commodification. Psychology and Marketing, 31(8), 670–681. doi:10.1002/mar.20727 Merleau-Ponty, M. (1964). Eye and Mind. In J. E. Edie (Ed.), The Primacy of Perception (pp. 159–190). Northwestern University Press. Resenhoeft, A., Villa, J., & Wiseman, D. (2008). Tattoos Can Harm Perceptions: A Study and Suggestions. Journal of American College Health, 56(5), 593–596. doi:10.3200/JACH.56.5.593-596 PMID:18400674 Timming Andrew, R. (2014). Visible Tattoos in the Service Sector: A New Challenge to Recruitment and Selection. Work, Employment and Society, 29(1), 60–78. doi:10.1177/0950017014528402

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Artwork: The final product resulting from the conversion of certain materials with artistic techniques and methods. Body-Subject: In Merleau-Ponty philosophy; the coexistence of the object, the body and the soul, the subject. Performative: Supporting what is wanted to be transferred through executive methods. Psychoanalytic: A set of methods and techniques aimed at exposing patients’ mental or spiritual processes. Skin-Ego: The domination of the subject on his pure skin. Tattoo: A needle tool and the shapes processed on the skin with the paint injected under the skin with the help of this tool. Uncanny Effect: Encountering forgotten, suppressed, or blocked, causing instant anxiety in man.

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Kevin Robins. (1999), İmaj: Culture and Policy of Seeing, Trans. N. Türkoğlu, İstanbul: Ayrıntı. ‘’ Irebokuro ‘’ and ‘’ ire ‘’ are used to inject and ‘’ bokuro ‘’ is used as a beauty area. Clinton R. Sanders and D. Angus Vail, Customizing The Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing, America: Temple University, 1989, p: 12. ‘’ Certainly by the nineteenth century, tattooing in Europe had become associated with prostitutes, the mentally ill, sailors, and criminals. Such associations were derived from quasi-biological theories of the time, which stated that those who ‘cut’ themselves in this way were degenerating to the condition of ‘primitive’ peoples. This idea found its late-twentieth-century equivalent in contentious notions of the ‘modern primitive’ criticized for their idealization of the exotic ‘Other’ ‘’ Anna Cole. (2003) ‘Exhibition Review: Skin Deep: A History of Tattooing’, Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body and Couture, Vol. 7, No. 3/4, p: 276.

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“Bauman suggests that the greatest concern of identities in the postmodern period is ‘freedom to maneuver.” This is meta-value. According to him, the postmodern person wants to keep all the options as open as possible and switch to whatever he wants. Reaching the goal is the end of freedom. Today, it is recognized that, especially, the new generation frequently changes professions; in this case, it is a reflection of post-identity structuring. Because, based on post-identity’s being diverse and variable, there is the “freedom to maneuver” as Bauman addressed. “Postmodern people who do not have a primary’’ being ‘’ aim do not want to be content with only one experience in their limited lifetime.” M. Elif Gürses and Sena Şahin, Communication in the Age of Posts, 2019 Istanbul: Literatürk Academia p: 568. Stigma is the method used in ancient cultures to mark the bodies of infamous people, slaves, and criminals. “But this unheimlich place is the entrance to the first Heim (home) of all people, where each of us once lived, initially.” cited from Freud. Ernest Jentsch, On the Psychology of Uncanny, 2019, Istanbul: Laputa, p: 65. Access address: https://www.netflix.com/watch/80243763?trackıd=200257859 Access date: 01.05.2020. Always Revealing, Human Skin Is an Anthropologist’s Map, 2007. Access address: https://www. nytimes.com/2007/01/09/science/09conv.html According to Didier Anzieu, skin-I; ‘’ It is a shaping that the child’s self uses to represent himself as a self during the early stages of development, based on the experience of the body surface (Anzieu, 2008: 13). “All that is needed is for someone to give their personality a“ form ”. A great rare art! Only those who investigate all the power and weakness of their nature, and then just put each of them in an artistic plan, justifying them as an art, can do. Friedrich Nietzche, The Gay Science (trans. Levent Özşar), Bursa: Asa Publishing, 2003, p.174. The project of ‘the construction of life as an artwork’ with ‘Foucault’s self-practices’ is related to a Nietzschean ethic and artistic understanding, such as archeology and genealogy. Nietzsche explicitly talks about giving a beautiful, artistic ‘form’ to one’s life. Sever Işık, Ethics of Self in Foucault and Life as Art Work, Journal of Philosophy and Social Sciences, 2014, issue: 17 p: 104. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Eye and Soul, 2019, Istanbul: Metis, p: 35. Nina G. Jablonski. Always Revealing, Human Skin Is an Anthropologist’s Map, 2007. Access address: https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/09/science/09conv.html

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Chapter 6

Reflections of Violence in Music Yakup Alper Varış Ondokuz Mayıs Unıversity, Turkey

ABSTRACT One of the ways that the violence reaches every point in our lives and becomes an aesthetic thing is music, and this aestheticization of violence reaches its peak with music. Music, which has been one of the most powerful means of expression, reflection, and healing throughout history for mankind trapped in primitive self, confronts the reality of violence on individuals and society by revealing the factors feeding the violence, creates awareness by determining the direction of violence, is considered as a phenomenon that has positive or negative effects. This study is focused on these features of music and also the relationship between music and violence within the context of aesthetics. It is aimed to examine the reflections of violence on aesthetic creation via violent musical production materials and the musical reflections of violence and related items that have been handled through various examples.

INTRODUCTION Throughout the history of humanity, music has been one of the most powerful tools and the most effective language used for expressions and feelings, to portray life, nature and making sense of existence, as well as to calm, in therapy, etc. While using this language, humanity has met with aesthetics over time, has discovered itself, has been inspired by the environment and nature, and has benefited from the sounds, structures, forms and materials that it has created according to the understanding of beauty by observing the contrasts in life. One of the facts that human, being a biopsychic and musical, encounters in the adventure of life is violence. Individuals and societies benefit from art to deal with violence as a subject. One of the tools they use to do this is the language of music. One of the aestheticization fields of violence is music. At the heart of exposure to violence of human beings who has been trapped in their ids, consciously or unconsciously, voluntarily or involuntarily, it is the existence of goodness and evil in their ego. According to Mülayim; hatred and hate is a feature that man carries with him just like love and peace. The combination of violence and art in an ethical and aesthetic framework may overlap from time to time. Beyond the use of one on the other’s name, the reflection of the two on each of the intersection points has inevitably remained on the agenda in the history of individual-society relations. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch006

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 Reflections of Violence in Music

All human values ​​are included in art. Art has been reflected in noble and lofty emotions (love, peace, love, friendship, sympathy, admiration, etc.) as well as passions such as hate, hatred, jealousy and getting more (Ötgün, 2008: p.91). Before revealing the relationship between music and violence, it will be useful to touch upon its impact by addressing the concept of violence. Efforts to define violence and to process the phenomenon of violence have been the subject of numerous studies. According to Uçan (2007), the word violence has a three-dimensional meaning as positive, neutral and negative. Negative violence is vulgar, harsh, distress and painful or harmful oppression, action or action directed against people from the outside. In terms of the meaning and function it carries, it is not an innate feature and behaviour, but an acquired feature and a behaviour learned later. Violence is also a reactive act resulting from weakness. Rousseau (1998: p. 86) argues that evil comes from weakness, recovery will emerge as it grows stronger. It is called all of the individual or social movements that causes physical or mental harm to people by applying force and pressure (Alkan, 2019: p. 243-244). To support this idea, it is defined as events or attempts created to intimidate people (Ünsal, 1996). Violence can be structural (continuous) or cyclical (temporary), indirect or direct, narrow or broad meaningful and can be considered from a private or collective, criminal or public perspective. Violence always means different things for each individual depending on their age, race, gender, religion, ethnicity, personal experience, approach, and background (Alkan, 2019: pp. 243-244; Kocacık, 2001). The social structure, which consists of individuals thinking that priority is given to consumption, wealth and power are put forward as a single goal, and that the idea of ​​every way to reach this goal is imposed on the individual, loses both the control mechanisms and the assurance of closeness and creates the insecurity of the work, naturally produces violence. The second is that violence becomes an important marketing tool in security consumption. It is constantly on the agenda in many areas where violence spreads and increases in society. News related to the subject is constantly in the media, studies are carried out by various non-governmental organizations, studies are carried out by official institutions and reports are published (Avcı, 2010). According to the World Health Organization (WHO) data, around 475,000 murders are committed globally each year and millions of people suffer from violence-related injuries. According to the evaluations of the same institution, approximately one third of women worldwide, in other words 35%, experience physical and / or sexual violence throughout their lifetime, one in four adults is physically abused as a child, one in every 5 females and one in 10 males suffer from sexual abuse (Web_4, Access Date: 17.03.2020). These disclosed data illustrate the fact that the planet we are in is completely violently made. In such a world, music is one of the main facts in which violence can be portrayed and the reflections of the elements of violence can be explored.

MUSIC AND VIOLENCE Music, the most powerful and advanced tool for social protest in all forms of culture, has been an important factor for resistance against many social problems such as slavery, racial and all forms of sexual privilege, war, poverty, etc. (Çalış, 2006: p. 94). Music has the power to reflect this resistance using violence, which is caused by problems and difficulties. Music is not only a stance against violence, but also has the potential to trigger violent behaviour with its production, consumption, usage and handling 99

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styles. In addition to being a tool for personal and social treatment, music is also associated with the phenomenon of global capital seizing power, the introduction of new destructive technologies and laws of war, genocide, aggression, nation building, and alienation. Conflict-centred musicological, ethnomusicological and popular music publications, which deal with the concepts of violence and conflict, have been introduced since the late 20th century. Research in this lacuna has increased rapidly after the September 11 attack (Fast & Pegley, 2012: p. 1). According to Uluçay (2012), the phenomenon of violence is related to the concepts of power, force and authority, it is a concept that has existed since the beginning of civilization and can exist as the world turns, not only physically but also psychologically. Throughout history, music has been one of the most effective tools that human beings have used in order to both prevent and depict violence.

Reflections of Violence in Antiquity and Opera Works The strong relationship between music and violence dates back to the earliest times in ancient times, and this history reveals explanatory power in today’s analysis and it is the intercultural source of legendary and historical narratives (Jhonson and Cloonan, 2009). In Ancient Greece, where the foundations of today’s western music are based, great importance was attached to and valued. Aiskhülos, Sofokles and Euripides, who are the most important works of ancient tragedy writers, take over the subjects in their works from Homer. While Homer took violence as the ultimate tool to gain bravery, pride, power and power in both epics he wrote, tragedy writers use violence to highlight the concepts of shame, destruction, regret, arrogance and lie, as drawn in characters such as Aias, Elektra, Orestes, Agamemnon, Oedipus, Antigone, Filoktetes and Odysseus. For this, they take the aesthetic language that Homer uses while reflecting the bloody violence scenes; however, this is not a blessing, but it is reflected on the stage as a system and self-criticism (Alkan, 2019: p. 263). In ancient Greek theatre, choir, music, dance, disguise and decor are the most effective tools to reflect violence. Although choral is one of the main factors that embody violence, it is one of the most important tools that dominate the whole play in the ancient period (Alkan, 2019: p. 250). In the theatre plays, music was sometimes performed to scare the audience, and sometimes instruments were used to make animal sounds. In this period, music played an important role in wars and was used to encourage the armies. For example; the war songs composed by Tyrtaios encouraged the Spartans to enter the Second Messene war. One of the main instruments used on the battlefields was Salpinx. In ancient Greece, musicians took part in both entertaining guests at various festivals and entertainments, and giving commands to withdraw and attack in the armies. The musicians known as Kitharisthes, Salpinktes and Auletes were employed as slaves and exposed to violence in various forms. In addition to their musicians, women who were hired to play Aulos also undertook to fulfil the guests’ sexual desires (Kinaci, 2012: p. 12). According to Kaplancık and Aladağ (2019), the content of mythology originated in the opera is one of the most attractive elements among the topics discussed from past to present. The underlying factor is the deep meaning and aesthetic appeal in the stories, as well as the characters and relationships in Ancient Greek mythology meet every situation about human. Philomela’s mythological story has been a source of interest and inspiration for many composers. This story is also attractive and meaningful for the opera, which is considered to be the highest level of singing, when a mute girl turns into a “nightingale”, which symbolizes singing and beautiful singing in many cultures, and gains her voice despite everything as well as the tragic weight of rape, which is one of the most violent acts of violence against women.

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The Philomela myth contains a tragedy that will compel every reader, with stories of the heaviest crimes which both men and women can commit against each other. The story, which is open to a wide range of reading and interpretation, has attracted the attention of many opera composers as well as various creators from different art branches. The most important features of the Philomela myth are that it contains mortal people, not gods, as heroes, and sexual violence and rape are at the centre of the story. The story deals with raping a woman by a man, then cutting her tongue so that she does not disclose the crime. The tragic story will end with the heaviest revenge of Philomela and her brother who have been subjected to the most violent sexual violence (Kaplancik & Aladag, 2019: p. 535). Opera myths have been treated as myths for about 400 years, from the first opera that has been written, to the present day. In almost all early operas, the subjects and characters are taken from Ancient Greek or Roman mythology. In addition, the subject of many is the same as those of the Ancient Greek tragedies (Carter, 1994: p. 8). In many cultures and creation myths, especially killing and wounding women is dominant. We witness the tragedy of the Princess of Athens in the opera Philomela, inspired by Ovid and Sophocles and staged in Porto on September 18, 2004, the first internationally renowned Scottish composer James Dillon, who opened his eyes to the world on October 29, 1950, and who made international compositions for orchestra, opera, chamber music, choir, vocal and piano. With its innovative and immersive feature, the work has a distinguished place among contemporary lyrical works of the century. According to the composer, the work is actually a musical theatre rather than an opera. King Tereus rapes Procne’s sister, Philomela, and cuts her tongue so that she does not speak. Philomela, Procne and Tereus are the subjects of a terrible tragedy. At the end of the story, the woman refuses to be a victim and pursues revenge. The chain of tragedies ends when three people turn into birds. Dillon’s music is an exciting and dazzling as well as a fearless and relentless journey of discovery for the listener (Web_11, Access Date: 04.05.2020). Classic mythology, which constitutes the main source of the opera scene, is filled with rape scenes. Goddesses, nymphs and mortals are constantly raped. In particular, Zeus seduces and kidnaps women, and resorts to sexual violence against women. When victims do not comply with this situation and raise their voices, they are transformed or more severely punished for their immorality. Antiope, Europa, Io, Leda, Callisto (by Zeus), Caenis (by Poseidon), Cassandra (by Ajax), Dryope (by Apollo), Medusa, Demeter (by Poseidon), Persefone (by Hades) are just some of the raped mythological heroes. Io turned into cow, Callisto to bear, and Dryope to tree. After being raped by Danae Zeus, she is put in a wooden box with her baby and thrown into the sea. Amphissa is blinded by her father for being raped. Apemosyne, who was raped by Hermes, was beaten to death by her brother. Lucretia, who is forced to blackmail by Tarquin, commits suicide. The father of the Perimele, unable to withstand rape, throws his daughter down the cliff (Linklater, 2001: p. 254, quoted in Kaplancık & Aladağ, p. 539).

Violence in Symphonic Works As in ancient times, musicians experienced material and spiritual difficulties throughout the history, and had to face with various troubles. This situation has found a response in the works they naturally produce. It is possible to encounter many composers who stand out with their symphonic works depicting violence in the history of music. Mozart (Elias, 2000: p. 177), who is bound by the palace aristocracy as a necessity to gain his bread as one of the most important reasons of his tragic life, was reflected directly on his works and style. The Idomeneo opera series, where he praised the Prince of Salzburg in 101

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accordance with the palace-absolutist opera, is one of these reflections. In Beethoven’s music, a sense of grief and conflicts are dominant. In his works, which depicts conflict and restlessness with intense expression, he included accord dissonant. All these are reflected in the famous Eroika Symphony. In its 9th Symphony, there is a conflict between misery and belief in the future, a deep anxiety and grief related to it (Öğütle & Etil, 2012: pp. 102-103). Romeo and Juliet, one of the classics of English literature, is one of the tragedies of English playwright William Shakespeare, which he is telling the love story of two enemy families’ two young people in love with each other and one of the tragedies that have been adapted many times to theatre, cinema, and orchestra and ballet music. Violence in the work manifests itself in the form of deep conflicts, fighting, murder and suicide. Violence in the work manifests itself in the form of deep conflicts, fighting, murder and suicide. Shakespeare made it a unique work with its own style and functioning by developing the story that would be correct in the long poem of the English poet Arthur Brooke, published in 1562, Romeus and Juliet’s Tragic Story. The first of the opera adaptations from Romeo and Juliet was in the singspiel genre in 1776 by Czech composer Georg Benda according to the German libretto. Other well-known musical works adapted from Romeo and Juliet can be summarized as Hector Berlioz’s symphony of Romeo and Juliet, Charles Gounod Roméo et Juliette opera, Pyotr Ilyiç Tchaikovsky’s Romeo and Juliet symphonic poem and Sergey Sergevich Prokofyev’s Romeo and Juliet ballet. (Web_12, Access Date: 08.05.2020). One of the adaptations of Romeo and Juliet to ballet music is opus 64 ballet music by Russian composer Sergey Prokofyev. Romeo and Juliet, which was first staged in the city of Brünn in the Czech Republic in 1938, as a three-actress, consisting of 13 scenes, a prologue and an epilogue, was staged by the world’s leading ballet groups until today after being presented with the choreography of Leonid Lavroski in the city of Leningrad in 1940 (Say, 2005: p. 171). Romeo and Juliet tragedy (Dagestan, 2004) about social tension and conflict that make violence a part of life was composed by Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in the form of a sonophonic poem. The work was performed for the first time in Moscow on March 4, 1870. The premiere of the second version of the overture, which was revised twice after this date, was held on February 17, 1872 under the direction of Eduard Nápravník in St. Petersburg. It was put on the last touches on the work in 1880 by the composer and was given the subtitle Overture-Fantasy and was staged in 1886. The composer discussed the subject in three main titles: the blessing of the priest Lorenzo, the duel of the Montague and Capulet families, the love of Romeo and Juliet. The main theme of the Romeo and Juliet ouverture was adapted by bandleader Larry Clinton in 1939 as the popular song Our Love, written by Buddy Bernier and Bob Emmerich, and recorded by Clinton and Jimmy Dorsey (Young & Young, 2005: p. 282). Tchaikovsky’s another orchestral work of 1812 Overture is striking in terms of seeing the reflections of violence. In this work, the composer depicted the war that Napoleon lost with a tragic result by losing nearly 500,000 soldiers as a result of the attack on Russia in 1812. It is very interesting to fire a real ball, use a band and church bells in the final part of the work. The work was also used in the highly popular movie “V for Vendetta”. The short work, Hyperprism, composed by Paris-born American musician Edgard Varèse, reflects the violence caused by the battle with wind and percussion instruments. The 57th Regiment-Gallipoli Symphony No: 2 prepared by Can Atilla, one of today’s Turkish composers, for the 100th anniversary of Çanakkale Victory, is the first classical symphony with the theme of Gallipoli War. Another example in which the elements of violence are depicted with music is the 7th Symphony of Dimitri Shostakovich, which symbolizes his stance against fascism. This symphony is one of the most powerful symbols of the enormous resistance of the Russians in the Second World War, when the Germans invaded the city of Leningrad. Concerning the work, the composer emphasized that the symphony 102

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was not about Leningrad under siege, but Leningrad, where Stalin destroyed and Hitler made worse this destruction (Web_8, Access Date: 28.04.2020; Web_9, Access Date: 29.04 .2020). In terms of being an example for excitement, fear and tension, the themes of the Slovak composer Vladimir Godar, one of today’s composers, in the Concerto Grosso he composed for Strings and Haprsichord are remarkable.

Reflections of Violence in Opera Works Violent themed works in the opera have taken a prominent place with the realism movement. With this trend, the wind of Romanticism has been replaced by the reality of the individual and society, from the realist point of view, and a period has begun in which the aesthetics of human nature, the living conditions, and the aestheticization of individual and social violence begin to find a response in the works of art. In the art of opera, the passion to search for the new, which first made itself felt in Italy, directed the composers to different trends towards the end of the 19th century. Following the departure from the romantic understanding, with the application of Realism and Naturalism in the Italian opera (Beyarslan, 2006: p.1), realism and Verist opera, being a sense of new theatre and art were born.

Violence in Cavalleria Rusticana and I Pagliacci Heralding the birth of realism and verist opera are Pietro Mascagni’s Cavalleria Rusticana and Ruggero Leoncavallo’s I Pagliacci operas. These works, which include a murder narrative and a violent act, represent a turning point in the Italian opera. The fact that the works are similar in terms of the subject, the world they reflect, and their understanding of thought made it possible to stage these two operas together and successively, and this association attracted the attention of the audience and attracted great appreciation (Ayyıldız, 2018). In Cavalleria Rusticana opera, which is based on one of Giovanni Verga’s stories, a village’s painfulness on jealousy and murder is described (Beyarslan, 2006). Leoncavallo’s I Pagliacci opera, consisting of a prologue and two acts, tells the story of an acting group led by a jealous man who ultimately tries to kill the actress wife and lover. Canio, in the character of jealous husband, takes part in the work as the role of tenor. The great tenors of the last century considered the role a challenge because the character displays a wide range of moods from manic humour to killer anger (Web_10, Accessed Date: 24.05.2020). The subject of I Pagliacci is about murder committed in a game-in-game and conveys a drama from real life. In this murder in Montalto, where his father served as a judge, an actor from the traveling theatre group really killed his wife during the play (Beyarslan, 2006: p. 24). The fact that I Pagliaci opera handled a real life drama with its musical braid was one of the most important elements that managed to attract the attention of the public and make it one of the beloved works. The reflection of real events in social life as translucently as possible with various aesthetic tools has always attracted the attention of the masses. In a way, this is almost a journey of man to himself. Based on jealousy and betrayal in both operas, love triangle which has a homogeneous structure in terms of narrative / plot, is also intriguing for the stories told. At this point, it is possible to see the reflection of violence in examples of murder committed with a passion for pride and fairness. Brutality and 103

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human instincts form the focus in the construction of the story. Love, which is one of the most human emotions, suddenly turns into the most primitive and wild instinct, violence. The main element that guides the theme in Verist operas is an explosion of emotion based on jealousy. In both operas, the characters take the pain of passion and their consequences that lead them to death (Ayyıldız, 2018: p. 96-97).

Violence in Tosca The three-act “Tosca” opera, which went down in history as one of the tragedy works as one of the most important dramatic tragedy works of opera art, where Giacomo Puccini hosts themes of courage, jealousy and death (Riding and Dunton Downer, 2006), was performed for the first time at Teatro Costanzi in Rome on 14 January 1900. The libretto of the work was written by well-known Italian librettists Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacoso, inspired by the famous French writer Victorien Sardou (1831-1908) drama La Tosca (Beyarslan, 2016). Puccini, French theatre writer Sardou, who wrote the La Tosca play, which has produced great works in the field of comedy and tragedy, has softened the hardness of the text of La Tosca with the delicacy of his own art, and has also been successful in avoiding an excessive Naturalism. For example; the torture scene in the second act of the work puts it in a bearable form for the audience, and the musical expression power unique to Puccini has had a major impact. The first theme encountered on the first act of the Tosca opera is the Scarpia theme, which is reflected with all its nakedness from the orchestra. At the very beginning of the third and last act of the work, a dark atmosphere is created that it can take in terms of musical expression. The act takes place before the sunrise on the dark and cold terrace of the Sant’Angelo dungeon. The character motif of the Roman police chief Scarpia heard from the orchestra reflects a bad psychology that further darkens the dark air. The announcement of Cavaradossi’s famous aria in the dark atmosphere, prepared for death, has the quality to affect the audience deeply (Beyarslan, 2016).

Violence in Andrea Chenier Umberto Giordano is one of the other composers to be mentioned in the Verist opera movement, whose elements of violence can be found in his works. Umberto Giordano (1867-1948), the young contemporary of Puccini, is another important composer of the verismo movement. His work, Andrea Chenier (1896), written in 1896, was a way of liberation for the period of the French Revolution. Apart from the undoubtedly dramatic quality of this work, which has exaggerated effect of verismo in both plot and music sections, some differences are observed in the genre. The harmonies are heavy and old fashioned and some local colours in the vocal party are taken from revolution songs such as Ca ira, La Carmagnole, La Marseillaise (Özgül Ayazlar, 2007: p. 7). The subject of the 4-act opera named Andrea Chenier, written by Luberto Illica, the Italian libretto of Umberto Giordano who was born and raised in Istanbul, adapted from the life of French poet André Chénier (1762-1794), who was executed in the French Revolution. The work, whose premiere was held in La Scala in Milan on March 28, 1896, attracted great attention during the 20th century.

Violence in Lucia Di Lammermoor Lucia di lammermoor is a 3-act opera tragic, composed by Gaetano Donizetti, whose libretto was written by Salvatore Cammarano, and whose first voice was performed in 1835 in Naples. The opera, taken from 104

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Sir Walter Scott’s novel The Bride of Lammermoor, remains one of the immortal examples of Italian BelCanto art, the role of Lucia has been a milestone for famous sopranos for more than a century. The work is an outstanding example in which soprano stands out with its dramatic and collateral colours that reflect the sad story of two lovers of violence with dramatic qualities. Staying popular today, the work is modernized with various adaptations and brought to the audience (Web_14, Access Date: 23.05.2020). In fact, it is possible to encounter pornographic elements with very violent sex scenes in some modern operas put on stage today. Alban Berg’s Lulu opera is full of remarkable scenes with the theme of violence, sex and murder. In Lulu, the musical and dramatic structure takes on a more ambiguous and questioning identity and becomes a critical force that seeks to shake the socio-economic foundations of the opera tradition. In terms of both musical and topic selection, even this modernist opera / text, which is familiar with affirmative opera texts and does not hesitate to conflict with tradition in this way, ultimately punishes the chief female character who does not live within the framework of general moral norms, unfortunately dominates. It is an indication that you cannot get out of sexist discourse. Lulu is a drama that presents the morality and distortion of social moral laws in the personality of a woman and explains how human beings become the commodity of money laws in capitalist society. With the partition completed by Friedrich Cerha, Lulu was presented with a two-act 1937 version of the work, until it was staged in Paris Opera in 1979. Morality is commodity morality, in deep contradiction with human morality, and Lulu tries to explain this fundamental contradiction; it confronts natural human morality and hypocritical bourgeois morality and questions the concept of morality (Web_15, Accessed date: 26.05.2020). Dimitri Shotstakovich’s Lady MacBeth from the Mtsensk District and Powder Her Face by Thomas Adés also contain themes similar to the Lulu opera.

Violence in Troy What makes Troy unique, one of the most ancient values ​​of Anatolia is to be an epic that inspired everyone who guided the world from Alexander the Great to Julius Caesar, from Fatih Sultan Mehmet to Gazi Mustafa Kemal Ataturk and changed the course of history and to be a unique combination of war and struggle, and a culture of peace and tolerance. The Iliad Epic, written by Homer, which is one of the most important wars in history, is one of the few epics that spread to all continents on Earth and inspired cultures. 2018 is the twentieth anniversary of Troia’s entry into the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage List, and the European Parliament’s European Cultural Heritage Year. In this context, arts, sports, science and sustainable activities and projects in the field of education, extended over a year, has been prepared in Turkey (Web_16, Access Date: 06.01.2020). The Legend of Troy Opera, composed by Tevfik Akbaşlı as a result of the studies carried out in this direction, was staged for the first time at the International Troy Festival within the framework of the 2018 Troy Year celebrations announced by the Ministry of Tourism. In 2019, Troy Epic Opera, which was formed by the technical team of more than 300 and Turkey’s three major State Opera and Ballet artists together, was staged at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow on the occasion of Turkey-Russia Year of Mutual Culture and Tourism. The composition of the work based on the epic of Homer’s Iliad and Odeysseia belongs to Bujor Hoinic and his libretto belongs to Artun Hoinic (Web_17, Web_18, Accessed date: 01.06.2020). The famous story of Paris and Helen has been made with themes of war, violence and love. In the Epic Opera of Troy, the roles are distributed equally in the work where the characters of Hector and Achilles are in the role of a dancer, the gods and fantastic events are removed 105

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and placed on a realistic event. The work is adorned with a versatile ballet and modern dance scenes, and the epic story has been turned into an epic artistic production. The first Turkish opera, Troy, staged in Bolshoi, broke new ground in the history of art and appeared in the headline of the famous British newspaper The Times. The Madame Butterfly opera of Puccini, which deals with the tragedy of a Japanese girl and has been adapted for musical, rock, album, film and comic book adaptations, is one of the other opera works that we see reflections of violence. The subject of Madame Butterfly opera is based on a true story. It is possible to say that the opera literature contains many works containing violent elements as well as the works described above. According to Altar (2001), it can be said that Mussorsgki’s opera Boris Godounow (1874), or in a sense, Verdi’s La Traviata (1853) opera, are the pioneers of the movement based on violence in art.

Rock Music and Violence Rock’n’roll can be defined as a popular culture that realizes the resistance and opposition in the sociocultural field, sometimes consciously, sometimes unconsciously, in popular music and mostly in the form of subcultural formations. The emergence of youth cultures after the war led to the formation of an opposing and rebelling rock music. The topics that rock music shows the most resistance in the social field are war, race and gender discrimination, and the poverty on the world scale. Rock music, which we can regard as one of the most important elements in popular music, is the most successful tool to carry out political protest (Çalış, 2006). The term rock music and popular music includes categories such as hard rock, soft rock, punk rock, grunge, heavy metal, rap, salsa and soul music (Strasburger & Hendren, 1995: p. 98). Rock is an industrially communicated culture created by various means, translated into particular forms, distributed and sold. When rock music is considered historically, it has been one-to-one connected music with anarchy and violation images. Rock music, a product of capitalism, was born simultaneously and in a paradoxically developed response to capitalism (Rowe, 1996: p. 44-57). Rock music reproduces sexism both in lyrics, in the vocal style of musicians, and in the intensity and hardness of music, as a genre with a sexist structure. Rock has a structure that produces the material pleasures of the individual bodies as rhythm on its own and reproduces it by its re-execution (Calis, 2006: pp. 111-127). Rock music comes first among the music that adolescents listen to as a form of expression in the context of self-criticism and rebellion. Rock is a riot music. Every action of rockers is breaking the normal, breaking the rules, screaming riot. They usually walk slowly. Heavy metal fans usually wear black and create a layout for low sociocultural tastes (Angı, 2013; Gaines, 1991; Weinstein, 1991). The phenomenon of violence in Rock can be associated with Baudrillard’s definition of consumer society, which is both oppressive and peaceful, and violent. The question of violence describes how the normality and rationality of some institutions in the community turn from collective escape behaviour (drug hippies, counter-violence) to a form of anomy or anomaly ranging from destructiveness to infectious depression. This society, which can be called the society of tolerance or the society of abundance, also leads to a structure that contains certain contradictions and imbalances (Çalış, 2006: p. 131-132). The instruments commonly used in rock music are electric guitar, bass guitar, drum and keyboard. Black Sabbath, Pink Floyd, Metallica, Iron Maiden, Guns and Roses, U2, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Mega death, Slayer, Radiohead, HIM, Beatles, Rolling Stone, The Doors, Deep Purple, Pearl Jam, Nirvana, Bill Haley, Elvis Presley, Led Zeppelin, Queen, Bon Jovi, Scorpions, Ac / Dc, Red Hot Chili Peppers, 106

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Radiohead, Lordi, Muse, The Cranberries, Offspring etc. can be mentioned among the world famous names or groups of this music type, which is dominated by a rather violent and noisy music structure with the use of apparatus like distortion etc. (Angı, 2013: p. 75).

Metal Music and Violence Heavy metal or Metal music based on Blues and Rock’n Roll genres is a type of rock music that began to develop in England and the United States in the 1960s. Black Sabbath group is the pioneer of metal music that emerged in England. Metal music, which develops with groups such as Led Zeppelin, Deep Purple and Queen, spread all over the world by dividing into different genres including Heavy Metal, Black Metal, Death Metal, Doom / Stoner / Sludge Metal, Folk / Viking / Pagan Metal, Glam Metal, Gothic Metal, Groove Metal, Manovar, Metalcore / Deathcore, Grindcore, Dio, Apocalyptica, Metalcore, Power Metal, Progressive Metal, Sludge Metal, Speed ​​Metal, Alternative Metal, Thrash Metal, Symphonic Metal, Oriental Metal, Nude Metal, Industrial Metal etc. Brunner (2006) states that these subspecies are constantly developing. Megadeth, Slayer, Sepultura, Cannibal Corpse, Overkill etc. are the main representatives of this species (Angı, 2013). Metal music, which is an important part of the popular culture and music industry, is performed by numerous groups and individuals in different parts of the world. Heavy metal is based on vocally thick sounds, distortion caused by distorting or changing the natural sounds of guitars and electric guitars, and generally very loud sounds. Distortions and fuzz in the form of pedals are among the important tools used in rock music and metal music to increase the sound intensity (Angı, 2013: p. 76). According to Walser (1990), the song, which used the term Heavy metal for the first time, was Born to be wild in the album released in 1968 by the rock band Stephen Wolf, whose albums achieved great success until 1974 and whose albums showed more than 25 million sales worldwide (Walser, 1990). Metal music, which is generally identified with the concept of violence, has a wide range of commercial properties in the framework of production and consumption relations as well as its psychological and sociological effects. Separated types of metalcore and deathcore, fusing metal elements with hardcore punk together with black metal and death metal in metal music genres, has an important market share. With groups such as Mexico’s Brujeria, Brazil’s Sepultura and Slovakia’s Gladiator, thrash and death metal scenes have also become a starting point for expressing identity. Jeremy Wallach writes that youth in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore use metal to express anger in uneven economic development. As the pioneer of oriental metal, Israeli heavy metal band Orphaned Land and Palestine Khalas came together in 2013 to send a message of living together. Death metal- Hazeen used metal music to respond to increased Islamophobia in Australia (Web_5, Accessed date: 17.03.2020). Weinstein (1991) distinguishes between the visual and verbal dimensions of the metal. An important visual dimension of metals is the culture album cover. These symbolize skulls, monsters, a violent chaos theme. Verbal size is written in album titles and group names, which also symbolize evil and chaos: Weinstein (1991) draws attention to two main themes of dionicism and chaos by basing on the content analysis of more than four thousand metal songs such as Annihilator, Blue Murder, Angel of Death, Manowar, Megadeth, Nuclear Attack, Poison, Hunter, Twisted Sister, Venom, etc. Ozzy Osbourne’s Crazy Train, Judas Priest’s Beyond the Realms of Death and Metallica’s Fade to Black are examples of these. The songs about social chaos at the second level are pollution, war, violence, political corruption,

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disaster, injustice etc. Black Sabbath’s Children of the Grave can be listed as Judas Priest’s Savage and Motorhead’s March or Die (Stack, Gundlach & Reeves, 1994). Death metal is an amazing genre for many people. Music is aggressive, words are often violent and misogynistic, and have been accused of inciting violent crimes such as rape and murder. Cannibal Corpse, one of the most successful death metal bands, reaches over 2 million sales worldwide and sings on topics such as murder, rape, torture, child killing, decapitation and necrophilia. The sale of the Cannibal Corpse group’s records was banned in Australia between 1996 and 2006 (Web_6, Accessed date: 17.03.2020). The video of Cannibal Corpse’s song, Sentenced To Burn, which contains images with themes such as drug use and oral blood discharge, has been viewed on social media by more than millions of viewers to date (Web_1, Accessed date: 17.03.2020). In the songs of the same group, Priests Of Sodom, while a man’s eyes are carved and it is filled with brutally bloody facial images, the splitting of people’s bodies, gushing blood from mouths and the pleasure of eating human flesh draws attention in the Code of the Slashers (Web_2, Accessed date: 17.03.2020). In metal music samples, it is seen that metal heads lose consciousness by shaking their heads with their long hair like crazy. Those who watch at open-air concerts are shaking their heads rhythmically at the same time. The sounds usually sound as if they are belching or passing. Another example of metal music, from which we can find traces of violence, is Solway Firth, belonging to the Slipknot group. Intense elements of violence are dominant along with the images of arm and head rupture in the video clips of the band, where singers are usually masks on their faces. The video of Psychosocial, one of the other singles of the group, gathered nearly 350 million viewers on social media, while The Devil In I song reached nearly 257 million (Web_3, Access date: 17.03.2020; Web_7, Access date: 18.03.2020). The fact that metal music attracts such attention reveals the fact that people enjoy watching it while avoiding being exposed to violence. Thompson, Geeves, and Olsen, (2019) emphasize that negative emotions are often avoided in everyday life, but artistic efforts are often appreciated. The fact that the execution scenes have attracted large audiences for centuries can be considered as a confirmatory phenomenon. Young fans of metal music are often called extinct. They are called the “dead-end children” of society (Gaines, 1991) and disposable youth (Weinstein, 1991). Irregular family life contributes to the basic attraction of metal fans to metal music. Heavy metal lyrics are alleged to encourage suicide through suggestions and imitation. Suicide Solution and Paranoid, two of Osbourne’s songs from the album Blizzard of Oz, contain lyrics that talk about suicides, like Suicide is slow with liquor and Suicide is the only way out. Suicide rates are four times higher than women. Fans of metal music, especially thrash metal types, come disproportionately from the working class (Weinstein, 1991). In their study, Thompson, Geeves, and Olsen, (2019) investigated the emotional experiences that Death Metal music started with extremely violent themes and examined whether enjoying this genre is related to personality traits. They made fans of Death Metal music (n = 48) and non-fans (n ​​= 97) listen to a 60-second recording from Death Metal and rated their emotional experience. Compared to nonfans, they found that fans experience a wide range of positive emotions, including power, joy, peace and curiosity, while non-fans report equally negative experiences, including tension, anger and fear. In the research, which is distinguished by the personality traits of fans and non-fans, it was found that fans have less motivation, conscience, compliance and listening to music. The results showed that individuals with certain personality and motivations for listening to music tend towards aggressive music with violent themes, and their desire for this genre encourages a range of positive emotional responses to this music. 108

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The negative effects of heavy metal music on adolescents’ moods and behaviours are constantly emphasized by researchers. It is a fact that adolescents who prefer heavy metal have a higher tendency to behave like alienated from society, committing suicide, having sexual behaviour disorder and addicting to drug (Arnett, 1991; Christensen & Roberts, 1990). Some researchers (Metzger, 1991; Martin, Clarke and Pearce, 1993; Lester and Whipple, 1996) have investigated the relationship between music preference and psychological vulnerability, such as depression and suicide anxiety. Martin, Clarke and Pearce (1993) emphasize that there is a significant gender bias in the majority of men who prefer metal music as it causes problems such as drug and alcohol use, alongside weakness indicators such as depression, suicidal thoughts, and deliberate self-harm, especially among young women. Rubin, West, and Mitchell (2001) in their research revealed that college students who prefer heavy metal and rap music have more hostile attitudes compared to students who prefer alternative, dance-soul or country music types. In addition, it was determined that those who listened to heavy metal music have more negative attitudes towards women, while rap music fans have more confidence in others. Similarly, Took and Weiss (1994) concluded that students who prefer rap and heavy metal music have lower than average academic performances, have behavioural problems at school, and getting into drug use, sexual activity and arrest events (quot. in Anderson et al., 2003a). In a survey about young people, 25% of the metal fans responded that some young people, who are already depressed, have committed suicide after hearing suicide themes in metal music. In the results obtained from the qualitative part of the questionnaire, there were responses like I saw that a friend or a singer, especially with the song of a group they admired, a song can push them off the cliff (Wass et al., 1988-1989). Metal fans state that their favourite Metallica’s work is Fade to Black. The song makes think of suicide even for a person with a low level of depression. (Stack, Gundlach & Reeves, 1994, quot. in Arnett, 1991). The apparent effects of suicide songs may be more evident in young, academically less successful, more alienated or depressed people (Arnet, 1991; Martin, Clarke and Pearce, 1993; Wass, Miller and Redditt, 1991; Weinstein, 1991; Rustad, Small, Jobes, Safer, Petterson, 2003; Stack and Gundlach, 1994). One of the reasons why heavy metal fans are not disturbed by the lyrics that depict themes such as rape, murder and revolt of women and children, can be said that these depictions stem from knowing that they are not fantasy but reality. This ensures that violent content is compatible with their enjoyment of music. Other reasons can be considered as the shocking nature of words that boldly exceed this, enhances a sense of identity and belonging in the community despite internal censorship, as well as nurturing and strengthening the instinctive experiences that fans look for while listening to music. Death metal fans listen to the music not because of its aesthetic beauty, but because they increase their motivation and have an energetic, empowering appeal. Violent music provides a strong instinctive feeling and a form of social representation that provides a strong sense of community and a sense of shared identity for fans (Web_7, Accessed date: 18.03.2020). This finding coincides with Moses’s (2007) view that violence is an act caused by instinctive or environmental factors.

Hip-hop Culture and Rap Music Violence According to Morgan and Bennet (2011), the main elements of hip-hop which was represented worldwide and created by black and Latino youth in the mid-1970s on the East Coast of the United States, are rap, deejaying, break dance and art of graffiti. Other items include sampling music and beatbox. The rap of MC is one of the main elements in music, meaning to say words composed of words that are suitable for 109

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the tempo of the music. As MC stands for, terms such as Master of Ceremonies, Microphone Control or Mic Check can be mentioned. According to Kahraman (2015), Hip-hop culture, which emerged by the substrate of the people in historical development and developed in the centres where they live, is the only art movement that can emerge as a way of art and a way of life and spread rapidly to the world. Rap music can be defined as a musical form that rhymes, rhythmic speech and street language are freely monotonously written on a musical infrastructure (Keyes, 2002: p. 1). Choi (2003, p. 61) states that Rap music originates from the underground cultural transformation that began in the early 1970s and was called Hip-hop, and is the product of an Afro-American urban culture associated with African-American music. It can be said that the reflections of violence in rap music genre are lower than that of Metal music. Being seen as a second class, crushing and pushing makes people aggressive and encourage crime. Therefore, there is abundant swearing, insurrection, insult and derogatory words for women in rap music (Angı, 2013: p. 69). The song sale pute by the French rap singer Aurélien Cotentin is one of the typical examples where the mentioned lyrics content comes to life. Due to their violent theme, it is possible to say that some songs are excluded from the concert programs from time to time. The United States (US) Ministry of Foreign Affairs has sent hip hop artists such as Tony Blackmon and Chen Lo to different countries of the world since 2005, in the tradition of creating friendly alliances and diplomacy through music (Richardson & Pough, 2016). In 12 May 2016, Tony Blackman, US State Department’s first hip-hop envoy, visited the Ondokuz Mayıs University in Samsun in Turkey for the promotion of the hip-hop culture by cooperating with the authors of the present study with the support of the US Embassy in Turkey and he has had conversations about hip-hop culture through a series of activities. According to Blackman, who has been in İzmir and Trabzon as well as Samsun within the framework of the introductory program, Hip-hop is a culture consisting of disc jockey (DJ), visual arts, also known as graffiti, mosaic art, rap, rhyming, rap vocalism and making music with beatboxing. (Web_13, Accessed date: 24.06.2016). In each populated continent (and most countries), there are thousands of local hip-hop scenes, primarily shaped by artistic and cultural practices produced, defined and maintained by young people in their neighbourhood and community. These scenes are often described as underground Hip-Hop, both to characterize their critical challenges against traditional norms and to distinguish them from commercial hip-hop (Morgan & Bennet, 2011: p. 180). Some of the notable names in Rap music, which includes sub-genres such as Boom Bap Rap, Gangsta Rap, Hardcore Rap, Rap Rock, Country-Rap, are: Tupac Shakur, Eminem, Timbaland, 50 Cent, Snoop Doggy Dogg, Usher, Missy Elliot, MC Lyte, Da Brat, Awkwafina, Bhad Bhabie, Grandmaster Flash, Afrika Bambaataa, Kurtis Blow, Sugarhill Gang, Run-DMC, Beastie Boys, Akon, Lauryn Hill, Eve, Jay-Z, Belkalis Almanzar, Lil Peep, Queen Latifah, Nicky Minaj, 21 Savage, Murphy Lee, MF Doom, YoungBoy Never Broke Again, Big Moe, Bad Azz, Nipsey Hussle, OG Maco, Pumpkinhead, Asher Roth, Lil Keed, DMX, The Notorious B.I.G., Ice Cube, Eazy-E, Proof, Nas, Dr. Dre, Wiz Khalifa, Chris Brown, Post Malone, Billie Eilish, Travis Scott, Bonez MC, Luciano, Keny Arcana, Aurélien Cotentin, Oxmo Puccino, MC Solaar, Criolo, FrancisM, Drake, Feis Ecktuh, Sagopa Kajmer, Ceza, Cartek, Ezhel, Eunhyuk, Baby Blue, Example, Ms. Dynamite, Cadet, Vava, Jackson Wang, Prabh Deep, Sido, SeRo, Big Sean, Fetty Wap, Emcee Hasnain.

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According to Pennycook, especially in the United States, the harsh expression of the main theme of Rap songs, roughly described, constitutes a radical attitude towards the established system and an obvious sexual fight. Since Hip Hop artists see themselves as missionaries in this regard, they try to make them accept the society by legitimizing the language they use through the songs they wrote (Transferring from Pennycook, Göktürk Cary, 2016: p. 162). Another type of music that contains violent items is Drill. Drill is a rap music style that appeared on the South Side of Chicago in the early 2010s. Drill music performers include Chief Keef, Fredo Santana, Montana of 300, King Louie, G Herbo. Rocko’s music video called U.O.E.N.O., with over 38 million views on social media, is one of the examples in drill music. Reviews of the relationship between Drill music consumption and forensic cases in London are frequently voiced by security forces and It is argued by the public that young people who listen to this kind of music have more aggressive characteristics and that Drill music and similar genres have an undeniable effect on the violent tendency of the society, especially in gang-related crimes. According to Johnson and Schell-Busey (2016), some research shows that online social media activity is related to gang-related violence (Kleinberg & Mcfarlan, 2019). Kleinberg and Mcfarlan (2020) suggest that potential problems with drill music are not unique to England and a youth culture phenomenon that stands out with its violent events related to this genre is of increasing importance in Chicago, Amsterdam and Rotterdam and emphasizes that some policy makers have ended this music genre. For example, some songs by Drill artists Skengdo and AM are prohibited from playing. According to rapper Drillminister, the words in drill music are usually about getting money, status and power, because these are things that people don’t have in movies, streets (Savage, 2020). In productions including Drill music genre, violence and drug promotion are at the forefront. For this reason, videos of this genre are often exposed to censorship. It has been revealed in many studies that media violence, group dynamics and gender factors have an effect on aggression behaviours (Brown & Devlin, 2003). In the literature, it is possible to encounter many studies investigating the effect of music in triggering violent behaviors (Anderson and Bsuhman, 2001; Anderson et al., 2003a; Anderson et al., 2003b; Barongan and Nagayama Hall, 1995; Batmaz and Aksoy, 1995; Günindi Ersöz, 2002; Tropeano, 2006; Johnson et al., 1995; Johnson, Jackson and Gatto, 1995; St. Lawrence and Joyner, 1991; Kalof, 1999; Lester and Whipple, 1996; Rustad et al., 2003; Seidman, 1994; Sherman and Dominick, 1986; Stack and Gundlach, 1994; Strasburger and Hendren, 1995; Viemerö and Paajanen, 1992; Mahiri and Conner, 2003). Another fact that is as important as the display of violent products is the normalization of violence by watching it constantly. Although researchers emphasize that violent publications lead to increased violent behaviour and the normalization of violence in the society, violent and aggressive behaviours are frequently included in music videos (Günindi Ersöz, 2002). In a study conducted in the United States and investigating violence and aggression in music videos, violent behaviour was found in 56% of 166 music videos. 73.3% of the attackers in this study are male and 26.7% are female. In contrast, the proportion of female victims is 76.8% and the proportion of male victims is 23%. While violent behaviour resulted in death in 3% of music videos, 2.86 violent images per video were found (Günindi Ersöz, 2002, quoted by Sherman and Dominick). The common point of the conclusions reached in researches on this subject is that there is a positive relationship between media violence and aggression (Singer et al., 1999: p. 881). Hip-hop music videos are probably the most influential and controversial artistic expression in American pop culture today and reach young people worldwide through global media marketing (Chung, 2015). According to Erdem (2014), these two phenomena feed on each other because pornography often confronts us with the concept of violence. It is possible to come across pornographic elements with 111

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violent content in some of the clips and videos covering the music genres mentioned above. The processing of women as a sexual commodity in musical media is one of the main factors in illustrating the phenomenon of violence. In fact, it is possible to encounter illegal examples where men and animals are used as sexual objects as a torture element. But most of them are controlled by lawmakers. The truth that this whole picture tells us is that, as mentioned before, violence is part of human nature. Catharsis is defined as liquidation, which explains oppressed ideas to consciousness. As a psychological process, catharsis is the main elements of the Aristotle Tragedy. After the excitement of the audience reaches its peak, it is evacuated by clearing the mind at the end of the game. This process is the most important function and effect of Tragedy (Mutlu, 2004, quot. in Erdem, 2014). Many studies on violence and pornography in the media shows that it leads to emotional laxity when viewers watch violence / pornographic violence; and the demonstrations reducing the behavioural tendencies involving pornographic violence provide catharsis. On the contrary, violence and pornographic violence integrate into culture and become ordinary because it allows such shows to rationalize and banalize the individual against violence and pornographic violence. In other words, violence and pornographic violence provide catharsis, it threatens the individual and encourages him to use the behaviour model for violence in the social environment as a tool of authority and domination. (Oskay, 2000, quot. in Erdem, 2014).

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Although it is understood that there are studies dealing with music and violence in the related literature, researchers are advised to work on the reflections of violent and fueling violent behaviour in the digital world and violent acts by musicians in addition to increasing their number. In this study, considering that war and music and violence in movie music are excluded, it is thought that researchers can focus on these issues in their studies.

CONCLUSION Violence is a phenomenon that humanity has been exposed to throughout the ages and will face until its end. Humanity has not encountered the destructive effect of violence in any period as in the 20th century and did not have to struggle so much individually and socially. In the first 20 years of the 21st century, which we are preparing to leave behind, violence, which does not lose anything from its influence, has affected the humanity by ravaging the world. The dizzying changes and transformations in the world continue to shake not only people but all living things in nature. Music has become both a breath and a scream in the life adventure of human beings. As a form of expression, music has a unique function in telling themes such as happiness, joy, pain, sadness, violence, death, etc. and conveying what is existing in nature in an aesthetic integrity through contrasts. While wild capitalism markets the facts about violence through popular culture products, it makes use of the driving force of art, and art has become a tool that serves to make violence seem as usual. This mutual relationship changes the perceptions and attitudes of individuals and societies and affects them in a psychological, economic and social context. In the lonely world order that fuels hatred, interest, rebellion and aggression, the individual becomes more isolated and distanced from himself. With social media tools, people can reach music recordings, live concerts, music videos quickly from where 112

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they sit, face violent elements at any time, become violent and insensitive. People are aware of the fact of violence, but enjoy watching and following violent products. In a way, this is purification, ejaculation and catharsis. In this study, the role of music in reflecting the phenomenon of violence were handled on antiquity and opera works, symphonies, rock / metal music, hip-hop and rap music samples and it was tried to explain how the music triggered violent behaviour.

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Rustad, R. A., Small, J. E., Jobes, D. A., Safer, M. A., & Peterson, R. J. (2003). The Impact of Rock Videos and Music with Suicidal Content on Thoughts and Attitudes About Suicide. Suicide & LifeThreatening Behavior, 33(2), 120–131. doi:10.1521uli.33.2.120.22776 PMID:12882414 Şahi̇nkaya Kaplancik, E. (2019). Opera Sahnesınde Tecavüz (Philomela Miti Bağlamında Bir Araştırma ve Bir Analiz). The Journal Of International Social Research, 12(63), 535–549. doi:10.17719/jisr.2019.3252 Savage, M. (2020). Does Drill Music Cause Crime, or Offer an Escape From It? Retrieved from: https:// Www.Bbc.Com/News/Entertainment-Arts-51459553 Say, A. (2005). Müzik Ansiklopedisi Besteciler, Yorumcular, Eserler, Kavramlar. Müzik Ansiklopedisi. Seidman, S. (1995). Müzik Videolarında Cinsiyet Rol Stereo Tipleşmesine İlişkin Bir Araştırma. Gazi Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Yıllık Dergisi, 1(2), 249–257. Sheng, K. C. (2007). Media/Visual Literacy Art Education: Sexism İn Hip-Hop Music Videos. Art Education, 60(3), 33–38. doi:10.1080/00043125.2007.11651642 Sherman, B. L., & Dominick, J. (1986). Violence and Sex in Music Videos: TV and Rock’n Roll. Journal of Communication, 36(1), 79–93. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1986.tb03040.x Singer, M. I., Miller, D. B., Guo, S., Flannery, D. J., Frierson, T., & Slovak, K. (1999). Contributors to Violent Behavior Among Elementary and Middle School Children. Pediatrics, 104(4), 878–884. doi:10.1542/peds.104.4.878 PMID:10506229 St. Lawrence, J. S., & Joyner, D. J. (1991). The Effects of Sexually Violent Rock Music on Males’ Acceptance of Violence Against Women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 49–63. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1991. tb00477.x Stack, S., Gundlach, J., & Reeves, J. L. (1994). The Heavy Metal Subculture and Suicide. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 24(1), 15–23. PMID:8203005 Strasburger, V., & Hendren, R. L. (1995). Rock Music and Music Videos. Pediatric Annals, 24(2), 97–103. doi:10.3928/0090-4481-19950201-09 PMID:7724257 Thompson, W. F., Geeves, A. M., & Olsen, K. N. (2019). Who Enjoys Listening to Violent Music and Why? Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(3), 218–232. doi:10.1037/ppm0000184 Took, K. J., & Weiss, D. S. (1994). The Relationship between Heavy Metal and Rap Music and Adolescent Turmoil: Real or Artifact? Adolescence, 29, 613–621. PMID:7832025 Tropeano, E. (2006). Does Rap or Rock Music Provoke Violent Behavior? Journal of Undergraduate Psychological Research, 1, 31–34. Uçan, A. (2007). Okullarda Şiddet Sorununun Çözümü Sanat Eğitimi. In 3. Ulusal Sanat Eğitimi Sempozyumu / Sanat Eğitimi ve Şiddet [3rd National Symposium of Art Education / Art Education and Violence] (pp.1-32). Ankara: Gündüz Eğitim ve Yayıncılık. Uluçay, T. (2012). Müzik Eğitiminin Ortaöğretim Öğrencilerinin Şiddet Eğilimlerine Etkisi [The Effects of Music Education to the Violence Tendencies of Students] (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). İnönü University Education Science Institution, Malatya, Turkey.

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Ünsal, A. (1996). Genişletilmiş Bir Şiddet Tipolojisi. Cógito (Salvador), 6(7), 29–36. Viemerö, V., & Paajanen, S. (1992). The Role of Fantasies and Dreams in the TV Viewing-Aggression Relationship. The Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 109–116. Walser, R. (1990). Running with the Devil: Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music. Wesleyan University Press. Wass, H., Miller, M. D., & Stevenson, R. G. (1989). Factors Affecting Adolescents’ Behavior and Attitudes Toward Destructive Rock Lyrics. Death Studies, 13(3), 287–303. doi:10.1080/07481188908252305 Web_1. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cr4gKVsqh9o Web_10. (n.d.). https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pagliacci Web_11. (n.d.). https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/music/album-reviews/james-dillon-philomela-1.1274365 Web_12. (n.d.). https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeo_ve_Juliet#cite_note-3 Web_13. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u2skdO0US78 Web_14. (n.d.). https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3493107/Fright-opera-Covent-Garden-warnsmusic-lovers-steel-sex-violence-latest-production-row-gang-rape-stage.html Web_15. (n.d.). https://t24.com.tr/k24/yazi/alban-bergin-lulu-operasi,1738 Web_16. (n.d.). http://www.troya2018.com/troia-neden-onemli Web_17. (n.d.). https://www.kulturservisi.com/p/uluslararasi-troia-festivali-iki-yeni-eserin-uretiminesahne-oldu Web_18. (n.d.). https://www.yenicaggazetesi.com.tr/troya-operasi-the-times-gazetesinde-yer-aldi-23 0183h.htm Web_2. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=afrGiaxOorc Web_3. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEEasR7hVhA Web_4. (n.d.). https://apps.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/mortality/whodpms Web_5. (n.d.). https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-politics-of-heavy-metal-87999 Web_6. (n.d.). https://theconversation.com/death-metal-is-often-violent-and-misogynist-yet-itbringsjoy-and-empowerment-to-fans-91909 Web_7. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5abamRO41fE Web_8. (n.d.). https://www.kulturservisi.com/p/kavga-ve-zaferin-siiri-sostakovicin-7-senfonisi/ Web_9. (n.d.). https://tr.qwe.wiki/wiki/Music_for_a_Time_of_War Weinstein, D. (1991). Heavy Metal a Cultural Sociology. Macmillan.

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Young, W. H., & Young, N. K. (2005). American History Through of Music of the Great Depression. Greenwood Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Aron, L. (2020). Rock Music and Psychoanalysis. Frenis Zero Press. Baily, J. (2001). Can You Stop the Birds Singing?: The Censorship of Music in Afghanistan. Freemuse. Buckholz, W. (2012). Understand Rap: Explanations of Confusing Rap Lyrics: You And Your Grandma Can Understand. Abrams. Cope, A. L. (Ed.). (2010). Black Sabbath and the Rise Of Heavy Metal Music. Routledge. Daughtry, M. J. (2015). Listening to War: Sound, Music, Trauma, and Survival in Wartime Iraq. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199361496.001.0001 Espejo, R. (2008). Should Music Lyrics Be Censored for Violence and Exploitation? Greenhaven Press. Fast, S., & Pegley, K. (2012). Music, Politics and Violence. Wesleyan University Press. Gilman, L. (2016). My Music, My War: The Listening Habits of U.S. Troops in Iraq and Afghanistan. Wesleyan University Press. Ramet, S. P. (1994). Rocking the State: Rock Music and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia. Westview Press. Ritter, J., & Daughtry, M. J. (2007). Music in the Post-9/11 World. Routledge. Tucker, B. (2013). Musical Violence. Gangsta Rap and Politics in Sierra Leone. The Nordic Africa Institute. Wicke, P. (1990). Rock Music: Culture, Aesthetics and Sociology. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/ CBO9780511586156

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Metal Music: Music genre that started to develop in England and the United States in the 1960s, based on Blues and Rock ‘n’ Roll genres. Music: Artistic language for expressing thoughts and ideas with sounds collected from an aesthetic point of view within a framework. Opera: A musical theatre created for the revival of the stage piece composed to portray a poetic story. Projection: Reflection created by the conditional expectation of a variable. Rap: A rebellious musical genre consisting of foot rhythm dance moves with uniform rhythmic speeches on a shallow musical infrastructure. Violence: Using force through pressure harms the living organism in all its aspects.

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Chapter 7

Illustration as a Visual Communication Culturel Product Aesthetic Line in Visual Representation Tuğba Demir İzmir Kavram Vocational School, Turkey

ABSTRACT The formal setup of this study is primarily based on the connection between visuality, visual communication, and visual culture. Subsequently, information is given about illustration as a visual culture product. How illustrations focusing on the problems of the modern world can present a visual message with aggressive drawings will be analyzed through examples and shown. This study deals with the representation of the image through representation and explores the meaning behind the depiction of the messages to be conveyed through illustration in visual communication. The illustration chosen for limiting the study focuses on the problems of the modern world and conveys the focus on the subject with a critical line in the reflection of aggressive linear violence.

INTRODUCTION The human has created reality by putting the sense of sight in the foreground in perceiving the world and attributed meaning to the image. This situation has raised the importance of visuality in communication. The transformation of any visual into a form of expression by gaining a meaning initiates the visual dimension of the communication process. Although visual communication is a type of communication that has always been used, it has strengthened its current importance as the basic communication method of the age. Visual communication is communication messages transformed into visual forms. In this case, it would not be wrong to indicate that images have an impression on the human being, and even seeing itself is a form of being impressed. It is known that as a result of the impression that images create on people, they turn into a certain meaning in the human mind. Expressing these meanings with a DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch007

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common perception creates an accumulation to interpret the visual. At this point, a visual understanding of culture has occurred. Undoubtedly, every tool that the human has discovered in expressing himself/ herself has been produced to convey emotions and thoughts. Because message transfer with visuals has gained very much importance especially since the twentieth century and after, the ability of visual tools such as text, figure, photograph, picture, graphic, and illustration to encode a conceptual message in a short time by providing meaningful integrity is a highly emphasized subject. Illustration, which is the final result of the drawing attained with semantic integrity by gaining a shape, emerges as a result of aesthetic orientations. When the message conveyed in the name of communication is formed with a symbolic coding that is visualized, it will not consist of only an image. The image seen now has turned into a visual word or a visual text that both affects the person who sees it and is affected by the meaning formed on it. If the impact of an idea is important, the way it is expressed requires adopting different methods. The communication message intended to be conveyed by utilizing the visual is the product of an effort that is different from the effect created by word in terms of the effect it will produce. It is possible to picture the image with its traditional expression or to be illustrated in technical ways within digital possibilities. The fact that the meaning of the illustration can appeal to the common perception and its meaning can be understood in a very short time affect the cultural texture created by the visual. The fact that visuals have a semantic value in the communication type developed with the visual communication method makes it necessary to evaluate visual communication and visual culture together. In the process of interpretation of visual communication based on image, the image is formed on an aesthetic basis. For this reason, it is possible to state that the tools that make up the visual culture have artistic content. The content of visual culture that feeds on art can be generally diversified with examples such as text, images, graphics, drawing, video, animation, cinema, painting, photography, cartoons, and illustrations. A meaningful message can be transferred with each of these tools. In today’s world where digital technologies develop rapidly, it is possible to indicate that visual culture products are also in a certain transformation in the digitalization process. In this study, the subject of illustration, which is one of the application examples of visual culture, will be examined. The evaluations will involve what the visual communication messages encoded through illustration images are. By creating visual forms, messages to be conveyed in terms of communication can be in any subject. The limitation of the study was subjected to a preliminary research process because the population of the study consists of a large number of samples. By choosing a way of limitation between the subjects of the messages conveyed by the illustration images, the sample of the study has been reduced to the illustration examples chosen randomly among many alternatives that present critical messages to the problems of the modern world. The selected illustration consists of examples that complement modern world problems. In the content of the study, illustrations that contain themes that can be addressed within the scope of modern world problems and reflect this theme with drawings of violence and fear will be discussed. The issue of dealing with the dimension of linear violence, which is aestheticized with illustration art, is considered important because violence increases every day taking part within the boundaries of human life in various ways. While violence and psychological and physical violent behaviors that are constantly encountered are the subjects of another research, to limit this study, how the drawing carrying a violent and fearful emotion is used as a protest method to express an idea is discussed. The visuals chosen for the reflection of the violence itself on the illustration examples as a protest method used to attract attention were determined randomly on the internet. The illustration is an artistic practice based on visuality developed based on 120

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skill and making use of the techniques of the art of drawing formalistically. It can be used in any area to visualize any thought. There is a limitation on the theme of the illustrations chosen due to the large number of areas they are used in. It is important for this study that the illustrations contain aggressive drawings in form and have a theme that tries to attract attention to the problems of the modern world. The examples to be examined for this study are the illustrations randomly selected among the illustrations published on the internet, and this choice does not have any privileges over another. The determined illustration images will not be displayed visually in the content of the work but will be reflected via the address link of the website where it is published. Illustrations chosen for the study will be resolved by the analysis method. Detailed information about the image and content of the visual will be revealed. The formal setup of this study is primarily based on the connection between visuality, visual communication, and visual culture. Subsequently, information is given about illustration as a visual culture product. Finally, information is given about how violence and fear emphasized by the drawing of illustration art are reflected. How illustrations focusing on the problems of the modern world can present a visual message with aggressive drawings will be analyzed through examples and shown.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION, CULTURE AND AESTHETICS Especially in the twentieth century and after, the importance given to the sense of sight has been very high. This situation has also manifested itself in the technological inventions developed and has been reinforced with the production and reproduction of the image. Expressing that the main event of the modern age is the conquest of the world as a picture, Heidegger can be thought to be right today when the image is mass-produced, edited, and manipulated (Pallasmaa, 2011: p.27). As Berger states in the first lines of his book Ways of Seeing, “seeing comes before speaking”. This statement emphasized that the priority of the visual and the act of seeing and the things that are seen are a pioneering factor in making sense of life (Berger, 2013: p.10). The seeing process of the human can be expressed as if describing a technical process. What happens in the human body while seeing? During seeing, beams of rays, called photons, coming from any object, pass through the lens of the eye and focus on the retina located at the back of the eye organ. Here, the rays that are converted into electrical signals are transmitted to the visual center at the back of the brain via the visual nerve, allowing the visual process to take place. Every image subject to the act of seeing takes place in this small and dark center. When people say “I see”, they see the effect of the rays coming to the eye organ transforming into electrical signals and watch the electrical signals in their brain (www.youtube.com). Every event that is subject to seeing takes place in the dark center of the brain, and in fact, the person tends to look at every image other than himself/herself within various meanings and to create his/her perception from the direction he/she is affected while analyzing the image. At this stage, the mind encounters the first example of the general cognitive problem that arises because the image the person sees also presents its contextuality. The object and the context attached to it can make it possible for a person to see the same object in different contexts. On the other hand, it may require an effort to understand the same objects with different contexts. From this point of view, it is possible to argue that the act of seeing is a selective action or that what is seen is integrated with the meaning attributed to it (Arnheim, 2015: p.54). According to Pallasmaa, the sense of sight has been considered as the most important of the senses in historical processes, and thinking itself has been considered with the terms about seeing 121

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(2011:p.19). In general, a person defines and tries to understand his/her environment by seeing it first. All subsequent reactions are thought to be realized after this stage (Ketenci & Bilgili, 2006: p.265). It is assumed that everything visible has its language, perceptual structure, and depth. This situation should also be evaluated in the sense that what is seen creates a communication dimension (Uçar, 2016: p.11). As the basic condition for people to produce social life and live together, communication is an activity of creating meaning. This process is carried out within a certain historical and social context (Yaylagül, 2014: p.14). In other words, the phenomenon of communication is defined as the social communication process that enables the exchange of thoughts and feelings between individuals and societies via words, body language, texts, images, and all kinds of visual materials, symbols, and signs. The definitions of visual communication reflected in the literature emphasize that it is the communication provided by television, cinema, and video. Thinking that visual communication can be realized only in a multimedia environment and with tools that have turned into a technological output by appealing to the eye narrows the field of existence of visual communication. Visual communication is about everything that can be seen and how they make sense. Visual communication creates the message to be conveyed through visuals. In the visual communication process, the concept of visual, which can be defined as the message or content, is shaped and gains new meanings thanks to the tools in the transferring process of the message (Uçar et al., 2011: p.146). Since the idea that visual communication carries an aesthetic concern is a dominant view in the literature, the emphasis on designing more visuals has gained importance. The opinion that visual communication generally takes place in the computer environment with applications such as text, images, graphics, drawing, sound, video, and animation, and that it can take place mostly in multimedia environments with digital processing of visuals has been the dominant view. The mutual reflections that emerge in this situation occur through the senses, and the senses are generally visually and aurally grouped, giving diversity to communication (Ketenci&Bilgili, 2006: p.255). One of the important names of popular culture, Warhol’s statement ‘I never read, I only look at the pictures’ represents an important view worth thinking about to understand the current era (Uçar et al., 2011:p.140). The fact that the act of seeing is at the top of the hierarchy of senses has solid foundations in physiological, psychological, and perceptual phenomena. However, critical perspectives have been developed regarding the elimination and suppression of other senses by reducing the world experience to seeing only or limiting this experience to the field of vision (Pallasmaa,2011:p.49). The history of communication, which is established visually through symbols and pictures, as one of the realities of sharing life, dates back to the period when primitive cave age people lived (Ketenci & Bilgili, 2006: p.265). Signs and symbols, which are among the visual communication elements, also dominate the graphic art. It is possible to state that graphic art, which means the representation of the image with shape, pattern, or drawings on a surface, includes photographs, drawings, diagrams, maps, texts, colors, pictures, and illustrations as a graphic within the visual communication tools. Also, it should be kept in mind that a connection of communication can be established with many other visual communication tools such as sculpture, photography, marbling, miniature, poster, writing, and theater. With each of these tools, a meaningful message can be transferred. When it comes to visual communication, visual messages created only on a technological basis should not be perceived. Besides, the twenty-first-century global culture represents a visual age that is far more comprehensive than the digital information age and includes images and symbols (Ö.Uçar et al., 2011: p.144). Twenty-first-century culture is becoming widespread visually, so looking at the visual culture from the current system also helps to determine the social indicators and effects of global culture (Aykut, 122

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2013: p.707). Visual communication has catchy, easily learned, and universal meaning and perception dimensions. Signs, symbols or pictograms (they can be used in the form of representational drawings by depicting an object, a place, a function, and even a concept) as visual communication elements that have become an integral part of human life are considered to have created a visual universe (Ketenci &Bilgili,2006:p. 269). Twenty-first-century visual culture is rapidly changing from text-based communication to visual satisfaction, combining cultural codes with the current system, showing more impact in society, and spreading to every field. The tools of the current system are visual, therefore, the art that is formed in the visual cultural field transforms art into virtuality with various technological image methods and into the everyday ordinary experience (Aykut, 2013: p.707). Since the human experience is more visual or visualized than ever before, it is possible to indicate that a very important part of modern life takes place on screens. In this direction, especially visual perception acts depending on cultural foundations (Ö.Uçar et al., 2011: p.144). In the process of interpreting the image in the visual communication system, humans benefit from their cultural background. About this, cultures rich in visuality are considered to have a wide perspective and density in terms of symbolic meaning and depth (T.F Uçar et al.,2011:p.64). As can be understood from this, cultural elements and practices belonging to culture have a symbolic expression. This situation, which is by the nature of culture, allows an analysis of the social interaction that is aimed or immanent in culture. Then it is possible to talk about the message that the pattern on the fabric or the plant motif on the marble aims to convey to the society. This symbolic language in question gives clues to the separation of soul and body as well as art, technique, and communication (Sungur,2007: pp.228-229). Saybaşılı argues that vision or visuality is a “technology” that is taught, imposed, and produced as a cultural construct over the cultural production of looking and seeing. Visual culture questions the epistemology, ethics, politics, economics, and aesthetics of knowing, perceiving, learning, and seeing in a way that encompasses all human sciences. From this point of view, art is not a separate category, on the contrary, it is in a critical relationship with all other social image and visibility situations. Visuality includes the cultural meanings of social production (2017: p.15). The most important aspect of the concept of culture that should be emphasized is that culture is a life order in which people try to construct meaning through symbolic representation practices (Tomlinson, 2004: p.33). Barnard has developed multifaceted thoughts on what visual culture is. According to him, visual culture is defined as everything that is revealed by humans, visible, communicative, and at the same time has an aesthetic purpose. What is visible, communicative, or involving a functional purpose is also something designed. However, in this case, the appearance or aesthetics of the resulting objective product may precede its function (2010, p.28). Visual culture turns into an argument in Haraway’s 1998 expression (as cited in Aykut, 2013: 709). According to her, seeing is a perennial question of the power of looking, and our imagination practices are perhaps latent violence. Visual culture is a phenomenon that should generally be considered in its design and aesthetic contexts (Kazel, 2017: p.49). For Morkovic, aesthetic experience can generally be defined as a special state of mind that is qualitatively different from the everyday experience (2012:p.1). By stating the opinion that ‘an artistic production comes out of the hands of an artistic production creator, but it blends into the society’, Yetkin gives importance to the process of the work of art, which is in the art drawing, meeting other people. A work of art that breaks away from its creator and blends into the society awaits those who read it, listen to it, and those who watch it. The encounter of the work of art with one of these creates an aesthetic situation. There is no difference in behavior between the creator and the person who 123

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watches the created work with pleasure because the human being before a work of art goes through the same psychological ways (1979: p.46). In Frascara’s expression, the aesthetic issue is already a need in the communicative design of a work of art containing a message (2004: p.11). According to Reich, aesthetics is related to art (1999: p.141). Gombrich, in the introduction sentence of his book The Story of Art, states “Actually there is no such thing as art.” He begins by denying the existence of art with that sentence and adds “There are artists only.” Thus, by drawing attention to the fact that art exists not with itself but with its artist, he brings a different dimension to understanding what art is (2015: p.15) So, what exactly is art? The concept of art, which has multiple definitions, implies any creative skill. So much so that, today the term art is about one who works on creative skills and it refers to application areas such as music, visual arts, performing arts, and the products created by the skills required for these applications. In that case, in terms of defining art, it gains meaning with the work it creates. Works of art are mostly products that display extraordinary perception and creative intuition. The meaning ascribed to the art itself or the work produced by art develops continuously by varying. Conceptually, art differs in individual, culture, and time (Ocvirk et al., 2013: p.6). Carr-Gomm draws attention to the difficulty of understanding art by warning the art audience to always be cautious in their search for meaning because each work comes out with human imagination. Looking at a work of art includes thinking about the product of that art. According to this opinion, art can be interpreted as the transfer of the meaning filtered from the thought of the performer to another person (2014: p.6). Reich mentioned the concept of aesthetics, which is the most discussed among the visual culture products formed by art performance, reflecting the point of view of the rationalists, and according to that point of view, the concept of aesthetics is related to beauty. The concept of aesthetics is evaluated together with the phenomenon of beauty. Aesthetic experience is created in various ways according to the way art is performed. However, according to this idea, why work is aesthetic is something that has a reason and can be evaluated. Aesthetics has the function of increasing basic sensory pleasures. General rules of aesthetics can be formulated (Reich, 1993: p. 142). While art extraordinarily presents the ordinary, it furnishes everyday experiences with a vital subtext and carries the human beyond the daily. The language of art expresses human emotion and puts thoughts into communication unlike any other (Ocvirk et al., 2013:p.5). This situation suggests that one of the features that differentiate humans from other living things is the production of art. Art production, which is a skill of constructing abstract thoughts and bringing them into being in the form of concrete works with the information obtained from the concrete world, does not appear in any living creature other than humans. Also, the oldest human findings consist of remains that are all in association with art, like the cave wall paintings. Just as no other living creature produces art, when human beings are not interested in art and are indifferent to artistic branches, they stay away from one of the most important characteristics that make them human (Canan & Acungil, 2018: p. 39). Every artist who performs his/her art is constantly changing the nature of art while looking for new ways to express himself/herself. Regardless of the time and place, art is something that is always produced because an artist wants to say something and chooses a special way to express it (Ocvirk et al., 2013: p.6). Art is a form of communication that is based on production between the artist and the audience, between societies, and beyond these, between ages. So much so that, by exceeding the rules of the time we are in, it brings thousands of years ago to the present. Knowing world history today is closely related to the inaccessible power of art because art is an embodied and abstracted expression of cultures. Art tells about the past and the present and will undoubtedly continue to tell tomorrow (Ünver, 2002: p.3).

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The existence of art supports human beings to express themselves freely and strengthen their creative side by revealing their existing talents. In this way, people can get rid of monotony by transforming into an individual who has creative, aesthetic taste can think and criticize. The existence of art in human life enables the individual to better observe his/her environment and distinguish the differences between objects. By questioning the meaning of the information previously taught to him/her about anything, he/she can change and reshape it, as well as gain the ability to have an idea about the moods of other individuals, increase his/her empathy, and strengthen his/her communication ability (Tepecik & Toktaş, 2014: p.17). Today, the concept of visuality is observed to be constantly changing thanks to the systems and technological tools that produce images. The most effective elements that provide this are the media and its technologies. The fact that visual culture is largely dependent on media productions reveals the need to rethink art under digital conditions (Kazel, 2017: p.49). In our digital age, with the use of computer technology in almost every field, visual culture products are one of the areas that are most affected, positively or negatively, by the possibilities and innovations of digital technologies. The digital age based on visuality has transformed the visual culture products in the digital environment. Today, digital technology is used extensively in every step of art from the artistic design stage to the printing stage as a final product (Ürper, 2012: p.19.) The art of illustration, fed by the art of painting, which is a narrative technique that can be made using all kinds of materials, is one of the cultural products that has developed further after the widespread use of digital media. Even though the artworks created to produce an aesthetic product in digital media are still debated, Reich emphasized that the artistry of the work done on the computer is controversially acceptable (1993: p.141); illustrations are one of the most common tools used for message transfer in the image age and it is almost certain that it will improve in this regard.

Illustration as a Visual Culture Product The use of visual images for the transmission of messages is accepted within the boundaries of the subject of illustration as one of the important application areas of graphic communication (Wigan, 2012: p.104). In other words, communication is based on the visual feeds on a creative design process and functions accordingly. The visual communicator, who designs by attributing certain meanings to visuals, communicates with the visuals that he/she designs by starting with a point and continuing with a drawing and discusses the symbols (Becer, 2015: p. 23). It is possible to consider visual communication established with graphic tools as a visual art discipline covering many fields. As a term born from the printing and publishing industry, graphic communication includes information technology and other creative fields. This diversity means a multi-piece basis on which designers can gain expertise. (Ambrose & Harris, 2012: p.12). The meaning of the word illustration is ‘to picture’ in its simplest terms. The concept of illustration started to be used in the thirteenth century, but at that time it was explained with differences in meaning. However, with the most up-to-date definition, illustration is the general name given to all elements that visually describe or interpret verbal elements such as titles, slogans, or texts. It is made to explain and interpret a subject or a text. In terms of their areas of use, illustrations can be grouped into three as advertisement illustrations, publication illustrations, and scientific and technical illustrations. However, illustrations can also be made for very different purposes. By illustrating all kinds of themes, a visual

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containing a message can be created. In the preparation of illustrations, photography, collage, and computer techniques are also used as well as traditional drawing and painting materials (Becer, 2015: p.210). As one of the visual culture products, illustration emerges as a way of interpreting the idea of ​​the illustrator who creates itself. It is obvious that this word, which comes from the Latin root ‘lustrare’, means making something understandable. From this point of view, the point that distinguishes it from other drawings is that it contains a certain theme and hidden visual codes. When it is seen, it reflects a certain thought in the mind of the person who sees it and as a result of the communication established through this art, the exchange of messages takes place. Its main purpose is to explain and inform an idea more effectively and efficiently. The success or failure of an illustration depends on the transmission of its message (Gikonv,1991: p.10). It is known that people described the world, the living environment, or the object to be depicted with a picture before photography was invented. The art of painting, which has existed since the first existence of human beings on earth, was seen as the method of human beings in telling their lives. However, photography, which emerged in the first quarter of the nineteenth century, took the place of painting and allowed telling the same subjects in a different, faster, and more realistic way (Kamburoğlu, 2013: p. 391). However, although photography is extremely important as a reflection of technical development, this is not considered a disadvantage in terms of illustration art. Using painting art techniques, illustration reveals a visual communication language that contains messages encoded by visualizing with a reality filtering from the mind of the artist to make an idea understandable. The illustration is used to convey messages that the reality of photography is not sufficient to convey (Ambrose & Harris, 2006: p.113). It should be noted that the visual communicator addresses a common aesthetic perception in the art production process of illustration or a similar art and has a design concern in this sense. However, the ultimate aim of visual communication products should be to producing effective communication rather than producing an avant-garde work of art (Becer, 2015: p. 15). According to Karadağ, people never feel uncomfortable with the fictionalization and idealization of real-life (2016: p. 111).

Visual Design of the Word Drawings form the basis of illustrations. Drawing, as a creative and cognitive activity, is considered to be very important in terms of illustration as a visual communication tool because the illustration is essentially a drawing method. Drawing is considered the basis of all visual arts and representation by painting. A visual inquiry, observation, assumption, thinking, criticism, and evaluation are included in the drawings created by the illustrator, who is the creator of the illustration (Wigan, 2012: p. 68). Visual culture examines not only the social production of the visual field but also the visual production of the social space. It should be noted that visuality is a symbolic structure, just like a language with words and writing. Images contain many codes. The visually created language codifies its word and carries a goal to bring forth questioning by laying an ideological cover between the human and the world. In analyzing the word that visuals try to tell, it is essential to test whether the visually designed image can convey “a message free from code”, as Ronald Barthes argued while discussing the photographic representation (Saybaşılı, 2017: p.16). Ziss has clarified some concepts in the process of designing a word or an idea by reflecting it through visual drawings to express a word, which carries a communicative message, with visuals. Accordingly, every material form that serves to show an object or a phenomenon is called a sign (signe). However, the sign is not limited to the display function alone. The scope of the sign (denotation) has a certain 126

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meaning. This constitutes its signification function. For this reason, it is necessary to consider the sign in terms of both its meaning function and material designation by drawing (2016: p.87). According to Saybaşılı, together with visual culture studies, the artistic practice itself has been articulated to cultural production both as an alternative knowledge production process and as a result of it. At the same time, it has become clear that the search for other (visual) languages ​​to better understand and make sense of the world is one of the important media of intellectual pursuit (2017:p.51). As in all human works, it is the content that is determinative of the art. The purpose of the artistic product is to reveal what is resonated with meaning in itself. Art philosophy should aim to grasp what is the aesthetic reflection of this content-laden thing and its beautiful appearance style, at least in thought (Hegel, 2019: p.99). From this point of view, an illustration formed by drawing as an artistic field of application can be regarded as a certain system of signs. It establishes a system in the form of art, artist, work, and receiver and at this point, as an artistic product, the work manifests itself as a sign or rather as a whole of signs. Thus, the artwork is formed as a special type of system of signs (signaux). When presented to people, people perceive the image as a kind of code that allows them to grasp and reconstruct them in their consciousness. However, at this point, the similarity of cultural accumulation is very important because a common cultural infrastructure is required for the receiver to properly decipher and understand the codes created by the artist in the drawing of illustration or the content encoded in the signs of art (Ziss, 2016: pp.87,88).

LINEAR NARRATIVE IN THE EXPRESSION OF THE PROBLEMS OF THE MODERN WORLD It is possible to express an idea or object in an illustration by symbolizing it with another image. As a result of the visual concepts created by the drawing of illustration art, thoughts containing information are formed. Mental images turn into ideas visually and are drawn to solve certain problems for certain audiences. Through illustrations, the word is explained with a picture. The artistic product of the resulting illustration produces an idea. In the illustration, signs, ambiguous meanings, and visual implications are utilized, thus achieving a metaphorical consistency between images. Visual metaphors that emerge in this way can convey an idea by creating connections between different objects (Wigan, 2012: p.105). In the picture created by the illustration as a visual communication tool, there is the purpose to create ways for people to make a common-sense without the need for any auxiliary element. With the illustration drawing, it becomes possible to interpret a narrative, an idea, or a topic by transforming it with intellectual analysis and explaining it with pictures. In this way, illustration continues to create a common intercultural language that provides visual communication (2012: p.270). The drawing created by the illustration formed by artistic forms images a reality. After all, art is the reproduction of reality through images. This is one of the main arguments of the Marxist understanding of aesthetics. The definition of art as a way of thinking driven by images does not show all the specificity of artistic creation but should suggest that it has the main quality. It is important to make the essence of the image understandable and to analyze its main features because it also helps to solve another very important problem. This is the question of the place and role of art in social life. Visual encodings that turn into images are formed primarily by the reflection of what is happening in the world to the mental world (Ziss, 2016: p.57). 127

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In the current age, the need for fast and efficient processing of available information is increasing day by day. At this point, illustration can transfer the message to be conveyed in a descriptive, interpretative, and documentary way based on the drawing. Illustrators who make illustration drawings have to create a personal visual language to convey their ideas and messages with the visuals they produce. Creating a personal visual language requires a precise awareness of the context and the target audience (Wigan, 2012: p.104). The main theme of this study is to examine how the problems of the modern world can be explained with drawings. The fact that these drawings are created in an aggressive visual style and reflect the violence and the feeling of fear is an important selection point in terms of supporting the theme of the subject being studied. It is possible to illustrate the problems of the modern world by decorating them with visual codes by transforming the abstract idea acquired by the artist through effective observation into a communicative message. The transformation of a certain context and a defined idea into an expressive and concrete form in an appropriate and aesthetically meaningful way can be done with illustration (Ziss, 2016: p.59).

About the Problems of the Modern World The world is assumed to have the ability to bring its resources to modern conditions by rapidly ensuring its technical development. In a sense, modernity is the ability to live with the new and developed and improved conditions, unlike the past methods. Giddens states that the most important feature of modernization is that it is much faster than previous processes of change. This situation includes the main idea of the speed of attaining recovery opportunities (1994: p.12). However, the assumption that the world is in modern conditions is an issue that is sometimes criticized. Demir criticizes the recovery environment created by positively changing lives in the world’s most popular spots for not being able to pass beyond a discourse in which the rest of the world benefit from the desire for change (2019: p. 529). The concept of the modern world is expressed with definitions that mean the new life lived by developing new methods. Therefore, it is possible to think that the digital conditions of the world, including the present possibilities, are a new modern condition. As a new way of life, digital possibilities also contain many different problems. Contrary to the promised comfort of the possibilities it brings, modernity creates a serious contrast in terms of dealing with problems that concern the whole world. The impasse, in terms of making sense of the world in problems, is in an interesting historical cycle as it affects all humanity at a global level (Demirkaya, 2016: p.2). The detection of these problems can be excessive. However, Arıbaş and Yazıcı categorized and summarized the problems of the world in their work titled The Problems of Contemporary World. For example, many problems such as environmental problems, global climate change, economic crises, the rapid increase of the world population, media, poverty, racism, women’s problems, human rights, health problems, energy problems, war and terrorism problems, refugee problems, etc. are considered as the problems of today’s modern world (2015). In this study, the illustrations dealing with the problems of the modern world were also limited to the number of samples because they were illustrations containing many modern world problems. Due to limitations, it is not possible to exemplify all the detected problems with illustrations. The main criterion here is that it should be addressed in a linear dimension that includes violence and fear, and it is a protest work that tries to attract attention. In this way, problems around the world can be brought up and a discussion environment will be provided. It is expected to create benefits for the solution. Illustration images were obtained randomly from internet sources.

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Artistic Drawing and Violence as Ways of Expression Everything starts as a point to create a visual. Then it turns into a line and a drawing. The trace formed by a moving end is called a line. A line has many qualities that can convey feelings and thoughts. For example, they may be rhythmic, strong, energetic, tense, graceful, controlling, refined, vigorous, fearful, and violent (Wigan, 2009: p.64). Drawing created with lines constitutes the basis of especially painting among visual arts. The representation created by painting is formed by the illustration line. Drawing is essentially questioning, observation, assumption, thought, criticism, and evaluation. As a creative and cognitive activity, it has a key role in the skills of the illustrator (2009: p.68). With the art created by drawing, it is possible to convey information about social relations and social events by reflecting what is happening in the world in a contextual, authentic, and realistic way (Ziss, 2016: p.38). Signs and visual language are of great importance in the application of illustration art. The visual that is created representatively express something else. This is a kind of manipulation. Representation is an important aspect of visual communication studies, aesthetics, and semiotics. In representational art, it can be used to describe subjects and objects as they appear in the physical world, with recognizable and realistic graphics (Wigan, 2009: p.242). From this point of view, it is again the skill of the art to reflect violence and fear with a line and thus create an aggressive visual. The transfer of emotion by drawing should be regarded as a skill. Certainly, violence is a bad language for communication. It contains negative emotions. The main theme of this study is how violence itself is represented in a drawing and what is meant by this representation. This study will discuss the issue of how violence can be expressed in the art of illustration, which consists of lines.

LINEAR AESTHETIC VIOLENCE In today’s modernist understanding, what is expected of the human is to be able to perceive correctly the world he/she lives in, to distinguish it, to criticize it, to develop sensitivity, and to have no difficulty in expressing himself/herself. Art can direct people to have these characteristics (Ünver, 2002: p.101). The way of expression in art takes shape with the way the artist perceives the world. Everything turns into shapes for a sculptor. Everything turns into words for a writer. There is a linear way of expression for an illustrator. The forms of expression that are developed with the support of art and whatever set the artist in motion and internally awaken including any designs all turn into figures, melodies, poems, or drawings (Hegel, 2019: p.18). The representation created by the artistic drawing of the line, by its very nature, necessarily includes an emotional component. For thought to deepen, emotions’ clots are needed. The product of art is directed precisely towards human sensitivity. For this reason, it is possible to indicate that the artistic line is always the result of a talent that can provoke an enthusiastic response: love or grudge, affection or coldness, joy or sadness, laughter or tears, tolerance or violence (Ziss, 2016: p.78). The subject of art does not purely aim at reaching an aesthetic result. It also tries to reflect the human in the course of reflecting the reality it addresses. It manifests itself in a contextual and complete reproduction of people’s lives. Art deals with human and human issues within the integrity of the experience of the relations. It designs the human in this way (2016: p.37). A special world is formed first in the consciousness of the artist. This world molds all aspects of reality with artistic images. The establishment of the thought

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advanced with images in the form of a system of signs has great importance in terms of the function of art to convey thought (87). Illustrators aim to influence people by appealing to their emotions and to persuade them to raise awareness on any issue. They create symbolic images for a wide variety of fields such as propaganda, education, entertainment, advertising, and public service ads to gain target audiences. Illustration aims at attracting, surprising, educating, controlling, entertaining, buying, or persuading them to create awareness on certain issues by targeting the emotions and desires of certain audiences (Wigan, 2009: p.124). Images of violence in cartoons, which are the most popular art area of ​​the group of linear works, are very common. Cartoonists make use of the language of violence while reflecting social problems. However, this situation sometimes leads to the internalization of violence in terms of getting used to violence or with the humor created. The accustomed violence turns its extension into human behavior in everyday language. Nevertheless, despite its negative reflections, it is an important means of conveying a message because it attracts attention in a very practical way. Especially conceptual illustrations aim to go beyond direct interpretation. This style has key concepts, and illustrators can incorporate jokes, metaphor, humor, symbolism, and abstraction into their visual interpretations. Over time, illustrations have come to reflect complex contradictory issues and concern over their rapid change. From this point of view, it is no coincidence that illustrators accept the language of violence as a form of protest and reflect on their work (Wigan, 2009:p.141). According to the opinion of Mülayim in his article ‘The Artistic Statement of Violence’, violence does not occur in Nature independently of humans. There is violence only in society. Like love and peace, grudge and hate are a feature that people carry with them. There is no art in Nature either, it has existed with the human. Therefore, violence and art, which are formed within an ethical and aesthetic framework, live together. Most importantly, they overlap from time to time. All human values ​​are included in art. The intersections and reflections of art and violence have inevitably remained on the agenda (www. mimoza.marmara.edu.tr). Bozyel interviewed with Ekşioğlu, an illustrator. Ekşioğlu states that he believes in the necessity of art production on social issues. According to him, an artist has to document the world he/she lives in and his/her age with his/her production. Art should not only aim to produce nice work. For example, an artist today should pay attention to world problems. If nature is rapidly disappearing, hunger is on the rise, if people cannot live humanely, if freedoms are limited, if the scales of justice are broken, if poison is mixed with food, we must struggle first as a human being and then as an artist so that all these things can be improved. Ekşioğlu, an illustrator, states that there is only one correct criterion for the art performed, whether it is made only with coal or with the latest digital technology. That criterion is the effect of the result on people (www.mediacat.com). Violence is an effective method to make an impact on people and give the real desired message. In this sense, art uses images of violence. It is possible to state that the biggest dilemma of visual culture products is this issue. For example, because illustrations are an aesthetic field of interest, creating a line of violence to convey the communication message is interesting, practical, and permanent as a method. On the other hand, there is a strong possibility of getting used to violence in visual communication and ignoring the violence in time. Tersla makes a different interpretation of violence and images. He states that this visual age, where people are exposed to too many images, itself creates image violence. He interprets today’s main factor of violence as the visual age that objectifies people. In this case, the image itself and the reproduction of the images create violence. In this age when visuality has increased, it has become difficult to make 130

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good art. People are exposed to verbal, physical, psychological, social, and artistic violence in their daily lives. Artistic violence is, in this view, a bad work of art. If a work of art is presented without a fine aesthetic sensitivity then this situation should be considered. If the presented work of art is rude, indecent, messy, without any form, in short, it is assertive and unnecessarily covers the area to be reserved for more qualified works, this is artistic violence (www.akilfikir.net).

Analyses on Violence as a Tool of Criticism in Illustration and Examples Illustrations, like other art products, necessarily contain an emotional component. It is about having a thought behind every work. The thought to be reflected has an emotional response and an ideology. The artistic product revealed and the context it creates are directed towards human sensitivity. It always evokes enthusiastic reactions such as love or grudge, affection or coldness, joy or sadness, laughter or tears, violence or fear, and trust (Ziss, 2016: p.78). According to Gompertz, the role of an artist is not just to give aesthetic pleasure. In his opinion, it did not even matter if he knew how to draw or paint. According to him, designers could also do this. At this point, he sees design as a more technical job and implies that what is produced with art is a much different skill. The role of the artist is almost close to that of philosophers in society. What artists should do is allow them to look at what is happening in the world from their perspective. They should attempt to comment or to create meaning through the presentation of the ideas they produce (2015: p.26). In this sense, one of the most basic features of artistic works is to create context. Every work of art has a context (Biçer &Olgun, 2019: p.104). A special world is formed first in the consciousness of the artist. This world transforms the current reality into a reflection of the artist’s thoughts. What he/she sees and feels transforms into what he/she can feel, and is re-formed with his/her artistic talent. So much so that it is reshaped with a musical note, words, a statue, or a line. Thus, there is an artistic expression of an idea. The thought created by the work that emerges in the form of art conceals its codes for itself. Therefore, the work created by artistic thought has a semiotic (semiologique) character, just as it reveals other forms of human intellectual activity (Ziss, 2016: p.87). The illustration images selected by the theme of this study will be analyzed by using Roland Barthes’ semiotic analysis method. Barthes bases the analysis approach he developed on semiotics through the concept of ‘signification’. In this direction, the denotation (the displaying) of what is detected in the image of the selected illustrations will be expressed first. This determination also constitutes the basic answer to the question “what do we see in the illustration?” The second stage of the analysis is an application of the subject that has been emphasized so far. The connections between the connotations (the displayed) built on what is meant by the line shown to constitute the essence of the analysis. The illustration as an artistic line has given various meanings to its line. It means something beyond what is seen. Revealing this meaning is the answer to the question ‘what is meant by the illustration?’ By analyzing what the analyzed illustrations mean semantically, it becomes a matter of transforming a visual into a text. Images can be regarded as drawing representations of ideas. The semiotic method deals with the generation of visual messages and the interpretation of the generated visual messages. Through the semiotic method, the content of the indicators that the illustration tries to show with its lines is analyzed in terms of message transmission. ‘Signification’, as an act that unites the displaying and the displayed, is provided by creating a narrative plane on ‘what’ the illustrations in the study ‘display’. The meaning of the analyzed illustrations takes shape with the question of 131

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how they can reflect on a striking line to fear, violence, and aggressiveness. In this way, the reflection of the image in the mind and what kind of meaning it will be assigned will emerge. The preliminary researches on the selection of illustrations revealed that the world problems, which are treated with lines evoking violence and fear, are generally drawn for new channels and lifestyles emerging with the digitalization of ‘media’. Of course, illustrations are an art application that shows a lot of attention to the problems of the modern world, which are also addressed in this study. However, on the border of the adoption of violence, fear and, aggressive method and the use of the study as a way of expressing one’s opinion while describing his/her criticism, it is striking that the examples are mostly about media. For example, there are examples of many issues reflected by aggressive drawings such as social media and the problems it creates, the increase of image sharing with the digitalization process and an effort to constantly change the visual, different human behaviors created by the desire to be liked, and the new lifestyles created on the keyboard by people’s presence in virtual environments. However, the issue of war, which is among the most important problems of the modern world among other problems, of course, is among the issues that are to be integrated the most with violence and fear. The world experiences many more problems than the ones that tried to be reflected in this study. Among these problems, another most important problem for the modern world is violence itself. Violence itself should be considered at the very beginning of the problems. The illustrations in this study are not illustrations that reflect all of the problems. At this stage, the aim is to provide examples of how the illustration can reflect aggressive drawings to draw attention to the importance of the subject. Many successful studies on the subject were encountered during illustration research. Among them, illustrators Sam Bailey, Daniel Garcia, and Gunduz Aghayev were observed to reflect the problems related to the world we live in with to their drawings a high awareness. They make drawings on topics such as technology, social media addiction, global warming, internet bullying, war, and epidemics. It is possible to reach their drawings through their personal social media accounts, where they directly describe the problems from all over the world. Their style of drawing is striking. Concerning the subject of this study, as a means of raising awareness, images that evoke violence and fear or contain a kind of protest approach are included in the drawings. To exemplify the study, analyses of the illustrations will be included. Images posted by illustrators on their personal social media accounts are profile accounts open to everyone’s view. Images of illustrations published on the social media accounts will be given with website information and the links should be taken into account as references. Three works of Sam Bailey published at https://www.instagram.com/stbartwork/, which is his Instagram address, will be given at this stage by associating them with some topics. The illustration he published on 26.02.2017 at https://www.instagram.com/p/BQ_CqQvAja/ will be given as Illustration 1 in the sample analysis. The illustration published on 12.02.2017 at https://www.instagram.com/p/BQatar-sxRDTpp/ will be given as Illustration 2 in the sample analysis. Illustration published on 19.02.2017 at https://www. instagram.com/p/BQtB5fsgJeF/ will be given as Illustration 3 in the sample analysis. Two works of Daniel Garcia published at Instagram address is https://www.Instagram.com/daniel_ garcia_art/?hl=tr, which is his Instagram address, will be shown by associating them with some world problems. The illustration published by Garcia on 13.07.2020 at https://www.instagram.com/p/ CClykf vBUgn/will be analyzed with the name Illustration 4. Also, the illustration he shared on his Instagram account on 15.05.2020 at https://www.instagram.com/p/ CAN7 OikhqSG/ will be shown as Illustration 5. To access the illustration published on 31.12.2018 at Marco Melgrati’s Instagram address ‘https://www. instagram.com/m_melgrati/’, the reader can look at https://www.Instagram.com/p/BsDWxANAcgH/. This illustration will be examined as Illustration 6. Gunduz Aghayev presents his work using the link https:// 132

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www.Facebook.com/daytimeartist/?ref=page_internal. The illustration he published on 02.12.2015 with the link https://www.facebook.Com/ gun duz artist / p hotos/a. 994265 083975831/994265157309157 will be examined under the subject of this study and it will be mentioned as Illustration 7.

Analyses Only what is in the visual will be identified with the denotation (the signifier) ​​in the illustration examples determined. Illustration 1 Denotation (The Signifier): This image shows a white-skinned male hand. Arm feathers are prominent in black, nails are short and partly black. In the hand shown, a grenade is held tightly. Computer keys are reflected in the grenade image. There is a blue and white click with the Messenger sign on the bomb pin. The grenade consisting of the keyboard image is tightly squeezed by hand. There is an image of blood dripping from the bomb-looking video keyboard. There are pens around the illustration. This illustration depicts world problems in the direction of keyboard wars regarding new lifestyles and virtualization on digital media channels. Illustration 2 Denotation (The Signifier): A quite tense male face is seen. There is only the part of the face below the eyebrows and above the lips. Ears, nose, eyes, and eyebrows are visible. His eyebrows are blackened. The eyes are kept open with matches. It seems impossible to blink in this way. The eyes are strained with a match. One of the pupils has Facebook and the other has Instagram logos. There are pens around the illustration. The illustration is drawn with a photographic perception and unnaturally colored. The head seen is drawn like a photograph. On the back, which is seen as the background, the back of the eye with the Facebook logo is blue, and at the back of the eye with the Instagram logo, the blue, red, and yellow transitions are exhibited as the colors reflecting on the pupil. Illustration 3 Denotation (The Signifier): Only one eye of a female face is visible. It is a big eye with prominent eyelashes. She looks in fear and very tense. When one looks at the image very carefully, he/she can see a 1% text inside the pupil and a red warning with a charging icon indicating that the charge is about to end. There are again pens around the illustration. Illustration 4 Denotation (The Signifier): This illustration shows the hands of eight males who can extend their hands to their elbows from the compartments of a folding screen with a black background. None of them are white in skin color. Black or dark skin colors close to black are shown. The lower parts of the folding screen are colored red. There is a small and noticeable lock on the folding screen. It is shown as the interior of a house. The writing on the wall is ‘Europe’. One or two steps can be seen from the stairs of the house. On these steps, there is a puddle in yellow tones, water that looks like waves, and waves. There are also places shown like spilled water. An aquatic floor is projected in pink-yellow tones. It reflects one of the biggest problems in the world, triggered by wars, refugees, and forced migration. Illustration 5 Denotation (The Signifier): In this illustration, quite large spiny circles are drawn to represent viruses. They are red in color. They are seen much larger than the human image in the illustration and outnumber them. Four people (two men and two women) are seen and wearing white aprons. They put up a wall between them with the image of the virus and by helping each other, they hand on the stones of the wall. A significant part of the wall is built, but the red color of the viruses is reflected like blood, appearing to flow from part of the white wall to the ground. This side is poured into people’s protection area. Illustration 6 Denotation (The Signifier): This illustration shows a male whose face is not drawn. He wears a military uniform. His face is not drawn, but he has a helmet on his head. He is in a bent 133

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position and about to place a bottle of champagne like a bomb in military material to be thrown. A faint shadow of the soldier is visible. Illustration 7 Denotation (The Signifier): There is a detached house in a modern building against a background of faint blue-white clouds with black density. A woman and a boy are seeing a soldier off. They are holding the two legs of the soldier in their hands. The soldier is cut off from the knee and one is in the hands of the woman and the other in the hands of the child. Blood drips from the leg in the woman’s hand onto the boy’s face. The soldier’s feet are ruptured, he walked while dripping blood, and is a little further away. The soldier’s face is invisible, but he looks back and waves at the woman and the child. The feet of the soldier are ruptured, but he can still stand upright as if he had feet. The ruptured parts of his feet are drawn in all reality, with the image of blood and bone. A darker side is drawn at the back of the house, and there are images of resembling oil wells. In the illustration examples determined, the connotations (the signified) mean what the visuals represent or what the visual states. Illustration 1 Connotation (The Signified): In this image, the keyboard is shown as a grenade. This representation tries to draw attention to the danger of digital media channels. The danger of the new life model on the keyboard is criticized, suggesting that virtuality kills real behavior. One of the most important problems of the modern world is the new human model, of whom the perception of reality changes as a result of the use of new media channels. The illustration line evokes violence and fear, with the tension of the hand squeezing the bomb, and the image of blood dripping from the grenade. Illustration 2 Connotation (The Signified): This illustration expresses human despair in fear and tension. The logos on the pupils are important social media companies that influence the world today. Their absence creates an unimaginable fear. However, the illustration reflects that they have created a diseased situation due to the constant addiction for them, for example, serious insomnia. A drawing of a frightened face exposed to some kind of psychological violence is reflected. Illustration 3 Connotation (The Signifed): When one looks at the image very carefully, the 1% writing noticed in the pupil and the charging icon indicating that the charge is about to run out are seen with a red warning. Even if it is shown small, it is shown in the most important area of ​​the eye. An image is reflected to protest the modern world people’s addiction to devices. The feeling reflected by the drawing is the reflection of a dreadful moment. Possibility of running out of charge and the fear of what we will do without the devices create presence violence on us. Illustration 4 Connotation (The Signified): The folding screen refers to a distinction in this illustration. The folding screen here is the country borders, it is a distinction. The partitions of the folding screen, which are open enough to fit a human hand, represent hope for crossing borders. The fact that the skin colors of the visible hands are in black tones bears traces of the countries in which the people behind the screen live. Behind the folding screen are the eastern societies. The difference between the east and west is reflected. This difference is clearly expressed in the writing ‘Europe’. Unlike other illustrations, this is the first time a word or phrase is encountered in this illustration. However, even without this word, it is clear that the illustration image depicts the refugees and expresses the immigration problem of the world. An overseas voyage message is not given in the colors of the sea. The illustration background is not blue. Nevertheless, the lines suggest sea waves and water bubbles with a violent movement. Hands are reflected in aggressive movements. The expression of aggression reflected in the hand gestures of people, whose hands are seen only, makes people look like pushing the limits, nervous, and angry. Illustration 5 Connotation (The Signified): This illustration, which is about epidemics, which has become one of the biggest problems in the world, shows the efforts of healthcare professionals 134

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against the epidemic. A measure against the epidemic, for example, vaccine development works, can be reflected. Viruses are drawn in great numbers and larger than human size. This situation declares their fatal consequences. Red color evokes blood and death. Illustration 6 Connotation (The Signified): The soldier represents war. The lack of a soldier’s face is a war of unnamed countries. It represents known but hidden war actors. Showing the champagne bottle instead of the bomb suggests the satisfaction of one of the warring parties and that party is preparing a celebration because of the approaching destruction of the other side. There is no drawing that directly represents violence in this image. However, due to the depth of meaning and the context created, it is a good example of how well the emotion that creates fear, tension, and violence can be reflected in an illustration, even without direct representation. So much so that even the bomb image is given with champagne in the visual, while the sound of the bomb makes one think of the destruction on the opposite side and reveal the violence of the war. Illustration 7 Connotation (The Signified): Again, an example of an illustration that reflects war as a theme from the problems of the modern world. Soldiers from the modern world fight countries where oil wells exist. However, both themselves and their families suffer from this situation. But the child with whom the soldier’s blood is shed is reflected as the person who suffers the most. The soldier seems to have gotten used to his situation. This illustration drawing is photorealistic. The ruptured leg, the bloody bone of the leg, and the blood flowing on the child’s face are indications that the subject that the illustration tries to draw attention to is reflected in a striking language of violence.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The examined illustrations focus on a specific theme. In illustrations, media and war issues are mainly reflected as a modern world problem. In addition to this intensity, one epidemic image was examined. To summarize here, it is not possible to examine world problems under one heading. Nevertheless, it is possible to categorize the increased examples of certain subjects in terms of suggesting the basic problems of the world. The problems are related to each other. For example, there is a problem of refugees and migration because there are many wars in the world. The economy is affected by this fact. While the world is collapsing in one place, it is being rebuilt in another. While modern conditions are highly developed in some geographies, the rest of the world is on the verge of hunger. The way the world experiences modern opportunities is basically under two headings in terms of these examples of work. It is a war on the one hand and the new human model created by the digitalized media on the other. At this point, it is possible to talk about a digital war. But epidemics equate the world in terms of dangers and put everyone in a difficult position. Within the scope of the limitations of the study, the causes and consequences of the problems will not be addressed because this is a very comprehensive issue. Here, the main goal is the way world problems are reflected in illustrations. It creates an interesting field of competence to express the drawing of illustration. The transformation of the drawing with an aesthetic perception is an important criterion for creating the image of an illustration. As can be seen in the examples here, even if no face is seen in some images, there is no deficiency to reflect emotion and thoughts. This can sometimes be with a hand, sometimes a single eye, sometimes a single-color transition, or even just the representation of an object. However, even in interpersonal communication, it is not so easy to understand the emotion of a person whose face you cannot see. Visual communication and the ability to reflect it is an artistic 135

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state. Although its correct understanding and solution requires common codes and common perception, observations reveal that the artists successfully conveyed their ideas in these studies to read the agenda. Examples of illustrations that reflect a mood of violence, fear, aggressiveness, and protest suggest that violence itself is effective as a form of expression, not because there are more examples of the theme related to war. For example, the expression of violence is understood at first glance in examples that reflect the image of war with its full reality, blood, and fragmented human body representation. However, the linear presence of a soldier, whose face is not even drawn, about to throw champagne adequately reflects the representation of violence in expressing the war and the drama it will create. The aesthetic reflection of the drawing is such a successful skill that it can sometimes evoke death without the need for blood or weapons. As the new habits created by digital possibilities have become a problem, death cannot be mentioned in the illustrations that reflect the people of the new world, as in the case of war. However, even in that linear form of expression, violence creates a fundamental character in the composition created to draw attention to the problem. The sight of blood dripping from the keyboard to attract attention suggests how serious the problem is. An example that illustrates an eye looking with great anxiety and fear depicts that some subjects cause emotional violence on people. The situation experienced is also violence, and using violence to express the situation is a form of expression. To give clear and striking messages, the works drawn by adopting a special style in visual communication application examples create a great impact. However, the effect of an image on a person and the duration of getting used to an image, insensitivity, destroys the effect size over time. In this case, the image of violence is accustomed. While criticizing violence, even the possibility of causing violence to become accustomed can be added back to the list of problems as a handicap of the modern world. The modern world harbors all contrasts together. Therefore, it is re-evaluated within postmodern discussions.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Time passes by so quickly. It would not be wrong to state that a digital revolution has started, which will affect the rest of the world, thanks to the digital facilities of the developed countries of the world. In this age of speed, a world person, whose life concentration is scattered, can be portrayed. A human model that has all the possibilities and suffers from the new problems created by these possibilities is today’s people. This study pays attention to the illustrations that aim to draw attention to the biggest problems of people living in the age of images. However, not all of the problems could be reflected due to limitations. This should be precisely the dimension that inspires future studies. Today, when the age of images creates its violence, the aesthetic presentation of violence hidden in the image is also an indicator of violence. Violence illustrates itself because the most important theme of world problems is war. This can be related to any topic. Many genres of war can be reflected, such as the war of existence, the keyboard war on the digital, the oil war, the war of survival, the war of nature, and the war of life. While this is the case, violence, fear, and the aggressive line became popular in the alluring linear presentation to express what is present. Subsequent studies are important to analyze images and work on more examples. Art tries to draw attention to some things. The artist re-presents his/her ideas, which he/she filters from his/her world view, in line with his/her talent. He/she protests and hopes the issue gets better or it is solved. More studies should be done to reveal the importance of art and illustrations in this context in conveying messages. 136

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Starting with a point and continuing with a line, this occupation is an effective way to create a common and understandable language all over the world for message transmission. Images have created an age. The age it has built has created a new image in war and violence. New ways of working are needed on this subject.

CONCLUSION In this study, illustration is handled in the context of visual culture. It has a very narrow area in terms of being addressed conceptually and creating a theoretical background because illustrations are talent outputs that have been artistically turned into a product. It is an application area that mostly uses drawing techniques. Although it is fed by digital possibilities, at the present time, it is the hand ability and aesthetic skill that adds meaning to the technical use skill. Illustrations, an art created within art, support human expression, and strengthen their creative side. In this way, the human turns into an individual who is creative, has aesthetic taste, can think, and criticize. In the case studies of illustrators who focus on world problems, the findings of violence, or how the illustrators create violence itself were examined. The resulting visual language was constructed within a composition and created by drawing to represent another idea. In this age of very important visuals, studies that examine images should increase in number. The illustrations that present examples of violence, fear, and the aestheticization of power, which are the main theme of this study, are successful examples of the subjects they try to draw attention to. For example, how can the blood image be represented without showing blood? An illustration can reflect this in its composition with the visual language it creates. How can violence itself be expressed without the image of violence? Or how can violence itself be criticized by specifically reflecting images of violence? When aesthetic perception and artistic infrastructure are combined with a linear ability, a subject that needs to be expressed in words at length can reflect its own idea with a single touch of a line. When the examples discussed in this study are taken into consideration, the kind of strategy that can be used to analyze the messages placed intentionally in the images is also emphasized methodologically. Visuals create a language, but this language can be understood. This language has its own implications, it has its own way of coding. It can convey mood even with colors. It can make people think of the reality itself with the representation it creates. The subject of the new age that needs more attention is communication to be provided with visuals. It will make a significant impact in terms of expressing the problems of age and suggesting solutions.

REFERENCES Aghayev, G. (2020). Retrieved from, https:// www. Facebook. com/daytimeartist/? ref=page_internal;https:// www.facebook.Com/gunduzartist/photos/a.994265083975831/994265157309157 Ambrose, G., & Harris, P. (2012). Grafik tasarımının temelleri [The fundamentals of graphic design]. İstanbul: Literatür Publications. Arnheim, R. (2015). Görsel düşünme [Visual thinking]. İstanbul: Metis Publications.

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Aykut, A. (2013). Güncel sistemden estetik eğitimine bir öneri: Görsel kültür kuramı. Turkish Studies, International Periodical For The Languages. Literature and History of Turkish, 8/9, 705–714. BaileyS. (2020). Retrieved from, https://www.instagram.com/stbartwork/ Barnard, M. (2003). Sanat, tasarım ve görsel kültür [Art, design and visual culture]. Ankara: Ütopya Publications. Becer, E. (2015). İletişim ve grafik tasarım. Dost Publications. Berger, J. (2013). Görme biçimleri [Ways of seeing]. İstanbul: Metis Publications. Biçer Olgun, H. (2019). Çağdaş sanatın toplumsal inşası. Çizgi Publications. Bozyel, D. (2020). Tek kıstas etkidir. Retrieved from https://mediacat.com/tek-kistas-etkidir/ Carr-Gomm, S. (2014). Sanat: Sanatın Gizli Dili [The secret language of art]. İstanbul: İnkilap Publications. Demir, T. (2019). Post dijitalizm. In Post-lar Çağında İletişim (pp. 499-535). Konya: Literatürk Publications. Demirkaya, H. (2016). Günümüz dünya sorunlarına genel bakış. In F. Aydın (Ed.), Günümüz dünya sorunları (pp. 1–16). Pegem Publications. Frascara, J. (2004). Communication design: principles, methods, and practice. Allworth Press. Garcia, D. (2020). Retrieved from[REMOVED HYPERLINK FIELD] https://www.Instagram .com/p/ CAN7OikhqSG/ Giddens, A. (1994). Modernliğin sonuçları [The Consequenes of modernity]. İstanbul: Ayrıntı Publications. Gikonv, J. (1991). Graphic illustration in black and white. Desing Press. Gombrich, E. H. (2015). Sanatın öyküsü [The Story of Art]. İstanbul: Remzi Press. Gompertz, W. (2015). Pardon neye bakmıştınız? [What are you looking at?]. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Press. Hegel, G. W. F. (2019). Estetik [Aesthetic]. İstanbul: Kırmızı Kedi Press. Kamburoğlu, Ö. (2013). A’dan z’ye fotoğraf. Say Publications. Karadağ, Ç. (2016). Görüntü büyücüsü. Öteki Publications. Kazel, G. İ. (2017). Görsel kültür ile sosyoloji arasındaki ilişki. Meriç International Social and Strategic Studies, 1(1), 45–69. Ketenci, H. F., & Bilgili, C. (2006). Görsel iletişim ve grafik tasarımı. İnkilap Publications. Markovic, S. (2012). Components of Aesthetic Experience: Aesthetic Fascination, Aesthetic Appraisal, and Aesthetic Emotion. i-Perception, 3(1), 1–17. Retrieved from http://www. doiserbia.nb.rs/img/ doi/0048-5705/2010/0048- 57051001047M.pdf Mediacat. (2020). Tek Kıstas Etkidir. Retrieved from, https://mediacat.com/tek-kistas-etkidir/ MelgratiM. (2020). Retrieved from, https://www.instagram.com/m_melgrati/;https://www.instagram .com/p/BsDWxANAcgH/

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Mülayim, S. (2006). Sanat ve Şiddet. Retrieved from, http://mimoza.marmara.edu.tr/~avni /dersbelgeligi/ kunduz/şiddet/sanatveşiddet.htm Ocvirk, G. O., Stinson, E. R., & Wigg, R. P. (2013). Sanatın temelleri teori ve uygulama [Art fundamentals: theory and practice]. İzmir: Karakalem Publications. Pallasmaa, J. (2011). Tenin gözleri: mimarlık ve duyular [The eyes of she skin: architecture and the senses]. İstanbul: Yem Publications. Reich, Y. (1993). A model of aesthetic judgment in design. Artificial Intelligence in Engineering, 8(8), 141–153. doi:10.1016/0954-1810(93)90023-9 Saybaşılı, N. (2017). Sanat sahada görsel kültür çalışmalarında etnografik. İstanbul: Metis Publications. Tepecik, A., & Toktaş, P. (2014). Temel sanat eğitimi. Gece Press. Tersla. (2019). Görsel şiddet. Retrieved from https://akilfikir.net/gorsel-siddet/ Tomlinson, J. (2004). Küreselleşme ve kültür [Globalization and culture]. İstanbul: Ayrıntı Publications. Uçar, F. T. (2016). Görsel iletişim ve grafik tasarımı. İnkilap Publications. Uçar, Ö., Uçar, T. F., & Kılıç, L. (2011). Görsel kültür. Anadolu University Publications. Ünver, E. (2002). Sanat eğitimi. Nobel Press. Ürper, O. (2012). Dijital teknoloji çağında reklam fotoğrafçılığı. Say Press. Wigan, M. (2012). Görsel illüstrasyon sözlüğü [The visual dictionary of illustration]. İstanbul: Literatür Publications. Yaylagül, L. (2014). Kitle iletişim kuramları egemen ve eleştirel yaklaşımlar. Dipnot Press. Yazıcı, H., & Arıbaş, K. (Eds.). (2015). Günümüz dünya sorunları. Ankara: Pegem Press. Yetkin, S. K. (1979). Estetik ve ana sorunları. İnkilap ve Aka Press. YouTube. (2019). Nasıl Görüyoruz? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TKqsdQvbP2Y Ziss, A. (2016). Estetik gerçekliği sanatsal özümsemenin bilimi [Eléments d’esthétique marxiste]. İstanbul: Hayalperest Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Bennett, A., & Bennett, A. (2006). Design studies:theory and researc in graphis design. Princeton Architectural Press. Castells, M. (2009). The rise of the network society. Wiley-Blackwell Press. doi:10.1002/9781444319514 Freeborn, V. (2018). Violence of mind: training and preparation for extreme violence. One Life Defense Publishing.

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Gillian, R. (2001). Visual methodologies. Sage Publications. Gombrich, E. H. (2000). Art and illusion. Princeton University Press. Hall, S., & Evans, J. (1999). Visual culture:the reader. Sage Publications. Jenks, C. (1995). Visual culture. Routledge Press. Lester, P. M. (2000). Visual communication: Images with Messages. Wasworth Publising. Mirzoeff, N. (2001). The visual culture reader. Routledge Press. Ranciere, J. (2013). Aisthesis. Verso Press. Scruton, R. (2001). The aesthetic understanding:essays in the philosophy of art and culture. St. Augustine’s Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aesthetics: It is an effort of the mind to integrate something. It is the definition of what is beautiful in itself at the point of perception of artistic works. Illustration: It is the art within the art that emerged by using the techniques of drawing. Illustrations are talent outputs that have been artistically turned into a product. Today, although it is fed by digital possibilities, at present, it is the hand drawing ability and aesthetic skill that add meaning to the technical use skill. Linear Violence: It is the illustration using violence itself as a language, a way of expression. They are aggressive emphases reflected on the drawing, including fear and violence. Visual Communication: It is the semantic equivalent of what is seen. The image has a language in communication. This language gives meaning to every image. However, every meaning also has a cultural reflection that fills it. Visual Culture: Visual culture, which is an upper language created by images, feeds on art. It improves the aesthetic taste of society. It creates a practical space for the mind to rethink about images and meanings.

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Urbanization Violence to Nature: Reconciliation With Nature Aslı Güneş Gölbey https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1271-2032 Architecture Faculty, Izmir Demokrasi University, Turkey Ayşenur Kaylı İzmir Demokrasi University, Turkey

ABSTRACT With the uncontrollable population growth in the cities, the rising need for settlement has increased the needs of the cities, as well as making the cities consumption centres. The housing intensity of urbanization were damaged at first, then the farms and agricultural production areas in the city periphery, and then it directly affected the natural resources such as air, water, soil, flora, and fauna. However, nature did not remain unresponsive to these events and responded to human beings with various natural disasters. Eventually, the human violence on nature has turned into the abuse nature exerts on human beings, with disasters such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, and fire as a kind of revenge of nature. The future of humanity becomes dependent on reconciliation with nature and adaptation to a sustainable lifestyle. This chapter examines the violence between human nature and urbanization with its causes and possible consequences and offers reconciliation suggestions for a sustainable life.

INTRODUCTION Today, the world’s most valuable forests are burning, floods cover cities, landslides and erosions continue to exacerbate across the globe. Could nature’s violence cause all this against people? No! On the contrary, these disasters are the result of violent and aggressive behaviours that people apply to the environment. Humanity suffers the consequences of their mindless violence against nature with its hazards. So how did the world become this? How did this process begin? DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch008

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With the first appearance of intelligent people on the surface of the world, people thought to utilize natural resources for feeding, sheltering, developing. Thus they started to affect their environment and nature with these activities. In ancient history, people began to use the advantages of nature through passive actions such as sheltering in caves and began to dominate environment with hunting, gathering, and agricultural activities in the early periods with its developing intelligence and technological capabilities. Through continuous and rapid development, people have turned to activities aimed at increasing the comfort and well-being of life and continued to consume nature aggressively by increasing its dominance, primarily through industrial activities and conventional agriculture. Humanity, with its intelligence, memory, and the ability to transfer what it has learned from generation to generation, it has established tribes, villages and finally cities to take advantage of living together to bring human welfare and comfort to daily life. Today, as many as 70% of the population lives in cities. Cities have become organisms that constitute one of the habitats of humanity, have a particular character with their dynamics, grow in a limited and limitless way, and rapidly affect and transform their environment while improving. The cities, which continuously increase their attractiveness with the advantages they possess and offer, transform the natural structure into urban areas with their aggressive and distorted spread. Every being on earth is part of an ecosystem and the energy-matter cycle. These cycles appear as highly sensitive loops, are affected very quickly by the positive and negative effects they receive and can react. As a result of this uncontrolled growth of cities, the depressed natural resources lose the abilities of the drain rainwater, protect the surface soil, and carry the effects of various human activities. Also, various solid and liquid wastes, toxic gases, from human activities, pollute the environment rapidly and directly damage the natural cycles and ecosystem. As a result of all this, global phenomena have emerged, affecting all living beings on the earth’s surface, such as the greenhouse effect, global warming, and ozone depletion. Very recently, people have begun to understand the impact of what they have done to nature and have started to change the illusion of limitless natural resources, as a result of the lived disasters. Natural resources are resources that have emerged at the end of specific processes, time, and conditions. Some of them can renew very quickly, while others can take thousands or even millions of years. This period varies depending on their abilities. Each system and source have a carrying capacity that forms their resistance to external influences and the renewal capacity, which can correct the deteriorated structure because of these negative interactions. Natural life is based on the factors that it is exposed for a certain period, subsidizing them, carrying them, and introducing new individuals to the environment to maintain this resistance as much as possible. However, when the negative factors continue to exist with their continuity and effect, the system starts to collapse, and the ecosystem loses its balance. By the decreasing renovation potential of the ecosystem, it is begun to exacerbate the negativity and react in various ways to correct the situation. The consequences of this situation can explain the occurrence of different adverse conditions and disasters. On the other hand, people increase their pressure aggressively on nature and natural resources by increasing various domestic and industrial activities. As an example of this is the global warming caused by the greenhouse effect caused by gases blown into the air by human activities. Apart from all these, nature comes out of the city borders ultimately, and structural elements with harder and sharper lines cover the environment of humanity. Cities that develop without plan also disrupt the aesthetics of the town, and urban development harms not only the nature but also the urban people and all the assets in the urban texture. Ghettos, slums, which are the elements of distorted urbanization, can be given as an example of this distorted structure and unplanned growth of a ruined city

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In this study; urbanization history and problems, consequences of unplanned settlements, relations between cities and nature and urbanization pressure to the environment are investigated by landscape architecture and ecological perspectives. With the development of human being and the technology, advances in areas such as nutrition, health and settlement have prolonged the life of human beings, leading a more sheltered and comfortable living. In the early stages of humanity, finding a more straightforward solution to the problems they face by living together, human beings have started to live together and develop their places. They have formed communities that have managed to minimize the vital fears such as shelter, food and security. These communities grew day by day due to the socio-economic opportunities and basic comforts they hosted, and a transition from individual life to a pluralist life has started. Understanding that these communities, consisting of a limited number of people, meet their food and shelter needs much faster and safer, other individuals have left their places and started living with these communities and caused the population to grow day by day. Increasing population brought with it rising needs and a communal life started by sharing various duties and responsibilities in the society. However, both individual differences and different opportunities, have created and associated various classes and adjectives in communities such as leaders, managers, farmers, traders, workers and commanders. These communities, which now have their own legal and administrative system, developed rapidly in their places and laid the first foundations of urban life. These communities also, which bring the services and products they need to improve their living comfort in the place they are in, have changed the shape of the rural areas, and shaped them to serve humanity. The houses for sheltering, primarily the farms after the markets for nutrition, commercial centres for treading, schools for education, hospitals for health and the roads to reach and logistically serve them evolve the rural spaces towards urban spaces. These spaces, which have evolved through various phases with the developing technology, increased needs, production and consumption processes, have formed the urban that constitute the centre of our lives today.

URBANİZATİON VİOLANCE TO NATURE In 2017, by the UN researches data, 4.1 billion people were living in urban areas. The meaning of this can be explained as; over half of the world (55%) live in urban settings. The UN conjecture this change, the number of people in urban areas overtook the number in rural settings in 2007. Also, the UN projected the demographic changes of urban from 2050, and project that 68% of the world’s population would live in urban areas in future. In fact, by 2050, they also project, there will be very few countries where rural shares expected to be higher than urban. These include several across Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Pacific Island States, and Guyana in Latin America. Also, by 2050, the global population is projected to increase to around 9.8 billion. It is estimated that more than twice as many people in the world will be living in urban (6.7 billion) than in rural settings (3.1 billion) (Hannah, 2018). The description and the definition of the word “urban”, varies by the culture, technological progression and the social formation of the countries. But the meaning of the urban concept is frequently presented by the number of people they consistent. Globally these number is over the 2000 people on the settlement. On the other hand, today’s cities are much more of these number, and also megacities growth numbers approach millions of peoples living in.

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An urban setting definition is globally-based on population density, and the intensity of administrative/ management structures, political boundaries, basic infrastructure systems and different types of living forms and income activities not singularly focused on agricultural production. The specialized description of the town is the presence of administrative structures such as government offices and courts, and a relative concentration of social services such as hospitals and financial institutions such as banks. Urban areas can be characterized by high population density when compared to rural areas. An urban is an area surrounded by peri-urban and rural areas. They live and develop by exchanging the energy and products from inner and outer resources. While municipal boundaries define some cities limits, many urban centres have not limited by these boundaries. Just like living cells (maybe viruses), they are potent structures that swallow the surrounding areas, mainly rural and natural areas for their high vital needs. “Rural” generally refers to areas of open country and small settlements. Still, the definition of “rural areas” in both policy-oriented and scholarly literature are terms often taken for granted or left undefined, in the process of description that is often fraught with difficulties (IFAD, 2010; Dasgupta et al., 2014). Rural areas are the spaces which human beings are not touched or touched only for agricultural activities. They keep their natural looks, native flora and fauna and ecological cycle. The ecosystem services work correctly, and the natural systems are balanced and sustainable. They are sources of all livings and also all products. Ultimately, in developing countries as well as developed countries, the rural is defined as the inverse of the residual of the urban (Lerner and Eakin, 2010; Dasgupta et al., 2014). Dasgupta et al. (2014) also explain the need of peri-urban definition, as “The simple dichotomy between “rural” and “urban” is hugely problematic (Simon et al., 2006). Additional categories except for the urban and rural areas such as “peri-urban areas” (Webster, 2002; Bowyer-Bower, 2006; Simon et al., 2006; Simon, 2008; Lerner and Eakin, 2010) and “desakota” (McGee, 1991; Desakota Study Team, 2008; Moench and Gyawali, 2008) allow a more nuanced analysis of the permeable boundaries between rural and urban areas and the diversified economic systems that exist across the urban-rural spectrum.” The peri-urban definition was presented firstly in 1979 by OECD as: The term ‘peri-urban area’ cannot be easily defined or delimited through unambiguous criteria. It is a name given to the grey area, which is neither entirely urban nor purely rural in the traditional sense; it is at most the partly urbanised rural area. Whatever definition may be given to it, it cannot eliminate some degree of arbitrariness. (Laquinta and Drescher, 2000) Peri-urban can explain three different ways to mean a place, process or concept (Narain and Nischal, 2007; Laquinta and Drescher, 2000). They are also pre-subjects for changing in their build environment, demographic stats and socio-economic activities (Varkey and Manasi, 2019). Peri-urban areas are also transition and transformation areas between rural and urban areas. These areas show neither urban nor rural area’s characteristics ultimately. They can be a passage between these two concepts, or they can be the places still transforming. The socio-economic habits and settlement types frequently are mixed with urban and rural areas characteristics. Urban, peri-urban and rural areas are the tree classification terms for explaining cities and urbanization activities. With the economic and social processing of the society, it has caused population increase and thus spatial expansion in settlements such as cities, which are more attractive with the opportunities it offers. In other words, the sprawling and growing of the cities by transforming surrounded rural and peri-urban areas can be called “ Urbanization.”

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Cities can be defined as a product of the process of urbanization. Urbanization is the social process that causes the existence and formation of the towns. The relationship between cities and urbanization is the cause and effect relationships for each other (Hussain and Imitiyaz, 2018). Urbanization activities create and expand cities; the expansion and the growing of cities can be called urbanization. They both realise in several dimensions, and several perspectives must investigate both. Socio-economic, cultural, technological sizes are different for each city. One community may compose the settlements to be safe and sheltering, and another one can arrange a residential for feeding and income. Or they can both possible to originate a city. These situations also show the composition reason for an urban with the different stages, scales and layers, and it’s inhomogenous characters. Globally, urban expansion has increased over the decades (Cohen, 2006; Nor et al., 2017). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019) describe and explain internal contradictions of urbanization as: Urbanization is a complex socio-economic process that transforms the built environment, converting formerly rural into urban settlements, while also shifting the spatial distribution of a population from rural to urban areas. It includes changes in dominant occupations, lifestyle, culture and behaviour, and thus alters the demographic and social structure of both urban and rural areas. A significant consequence of urbanization is a rise in the number, land area and population size of urban settlements and in the number and share of urban residents compared to rural dwellers. Urbanization is shaped by spatial and urban planning as well as by public and private investments in buildings and infrastructure. An increasing share of economic activity and innovation becomes concentrated in cities, and cities develop as hubs for the flow of transport, trade and information. Cities also become places where public and private services of the highest quality are available and where basic services are often more accessible than in rural areas. The degree or level of urbanization is typically expressed as the percentage of population residing in urban areas, defined according to criteria used by national governments for distinguishing between urban and rural areas. In practice, urbanization refers both to the increase in the percentage of population residing in urban areas and to the associated growth in the number of urban dwellers, in the size of cities and the total area occupied by urban settlements. When it comes to urbanization, it refers to the spatial transformations that take place in the city, even though the urban buildings spread around the city in a way to meet the needs of the increasing population. These transformations can occur in open spaces and settlements also. The urban public areas can be stock up for future building usage, or they can be collected as urban green spaces for urban dwellers. There is a revival of interest for the importance of green space to supporting healthy living in urban areas. Relations between green space and health have been recognized throughout history (Schuyler, 1988; WHO, 2016). Urban green spaces have vital importance for the urban environment enhancing and the quality of the city (Dunnet et al., 2002; Ender Altay and Pirselimoğlu Batman, 2018). The primer definition of urban green areas is made by Frederick Law Olmsted, an important landscape architect who was affected by the public-open space movement in England by the Boston Park System that formed in the 19th century. Olmsted defined the approach of introducing the nature that begins with Central and Prospect Parks in New York City as the “lungs of the city” (Francis et al., 1984; Yılmaz and Mumcu, 2016). Urban green spaces; including public parks, sports fields, derelict land, edges of roads, railways and waterways, private gardens, allotments, encapsulated remnant patches of natural vegetation and individual street trees forms a component of the urban forest (Pauleit, 2003; Colding, 2007; Davies et 145

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al., 2008) or a part of an urban ecosystem. Urban green spaces have essential meanings for; (i) urban climate, noise moderation, air cleaning, (ii) biodiversity; to save valuable urban species, (iii) Social and cultural values, (iv) Health and ecology, (v) Leisure and recreation, (vi) Connects different scales and parts of the urban landscape (Alm, 2007; Leeuwen et al.; Ender Altay and Pirselimoğlu Batman, 2018). Urban green spaces are generally classified into three groups: “passive green spaces”. “active green spaces” and “other green spaces” in the literature and legal regulations (Emür and Onsekiz, 2007; Aksoy and Akpınar, 2011; Ender Altay and Pirselimoğlu Batman, 2018). Active green spaces samples are urban parks, regional parks, neighbourhood parks, children’s playgrounds and sports areas. Passive green spaces samples are refuges and cemeteries, and other green spaces are picnic areas, zoo, and city forests (Ender Altay and Pirselimoğlu Batman, 2018). Urban dynamics, planned or unplanned, can cause changes to the structure, shape and functions of built and non-built areas (Madureira et al., 2011; Nor et al., 2017). Urban green spaces are small parts of nature in crowded cities. Urban green space by facing increasing pressure of the urbanization process, negatively affects ecosystem services, natural flora and fauna, cultural associations, psychological wellbeing and the health of urban dwellers (Tian et al., 2011; Nor et al., 2017). On the other hand, some questions can ask for brighten the relationship between urban and nature. Is the urbanization end of the natural life for townsman? Are the settlement formations killers for natural life? Is the violence persist in the natural areas by the urbanization activities? Or Is there still a chance for nature to be reintroduced into cities? And can be urban greenspaces and green infrastructure systems a solution for reforming natural life in the cities? The responses can be given by understanding the terms urban or public green spaces, green infrastructure systems and ecological urban planning.

RECONCILIATION WITH NATURE Relationship between urban and nature is a challenge for the conservation of the environment in future urban development and also for the wilderness future (Kowarik, 2013; Rakhshandehroo et al., 2017). This challenge is fundamental because; if the human being wins against nature, he will lose all, even his future and life. The single solution is sustainability. Conserving sustainability of the environment is conserving the vital resources for human beings. Humankind must learn to reach his socio-economic target without harming nature. In other words, he must keep the natural resources while evolving. This concept is calling” sustainable development”. The sustainable development concept developed to define and mitigate the harmful effects of the massive human footprint on nature (WCED, 1987). But today, extensive augmentation of population, cities are rapidly grown in size and density (Turrini and Knop, 2015; Nor et al. 2017). Sustainable systems keep future generations rights from today, including natural resources. For a sustainable city, urban itself and its components like urban green spaces, industrial and building places must be planned with ecological approaches. For healthy and sustainable life in the cities, the environment must be healthy, well planned and protected. In precious lands of urban, every gap seen as a potential building area is valuable for investors. Because the augmented population of the cities each open green spaces want to evaluate as building areas for its rent. Public green spaces, under threat of construction, will always remain under pressure unless they are protected by laws and plans, and will remain as places where power focuses want to gain rent. This aim is the main threat and violence reason for urban nature. 146

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On the other hand, urbanization also a threat to natural areas itself. Uncontrolled and unplanned growth of urban, with a tendency to grow and expand, because the augmentation of population, grow by swallowing the surrounded areas, like peri-urban areas located in the city periphery, then fertile agricultural lands, natural areas such as forests, meadows, wetlands and lakes. The process of composing green cities has importance for the country’s economic development and has an impact on the international arena. Degradation of the natural environment has evoked the need to reverse the negative effects of globalization, industrialization and the development of transport. Although partial restoration of green areas and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is currently an arduous, time-consuming and costly process, attempts to develop urban space for ecological areas have been at least partially successful. (Tirla, Manea, Vijulie, Matei, Cocos, 2014; Kulińska and Dendera–Gruszka, 2019) The WHO (1948) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. The critical concept within public health is that well-being, which encompasses a wide array of biological, sociological, economic, environmental, cultural and political factors. The term well-being is used from WHO (1948) for the definition of health (Tzoulas et al., 2007). As seen, the well-being and population health directly attached to the environment and ecosystem health. Ecosystem health is generally defined as the occurrence of normal ecosystem processes and functions (Costanza, 1992). A healthy ecosystem is thought of as one that is free from distress and degradation, maintain its organisation and autonomy over time and is resilient to stress (Costanza, 1992; Mageau et al., 1995; Costanza et al., 1998; Rapport et al., 1998; Lu and Li, 2003; Tzoulas et al., 2007). Ecosystem health and human beings lives are firmly attached. Using the violence against nature for promoting, create a controversy effect as using force to ourselves. The urban dwellers, farmers, investors and all kind of human being must learn to live respectfully and peacefully with nature for a brighter and sustainable future. The environmental problems caused by the urban landscape changes are the water and air pollution, wastes, noise, the loss of natural areas for urban, deterioration in the quality of urban life and the urban landscape (Woolley, 2003; Yılmaz and Mumcu, 2016). These problems can be handle with ecological approaches; one of them is the planning and designing ecological cities. Kulińska and Dendera–Gruszka (2019) define and investigate ecological cities with this paragraph: The definition of an ecological city is ambiguous. An ecological city can be understood as the area which is “greener”, i.e. close to nature. The working definition of Ecocity Builders says; an ecological city provides a healthy environment for its residents without overeating by them more resources than they produced (renewable resources), without creating more waste than the possibility of their absorption (utilization) and without toxic actions concerning themselves and neighbourhood (Brodowicz, 2015, Grzymała, 2016; Kulińska and Dendera–Gruszka, 2019). On the other hand, some definitions refer to cities that are particularly healthy for residents, without significant human interference. In contrast, in the United States, ecological towns are considered to be places surrounded by greenery, which is wild. Another type of ecological city includes urban spaces incorporating nature in the form of parks, planted trees, with the promotion of ecological forms of transport (pedestrian and bicycle transport or

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city rental of hybrid cars). A wise approach to urban space management is associated with (Grzymała, 2016; Kulińska and Dendera–Gruszka, 2019). A second and complementary approach to urban caused environmental problems is the designing green infrastructure in the cities. Green infrastructure can be understood in different scales, permeable surfaces, and rainwater collectors are the examples for the small size and the ecological planning approaches like the corridor, node, etc. are the samples for large scale designing activities. Tzoulas et al. (2007) explain the green infrastructure concept as: The concept of Green Infrastructure has been introduced to upgrade urban green space systems as a coherent planning entity Sandstr¨om (2002). It can be considered to comprise of all-natural, semi-natural and artificial networks of multifunctional ecological systems within, around and between urban areas, at all spatial scales. The concept of Green Infrastructure emphasises the quality as well as quantity of urban and peri-urban green spaces (Turner, 1996; Rudlin and Falk, 1999), their multifunctional role (Sandstr¨om, 2002), and the importance of interconnections between habitats (van der Ryn and Cowan, 1996). If a Green Infrastructure is proactively planned, developed, and maintained it has the potential to guide urban development by providing a framework for economic growth and nature conservation (Walmsley, 2006; Schrijnen, 2000; van der Ryn and Cowan, 1996)

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In the future, two scenarios can occur in humankind lives; one of them is a catastrophe; the second one is the only solution for a sustainable life and growth. The catastrophic scenario, which is the consumption and deterioration of nature continues as today is full of polluted, environments, food deprivation, hunger, thirst and natural disasters. But good scenario brings to human beings, a sustainable life, based on ecological planning approaches like green infrastructure and ecological cities. These two concepts and their components should be developed and must be accepted all over the world, mainly by decision-makers. Decision-makers must plan the future in the long term- not targetted only today’s gains, with ecological approaches, and they must develop nature protector laws and legislations against harmful industrial and civil consumption. Ecologically based approaches for urban planning in the future will make more livable urban spaces with inner nature. The ecological systems, animal and plant presence, will be protected. The socioeconomic opportunities will deal with fair and migration based wild urbanization will be ended. This scenario calls every discipline to work together. By leading with ecologists, landscape architects, medicins, sociologist, psychologists and the other disciplines, land-use decisions will be much more valuable for everyone. For future research, developing sustainable and ecological approaches for every scale of life, especially for production and energy procure can highly be considered as a direction. As an advice for the coming future, the critical role of the urban green areas have never been forgotten as Burgess et al. say (1988): “Access to natural open spaces is a central value in modern society”. Moreover, urban green areas are associated with personal and social meanings. They provide a context for social interaction; serve as tangible reminders of childhood and memories of community life, and offer “gateways” or opportunities

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for people to escape for a while from the stress of urban life (Burgess et al., 1988; Yılmaz and Mumcu, 2016)

CONCLUSION Cities, where the majority of the people living on earth today are settled, will continue to exist by growing, full and expanding day by day. With the economic possibilities, social and cultural opportunities it offers, cities that rapidly migrate and become crowded with the population will turn into a monster that swallows the nature by creating enormous pressure on the environment with its unplanned and uncontrolled developments. However, the source of cities, city people and almost all economic activities are the sources that nature offers. Thoughtlessly, any consumption and every square meter loss of natural area without thinking future projection, will return to us or coming generations as big hazardous problems, just like the greenhouse effect caused by uncontrolled carbon emissions and global warming problems. Unfortunately, we can link the leading cause of many disasters to the extinction, rapid depletion and pollution of natural areas and resources. The cut trees cannot hold the land and cause landslides; the melting glaciers trigger our freshwater resources to decrease day by day. Burning or declining and disappearing forests and natural areas increase global warming by not being able to destroy the carbon dioxide caused by human activities. Unfortunately, this vicious circle rise day by day because of the current lifestyle. Even the COVID-19 outbreak is a negative reflection of human-nature interaction. With the rapid and distorted growth of the cities, unfortunately, the wild species that must live far away from humans has come on very close and had the chance to transfer the virus they host. On the other hand, as an urban lifestyle, living in such a tight and close with each other cause the easily spread of the virus has taken place rapidly. Because of this disease, causing hundreds of thousands of deaths all over the world, the current lifestyle and quality have entirely changed. Today, conversely of classical urban lifestyle, we need more social distance and more wide places for a virus- protected life. However, the destructive violence applied to the rural areas located in the city and its immediate surroundings must end urgently. Otherwise, cities and all other settlements will become places unlivable with unpleasant situations. This position will decrease the quality of human being lifestyle all over the world by not being livable. This case will put a human being in a grave predicament and cause him to question and restructure his lifestyle. If this uncontrolled situation continues in the future, it will lead the earth to a dark road that extends to food deprivation and disasters such as hunger and thirst. Any living form does not deserve such a life. Just like in the explanation of the concept of sustainability, livability should be possible not only for today but also for future generations. Life is a right not only for today’s people but also for future generations, animals and plants in short. For a brighter future and life, all plans and arrangements made with near future-focused should be revised to distant future projections. The central theme must be based on ecological planning approaches. All living formations should be supported and living without harming the other living-beings should be learned. Otherwise, the consumer and devastating violence that we apply to nature will turn us back as hazardous problems to human beings

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Ender Altay, E., & Pirselimoğlu Batman, Z. (2018). Investigation of urban green spaces in the case of Bursa Province. Journal of Bartin Faculty of Forestry, 20(3), 402–408. doi:10.24011/barofd.442121 Francis, M., Cashdan, L., & Paxson, L. (1984). Community open spaces: Greening neighborhoods through community action and land conservation. Island Press. Grzymała, Z. (2016). Miasta ekologiczne – studia przypadków i perspektywy rozwoju. Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu, (432), 61-66. HannahR. (2018). Urbanization. Retrieved from: https://ourworldindata.org/urbanization Hussain, M., & Imitiyaz, I. (2018). Urbanization concepts, dimensions and factors. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research, 9(1), 23513–23523. IFAD. (2010). Rural poverty report 2011 - new realities, new challenges: new opportunities for tomorrow’s generation. IFAD. Kowarik, I. (2013). Cities and wilderness a new perspective. International Journal of Wilderness, 19(3), 32–36. Kulińska, E., & Dendera–Gruszka, M. (2019). Green cities– problems and solutions in Turkey. Transportation Research Procedia, 39, 242–251. doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2019.06.026 Laquinta, D., & Drescher, A. W. (2000). Defining peri-urban: Understanding rural-urban linkages and their connection to institutional contexts. The Tenth World Congress of the International Rural Sociology Association. Leeuwen, E. V., Nıjkamp, P., & Noronha Vaz, T. D. (2010). The multifunctional use of urban greenspace. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 8(1-2), 20–25. doi:10.3763/ijas.2009.0466 Lerner, A. M., & Eakin, H. (2010). An obsolete dichotomy? Rethinking the rural? Urban interface in terms of food security and production in the global south. The Geographical Journal, 177(4), 311–320. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4959.2010.00394.x PMID:22180921 Lu, F., & Li, Z. (2003). A model of ecosystem health and its application. Ecological Modelling, 170(1), 55–59. doi:10.1016/S0304-3800(03)00300-4 Madureira, H., Andresen, T., & Monteiro, A. (2011). Green structure and planning evolution in Porto. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 10(2), 141–149. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2010.12.004 Mageau, M. T., Costanza, R., & Ulancowicz, R. E. (1995). The development and initial testing of a quantitative assessment of ecosystem health. Ecosystem Health, 1, 201–213. Mc Gee, T. G. (1991). The emergence of desakotaregions in Asia: expanding a hypothesis. In N. Ginsburg, B. Koppel, & T. G. McGee (Eds.), The Extended Metropolis: Settlement Transition in Asia (pp. 3–26). University of Hawaii Press.

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Moench, M., & Gyawali, D. (2008). Final Report Desakota, Part II A. Reinterpreting the Urban-Rural Continuum. Conceptual Foundations for Understanding the RoleEcosystem Services Play in the Livelihoods of the Poor in Regions Undergoing Rapid Change. Research for Development Document, Department for International Development (DFID). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/dfid-research-outputs/ final-report-desakota-part-ii-a-reinterpreting-the-urban-rural-continuum Narain, V. (2010). Periurban water security in a context of urbanization and climate change: A review of concepts and relationships. Peri Urban Water Security Discussion Paper Series, Paper No. 1, SaciWATERs Saciwaters. Retrieved from, http://saciwaters.org/periurban/idrc%20periurban%20report.pdf Nor, A. N. M., Corstanje, R., Harris, J. A., & Brewer, T. (2017). Impact of rapid urban expansion on green space structure. Ecological Indicators, 81, 274–284. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.05.031 OECD. (1979). Agriculture in the Planning and Management of Peri-urban Areas (Vol. 1). Synthesis. Pauleit, S. (2003). Urban street tree plantings: Identifying the key requirements. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Municipal Engineer, 156(1), 43–50. doi:10.1680/muen.2003.156.1.43 Rakhshandehroo, M., Yusof, M., Johari, M., Arabi, R., Parva, M., & Nochian, A. (2017). the environmental benefits of urban open green spaces. Alam Cipta, 10(1), 10–16. Rapport, D. J., Costanza, R., & McMichael, A. J. (1998). Assessing ecosystem health. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 13(10), 397–402. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01449-9 PMID:21238359 Rudlin, B., & Falk, N. (1999). Building the 21st century home: The sustainable urban neighbourhood. Architectural Press. Sandstr¨om, U. F. (2002). Green Infrastructure planning in urban Sweden. Planning Practice and Research, 17(4), 373–385. doi:10.1080/02697450216356 Schrijnen, P. M. (2000). Infrastructure networks and red-green patterns in city regions. Landscape and Urban Planning, 48(3-4), 191–204. doi:10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00042-6 Schuyler, D. (1986). The new urban landscape: The redefinition of city form in nineteenth-century America. Johns Hopkins University Press. Simon, D. (2008). Urban environments: Issues on the peri-urban fringe. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 33(1), 167–185. doi:10.1146/annurev.environ.33.021407.093240 Simon, D., McGregor, D., & Thompson, D. (2006). Contemporary perspectives on the peri-urban zones of cities in developing countries. In D. McGregor, D. Simon, & D. Thompson (Eds.), The Peri-Urban Interface: Approaches to Sustainable Natural and Human Resource Use (pp. 3–17). Earthscan. Tian, Y., Jim, C. Y., Tao, Y., & Shi, T. (2011). Landscape ecological assessment of green space fragmentation in Hong Kong. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 10(2), 79–86. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2010.11.002 Tirla, M. L., Manea, G., Vijulie, I., Matei, E., & Cocos, O. (2014). Green cities – urban planning models of the future, cities in the globalizing world and Turkey: A theoretical and empirical perspective. St. Kliment Ohridski University Press. Turner, T. (1996). City as landscape: A post-postmodern view of design and planning. E&FN Spon.

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Tzoulas, K., Korpela, K., Venn, S., Yli-Pelkonen, V., Kazmierczak, A., Niemela, J., & James, P. (2007). Promoting ecosystem and human health in urban areas using green infrastructure: A literature review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 81(3), 167–178. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.02.001 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. (2019). World Urbanization. Prospects 2018: Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/421). Retrieved from, https://population.un.org/ wup/ Publications/Files/WUP2018-Highlights.pdf Van der Ryn, S., & Cowan, S. (1996). Ecological design. Washington, DC: Island Press. Varkey, A. M., & Manası, S. (2019). A review of peri-urban definitions, land use changes and challenges to development. Urban India, 39, 96–111. Walmsley, A. (2006). Greenways: Multiplying and diversifying in the 21st century. Landscape and Urban Planning, 76(1-4), 252–290. WCED. (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future. Oxford University Press. Webster, D. (2002). On the edge: Shaping the future of peri-urban East Asia. Asia/Pacific Research Center. Stanford University. WHO. (1948). Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19–22 June, 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. WHO. (2016). Urban green spaces and health. WHO Regional Office for Europe. Wolch, J. R., Byrne, J., & Newell, J. P. (2014). Urban green space, public health, and environmental justice: The challenge of making cities ‘just green enough’. Landscape and Urban Planning, 125, 234–244. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.017 Woolley, H. (2003). Urban open spaces. Spon Press. doi:10.4324/9780203402146 Yılmaz, S., & Mumcu, S. (2016). Urban green areas and design principles. In R. Efe, İ. Cürebal, A. Gad, & B. Tóth (Eds.), Environmental Sustainability and Landscape Management (pp. 100–118). St. Kliment Ohridski University Press.

ADDITIONAL READING Archibugi, F. (1997). The ecological city and the city effect. Routledge. Beatley, T. (2011). Biophilic cities: Integrating nature into urban design and planning. Island Press. doi:10.5822/978-1-59726-986-5 Cohen, S. (2018). The sustainable city. Columbia University Press.

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Devuyst, D., Hens, L., & De Lannoy, W. (Eds.). (2001). How green is the city?: Sustainability assessment and the management of urban environments. Columbia University Press. doi:10.7312/devu11802 Elmqvist, T., Fragkias, M., Goodness, J., Güneralp, B., Marcotullio, P. J., McDonald, R. I., & Wilkinson, C. (Eds.). (2013). Urbanization, biodiversity and ecosystem services: Challenges and opportunities. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7088-1 Far, D. (2007). Sustainable urbanism: Urban design with nature. Wiley Publications. Forman, R. (1996). Landscape ecology principles in landscape architecture and land-use planning. Island Press. Forman, R. (2014). Urban ecology: Science of cities. Cambridge University Press. Glazebrook, T. (2001). Violence against nature: A philosophical perspective. Journal of Power and Ethics, 2(4), 322–343. McHarg, I. L. (1995). Design with nature. Wiley. Niemelä, J., Breuste, J., Elmqvist, T., Guntenspergen, G., James, P., & McIntyre, N. (Eds.). (2011). Urban ecology: Patterns, processes, and applications. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:o so/9780199563562.001.0001 Perez, G., & Perini, K. (2018). Nature-based strategies for urban and building sustainability. ButterworthHeinemann.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Ecological Cities: Ecological cities are nature friend cities. They are integrated planned cities with natural and environmental systems. The main objective is bringing nature to the depth of the urban and provide their sustainable collectivity and protecting natural life and ecosystem cycles in the cities. Environmental Pollution: The pollution is the spread of the unwanted wastes resulting from production and consumption processes and their accumulation on undesired places. Environmental pollution can harm all living space around and also can affect the next generations life quality and their DNA. Environmental pollution also can damage the ecological systems of earth and can cause awful reactions as global warming, glaciers melting, etc. Green Infrastructure: The green infrastructure is the alternative infrastructure systems which use natural resources, urban green spaces, ecological cycles, and nature-friendly materials for cities infrastructures. Green infrastructure systems also can be used in different scales, especially for preventing natural hazards like floods, erosion, and landslide. These scales can start from planning levels as ecological corridors, nodes, patches or small-scale applications as rainwater harvesting, designing with permeable surfaces. Landscape Architecture: Landscape architecture is sustainability-focused planning and designing activity of the natural and cultural environments by conserving biodiversity and ecological cycles. The landscape architects can organise and design big scale terrestrial areas and also small house gardens, even indoors greeneries.

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Settlement: Settlement is a housing activity which can be regularly occur planned and controlled or frequently uncontrolled and unplanned. Unregulated settlements are generally realized by squattering. They can also create the ghettos; slum areas of the cities occupied by a minority group or groups. Sustainability: Sustainability is a controlled use method to present the needs of today to the use of future generations without exceeding the capacity of natural resources to renew itself. Sustainability can also be called justice for the future. The size and scale of sustainability are variable for every usage. An urban, a settlement, a house, a piece of furniture or landscape can be design by sustainability perspective Urbanization: Urbanization is the transformation of the rural and semi-urban area’s characters by changing their usage patterns because of increasing urban population and settlement demand. With future and sustainability focused planning concepts must realize urbanization. Violence: Violence is to harm anything by using force. People, plants, animals, the environment, everything imaginable can be exposed to violence in various ways. Violence can occur not only actively but also passively or psychologically. The victim of abuse, which can be anything or anyone, usually needs rehabilitation to restore balance. Vandalism is also a type of violence, which can be seen in the urban frequently.

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Chapter 9

Myths, Tales, and Symbols: Anatolian Legends and Cultural Memory in the Footsteps of the Past Pelin Agocuk American University of Cyprus, Cyprus Dilan Ciftci Cyprus International University, Cyprus

ABSTRACT Since the emergence of humanity, symbolic communication has been considered a creative language that has attracted the attention of many different disciplines. Due to the indifference of culture, the phenomenon of folk tales and legends claims that there is more space in literature. The purpose of this study is to create a knowledge base for spatial and cultural memory and to define the cultural heritage of Anatolia, which has hosted many civilizations, through historical periods. This study, which will contribute to a better understanding of the causes of cultural memory in terms of transferring stories for generations, aims to explain the relationship between space and cultural memory through Anatolian legends. For this reason, the study will explain folk tales with a semantic approach in terms of symbols and values. Within the scope of Anatolian legends, the codes and secrets of myths, fairy tales, and legends will be explained using qualitative research method and document analysis technique, and the relationship between space and cultural memory will be examined.

INTRODUCTION Legends, mythological narratives and historical places have always been places where society’s interest is kept alive. nevertheless, they always maintain their importance as important centers of inter-generational communication. Accordingly, the first places that come to mind for cultural memory and cultural memory spaces have become history narratives due to history books. In this sense, what do the events in the history books mean for cultural memory? Historical spaces have always been important as cultural DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch009

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memory spaces. The legend and story of historical places, which have an important place in reviving the past, are also the focus of attention not only for the local people but also for tourists. Legends, stories and places, which are considered as cultural memory and memory art, are not only shed light on the past, but are still very important in terms of their imaginability. Memory studies usually find their place in the literature by feeding on history. Living evidence of history has been historical sites. The mythological stories attributed to these places, such as the architectural features of historical places, and their recall and transfer between generations have been in the focus of many researchers, especially from different disciplines. In the light of all this information, it is aimed to reveal the relations between the legends and their historical places in the memory art and cultural memory in this study, by acting from the point that Anatolian legends are not only geographically cultured and that they are important for all humanity. In this context, 4 important historical sites were selected in terms of Anatolian civilizations and in terms of causing fateful transformations in the narrative of history. These; Göbeklitepe, Cappadocia, Nemrut and Balıklıgöl. These places and the mythological stories attributed to those places have managed to maintain their vitality and continue to attract attention from all over the world. In this sense, the study has an important role in contributing to the literature in terms of the mythological stories and legends of Göbeklitepe and other historical places that have been discovered recently and which have been mentioned frequently, along with it, in the light of memory art. The aim of this study is to create a knowledge base for spatial and cultural memory and to define the cultural heritage of Anatolia, which has hosted many civilizations, through cultural memory, and to discuss the effects of the culture of fear created through myths and legends from oral culture to the present. Spaces have symbolic value in terms of the creation of stories of myths, tales and legends, which are one of the basic elements of cultural memory and oral literature. This study, which will contribute to a better understanding of the reasons that create cultural memory in terms of the travel of stories through generations, aims to explain the effects of the culture of fear in Anatolian legends until today through the relationship between space and cultural memory. Therefore, the study will explain the reasons for the culture of fear created by folk tales such as myths, tales and legends passed down from generation to generation, in terms of symbols and values, with a semantic approach. Within the scope of Anatolian legends, the secret elements of myths, tales and legends will be explained using qualitative research method and document review technique, and the place of the culture of fear created in people’s memories will be examined in terms of the relationship between space and cultural memory.

MYTHS, TALES AND SYMBOLS AS A REFLECTION OF THE CULTURE OF FEAR There is a close relationship between myth and fairy tale throughout the history. In other words, throughout the history, myths feed on fairy tales and legends, leading to the formation of social life on the basis of a mystical world. Moreover, the myths, which base social events on a mystical world law, are identified with nature by attributing tasks with divine and sacred events, although there is no physical connection in the interaction of communities (Tekin, 2019: p. 125). In addition to that, myths, which are attributed as divine and sacred, help reinforce communities’ historical past and oriental loyalties, feeding on tales and folk tales (that is to say oral history). In oral culture, people saw threats such as thunder, lightning, fire, sickness, and death as a threat from supernatural forces, and they tried to attribute a meaning to

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the fears created by the events they could not explain by attributing divine and sacred meanings to these events through legends and myths. Thus, people defined the element of fear by naming and attributing meaning to the uncertainties that aroused them anxiety and the events they could not explain. According to Assmann (2015: p. 84), myths are called stories of origin, and when it comes to history, it discusses all the ways in which the past is remembered with two opposing concepts: truth (history) and imagination (myth). Along with this classification, it is true to say that the past, fixed or internalized as an origin, is a dream or a true myth (Assmann, 2015: p. 84). As Assmann points out here, history, which is defined as origin or myth, is important in terms of communities’ attachment to the past. Although, it is important, looking at the myth (imagination) and true (history) ways of remembering are intertwined as well. Therefore, at some point, history and myth, myths and tales are fed from each other, the historical past that is told or created. According to Eliade (2001: p. 29), there are four elements that should be present in a myth; It tells of the actions of supernatural beings, the story in the myth is considered true and sacred, it is always about a creation, and this creation provides the reproduction of the social structure, and the fourth and last element is that the origin of objects if one knows as a myth. On the other hand, today it is crucial to highlight that the myths are the influx of the sacred who literally established the world and brought it to the state (Keskintaş, 2016: p. 129; Eliade, 2001: pp. 12-18). Therefore, it is believed that in order to make sense of their physical existence, people need stories of origin imagination or true past. Furthermore, commitment to the origin and past manifests itself in a way to make sense of the world. Thus, the past is remembered through imagination or truth, myth or history, truth or mythical stories. According to Ünsal Oskay (1994: p. 7), the fear, anxiety and curiosity felt in the face of the new is not solved by fairy tales or myths created by the stories of narrators, as in the oral culture period, but by fantasies that are industrial products. The return to mythology, which should be taken away by reason and science, the inadequate-conservative understanding of folk legends and myths, is compared to modern mythology with popular stories produced by mass media and industry today. Lévi-Strauss (2013: pp. 15-16) states that culture is a way of giving meaning to physical reality by expressing it such as; in stories, myths, fairy tales, depictions, theories, proverbs, works of art, rituals. According to Assmann (2015: p. 85) recall is an act of indication, and the concept of “making sense” is valid even though it is not relevant in the context of history. On the other hand, a historian professor should not be expected to feel remembered, grasp and interpret the past, and should focus on the function of social memory, not the historian. For this reason, significantly, the main thing is the transformation of the past into original history, that is legend (Assmann, 2015: p. 85). Original history and physical reality are given meaning by myths, legends, rituals and fairy tales, and recall takes action with signs. Forms of recall are realized by adding meaning to original history. According to Malinowski (2000: pp. 99-105), myths are tools of social integration, such as rituals, and they differ from fairy tales, legends and religious stories. To this extend, fairy tale entertainment is told in order to satisfy the legend’s reliable testimony and social passion, the religious story is considered true, respectable and sacred. The myth, on the other hand which is far from all these definitions, comes into play when it comes to proof of the realism and sanctity of a social or moral rule. In addition to that, recall and memory are reliving the past. Myths ensure that the realistically reflected past reaches from generation to generation through the narrative, and that the past is relieved. They are also functional in terms of determining and coding social rules ideologically. According to Assmann (2015: p. 86), the myth has been concentrated as original history. According to him, the revival of the past takes place in a cyclical repetition style, and as a past, the myth is 158

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the image that the host society internalizes as the process of becoming history. Myth is the relationship that enlightens the present and the future with the traces of the past. One of the functions of the myth is to make the existing meaningful in the light of history and to make it necessary and unchangeable as God’s judgment. An example of this is that the myth of Osiris in the Egyptian dynasty had the function of exiting Egypt for Israel and the Trojan myth for France and Britain, which was the continuation of the Roman Empire (Assmann, 2015: p. 87). It can be said that the myths have a function that affects the belief system intertwined with the legends associated with the past by incorporating events such as mystery and miracle in addition to the function of making sense of the world. While myths do not lose ties with the past in the world where people live, on the other hand, it acts as a bridge between the past and the future by making conventions about the future. Moreover, myths, which have a strong connection with faith, feed on the historical past are elated to origin. The connection with faith can be explained by its function in ensuring moral and social order. Therefore, myths are important in terms of raising awareness of communities on the way of becoming a society, such as certain belief systems, their historical background, moral rules and meaningful existence. Since the past, people have created various belief systems by attributing divine and sacred meanings to them in order to survive and explain issues that arouse anxiety and curiosity in them. Realizing this through myths and legends, they benefited from the culture of fear in parallel with the social need. Therefore, anxiety and fear is a natural reaction that has existed since prehistoric times. In the period when verbal culture prevailed when reason and science did not come into play yet, they made use of legends and myths in order to eliminate the natural reactions of people to the unknown such as anxiety, curiosity and fear. Thus, they developed their own belief systems by using the culture of fear and explained their social existence. As a result, myths, nourished by beliefs and sacred events, on the one hand help people not to break their ties with their origin, on the other hand, they ensure the continuity of moral and social order.

Fear Element and Cultural Memory in Oral Culture From the prehistoric period to the present, people have passed down the symbols of fear and anxiety from generation to generation in various ways. According to Scognamillo (1996: p. 6), the unknown and incomprehensible, which constitute the origins and starting points of fear and fear, were drawn on the cave walls and cliffs before being written and told, symbolized with signs, masks and spots. In the primitive period, when the thinking and feeling human discovered the events around him and the outside world, he verbally described and explained his fear, anxiety and feeling of curiosity. Oral tradition, legend, epic or fairy tale brings these fears together. Oral culture is an important tool to convey literary products from previous generations to their next generations, their own life experiences or beliefs about the universe / nature. Since these narrative types, which serve as a narration, are based on speaking the word in front of a listener, it is assumed that the meaning of the said word is understood by the listener in a short time. This assumption determines the way the literary narration tells it, as well as determines how the audience will keep the meaning conveyed in this oral narrative in memory, and a narrative in the oral culture is repeated and memorized and transferred to the next generations by repeating it verbally (Emir, 2018: pp. 137-138). What is more, recall before moving to written culture takes place in oral culture with narratives that are memorized through signs and images in the mind of the narrator, and then the process of transferring it to the next generations continues by memorizing with the signs and images created in the mind of the audience.

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It is also a fact that in regions where verbal culture prevails, people learn more than just listening to a story transfer, they have a lot of knowledge, and even the wisdom they cannot achieve through work, and they can transfer them to their lives, by listening to the narrator, repeating what they hear and absorbing the information into a collective recall (Sanders, 2013: p. 30). Recall in oral culture takes place as ars memoriae (memory art) through images, signs, and spaces animated in the human mind. In oral culture, on the other hand, it was a professional tool that required good memory maintenance and care, and various strategies, “reminders” were used in Ancient Greece to improve memory. Thus, this activity, which served purely practical functions, turned into memory art in ars memoriae over time (Draaisma, 2015: p. 67). In the oral culture expressed by Draaisma (2015), the science of recall was based on a method that transformed the imaginary place with an open, accessible order with “images” to be kept in mind. Those who want to improve their memory ability create images for what they want to remember in their minds and set a place for them and place images in these places; this placement process, the order of the places preserves the order of those things, and the images are made to point to the things themselves, these places are used as a wax tablet and the images are used as letters written on the tablet (Draaisma, 2015: p. 67). This method, which was later developed as ars memoriae (memory art), is related to internal memory. As Draaisma (2015) calls it, external memory is the current era, while internal memory is to help memory by creating imaginary spaces with images to keep written pre-historic memory strong. As explained in detail in the next section, recall takes place with the help of imaginary or natural spaces located as external and internal memory. Cultural memory includes an objectified world based on the past, not everyday events such as communicative memory. While we encounter dances, clothes, tattoos, and food and beverage places in a culture without writing, cultural memory is based on texts in written cultures (Assmann, 2001: p.62). Cultural memory has a major impact on a society, both in the intellectual field and in practice. On the one hand, the common history and common mind means to have the same identity (Başer, 2006: p. 129). Social and moral order has been tried to be ensured through legends and myths that are in cultural memories in oral culture and passed down from generation to generation. Through legends and tales, people have benefited from the culture of fear by creating their own belief systems in order to transmit the rules of the society and established order they live in from generation to generation. In oral culture, people have benefited from myths, legends and fairy tales to explain the unknown and the things that arouse fear in them, in order to maintain social and moral order. Thus, by creating a culture of fear through monsters they created, they ensured the safety of the community about events they could not understand or the objects they saw as threats that evoke anxiety, fear and curiosity.

Cultural Memory in the Trail of Space After the transition from verbal culture to written culture, the ways of remembering also changed, and transformations occurred in the understanding of time and space. Significantly, the symbolic use of language changes radically towards conceptual use, and changes its mindset and categories radically (Emir, 2018: p. 127). In other words, the transformations of time and space radically change the function of the ways of remembering in terms of the way of thinking. Considering the relationality of historical processes with myths, it is verbal culture that makes sacred spaces turn into myths. In addition to that, representation in space perception takes place through rituals, ceremonies and is sanctified. Moreover, verbal or written culture, which is transferred from generation

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to generation in the forms of remembering, realizes the perception of time and space without breaking its ties from the past. The repetition and representation of the word constitutes the temporal dimension of the ritual that takes place within a space; bodily movements accompanied by the word show the representation of the word again (Emir, 2018: p. 128). Therefore, the representation of the word has value in cultural transfer from generation to generation. The art of memory works with imaginary spaces, and the culture of recall works with the signs it places in natural spaces, and especially a whole geography can be used as a tool of cultural memory. Clearly, in this case, signs (monuments) are not used much, the entire space is raised to a degree of sign, it is signaled (Assmann, 2015: p. 68). The spaces belonging to the house and its surroundings constitute the first phase of dreaming and remembering. Relatively, the forms of recall are generally specific to a particular area when it comes to space (Emir, 2018: p. 133). According to Ricoeur (2017: pp. 59-60), the things remembered are closely intertwined, and in fact, the phenomenon of ‘memory spaces’ occurs on this primitive level before turning into the reference of historical knowledge. These memory spaces are both signs for remembering, an auxiliary force in the fight against memory, which is becoming more and more weakened, and even spare memory replacing dead memory. According to him (2017), the spaces remain as potential documents like inscriptions and monuments, and only the memories transferred verbally fly away like words. The fact that the ars memoriae (memory art) genre can be established as a method of loci (places) is thanks to this closeness between memories and places. Futhermore, Draaisma (2014: pp. 66-67) divides the recall action into ‘internal memory’ and ‘external memory’. It emphasizes that in ancient memory, in ancient Greek culture, which is largely verbal, written or pre-historic human memory is the biggest carrier of information, wax or clay tablets do not go beyond being an aid to memory. In addition to that, it states that strategies and games that will strengthen memory are developed with various activities during this period, and that the act of recall is based on a method that is filled with “images” to be kept in mind and turned into an imaginary place with a clearly accessible order. Thus, it is essential to mention that, we are in the age of external memories, and the culture of external memory does not only mean a transition from inside to outside, it also means the transition from verbal to written (Draaisma, 2014: p. 66). The act of remembering takes place in the human mind as imaginary and natural (real) spaces. Therefore, the argument that Assmann (2015) has two different functions as memory art and recall culture, combines the internal memory and external memory arguments that Draaisma (2014) defends while explaining the science of recall. In this case, the art of memory is mostly related to internal memory, it is functional with imaginary spaces and images, and it is more active during the oral history period. The culture of remembering is the function of the external memory and is functional with natural (real) spaces and is valid from the transition to the written history period. Ricoeur (2017: p. 73) argues that dreaming is not the same as remembering. Since in the phenomenology of memory, there is the phenomenon of transformation into images, which means a weakness and loss of confidence for memory. Namely; the goal of something past, something that has been seen, heard, felt and learned is a specific demand for truth. According to him (2017), this demand for truth qualifies memory as a cognitive factor, that is, at the moment of recognition, which is the last stop of the effort to remember, it will come to an avalanche. Gaston Bachelard, on the other hand, argues that it is important for the space to be connected to the past and put the memories at the center of remembering memories, by existing in terms of aes-

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thetics. At the point where the place meets the past, Assmann’s concept of ‘cultural memory’ emerges (Emir, 2018: p. 134). In all theoretical texts about memory, the science of recall is handled starting from oral history and these are examined in two separate categories. For this sense, the culture of remembering is associated with space, and internal remembering takes place through the imaginary spaces in the human mind, ars memoriae (memory art). Specifically, external recall takes place through natural spaces and this is related to memory. However, as a result of all these researches, concepts such as science of memory, memory culture, imaginary or reality are explained by associating them with the past. Therefore, ars memoriae (memory art), which is called the culture of remembering, and the historical reality fed by the culture of remembering, must be explained in relation to space. In this context, it is important to say that as a result of analysis such as recall, memory culture and memory art, the past and space unite and appear as cultural memory. The formation of memory is a mental process and collective memory has a more subjective structure because the mind filters out the reminders. The subjectivity of collective memory is an indication that it is open to external directions. This situation brings with the risk of distorting the official history and seeking to rebuild it. This process clearly go beyond the damaging history, which will directly affect society (Connerton, 1989). Huyssen (1995) states that in order for the past to become a memory, it must be in a continuous relationship with history and social events. He mentions that collective memory may also be affected by certain conditioning, and that the sociality of memory is likely to make this possible by those who want to distort and damage it. Even if memory relates to a past event or a past experience, its temporal position always characterizes the present (Huyssen, 1995: p.3). Moreover, Schudson (2007) states that memory is social and underlying complex social processes and settled with laws, rules and standardized habits (Schudson, 2007: p. 179). On the other hand, Halbswachs (1992) states that there is no individual memory and even personal memories occur as a result of social interactions (Sancar, 2007: p. 41).

SPACE CULTURAL MEMORY AND ANATOLIAN LEGENDS Göbeklitepe Göbeklitepe, which is accepted as the first known monumental structure in human history and is included in UNESCO’s Permanent Heritage List, is in Şanlıurfa. Thus, Göbeklitepe, which has attracted the attention of the whole world with its recent discovery, has resulted in the revision of the current information on cultural history, and is said to have been built approximately 12 (twelve) thousand years ago by hunter-gatherers who adapt to the geographical and climatic conditions in the Southeastern Anatolia Region during the non-pottery period. (Halis, 2019: p. 60). On the other hand, the subject of which civilization was built by Göbeklitepe, which contains a mysterious history, is still being tried to be solved for a purpose. Based on this unsolved mysterious story of Göbeklitepe, the common view of scientists is that this monumental structure is the center of faith. Moreover, with this point of view it is essential to highlight that many mythical stories and rumors have been attributed by humans as a result of the intense mass interest in scientific facts about Göbeklitepe.

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Remembering the Past: Legend- Myth (Imagination) - Truth (History) Culture of Fear Significantly, myths feed on fairy tales and legends, creating a mystical world and shaping social life to be influenced in this direction. Here, it is especially noticeable that the public believes in the fact that mystical tales attributed to them rather than historical realities about Göbeklitepe and the fact that they have a holy role. Without ignoring that historical facts are fed by myths and fairy tales, it would be appropriate to mention the misconceptions about Göbeklitepe as a historical mistake. In this sense, it can be seen that the historical reality that emerged recently has turned from a moment to the first monumental structure of human history. Therefore, this popular influence led evolutionarily to the emergence of some legends in terms of creating a mystical world of Göbeklitepe. Since the prehistoric period, people have tried to explain and make sense of the unknown by activating their belief system. By attributing divine and sacred meanings to the unknown, they have thus introduced the method of punishment and fear, and they have benefited from myths and epics in ensuring the social order. The historical reality of Göbeklitepe, which has been discovered recently, has been tried to be explained by folk legends in memories. Nowadays, where reason and science are at play, it is seen that the local people try to explain the events and discoveries that they cannot make sense with the legends and mythical events that have been in their cultural memory since oral culture and passed down from generation to generation, by resorting to a historical error. Thus, it can be said that national identity and integrity is mythized with these legends in order to reinforce the sense of belonging and devotion to the origin, as well as belief systems, religious, divine and sacred events. The first temple was Göbeklitepe, first of all, there was religion. (Halis, 2019: p. 90) The massive interest in Göbeklitepe caused it to become mythical and to identify people with such a form that it could not be in scientific reality by attributing divine and sacred duties to its being. Indeed, as a result, scientists warned that the first definition of temple might be wrong and therefore used the definition of “Göbeklitepe culture” (Halis, 2019: p. 90). Furthermore, according to Halis (2019: p. 91) it is important to focus on religion as a complex whole by emphasizing the priority of the factor of “faith” rather than “religion” in the illusion that “religion” exists above all else. Turks built Göbeklitepe, it should be an alien influence (Halis, 2019: p. 90) Although there is no scientific evidence about the connection of Turks with regard to Göbeklitepe, there is a situation that does not coincide with the terrorist reality. As stated above, scientists are still investigating the issue of which civilization built Göbeklitepe for what purpose. Here, of course from the different explanations of the origin of Göbeklitepe buildings people have based the importance of Göbeklitepe on their original background myths which are culturally diversified. In addition to that, people tend to remember the past with mythical stories in order to be devoted to the origin and the past, in order to make sense of their physical existence, detached from historical reality. Therefore, although there is a situation that does not correspond to historical reality at the point of making sense of the world, as Assmann stated (2015) from time to time, imagination or real mythical stories are fed from historical facts and historical facts from mythical stories.

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Cappadocia Periodically, many myths about the Cappadocia-Fairy Chimneys, another mysterious place in the world, have been circulating from language to language for years. Geographically, Cappadocia includes a large area extending to the Black Sea in the north, surrounded by the Taurus Mountains in the south, Aksaray in the west and the Malatya region in the east. However, although Cappadocia, which has a geomorphological formation and spread over a wide area, is the most magnificent region by itself in the history narrative and myth-fairy tales. Thus, in Cappadocia Region as it itself, which is one of the places where the most magnificent and most characteristic surface shapes are formed in the world, which are the shapes have developed due to volcanism, tectonism or abrasion (Dirik, 2009: p. 7). Fairy Chimneys, which are 7 (seven) km away from the center of Nevşehir, are intensely located in the valleys between Avanos, Ürgüp and Üçhisar.

Remembering the Past: Legend- Myth (Imagination) - Truth (History) Culture of Fear Interestingly, there are many legends about the Fairy Chimneys that travel from language to language, culture to culture as a proof of diversity in the narratives. From the diversification, one legend is about the belief that giants lived in Fairy Chimneys. Moreover, rumors of this first legend are told that these giants were badly treating people, firing from the top of the mountains to the areas where people live. Therefore, the Fairy Sultan took all the fairies after they heard about this and went to this area together with the fairies and the giants extinguished their fire and kidnapped them underground. Gradually, tales such as people begin to live in the houses carved into the rocks and the fairies begin to live in the small rooms on the hill for years. The culture of fear was created with the rumors that these giants treated people badly, that they spread fire to the regions where people lived from the top of the mountains, after the Fairy Sultan became aware of this situation, he took all the fairies and went to this region and extinguished the fire of the giants together with the fairies and smuggled them underground. Fairy Chimneys, on the other hand, which have a magnificent structure due to their geomorphological formation, have been formed as a result of the erosion of rain and wind for millions of years. From the geomorphological formation of the Fairy Chimneys, which have an interesting and mysterious structure with the lava erupted by the volcanoes around, still maintain their splendor and mystery with mystical stories and narratives. Legends about Fairy Chimneys, which is a natural formation, are still told among the people, there is a belief that fairies and giants live. The dominance of the horror culture is clearly seen in the legends of Fairy Chimneys. The state of attributing a mystical, sacred, or divine meaning to the original past is evident in this myth too. In other words, people strongly believe in myths and fairy tales covering a wide area of​​ oral history as a way of remembering. These legends that support the magnificent view of the Fairy Chimneys, which are the most preferred region in touristic trips today, affect those who visit the region with a mystical atmosphere and maintain their importance in terms of cultural memory. Relatively, in the legends of Fairy Chimneys, where myths and historical reality coexist, a form of recall called ars memoriae (memory art) is realized, there is an effort to make sense of the world rather than preserving the original past of the people. Here, myths and historical realities are intertwined. At this point, these two opposite concepts that are fed from each other are also included in the legends of Fairy Chimneys. In this sense, adding mystical and sacred meanings to the past is also a means of keeping memory alive and can be said to be an important element of ars memoriae (memory art). As a result, in the legends of

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the Fairy Chimneys, on the one hand, there is an effort to make sense of the connection of the original past, on the other hand, the existence of a place that arouses fear and anxiety towards the unknown is made meaningful.

Nemrut Mountain Mount Nemrut in the Kahta district of Adıyaman in Eastern Anatolia is included in the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage List. Nemrut Ruins, which is said to have a history of thousands of years, still preserves its mystery and allows various legends to circulate. The mystery of how the archaeological ruins on the Nemrut Mountain and the sculptures built of large stones were there thousands of years ago still remain unresolved. In addition to that, B.C. Statues of Greek and Persian Gods attract attention in archaeological ruins of the Kingdom of Commagene, which was established as an independent state founded by Mithridathes Kalinikos in 162. Significantly, King Antiochos Theos Mithridathes is the king that took over after Kalinikos. Thus, Antiochos Theos is said to have built the sculptures of Greek and Persian Gods next to his own tomb temple. To this extent, it is also among the statements of archaeologists and researchers that there are tinsels on the Nemrut Mountain where the ends are not clear and where they go are not yet discovered. Therefore, it is true to say that Tumulus and sacred areas are of great importance to the Commagene King on Mount Nemrut. With the help of the presence of unexplored tunnels in the ruins of Nemrut, which still maintains its mystery, and the tomb of King Antiochos still not found makes this mysterious building more interesting. Eventually, Mithridathes, who founded the Kingdom of Commagene, brings together the Macedonians and other communities around and puts the name of the state as “Commagene”, which means “community of genes” (https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/nemrutun-muthis-oykusu-11530739). Having many undiscovered secrets makes Nemrut Ruins more mysterious and causes many legends to be produced especially by the locals.

Remembering the Past: Legend- Myth (Imagination) - Truth (History) Culture of Fear There are many legends about Mount Nemrut. Especially local people are known to believe in countless myths about this topic. In addition to being the mystery of Mount Nemrut, transportation is also very difficult and the fact that the tunnels located in it is not known causes it to be a subject of curiosity and research in an unknown state. Therefore, it is not a surprise that it attracted the attention of not only the experts but also the local people and treasure hunters as well. It can also be said that in the legends about Mount Nemrut, the culture of fear outweighs other Anatolian legends. Firstly, according to one legend, those who were exploring Mount Nemrut had never been able to get out of the tunnels located there, or they died with lightning on their way back. Therefore, it is widely believed that allegations are sinister among local people. On the other hand, another legend concerns a king who lives on Mount Nemrut. At this point, people lived to the age of a thousand at that time, and the king, who was a thousand years old, had a son of five hundred years. The king is known for his fondness for his son, and one day his son falls into the lake on the shore of Lake Van, where he lands to play. Upon this, the king becomes ill with sorrow and there is no cure for his illness. As a result, the king rises from his bed and turns his face to Mount Nemrut, and said ‘my son is five hundred years old, especially if I knew raw shaving, I would not have death in the world’. Upon the cries of the king, the stones in the mountain echo and they reproduce and the king dies

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as a result of this. Nemrut Mountain, which is a volcanic mountain, cannot stand this separation and burst from its sadness, and this is the last explosion of Mount Nemrut. In other words, it is believed that this mountain mourned the king and son (Van Culture and Tourism Inventory III, Folk Culture I, p. 146). The belief that the Mount Nemrut among the people is cursed stems from these legends. Here, especially local people made sense of the inaccessibility of Mount Nemrut with mystical stories. Looking at the truth, it is very difficult to reach Nemrut Mountain and it is difficult to reach the region even by car and after a point, it can be reached on foot or by donkeys. But it is a fact that it creates difficulties in climatic conditions. Therefore, those who want to conduct research on the subject among local people at certain times were affected by these conditions and many of them could not reach that point or disappear. As a result, it was believed to be cursed among the people and mystical tales and stories were made up, as stated in the example above. People have made a mystical sense of the inaccessibility of Mount Nemrut with these legends. Besides, how to remove the sculptures made of large stones to a region that is hard to reach even today is still unresolved. Thus, Nemrut Ruins are still under investigation and it remains a mystery with undiscovered secrets. The culture of horror prevails in the legends created by the local people for the Nemrut Ruins, which preserve their mystery with secrets that have not been discovered and are still being researched. The reason for this is to ensure the local people’s own social order and security.

Balıklı Lake (Balıklı Göl) Many stories are told about Balıklı Lake, one of the most famous places of Şanlıurfa. Balıklı Lake, the Aynzeliha and Halil-Ür Rahman lakes are located southwest of the city center of Şanlıurfa. Clearly, these two lakes, known as the place where the prophet İbrahim fell when he was thrown, were surrounded by many historical monuments. Moreover, the fish in these two lakes, which have a sacred meaning, are also considered sacred. As a result, Şanlıurfa is the place where this region, where many sacred rumors about Islamic mythology are told, is believed to be the place where Adam and Eve came after being expelled from heaven, and it is said to be the first place where Christianity was accepted as a state religion. To start with the legends of Balıklı lake, it is important to say that there are fish that are subject to legends in the Balıklı Lake, which is about 3-5 meters deep and 150 meters long and 30 meters wide, and these fish are considered sacred by the people (https://www.kulturportali.gov.tr). On the other hand, Balıklı Lake, which was flooded with visitors on religious days, attracts not only local people but also tourists. The reason for religious importance of the Balıklı Lake is directed from this sacred region is the subject of many rumors and the belief in these narrations is evident among the people. On the plateau where Balıklı Lake is located, there is a cave where the prophet İbrahim was born and the tomb of the religious scholar Beddiüzeman Said Nursi (https://www.kulturportali.gov.tr) is also located there. This region, therefore, which is visited by visitors from all religions and races to Balıklı Lake, which is one of the exceptional places with the mosques in its vicinity, also maintains its interest due to its religion and sacredness.

Remembering the Past: Legend- Myth (Imagination) - Truth (History) Culture of Fear There are many legends about Balıklı Lake. Especially legends narrated by the local people are conveyed from language to language from generation to generation.

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According to legend of pleasure, it is believed that the Balıklı Lake was formed as a result of the events between İbrahim and Nemrut who lived at that time, known for their cruelty and tormented their people. In this story, the Prophet punishes Hz. İbrahim and orders him to be thrown into the fire. It is believed that when the prophet İbrahim was thrown into the fire, the fire turned into water and the wood turned into fish. Since, the fire turned into a lake at the command of Allah and constantly searched for its existence, it is said that this lake was named as Halil-Ür Rahman lake because it addressed Ibrahim as ‘Halilim’ which means my friend. On the other hand, Hz. Zeliha, the other adopted son of Nemrut, who is the friend of İbrahim, also Hz. Furthermore, it was stated that İbrahim had shed tears after her, and that the other lake of Zeliha was called Ayn-ı Zeliha lake (https://www.balikligol.com.tr). In this example, it is seen that myths have been fed from fairy tales and legends throughout history and caused the formation of social life on the basis of a mystical world. On this way, it is possible for people of all religions and races to interact without any physical connection in the interaction of communities. It is shown in this example, myths, fairy tales and legends feed on each other, united on the basis of a mystical world, and the divine and sacred tasks attributed to space in terms of spatial memory are identified by identifying with human beings. Moreover, here, it is observed that the belief and religion are dominant and divine meanings are attributed to the unexplained situations of how they were formed. Therefore, people make sense of the origins of their beliefs by combining them with myths, fairy tales and legends. It can be stated that this story, which is one of the most important legends about Balıklı Lake, is transferred from language to language, from generation to generation and has an important place in cultural memory studies. It is also seen that the natural structure of the space is tried to be protected with religious, divine and sacred meanings that cause people to fear being punished. It can be said that this story, one of the most important legends about Balıklı Lake, is passed down from language to language and from generation to generation and has an important place in cultural memory studies.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This paper has one major problem that myths, legends and fairy tales as a cultural memory product has been covered by different literature; there is not satisfactory empirical data that collaborate the comprehensive literature review on the Anatolian legends. The enormous volume of studies on the cultural memory ars memoriae have included in this paper. In this study, the newly founded historical place of Göbeklitepe and near regional historical places has given in a detail explanation with the remembering the past under the umbrella of cultural memory. In this sense, this study has highlight the importance of the legends, myths and folk tales with regards to contemporary history narratives and imagination contradictions. However the function of the folk tales, legends and myths could be incorporated in future researches. The terms covered in this study is particularly significant to disclose the subsequent shifts towards truth to imagination. Further research may highlight the new trends in myths narrative such as; TV series on the historical places stories as destination marketing or cultural memory reproduction. New destination marketing phenomenon, with the traditional literature applies the current studies, which countries adaptation on this process has not been evaluated in this paper. The concept of informative explanations with the fictional media product interest on these historical places and motivation for destination marketing besides the tourism activities.

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CONCLUSION In this study, which aims to create a knowledge base for spatial and cultural memory, the cultural heritage of Anatolia, which has hosted many civilizations, has been discussed and explained in terms of cultural memory. It has been observed that the creation of stories of myths, tales and legends, which are the basic elements of oral literature, and many symbolic meanings they carry are in a close relationship with cultural memory. In addition, it has been determined that the culture of fear in folk legends has an important place in terms of explanation of the unknown and most importantly in terms of protection from elements that pose a threat to people. Although, it has been demonstrated how many cultural and historical places belonging to Anatolia shed light on historical reality on the one hand, and on the other hand, the importance of legends created especially in folk culture in terms of cultural memory. Considering the transfer of these stories from generation to generation, it has been observed that identity is established between myths, fairy tales and legends and places, and the world lived on the basis of a mystical meaning and interpretation. As Assmann (2015: p.138) states, the myth emphasizes what is missing, disappears and brings the rupture between “once” and “now” into consciousness. In this regard, it is possible to say that the unexplored and mysterious aspects of the cultural heritage belonging to Anatolia examined within the scope of the research are made by myths in order to complement the missing and emphasize the disappearance. In other words, the facts of these cultural heritages, which remain mysterious in terms of historical reality and not yet discovered, have been tried to be explained through myths and legends and these created stories have been passed from generation to generation. Missing through myths and fairy tales are completed and made sense. Thus, there was a break between the past and the present. Significantly, in memory studies, recall is handled starting from oral history and the culture of recall is associated with spaces and ars memoriae (memory art) is realized through imaginary spaces. Moreover, the historical reality fed by the culture of recall is explained in relation to space. In other words, the past is remembered through the cultural memory that emerges as a result of the combination of the past and the space, and the secret is understood through imaginary spaces. On the other hand, the opposite situation has arisen in the ways of remembering the cultural spaces examined within the scope of the research. Here, the hidden places belonging to the places are remembered by creating myths, fairy tales and legends rather than historical reality, which reveals a completely different situation in terms of cultural memory. As a consequence, various stories have been created and explained through legends in Anatolia. Anatolia is a region where verbal culture prevails, and people are acting to make sense and interpret the world with wisdom, which cannot be achieved through research beyond listening to storytelling. However, it is seen that the hidden and mysterious aspects of the studied cultural structures are conveyed through legends and created stories, and most of them are separated from historical reality. In so far as, this situation can be interpreted as a slave; For example, when one look at the legend of Mount Nemrut, it is far from historical reality. Yet, due to the fact that going to Nemrut Mountain in a sense is dangerous and it is difficult to return from the tunnels, the local people were protected from danger through this story and a belief that this region was cursed was supported in the story, supported by the legend of Mount Nemrut. In the legends of Mount Nemrut, the culture of horror prevails compared to other Anatolian legends. People have attributed mythical meanings to Mount Nemrut in order to be protected from the dangers of wild nature and geographical conditions by using the element of fear.

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When one look at the legend of Balıklı Lake, the unexplained spatial and historical reality was made meaningful by attributing the divine and sacred with stories told through myths and legends. To summarize, myths, besides the function of making sense of the world, prevent the connection between the past and the present, rather than remembering and connecting with the past through legends, including the mysterious and miraculous events that have been hidden and lost. The world is lived through myths and it is made sense by attributing divine and sacred duties. Therefore, myths provide awareness of communities’ belief systems, their ties to the past, their moral and cultural structures, and most importantly, their meaning. Since belief systems have been strengthened by fear and punishment method for centuries, it can be said that there is a culture of fear in the findings of Balıkgöl. The facts and events conveyed by legends are transferred to future generations by myth, and the history of mysterious and disappearing places, facts and events is remembered without ignoring that they are mutually nurtured by historical reality. As a result, although the legends and stories of the cultural heritage examined within the scope of the research do not coincide with the historical reality, myth (imagination) and history (reality) feed on each other. Events and phenomena that historical reality cannot explain reveal the oral history tradition, and here legends and stories created by people try to make sense of them by explaining the undiscovered and hidden points of these places. In this context, it has been observed that most of the myths examined were created to attribute Divine and sacred duties to the unexplainable reality, either to impose meaning or to take precautions against possible dangers and deviations. Therefore, when looking at the findings of the Anatolian legends examined within the scope of the research, it can be stated that the culture of fear takes place. They have benefited from myths and legends in order to protect people from the dangers that may pose a threat to them against the unknown and uncanny.

REFERENCES Assmann, J. (2001). Kültürel bellek (A. Tekin, Trans.). Ayrıntı Yayınları. Assmann, J. (2015). Kültürel bellek: Eski yüksek kültürlerde yazı, hatırlama ve politik kimlik (Vol. 2; A. Tekin, Trans.). Ayrıntı Yayınları. Başer, S. (2006). Toplumsal aklı anlamak. Ataç Yayınları. Connerton, P. (1992). Toplumlar nasıl anımsar? (A. Şenel, Trans.). Ayrıntı Yayınları. Draaisma, D. (2014). Bellek metaforları: Zihinle ilgili fikirlerin tarihi (Vol. 2; G. Koca, Trans.). Metis Yayınları. Halis, G. (2019). Yeni başlayanlar için Göbeklitepe (3rd ed.). İstanbul: A7 Kitap Yayıncılık. Huyssen, A. (1999). Alacakaranlık anıları: Bellek yitimi kültüründe zamanı belirlemek (K. Atakay, Trans.). Metis Yayınları. İlhan, M. E. (2018). Kültürel bellek: Sözlü kültürden yazılı kültüre hatırlama. Doğu Batı Yayınları. Keskintaş, O. (2013). Anlatıcı, zaman, mekân ve mistik deneyim açısından mitler ve iktidar ilişkisinin incelenmesi. Anemon Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 4(1), 125–147.

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Oskay, Ü. (1994). Çağdaş fantazya popüler kültür açısından bilim kurgu ve korku sineması. Der Yayınları. Ricoeur, P. (2017). Hafıza tarih unutuş (M. E. Özcan, Trans.). Metis Yayınları. Sancar, M. (2007). Geçmişle hesaplaşma. İletişim Yayınları. Sanders, B. (2013). Öküzün A’sı: Elektronik çağda yazılı kültürün çöküşü ve şiddetin yükselişi (Vol. 3; Ş. Tahir, Trans.). Ayrıntı Yayınları. Sayar, S. (2012). Sivas masallarında mitolojik unsurlar [The Mythological Factors in the Tales of Sivas]. Studies of The Ottoman Domain, 2(3), 26–40. Schudson, M. (2007). Kolektif bellekte çarpıtma dinamikleri (B. Kovulmaz, Trans.). Cógito (Salvador), 50, 179–199. Scognamillo, G. (1996). Korkunun Sanatları. İnkılap Kitapevi. Tekin, E. K. (2019). Mitsel söylencelerin kültürel kod bağlamında ortaklığı. Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü Dergisi, (42), 118-126.

ADDITIONAL READING Aslan, F. (2014). The dragon motif in Anatolian legends. Journal of International Social Research, 7(29), 30–46. Bachvarova, M. (2005). Migrations in Anatolian narrative traditions. In K. Kopanias, Ç. Maner, & N. Stampolidis (Eds.), Nostoi: Indigenous Culture, Migration and Integration in the Aegean Islands and Western Anatolia during the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages (pp. 117–155). Koç University Publish. Bachvarova, M. R. (2016). From Hittite to Homer: The Anatolian Background of Ancient Greek Epic. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139048736 Burke, B. (2001). Anatolian origins of the Gordian knot legend. Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 42(3), 255–261. Couroucli, M. (2012). Saint George the Anatolian: master of frontiers. In D. Albera & M. Couroucli (Eds.), Sharing Sacred Spaces in the Mediterranean: Christians, Muslims, and Jews at Shrines and Sanctuaries (pp. 118–140). Indiana University Press. Dale, A. (2015). Walwet and Kukalim: Lydian coin legends, dynastic succession, and the chronology of Mermnad kings. Kadmos, 54(1-2), 151–166. doi:10.1515/kadmos-2015-0008 Demiralp, D. (2010). “The Most Beautiful One” in the Ancient Anatolian Legends: Helen of Troy. Gazi Akademik Bakış, 7. Gimbutas, M. (1974). The gods and goddesses of old Europe: 7000 to 3500 BC myths, legends and cult images (Vol. 4). University of California Press. Halman, T. S. (2009). Popular Turkish Love Lyrics and Folk Legends. Syracuse University Press.

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MacQueen, J. (1967). Saints’ Legends and Celtic Life. Folk Life, 5(1), 5–18. doi:10.1179/flk.1967.5.1.5 Marjanić, S. (1991). From the Anatolian Bird of Prey Goddess through the Ancient Greek Sirens to the Sea Virgins in Croatian Oral Legends. Folklore, 188, 171–197. Tozlu, N. (2012). Social Reflections of Adıyaman Uryan Baba Legend and its there new variances. Selçuk Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi-Selçuk University Journal of Faculty of Letters, 27, 163–176. Westenholz, J. G. (1997). Legends of the Kings of Akkade: the texts (Vol. 7). Eisenbrauns.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Ars Memoriae: One product that represents the era of spatial stability as a source of its capacity to remember is ars memoria, the art of remembering. The art of remembrance, which is regarded as an important thinking practice until the seventeenth century, is based on the harmonious coexistence of elements such as a consistent space, a person acting in space, and a straight line time during which this movement takes place. It is a method of placing the desires to be kept in mind as images symbolizing them in an imaginary space created in the mind. Cultural Memory: Cultural memory, as defined by the German cultural scientist Aleida Assmann and Jan Assmann, is a tradition of people who have come to the culture and live in the culture and the age that has been repeated and reproduced for centuries and centuries. Aleida Assmann and Jan Assmann distinguish this concept from other memory forms in two basic points. The first of these is the daily memory, which they call the communicative (das kommunikative) and which does not contain any cultural reflections, while the second is the scientific approach, which does not contribute to the formation of a cultural collective identity. Maurice Halbwachs also examines the scientific approach mentioned here in two sub-categories: histoire and memory (mémoire). Folk Tales: It is a type of long-term expression in which real or lifelike events are told. They are stories that have traditional content, which are passed down from generation to generation. It usually deals with love and heroism. Legends: The most widely accepted definition of the legend, which is a type of oral literary tradition created in an oral cultural environment, is “a story told by believing that it is true about a real or imaginary person, incident or place”. The systematic description of the three main elements in this short and concise definition is as follows: 1) The legend is appropriate within the concept of the narrator’s historical time. a) The legend is combined with a certain historical (real or imaginary) event. b) The legend is combined with a particular person, that is, a historical (real or imaginary) personality called a name. 2) The legend is in accordance with the concept of the narrator’s geographical area; that is, it is combined with a certain place; 3) The legend is a story believed to be true. Though he works with supernatural incidents, but he is believed to be true by his narrators. It is respected as if it belongs to the world in which the narrator and the listener live. It is among the most basic features of legends that these elements are combined with a certain “historical” event and person and combined with a “specific geographical” place. Memory: In psychology, memory is defined as the ability of an organism to store, store and recall information. The first studies on memory were made in the field of philosophy and mostly focused on memory development techniques. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the issue of memory was

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mostly addressed in the paradigm of cognitive psychology. In recent years, it has become one of the major branches of perceptual-neurological sciences, a branch of science associated with perception psychology and neurological sciences. Memory Space: Space stands out as a tool in revealing and preserving the collective memory of societies. If we think in reverse, the space itself can be the creator and protector of the collective memory of society. Myths: Derived from the Greek mythos (meaning-story) word, the concept of myth can be described as a popular belief in popular use, stereotyped or romanticized. a culture-specific allegorical fairy tale or fable that describes a natural, supernatural, or sociocultural phenomenon that has a sacred status in traditional societies. In addition, all kinds of common narratives that encode cultural norms and serve to maintain social cohesion.

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Aesthetics of Violence and Horror in Mass Media

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Violence Aestheticized in Sports Publications and Broadcasts Esennur Sirer https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0345-4158 Usküdar University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The most important thing that human beings enjoy doing is playing games. Maybe the game culture, which is an activity as old as human history, has been going on for centuries. Another activity that has been going on for centuries is the sports shows that are aestheticized. Especially football matches, which are loved and liked by large masses, take the individual away from the stress of daily life and experience some kind of catharsis due to the pleasure obtained while watching or watching by nature. Football matches returning to the mass purification field can also be a charging area of violence. In order to keep this field alive, all actors of football support violence, knowingly or not. Football player, manager, referee, audience, and media are the leading actors. In particular, it offers sports shows and aesthetics on the field to increase the number of television viewers.

INTRODUCTION Contrary to Ivan Illich’s idea that the vehicle would create a human festive society when used for human benefit, Guy Debord described the show age as nonfestive’ (1996: p.87). Entertainment and festivity is one of the discharge areas that have attracted the attention of communities since the early ages. In this sense, sports performances have attracted attention since the early ages and became one of the popular entertainment venues. The origin of the word sports comes from the Latin words, Desportare and İsportus” (having fun, having fun, lingering around). XI.century, from French to English and “Sport” (entertaining, time killing, distraction, hobby) began to be used in the form (Voigt, 1998: 86). Sporting games have been seen as the indispensable entertainment of their societies since ancient times. In gladiator fights during the Roman period, sports were presented to the audience in the form of violent games. In order to make the shows more exciting, the fighters were prepared for these encounters for days, in the “gladiator schools” established for this, the strong, durable slaves would sweat for this DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch010

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entertainment for days only. The best in the gladiator show was also the strongest warrior in the eyes of society. The games and demonstrations have been carried on as part of life since Rome and have led the lives of societies. When the game is traced in the historical process, it is seen that there are games in different ways and organized social life in all communities and tribes. For societies, games express the way of interpreting life and the world. Who can deny that ideas of competition, challenge and danger are very close to the concept of play? Play and danger, random luck, bold action; all these concepts are intertwined. It can be concluded as follows: The word ‘Plegen’, with all its derivatives - whether they carry lines related to the game or the task - is included in the area where something is played. This leads us to the relationship of the game to competition and collision in general (Huizinga, 2018: pp. 67-68). The first thing that comes to mind when it comes to sports shows is the ‘Olympic Games’. According to the oldest written documents and records kept at the beginning of the year BC. 776 (TMOK, 2019). However, the unknown history of the games dates back to much older. Studies on football in the BC. He documents that he went back to the Han Dynasty in China in the 2000’s (Football Economy & Industrial Football, 2019). According to the information in the related books of Chinese history; “cuju”, which means ball pushed by foot, is the first “football” played in the world. B.C. The “cuju dance” is mentioned on the turtle shells of ‘Shang period’ between the 16th and 11th centuries. ‘Foot ball’ BC. 206 and M.S. He entered the palace during the ‘Han Dynas’ between the years 220. Emperors and viziers were among those who pursued the ball made of leather and filled with feathers during this period. In these years, football was also used in military training (www.ekonomidunya.com) Spore; It continued to be an entertaining show where collective sports were held until the city life and industrialization process. However, with the industrial revolution and mechanization, it has been able to serve a whole range of purposes, from amateurism to professional work. In this period, sports, social movement style was learned (Kellner, 2010: p. 35) was highlighted because it is the area of ​​professional sports organized over the years for the audience. Many sports branches are organized and regulated. Now the three components of the sport have been formed: those who organize the show and benefit from it, those who perform the show and those who watch it. The executive and elite class, which possesses the monopoly of sporting with industrialization and urban life, has turned to organizing sports competitions. This colonization made by capitalist capital provides great benefits to the capitalist class both in terms of economic interest and consciousness management and ideological sovereignty (Erdoğan, 2008: p.3). On the other hand, creating the conditions for sovereigns to maintain their sovereignty has been facilitated by the creation of masses who do not engage in sports, but the creation of masses that have accepted to be objects instead of subjects in a sense of life (Ulus, 2013). Industrial society individuals who accept to be objects rather than subjects of sports have had to pay fees for watching sports performances which they see as taking a break from their lives in decades. The next step of this was to emulate the athletes’ lives and their desire to live like them with various advertising strategies. Professional athletes are commodities in the world dominated by the capitalist market economy. He struggles with his rivals to succeed. The Machyevelist world views, which they say, ‘everything is permissible on the way to the goal’, makes it legitimate to resort to all forms of violence in order to have a lifestyle that everyone envies. Because then life is reunited with fairy tales. Life stories in the media make them heroes. The approval of the hero’s lifestyle also affirms

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the hero’s violence in the eyes of role models. Therefore, a lifestyle determined aesthetic through the hero is marketed. The media has also been involved in the professional presentation of sports shows and has played an active role in organizing and distributing. Firstly newspapers and then television have played a major role in mediating sports demonstrations with technological developments. These shows, where the ultimate aim is to increase the number of viewers, are presented with aesthetics to create a pleasure of watching. The damaging content of the print media through increasing circulation, increasing the audience of the visual press, and increasing the number of ‘clicks’ of the new media at the last point disrupts the structure of the sport that unites people. It is seen that athletes and spectators exhibit more aggressive and violent behaviors if it is exaggerated to win or lose in the sports. Violence is easily externalized when it finds a suitable environment. Violence (eg physical conflict) is popular because of its metaphorical relationship with class or social conflict (Fiske, 1999: p.166). Sports media using this situation for their own benefit softens the violence. The titles and content used in sports newspapers, the violent images and vocalizations that are shown as competition in sports matches on television, the discourses in sports programs continue in the same manner in an area that we can reach at any time by moving to new media.

AESTHETICS, SPORTS AND VIOLENCE Derived from the Greek term “aesthesis”, the concept of “aesthetics” is defined as the scientific field of sensory information regarding the idea of beauty (Tunalı, 2018: pp.13-14). Since the emergence of humanity, whatever appeals to people’s senses has been considered within the concept of aesthetics. Accordingly, sports activities can be regarded as aesthetic actions considering the manner of performing sport and the form provided by sport to the body and soul of the person doing sports activities. Sport is a “technical and physical effort made by people (specifically, athletes) to win competitions; an aesthetic process based on competing for the audience; a mirror that plainly reflects the social conflicts and qualities per the circumstances; an effective purpose that directs the society; and finally, a significant social institution” (Fişek, 1980: p.34). The different types of action present in different types of athletic contests provide a clue to the strength of this gratification for different audiences. Broadcasts of sport events with a strong close of physical contact, such as football, hockey, boxing and to a lesser degree, basketball, attract a different (demographic) audience than broadcasts of noncontract sports, such as tennis, golf and baseball. The difference does not seem to be between team or nonteam sports but solely the amount of physical contact among participant, which we consider to be a form of action (Walters, 1994: p.283). While aesthetics is reproduced in the media, the determinant elements represent the quality of reflected objects, instrumental capabilities of the media, and aesthetic admiration level of the target audience (Yılmaz & Taşkıran, 2014). Accordingly, aestheticization returns from the target audience to the reflected element and harms the sports content if the concepts of winning or losing in sports activities that are performed to meet physical activity-related needs are exaggerated within the social structure, which consequently causes the athletes performing sport on the field and audience to be more aggressive and inclined to display violent attitudes (Acet, 2005, cited by: Yıldırım, 2017). People adapt to such a psychology more rapidly in sports competitions. The challenging competitions occurring on pitches are also experienced in stands at a much higher rate. Supporters in these stands are observed 176

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to perform primitive rituals to share a common feeling or thought. As described by Hall, the reflection of the competition on the pitch “causes the uprising to occur in the stands rather than the pitch” (1999: p.100). The violent acts can be performed individually or collectively by supporters. Freud claims that interiorized masochism often causes externalization. Externalized aggression reflects itself through violent acts (Bleakley, 2019). Violence can be easily displayed in an appropriate environment. Sports pitches are clear examples in this regard. Different forms of violence and aesthetics can be seen in sports. Visualization and presentation of sport as a show due to its natural aesthetic quality has reflected it as a phenomenon since the early times. However, the satisfaction obtained from the presentation or performance of sports activities sometimes peaks and turns into violence, which is actually maintained in this way to capture the attention of more people. Having been described by Aristoteles through the concept of “katharsis” or by Kant through his definition as “the harmony and free game between sensitivity and intelligence”, aesthetic satisfaction is not solely a pure emotion as it also contains a deep psychological-aesthetic meaning (Tunalı, 2018: p.63).

CATHARSIS OCCURRING VIA SPORT Catharsis is defined as purifying the soul from passions (www.sozluk.gov.tr). This term also means the achievement of freedom for the soul and is generally used in psychology. People have benefited from games and sports activities to purify their souls since the early times. “People of ancient Greece and Rome are believed to have purified the malevolence within themselves after watching the theater plays with immoral or unethical topics, and such purification concept was called catharsis” (Özgen, 2004: p. 27). Similar forms of this concept can be seen in sports activities. Watching the sports games, people experience catharsis as a result of the satisfaction they get (Erdem, 2019: p. 120). Sports shows and competitions are extremely tempting for people. Sports games enable adults to get satisfaction and relax, like children do. Games are temporary worlds that have particular sacred rules within their confined borders and that are designed within a known world to perform a certain act (Huizinga, 2018: pp. 2941), and games attract people. The difference in the strength of gratification of the different types of sporting events – contact vs. noncontact sports- is at least in part due tue other categories of gratification, but to the extend that there are differences in the type of action, it seems that contact sport appeal more strongly to lower education and income groups, and that non contact sports have grater appeal for a more educated, higher income audience – again primarily men in both cases (Walters, 1994: p.284). Sport is a set of activities that meet people’s needs and are used as the means of releasing violence. Violent shows, rituals and similar practices were used in ancient societies to release violence. The dominant emotion felt in these practices is relaxation. The dominance of relaxation reveals the coexistence of the concepts of “farmakon” and “catharsis” (Girard, cited by: Erdem, 2019: p.120). According to Norbert Elias “who defined sport as a free phenomenon of modernity, the distinctive quality of modern sport is the decreased rate of violence in it. However, the following characteristics with similarity are always seen in a group doing a sports activity: a visual collision, excitement arising from this collision, normalization of tension following the result, and release of emotions” (Elias, cited by: Talimciler, 2006: pp. 92-93). High tension in sport is normal but violent aspect of sport is not approved in modern times. 177

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Violence can be used by people to express themselves. The general idea thus far is that active participation or participation to sports competitions by procuration generates catharsis; that is, it reveals the depressed emotions (Braynt, 1981: p.257). Lluis Flaquer, a Catalan sociologist, explains this psychological state as follows: “If you cannot shout at your father, you shout at someone else” (Kuper, 2014: p.172). “Watching violence within fantasia provides entertainment and reduces mental tension in certain cases. The essence of purification in this regard is to release tension or anger in an expressible manner” (Oskay, 2010: pp. 371-372). Having been systematized and organized with the emergence of modern societies, sport has been confined to closed areas or stadiums as places for releasing tension or anger. Stadiums are designed to be the places of catharsis and gathering for thousands of people, which is also the case for ancient times. These venues were the areas of utilization for governments throughout the 20th century, which caused sport to lose its essential meaning in time. One of the best examples to the fact that football numbs people and lets them release their tension and anger in a system is Franco’s fascism and Spain. In the 1950s, a football match (Spanish Cup Final Game) was played between Barcelona, Catalonia’s pride, and Real Madrid, supported by dictator Franco, at the Bernabeu stadium. Barcelona led the first half, 3-0. Franco was quite angry with the score and sent a message to Barcelona dressing room during the half time: “You will leave the ball and the game to Real Madrid players or else no Barcelona player can leave this stadium alive.” Consequently, in the second half, Real Madrid scored five goals and lifted the trophy (Yaşa, cited by: Sirer, 2018: p.30). Football is a sport that is known in every corner of the world and is intertwined with life. The adoption and keeping of football as a sport loved by the masses has always made him consider. Football is an area that the government has not wanted to leave since its discovery. Because management practices can be easily placed in football. This situation caused the managers to constantly manipulate this area. Football and politics! You’ve come to the right please here. Football turned out to matter rather more than I had thought. I found a football clup that exports nuclear materials and gold, and another that is setting up its own university. Mussolini and Franco undestood the game’s significance, and so do John Major, Nelson Mandela and President Paul Biya of Cameroon. Because of football, Nikolai Starostin was sent to the Soviet gulags, but it was football that saved his life there. He was amazed, he writes, that these ‘camp boses, arbiters of the life and death of thousands upon thousands of human beings… were so benevolent to anything concerning soccer. Their unbridled pover our human lives was nothing compared to the power of soccer over them (Kuper, 1996: p.3).

DOMINANT VIOLENT ASPECT OF FOOTBALL Football has been capturing people’s attention for approximately 4000 years. The findings indicating that football was played in ancient times date back to Han Dynasty Era that ruled China during 2000s B.C., but the same findings also document that football was played for military discipline rather than as a game. The first game that resembles to football is Harpastum. It had a violent and aggressive style and was played in ancient Greece circa 600 B.C. However, the modern name and rules of football were derived from the England of medieval times (www.futbolekonomi.com). Having been exported from England to the entire world, football is loved and played because it has simple rules and can be played 178

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with a ball anywhere. “What is the enjoyable side of the game? Why do thousands of people feel an excitement that is as extreme as madness? The intensity of football has not been explained by any biological analyses. The essence of this game is actually based on such intensity or power to tease one another” (Huizinga, 2018: p.20). From the historical perspective, the game of football that was played in stadiums within a certain set of rules has now turned into a modern show following the industrialization. “Although football continued to be a ‘show’ until the mid-1980’s,“ business ”was added to this concept since the early 1990’s, and this show that millions watched with interest has now become ‘show-business’. This sport, which started to derive non-football elements, has become increasingly contaminated and has different meanings beyond being sports, has evolved to Futbol A.Ş.” (Akşar, 2005: p.8). A small group that organized and earned from the show, footballers who are the starts of this show, and the spectators stood on different grounds. Spectators, i.e. the supporters, started to be on the stands by the pitch in the modern form of football. A violent and tense relationship has always been present between the stands and footballers on the pitch. The people who are directed to the stands from an economic perspective make efforts to prove their existence as supporters to be a subject in the game of football once again (Aydın et al., 2008: p. 294). Accordingly, it is fair to state that violence is present in two forms in football. One of them is “players’ violence” that can be present in football, that does not aim to destruct anything and that can be displayed as a tactic in many sports fields, while the other is “compensatory violence” that is shaped around the symbolic and connective structure of the supported teams and that can often result in destructive impacts which may be left by the marginalized sides on one another (Yılmaz & Erdem, 2018). Football is considered to resemble to the flow of life, and it focuses on the ideology that winning or losing is actually what matters. The Machiavellianist attitude that indicates anything can be legitimately done to win is also present in football. “Accordingly, educational deficiencies and failure to establish a common sense regarding the meaning and importance of violence and fair-play reflect any type of initiative (match fixing, doping, violence etc.) that will result in success as legitimate” (Fişekçioğlu et al., 2010: p.14). Football is often considered to complement violence. Each football game always has blocking, impacts, (sportive) fighting and similar actions. Controlled violence displayed during a game, satisfied two opposing desires such as the desire to show violence and the desire to be controlled not to be affected by violence (Berger, 2019: p.149). Violence in football may sometimes result in death, the most tragical end. Supporters who are present on the stands as a part of the show become marginalized by opposing to their existence in this regard. Studies showed that most of the victims of violent acts in countries where football is highly popular aged between 14 and 25 years and were among the non-fanatics. The most tragic football event in Turkey happened in the match between the teams from Kayseri and Sivas provinces in 1967. Forty people died and 600 got injured in this tragedy. The saddest football event ever occurred in 1985 European Champion Clubs’ Cup final game between Liverpool and Juventus in Heysel Stadium in Brussels (Ulus, 2013: pp. 193- 194). An uncontrolled violence occurred among the spectators. Consequently, 41 people died and 350 got injured (www.cnntürk.com).

Footballers’ Role Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of Modern Olympic Games, stated that the main purpose of sport is to prepare young people to wars (Fişek, 1980: p. 29). “All sports branches are based on the battles one has with oneself or others. Glorifying the instinct to win helps people develop their physical and mental 179

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state, gain skills, live healthily, trust themselves and others, and be happy” (Ulus, 2013: p.190). Warriors of modern times are footballers. Football pitches have replaced the battlefields of ancient times while gladiators have been replaced by footballers. A controlled violence occurs instead of shedding blood. According to Huizinga, violence and game (particularly the ones that require physical battles and efforts) are inherent (Erdem, 2019: p.116). The violence displayed by footballers during games is deliberate and intentional. Footballers often break the rules of the game because breaking, forcing or neglecting the rules of football and making efforts to escape or deceive the referee when seen is accepted as a strategy of this game (Erdoğan, 2008: p.46). This ideology is also reflected on daily lives. Violent behaviors are expected in all contact sports. Moreover, extreme violence is often deemed normal. Warriors, i.e. the athletes, are physically conditioned for that purpose (Braynt, 1981: p.261). One of the factors fueling the violence in football is footballers who organize the game and act as the architect of the dramatic structure. They do their best to ensure spectators are satisfied with the game because players benefit from entertaining games the most. They attract the attention of spectators with their moves. Each footballer has a position and function in a football game that turns into a show. “The teams playing in an attacking style prefer to play with the ball and achieve a score while defending teams aim to cut opponents’ time with the ball and gain the control of the game, and referees aim to display an ego function and maintain the game (Berger, 2019: p.150). Albert Camus stated the following in this regard: “I owe all the reliable information I know about ethics and human responsibilities to football” (www.socratesdergi.com). Football is believed to be a copy of the life itself. A lifestyle aestheticized upon football is generated. The emotions of happiness, sorrow, enthusiasm, disappointment and remorse or the act of deceit, all of which are displayed in 90 minutes, reflect the flow of life. Footballers and spectators, two different shareholders of football, apply whatever they learn from football to their lives. Reflections of football can even be seen in their statements. However, footballers who are regarded as models with their lifestyles and high earnings are also the victims of this game, but they accept to be so in return for their earnings. “According to the latest results, many professional footballers have severe neurological disorders and other health problems arising from the blows they suffer during games. Everybody accepts that football contains violence but the impacts of this violence on footballers have been revealed only during the recent times” (Berger, 2019: p.150).

Spectators’ Role Fanatics are who come to mind first when violence in sport is mentioned. Spectators are divided into four as supporters, fanatics, hooligans (aggressive spectators) and television spectators. Partisanship is explained as being a side, i.e. supporting a specific team in this regard, being a side to that team’s attitudes, or showing sympathy for that team (Mil&Şanlı, 2015: p. 234). More than 85% of global football spectators are male and more than half of these male spectators are young people whose ages vary between 15 and 24. Youth is when individuals build their own identity. Violence in football provides a social area where men can create a masculine identity (Berger, 2019: p. 149). For instance, being a supporter to a team helps young people adapt to a specific group and feel themselves a part of this group (Talimciler, 2006: p. 95). “Adaptation in football has an impact on the aggression of spectators. People experiencing high adaptation to a group or organization may show violent reactions when their group or organization is attacked (Gill, cited by: Fişekçioğlu et al., 2010: p. 20).

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Saaijis ordered the significant qualities and acts that made the concept of supporting a sports team universal phenomenon as follows: evoking excitement and satisfaction; building a masculine identity; having a personal and collective dignity; identification in regard to the local space; solidarity; and feeling of belonging to a group or organization. Supporters who create violence in stands to show how brave they are actually do so to feel the solidarity and collectivity among themselves, as described by King (Aydın et al., 2008: pp.302-307). For individuals who believe that they can express themselves in a group, what is owned or experienced feels more important than what is not. The most obvious example to the fact that people can perform certain actions, which they cannot do alone, easily in a group as they feel more comfortable and safer and that they sometimes go too far, which can be explained through community psychology, can be seen in football. Community members who personally feel insufficient and weak may occasionally go beyond the limits under the concept of partisanship. Spectators who cannot do anything malevolent alone believe that they can do anything in a group. They join certain events, and harm and destruct whatever is around (Çepe, 1992, cited by: Mil& Şanlı, 2015: p.234). Spectators who realize themselves in a group make too much effort in doing so that they feel like footballers who run for kilometers when they go back to their home. Watching football games is like a practice of working in an institutional world for spectators. Violence in football, on the other hand, serves as the campaigns prepared to divide enemies and people (Berger, 2019: p.142). One of the most successful football clubs in the world is FC Barcelona, a Catalonian club that has a huge stadium. Catalonian supporters reach catharsis by presenting Catalonian symbols during the games, stating that they feel better in the stadium and that they go back to their home happily. A Catalonian supporter states that football is just an instrument, using the following words: “some people go to Barcelona games just because they love football” (Kuper, 2014: p.181). Accordingly, many people go to matches just to experience the satisfaction of being there.

Media’s Role Sports activities do not mean anything if they are not presented to the public in the modern age. Accordingly, media has undertaken the important responsibility to present sports activities to the people. Media guides people from different perspectives including how sports events are presented and interpreted, what type of titles and terms are selected, and how these titles and terms affect people, directly or indirectly, and it also shapes people’s mind map (Özsoy, 2011: p. 91). Certain documentaries and movies regarding football were produced in the mainstream and alternative media (Spaaij, 2011: p.132). Accordingly, it becomes clear that mass media instruments do not hesitate to present all sorts of violent acts due to concerns related to rating or circulation and that violence can be easily seen in all sorts of programs hosted by mass media instruments (Bolat and Çakın, 2018: p. 323). Evidences indicate that supporters are directed to violence by newspapers for circulation, by television channels for rating, and by web sites for “clicking”, all of which have violent contents. Violence is actually a result, and one of the most important factors yielding this result and creating the intuitive aggression in spectators is provocation. The most important instrument triggering the provocative acts is all sorts of media instruments (Ulus, 2013: p.196). Newspapers, radio and television programs, and new media contents fuel the violence in sport. Moreover, reactions to the programs in all sorts of media instruments yield violence. With the digitalization of mass media instruments, feedbacks are provided with a rebellious language including insults, which causes the creation of a violent language (Çakın and Bolat, 2018: p. 341).

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Many studies have been conducted to examine the violence in sport and its impacts. A relevant study has examined the impact or media contents with a descending order in terms of violence. Accordingly, provocative articles about the club, team and footballers were the first, followed by provocative statements and articles about the spectators, exaggeration toward the importance of the game, subjective acts and formation of opposing public opinion by columnists who seem to be objective, violent images in the credits of sports programs, criticisms from authors opposing the club authority toward the footballers and coaches, and different interpretation of the positions in a game by authorities or ex referees in the media (Özmaden, cited by: Özsoy, 2011: p.92). Another study found that sports newspapers, which are among the most important instruments of sports media, often used statements and words such as “battle, fight, attack, combat, weapon, revenge, tearing, destruction, bullet and death”, which can cause tension among the supporters (Özsoy, 2011: p. 110). The media that should explain that football is a game with three results reflect the sport as a battle for rating and circulation, thus harming the essential beauty of the game (Talimciler, 2006: p. 97). It is clear that the language, syntax and meanings reflected in different field of media shape the perceptions of readers, audience, spectators and followers. The battle-related metaphors used to color the expression and the context within these metaphors indicate a militarist discourse. The afore-noted content forms a mental background to create a violent environment on sports pitches, and they are influential on the sport-related public opinion (Özsoy, 2011: p. 91). The report issued by the Turkish Parliamentary Commission established to investigate the claims regarding match fixing, violence, unfair competition and incentive premium in sport emphasized that sports media uses interesting titles before games such as “fighting”, “triumphing”, “tearing” or “playing to the death”, that these titles influence the supporters, and that the profession of sports journalism should have certain criteria which will ensure that journalists of this field will be serious, responsible and devoted to their job (GNAT, cited by: Mil& Şanlı, 2015: p.239). The Law on Preventing Violence and Disorder in Sports Competitions was issued in 2004 in Turkey, and first regulations were then implemented. The scope of the afore-mentioned law and regulations was later extended, and efforts were made to prevent violence and disorder. ARTICLE 1 – (1) This law aims to prevent the violence and disorder that may arise before, during or after the matches, within or around the sports pitches, around the locations where supporters are present continually or temporarily as groups, or in the lines used by supporters to reach the place of match or to return from there. This law shall be implemented by federations, General Directorate of Youth and Sport, provincial and district sport security boards, police departments, law enforcement of the civil administration, sports clubs, fan associations and club authorities who are responsible for the supporters (www.resmigazete. gov.tr). This law was amended three times in eight years and failed to prevent violence in sport.

FUNCTION OF FOOTBALL IN TELEVISION Television is the generalized show within the life (Lefebvre, 1998: p. 59). People collectively undergo purification through these shows, which may be a series, a news bulletin or a sports game. An ironical claim in this regard is that the specific function of Ancient Greek theater, which is “purifying people from pain” in Oedipus and Antigone through the “catharsis” method, is undertaken by televisions in the 182

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modern times (Ulus, 2013: p.197). The idea that sports is a life practice connecting people resulted in the support for sport by mass media instruments. Sport organizations and matches, which are highlighted in mass media instruments, have served as locomotives in increasing the rating and circulation. However, the situation changed in time as mass media instruments rapidly spread. Presentation of a sports organization in a television made it valuable because broadcasting a sports show occurs through the process of turning the show into a production. The basic form regarding the reproduction of football on television is based on storytelling, which is the manner of understanding concepts. This process indicates that football goes beyond being a game and turns into a narrative, generates its own myths, and creates its own culture on the supporters (Yılmaz & Ciğerci, 2018). The television productions that capture the most attention are the ones meeting audience’s expectations. Roger L. Walters collected the elements that will make the programs watchable based on their forms and contents under eleven categories: thriller, action, sexuality, comedy, informative, importance, value, personality, curiosity, reality and innovation. An assessment on the productions in terms of meeting the expectations indicated that the programs which help people get away from the problems of daily life include comedy, thrilling content, action and sexuality while informative programs contain information, importance and value, and the programs providing personal identity and adaptation have personality, curiosity and reality (Kars, 2003: p. 23). 1. Tension: The development of unresolved issues leading to climax; various form of conflict, both mental and pysical. 2. Action: The presence of physical action and movement, including violence. 3. Sex appeal: Physical acttractiveness; sexually suggestive situations and dialogue; plot using love as atheme; music, especially with love or sex in the lyrics. 4. Comedy: Humor in a range of categories from very broad to sophisticated. 5. Information: The need of usefulness of knowing. 6. Importance: The relevance of information; the presense of authority, or of important personalities with recognized names; “bigness.” 7. Value: Worthwhileness; ethical or moral values presented in program content and situations. 8. Personalism: The extent to which the audience can identify with characters, events, situations; includes empaty, sympaty and nostalgia. 9. Curiosty: Our interest in other human beings particularly, but also curiosity about places, events and so on. 10. Realism: The plausibility, believability and reality of characters or situations. 11. Novety: The presense of unusual characters, situations, presentations; freshness (Walters, 1994: pp. 279-280). Sports productions, are thrilling and action due to the violence they have. Many programs – all types of adventure programs, both dramatic and documentary, and sporting events are examples- present both tension and action. But some programs present tension without much action – soap operas, for example- and other programs present action, or movement, without the necessary accompaniment of tension. We’ve seen an example in the athletic contest when the outcome is no longer in doubt. Tension is reduced, although not necessarily removed, but the same level of action continues until the game is over (Walters, 1994: p. 284).

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Sports productions, particularly the football games, are highly thrilling due to the violence they have. Thrilling productions also present high physical threats (Walters, 1994: p.281). In his analysis on adding the concept of aesthetics to the technical discourse which he made through television, Eco notes that live television programs are aestheticized as they combine technical, psychological and philosophical elements. The structure with an Aristotelian plot is used at the highest degree on the highest levels, and this structure is not related to the method of aesthetic value. However, but artistic works utilize this method which is unique in terms of ideology and methodology (Eco, 2001: pp.139-140-141-158). Sports programs, particularly those on football, are among the productions where productional elements are combined with different methods for television audience. Production of live football broadcasts provides the feeling or catharsis, purifying the self from stress and concerns, like watching a Greek tragedy (Berger, 2019: p.145). For the audience, experiencing the tension and events as if they were on the pitch increases the impact of catharsis and makes the production more watchable. Making a production watchable and presenting it to the targeted audience are among the keywords of broadcasting market. Different methods are used to reflect the tension on the pitch to the audience. For that purpose, people by the televisions should be at a specific location in their house as if they were on the stands. Moreover, broadcasting staff set the camera locations, perspective and scale accordingly. Auxiliary cameras are positioned on different locations of the stadium to provide the details of the game on the pitch, and efforts are made to let the audience experience the reality. Visuals are not sufficient to provide reality. They are complemented by audio. Broadcasting the natural ambiance and sounds in a stadium flawlessly is important. Another important factor in this regard is the commentator employed to present the games. A commentator is needed not to miss the details of a game, to hear what the cameras do not show, and more importantly, to maintain the excitement of watching a live game for a long time. It is critical to keep the tension at an appropriate level. In such productions, the greatest impact arises from the competitions where satisfactory physical strength is used and from the fact that results of these competitions cannot be known in advance. “One of the reasons people go to football matches or follow these matches from television is that these games create tension as the winner is not known beforehand, which causes spectators and television audience to experience strong emotions and feelings” (Berger, 2019: p. 143). Inability to know the result beforehand increases watchability and ensures that audience stay behind the television until the final whistle. However, when the balance between the sides gets distorted, meaning when one side becomes more advantageous, tension decreases. Consequently, watchability decreases and audience switch the channel (Walters, 1994: p. 282). Television has been an attractive instrument since it was invented. Rating has been high even during the time of New Media instruments. According to the results of the ‘Study on Television Watching Orientations’, the mean daily duration of watching television in Turkey was three hours and 34 minutes in 2018. Results of the afore-noted study also indicated that the durations of watching television are close in Turkey, Germany, France, United Kingdom and India (BarcIndia, 2018: p. 11; RTÜK, 2019: p. 29). Sports competitions can be still followed on television because inexpensive and comfortable conditions are provided to the audience. Sports audience love to watch television in a comfortable environment. Specifically, football audience achieve the maximum rate of satisfaction while following the positions from different angles on their couches at home. “Aesthetic satisfaction, which is a highly impactful mood, lets us experience the moments and makes us happy. Within such a harmonious mood, it helps us feel satisfied, free and happy” (Tunalı, 2018: p. 64). Sports shows that have provided high rates of satisfaction throughout the history and thus have been aestheticized have hosted many different spectators. The greatest group of audience that gather 184

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to watch a game on television consists of the spectators of Olympic Games and World Cup matches (football) (Rowe, 1996: p. 253). Such great organizations are the occasions where sportive innovations are practiced beforehand. For instance, a Video Assistant Referee was assigned for a trial in the World Cup matches held between June and July 2018. Referees are important actors in football. They act as a bridge between the spectators, footballers and opponents within a certain set of rules (Fişekçioğlu et al., 2010: p.17). Although efforts are made to add technology to football, the nature of the game has yet to be distorted. The concerns that technology will ruin the rhythm of football have perished in time because the palliative amendments that have been made thus far have not changed the simple structure of the game and reduced the interest.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Sports are very popular and followed with interest by people. It is the area that people enjoy playing and watching the most. Therefore, it has a unifying effect in the society. This is the highlighted factor in sports shows. Various ways are used to attract more people to sports shows. One of them is violence. Sports should go beyond enjoyment and end when the others are harmed. It is observed that footballers, managers, spectators and the media indirectly support violence in sports for their own benefit. This situation, which harms the peaceful and fraternal content of sports, is often presented as sports content and is aesthetized. The media mostly undertakes the function of organizing sports as a demonstration. Television is also particularly striking in terms of media. It is the area that people enjoy playing and watching the most. Therefore, it has a unifying effect in the society. This is the highlighted factor in sports shows. Various ways are used to attract more people to sports shows. One of them is violence. Sports should go beyond enjoyment and end when the others are harmed. The media mostly undertakes the function of organizing sports as a demonstration. Television is also particularly striking in terms of media. It is the area that people enjoy playing and watching the most. Therefore, it has a unifying effect in the society. This is the highlighted factor in sports shows. Various ways are used to attract more people to sports shows. One of them is violence. Sports should go beyond enjoyment and end when the others are harmed. It is observed that footballers, managers, spectators and the media indirectly support violence in sports for the sake of their own interests. This situation, which harms the peaceful and fraternal content of sports, is often presented as sports content and is aesthetized. The media mostly undertakes the function of organizing the sport as a demonstration. Television is also particularly striking in terms of media. With the introduction of television into the lives of people, sports activities began to broadcast on television. Firstly, the driving force for the development of television, sports broadcasts have become supported by television over time. Sports productions on television, like other television programs, have increased and turned into a television production. An alternative perspective is created for people by presentation and interpretation of sports shows. In addition to being entertaining and enjoyable, sports shows are also important in quality. These demonstrations should be a guide for people who learn life from sports, especially football.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Sports shows continued to be an interesting area in the period from the early ages until today. Sports shows, which attract the attention of the public, also make the actors and the organizers happy. The audience reaches personal pleasure while watching the game, the players enjoy being in the foreground and being watched, and the ones organizing the games are; it provides both financially and has the power to direct the society. Media was added to this as the fourth force in the last century. Media acts as a catalyst in directing the public to sports shows. He has pioneered in showing television sports shows to the public since the 1990s. It has increased its popularity and popularity especially thanks to football television. Recently, sports contents have been included in the internet or social media. Sports contents that attract the attention of the public contribute to the development of the internet and technology. What needs to be done here is to organize and display sports and sports shows that are socially unifying in a way that people can enjoy. Especially violent sports content should not be included. It should be noted that it is necessary to prevent damage to the content of the sport in order to increase the circulation of the printed media, increase the audience of the visual media, and increase the number of ‘clicks’ of the new media.

CONCLUSION According to Huizinga, a game turns into a culture as much as it raises the quality of life of a person or a group (2018: p. 77). Games are the activities people love performing the most. These activities have existed alongside the humanity and maintained their cultures for centuries. Another activity that has been maintained for centuries are sports shows. “Like the pleasure achieved when doing or watching a sports activity, aesthetic satisfaction saves people from the passions, questions and concerns of daily life, purifying the soul” (Tunalı, 2018: p. 62). Resulting in a sort of purification and relaxation, sports activities are satisfactory for both spectators and athletes. Serving as the field where violence is released, sports activities have gained a significant place in people’s lives. Game fields have turned into a show in modern times, and they have become the field of satisfaction where different forms of violence and aesthetics are present. Although civilization and violence are two different concepts in the modern times, they have existed in the same primitive form and had only different forms. From a historical point of view and recognition, football is the most popular sports type. Football is loved by masses and has become more than a game or a sports activity in our daily lives. Being named as a life practice, football shows how we can adapt to the society, which roles we can undertake, which rules we should follow, and basically, anything about life (Berger, 2019: p. 142). “Football is not a lifestyle but there are similarities” (Kuper, 2014: p. 29). With his statement, Simon Kuper considers football and flow of life as similar. Almost all pleasures of life can be achieved in a short period of 90 minutes. However, another element experienced in a football game is violence. Football games turn into mass purification activities but they are also where violence is released. To keep this field alive, all actors of football play a role either deliberately or accidentally. Footballers, referees, spectators and media are among the important actors. Warriors of modern times are footballers. Modern life is presented through the footballers. Footballers actually display a controlled violence as a show on the pitches in return for the high amounts they earn. Footballers who organize the manner of implementing the violence are also the architects 186

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of the dramatic structure built to present the game. They display their 90-minute shows including the emotions of happiness, sorrow, enthusiasm, disappointment and remorse or the act of deceit, which is actually a reflection of life. The other irreplaceable actors of football are spectators because a show cannot be a real show without them. The only demand of spectators is to give a break to their unbearable life and enjoy in a community without thinking about anything. Going to the stadiums to get excitement and satisfaction and feel devoted, spectators may be the actors who are the most innocent ones experiencing the most intense violence in this regard. The media with its hidden or obvious comments until the first whistle, footballers and authorities who uplift the spectators while the game is played, and the referee who manages the game are among the other actors creating this violence. Sports media reflects the sports activities to the masses and performs a significant function accordingly. The instruments of sports media influence people from different aspects including how the activities and statements are presented. Consequently, supporters are directed to violence by newspapers for circulation, by television channels for rating, and by web sites for “clicking”. Television still leads other media instruments as it considers and presents football games as a production. Television broadcasts present sport productions as a show, utilizing all relevant elements and combining them to present to the audience. These productions have high tension as they contain violence. It is critical to let the spectators feel the tension and experience the events on the pitch behind the televisions. Television undertakes the function of presenting sorrowful content to the audience and letting them purify themselves from their pain, which was the case in Oedipus and Antigone (Özsoy, 2011: p. 91). In conclusion, the final purpose of sports activities in this age of shows is to influence people and direct them to join or watch the show. Violence is an instrument in this regard. Personal purification during sports activities and formation of the self-consideration as a social actor occur through the aestheticization of violence.

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Çakın, Ö., & Bolat, N. (2018). Sosyal Medya ve Şiddet İçerikli Paylaşımlara Yönelik Bir Çözümleme. In Sanal Alem Medya Şiddeti ve Doğurduğu Sosyal Travmalar. Hegem Publications. CNNTÜRK. (2019). Retrieved from, https://www.cnnturk.com/haber/spor/futbol/heysel-faciasi Debord, G. (2010). Gösteri Toplumu. Ayrıntı Publication. Dictionary, B. (2020). Retrived from, https://sozluk.babylon-software.com/ingilizce/ingilizce/# Ekonomi Dünya Dergisi. (2017). Retrieved from, http://www.ekonomidunya.com/futbol-ilk-kez-cinde-oynandi/4090/ Erdem, M. N. (2019). Dijital Oyunlarda Şiddetin Estetiği: League of Legends Oyunu Üzerine Mitsel Bir Çözümleme. Middle Black Sea Journal of Communication Studies, 4(2), 115–139. Erdoğan, İ. (2008). Futbol ve Futbolu İnceleme Üzerine. İletişim Kuram ve Araştırma Dergisi, 26, 1-58. Fişek, K. (1980). Spor Yönetimi. Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Publication. Fişekçioğlu. (2010). Futbolda Şiddet Ve Yasal Karşi Tedbirler. Türkiye Kickboks Federasyonu Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 3(2). Gazete, R. (2011). Sporda Şiddet Ve Düzensizliğin Önlenmesine Dair Kanun. Retrieved from, https:// www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2011/04/20110414-6.htm Hall, S. (1999). Medya, İktidar, İdeoloji. Bilim ve Sanat. Hall, S. (1999). Popüler Kültür ve İktidar. Vadi Publication. Huizinga, J. (2018). Homo Ludens. Ayrıntı Publication. İkiz, M. (2019). Futbolun Tarihi I. Futbol Ekonomisi & Endüstriyel Futbol. Retrieved from, http://www. futbolekonomi.com/index.php/haberler-makaleler/genel/126-mete-ikiz/275-futbolun-tarihi-i.html Illich, I. (2018). Şenlikli Toplum. Ayrıntı Publications. Kars, N. (2003). Televizyon Programı Yapalım, Herkes İzlesin. Derin Publications. Kellner, D. (2010). Medya Gösterisi. Açılım Book. Kuper, S. (2014). Futbol Asla Sadece Futbol Değildir. İthaki Publication. Kuper, S. (2016). Football Against The Enemy. Orion Books. Lefebvre, H. (1998). Modern Dünyada Gündelik Hayat. Metis Publication. Macmillan Contemporary Dictionary. (1988). ABC Publication. Mil, H. İ., & Şanlı, S. (2015). Sporda Şiddet Ve Medya Etkisi: Bir Maçin Analizi. Electronic Journal of Social Sciences, 14(55). Öngören, H & Karadoğan E. (2002). Küresel Tutku: Futbol. İstanbul Üniversitesi, İletişim Fakültesi Hakemli Dergisi, 14, 52. Oskay, Ü. (2010). Kitle İletişiminin Kültürel İşlevleri. Der Publication.

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Özdağ, S., Duman, S., & Fişekçioğlu, İ. B. (2011). Popüler Kültür: Futbol mu, “Putbol” mu? Türkiye Kickboks Federasyonu Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 4(1). Özgen, M. (2004). Futbolda Sanayileşme Olgusu ve Toplumsal Etkisi. İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Hakemli Dergisi, 19. Özsoy, S. (2011). Spor Gazetelerinin Başlıklarında Militarist ve Şiddet İçerikli Metaforlar. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, (1), 88-114. Rowe, D. (1996). Popüler Kültürler Rock ve Sporda Haz Politikası. Ayrıntı Publication. RTÜK. (2018). Televizyon İzleme Eğilimleri Araştırması. T.C. Radyo Ve Televizyon Üst Kurulu Kamuoyu, Yayın Araştırmalari ve Ölçme Dairesi Başkanlığı Publication. No: 2018/1. Sirer, E. (2018). Popüler Kültür Ürünü Olarak Futbol: Naklen Yayınında Yapım Unsurlari Açısından Görüntü Düzenlemesi (Unpublished Doctoral Thesis). İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Spaaij, R. (2011). Mindless Thugs Running Riot? Mainstream, Alternative and Online Media Representations of Football Crowd Violence. Media International Australia, Incorporating Culture & Policy, 140(140), 126–136. doi:10.1177/1329878X1114000116 Talimciler, A.(2006). Sosyolojik Açıdan Futbol Fanatizmi. Sosyoloji Dergisi, 15. TMOK. (2019). Olimpiyat Oyunları Tarihi. Retrieved from, https://www.olimpiyatkomitesi. org.tr/ Upload/Menu/537949_olimpiyat_tarihi.pdf Tornacı, K. (2015). Amaç, Amaçsızlığı Korumaktır. Socrates Dergi. Retrieved from, https://www. socratesdergi.com/amac-amacsizligi-korumaktir-camus/ Tunalı, İ. (2018). Estetik. Remzi Publications. Türk Dil Kurumu Sözlüğü. (2020). Retrieved from, https://sozluk.gov.tr/?kelime= Ulus, S. (2013). Bir Derbi Cinayetinin Ardindan: Futbolda Şiddetin Türk Basininda Temsili Üzerine. Global Media Journal: Turkish Edition, 4(7). Voigt, D. (1998). Spor Sosyolojisi. Alkım Publication. Walters, R. L. (1994). Broadcast Writing Principles and Practice. California State University. Yılmaz, R., & Ciğerci, F. M. (2018). A brief history of storytelling: From Primitive Dance to Digital Narration. In R. Yilmaz, M. N. Erdem, & F. Resuloğlu (Eds.), Handbook of research on transmedia storytelling and narrative strategies (pp. 1–14). IGI-Global. Yılmaz, R., & Erdem, M. N. (2018). Reklamda şiddet kodlamaları üzerine bir inceleme. In. N. Sargın (Ed.), Sanal alem / medya şiddeti (pp. 370-381). Hegem. Yılmaz, R., & Taşkıran, M. N. (2014). A model proposal for advertising aestheticization. In Ü. Hacioğlu & H. Dinçer (Eds.), Globalization and governance in the international political economy (pp. 264–272). IGI-Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-4639-1.ch020

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ADDITIONAL READING Akşar, T. (2005). Endüstriyel Futbol. İstanbul. TR: Literatür Publications. Arıkan, Y., & Oktay, Ç. (2007). Futbolda Şiddet ve Polis. Polis Bilimleri Dergisi. Volume, 9(Issue.1-4), 109–132. Blumler, J. G. (1979). The Role of Theory in Uses and Gratifications Studies. Communication Research, 17. Blumler, J. G., & Katz, E. (1974). The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research. Sage. Boniface, P. (2007). Futbol ve Küreselleşme. Trans: İsmail Yerguz İstanbul. TR: NTV Publications. Çetin, C. (2015). Spor İletişimi. Nobel Publications. Dever, A. (2010). Spor Sosyolojisi. İstanbul. TR: Başlık Publications. Ergil, D. (2001). Şiddetin Kültürel Kökenleri. Bilim ve Teknik Dergisi. February p. 40-41. Erkan, M. (1992). Sosyolojik Açıdan Spor. Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakfı İstanbul. TR: Kutsun Matbaacılık. Fişekçioğlu, B., & ... . (2010, July). Futbolda Şiddet ve Yasal Karşı Tedbirler. Türkiye Kickboks Federasyonu Spor Bilimleri Dergisi., 3(2), 12–27. Göksu, M. E. (2001). Şiddetin Sosyal ve Psikolojik Bir Analizi. Umran. March. p. 39-43. Klose, A. (1993). Televizyon Futbolu. In R.Horak, W. Reiter & T. Bora. Futbol ve Kültürü. İstanbul. TR: İletişim Publications. Onedio.com. (2019). “6222 sayılı Sporda Şiddet ve Düzensizliğin Önlenmesine Dair Kanun”. Retrieved from, https://onedio.com/haber/sporda-siddetin-onlenmesine-iliskin-teklif-yasalasti-iste-detaylar-8787 49 Polat, E., & Sönmezoğlu, U. (2016). Futbol Taraftarlarini Şiddete Yönelten Faktörlerin İncelenmesi. AİBÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi. Volume 16. Year, 16(1), 471–489. Postman, N. (1994). Televizyon: Öldüren Eğlence. Osman Akınhay (trans.), İstanbul. TR: Ayrıntı Publications. Sandvoss, C. (2003). A Game of Two Halves Football. Television and Globalization. Routledge. Şeker, M., & Gölcü, A. (2008). Futbolun Televizyonda Yeniden Üretimi. İletişim Kuram ve Araştırma Dergisi. Sayı, 26, 125. Serim, Ö. (2014). Futbol Sanatı. Ankara. TR: Bence Kitap. Talimciler, A.(2008). Futbol Değil İş: Endüstriyel Futbol. İletişim Kuram ve Araştırma Dergisi, 26. Williams, R. (2003). Televizyon, Teknoloji ve Kültürel Biçim. Ahmet Ulvi Türkbağ (trans.), Ankara. TR: Dost Publication.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aesthetics: Of or relating to the principles of art or the sense of the beautiful. Highly sensitive to or preoccupied with art and beauty. Aesthetics, or the philosophy of art, is the study of beauty and taste. It is about interpreting works of art and art movements or theories. The term aesthetic is also used to designate a particular style, for example the “industrial aesthetic”, or the “Japanese aesthetic”. Football: Game played between two teams, officially of eleven players each, on a field one hundred yards long with goals at each end, in which points are made by getting a ball across the opponent’s goal line. Football refers to a number of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, kicking a ball to score a goal. Unqualified, the word football is understood to refer to whichever form of football is the most popular in the regional context in which the word appears. Sports commonly called ‘football’ in certain places include: association football (known as soccer in some countries); gridiron football (specifically American football or Canadian football); Australian rules football; rugby football (either rugby league or rugby union); and Gaelic football. These different variations of football are known as football codes. Sports: Any game that requires physical activity an involves a degree of competition, as baseball, football, bowling or basketball. Sports (US) are all forms of usually competitive physical activity or games which, through casual or organised participation, aim to use, maintain or improve physical ability and skills while providing entertainment to participants, and in some cases, spectators. Usually the contest or game is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a tie game; others provide tie-breaking methods, to ensure one winner and one loser. A number of such two-sided contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, each against all with one winner. Television: System of sending and receiving images and accompanying sounds by transforming them into variations in electric currents, then into waves, than back into picture and sound by the receiving set. Television is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting sound with moving images in monochrome (black-and-white), or in colour, and in two or three dimensions. It can refer to a television set, a television program, or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium, for entertainment, education, news, and advertising. Violence: Great physical force used so as to injure or harm. Force mean physical power used against another. Violence is applied to brute strength that inflight pain, injury or destruction, suggesting cruel and unjust action. Violence is defined by the ‘World Health Organization’ as “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation”, although the group acknowledges that the inclusion of “the use of power” in its definition expands on the conventional meaning of the word. This definition involves intentionality with the committing of the act itself, irrespective of the outcome it produces. However, generally, anything that is excited in an injurious or damaging way may be described as violent even if not meant to be violence (by a person and against a person).

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Meaning of Space in Cinema: An Analysis on Dogtooth Eda Arısoy Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University, Turkey Esma Gökmen Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Spaces are the basic components of communal and cultural life. Beyond its sheer physicality, a space finds its existence in the communal living space through the meaning universe it creates. The conceptual framework of space and place, therefore, feature lexical distinctions; what distinguishes space or perhaps makes it superior is the fact that humans can interact with it. A place gains spacious characteristic via relations and meanings attributed to it. While the physical presence of a space is interpreted merely at the geometrical level, the meaning created in the space can be best revealed by scrutinizing individuals and relations which gain existence there. This is what depicts and personalizes the space. In this context, this study aims to examine how space relates with the cognitive aspect of cinema and in what way it contributes to the meaning creation in cinema as well as to reveal its connection with the ideology of the film.

INTRODUCTION The relationship between cinema and space constitutes one the most essential components of meaning creation in film. Spaces are of great importance for the establishment of meaning in films. These spaces add value to the film in terms of their emotional bonds with the audience. Cinema creates the meaning by featuring spaces and molding them within the context of economic, political and communal aspects. One needs to scrutinize this relation in order to interpret the film. In the director’s mise-en-scene, the human-space relationship constitutes the basis of the plot while the meaning created through the characters’ relationship with the space makes up the film’s cinematic universe. Space is undoubtedly one of the main means of the art of cinema. Spaces are the fields of reality created in cinema and this reality DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch011

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gains its meaning through spaces. It should be noted one would overlook living spaces if they perceive space merely as a place. In this respect, beyond identifying the space merely as a vacuum, relationships created within the space are undeniably what makes it as a field of meaning creation. Spaces are fields in which occurs a two-sided interaction between the individual and objects (Çevik&Erdoğdu, 2014: p.124). Spaces and individuals jointly reveal a biography. The comprehension of the diversity of this biography is of great significance for the identification of the diversity of everyday life. (Çevik&Erdoğdu, 2014: p.128). To perceive the space entails understanding of a rather complex web of relationships and certain mechanisms that lead to these relationships. (Berber, 2011: p. 144). Each document, trace or story is attached to the space. This is because experiences do not take place in the vacuum, they correspond to a space. Space precedes our existence in the world; it is social, cultural and historical as well as physical. (Altınoğlu, 2011: p. 5). The meaning of each space is distinctive mainly due to the relationships created in the space. Apart from its physical existence, the nature of space which comprises humans and their relationships enabled humans to use it as a meaning-laden object through each epoch of history. Cinema uses space within the context of this assumption and creates predetermined meanings through it. Cinema establishes and develops its relationship upon space-human interaction. The preliminary relationship is the one established with the director’s milieu. The director develops a framework to show the audience the deep bond between the fictional characters and spaces s/he creates. The audience may create new meanings in their world by attaching secondary meanings to the director’s fictional spaces because visual perceptions are bound to audience experience and expectations. Therefore, spaces of the play an important role in interpreting the plot. One needs to mention the term of “place” in order to explain the concept of space. A “place” can only turn into a space by means of humans and their communication. According to Ozturk (2012: pp.13-14), the concept of space ought to be perceived anthologically in order to comprehend its communicational factors. Based on this perspective, the concepts of “place” and “space” show some distinctions. A “place” can be defined as a “space” when there is communication in it. A space becomes one only if it has a bond with communication which essences human experience, other than that, it remains only as a “place”. A “place” may transform into a “space” when humans use it for communication purposes. “Place” is not essentially a communication space, though, the individual possesses this potential upon his/her existence in the world: “These potential, behaviors and conscious actions begin to develop and put into actual use” (Ozturk, 2012: pp.17-18). The individual with his/her communication power possesses the initiative to turn various places, fields into communication spaces in the aforementioned process. (Ozturk, 2012: pp.18). Panofsky stresses that there is a close relationship between the individual’s body and spaces. The author elaborates how the body and space constitute a cohesion and pose an interaction as follows: (…) there is a constant flow of interaction between our world of bodies and the world of our spaces. We create living spaces which are outbursts of the experiences obtained through sensory body functions particularly if these experiences are produced by living experiences we create. “Whether consciously or unconsciously, our bodies and experiences are in constant dialogue with the buildings we live in. (ch. Adiloglu, 2005: p.18). According to Ozturk (2012: p.19), an analysis based on communicational aspects of space cannot be actualized dismissing the factors such as “space, potency, struggle and resistance.” This is because the 193

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space is one of the ultimate aims of dominant rulers have been fighting for throughout centuries. However, despite the domination of the ruler, the space phenomenon can also be perceived as a field of resistance and struggle. Relationships created within the space constitute one of the main sources of concern for the rulers and this proves that space phenomenon is a field of political struggle; space is essentially biased and political (Ozturk, 2012: p.20). The political implications of spaces create their meanings and value of use. The meaning of space, on the hand, is realized at the intersection of the domination and tyranny of rulers and the resistance and struggle of humans. It can be said that the space is dialectical both with its side of reflecting social relations and the other side that effects, produces and reproduces this relationship; the space is dialectical with one hand it strengthens on the other hand it weakens and sustains the existing relations. The space is dialectical, in the context that it provides the continuity of oppression and dominance and provided that it is the object of a phenomenon that will make the dominant structure gain power; on the other hand, it is dialectical, on the basis that it involves a use for the damage and furthermore the destruction of the existing oppression and dominance (Ozturk, 2012: p.28). It is necessary to interpret the relationship between cinema and space with the concepts of aesthetics and cinema aesthetics. Because cinema is an aesthetic art and it conveys the interpretation of reality in a connection with aesthetics. According to Ulutas (2017: pp. 13-14), although the word aesthetics is mostly used in response to the word beautiful in daily use, this concept points to a deep and multidimensional artistic existence that is not only reduced to beauty. Aforementioned multidimensional existence with an artwork and the individual’s body is in a very tight relationship. One of the definitions of the concept of aesthetics that is agreed upon is that aesthetics is a discourse related to the body of the individual. While the body of the individual is defined as a kind of intermediary function, the interactions of the body can also be handled with the concept of emotion. Artworks can create similar but substantially different effects on structural basis in the body of the individual, who are affected by others and have the power to affect them, feel them and make others feel. The body designed by the director in cinema films completes the aesthetic integrity in spatial communication because it is the character that will establish the filmic bond and the aesthetic existence of the character on the stage will make the narrative meaningful. However, one of the most important factors that should not be forgotten is the presence of cinematographic components that produce the cinematic universe and its contribution to the film in the formation of aesthetic perception. Each cinematographic element becomes an image. They present a structure that displays integrity and aesthetics and reveals the narrative images of the film. It is a derivative of the narrative show rule of cinema, which Mario Pezella defines the production of aesthetics of cinematographic images as “visible” superior to “narrating” (Pezella, 2001). If everything that advances the story of the movie turns into an image and creates sensations in the audience, doesn’t the space have such a position? The aestheticization of space in the universe created by the art administration for each film will be very much related to the communication that the character will have with the space. The background, at present and after of the space presents an appearance in the film. During the story, it transforms and converts in the space. Even if the audience does not physically witness the change of space, the character in the space turns into. This indicates a dynamic relationship. It is the representation of the effect and emotion created in the body of the individual, specifically in aestheticized cinema, across art works. In today’s conditions, it can be seen that a similar effect to the situation mentioned is sustained by the media. It can be said that cinema, which has the capacity to reach the masses intensely, has an important power in producing emotions and affecting the individual’s body. It would not be wrong to say that cinema draws its power from its cinematographic narrative competence. In this sense, cinema is a special and singular art branch. There is no art that can offer movement-based narrative in this way. The ground 194

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formed for the formation of different narratives is actually the richness of what the cinematic universe offers to the audience and the director. The director uses the existence of the images in order to reveal his narrative. Everything in cinema turns into an image and forms part of the narrative (Deleuze, 2001). However, the aesthetic order is important for the viewer to make sense of the narrative and create areas of sensation. The audience makes sense of the films in their own context and this formation can be made possible by cinematographic tools. The impression of reality, which has been discussed throughout the history of cinema, is one of the most important aesthetic elements that make cinema exist as an art and cinema will continue to exist as an art (Parson, 1983: p. 22). All of the movies are works that produce reality. This reality is conveyed to the audience by cinematography while telling the story of the movie. Discourse in cinema can be handled in the form of transferring the story and the produced reality with cinema images. Cinema images are the elements that were created to attract the viewer to the way in which the content was created. For this reason, the phenomena faced in everyday life have the ability to have an effect over the effect that it has on the individual. The effect in question is based on the perception of the story and the produced reality by the audiences as true and real. As soon as the reality presented to the audience by the movie turns into a kind of reality, some emotions are expected to emerge. The aesthetic existence of the cinema is more than producing thoughts through images, and that the thought in question interferes with the individual’s body, producing some kind of affect. In general, aesthetics and in particular, cinema art is a discourse which is related to the body. The body’s being influenced by cinema works; “is closely related to the concept of memory as well as the concepts of knowledge, thought, image”. It is aimed to transform the ones watched into a kind of memory by cinema. The memory directly affected by the films produced will make it possible to understand the extraordinary influence of the cinema when interpreted as “in the sense that a virtual past affects the present” (Ulutas, 2002: pp.177-178). In this study, which deals with the phenomenon of space with the aesthetic existence of cinema, the concept of space is discussed in terms of its relationship with the cinema. The phenomenon of space in the film was evaluated by questioning with which cinematic images the produced reality was conveyed and how it affects the audience. The meaning produced by the film with space is examined in terms of cinema aesthetics and the meaning climate of the film reality is interpreted. As the presence of the characters in the space plays an important role in the story, an expansion was attempted to be done over the dominant characters. How the space of the film transformed, how the characters’ perception of the space at the end of the film changed were tired to examine. This study aims to analyze the film Dogtooth in the center of the space, power and the resistance concepts. The spatial ties of the movie scenes are important when analyzing the film. For this reason, a cinematographic discussion is tried to be made by keeping the spatial fictions in the foreground. Cinema production envisages the harmonious use of cinematographic elements together in accordance with the story. For this reason, cinematography has also been considered while discussing the contributions of how the film spaces are constructed to the semantic whole. In the study, a formal analysis of the film was avoided, but the meaning and transformation that reproduced in space and human communication was prioritized. For this reason, the analysis was conducted over the locations of the scenes where the film gained momentum. The film Dogtooth is one of the successful films produced by Yorgos Lanthimos (2009) with a different understanding of the space. The film’s perception of space contains a mysterious appearance, unlike the known representations. However, the characters in the movie are also interesting. Although it is perceived as being disconnected from the reality, the fact of the movie that is tried to be established 195

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by the audience is important. In the real design of a story that can be perceived as surreal, “home” which is the most prominent factor of the film was deployed in the middle of the story setup. The director tells the whole story through the house. The house is actually the physical space here, but as the movie progresses, the audience encounters the perceived and designed space. The transformation in the final of the movie symbolizes the relationship between human and the space. As mentioned above, the space never remains in its pure form that it is produced purely. Transformation is always open to changes, and these transformations that result from an interaction point to the relational dimension of the space. Contrary to the visible spaces, the film tells about the life of the individuals who are compressed in the space that is not seen as a whole. The space turns into a space where the father’s private home is built as a place of domination and systemic domination for his wife and children. With the narration and images conveyed by the film, the space symbolizes the space in which the characters, who have to give consent to the dominant power, are in some way under arrest. Forced space where the individual cannot activate his/her essential existence and is imprisoned in it… The existential and political meaning of space in the film will be questioned on the basis of resistance and struggle on the one hand, and the transformation of the space with individual practices will be questioned. The home is basically the solution to the need of shelter for people. However, a transformation is necessary for the family phenomenon to occur. Each individual blesses the house to some extent and turns it into a new house. The house no longer offers a mere accommodation requirement for the family, in addition to this it becomes a place where communication is expected to form the basis of family relationship. Thus, it was emphasized that the space does not contain a fixed meaning and this meaning can be transformed by the actions and reactions of individuals. An obsessive example of this, which may be assumed as extreme, can be seen in the film. The feelings the father attributes to the concept of home and his use of power for this differentiates the view of the father and other family members towards the home. Home is a place where family members are under domination (but they do not feel uncomfortable because they are not aware of this), on the other hand home is a place where father enjoys the actions of his own power. The private area, which points to a hegemonic area for a period, turns into a resistance area after a while the children start to realize real life. In this study, this transformation is evaluated in the context of the meaning of the space and how the space is affected by the individuals and their relationships is discussed. In the film, the phenomenon of the space was examined by using Lefevbre’s conceptualization of the space, in particular, it was aimed to evaluate the space in relation to the domination and hegemony of power and the individual’s resistance. Film analysis method was used in the study, the space in the film was examined in the context of the individual and its interaction, and the movie scenes were interpreted by focusing on the basic concepts. The meaning of the space was tried to be determined for each of the characters separately, the space in the film was interpreted in terms of meaning and power struggle. In the Dogtooth movie, the characters and the house relationship provide a very dominant narrative. However, it is known that cinematographic components that provide the narrative of the story for the emergence of the film are also important for the perception of the story. Therefore, the contributions of cinematographic elements to the story are also mentioned. In this analysis, based on Lefevbre’s (2019) space theory, the movie spaces are discussed with the concepts of “perceived-designed-living space”. In this analysis, by emphasizing these three different views of the space for each character, it was emphasized that the meaning produced by the space is transformed in relation to the changing positions of the individuals at the mental and action level. In addition, the film space was interpreted in the context

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of the concepts of “power, struggle and resistance” (Ozturk, 2012), and the hegemonic meaning and transformation of the space was emphasized.

MARXIST TRADITION AND SPACE CONCEPT OF LEFEVBRE Until the 1960s, theoreticians in the Marxist tradition did not have enough interest in relation to space, and as of the end of the 1960s, this deficiency started to be taken into consideration by some theorists. Among these numerous theorists, especially Lefevbre, Harvey and Castells produced important works on the subject of the space (Sengul, 2001: p.9). One of the most important theorists who dealt with the concept of space from a very broad perspective and in the context of production relations was the Marxist theorist Henri Lefevbre. His work, “Production of Space” (2014), is one of the most important works that provides a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of the space. Lefebre analyzes the phenomenon of the space in the context of the reproduction of capitalism. In terms of Lefevbre, the space is one of the main tools of the survival and domination of capitalism: Capitalism has managed to alleviate its internal contradictions, even if it has not resolved for a century, and has ultimately achieved ‘to expand’ over the past century since Marx’s writing of Capital. We cannot calculate what the cost of this situation is, but we know with what kind of vehicle he accomplished: by occupying space and producing spaces (Lefebre, 1976: p.21). According to Sengul, space was handled as a place where capitalist production takes place by almost all Marxist researchers. Despite this, the discovery of space itself was made by capitalism during the last century and the space was turned into a commodity. The meaning of space in the name of capitalism is not in its concrete use value but in the value of change. In this respect, both “historical production and use” of the space and “social values ​​that it represents” are not important alone. The meaning of change of space includes the communication with the human being mentioned. When a person starts to be in a space, live and establish any connection with it, he/she will transform himself/herself and change the perception of the space. A space devoid of individual communication is a purely physical form and is completely concrete. It is a mechanized place with abstract meanings. These only gain importance as long as they benefit the change the value of the space in question. It is impossible for two spaces, whose historical features are quite different, to have a different meaning from “an abstract parcel or building” that can be bought and sold in the market in the eyes of capitalism (Sengul, 2001: p. 15). According to Lefevbre, the strict Marxist tradition defines social space as a means of superstructure. The space was considered as the result of both productive forces, structures and property relations as well as different things. The space was considered as the result of both productive forces, structures and property relations besides different things. Despite this, the space is immanent in productive forces and division of labor. The bound of the space with property is open. It’s about exchange, institutions, culture and information. It is possible to sell and buy the space, it has the exchange value and the usage value (2014: p.24). Arranging a centralized and concentrated space is in the interest of both political power and material production, the space provides optimization of profit. Under the pressure of the seized places, social classes invest in the produced spaces and ensure its transformation (Lefevbre, 2014: p. 29). In this sense, the space will be an object of economic and political ideology. The space is both a fetishized commodity that generates usage value and a political tool that reproduces power. This usage 197

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value is the structure that differentiating with human. What man produces in the space is actually the production of the space itself, because the same person cannot produce the same production in another space, or in other words, the same production will be considered as a new production in another space and will be regarded as special to the place where it is produced. In this sense, the space has a structure that maintains its singularity. A singular and immanent structure can be mentioned. The space defined as the field of production by Marx too has a meaning that envisages the human relationship and includes the humane in its ontology. Therefore, it is clear that spaces are not independent of the human context. The interaction that takes place inside the space maintains its uniqueness. Capitalism and neo-capitalism created the meta world and its values, world-level strategies, as well as the abstract space that included the power of the economy and the political state. This aforementioned abstract space is immanent in the huge networks of financial institutions, business and production areas. In addition to this, it also includes the spaces of highways, airports and communication networks. In this space, the center of accumulation, the location of money, the city, which is the basis of historical space, has been disintegrated (Lefevbre, 2014: p. 81). Against the understanding of space, which is supported by capitalism and emphasizes both the value of abstract and change, Lefevbre develops a space approach that points to everyday life, emphasizes its concrete and usage value (Sengul, 2001: p. 15). On the basis of this approach, Lefevbre points to the concept of socialist space. According to him, the production of socialist space can be achieved by transforming property relations and ending private property. This transformation can be possible by destroying the abstract space that is based on the value of change and replace it with the use space and the concrete space. One of the aspects of socialist space that differs from capitalist space is the concreteness of socialist space that is open to separation and makes it possible in the face of the capitalist abstract space that destroys differences. For this reason, socialist space is the space characterized by differences (Lefevbre, 1979; ch., Sengul, 2001: p.16). In terms of Lefevbre, social space has the characteristic of the space of society. The individual does not just live his/her life with the words; each of the subjects exists in a place where he/she knows or loses himself/herself and uses and differentiates accordingly (Lefevbre, 2014: p.64). The abstract space of capitalism, characterized by the production, reproduction and transformation of space, is organized and controlled by political and economic interests and planners. The production process in question results in the destruction of the unique features of the social space. The place is derived from both its historical heritage and its social and cultural values. An entity that is excluded from the qualitative experiences about space is actually isolated from daily life. Therefore, all the spaces produced by capital leave less space to the social space, which is characterized by everyday life practices day by day (Turhanoglu, 2014: p.80). After a long period of silence about space, a comprehensive analysis of the space phenomenon by Lefevbre is of great importance for Marxism. On the one hand, Lefevbre expresses “the spatialization of capitalist accumulation processes and the use of capitalism by internalizing and abstracting space”, on the other hand, he emphasizes that such a spatiality covers not only production and distribution processes but also reproduction processes. This approach of Lefevber contains important expansions in terms of the strategies of working classes. The spread of the struggle is not only in the production area but also in the reproduction area and its spread to everyday life is the basic condition for the construction of a socialist society and space. Namely in what the way capitalism benefit from space by exploring it, the task of socialists is also similar to this (Sengul, 2001: p.16). According to Sengul, the main weakness of Lefevbre’s approach is based on this. Lefevbre, who characterizes the socialist space with differences, does not express how these differences can be combined in a project that will destroy capitalism. He does not include a detailed analysis of with which project the 198

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production can be brought together with reproduction, working life, and everyday life and spaces will come together and also there is not a detailed analysis of how it will turned into a class struggle (that in his word he expresses this as ‘class struggle’) (Sengul, 2001: p. 17). Lefebre states that he does not talk about a space theory, but he talks about the space production theory (1976: p.18). According to Lefevbre (1976: p.17), getting to know the space, discovering what is happening in the space and what it is used for, continuing the dialectic will reveal the contradictions of the space in question. Lefevbre defines the contradictory space of capitalism as the field where reproduction of production relations is made possible. According to him, the dialectics and contradictory space is the place where production is reproduced (1976: p.19). According to Lefevbre, capitalism captured the historical city with a huge process, transformed it and created a social space to occupy it. However, this remained as a material-based initiative and included many contradictions that required detailed analysis (1976: p.18). As a matter of fact, space refers to a concept that produces paradoxes in itself as a dialectical structure and includes implications of power and resistance together. According to Lefevbre, the increase in production relations and means of production (labor power, tools, raw materials, etc.), regulation of the “environment” around the organizations (as a whole, society), the arrangement of towns and regions, and the announcement of a new social life, are entirely related to the development of space. The contradiction between the conditions of capitalist domination and the conditions of social life is characterized by this “positive” scheme (1976: p.27). According to Lefevbre (2014: p. 390), to what extent the space is examined and interpreted not only by using eyes and mind, but also by covering all senses and body, the conflicts that exist in the space that cause the dispersal of the space and the production of a different space will be understood so well. Lefevbre deals with the concept of space on the basis of tripartite conceptualization as perceived space, designed space and living space (spatially: space practice - space representation - representation spaces). The theorist says the following for the perceived space (spatial practice): The spatial practice of a society creates its own space. It reveals and assumes this space in a dialectical interaction: It produces slowly and precisely, by mastering and protecting it. When analyzed, spatial practice of a society is discovered by deciphering its space. What is spatial practice in neo-capitalism? It rigidly combines everyday reality (use of time) and urban reality (routes and networks that connect workplaces “private” living and leisure places) within the perceived space (2014: pp. 67-68) The definition of the space (space representation) of Lefevbre is as follows: Space representations, that is, designed space; it is the place of scholars, planners, urbanists, technocrats who “disintegrate” and “regulate”, some artists close to scientific, who identify what is experienced and perceived (blindly confused by speculation on numbers - “golden number”, ratio measures and “canons”). This is the dominant place in a society (a mode of production) (2014: p. 68). As for the living space, Lefevbre says: Representation spaces, that is, the space lived through the images and symbols accompanying the space, that is, the spaces of the” residents “,” the users “, as well as the spaces of some artists, and perhaps those who describe it, and those who believe it only describe it - writers, philosophers. This is the space

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where the imagination wants to change and own, which is dominated and therefore exposed. It covers physical space by using its objects symbolically (2014: p. 68). It is the reproduction of social relations that is essential in spatial practice. The reproduction of the space, which is connected to both knowledge and power, leaves a small place in the spaces of representation that are reduced to the works, images and memories where the content (sensory, sensual, sexual) touches symbolism lightly”. Even if the child can survive in a place that doesn’t care about age or sexuality, the adolescent suffers there. The reason for this is that he/she could not realize his/her own reality either in the form of a male or female image or as a possible pleasure image. Adolescents who cannot resist the size of the buildings or the presence of signs in the space that they are in can only reach change, the natural, the sensory and the sensual, the sexual and the pleasure, only in rebellion (Lefevbre, 2014: p.78). The space where Lefevbre attaches the most importance and points it out from this trilogy is the space of representation, that is, the living spaces. According to the author (2014: p.70) “the space of representation is lived, speaks; it has a sensuous nucleus or center: Ego, bed, room, residence or home; the square, the church, the cemetery… These places include places of passion and action, places of the experiences, so it includes time directly”. The main success of Lefevbre’s approach is that instead of expressing space as it is being “a form, a container or a scene”, he rather expresses it as “a product of human and social reality; the dynamic that shapes it and is shaped by it, a social product full of contradictions and conflicts ”. Prior to him, in terms of widespread view, the space was treated as a given gap containing social elements, and his main concern was how space affects people. On the other hand, Lefevbre approached this approach critically and changed this question and started to question how people affect the space. In terms of Lefevbre, human is essential for the construction of the “living space” and therefore the author encourages individuals to take action. “Living space” is the space that can be produced and imagined. It is a liberating place in terms of being the place of both experience and image power (act. Berber, 2011: p.144). According to Lefevbre (2014: p.74), it can be foreseen that ‘‘spatial practice, space representations and representation spaces intervene in a changing manner to the space production, its qualities and characteristics, to the societies (production styles) and to the periods. The relationships between these three aforementioned moments “perceived-designed-has been” are not otherwise simple or immutable. “Lefevbre and Harvey are two theorists who theorize the relationship between space and capitalism in the analysis of the movements and crises of capital accumulation. The aforementioned situation involves an approach that indicates how capital creates “its own production and reproduction spaces in an urban built environment” (Turhanoglu, 2014: pp. 72-73). According to Harvey, the utilization values required for the reproduction of social life in capitalism are mainly produced as commodities in the circulation process of capital. Based on this basic approach, Harvey investigates how capital is urbanized and the consequences of that urbanization (Harvey, 1985: p.17). Another of the thinkers who point to the importance of space in terms of Marxist analysis and has analyzes on this subject is Castells. Castells’ Urban Question is his most important work focusing on the phenomenon of space. According to Castells (1977: p. 237); “The process, whose location is made in advanced capitalist societies, is about the simple and expanded reproduction of the workforce; what is called urban practice describes the articulation of the process as a whole with the social structure”.

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Castells, who deals with space with an Althussian approach, deals with social formations in three main dimensions as economy, ideology and politics and states that every dimension gain meaning in space. According to the author, the organized structure of the urban space is an instrument of political control and “monumental buildings, squares and monuments” represent the ideological structure. However, the specificity of urban space in capitalist societies can be associated with its functions in the economic sphere. While the organization of production and circulation is provided on a city scale, mass consumption makes urban space unique (act. Sengul, 2001: p.17).

Place and Cinematic Relation Cinema presents all the visual and auditory elements of the modern life and the dynamism created by the life in question and offers new perspectives to the individuals of modern life and makes the invisible visible (Kanli &Bilgi, 2016: p.132). The phenomenon of space is an important tool in organizing the relations of individuals and society in capitalist societies. Therefore, the phenomenon of “space” is not only characterized by the geographical and physical qualities of the space, but it becomes a tool of the capitalist order (Kanli&Bilgi, 2016: p. 137). Human, who cannot realize his/her existence by isolating himself/herself from the space, passes his/her “existential spatiality” to each of the art products (Besisik, 2013: p. 109). As a matter of fact, cinema films are one of these art products. The phenomenon of space, which is one of the basic elements for cinema, is transferred to the audience by gaining a different dimension as “cinema space” (Kanli &Bilgi, 2016: p.120). Cinema evaluates the phenomenon of space not only in terms of its geometry, but also evaluates it based on the dynamic-time-dimensional experiences that continuously redefined and experienced there (Kanli&Bilgi, 2016: p.119). Cinema is one of the art fields that take sections from life and transfer them to the audience within a short space and time limit. In this way, the simply reading of physical space with social data can be provided (Kutucu, 2003: p.26). It can be said that with the integration of space with images in cinema, the space has turned away from being just a visual tool and turned into an expression tool that creates an emphasis. The function of spatial images is to provide a transition from reality to visual in space. These are the manifestations of the feelings and thoughts of the space in the mental space (Kanli&Bilgi, 2016: p.132). As Lefebre points out when space is treated as a socially produced phenomenon, the relationship between meanings produced by space and social relations, social and cultural life can be understood. Cinema, which reflects a representation of space, actually transfers the social, cultural, economic and psychological relationships that the individual produces with space (Kaba, 2009:p. 118). Space is often treated as a “physical reality, a geographical area” and most of the time it lags behind time, man and movement. Nevertheless, one of the main elements of cinematic narration is undoubtedly the space. Spaces are produced and edited in cinema. Therefore, the connection with the feeling desired to be reflected in the story is intense. Since it is a space where the audience is desired to be experienced without being in person, it has a different meaning than physical experience. Physical experience is easy and fast for the subject, however, in the cinema, the audience sees the space that the director experiences in his mind with his own perspective and develops new sensations. Even the place that the director gives and prepared in a ready state means a new meaning and experience for every audience. While watching, the audience’s own previous experiences, achievements, view of life and attitude are important, and how they feel they watch depends on these contexts. While watching, the audience’s own previous experiences, achievements, view of life and attitude are important, and their sense of what 201

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they watch depends on these contexts. In this sense, the fact that every place will not produce the same meaning in every audience should also be mentioned. This can sometimes lead to some negative consequences, such as the viewer’s inability to find himself/herself in the space the director has designed, however, most of the time the audience is ready and watches the film in an anticipated wait psychology against the narrative that the director has prepared for him/her. In this sense, the act of joining the created ones is not very difficult. Still, the fact that the director has an obligation to organize his/her narrative well is important. Cinema offers a narrative among the frames. Although the images that are out of the frame contribute to the narration, still, the frame is decisive for the audience and it will need pre-triggered sensations for out-of-frame images to be revived in his/her mind. This is possible with what they will see in the frame. In that case, it is an important point of cinematic space design that the spaces determined within the frame and how much of these places will be shown. Although every narrative need space, space has a special meaning for cinema. Along with the first scene of the film, the director’s view contains important details about what type of the film is, where the audience’s attention will be directed. For example, with cowboy towns featured in Western movies, a description of space is made by going beyond physical reality and emphasizes social and cultural values (Ozcinar, 2010: p. 51). The films that have been successful in cinema are the films that create an effective sense of space in the audience and address the element of time in the best way (Kanli&Bilgi, 2016: p. 118). In the cinema, the space is reconstructed through visual arrangements produced by a number of methods in relation to the desired effect to the audience within the film frame. With the elements such as camera angles, shapes and shapes used, light, shadow and clarity, the space can be perceived as more dramatic, big or stifling, and different meanings can be attributed to the space in the film. Movie scenes consist of plans. The plans are the decisions of how much of a place to show and at what angle to show it and it is necessary for the audience to make sense of the movie. It is not only the trigger of the meaning, but also the trigger of the image of sensation. For example, the use of many plans in action and thriller films and seeing many plans from different aspects of the space causes excitement during watching and for the directors who know this, the use of a space and plan worth gold. Even a story that takes place in the same space will present different angles of the space to the audience in an ongoing manner and will expand different emotion areas. Bela Balaz said the following for the importance of space in cinema; In a good movie, we should be able to understand the nature of a scene when we see where it goes through. The cinema has a poetic opportunity that has not been used much yet, which can present the place where the event takes place as a living soul and a character that moves in the drama (Balazs, 2013: p.86). Bela Balazs also emphasizes the connection of the space with the human in the film and points out that the frame contents should create the urge to awaken that desired feeling even if it is not fully defined. While he gives an example of how the human is positioned in nature, not just the existence of a piece of nature, he emphasizes that the space is embodied with human, not just the existence of a piece of nature (Balazs, 2013). However, space also has the function of filling the space between characters in the film and creating a basis for their behavior. It can develop the narrative by drawing attention as a complement to the intended effect in the film, or it can be transformed into the basic part of the film by making use of it symbolically (Kaba, 2009: p. 51). The characters are the main elements of the story of the movie, and the way that the intermediate stories are knit together with the main story ensures that the story reaches the final. In this sense, space is of great importance in associating the characters with 202

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the scene they are in. In this sense, space is of great importance in associating the characters with the scene that they are in. In cinematic narration, characters, actions, and relationships are closely related to space fiction because the subject lives in the film universe and the audience recognizes and identifies it in the film universe. This definition means that the audience develops feelings of empathy or dislike with the character that the character’s communication with the space in the film directly affects this definition. The narrative discourse and the effect of fiction in creating the atmosphere of the space are related to how the story is processed (Kutucu, 2003: p.28). Determining the place for cinema is of great importance because space is a basic personification element that conveys psychological and social images about characters in the script (Ozcinar, 2010: p.51). “The harmony between people and places is the phenomenon that affects the similarity of the story the most. There is an obligation to establish a physiological and psychological balance between people and spaces” (Adanir, 2006: p.38). In the cinema, the movie brings the audience together with different spaces. The cinema’s choice of space should not be considered for fictional films only, it is limited to the spaces that the director and cinematographer want to show and create, even in documentary films. Of course, the audience can make a monitoring and sensation by embedding what they do not see in their minds, which is possible in the film universe, as explained above. However, the director may limit or expand the space with what he/ she shows to his/her audience. In order to analyze the meaning universe of the spaces watched in the movie and to make inferences about the moods of the characters through the spaces, various approaches related to space analysis are needed (Özçınar, 2010: p.53). According to Demir (1994: p.123), taking sections from real time and space in cinema is very important for advancing and developing the action. As Pudovkin emphasizes, the film produces a unique new reality from here by constructing the elements of reality. Thus, we see that the laws of time and space completely change in the film. Therefore, “film time and film space” become two basic factors that have a significant effect on the narrative of cinema (Demir, 1994: p.123). In cinema, space perception, time and movement elements are included in the concept of space. Movement that is the basic element of cinema and its handling in the form of moving pictures reveals its connection to the movement. Mobility and deployment point of the camera are important in the depiction of space. The audience perceives the space from the director’s camera. Sections from the space are seen in some films, this hides whether this space is large or small. The director can use his/her camera steadily for this mystery because the mobile camera is very informative. The cinema, also called the narrative space, that is, defined as the space specific to the film, is a structure that contains motion in technical aspects of shooting, editing and sound. The movement in question includes both the movements of the players and the camera, or various types of motion, such as the shooting of shots. This activity, which is physically filmed and projected on the screen, is in a complete form with the characters, camera and the viewpoints of the audience (Ozcinar, 2010: p.52). In this context, how he/she wanted to define the space in the shooting will create a unity on constructing the space in such a way in the post-shooting post-production processes in the merging of the film will create a unity. It is unthinkable that cinema is independent of space, but although the concept of space is of great importance for cinema, it is not possible for all films to be the same. The place is uncertain and in the background from time to time, only in the background of the image in relation to the director’s decisions and the content of the story, and functions exactly as a filling material that fills the gaps. From time to time, it becomes a supplement and supporter of the story or it is at the forefront to be the story itself (Besisik, 2013: p.111). However, even

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if it is used as a filling material, or if it exists only as a background, this means that the space should be constructed in such a way as the director is asked to explain it in this way in the universe. Spaces create different perceptions either by differentiating physically or psychologically. In order to create the perception of space, it is necessary to experience the space and to penetrate it (Koseoglu&Terece, 2016: p. 50). The individual establishes a positive or negative relationship with all the spaces in which he is located and the environment; he/she experiences the space, watches it, has knowledge and attributes a number of meanings to the space. When it comes to movement in any area, there is motion; the presence of motion also points to the existence of experience and, indeed, to the existence of human beings. It is the camera that provides the mobility in the cinema and the most important narrative tool of the camera director. Because the audience experiences the space as far as the director shows in the frame. However, as mentioned above, as well as this experience is a bit virtual, it may also be a new experience that occurs in the audience’s mind. So, it’s compatible with the director’s but not the same. The fact that it is not the same can be defined as the films cause different expansions for each audience. Cinema emerges with the combination of images and according to Deleuze, all cinematographic elements in cinema are an image. These images create the link between the audience’s mind and the mechanism of emotion and the movie, making the audience ready for different sensations. The motion and time blocks formed in the cinema form the core of the cinematic philosophy and enable the films to make their own philosophies. Deleuze also kept this situation of mobility in cinema very superior and unique. As a narrative form that other arts do not possess, movement is a cinematic order and its effect on sensation is direct. But how a viewer feels with what kind of movement offers a plural, not singular, expansion which allows the audience to make sense of what they see in the viewing experience individually (Deleuze, 2001). The essence of this process is based on “human-space-environment interaction”. (Koseoglu &Terece, 2016: p.50). Because while establishing this connection with what he/she sees during the monitoring and from his/her previous experiences, human also uses the sensation areas that Deleuze points out. Real or fictional stories, messages and feelings that are intended to be presented to the audience in the films are generally conveyed to the audiences through spaces. For this reason, one of the main areas where the mentioned relationships are seen are cinema films and movie spaces. In this regard, the importance of architectural spaces in films is increasing. As cinema films cannot be considered by isolating them from spaces, nor a space that does not interact with architecture cannot be mentioned (Köseoğlu &Terece, 2016: p. 50). Cinema does not only show the spaces that the audience has not experienced, but also it creates different impressions by using spatial images that reverse the individual’s perception and exceed the individual’s perception of space. The fact that here, cinematographic images, post-production applications, and effects also have an impact that should not be ignored, however since these are already included in the narrative of cinema, they are included in the cinematic universe. Sometimes by highlighting the details that will not attract the attention of an ordinary individual by the director, he/she focuses on the things such as shooting scale, color, and time, that will not generally be paid attention to by the audience and creates spatial awareness (Besisik, 2013: p.13). The narrative of cinema predicts a holistic perception and while doing so it uses cinematographic components. In this context, it was possible to produce the spaces shown in the cinema sometimes with computer support and showing this space itself makes no difference from its expression. Even if the space being told does not actually exist physically, it is an image of the cinematic universe that the director has constructed, and in this sense it is real.

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The Concept of Space through Dogtooth (2009) Film Cinema is an art that produces stories and conveys this story to the audience with an aesthetic approach and images. For this art aimed at the masses the space is large in that it is one of the creators of the feelings and thoughts desired to be created in the audience. Space is a producer of meaning in cinema and it is the object of the intended affect to be created in the audience. In cinema, meaning is produced by passing through spaces, and for this reason, it is seen that each space causes a different sensation in the individual. Space is the field experienced by the individual and cinema deals with this field within the framework of its interaction with the individual. The space, which has a meaning and use value, has been one of the main sources of power and capital throughout history, and with this aspect it has been one of the main objectives in which cinema has revealed the mentioned relationship. This kind of relationship is also revealed in the Dogtooth movie. The movie Dogtooth, which will be examined within the scope of the study, is about a house experienced by many people it contains, and the characters transformed inside the house. Dogtooth (2009) is a Greek movie by Yorgos Lanthimos. It is a production with areas that compel the audience to struggle with their inner world throughout the movie with its jarring cinematography. Before moving on to the analysis of the film, it would be appropriate to talk about its subject briefly. In the film, which is about a family consisting of father, mother and three children, the remarkable elements are the lives of the family, who lives in a detached house only with a garden that is closed outside, and marginal details in family relationships. In addition to the fact that father and mother are extremely protective, the father is an oppressive and dominant personality. Children who are in their 20s, even though they are adults, they know nobody other than the family members in their isolate life from the outside world. Life in the house has a different experience for each individual with the physical perception of the house. The house is a place where each individual expresses himself/herself differently and where he/she experiences different things in terms of deploying himself/herself, and it is the realization of all transformations and experiences in terms of movies. In other words, it is a factor of praxis and vital factors direct individuals in different ways. Not even knowing that there is a life outside, every element (television, telephone and visitors) that can enable them to communicate with outside is isolated from their lives by the father. The father is quite dominant in the movie, even he is in the position of the only administrator. The father’s administrative field rivets concepts such as power and obedience and puts the space into a perception process integrated with the father. For the audience, the father is the only judge of the house. The only person who can come home as a visitor is Christina. She is brought home by the father in a controlled manner so that the boy can fulfill his sexual needs. The visitor’s stay at home and communication with other children are again under the supervision of the father. Another detail that attracts attention and supports the storyline is that the names of objects have been taught differently from their reality since they were born. This difference is presented to them in such a way that they will not be interested in the outside world or even they cannot name life outside the home with objects. Children who learn a language limited to words (saltshakers, glasses, plates etc.) inside home are quite behind both their educational and social ages. The objects that may be connected with the outside world are named with an object from inside the house. Of course, the house where the movie takes place stands in an important place within the movie in the semantic process of the space, because children only know the world as the house they live in and they know each other as the living things in the world. Even the cat who entered the garden by mistake is launched as a predator, lethal and neverto-be approached creature by father since it threatens to meet the outside world. In the movie, the house 205

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is sanctified. Such that the father was taught that their children could only get out of the house when the dog teeth spilled naturally, whereas the irony was that dog teeth is strongest teeth in the adults’ teeth. The name of the movie, Dogtooth, proposes a major ruling. The fact that their father teaches children that they cannot leave the house before their dog teeth fall, this also determines the duration of domination that children try to establish. Dog teeth are the most durable ones in healthy individuals and some people’s dog teeth are not damaged until they die. The dominance of the father character in the film is also symbolic for the presentation of the mechanism of domination. The father is the authority and represents patriarchy.

Communication With Space (Perceived - Designed - Experienced) In the film Dogtooth, “home” is a powerful spatial metaphor in its own, and in communication with the inhabitants, this space will produce different meanings. According to Lefebvre’s theory of space, the house is a strong representation space. Home contains codes for individuals living in it, and these codes make there different for that person. However, new meanings reproduce with the contact and communication of the person with this place. The space is primarily the self-realization area and provides a different code accumulation according to everyone’s own way of communication. As we mentioned above, Ozturk (2012: p.19) stated that in a study of the communication of the space, it could not stay away from the concepts of domination, resistance and power. It is possible to see the character of father as an extremely dominant power in the film, and throughout the story, the father character continues to remain in an irresistible power. The most prominent mark of the director that place the father character in front is that none of the characters’ named in the movie except Christien. Christine does not belong to the domestic world, but she comes from another space. Therefore, she is not the part of the organization. In the eyes of children; power is not destroyed, power is not defeated, there is a given definition of power that cannot be resisted against. One of the most important elements that sustain this given order is the inexorable rules at home. Metaphoric rules such as what to eat, when to eat, family activities after meals and how to determine this are presented. These rules also examine the father’s position as a state legislator. However, in the later scenes, we witness the conflicts and transformations that children experience with this power in their communication with the house in the context of the perceived space. Even the transformations, by damaging the holy bond that children establish with the home will make them come closer to the phenomenon of something exists out there. Attempts to unravel the power mechanism within the home rather than destroy the power constitute the first step of communication. After the older girl begins to wonder that there is a world outside, she begins to question what this power is doing to them. Her discovery of the phone secretly, her communication with Christine is the result of that. Besides, the older girl will be the first to leave the house. The perceived space has been transformed. This is a kind of resistance struggle. This resistance seen during the film may extend to destroy the father’s power. Lefebvre, while defining the perceived space, mentions the importance of one’s daily life practices (Lefebvre, 2014: p. 68). The daily reality of the person occupies a great place in the sense of the transformation of the space, and the communication that the children in the film establish with the house is actually the area where they realize all life practices. Competitions and in-home activities, which are among the rules of the father, also reinforce children’s space communications and in fact point to something else. Children compete with each other, but they all have one goal. Being close to the rulemaker, getting into his eyes. The rule-maker, the father, gives them labels if they succeed, and just like 206

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a kindergarten child, the sheer number of these labels allows children to make themselves happen. This situation is tragic and stifling. Spatially, according to the theory that does not define the space communication of the person with the concepts of space practice, space representation and representation spaces; Cristina’s self-realization areas (space practice), who live at home and involve in home from the outside, the way the space is designed for those living here and Cristina (space representation) and the projections are also different for Cristina and the household members. If we look at them one by one, there is an imagination that should be explained differently even for each individual. In the movie, Cristina is a symbol of the outside world. The only person whose name is known in the movie is Cristina, and this is kind of a difference with the outside world and the contents of the house. A distinction as if individuals in the home do not need names. In other words, it means a uniformization of the inhabitants of the home. Christina therefore chooses to remain limited in her communication with household members. She insults them a little, wants to exploit them. They are different and underdeveloped according to Christina. Christine also wants to take advantage of this situation. When Christina is at home, she always draws attention with her uncomfortable appearance, the house is a repulsive, random, temporary and monetary tool for her. The transformation of Cristina after communication with the house is remarkable. Cristina discovers to what extent individuals at home are hungry for innovations and the outside world, and transforms to ensure their interests and satisfy their desires. For children, an outsider comes home and has items that are not at home. Cristina wants to exchange these items for her own sexual interests. The long and not showing walls of the house is another mechanism of domination over children. These walls cannot be crossed. As one beyond the walls, Cristina’s point of view towards the individuals living in the home and the individuals’ positioning the Cristina will not be the same in this context. She has a different communication from the characters, communication with the house and communication is not holistic. The personal experiences of the mother, father and three children will contribute to the formation of their own vital practices, and each one’ is different from the another one’s. For example, while the walls of the house mean security for mother and father, it is a symbol of authority and obedience for children. However, the transformation is inevitable in the individual who communicates with the space and we witness this transformation in the older girl towards the end of the movie. The walls of the house are surrenders of the space for the boy but include the curiosity of what is behind them. Mom and dad worry about their son, whom they caught while he was looking at the wall just a few times on the edge of the wall, since their son is curious about outside and they make up mini stories to distract him. Because the walls have a meaning that surrounds the space, or rather, limits and elevates power. At the end of the movie, after the authority transformed itself, the older girl managed to cross the wall, but first she will break the dogtooth herself as a prediction of her submissive attitude towards the authority mechanism. This is pretty harsh. Uncertain transformations are felt in all the characters of the house before the final. Mostly, older girls strive for out-of-home communication, this strive makes her aggressive. Her aggressive and conspicuous attitude causes all family members to think that something is out of the ordinary. The meaningless dance of the two sisters at the birthday dinner and the exaggerated and overpriced performance of the older girl in this dance will cause the whole family to understand that it is an unusual situation, but mostly it will cause the father and mother to plan to keep their children in space with new arrangements. Throughout the film, the father fights to maintain the space he designed for children, just like the representations of governments to determine the living spaces of the community members. This space is a product of the mechanism created in the mind of the father, but the perception of the children is not the same as 207

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the father designed and offers a different reflection for everyone in the living space. The safe prison established by the father for the whole family is the place where all the vital experiences for children are. When we consider the perceived, designed and lived areas of the place that Lefebvre predicts in the production of the space, children’s experience practices are important for the shaping and meaning of their own spaces and are different for each. The perceived space that Lefebvre talks about is completely different for domestic individuals and Cristina. It is important to touch upon this difference in order to examine the communication of film characters with space. Cristina’s practice of self-realization in this house is different from others, and this difference will be even more revealed with communication. While the room where sexual intercourse is experienced is a daily experience for Cristina, which must be completed as soon as possible, while earning money in return, it is the moment and space for self-realization for the boy. The room has a different interaction for both. As Christine shows off the action and leaving the house as soon as possible, the children love Christina and want her to stay a little longer. They even demand her to be included in their living quarters, they invite her to dinner, they compete with each other to take a seat with her, shoot videos with her. However, the same room is the space designed for the boy by the father. In other words, it is the area that put forward to him to determine his type of production and realize his own production in this field. In Lefebvre’s definition of three-moment social space, the body is the most basic mechanism (Lefebvre, 2014: p.69). The way the body exists itself also reveals its symbolic existence. In other words, the person places himself/herself in the concepts of perceived, designed and lived space and realizes his/ her vital practices in this way. The most interesting and worth to talk point of the Dogtooth film in this context is that these practices are planned by the father on behalf of the children, and somehow, they are prevented by the mother and father from experiencing them. This situation delays or even distorts the communication of children to realize themselves. A similar diversion occurs on the scene where the mother and three children are in the garden. The garden is a place designed for siblings, where they are supposed to be safe and it is surrounded by high walls. The plane passes and an interest awaken in the children who see the plane in the sky. Suddenly, the mother feels a need to prevent this situation, throws a toy plane into the garden with a pressure mechanism and directs the children’s interests here and makes them believe that the plane in the sky is a toy. Considering the dialectical relationship between time and space, children’s lifetime and the inner time of the house are extremely incompatible with each other. However, this situation was produced and presented by the father. The father’s areas of self-realization and self-fulfillment also operate in their own dynamics and he reveals his own vital practices in his perceived space. His everyday reality imposes that children are obedient and at home, he experiences this on the children and his wife and makes himself there. Ozturk (2012) states that space is political and at the same time he adds that space cannot be neutral. Just like managing and managing positions in the house are determined, an ideological situation arises from the father’s communication with other members of the house is dominant. Older girl, trying to watch video tapes left by Christina, was beaten by his father holding these tapes and although this situation is not suitable for both her age and position, the girl cannot oppose to her father. This beating scene is an important planting of the director because the rising action after this stage will quickly go to the final. An individual who cannot realize himself/herself will reveal himself/herself with reflections of rebellion and violence that such symptoms attract attention in children’s games with each other. They establish a dangerous communication away from the idea that they will harm each other. One of the most striking scenes is that the little girl cuts the doll’s feet, hands and nose with scissors and screams 208

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while cutting. This is a sadistic tendency and makes the scene very striking. Children experience some kind of outpouring. The space designed by their fathers for themselves begins to coincide with the sense of space and psychology they perceive. In as much as now they have gotten older, domestic activities and the house itself are not enough for them to realize themselves spatially. Children cannot realize that they are stuck in a space that is wide in volume but semantically narrow, because this space has been designed and produced by the father figure for them. They seek methods of self-realization, but here the most obvious indicators that the mechanism of domination is in direct operation are efforts to get on their father’s good side. Children are rewarded by the father with a “sticker” in their appreciated behavior and everything is done by asking the father. This is the most obvious pressure that the space creates on children, because the space is identical with the father figure for them. So, it is compatible with the creator and the executive. When they get out of here, they can never afford the father to take their hand from them, as the idea of getting away from the father is negatively imposed on them by the father and mother. This makes them obedient individuals. It is the upper voice of the father who accompanies the image images of the game whose aim is to play with sticks in the garden but to injure each other. This is a sound added to this scene in a non-diegetic1 form for the dominant purpose. This is a sound added to this scene in a non-diegetic form for the dominant purpose. This is the sound that the father recorded to the cassette for the geometry education of the children and the vision does not have the same frequency as the images. There is a counterpuantal2 narrative in this scene. The chaotic affection of the image and the sound of the father from the cassette is in contradiction with each other, and these setbacks open space for the audience. The didactic sound of the father, with uniform sounds that he will not compromise power, and the communication of the children with the violent play reflected in the visual images is extremely striking and summarizing. According to the space theory of Lefebvre, the subject is human in the living spaces. Man undergoes a transformation with the practices of self-realization and existence in the space where he/she lives. The transformation is different for each individual in the final of the film. Indeed, the break in the climax of the film carries the audience to the final at an unexpected speed. Cristina’s entrances and exits pose a great threat for children to connect with the outside world. For this reason, with the new decision of the father, the older girl will assume the role of Cristina. However, this scene is the breaking point of the movie. This incest intercourse, which is a source of trauma that will break the ropes for the older girl, causes her to run downhill without brakes. In the following scene, the phone that she previously discovered by watching her mother through the keyhole triggers her interest in the outside world and her action in that direction. The extreme movements of her on her mother and father’ wedding anniversary celebration, her unhappy state and her eating the cake jauntily were noticed by her family. The director carries the movie the finale by making a planting here. The girl manages to break her own dogtooth in the bathroom and drop it. This will legitimize her leaving form home. Now she can leave the house, regardless of the outcome... The space, the house, will no longer be the same for any of family members. The children’s experiences have changed, they have learned that they can get out of the house (and what is more on foot). The dialectical relationship established between the space and the time is important and is extremely effective in this transformation. While children try to create their own realities, they differ in the place they perceive with their experiences and the space is no longer that space. They undergo differentiations in the realization of their own experiences in the world designed by the father and transform the space they live in.

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Cinematographic Dominance Areas The film takes place in a single space and this space is isolated from the outside world. In the opening scene of the movie, a cassette player appears on the screen, it is an old type, simple tool with no function but only a cassette player. It is an important image, because it is the first planting of the family that they are also isolated from technology. From the tape, a speech “dictating the words of the day” is heard, recorded with the voice of their mother. Young people, standing in their underwear in the bathroom, learn new words with the opposite statements of the facts from the cassette player. The cassette player is not an entertainment tool for children, it is the domination mechanism that is kept as a learning tool and it is certain. This is a kind of learned helplessness, but at the same time, children cannot escape this domination in their environment because it has never been taught to them. In the opening scene, children want to play a game in the bathroom, but this game is well below their age level. This scene, which contains a lot of information about the narrative of the movie, is also cinematographically mysterious. The cold light (with white-blue tones) scattered throughout the film is clearly felt by the audience in this scene. The decor and ambience are also created in supportive tones and the areas of the house are always reflected at narrow angles. Such angles also give the viewer a sense of discomfort. It can also be called as cinematographic unrest. There are images that the director took and preferred not to take, which cannot be the result of a coincidence. Because the camera itself is the narrative tool and basically the eyes of the director. The way we are asked to perceive the story is reflected in the frame. In this aspect, the images that are left out of the frame actually contain important narratives (Arisoy, p.2019). The viewer has to revive the areas he/she cannot see in his/her mind. We cannot see children collectively at the time of speaking. Lanthimos, who generally avoids the use of large plans, seems to want to reinforce the confusion and moodiness of the house by compressing the spaces in a small house. We cannot see children in triple shots in a wide range, but the sounds are diegetically3 in the scene. This reinforces the viewer’s feeling of wanting to see but not seeing. The older sister asks the little sister who is the only one in the frame and recommends the game, “What will the name of the game be?” and a long process of thinking begins. This is an uncertain question, and the answer contains the same uncertainties. The director actually refers also to the difficulties of the sisters who cannot name the game in their narrow world by symbolizing what is going on outside. The fixed camera leaves the viewer alone with the little sister and in an empathetic field. The traces of jammed and lagging behind, which contain enough clues for the film’s entrance scene, are riveted with the bathroom scene. However, the most obvious question mark of the viewer is also formed here. Why this backwardness? Deleuze said that by creating their own intellectual fields, films create thought marks with image, sound and other cinematographic images (Deleuze, 2001). As seen in the entrance scene, there is actually a scene that produces meanings beyond the viewer’s curiosity. The audiences also examine the younger sister while she is talking about the game, but also more importantly, the opportunity of this examining is given to the audiences by Lantimos. Right in front of the camera, with a slightly top angle shot, the viewer is on the girl and tends to dominate the practice of watching. Predicting what awaits her in the continuation of the film with this feeling that is desired to accompany watching, will add an image that he sees in his mind to this sensation and will produce a progressive audience. The reflection of the characters with neutral emotions by the director indicates that the emotional bonds of the children are poorly enlarged. In particular, they are individuals whose body language is not developed. It would not

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be wrong to talk about social phenomena and talk about the vital practices that people develop in order to make themselves exist in society. As Lefebvre also describes, there are spaces designed for people, and these spaces actually have a symbolic meaning. These are the places that make people’s production styles sovereign, and people realize their practice of being a social society here. The transformation of the human who interacts with space is inevitable in this sense. Space is more than just a place; it is a space of communication and it cannot be independent of one’s impulse to be social. It is just like Cristina’s entrance and exit to the house cannot be prevented from forming a connection with the outside after a while. Father’s domination is not only on children, it is also valid for all external world stimuli that children can communicate with. While Cristina comes home, the father blinds her. If she does not know where she is going, then there will be no risk of her trying to reach this place. In the scene of Cristina’s coming home, the camera stands in an impressionist area from the rear. Narrow angles scattered throughout the film are felt in the car with the camera at a single angle. The audience meets the father for the first time on the vehicle scene, but his voice remains in the blind area and the sound from outside the frame remains an element of curiosity. The unchanging camera angle also points to a weird situation for the audience. Before Christine and the eldest son of the house being alone in the room, the environment is prepared by the father and this sexual partnership, which has already been planned by the father, contains a body language as if it was a must. Sexual intercourse imposed by the father on both Cristina and the boy makes all the domination of the father character in the first scenes of the film. This is just one of the preventions planned to keep children alive and healthy, and it also includes the idea of “keeping children in the home”. Parents think that they create a safe and perfect environment for their children.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The space theory of Levebvre contains general propositions. In the Dogtooth movie, a narrative is presented over a single location. Relatedly, in a study made specifically for the film, the limitedness of the space was brought to the fore. A similar study can be carried out on films with different cinematography and spatial fiction. In addition, since the director’s perspective is very important in the presentation of a movie, similar work can be carried out from the perspectives of different directors. In this film, all the spaces are not reflected at a wide angle and a space is constructed. The films of the directors who love wide plans will also create a study area in the future.

CONCLUSION The house represents a small world, specifically for the Dogtooth movie, and also puts the metaphorically managing-managed relationship at the center. In the space theory of Lefebvre, the spatial dimension of what is produced for people and what people produce is said. In this context, it is obvious that people’s production conditions can lead to differentiations in the production mechanism. In their environment, the subject is the person himself/herself, and after communication, the subject also experiences transformations. In the film, the father is hegemonic, authoritarian, rule-setting and governing like a government symbol. He offers everything that he thought his children and his spouse need. The space he offers is to meet basic needs such as a capitalist imposition, a luxury home, good life, good food. However, the 211

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father’s authoritarianism and rules of domination must be accepted in return. The father created an order in which the weak was crushed and left behind. The stronger prevails, the weaker cannot receive stickers, and those who cannot receive stickers cannot be appreciated. The father’s efforts to make the house look like a sacred, safe, educational cannot hold on with the breaking of the delicate link between space and time. Lefebvre foreseen the words perception, design and life in space theory. All of them are immanent in the relationship that the individual establishes with life. One condition for being a more social individual is It is the quality of what is produced for life shaped in spaces. It is important for the individual that the specific production spaces are determined for them in the designed spaces and perceived spaces so that he/she can make himself/herself exist in social life. The spaces reflect the ideological and intellectual processes of the subjects living in there. These processes provide new expansions and new learning in the communication that individuals have with space. Dogtooth sheds a light on the chaotic aspects of family life by explaining the children meeting phase with the outside world in a different time period. In patriarchal societies, the household roles of family members also play a major role in individuals’ determining their own production spaces. Thus, individuals transform the spaces into their own vital production spaces and position themselves with their own practices in their communication with this space. What is emphasized in the Dogtooth movie and attracted attention by the director is depriving children of this experience, and the father’s insistence on starring his own truth in his own designed space. However, the subject must be the children themselves, that is, their wishes and preferences are necessary to realize themselves. Not letting this to happen could produce children, people, and communities that could not develop under pressure. The concept of family can exist with individuals in it. The roles acquired by individuals will reveal the production spaces in their communication with the space they are in, which will determine the importance of space in the general structure of the society. The film contains a model of the capitalist world designed for mankind, and the issues addressed in the above analysis are related to the given world that human beings are in. An analogy to the boundaries of the productive relationships that Marx spoke about with walls is reflected in the Dogtooth movie. Just like home as the chosen space in the movie, every individual tries to reveal its own reality in the space chosen and given for himself/herself. However, they may not be able to be stripped from the world or the environment in which they live, before their dogteeth fall.

REFERENCES Adanır, O. (2006). Kültür politika ve sinema. +1 Kitap. Adiloğlu, F. (2005). Sinemada mimari açılımlar. Es Yayınları. Altınoğlu, M. (2011). Takdim. İdealkent, Kent Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3. Arısoy, E. (2019). Sinemada kadraj dışı alanların anlatıdaki yeri: Yozgat Blues Filmi Örneği. Avrasya Sosyal ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(12), 239–258. Ayşın F. & Turhanoğlu, K. (2014). Kentsel mekânın üretim sürecinde tarihsel ve kültürel miras. Folklor/ Edebiyat, 20(78).

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Berber, Ö. (2011). Yok-Yer, Yersizleşme ve yersizyurtsuzluk kavramları üzerine bir sorgulama. İdealkent, Kent Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3. Beşışık, G. (2013). Sinema ve mimarlıkta mekân kurgusu ve kavrayışı (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İzmir. Bonitzer, P., & Yaşar, İ. (2011). Kör alan ve dekadrajlar. Metis. Castells, M. (1977). The urban question. Mit Press. Çevik, Ö., & Erdoğdu, B. (2014). Yerleşim sistemleri ve mekân analizi. Ege Yayınları. Deleuze, G. (2001). Cinema 1, the movement-image. University of Mineasota Press. Demir, Y. (1994). Filmde zaman ve mekân üzerine. Turkuaz Yayınları. Harvey, D. (1985). The urbanization of capital. Johns Hopkins University Press. Kaba, S. (2009). İnsan-mekân etkileşiminin Türk sinemasına yansıması 1990 sonrası Türk sineması’nda ev (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Kanlı, İ. B. & Bilgiç, M. (2016). Modernizm eleştirilerinin “yok-yer” bağlamında sinema mekânı kurgusunda analizi. İGÜSBD, 3(1). Köseoğlu, E. & Terece, T. (2016). Dogville filminde mekân ve algı. Koridor, 22(10). Kutucu, S. (2003). Sinemada marjinallik ve mekân. Ege Mimarlık, 45. Lefebvre, H. (1976). Survival of Capitalism. Allison and Busby. Lefebvre, H. (2014). Mekanın üretimi. Sel Yayıncılık. Mario, P. (2006). Sinemada estetik. Dost Kitabevi Yayınları. Özçınar, M. (2010). Sinematografik zaman ve mekân’ın oluşumunda felsefi arka plan (Unpublished Doctoral Thesis). Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü, İzmir. Öztürk, S. (2012). Mekân ve iktidar. Phoenix Yayınları. Parkan, M. (1983). Brecht estetiği ve sinema. Dost Kitabevi Yayınları. Şengül, T. (2001). Sınıf mücadelesi ve kent mekânı. Praksis, (2), 9-31. Ulutaş, S. (2017). Sinema estetiği. Hayalperest Yayınevi.

ADDITIONAL READING Bogue, R. (2003). Deleuze on cinema. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203826065 Burch, N. (2014). Theory of film practice (Vol. 507). Princeton University Press. Chion, M. (1999). The voice in cinema. Columbia University Press.

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Colman, F. (2011). Deleuze and cinema: The film concepts. Berg. doi:10.5040/9781501351099 Kracauer, S. (2015). Theory of film: The redemption of physical reality. Princeton University Press. Münsterberg, H. (2013). Hugo Munsterberg on film: The photoplay: A psychological study and other writings. Routledge. Stam, R. (2014). Film theory: an introduction. John Wiley & Sons.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aesthetics: Creating aesthetic affect in the film universe using cinematographic tools. Cinematic: Elements regarding and referring to cinema. Cinematic Place: Venues where the narrative of cinema is formed, fictionalized in the story. Cinematography: Means elements of cinema; sound, light, image, motion, etc. Communication: Individuals’ interactions with each other, or with the elements surrounding the world in which they live. Domination: Putting people under their own rules regardless of their own wishes. Narrative Cinema: Auteur concept; this term is more like auteur cinema. The narrator is the director and he/she is free to tell the story on his/her own type of expression. Resistance: Not to show resistance to not be under the pressure of a person. Transformation: Differentiation of people after the events happening around them.

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Adding sound to the scene later. Sound such as soundtracks and voices/narrators are inaudible and non-diegetic by actors on stage. It is the sound’s incompatibility with the film’s editing rhythm. Sound that is heard by the actors, including the stage and the story the sound whose source is known.

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The Tale of Fabled Creatures: Penny Dreadful M. Nur Erdem Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Violence has been a part of daily life in both traditional and digital media. Consequently, neither the existence of violence in the media nor the debates on this subject are new. On the other hand, the presentation of violence in fictional content should be viewed from a different point of view, especially in the context of aesthetization. Within this context, in this chapter, the serial of Penny Dreadful is analyzed. As analyzing method, Tahsin Yücel’s model of the “space/time coordinates of narrative” is used. And the subject of “aestheticization of violence” is analyzed through a serial with the elements of person, space, and time. Thus, the role of not only physical beauty but also different components in the aestheticization of violence is examined.

INTRODUCTION The phenomenon of violence in mass media has always been a popular discussion topic for the academics who studies in communication science field. However, the existence of discussions on violence in media is not old as the existence of violence. The pages of history is full with the documents which has demonstrated of the violence behaviors of human being that have done to other people, societies and / or any other species. In other words, the violence always has showed itself in daily life from ancient times to today’s world. But obviously, most visible and prevalent status of violence has arisen in the 21st century. And there is no doubt, reason of this situation is the developments in the communication technologies. This kind of developments have led to the spread of a large number of fictional or real violent media content. More over, this is a unconcerned spreading and violence contents have brought about the accusation of media by many scientist. Especially in the critical studies of communication field, the unconcerned attitudes of media institutions and publishing / broadcasting politics of violence content as a result of these attitudes have become a focus point of many debates. Media institutions give time and place to publishing / broadcasting of violence content without hesitation and without thinking DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch012

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about public interest in their many different channels, with only worrying about ratings and circulations, -and even, this kind of behavior can be evaluated even as a method of political inspection mechanism to keep away the audiences from the real agenda. On the other hand, the audiences who have the ability to choose of many other contents from the wide media pool, use their choices for the violence content. In other words, the media displays violence in almost all kinds of content, particularly due to a track-record and / or circulation concern resulting from commercially profit-making purposes; and the viewer does not turn his / her gaze from this kind of content and approaches it with interest. At this point, it can be mentioned about two kinds of representation of violence in the both traditional and digital media: pornography of violence and aesthetics of violence. The pornography of violence includes the visualisation of the body that as a victim of violence and the exposure of the act of violence and its background; besides the pleasure of audiences in the face of this exposure. The pornographic presentation or reception of violence has come up in different ways since ancient times and continues to emerge. The fine line that separates the present from the past is primarily the magnitude of the mass achieved and secondly the transition from reality to fictionality. But humankind always sees the violence of his own kind with a sense of pleasure mixed with interest and disgust. In other words, the audiences can neither prevent themselves from watching violent content, nor can they avoid critical seeing. The subject of aesthetic of violence can be evaluated from this perspective, too. Despite the fact that the concept of “aesthetics” is a field of science, which includes the evaluating of beauty and art within the universal codes; it is also used for everything which has accepted as beatiful and give pleasure to people. This is also the case in the presentation of violence in the media. As discussed in the scope of the study, visuals that convey the disruption of the integrity of the human body in the media or the narratives created in this context are presented by aestheticizing. One of the main reasons for such an approach seems to lie in the audience’s inclination to the content of violence. Human beings are very interested in witnessing violence against their own species, -even with a Freudian point of view, they instigates their instinctive tendencies with this testimony. However, there are also some consequences of this testimony. First of all, the human being is not successful about to face with the consequences of violence that he / she resorted himself / herself; or the violence among the human beings. The individual avoids the act of violence because of sometimes to avoid this feeling, and sometimes to avoid punishment legally; or with other reasons. Inspite the fact that, the media violence can trigger the acts of violence in real life, the audience usually settled with the act of watching. Because, audiences know the media violence is fictional, and they do not have to worry about the real consequences. Aestheticization of violence makes easy to watch violence content, though. But the aim of this chapter is not to put forth of neither the reasons nor reactions of audience who watch violence contents. The aim of this chapter is analyzing the aestheticizing of fictional violence in media content. Especially via serials. Approximetly last decade can be described as a golden age for the violence visuals. In the news, reality shows, documentaries, movies and doubtless in the serials, the violence can be seen very spread. On the other hand, developments in communication technologies have led to spread this kind of content. These developments has allowed to reach many kind of content -included also violence- for audience. Great interest of the audience paved the way of new productions at the same time and this situation has raised the competition among media institutions. Hereby, sexual and violence content have been characteristic form of 21st century’s media productions. As a consequence of this nuncupative agreement betweenmedia and audience, these kind of visuals have taken a place in especially most watched serials and movies.

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In this context, in this chapter, firstly, the attraction of violence is discussed. Then, a perspective is based on the pornographic presentation and aesthetization of violence. And, as an example of pornographic and aesthetic presentation of violence the serial of Penny Dreadful is analyzed. As a method of analyzing, Tahsin Yücel’s model of the “space/time coordinates of narrative” is used. And the subject of “aestheticization of violence” is analyzed through a serial with the elements of person, space and time. Thus, the role of not only physical beauty but also different components in the aestheticization of violence is examined.

ON ATTRACTION OF VIOLENCE Actually, it can be said that, violence is a very old phenomenon which is started with the human history. On the other hand, first traces of spectacle violence can be followed to first interactions among human being. The violence that the human being have commited to his/her own kind has been a proof of power, creation of a substitutional satisfaction emotion and / or simply a medium of entertainment (Oskay, 2000; Türkoğlu, 2007). From the gladiator fights which went down to history as spectacle and politics implementations and offered to limited audiences’ interests in the amphitheaters to real or fictional violence images which can be reach limitless individuals in today’s unconcerned and uncontrolled digital world, the humanity history has testified violence visuals / shows numerous times, at least the implications of violence. And individuals have become enforcer, victim or witness of violence, in some way. The 21st century is maybe not the century which violence is most experienced, but it is absolutely the the century of violence has become most visible. As it is told before, developments in the communication technologies have caused spreading wide range of violence based media content. According to Akıner (2014: p. 2), violence moved to mass media in the 20th and 21st centuries and has become more spectacle for wide range of audience. Such that, news can be watched such as murders, domestic violence, violence against women or children, suicides, etc. in television channels. Moreover, these kinds of violence cases encounter in serials, reality shows, and even cartoons except the news (Akıner, 2014: pp. 2-3). According to Trend (2007: p. 16), new developments on digital effect technologies, explosion of video games and ever-increasingly mergers of media institutions enforce the violence with an unprecedented savagery. This, maybe not so in a coincidence way, occurs in a historical time when real-life disasters were hardly distinguishable from those created for the screen. The hunger of the public to the images of violence that take many forms made the violence of the major element of production. In other words, while media -especially with the concern of rating and circulation- processing the violence almost all kinds of it; the audience do not turn their gaze away from this kind of content and they approach it with interest. At this point, the existence of concious and intentional violence types which with the purpose of damaging body integrity in visual and audial narratives -besides the point of view to reception of this situation by audiences- are described as pornography of violence by Sontag (2003) and Baudrillard (2004). This situation has a meaning for showing and receptioning of suffering human bodies is also pornographic, beyond showing of sexual activities openly in different types of media contents. Because, what are stake here, the exposure of victim’s body which suffering from the violence actions and exposing of the background of the act of violence and also the pleasure of the audience from this exposition. David Trend discusses that situation over the extremism of violence in media content in his book “The Myth of Media Violence”. According to him the violence in media will not dissepear and the current endeavours to stop it also are not possible to successful. Like displays of 217

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material excess and gratuitous sex, violence exists within a commercial structure predicated on a powerful system of fantasies. Whether we accept it or not, these fantasies gets popularity because of they related with the deepest desires and fears of human being (2007: p. 19). Weaver and Wilson are questioning of the reasons of the intense violence content in media in their study. According to them, there is an intense violence content in media and this situation is defenced by the media institutions as demand of audiences. At this point, there could be reasons more than one of the attractiveness of programmes with violence content. But, the “pleasure” is in the focus point of these reasons (Weaver & Wilson, 2009: p. 443). Krahé et al. (2011: p. 631) emphasize the “pleasure” which is taken from the violence content in the media will increase as long as the individuals expose to these kind of contents. It is probably the reason of this situation is this kind of violence is stays in screen and can not transfer to the daily life. Watching and witnessing are mostly enough for the audiences to create a sense of substitutional satisfaction (Girard, 2003; Oskay, 2000; Türkoğlu, 2007). The pornographic presentation or reception of violence have confronted of us in different ways from ancient times to today, and continue to be existed. The thin line which seperates today from the past is first the enormity of the reached audience and second is transferring from reality to fictionality. But, The human being always gaze to the violence that is own kind with interest and abrohence. In other words, individuals as audience neither can detain themselves from viewing violence contents, nor can escape from criticizing it. Sontag (2003: p. 76) describes this situation as a mental conflict. A subject must be stressed at this point is the presenting the violence in media via aestheticizing. The concept of aesthetics is already an eristic concept. Even though it is a branch of science that includes theoretical handling of beauty in art and life within the universal laws; it is also used for things that are pleasing to the eye in daily life and create a sense of pleasure in the individual. This situation is acceptable for the presenting of violence in media. The deterioration of the integrity of the human body and visuals about this or the narratives about this are presented through aestheticizing. And it seems that, main reason of this kind of practicing is the tendencies of the audiences’ to the violence.

AESTHETICS TOUCHS ON VIOLENCE IN MEDIA Individuals are highly interested with witnessing to the violence -and even with a Freudian approach, they satisfied their own instinctive tendencies with this witnessing- but at the same time, there are some consequences of this witnessing which brings with it. First of all, the individual is not successful in confronting with the consequences of violence among people or the violence that he / she used by own1. The individual avoids from violence acts because avoiding from the regret or in order not to be punished or else more different reasons. Eventhough, sometimes the violence in media content is a trigger for the violence in real life; to act of watching is enough for the audiences, generally. Thereby, -if it is needed to take this situaiton with a Freudian approach again- audiences tries to rasp the instictive violence and agression inside of them in the phantasmagoric environments (Oskay, 2000). They know that the violence in the media is fictional -eventhough it is based on reality-; and the setters of the boundaries to reach to the substitutional satisfaction are their own will2. In other words, the violence that often cannot be stopped and has serious consequences once it begins in real life, can be stopped with TV’s off key. Even more, there is not a legal, social or conscience sanction of the witnessing of violence in media. It is also more acceptible, because of the aestheticization.

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Is Violence Pharmakon? Actually, the violence has existed not only as a phenomenon of real life, but also as a representation in all areas of life. In painting, music, sculptring, theatre, and more over, violence has showed itself as an element of expression or transfer. And it is not only feed them, it also fed by them. Many painters such as Goya, Picasso, Courbet, Caravaggio, Frida Kahlo had produced art works related with violence that they reflected of some parts of their lives, or their dream worlds, or the events from the society they lived in. In the field of music, especially in the types such as rock, hiphop or heavy metal, violence is a very prevalent subject. Melodies, lyrics and even videos of these types of music include intense violence. Classical music works are used related with violence, too. Beethoven melodies in A Clockwork Orange have a highlighter characteristic of violence. In Hannibal (Tv serial), classical music is used to increase dramatic aspect of the murders. Sometimes, classical musics such as Vivaldi’s Winter part of Four Seasons may expose the violence in the emotions. There is no doubt, the numbers of the examples for this subject can be increased. However, mass media is the field that the violence is most aestheticized. Violence and its sensuous, at least pleasurable effect are seen and felt in every genre of media and in many content produced for these media. The enthusiasm of the human communities who had watched what happened in arenas appears in today’s individuals who sit in front of a screen. According to Rene Girard, violence was exist in even the most advanced civilizations of hundreds and even thousand years ago. Not only as a medium for punishment and control, a regulation system, or an instrument to calm the gods; but also as a pleasure object. At this point, Girard (2003: p. 369) emphasizes to concepts of “pharmakon” and “chatarsis”, and the similarity between these two concepts. In his book “Violence and the Sacred”, Girard explains about the usage of violence. And according to him, the shows based on violence, rituals and similar components were used to prevent the violence in ancient societies. The main point in this situation is a dominant feeling of relaxation. And the domination of this feeling consists of pharmakon and catharsis. Pharmacon is a concept used in ancient Greece to mean both poison and antidote. It is encountered in the discourses of many philosophers, including Plato (https://flutuante.wordpress.com/2009/08/01/ pharmakon-the-cure-or-the-poison/; accessed on: 10.09.2018). Girard (2003: p. 369) uses this duality to explain the role of violent ceremonies and rituals in suppressing violence in society. Catharsis, as mentioned in Aristotle’s Poetics, is the purification that occurs through feelings of pity / suffering and fear / horror aroused by tragedy. Tragedy provides the soul to purify somehow by evoking feelings of “compassion and horror”, not through imitation-based expression (Duman, 2019: p. 127). In today’s world, individuals follow their ancestors. And they use violence in media content as a cure. Often unawares, the individual instinctively seeks a substitute satisfaction. But this violence should be in in certain sizes, and it’s fingers should not touch to the daily and real life. Because of this, the violence is sought in phantasmagoric environments3. On the other hand, media institutions are aware of this seeking and encourage with the contents they present. A treatment method as Girard had emphasized, a factor to increase of ratings, or a power symbol of different person and intitutions... It does not a matter whatever is... Audience should find the violence that he / she seeks, and he / she should live the substitute satisfaction with this violence. But, escape of the individual from the brutal and ugly face of real violence is a serious obstacle for his/her hunger for violence. Then, violence should be presented aestheticization. Violence must be aesthetized in media content where the distinction between reality and fiction can be made - or vice versa. Must be aesthetized and may the individual’s hunger for violence persists and so media content continues to be consumed. May the individual pay endless allegiance to the media 219

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that mirrors the reflections of her/his inner world and to those who steer the media. At this point, the aestheticized violence is also the aestheticized form of power, political power, audacity, anarchy, chaos, disgusting, pornography and fear. As Benjamin says, Humanity, which was once a kind of exhibition material in the eyes of the gods on Mount Olympus in Homer, has now become an exhibition material for itself. His alienation has reached a level that will make him experience his own destruction as a firstclass source of aesthetic pleasure (Benjamin, 2002: p. 79).

Is Violence Pornographic? If it is needed to begin with a few questions; “When did violence start to take such a place in our daily life?”, “Is our interest to the blood and brutal images, texts, and voices and really as new as we think?”, “Or, are we really interested with this kind of contents as thought?”. It is possible to increase the number of this questions. And it seems like the relationship between individual and violence is a totally hypocritical and morbid relationship. The violence that is mentioned here is not oral or psychological. As it reffered before, in this chapter, it is tried to create a context within the scope of the types of conscious and deliberate violence, especially with the aim of disrupting bodily integrity. If it is needed to return the hypocritical and morbid relationship between violence and individual; there is no doubt, the first thing to be stated at this point is our stance against to violence acts but our also highly interest to the violence images. All images that display the violation of an attractive body are, to a certain degree, pornographic. But images of the repulsive can also allure. Everyone knows that what slows down highway traffic going past a horrendous car crash is not only curiosity. It is also, for many, the wish to see something gruesome. Calling such wishes “morbid” suggests a rare aberration, but the attraction to such sights is not rare, and is a perennial source of inner torment.Indeed, the very first acknowledgment (as far as I am aware) of the attraction of mutilated bodies occurs in a founding description of mental conflict (Sontag, 2003: p. 76). According to Sontag (2003), disgusting images can also be quite mind-blowing. For many people, the attraction of the desire to see something painful is equally powerful. And this is valid for the media and its audiences’ choices, too. Media institutions give a wide coverage to violence in their content in line with their broadcasting policies. There are some thematic channels (such as ID Channel, TLC) where crime and violence content programs are produced, which include animations based on real life. And even, most watched documentary channels of the world such as National Geographic, Discovery Channel give place to contents including violence and crime in their programmes. And this contents include not only known superficial shows of violence, maybe more than this, they include the version of most clear, brutal, directly and more attractive. Discourses in the fragments of these kinds of programmes also tell us something. To take the attention of audiences, the concepts such as secret, mystery, brutality, interesting, intriguing are often used. Attracting attention and arousing curiosity are, of course, common discourses. However, the fact that the mystery constitutes an element of incitement - no doubt about events involving violence and even brutality - has resulted in many expressing the opinion that violence has a pornographic feature. The mystery is incendiary, because it needs to be solved. The elements that constitute of mystery have to be solved, the key points have to be found and they need to be exposed. This is what happens with the ID Channel and derivative channels or content of this type. Although the concept of pornography is used to 220

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make visible sexual activities between opposite sexes or same-sex; its use in relation to violence refers rather to the “unraveling”, “exposure” of violence and violent acts, and accordingly to the “pleasure of the audience” - sometimes the provocative effect, and most of the time, an artificial indignation in the audience. And of course, it referes to a substitutional satisfaction which appears with the audiences’ gaze on it (or the feeling of shame after the substitutional satisfaction, or the anger of audiences’ to themselves or the content because of their interest). According to Karen Boyle, defining the pornography is related with point of view. For example, the feminist approaches describe the pornography as violence act against women. And according to these approaches, this concept and phenomena should be in center of the media-violence discussions (Boyle, 2005: p. 29). Inspite of the fact that this assertion of Boyle has a piece of truth -actually pornography as an exhibition of sexual acts is not only against of women, but also against of men and children and even animals- this violence is not only in a sexual meaning. With the discourse of Baudrillard, the pornographic one is the obscenity of visibility, and obscenity of the brutal transparency of all things (2004: p. 134). And the pornographic content is revealed at the point where the images suggest we look at themselves as if we were looking at a naked body (Sayın, 2003: p. 12). Vücut bütünlüğünün bozulması da bu bağlamda sıklıkla pornografik olarak algılanır. Sontag explain this situation through a case: When a weekly newspaper in Boston briefly posted online a propaganda video made in Pakistan that showed the “confession” (that he was Jewish) and subsequent ritual slaughter of the kidnapped American journalist Daniel Pearl in Karachi in early 2002, a vehement debate took place in which the right of Pearl’s widow to be spared more pain was pitted against the newspaper’s right to print and post what it saw fit and the public’s right to see. The video was quickly taken offline. Notably, both sides treated the three and a half minutes of horror only as a snuff film (Sontag, 2003: p. 57). This example shows that the pornographic one is not the showing of sexual acts, but it is also showing of acts in an intriguing and remarkable way, besides considerably the clear, overt, shocking, some times disgusting. Today, the spectacle violence incidents which has been shown with all their nudity in the media cause the audiences’ insensibility, and even enjoy watching. And this situation is defined as pornographic violence or violence of pornography by Sontag. In this case, pornographic violence includes all kinds of violence in the media (Akıner, 2014: p. 2). Jung explains this kind of interest of human being to death and sexuality with the concept of archetypes (common or collective unconscious). According to Jung archetypes play role of the principles which regulates the things that we saw and the things that we realized. Among many archetypes, the “death and sexuality” are the collective unconscious of humanity no matter which ethnicity, culture and / or social group (Jung, 2001: p. 152). Because of this the images about death and sexuality have effect on human being. This effect reduces death and sexuality from past to present, without leaving any doubt, to spectacle events. Today, from commercials to TV series, movies to sporting events, digital games, etc. In all kinds of visuals (and even written narratives) death (or fear) and sexuality appear to manifest in some way. Many of these manifestations also occur in the entertainment industry, especially in mass entertainment. This inclusion is not new. Gladiator fights, knight tournaments can be given as examples. On the other hand, it seems that in addition to the increase in the content of violence in the media, people’s tendency towards this content is increasing day by day. “It seems that the appetite for pictures showing bodies in pain is as keen, almost, as the desire for ones that show bodies naked” (Sontag, 2003: p. 33). 221

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People laugh when death is mentioned. This is an angry and obscene smile. Talking about sexuality does not even cause such a reaction anymore; because when sexuality became legal, death took on a pornographic appearance. The society that “liberates” sexuality tries to make up with death the lack of a prime secret ritual and forbidden function emptied from it. In a previous religious phase, while death was something that was not hidden, was open to everyone and was happening in public, sexuality was forbidden. Today, however, the situation is reversed (Baudrillard, 2001: p. 335).

Is Violence Aesthetics? Aesthetics has been one of the most discussed areas since ancient times in terms of concept and scope. Because aesthetics is about beauty, which is a rather relative concept, and tries to create a scientific infrastructure in this context. This study focuses on how to aesthetize the content of violence in the media, without ignoring the subjectivity of beauty and aesthetics - more precisely, aesthetic perception and judgment. It can be said that aesthetics can be mentioned when an object reveals the feeling of “pleasure” in the subject. The properties of the object are of course important, and many criteria affect the aesthetic judgment from the perspective of aesthetics. However, the sensory and emotional pleasure created by the object in the subject is of great importance, especially when it comes to the aestheticization of violence. Artworks that contain the element of “violence” can also be discussed in this context. On the other hand, the area where violence is heavily aestheticized is the media. In general, the aesthetics of violence are encountered in the media in all kinds of content containing violent elements. It is a known fact that there are some factors that affect the broadcasting policies of media institutions. One of the most important of these factors is the commercialization phenomenon in the media and the concerns motivated in this direction. Because the main source of income for media institutions is advertising. A media institution can survive financially as long as it can get advertisements, and moreover, it can make a profit. For this reason, they feel the need to broadcast in a type that will constantly increase and protect the rate of watching / reading / listening. At this point, the frequently used way is to include certain types of content, the most important of which is humorous, tabloid and sexual elements. And violence… “Television shows, films, video games, sensational magazines, newspapers and bestsellers make violent trends attractive and sell themselves to consumers. These ingredients are generally prepared to conform to a well-known formula for commercial success: Violence sells…” (Whitaker, 2000: pp. 55-56). On the other hand, there is another dimension of this situation: Audience. There are scientific studies that have been going on for many years and tend to see the audience as passive and inactive. And even in these studies, it is emphasized that uncontrolled media violence will trigger violence on the audience, at least create a culture of fear and affect their perception of the world negatively. However, reception studies draw a different profile. Audience-based approaches such as Uses and Gratifications Theory argue that the audience chooses content in line with their own desires and has a very active role in this process. In other words, there is a wide range of choice offered by the media. And the audience chooses from this range in line with their wishes, interests and needs. There are critical approaches to the media’s imposition of content on the audience, and there are even points where these approaches are justified. However, the audience also shows a keen interest in certain types of content in the media. Violence can also be addressed in this context. However, the same audience blames the violent content in the media for lack of control and intensity, and fears the reflections of this violence on daily life. It 222

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is possible to explain this situation with the Third Person Effect Theory4. According to this theory, individuals think that media content will affect other individuals in society much more than themselves. Therefore, there is no harm in being exposed to any media content for them. Therefore, it will be not a problem to consume violent media content. Perhaps for this reason, individuals show great interest in this kind of content on the one hand, and complain about this intensity of violence in the media on the other hand. It seems that there seems to be an unspoken consensus between the audience and the media. Thus, a mixed cycle of interest and complaints emerges. On the other hand, it would not be healthy to have a discussion within the scope of this study on the tendency of the audience to violence. Because this study is not a study of reception. On the other hand, if it is necessary to define this trend roughly; violence can not be practiced easily, at least visibly, due to the limitations for ordinary individuals (fear of being punished or, as previously stated, the individual’s fear / unwillingness to face the real consequences of violence). To be interpreted in terms of Freudian or Instinctive Approaches5, violence is one of the most basic motives. The individual will go to gratify feelings of violence and aggression in one way or another a nd at this point it will be the most likely and risk-free way to choose a testimony process that can be traced back to the Ancient Ages. This state of witnessing will easily find a response in the media, especially due to the developments in communication technologies. Because media content is fictional. Moreover, it presents its violence as it is and not with all its nakedness, but by aesthetizing it. The deformation created by suffering bodies or the physical force exerted on them is presented in a very attractive way. This approach of the individual is supported by both the media and other institutions surrounding the media. At this point, it can be said that the aesthetic is not violence itself. Violence is presented under the guidance of political and economic power centers and by being aesthetized within certain policies. While this was performed with the bodies of gladiators and their superior fighting skills in ancient times, today it is done in many different ways. Thus, the aestheticized violence is also the aestheticized form of power, power, audacity, anarchy, chaos, disgusting, pornography and fear. Humanity, which was once a kind of exhibition material in the eyes of the gods on Mount Olympus in Homer, has now become an exhibition material for itself. His alienation has reached a level that will enable him to experience his destruction as a first-class source of aesthetic pleasure (Benjamin, 2002: p.79).

THE TALE OF FABLED CREATURES: PENNY DREADFUL As stated before, violence in the media is driven by many different factors and appears in many different ways. One of these areas is TV serials. TV serials are important productions in many ways. Especially due to their economic value, many media channels focus on series that will affect the audience. The development of TV broadcasting is also important at this point. “Movements in the media field since the 1980s have also transformed this area, and especially the technological developments in this field since the 2000s shape the social structure” (Sirer, 2020: 46). In other words, economic and political processes, on the one hand, and technological developments on the other, have brought the industry of TV series to an incredible point. So much so that TV series find the opportunity to reach a much wider audience through the Internet. This has led to changes in many things, from fashion to lifestyles, from consumption habits to thinking structures and even to perceptions of the world. Maybe these are not visible changes in the first stage, but they are certain to be effective over time. This influencing process is a matter of aestheticization. And aestheticization is carried out on two basic elements: violence and sexuality. If we 223

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go back to Jung and Freud’s approaches, it is clear that the influence of these two elements on humans is an important resource for TV series. On the other hand, aestheticization increases the viewing rate and duration. The main question in this study is how this aestheticization is achieved. For this reason, a series that has attracted considerable attention in recent years has been selected for analysis: Penny Dradful. Aforementioned serial is not just because it contains elements of violence and fear, it is also a complete example of aestheticization from the trailer to the last frame of the final episode.

About the Serial Penny Dreadful is a drama and horror serial. The series, which was released in 2014 on the Showtime channel, brings together many legendary characters of literature world such as Dorian Gray and Frankenstein. Also there are some other fictional characters which are created for the serial. The series takes place in London during the Victorian era. The subject of the series contains the features of this period. Motifs of British horror literature and many elements reminiscent of the Gothic period are also included in the series. The series, which lasted for three seasons, ended despite high viewing rates. At this point, the main thing to mention is the intensity of the violence in the series and the aestheticization of this violence. Violence and pornographic violence appear before the audience with all their might. Ancak, bu denli yoğun bir şiddetin etkileri, estetikleştirme yoluyla hafifletilmektedir.

About the Method of Analyzing As the method of analysis, a method used by Mete Çamdereli in his study “Bir Göçmen Yönetmenin Gözünde/n İstanbul”, based on semiotics, where space, time and people are examined as elements of a serial (paradigmatic) structure was used. And also, the method is based on Tahsin Yücel’s model of the “space/time coordinates of narrative”. And the subject of “aestheticization of violence” is analyzed through the serial with the elements of person, space and time. Thus, the role of not only physical beauty but also different components in the aestheticization of violence is examined. While establishing the semantic universe of the series, three elements are used, these are: time, space and person. In this way, it is tried to analyze how aestheticization takes place over these three basic elements. On the other hand, in this serial, although the time dimension constitutes an important part of the narration, it is rather empowering in the aestheticization phase. For this reason, in this chapter, an interpretation is made on the time dimension, but the main analysis is carried out through person and space.

The Time in the Serial: The Soul of the Victorian Age The time dimension, according to Yücel (1993), is the only unlimited dimension in the narrative. Because, a state of closure cannot be imagined before and after of time. The continuity and charm are provided with movements in time lines of the story in a TV Serial. Of course, there is a main period of time in which the plot takes place. But, the motion is constituted by flashbacks or flashforwards. This kind of movement adds an aesthetic dimension to the story. In this serial, the main period is the Victorian Era. Considered by many to be the pinnacle of the British Empire, the Victorian Era saw many developments, including the Great Industrial Revolution. On the other hand, On the other hand, as stated in the spatial part of the analysis, this period is a period of complete confusion, conflict and reorganization. “The Victorian Era was indeed an interesting time, a 224

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time of stark contrasts. It was a time of hope and dismay, of great optimism coupled with anxiety, doubt, and fear” (Lyons, 2009: p. 1). This era is also the age of paradoxes, pessimism, and also fictional works that are just beginning to emerge. Despite all its complexity, it also contains a strange charm. Similar features in this series are also included in the plot. The flashbacks and flashforwards are the supporting elements of this charm. The time dimension alone does not provide aestheticization at this point, but plays a role in enhancing the aesthetic power of characters and spaces.

The Spaces in the Serial: Conflicting Worlds At this stage, the subject of space is analyzed within the framework of main and focal spaces. Main space of the serial is London of 19th century. In keeping with the time frame in the series, the city has all the characteristics of the Victorian era. It is a combination of the industrializing new world and the traditional old world. The new industrialized world is a world of confusion, abandoned traditions and alienation. And in this world, each person has the opportunity to create a living space for herself/himself, at the rate of her/him power. Focal spaces, on the other hand, are formed by dividing the city into two parts - if I may say so reflecting both the lives and characteristics of the TV series characters. At this point, focal spaces are divided into two as traditional and new worlds within the scope of the study. The first focus space, is the segment where the wealth that comes with trade, industry and / or nobility is brought to the fore. The second focus space is the area where confusion, ignorance and the struggle for survival take place. The focal space, which represents wealth in both focus areas, is the one that looks brighter, more orderly and elite. Therefore, in the first stage, the aestheticized space can be considered as the traditional space. On the other hand, just like with the characters, the new world is a freer but more challenging focal space. These aspects project a strength and beauty to the new world focal space.

The Characters of Penny Dreadful Characters are the most important and integral parts of TV series. From the audiences’ points of view, these fictional characters are the keys of the door which opened to their inner worlds, besides provide to enter in a story. “Research into media entertainment has found that fictional characters stimulate processes that foster involvement with the messages or programs viewed, such as affective disposition or appreciation, perceived similarity, parasocial interaction and identification (Igartua & MArcos Ramos, 2015: 64). On the other hand, characters are the basic elements to form a narrative. “Creative liberty has permitted the development of new narrative trends, just as unusual aesthetic forms new to television have striven to deliver greater degrees of realism. Narrative complexity is increasing, becoming more intricate not only at the plot level but also at the level of character development, which might lead us to believe that television series are positioning themselves in the vanguard of visual media narrative” (Zagalo & Barker, 2006: p. 166). This kind of approach shows itself in many kind of TV serials. And in particular, in Penny Dreadful, characters draw very complex and special profiles. First of all, the characters in this serial comes from different resources. As explained below, some characters are taken from existing novels. And it is remarkable that the novels were mostly written in Victorian Age which sharing the same time slot in the serial. The characters such as Dr. Frankenstein, Dr. Henry Jekyll, Dorian Gray are some of these characters. On the other hand, most of the main characters

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were created for this serial. Before the evaluation of the characters and their aesthetic reflections, it is required to introduce them, shortly.

The Main Characters in the Serial Vanessa Ives: The main story is established around of the character of Vanessa Ives. She has struggles with evil supernatural powers. She is a mysterious, powerful and seductive character. An expert and clairvoyant medium. Also beatiful, brave and dangerous, besides full of secrets. Her supernatural skills are damaging for her, on the other hand these skills and her intelligence helpful for the people around her. Ethan Chandler: A handsome, charming, brave, dangerous American character. He is a stranger in London. And also he has secrets from his past. He is a werewolf. And he accepts this feature as a curse. But this feature of him also gives a supernatural power to his human form. He is dangerous but also protective for Vanessa Ives. Sir Malcolm Murray: An explorer, a father and a very dark character. He is talented in exploration and trade, but he had also destroyed his personal relationships. He struggles with his memories. A brave, strict, sometimes protective -especially for Vanessa Ives. He struggles with his memories. A brave, strict, sometimes protective -especially for Vanessa Ives- and sometimes desperate. And he searches for his own daughter Mina who kidnapped by a vampire. Dr. Victor Frankestein: The character of Dr. Frankenstein is an addict to science, life, death and drugs. A medical genius. The creator of three creatures. However, Dr. Frankenstein is the main character of Mary Shelley’s novel anonymously published in 1818. The novel, published under the name Frankenstein or Modern Prometheus, is about the doctor who gives life to a strangely shaped but intelligent creature in an unusual scientific experiment, similar to the series. On the other hand, in the serial, Dr. Frankenstein characterized also as a romantic and emotional young man who fall in love with Brona Croft / Lily (the creature who created by himself).

The Supporting Characters in the Serial Dorian Gray: Dorian Gray is character as known a young and “beatiful” man in a novel by Oscar Wilde. In the serial, he has the same features in novel. He is rich, prurient, reckless, smarty, but also demonic character. If he needed to be described with the words of the serials’ page; nothing seems to faze him, nor are any risks too great. In fact, he is unnaturally drawn to them (https://www.sho.com/ penny-dreadful/cast/dorian-gray). Brona Croft / Lily: Brona Croft is a beautiful and poor young woman who came from Ireland to London. She has to prostitution. And she has an illness. After her death, she had turned to a creature by Dr. Frankenstein. After this transformation, she named as Lily. Even though she is an innocent and naive at first; after meeting with Dorian Gray, her character became more brave and dangerous. And even, she begins to see herself as an advocate of women’s right. The Creature: With his own word, The Creature is the “first born” of Dr. Frankenstein. Hideous and immortal monster, has an anguished soul, dangerous, powerful and lonely. Dr. Henry Jekyll: A chemist of Indian origins, brilliant, bold in scientific researches. He is character of the novel named Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson. Dr. Jekyll seeks to solve the mysteries of the brain that turn ordinary people into madmen (https://www.sho.com/ penny-dreadful/cast/dr-henry-jekyll). 226

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Evelyn Poole: A gracious and attractive woman. But she is also an old, evil witch. She has dark powers. Mina Harker: Sir Malcolm’s only daughter. An innocent and young woman. She falls victim by a vampire who actually wants Vanessa Ives. First of all, it should be stated that there are many characters in the series other than those listed above. However, it was deemed appropriate to evaluate the main narrative shapers in the series. If it is needed an aesthetic evaluation, it is possible to clearly say that all the characters have a striking physical beauty. However, it is not only physical beauty that provides aestheticization in the series. It is clear that both main and minor characters are aesthetized through dominant features such as physical power, supernatural skills, endurance, courage, rebellion, etc. In the series, there is no distinction between a dominant person, good and bad, or benevolent and evil. All the characters are fighting the evil side within themselves, although some may be on the good side. At issue here is the story in which Vanessa Ives is at the center as a main character. And in this story, it can be said that all the characters somehow identify with the audience. Different levels of forces within each of them do not add negative features to them. On the contrary, these features increase their attractiveness and play an important role in aestheticization. Another issue that needs to be emphasized at this point is the characters’ stance towards violence. All kinds of physical, sexual and psychological violence are embraced with understanding by all the characters in the series. This situation constitutes a dimension of aestheticization.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The aestheticization of violence in the media mostly includes the analysis of media texts with qualitative methods. Thus, a meaning is tried to be revealed. On the other hand, reception searches must be made in such matters. It can be said that in-depth interviews with small groups are necessary to analyze such elements better.

CONCLUSION Violence is a phenomenon that has persisted in life in one way or another since the emergence of humanity. However, it can be said that the period in which violence has become most visible has been the digital age we live in. Because today the individual is surrounded by communication technologies and faces different forms of violence, different imaginations and different manifestations in each media type. “Is this an exposure or is it a supply created for demand?” The answer to the question pushes us to use a medallion metaphor. On one side of this medallion, there are the creation, dissemination and transmission of scenes of violence. The scenes of violence have been used for hundreds and even thousands of years, sometimes to ensure obedience to religious institutions, sometimes as a show of power of the political power, sometimes as a punishment and control, and sometimes to relieve tension in the society. On the one hand, acts of violence brought into spectacle, for example, sacrifice ceremonies, death sentences, gladiator / knight fights, etc. while events are used to obtain results such as fear, enthusiasm, and emotional discharge in the audience; On the other hand, it has always been included in religious texts, works of art, factual or fictional books and audio-visual texts for the same or similar purposes. Today, violence, which we encounter predominantly in audiovisual media content, is increasingly present in daily life. And it also shapes our perceptions of everyday life and the world. Sometimes it is sexual 227

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violence, sometimes it is the action of intense anger. Sometimes it is a reflection of an individual crime and sometimes a mass murder. Sometimes it is reality (news bulletins, etc.), sometimes fiction (movies, TV series, novels, digital games, etc.), sometimes fiction that feeds on real events (reality shows, almost all kinds of biographical media content). Whatever form it appears in, it is the presentation of violence as an object of pleasure. As the developments in communication technologies increase, violent images become more visible. On the other side of the medallion, there is the audience’s interest in violent images and narratives. The audience is not only exposed to media content, but seeks violence in line with their interests, needs or desires. It is not just ordinary content of violence anymore, so we are looking for content that will cause more anxiety and confusion, always think about the reality, and increase the number of questions about what humanity has become. Blood is not enough anymore, for example, behind the shared content there must be an in-depth violence story; the concept of “murder” is not enough on its own, it should take the discourse of “brutally committed” with it; the murdered people must certainly be, but this is not enough. Of course, “the deceased / deceased has been raped”; Later, the lives of those deceased should be autopsied, opened up, weighed, measured, cut and discussed, just like what happened to their bodies on the autopsy table - if possible, images of this should also be accessed. Simply, even a search on Youtube, which is a very popular video sharing channel, with the keywords “serial killers” or “serial killers”, is actually an indicator of this. Even when these concepts are searched for, many videos with millions of views appear on the screen. People watch these videos and then comment. For example, a 43-minute video about Jeffrey Dahmer, one of the most terrifying serial killers of all time and responsible for the deaths of 17 people, has been watched by over 5 million people. Looking at the comments under the video, Dahmer and / or the victims and even the actions involved in these murders are mocked, and humorous (!) Discourses are produced on this subject, to put it mildly. On the other hand, when it is searched on Google, hundreds of pages appear; It contains extremely detailed information on many issues such as Dahmer’s life, the murders he committed, the characteristics and lives of the victims. This is such an interesting subject that the book published under the name of “My Friend Dahmer” was released as a movie afterwards. However, looking at the comments made on the internet, it seems that neither the reader nor the audience could find what they were looking for. Because the film does not deal with Dahmer’s most murderous years, but the series of events that made Dahmer the young man in high school and who he was after. In other words, the audience was disappointed because the actual murders were not in the book or movie. In the context of completely fictional media content, it is seen that the series with the highest rate of watching are in the majority with such content. The serial killer story Dexter (adapted from the comic book), which only put an end to the life of the wicked and won the audience’s sympathy despite doing it in incredible brutality, is a hero from the pages of history, and Spartacus, which conveys the bloody struggle for freedom of a gladiator, where stories with supernatural beings and TV series such as The Vampire Diaries, True Blood and even The Walking Dead that especially young people are interested can be cited at this point. In addition, newspaper news and column articles although they do not use photographs most of the time - can have pornographic content. Finally, another area that can be given as an example is digital games. Among online, video or console games, the most played games are those with violent content. League of Legends, WOW, Star Wars, Tomb Raider and many more violent games are among the industry’s leading examples. Another issue that should be emphasized at this point is that violence is presented by being aesthetized as well as pornographic. Especially in fictional content, even though acts of violence are shown with all their nakedness, the audience appears in an aesthetic form. Physical damage to bodily integrity (from 228

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the splashes of blood droplets to the beauty of dead bodies) is presented in a highly aesthetic way. One of the main reasons for this situation is that individuals tend to experience violence in phantasmagoric environments as a kind of escape from the possible traumatic effects that they will create when they experience violence in reality. It is possible to make such a determination based on the reaction of people to Marina Abramovic’s show, which was mentioned before. The individual feels hunger despite the violent content. However, he is reluctant to experience this violence in real life. However, the violence experienced in a phantasmagorical way can be ended at any time, remains ineffective in real life, and more importantly, it protects the individual from the invisible consequences of real acts of violence as well as in fictional ones. Media organizations, who are aware of these tendencies of the audience, form their broadcasting policies in this direction. Regardless of its genre or subject, or whatever medium it spreads, violence is constantly aestheticized. As can be seen in the series analyzed within the scope of this section, this aestheticization is not just about physical beauty. The editing of the content and the character-space dimensions in the content and the time dimension surrounding them are also a part of this aestheticization.

REFERENCES Akıner, N. (2014). Bir Modern Zamanlar Silahı Olarak Medya: Kaddafi’nin Lincinin Satır Arasını Okumak [The Media as an Unconventional Weapons in Modern Times: Reading The Lynch Of Qadhafi between the Lines, Understanding Assad]. The Journal of (ASOS Journal). Academic Social Science, 2(1), 1–19. Baudrillard, J. (2001). Simgesel Değiş Tokuş ve Ölüm (O. Adanır, Trans.). Boğaziçi University Publications. Baudrillard, J. (2004). Tam Ekran (B. Gülmez, Trans.). YKY. Benjamin, W. (2002). Pasajlar (A. Cemal, Trans.). YKY. Boyle, K. (2005). Media and Violence. Sage Publications. Çakır, V., & Çakır, V. (2012). Üçüncü Kişi Etkisi Teorisi Bağlamında Sosyal Paylaşım Sitelerinin Kullanımı. International Symposium of New Communication Technologies and Social Transformation, 667-680. Çamdereli, M. (2005). Bir Göçmen Yönetmenin Gözünde/n İstanbul. International Symposium on Communication and Media Studies in the Process of Social and Cultural Interaction. Cho, D. K. (2006). Thanatos and Civilization: Lacan, Marcuse, and the Death Drive. Policy Futures in Education, 4(1), 18–30. doi:10.2304/pfie.2006.4.1.18 Davison, W. P. (1983). The Third-Person Effect in Communication. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(1), 1–15. doi:10.1086/268763 Duman, M. A. (2019). Cicero ve Hegel’in Metafor Anlayışları. Gece Akademi. Fromm, E. (1993). İnsandaki Yıkıcılığın Kökenleri (Ş. Alpagut, Trans.). Payel. Girard, R. (2003). Şiddet ve Kutsal (N. Alpay, Trans.). Alfa Publications.

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Igartua, J. J., & Marcos Ramos, M. (2015). Influence of Character Type and Narrative Setting on Character Design for Fictional Television Series. Communicatio Socialis, 28(1), 63–77. Jung, C. G. (2001). Four Archetypes. Routledge. Kahn, S. (2016). Eros and Thanatos: A Psychoanalytic Examination of Death in the Context of Working Life. Management Forum, 4(3), 29–40. Krahé, B., Möller, I., Huesmann, L. R., Kirwil, L., Felber, J., & Berger, A. (2011). Desensitization to Media Violence: Links with Habitual Media Violence Exposure, Aggressive Cognitions, and Aggressive Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(4), 630–646. doi:10.1037/a0021711 PMID:21186935 Lyons, S. L. (2009). Species, Serpents, Spirits, and Skulls Science at the Margins in the Victorian Age. State University of New York Press. Oskay, Ü. (2000). 19. Yüzyıldan Günümüze Kitle İletişiminin Kültürel İşlevleri: Kuramsal Bir Yaklaşım. DER Publications. Sayın, Z. (2003). İmgenin Pornografisi. Metis Publication. Sirer, E. (2020). Zamanın Ruhu: Eşzamansızlık. In E. Sirer (Ed.), Televizyon 4.0 Toplum 5.0 Döneminde Yeni İzlence Yeni İzlerkitle (pp. 45–62). LiteraTürk. Sontag, S. (2003). Regarding the Pain of Others. Picador. doi:10.3917/dio.201.0127 Trend, D. (2007). Medyada Şiddet Efsanesi: Eleştirel Bir Giriş (G. Bostancı, Trans.). YKY. Türkoğlu, N. (2007). Toplumsal İletişim. Kalemus Publications. Weaver, J. W., & Wilson, B. J. (2009). The Role of Graphic and Sanitized Violence in the Enjoyment of Television Dramas. Human Communication Research, 35(3), 442–463. doi:10.1111/j.14682958.2009.01358.x Whitaker, L. C. (2000). Understanding and Preventing Violence: The Psychology of Human Destructiveness. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781439832608 Yavuzer, N. (2013). İnsanın Saldırgan ve Yıkıcı Doğasını Anlamak. İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimleri Dergisi, 12(23), 43–57. Yücel, T. (1993). Anlatı Yerlemleri. YKY. Zagalo, N., & Barker, A. (2006). Television Drama Series’ Incorporation of Film Narrative Innovation: The Case of 24. In A. Barker (Ed.), Television, Aesthetics and Reality (pp. 166–178). Cambridge Scholars Press. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kijKz3JzoD4https://www.sho.com/penny-dreadful/

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ADDITIONAL READING Appelbaum, R. (2017). The Aesthetics of Violence: Art, Fiction, Drama and Film. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Berleant, A. (2019). Reflections on the Aesthetics of Violence. Contemporary Aesthetics, 7. Retrieved from: https://contempaesthetics.org/2019/11/03/article-872/?hilite=%27Ref lections%27%2C%27Aest hetics%27%2C%27Violence%27 Peacock, S., & Jacobs, J. (2013). Television Aesthetics and Style. Bloomsbury Academic. Sheehan, P. (2013). Modernism and the Aesthetics of Violence. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/ CBO9781139568296 Symonds, G. (2011). The Aesthetics of Violence in Contemporary Media. Continuum.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aesthetics: The concept of aesthetics is about beauty, which is a rather relative concept, and tries to create a scientific infrastructure in this context. Catharsis: The concept of catharsis, which can be explained by the concept of purification, can be defined as a discharge of emotion of an individual who is exposed especially to violence or pornographic violence in the media. Pharmakon: Pharmakon meaning of both drug and poison in ancient Greek, refers in this study to the creating catharsis with the images including violence, and correcting the concept of tendency to violence in society. Pornography of Violence: Pornography of violence is the way in which images containing pure violence are received by the viewer. It is generally associated with the concepts of exposure and viewer gaze. Violence: Violence is all kinds of physical, sexual, psychological, verbal, or economic attitudes and behaviors, including actions that result or are likely to result in an individual’s harm or suffering, threats and coercion, or deliberate denial of freedom.

ENDNOTES 1



One of the most conspicuous examples of this situation is the performans by Marina Abramovic that she performed in the year of 1974. Abramovic had just stood still during her performance and before the performance. And she placed a table with many materials such as flower, knife, cakes, even a loaded gun on it. Then, she told to the participants that they could use anything on her from the table. And she emphasized that she would never resist whatever they do to herself. Even if any problem did not at first, in the later stages of performance, the participants had started to physical, sexual and psychological assaults. This event puts forward the equation of a passive and defenseless individual in the face of active and powerful participants, with a very malicious aspects. The performance which taken approximately 6 hours ended with the directive of owner

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of the art gallery because of the last assault. A participant had aimed a gun to Abramovic’s head. At this point, when the performance ended, the main and remarkable point was the fleeing of the participants from the atrocity that they created their own. Most of them could not face with the situation and frankly, they had feared to see the damaged body that they caused. The video of the performance and also including the artist’s own expression can be seen in: https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=kijKz3JzoD4. The article of Weaver and Wilson (2009) titled “The Role of Graphic and Sanitized Violence in the Enjoyment of Television Dramas” can be examined regarding the fictional nature of media content and the audience’s awareness of their limitations. Phantasmagoria: Deceitful image. Benjamin describes this concept as a twinkle that capitalist societies are embraced. Phantasmagories are the “magic images of the century”; phantasmagories are “ideals” of this centuries society; the society that mentioned has tried to both eliminate and glorify the shortcomings of the social product and the defects of the social production system (Benjamin, 2002: p. 28). Considering within the scope of presenting violence through aesthetizing, this function can be handled with the same - since media institutions are commercial structures. Third person effect theory is one of the most popular theories in communication research in 21st century. The theory of third person effect (third person perception in some sources) was first proposed by Davison in an article titled “The Third-Person Effect in Communication” in 1983. The theory basically argues that the media are effective thanks to the presuppositions of media effects. Davison (1983: p. 3) explains the concept; as members of the audience who are exposed to a persuasive communication (whether this communication has the purpose of persuasion), people expect communication to be more effective on other people than on them. Davison believes that individuals exposed to a message whether or not it has the intention of persuasion, that the content will not have a major impact on “me” (first person) or “you” (second person), but on “them” (third person). Duck et al. (2000) state that the tendency to think that the individual is not influenced by media messages tends to extend to people with whom they are in close relationships such as family and friends (quot. in Çakır & Çakır, 2012: p. 668). It is possible to pronounce Freud and Lorenz as the two important names that come to mind when it comes to instinctive approaches. There are also important scientists who have worked on this approach before. First of all, it can be stated that the triggers of these approaches were Darwin’s studies. According to Fromm, scientists such as William James (1890) and William McDougall (1913 - 1932) created their work based on Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. According to him, these names have created lists containing the types of behavior that are claimed to be guided by each instinct. These approaches are a kind of transition for their successors. McDougall’s studies, in particular, is a binding bridge to the theories put forward by Freud. On the other hand, Freud’s approach exceeded McDougall’s study and advanced it. The novelty Freud brought is that he combined all “instincts” - gay instincts and self-preservation instincts - in two classes (Fromm, 1993: p. 34). However, this view of Freud changed after the 1920s, that is, after he witnessed the destruction and mortality caused by the First World War. In the first stage, he argued that the sexual instinct (libido) and the instinct of self-protection were the elements that included all other motives and dominated human beings; however, the intellectual reflection of war in Freud was that there is an aggressive motive in humans rather than the instinct of self-protection (Kahn, 2016: p. 34). According to him, there is another motivation that actually reveals this motive: the desire to harm himself. However, the ego often does not allow this. Thus, this motive is directed towards others (Yavuzer,

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2013, p.48) and makes two basic drives felt: Constructive sexual energy (Eros) and destructive aggression energy (Thanatos). Freud defined this new theoretical phase he put forward with the following words: From the interpretations of the origin of life and from the biological parallels, I conclude that besides the instinct to preserve living matter, there must be another instinct against the previous one, which strives to break down these sciences and return them to their primitive, inorganic state. In other words, there was a death instinct as well as an Eros ”(Freud, 1930 quot. in Fromm, 1993: p. 34). Although it can be concluded from Freud’s discourse that Eros and Thanatos are opposing forces, essentially both a conflict and a compromise emerge. Life itself is a dance involving the tension created by life and life and the ultimate release of this tension (Cho, 2006: p.20).

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Chapter 13

Dystopic Pleasure: Aestheticization of Fear Deniz Yaman Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT In the 1980s and 1990s, there were indispensable elements for the science fiction movies: cyborgs. This half-biologic and half-machine species had fully developed intelligence. And there was such a future fiction that appeared in these films that, on the one hand, raised admiration for the technologies that have not yet emerged, and on the other hand raised serious future concerns. The purpose of this study is to discuss the interaction of fear, artificial intelligence, and humans. And it is also aimed to research the way of representation of this interaction via aestheticization. Because of this, The Lawnmower (1992) has been chosen and analyized within the context of Production of Space Theory by Lefebvre. The Lawnmower has an importance about the imagining of dystopic and aesthetic way artificial intelligence technology would affect human life in the near future.

INTRODUCTION Fear existed with the first humans and developed and grew with them in the historical process. People were constantly afraid of the things they saw in prehistoric times and sometimes of the events they could not see or understand. Fear created the need to take precautions and thus strengthened the survival instinct of humans. Especially people who could not understand natural events like lightning and thunder in the early periods of history developed some rituals to protect themselves from the wrath of the invisible/ unknown. The fear that surrounds the whole existence of the human being fighting for survival, forces the human being to obey and respect what is feared. In prehistoric times - and even in the digital age of the 21st century - fear was seen as the ultimate human emotion. While fear is sometimes as innocent as a child’s, it can sometimes be a dangerous political tool that puts people under pressure, restricting their behaviour and way of life, interfering with their thoughts and, in short, turning their lives upside down. In its simplest form, fear is one of the most basic emotions, such as sadness, anger, joy and love, that make people human. Except for neurological exceptions, there DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch013

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is no one who does not feel fear, or is afraid of nothing. Just as loving, mourning, anger are human emotions, it is part of being human to feel fear. Anxiety is a feeling of concern caused by an existing danger or by thinking of a danger. This feeling has psychological and physiological effects on the individual. Symptoms such as the person’s heavy breathing during the fear situation, sweating and acceleration of the heart and pulse rhythm describe the physiological manifestations of a psychological emotion. In which situation, when, where or against what the fear will show itself depends on the knowledge and strength of the individual in relation to the outside world (Freud, 1994: p.226). Freud’s explanation is not only psychological and physiological, but also adds a sociological dimension to fear. It ceases to be an innate, instinctive feeling and has a later learned, social meaning. In this context, fear functions primarily as one of the most important tools for unification, bringing people together, holding them together and forcing them to be united in order to survive. Fear unites individuals in the community in partnerships, unites them in the form of ‘us’ and creates enemies known as ‘them’. Fear is thus defined as a process that embodies both the anxious and the feared and the norms of social behaviour, and transforms into a cultural phenomenon (Yurdigül, 2014: pp. 1-2). The fear that exists in every moment of human life is also making itself felt intensively in the digital age of the 21st century. Compared to prehistoric times, however, fear is being aestheticized in the digital age and used as a marketing tool by brands, institutions and organizations. Fear is becoming a tool for drawing the public’s attention to an event or product, and at this point the media undoubtedly account for the largest share. The media aim to convey a story or event to the audience within the framework of specific aesthetic interventions by making the best possible use of the fear factor in accordance with the objectives set, thus increasing the impact of the message from the source to the target audience. Particularly in the 21st century, where developments in artificial intelligence technology and the impact of this technology on human life in the future are the subject of current debate, media play an effective role in forming the thoughts and attitudes of individuals. The polarization between the advocates of the benefits of artificial intelligence technology and the groups who believe that this technology will bring the end of humanity in the future is increasing day by day. Developments in artificial intelligence, nanotechnology and biotechnology have created an environment in which concepts such as transhumanism and posthumanism can be put on the agenda. The basic understanding behind transhumanist thinking is that it is possible and necessary to create immortal life through genetic engineering, nanotechnology, cloning and other technologies. Transhuman, this transformed human being, is a transition for the later phase, which is known as posthuman. Posthuman is a stronger, healthier person whose effects of ageing are all but eliminated and who has a high degree of physical, mental and emotional post-humanity. Although at first glance it seems frightening that machines, integrated into the place of limbs that do not work and are incomplete, and that as a result of this process humans are transformed into cyborg beings, the thoughts of transferring human memory to a chip through artificial intelligence and achieving immortality in the physical and virtual world, there are many science fiction productions based on these ideas. In these productions, in contrast to the dreaded ones, the mentioned transformation process is presented to the audience in an aesthetic way, and it enables the dreaded ones to become what they want to be. The aim of this study is to analyze the interaction between fear, artificial intelligence and humans and to analyze how the change of this interaction process is represented by the genre aesthetics and horror in the context of Lefebvre’s The Production of Space Theory through the film The Lawnmower (1992), which is included in the science fiction and horror genre category. In addition to the developments in internet and computer technology, which can be considered new in the late 20th century, and the signifi235

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cance that these technologies will have in the near future, especially by researchers and scientists, as the Millennium Age, these technologies show the effects and changes on human existence in an aesthetic language. The film Lawnmower (1992) was preferred as an example in this research context because of its ability to do so. Furthermore, the film observes the new dimension, called virtual reality, which represents an infinite universe, the space designed by the Lefebvre discourse, on the perceived and lived space. In view of the space violations experienced with virtual reality technology, the analysis therefore used The Production of Space Theory, which contains the elements referred to as Lefebvre’s spatial triple - the perceived, designed and lived space. According to Lefebvre (2014), the spatial experience consists of three basic elements that are perceived, designed and experienced, and suggests the triad consisting of spatial practice, space representation and representative space as the spatial conceptualization of these elements. The triad makes it possible both to understand the production of space in each production style and society and to investigate the experience of space, as well as to examine the mutual relationships, opposites and organization of mental, social and physical spaces.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF FEAR AND FEAR CULTURE There are two levers to move people; profit and fear. Napoleon Bonaparte Since the existence of the universe, fear has manifested itself in various creatures and forms, it exists and has become a topic to be investigated in interdisciplinary media because it has a universal emotional characteristic. During the development process it was discovered that branches of science such as psychology, sociology and social psychology were treated with their individual and social dimensions, and during the development process it was discovered that fear was effectively used as a means of obedience, strength, control, management and power. While this discovery increased the importance of fear, it paved the way for a central position in interdisciplinary research. Anxiety, derived from the Latin word Phobos, is a representation of an anxiety feeling generated by a real danger or an idea of danger (Burkovik & Tan, 2016: p. 19). According to Greek mythology, Phobos, the brother of Anteros, is Eros and Deimos, one of the children of Aphrodite and Ares. Phobos, the god of fear, who symbolizes terror and panic, accompanies Ares, the god of war, on the battlefields (Grimal, 2007: p. 630). When investigating what the word fear means, more than one definition is found in the literature. According to the Turkish Language Association’s online dictionary, fear is defined as an emotion that awakens in the face of intense pain with a real or expected danger and manifests itself in enthusiasm, yellowing, dry mouth, breathing and heart acceleration and other symptoms or in more complex physiological changes (https:/sozluk.gov.tr/). Frank Furedi (2001: p.8) defines anxiety as “a mechanism that enables people facing an unexpected and unpredictable situation to intensify their mind”. Furedi explains that personal experiences shape the fears of individuals and points out that fear is something learned. According to this statement, it is quite natural that a person who is exposed to the chaos caused by war or who experiences from his family the destructive effects of war and the bad consequences it has caused is afraid of war. Sigmund Freud (2010: pp. 37-72), the founder of psychoanalysis, explains that situations such as suppression of sexuality, withdrawal of sexuality and the inability to satisfy sexual needs cause a person 236

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to have an anxiety crisis and become sensitive to fear. While Freud describes the anxiety he describes as an uncontrolled arousal perceived by the ego, he refers to the person’s unconscious conflicts and subdued feelings of aggression during childhood. According to Aristotle (2006:p.108), anxiety can be defined as a state of anxiety caused by the reflection of an evil event in the person’s mind that has a painful or destructive effect. Depending on the distance of the object that causes the anxiety, the intensity of the person’s anxiety varies. So fear is always one breath away from the person. For this reason, people are not afraid of events they might encounter in the future, but of things that are close to them and occur in their environment. Things that one is afraid of are strong enough to destroy the person or cause indescribable pain. Bauman (2001: p. 142), on the other hand, states that fear is nothing new in human life, but exists from the beginning. This means that fear is one of the top elements when a functional schema is created that characterises people. Pierre Mannoni (1992: pp. 9-15) notes that anxiety behavior in people causes them to perceive that they are trying to free themselves from the current danger environment and reach the safe area. Mannoni stresses the importance of talking about the disruption in their behaviour after the individual’s reaction to fear. The person who is under the influence of fear must react immediately due to the rise in adrenaline levels by interrupting his current activity without having the possibility to regulate his movements. The greater the dimension of threat created by fear, the more he tends to show inconsistent behaviour. This mismatch of behaviour leads to a noticeable decrease in the individual’s intellectual abilities and attention. The element of danger constantly occupies the mind of the person who is afraid and causes irregularities in the functioning of the decision-making mechanism. Mannoni divides the effects of fear on people into two different groups, as psychological and physiological levels. The psychological level describes the person’s encounter with objects or mental blueprints that he perceives as a threat, and the physiological level refers to the person’s physiological reactions to the psychological feeling of fear. Krishnamurti (2005: p. 25) accepts fear as one of the most important problems in life with its psychological and physiological dimension and explains that it is inevitable that a mind under the influence of fear is in confusion and confrontation. According to Krishnamurti’s discourse, fear exists as a result of thoughts. The existence of thoughts from the past to the present makes fear a form of the past that is reflected in the future. The fear that arises and develops from the life experiences of the individual, the negative relationships he experiences and the sad experiences is a human and very natural behaviour. An object, an event or a person is the core of this complex feeling of fear, which has various physiological and psychological symptoms that force the individual to defend himself in case of danger. Many of an adult’s anxieties can be traced back to his childhood experiences (Karagöz, 1990: p. 105). Anxiety is a form of spiritual reaction. The society of which the individual is a member, the environment in which he or she lives and the means of communication to which he or she is exposed offer the person, consciously or unconsciously, the possibility of developing anxious thoughts and taking their place in his or her mind. This situation can cause the individual to react anxiously even though he has not had any negative experience of an event before. Even if the individual has not had a negative experience with a snake during his or her entire life, he or she may not tolerate seeing a snake because of negative thoughts caused by environmental factors, (Gençöz, 1994: pp.9-16). There is a close relationship between fear and sociality. Fear plays a stimulating role in the socialization of the person. Indeed, the data obtained from the observations and experiments carried out in 1959 by a scientist called Stanley Schacter, a social psychologist, showed that people who feel a high level of anxiety are more social than those who do not feel so much anxiety. The main reason why the 237

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person who has a higher feeling of fear is willing to make contacts is the need to reduce the effect of fear. Schachter also states that the order of birth is closely related to sociality. In the face of fear, those born first show a more social attitude than those born second, and those born second show a more social attitude than those born third. Another reason why the feeling of fear has such a strong influence on sociality is the need for social comparison. In cases where individuals are uncertain about their choices and feelings, they resort to sociality to compare their own feelings with those of others (Freedman, Sears & Carlsmith, 1998: pp. 80-83). People come together through fear and show an attitude to act together. People come together with others who feel fear and as a result they create common fears and pain. People overcome the fear of individual suffering by suffering together. In short, the person aims to reduce the severity of the fear through socialisation, rather than facing the fear alone. The common fears and sufferings create political and social structures (Çetin, 2012: pp. 9-39). Mannoni (1992: pp. 88-94) makes some assessments of the role and functionality of fear in the social structure. According to Mannoni, the prerequisite for explaining and understanding collective fears is first and foremost the needs. Society’s need for fear is the main reason for fears on a social level. The secondary task of fear in social life is the symptom. In this phase, society is warned of the dangers that actually exist or could exist and is forced to take measures against these dangers. Social structures form the third function of fear in social life. Fear, used as an instrument of authority in political or religious structures, plays an effective role in creating new structures. While Mannoni explains the final function of fear in social life, he talks about some contradictions. According to him, fear caused by epidemics, wars and natural disasters has the same function as holidays, celebrations and festivals. People who come together at ceremonies and celebrations and do not know each other show the same attitude of behaviour to support each other in times of catastrophes. Thanks to fear, society recognizes its own consciousness and gains the perception of society. Societies consisting of people who do not have this consciousness cannot achieve any function. Fear plays an important role in the development and prestige of social solidarity and socio-historical consciousness (Yurdigül, 2018: p.38). When the research on the concept of fear is studied, it is accepted that fear is one of the most basic and natural feelings of human beings. Moreover, the individual carries this feeling throughout his or her life, from existence to death. There is no one in the world who is not afraid. Whether small / big, real / surreal or physical / mental, every individual has some fears (Yurdigül, 2018: p.39). The causes of fear and the types of fear are determined by the feared subject. Based on this point, individual and social fears are at the top of the classification for types of fear. The Marxist psychologist Dieter Duhm (2009: pp. 47-51) addresses fear both psychologically and psychoanalytically, and in his work ” Fear in Capitalism” he states that fear comes from two natural and social causes. According to Duhm there is a close relationship between sociality and fear, and this close relationship to fear also shows that it is a learned artificial feeling. Dieter Duhm notes that capitalism / capital is the main source of social fear; he notes that capitalism/capital constantly generates fear everywhere. Mannoni (1992: pp. 16-33) classifies fears in his work called ‘’Angst’’ into two different groups, natural and supernatural fears. According to Mannoni, natural fears are the first basic fears that begin with the birth of the person and change or intensify with the development of the universe of perception. Emotionality plays an important role in the fears that occur in infancy and childhood. An example of the first real fear is the fear that a person will leave his family or lose one of his family members during

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childhood. Among the supernatural fears is the death factor. Accordingly, the main source of all fears is death. The factors that make up the fear are certainly related to death, although not directly. In another classification for the phenomenon of anxiety, they are divided into three different groups according to the sources of the anxiety: “innate anxiety”, “later learned anxiety” and “other anxiety”. Fears that are related to learning and experience, and that usually occur in all individuals, disappear with time; these include thunderstorms, lightning, fear of heights and others that are classified as innate fears. Fears that come from the past experiences of the individual, that arise from the perception of an event and are considered almost insoluble, are grouped as fears learned later. Fears of this kind, which mainly stem from physical events, but whose consequences can sometimes be psychological, belong to the class of other fears (Wolf, 2006: pp. 43-49). Yıldız Burkovik and Oğuz Tan (2006) divide fears into two different groups: individual fears and social/cultural fears. Burkovik and Tan classify individual fears by the age element and categorize them for different stages as infant, child, adolescent, adulthood and old age fears. Accordingly, the fears of individuals are directly related to events at different stages of their lives. For example, the fear of thunder, which the individual has in his childhood, leaves its place to the fear of disease in old age. Burkovik and Tan characterize social/cultural fears as common human-specific fears and define fears that occur in connection with events such as epidemics, wars, terrorist attacks as social/cultural fears. Frank Furedi (2001: p. 13) expresses the environment surrounded by fear as a culture of fear in every area of modern times in which people are forced to live. In a society trapped by the culture of fear, different problems arise in different areas, from personal safety to health, from technology to family. At the source of the culture of fear is the belief that the daily life cycle of the individual is threatened by destructive forces. A society under the influence of the culture of fear means that the person is transformed into a melancholic and depressive mood and even an ordinary illness is exaggerated and turned into a major illness. According to Furedi, the events that cause fear are exaggerated and possible solutions are ignored when the mind is dominated by fear. The culture of fear can be explained in the form that regardless of whether a dangerous situation actually exists or not, the perception is created in people’s minds of being exposed to danger and that the feeling of fear dominates society. In societies that exist under the dominance of the culture of fear, fear has no end. In such societies, fear is continuously generated. Every fear only loses its effectiveness when another fear is created and brought up (Yıldız, 2015: p. 83). Individuals sometimes agree to be part of the social conditioning to overcome the feeling of loneliness. This acceptance also involves avoiding behaviour towards certain types of behaviour, persons or events as determined by the authorities. In a society in which the culture of fear prevails, the individual’s ability to think is impaired, the individual’s self-confidence is weakened over time and his or her beliefs are ignored (Çakıroğlu, 2013: p. 108). Family, education, health and many other institutions that are of great importance for the continuity of society are part and producer of the culture of fear in the modern age. These institutions constantly generate fear in order to make their existence in society permanent. When observed from this perspective, the main purpose of the culture of fear is to transform the individual into a personality desired by the authority by placing them in a predetermined set of patterns of behavior and thought. Fear is the most effective means of keeping people under control and ensuring that they obey the authority’s decisions unconditionally (Cücelioğlu, 2008: p. 170). The realisation of the culture of fear in society and the fact that fear is the most effective instrument for ensuring absolute authority is based on four fundamental aspects. In the first step of the process, fear is made insignificant by the individual and by society. At this point, the source of fear and control 239

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processes is made banal by the individual and society. Constant feelings of fear make this situation a habit. In second place comes the desensitization phase. In this process, propaganda about “others” is accepted by the person without questioning its truthfulness or accuracy. In the non-reactive phase, which is the third stage of the process, the person is passivated by not being able to show the necessary reflexes in the face of fear and threat. Surrender is the final phase of the process. In this phase, the persons are completely subordinated to authority, accepting unconditionally what is imposed on them and playing the role of “victim” (Çetin, 2012: p. 42). This atmosphere, in which fear shapes social relations, becomes an important part of the social structure and dominates individuals and societies, is expressed as a culture of fear and includes certain characteristics. Ali Güler (2001: p. 194) lists these characteristics as follows: • • • • • • • •

The culture of fear eliminates spiritual values such as love and friendship and bases relationships between people on a “you-me” relationship. In the culture of fear, public discourse and common decisions are not important. Whatever the authority (president, manager) says in social structures is implemented. The future loses its value. Hierarchical positional awareness plays an active role in social and psychological relationships. Therefore the movement stagnates from the bottom to the top. The opinions and wishes of people of low and middle status are not considered and ignored. In a society dominated by a culture of fear, human rights are limited by placing them in an unrecoverable situation. Personal benefit and self-interest give instructions to social relations. Relationships are formed within the framework of fear and a harmonious personality is seen as synonymous with slavery. In a culture of fear, the feelings, desires and thoughts of the person do not play a role. What is important is what others say. Such an attitude hinders the development of conscience and responsibility. It is very important to memorize the discourses of authority in the fear culture. The person who has authority should be grumpy and always serious.

In a society dominated by a culture of fear, concepts such as rights, democracy, freedom and equality leave their place to conflict, control, risk, worry and fear. In such societies, chaos and insecurity play an active role, individuals lose confidence in social institutions and therefore look to the future with concern. Fear brings about otherness and confusion in society. Under the tying of the culture of fear, the individual, who is always exposed to the influence of fear, cannot be expected to think logically and show humanitarian behaviour to the community or nation (Russell, 2009: p. 70). The past is a well-known story, and the future remains uncertain at all times. Insecurity brings chaos. According to Giddens (2010: pp. 54-56), chaos not only expresses irregularity and uncertainty, but also describes the disappearance of a sense of reality about “things” and “others”; individuals in their daily hurry often ignore questions whose veracity they cannot examine. However, the answers to these questions require a proven and reliable situation and indicate a deep uncertainty. This state of uncertainty, which points to the dark side of the routine of daily life, is chaos, which is a psychological natural fear. John Leslie (2003: pp. 4-13) categorizes the most pessimistic scenario regarding the future, which leads to the creation of a culture of fear, and the dangers he foresees as the end of humanity, he divides in the works ‘’The End of The Word, The Science and Ethics of Human’’ into two different groups, as 240

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‘’known’’ and ‘’unknown’’ risks. According to Leslie, terrorism, biological, nuclear and chemical wars belong to the known risk group. The group of unknown risks is divided into two groups as natural disasters and man-made disasters. While volcanic eruptions, astronomical eruptions and star collisions belong to the group of natural disasters, disasters caused by the misuse of genetic engineering, disasters related to artificial intelligence and disasters due to nanotechnology belong to the group of man-made disasters. Even if man lives today, his fears are fed by the past and shaped by the future. Traces of the past break in on humanity like a nightmare and prevent it from living fearlessly today. Although the future has not yet been experienced, there are the signals of dangers that are being experienced. The future of humanity is waiting in the culture of fear, which has been caused by ambiguity and uncertainty. Therefore, the past and the future is the main factor that creates the fear culture. (Yurdigül, 2018: p. 51). According to its meaning in the online dictionary of the Turkish Language Institution, religion is defined as ‘’a religious institution, a social institution that systematizes belief in God, supernatural forces, various sacred beings and worship’’ (sozluk.gov.tr). According to another statement, it is explained as ‘’a mysterious phenomenon in which people participate in supernatural forces, holy beings, gods or God in the form of faith and worship’’ (Püsküllüoğlu, 1994: p. 464). The fact of the mystery that religion embodies makes it a source of fear. Since their existence, people have experienced events that they do not know or cannot explain, and have considered sacred things that they could not define. What has been defined as sacred has always been the feared something that has the power to harm people. For this reason, people have developed a series of rituals to express their fears about what they have accepted as sacred, and have made sure to pass these on from generation to generation. People have made some sacrifices and worshipped him to protect themselves from the wrath of the feared. This situation made the unknown a source of collective fear. The greater the fear of the unknown, the stronger its holiness (Mannoni, 1992: p.76). Religions that can be accepted as creators of fear increase the feeling of unity and solidarity among persons. Religions lay down the moral and humanitarian rules that societies must follow and state that if they are not followed, they will suffer the wrath of the Creator and receive their answers in the afterlife. Fear is anchored in the hearts of human beings, thus creating a culture of obedience (Yurdigül, 2018: p. 52). The first comprehensive description of the concept of culture, a French word meaning harvesting, growing cereals, cultivating soil, and in Latin, with which the suffix colere, cult- fiiline- tura is derived, is said to have been made by the British anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (Haviland et al., 2008: p. 103). According to Tylor (2016: p. 91), culture is a complex sum in which the individual expresses the whole of the knowledge, traditions, customs, beliefs, abilities and habits that the individual obtains as a member of society. Fear arises from the interaction between culture and the individual. Just as the individual learns his traditions and customs from the society in which he lives, fear is also accepted by society. The individual learns from the culture in which he was born and raised what he should be afraid of and how he can fight this fear. Fear and culture are therefore directly related. Fear is created, nourished and imposed on the individual by culture. Individual fears take on a collective structure over time and become specific to a group, society or nation (Yurdigül, 2018: p. 55). Politics is defined as a particular view or understanding of the art of organizing and directing state affairs (sozluk.gov.tr) According to another definition, it is expressed as a measured way of regulating and conducting home and state affairs (Püsküllüoğlu, 1995: p. 1365). 241

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Thomas Hobbes, also known as the theorist of fear, proposes to create a rather powerful sovereign, a ‘’Leviathan’’, to which people can delegate all their freedoms in order to get rid of the chaotic natural situation in which the fear of death plays a dominant role. Hobbes explains that in order for people to live in peace, they should give up their fundamental freedom and leave themselves in the peaceful bosom of Leviathan. Fear is one of the strongest factors determining political life. The policy of fear aims to create an atmosphere in which people see themselves as victims of a disaster that will break out in the near future. People under the yoke of fear feel as if they are falling into a deep pit of grief. In short, fear makes people stranger every day (Sancar, 2007). Political fears generated by a particular system for a number of purposes are very different from individual fears. While individual fears determine people’s past lives and experiences, political fears harbor situations such as the deterioration of moral values and terrorist attacks that can harm the population. In contrast to individual fears, political fears dominate society, so that political goals can be easily defined and maintained (Robin, 2004: p. 2). Mass media play an important role in the emergence and spread of political fears. Mass media, by which the information generated and manipulated by the authorities is presented to society visually or acoustically, contribute to the creation of a culture of fear. The rulers distract society and control it as they wish by generating fear, dramatizing events or manipulating and mediatizing facts in their own interest (Chomsky, 1997: p.11). Mythology is a story about the adventures of gods, fairies, heroes and giants worshipped by nations that existed in the past era, consisting of the combination of the Greek words “myth” and ‘’logos’’ which mean ‘’fairy tale’’ and ‘’word’’ (Can, 2011: p. 1). Myths are an expression of man’s will to know. Because ignorance and uncertainty are the main creators of fear. Myths are stories based on the themes of courage/fear, life/death and beauty/ugliness, and are the result of people’s efforts to understand nature, who have struggled with nature from the beginning and were afraid of the unknown. The mythical man creates his own fears of the unknown and makes sacrifices to it by obeying the unknown to protect himself from its wrath. According to this conviction, satisfying the mythical forces is accepted as the only way to eliminate the fears of the individual (Yurdigül, 2018: pp.61-63). When look closely at the relationship between media and fear, we can say that media play a very important role in creating a culture of fear in society. In the age of digital communication technologies, the media have expanded to include all the other elements such as past and future, religion, culture, politics and mythology that make up the culture of fear. Thanks to the media, these elements took different forms, gained new meanings and became much more effective. The media thus offer a new area for understanding and interpreting the society and culture to which the individual belongs, with its characteristics such as interaction, freedom of expression, exchange of information and experience (Kellner, 2010: p.69). The media, which perform tasks such as producing, spreading and maintaining fear, present some messages to society through various communication tools. These messages, which are transmitted to society by the media channels, are usually intended to stimulate some emotions in detail or in some cases to serve political or economic interests. The media generally try to achieve these goals by creating an environment of chaos in society (Radford, 2004: p. 80). Media that creates too much fear, provides an environment of high danger, unrest and uncertainty. By continuously placing factors such as threat, risk and danger on the agenda by associating them with an event, the environment is prepared for the creation of a culture of fear in society (Beck, 2011: p. 356). The media often exaggerate the unimportant events and form an important and dangerous structure and present them to society, causing the spread of fear. The manipulation of knowledge in accordance with a number of interests leads to the fear culture being born and spread in society (Furedi, 2001: p. 54). 242

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The media, with their content and discourses on cinema, television, newspapers, radio and new media, create the culture of fear. Any topic affects the reader, the viewer or the listener by taking on different forms depending on the preferred type of media. Modern society is literally under the siege of the media. Media, used as an instrument of authority and sovereignty, steer society and take on the task of organizing community relations. While carrying out this task, they deal with fear in a unique way and do not hesitate to exploit and manipulate human emotions and thoughts in their own interest. In this sense, fear has the position of the most effective assistant that enables the media to achieve their purpose (Yurdigül, 2018: pp. 70-74). The media have completely captured us ourselves. The mass media influence our personal life, our political, economic, aesthetic, psychological, moral and ethical spheres of life so strongly that there is no area where they do not interfere, where they do not touch us and where they have not changed us. Our creators are now the media. We cannot understand any aspect of cultural and social change without examining how and in what ways the media create our atmosphere today. (McLuhan & Fiore, 2019: p.2 6). Fear, one of the most fundamental feelings of human beings, plays an important role in the decisionmaking mechanisms of the individual. It is stated that the fear factor has a positive effect on people’s attitudes and behaviour, especially in messages that are used correctly (Ray & Wilkie, 1970: p. 54). In particular, the fear factor is used in many different disciplinary activities such as advertising, public relations and propaganda. Indeed, fear plays a convincing role for the masses (Dillard & Anderson, 2004: p. 909). The concept of fear attractiveness is a kind of persuasive communication that aims to influence people’s attitudes and behavior in the desired way by means of the fear element. The attraction of fear underlines the need for people to follow suggestions on a particular topic and expresses that otherwise negative and bad results may occur. Thus, using the fear factor, people’s attitudes and behaviour are controlled as desired (Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2004: p. 49). Fear attractiveness focuses on the content of the message and the reactions to the content. Many different factors influence the perception of messages and the persuasion of people, such as the size of the danger, the probability of its occurrence, the applicability and appropriateness of recommended solutions (O’Kefee & Daniel, 1990: p. 165). For example, the appeal of fear has an intimidating content, in which bloody and frightening images are used intensively. The size of the anxiety element, which contains the message conveyed to the audience, has a great influence on the physiological and psychological reactions of the individual (Witte, 1992). Gass and Seiter state that there are several variables that influence the success of the anxiety appeal. These are elements such as perception of danger, clarity of suggestions, placement of suggestions, quality of arguments, level of dignity and concern (Gass & Seiter, 2003; Çakar, 2009: pp. 26-27). Through aestheticization, the media play a dominant role in making fear and violence in society more attractive. Especially productions like Dexter and Hannibal, in which the elements of fear and violence are intense, are the best examples of this aestheticisation. Firstly, the main character Dexter Morgan, who also gave the series its name, is a serial killer who punishes rapists, murderers and people he believes to be guilty in his own way by cutting them up into pieces and believing that he will thereby achieve social order. Although the idea of dividing one person into pieces by another person reaches the limits of tolerance, the way these elements of fear and violence, which are the building blocks of the Dexter series, are presented to the audience is extremely aesthetic and interesting as a method of punishment. Moreover, on the poster prepared for the advertising of the sixth season of the series, despite the wings 243

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of blood veins and the large knife he holds in his hand and the diabolical plans he used, Dexter was visualized in a highly aesthetic way that does not inconvenience the audience.1 Another example of an aestheticization presented to viewers by the media is the Hannibal series. In this series, too, which is the subject of the story of a serial killer, the cannibalism of the protagonist Hannibal Lecter, in contrast to Dexter, is communicated to the viewers. In the production called Hannibal, which hit the audience as a film in 2001, a person is portrayed who is at the top of his medical career. As can be seen from the advertising image of the series broadcast in 2013, Hannibal Lecter is a character who consumes the meat of his victims with a quality wine. In the production, in which the elements of fear and violence are aestheticized and presented to the viewers, the way the murders are committed causes sympathy and admiration for the character, rather than creating anxiety in the viewer.2

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: IS IT THE BEGINNING OF THE END? We create the tools first, and then they create us. Marshall McLuhan The research work carried out in 1943 by the American neurophysiologist and cyberneticist Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Harry Pitts, who worked in the fields of neuroscience and artificial intelligence, is regarded as the starting point for artificial intelligence. In the work, entitled ‘’A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity’’, which is a product of the collaboration between McCulloch and Pitts, a computational model using artificial neural networks is proposed. This model was developed on the basis of three powerful theories of the 20th century, such as the logic of propositions, Bertrant Russel and Alfred North Whitehead, Charles Sherrinton’s neuron theory and Alan Turing’s computer theory. In addition, McCulloch and Pitts stated that artificial neural networks are correctly programmed and that they can learn if the necessary conditions are met (Boden, 2006: p. 190). Research led by Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Harry Pitts has prepared the environment for the emergence of two basic approaches to artificial intelligence: “symbolic artificial intelligence” and “cybernetic artificial intelligence”. In the 21st century, these two concepts will be treated on the basis of the “numerical theory of mind” and “connectionism” (Boden, 2005). According to the numerical theory of mind, the mind is regarded as a computer or software of the brain. According to the concept of connectionism, the idea is that the functioning of the mind is only possible by imitating the brain structure (Block & Rey, 2005; McLaughlin, 2005). The idea of artificial intelligence was first introduced by John McCarthy in 1955. McCarthy explained that every part of learning ability and intelligence is perfectly simulated by a machine (Wisskirchen et al., 2017: p. 9). “Artificial intelligence” based on mathematics, linguistics, philosophy, psychology and computer science is an officially established discipline in 1956 (McCorduck, 1977: p. 953). There are several different definitions for the concept of artificial intelligence. Coppin (2004: p. 4) states that artificial intelligence includes machine systems that indicate “intelligent” behavior, machine systems that make logical decisions, and research related to these systems. According to Nabiyev (2016: p. 25), artificial intelligence, a computer or a computer-based machine that involves high mental processes, such as drawing conclusions, i.e. drawing and learning from past experiences that are accepted as human characteristics and can perform certain tasks. Abbas (2006: p. 11) notes that the artificial state of intelligence is based on the fact that the created intelligent system has no natural history, no biologi244

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cal system and is synthetically designed and configured by researchers in science. Dreyfus (1972) notes that the word “artificial” does not emphasize the purpose of creating an artificial person by researchers. The main purpose is to create a heuristic program that allows a digital calculating machine to act wisely. According to Boden (2014: p. 9), artificial intelligence is rather a branch of science that aims to uncover the unknown forces of the mind rather than to benefit society or as intelligent machines developed with commercial income in mind. According to Feigenbaum and Feldman (1963: p. 3), the ultimate goal of the field of artificial intelligence is to develop computer programs that can demonstrate the patterns of behavior observed in intelligent humans. According to another definition by Whitby (2005: p. 23), the goal of artificial intelligence is to characterize the common principles that form the basis of human, animal, and machine intelligence and to provide a complete scientific explanation. Doğan (2002: p. 43) notes that while artificial intelligence is recognised as a branch of science that emerged after the Second World War, it actually dates back to much earlier times. Doğan states that the desire to create intelligence outside the human body existed thousands of years ago, and the most obvious reflection of this desire is the story of Daedelus’ attempt to create an “artificial human” in ancient Greek Mythology. Dreyfus (1972), brought a different perspective to the origin of artificial intelligence by combining a dialogue between Socrates and Euthyphron with artificial intelligence in 450 BC. Dreyfus identified the standards of religiosity in dialogue with a set of rules that tell people, defined as effective ways, what to do. What is needed are rules that turn a clever action into a series of instructions. Today these rules are called “algorithm”. Zambak (2014: pp. 67-68) attributes the differences between the definitions of artificial intelligence to the different views on the purpose and scope of artificial intelligence. Zambak evaluates the existing different approaches to artificial intelligence under four headings: “technological approach”, “imitation approach”, “mediation approach” and finally “expert system approach”. Artificial intelligence, according to the assessment made in the technological approach, is the name of an individual and specific project aimed at creating a particular product. The imitation approach states that an artificial intelligence machine can potentially imitate/copy human behaviour and psychological phenomena. The intermediate approach states that artificial intelligence is a method of understanding the human mind and thoughts. Finally, the expert systems approach describes the changes and understanding of changes in the field of artificial intelligence, which were heavily criticized as a result of the mistakes that occurred in the 1970s. The Internet of Things (IoT) concept was first used in 1999 by British technology pioneer Kevin Ashton to describe a system that allows objects to be connected to the Internet via sensors. The Internet of Things for describing scenarios in which the Internet connection accesses various devices, sensors and even everyday objects has become a popular concept over time. The Internet of Things, based on the view that everything is a representation of the Internet, aims to provide new applications and services that bring the virtual and physical worlds together (Rose et al., 2015: p. 12). The Internet of Things concept provides network and Internet-based objects with digital identities, and objects can manage these processes by communicating with each other over the Internet (Ebso, 2015: p. 13). The Internet of Things concept, introduced at the end of the 20th century, refers to a system that takes people, data and processes as variables with objects and includes mechanical, computing and communication mechanisms that can share data via network-based systems. (Yıldız, 2018: p. 550). Systems known as the Internet of Things allow objects used in daily life to receive data within certain rules, process the data and share the output created with other objects or systems. These systems enable network and Internet-based devices to communicate with each other in wired or wireless ways in certain environments. The Internet of Things, which works in a variety of smart goods, smart houses, and even 245

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cities, plays a major role in many different areas, including agriculture, the environment, health, and energy. Many different technologies are used in the operation of these systems, and the areas of application are becoming more common every day (Erdem & Söğüt, 2017: p. 1). The Internet of Things is expressed as communication networks formed by physical objects with each other or with other large systems. These systems are used in many different areas, such as televisions, mobile phones, home appliances and computers, known as smart devices. In addition to private use, the Internet of Things is also used in public places, for example traffic information systems, air pollution control and control of transport vehicles. The Internet of Things is also contributing significantly to the development of cloud computing systems (Türedi, 2019: p. 29). There are some requirements for the Internet of Things technology to work successfully (Öztuna, 2017: p. 72): • • • •

First and foremost, the development of specially designed software that allows the continuous analysis of the data flow of devices that are considered intelligent. That the software architects and programmers create and process the data that is important for businesses, Access to algorithms for analyzing the Internet of Things is required via digital sensors and cloud computing. A large cloud computing server is required on which Internet technology works.

Since its existence, man has been trying to overcome himself and defeat death. Gods and demigods in ancient Greek culture, claylike golems in Jewish culture and female marble sculptures in Roman myths that come to life after kissing, show both the first examples of superior man and the religious-gnostic foundations of this purpose. Thinkers of transhumanism strive to realize the self-transcendence efforts of man on the basis of religious-gnostic foundations through modern science and technology. The human being of transhumanism, not homosapiens and biological humans, can have the quality of being a techno-biological (robot, android) being, depending on the situation (Yaman & Zengin, 2019: p. 542). The concept of transhumanism was first used by Aldous Huxley’s brother Julian Huxley in 1957. Huxley defined the concept of transhumanism as going beyond oneself, in that man realizes his own nature and new possibilities. (Huxley, 1957: p. 17). Transhumanism is defined as a cultural and intellectual movement that aims to improve the mental, physical and psychological abilities of human beings through the use of technology and to get rid of situations such as illness and old age (Raulerson, 2010: pp. 42-49). The concept of transhumanism, which embodies the goal of developing people spiritually and biologically against the brutal realities of life such as illness and death, is a step for ordinary people to transform themselves into a higher being. Transhuman, a concept that represents the future human being, is a far superior being than ordinary human beings because it uses biotechnology, nanotechnology, genetic engineering, memory enhancing drugs, psycho-farmology and cognitive techniques. The person of transhumanism will be a person with unique physical, psychological and intellectual abilities, capable of programming himself, potentially immortal and persons without limits (Samuelson & Mossman, 2005: pp. 31-32). In this way, thanks to technology, man will finally succeed in achieving a superiority over the phenomenon of death, for which he has longed for centuries and against which he has been helpless. Transhumanism, based on the encouraging principles and values of life, is a philosophy that takes human limitations and contemporary lifestyles to a much higher dimension through science and technology. It designs people who have developed immortality in the face of death (Terec, 2014: p. 4). The goal of 246

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transhumanism, which advocates the absorption and internalization of technology in the human body, is to radically strengthen man and allow him to achieve his form as a superior human being by transcending his limits. Transhumanism represents the cultural change that results from the technologies that change and shape the future of human life and the close relationship with the body (Pilsch, 2017: pp. 2-10). Transhumanism is a transitional act that aims to turn ordinary people into perfect posthuman beings. This goal contains two basic assumptions. First, the essence of human identity is only in the mind. According to the second assumption, the development of the mind is an open and malleable process. A highly developed mind that goes beyond its limits is the only thing that makes man the dominant species and makes him a unique individual. (Waters, 2006: pp. 50-51). Proponents of transhumanism characterize the transhuman they express as developed human beings as H+ (enlarged humanity) and see in it a step that promotes the evolutionary development of the “posthuman”. People will strive to use technology to invent potential immortal human species that are no longer dependent on nature and have superior physical and mental characteristics (Dağ, 2018: p. 90). Some thinkers wonder if death is inevitable in this technological paradise that endows humans with great abilities. This examination is always caused by the transitional situations that arise from technological leaps. This continuous development and renewal situation brought the transition to the next superior human form, which is called “transhumanism”. The discourses of the superior human form to be created with the idea of transhumanism and the incredible developments in the technology of artificial intelligence have led to some disagreements between scientists and thinkers. In his book ‘’Our Posthuman Future: Consuquences of Biotechnology Revolution’’, Franchis Fukuyama argues that the use of biotechnological inventions for commercial purposes can cause worrying human development. According to Fukuyama, in a future ruled by the posthuman being, “normal” people will lose their value over time and their fundamental rights will be violated. Fukuyama explains that although noble wishes and good intentions are behind the creation of posthuman beings, this initiative will end humanity, and this is not a victory but a defeat for humanity (Miah, 2008: p. 77). Professor Stephen Hawking notes that primitive forms developed by artificial intelligence play an important role in their contribution to human life. He explains, however, that the future problems created by creating something equipped with capabilities that can reach or exceed human levels should not be overlooked. While Hawking talks about the benefits of the Internet and technology, he emphasizes the dangers that arise from it and stresses the need to take the necessary measures against indirect or direct threats from Internet and software companies (Cellan, 2014). On the other hand, the discourse of Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla and SpaceX companies, on how artificial intelligence will affect human life paints a much more pessimistic portrait of the future than Hawking’s statements. Musk stresses that artificial intelligence is one of the greatest threats to humanity and that machines will ultimately rule mankind (www.trthaber.com). The Swedish philosopher Nick Bostrom, known for his research in the fields of human development ethics and transhumanism, argues that, in contrast to the horror scenarios created for the future, the use of technology to fulfil the wishes of transhumanism and its philosophy should be expanded. Bostrom (2005) explains that technology and scientific methods will increase the physical and intellectual abilities of humans, prolong life and develop human nature. He explains that posthuman beings will be much more talented, physically and intellectually much more sophisticated and much more intelligent than ordinary people. Bostrom therefore rejects the assertion that transhumans are a threat to ordinary people and that they will be a threat because of human characteristics. On the other hand, Facebook founder Mark Zuckherberg and Alibaba Groups founder Jack Ma do not accept horror scenarios related to artificial 247

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intelligence. They stress that it is not possible for machines to control humans, and that it is impossible for humans to create anything smarter than themselves (www.haberturk.com; www.sabah.com.tr). The media play a crucial role in determining an individual’s attitude to this technology as researchers and scientists discuss the impact of artificial intelligence on human life in the future. People who are not familiar with artificial intelligence technology evaluate this technology according to the news in the media and develop an attitude. In media channels that believe that artificial intelligence technology will make enormous contributions to human life, the characteristics of this technology will be made more attractive through aestheticization and presented to the masses in this way. For example, the NeuraLink project, launched in 2016 by Elon Musk and based on the idea of connecting the human brain and the computer directly via a chip, has caused some controversy in world societies, but on news sites, forums and media platforms managed by groups who believe in the contribution, it is mentioned in aesthetic language that artificial intelligence will bring new and improved features to people. In addition to these examples, there are many series productions for the future representation of artificial intelligence and human relationships. Especially the Altered Carbon3 series makes some predictions about how artificial intelligence and human relationships will look like in the future. Although Altered Carbon represents a dystopian future, it generally indicates that human memory is made immortal by transfer to a chip, even if the life functions of the body carrying the memory cease, the individual’s memories remain intact as long as the chip is not damaged, so that the memory continues to be transferred to a new carrier body. In addition, depending on their wishes and against payment of a certain fee, individuals have some privileged options, such as the possibility of being transferred to bodies with different functional - attractive, intelligent and special characteristics. Hence, viewers are witnessing a mass-aesthetized dystopian future. As a result, the dreaded - artificial intelligence - can also become what is desired.

THE LAWNMOWER MAN MOVIE ANALYSIS: CYBER JESUS ​​AND GOD CRISIS The Lawnmower Man, produced in 1992 under the direction of Brett Leonard and adapted from the short story by Stephen King, is a film that deals with the dangers of digital society and culture, where technology encompasses everyday life. Dr. Lawrence Angelo, one of the main characters in the film, is a successful scientist working in the company Virtual Space Inc. Dr. Angelo is dedicated to exploring the limits of the mind and the development of the brain through his experiments, a range of chemical drugs and most importantly, virtual reality. However, Project Funding Management wishes to use Dr. Angelo’s experiments for military purposes rather than for educational purposes. In accordance with these wishes, the monkey is injected with a series of chemical drugs that increase its tendency to violence, which Dr. Lawrence has partially succeeded in developing its intelligence. After this application, the monkey shows violent behaviour and escapes from the laboratory where the experiment is being carried out, killing some of the staff and finally being killed himself. As the experiment gets out of control, his warnings are ignored and his decisions are not followed, Dr. Angelo decides to leave his project and continues his work in the basement of his suburban home. Another main character in the film is the adult Jobe character, who has a congenital mental handicap and whose intelligence corresponds to the intelligence level of a six-year-old child. Jobe was abandoned when he was a young boy and lived under the auspices of the church. Although Jobe is mentally retarded, he is a gardener who enjoys gardening and machinery. Although Jobe has sometimes been subjected to bullying because of his current disadvantage, he is loved by those around him for his childlike innocence. 248

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Dr. Angelo, who continues his research in his house and, according to the discourse of Lefebvre, spends more time in the designed spatial dimension (representation of space) than in physical space, causes some problems in his private life. His wife Caroline decides to leave Dr. Angelo on the grounds that he does not care enough for her, does not participate in the social environment and keeps his contact with the outside world to a minimum. The space perceived at this point (spatial practice) represents different dimensions for Dr. Angelo and his wife. For this reason, space is the only possibility for Dr. Angelo and Caroline to free themselves from the imprisonment of life. For Caroline, freedom symbolizes leaving the house where she was imprisoned, going to the center of the city where she lives, and entering the radiant world. For Dr. Angelo, it indicates being in the universe of virtual reality, completely abstracted from the physical world and from the overwhelming existence of social spaces. Therefore, the spaces in which two different characters want to experience contain a strong difference. At this point The Produciton of Space Theory developed by Henri Lefebvre will be effective in explaining and understanding the characters’ perception of space. According to Lefebvre (2014), spatial practice refers mainly to space, which is a material reality. It includes streets and networks that connect buildings, structures, workplaces, private spaces and recreational spaces, so that they are observed empirically. If we refer to the concrete example of Lefebvre, the spatial practice of modern times is defined by the daily life of a person living in a suburban housing estate. But spatial practice also encompasses the processes of production and reproduction of the physically built environment, so that it refers to the planning practices and related disciplines through which spatial practice is intimately linked to designed space. Because of its own qualities, i.e. it is related to physical space, it is also perceived as space, since spatial practices allow for a direct experience of space. The designed space, on the other hand, consists of mentally conceived, ‘designed’, later objectified plans, symbols, etc. This space contains abstraction, which is mentally thought and objectified by a certain spatial practice. Representations of space are not separated from their spatial practices and the spatial experience associated with them, because of their scope and their significance for physical texture. Dr. Angelo gives his full attention to his research after he was left. He wonders what results artificial intelligence and virtual reality technology will have for a human brain and is looking for a human subject in this experiment. Jobe, who has a mental disability, is the best subject for the experiment Dr. Angelo dreams about. Dr. Angelo tries to persuade Jobe to do his research. He tells him that if he is a smarter person, he will be more accepted and respected by society. Jobe accepts Dr. Angelo’s offer and they begin the experiments. Jobe’s first interaction with virtual reality begins with a space simulation game. Environmental factors like flying spaceships and falling meteorites that Jobe has observed in the virtual environment make him fear this environment in the first place. But this fear leaves its place to the desire for something aesthetically different and attractive than the physical environment. Thanks to Dr. Angelo’s virtual reality technology and methods, Jobe’s mental development and motor skills are increasing day by day. This development process is reflected in Jobe’s behavior, language and even clothing style. Jobe, who was not originally perceived by society, is becoming more aesthetically attractive day by day and his awareness in society is increasing. So much so that Jobe becomes a person who is liked and desired by his landlady Marnie Burke. She had never known of his existence before and he was just a person who mowed the lawn in her garden. Dr. Angelo realizes that the available facilities will not be sufficient to conduct this experiment and shares his success with the VSI managers to work in a better equipped laboratory. The institution manag-

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ers insist that Dr. Angelo redo the project 5 on a human subject. But the managers, who cannot get the desired answer, change the chemicals injected into Jobe without Dr. Angelo’s knowledge. During a laboratory experiment in a virtual reality environment, Dr. Angelo gives systemically strains far beyond the limits of Jobe’s brain capacity. Job’s vital functions reach critical levels and during his shock, he says ‘’I saw God!”, “I touched God”. After this experiment, Jobe’s mental capacity is carried far beyond what is available and as a result of the incident Jobe gains some telekinetic abilities such as reading the thoughts of the person opposite him and moving objects. Jobe takes her friend Marnie to the lab to experience something new and different and allows her access to the virtual reality environment. But things do not go as expected and Marnie suffers massive damage from this experience. Jobe blames Dr. Angelo for this incident and begins to take revenge on anyone who harms him and his loved ones. Dr. Angelo travels to Washington as these incidents take place and meets with the VSI official. The VSI-owner has no other purpose than war and destruction and wants to use Jobe for his own military purposes. He takes the project out of Dr. Angelo’s hands. Dr. Angelo’s only goal is to get out of his captivity and get to Jobe. In the course of all these events, Jobe has already begun to play God. First he judges the church priest, who punishes him with various excuses, setting his body on fire with his spiritual power to punish him for the sins he has committed. This spooky scene is transformed into a visual feast thanks to computer effects and the tracks are presented to the audience. Another person who must be punished on Judgment Day is Jake, who works at the gas station, annoying Jobe at every opportunity and making fun of him for being mentally retarded. Jobe dives into Jake’s thoughts and planes his brain with a lawnmower and stuns him. He then kills and eliminates the father figure who constantly beats his friend Peter and his mother. Perhaps one of the most important parts of the film takes place on the stage, where the people sent by VSI try to control Jobe. Jobe now has a divine, powerful power and calls virtual reality a new world, a utopia. The person who will make the transition between the two worlds is none other than himself. Jobe creates a new dimension of physical space against armed people sent by VSI and destroys them by dividing them into pixels. In this phase of the film, the representational (living) space is occupied by the designed space. Spatial practices, spatial representations and representative spaces affect the production of space to varying degrees, depending on their characteristics and qualities, and the relationships between them are never simple and stable. Just as space and its production is a multilateral and multidimensional process, the relations between these elements represent such a process. In this process there can be constant movement, overlapping, shifting and friction between the three moments, the representational space (the lived place) is occupied by the representation of the space (designed space), it leaves its place to it, or due to different processes the representational space leaves the illegal space and wins its place in the social space. In these processes the body in particular should always be taken into account. For Lefebvre presents the trio for the exploration of space and the processes of space production by man and his body. In other words, the body has a central position in this trio and is the main axis (Lefebvre, 2014). Jobe goes to the VSI main lab center and transfers to the host to complete the final phase of his development and transform into a fully virtual entity. Dr. Angelo goes to the VSI lab to stop Jobe, but it is too late. In order to prevent a major disaster, Dr. Angelo places explosives in certain parts of the lab in time and joins Jobe in the virtual reality universe. Dr. Angelo, who tries to stop Jobe from his idea, but does not succeed and is humiliated by Jobe for pure stupidity. Jobe declares himself the god of the virtual reality universe and looks for ways to infiltrate the information retrieval system. Meanwhile, the voice of Jobe’s playmate Peter can be heard in the lab. Considering the attitude he shows, Jobe portrays 250

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a completely evil being, but he does not want Peter to die. Jobe takes Dr. Angelo out of the virtual universe in which he has locked him up and helps him rescue Peter before the explosion takes place. With Jobe’s help, Dr. Angelo manages to save Peter. Then the timed explosive becomes active and the VSI lab explodes. In the last scene of the film Dr. Angelo talks about how virtual reality technology will free the human mind. At the time he wants to leave his workplace in the basement, all phones connected to the network ring simultaneously and the film ends in this way. The Lawnmower Man makes extensive use of some thematic aspects and various stereotypes of science fiction cinema. A mad scientist who crosses the border conducts scientific experiments that end up being dangerously complicated, which means getting involved in God’s work. Instead of accepting the wisdom of man, the scientist who tries to revive ignorance quickly begins to realize that this is wrong and that he must leave everything as God created it. In the background of the film traumatic, destructive war conditions in the nineties are revealed, in which neither the scientific nor the religious side is innocent. The Lawnmower Man sees for the first time that the power of technology to create a brand new and infinite universe is seen as an intense danger, an area where humanity is lost. By assisting in the creation of an artificial universe that also controls reality, Dr. Angelo also refers to a superhuman being in which the human being is freed from his own body and possesses a completely digital and unlimited power. So this stupid human being, who first started to lose his feelings and control and then his human mercy, tries to enslave everything around him and so bring his destructive power to the extreme. The contrast between religion and science, which is intensively shown in the background of the film, is not only created at a time when Jobe is maximizing his cognitive and motor skills. The father, who constantly gives Jobe duties in the church, often punishes him and in the moment when he is burned to death confesses to being a child molester, depicts the trauma and sins of the church, which is constantly on the agenda with child abuse. The religion here is scrutinizing, prescriptive, punitive and insensitive. The Father is not a representative of God, but a person who has sinned and separated from religion. The symbolic equivalent of this is the fact that the pests (in this respect, like the Father) shown in the first scenes of the film have entered the church. In the scientific part of the conflict, there is a scientist who never had a good relationship with his wife, was not a family man and lost himself in the charm of his job. Dr. Angelo, who obsessively emphasizes scientific humanity but avoids ethical principles, is a good man, but his goodness must be revealed. Thus, in a virtual environment that resembled the Father’s punishment, Dr. Angelo was crucified like Jesus in his final battle with Jobe, suffering pain and resisting Jobe, who took on the role of God. Although this offence is usually death in mainstream cinemas, Dr. Angelo still receives Jobe’s mercy. Thus the madness of the scientist ends with the teaching of mercy and pain. The depiction of the centralism phenomenon of the body, which Lefebvre mentioned in The Production of Space Theory and to which he attaches great importance, is Jobe as the gardener in the film. Jobe continues his routine life within the framework of perceived and living space until he interacts with technologies for artificial intelligence and virtual reality, and with these technologies adds designed space to his life. As a result of developments and the divine power of the mind, Jobe abstracted his body in the physical world and transferred to the virtual reality universe. Jobe described himself as Cyber Jesus before he left his physical life form and became “space itself” by reaching the power of God after transferring himself into the virtual reality universe. The Lawnmower focuses on the dangers rather than the potential benefits of the millennium age and digital culture. By revealing the classic religious-scientific conflict in the background, it highlights the dangers of the coming new era. However, the aesthetic fear is not ignored. Both the appearance of the characters and the design of the spaces, as well as the successful use of computer effects in the period 251

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when the film was released, ensure that viewers admire the artificial intelligence and virtual reality technology and the unlimited power that this technology offers. In short, as time goes by, the dreaded becomes a desired thing.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This research aims to describe how horror culture and artificial intelligence are represented in media or films through aesthetic analysis. Fear affects human life as an instrument of marketing, sometimes of conviction and sometimes of political authority. In some cases this human emotion gains functionality as a food source for the media. On the other hand, the future darkness of artificial interaction with artificial intelligence, which is seen as a technology of the present and the future, is one of the current topics of discussion in the 21st century. Those who believe that this technology is beneficial to human life, want to make their descriptions aesthetic and attractive, and want to ensure that its superhuman form and discourses of immortality become the desirable element of artificial intelligence. The feeling of fear is an undeniable fact of human existence and the artificial intelligence of the digital age of the 21st century. Aesthetic representation is the most effective element that makes it easier for the individual to digest this reality. The concepts of fear, artificial intelligence and aesthetics form the main problem of this study. Since the film identified as a sample in this research is presented before the millennium of the year of production, the method of content analysis can be used to re-evaluate these concepts in the digital age, and the films can be shot using advanced technologies. In addition, the survey method can be used to conduct a more comprehensive and quantitative study to measure social awareness and attitudes towards these technologies.

CONCLUSION This study attempts to explain the relationship between fear, artificial intelligence and aesthetics in the context of The Production of Space Theory developed by Henri Lefebvre using the sample The Lawnmower (1992). In the selected sample axis, the effects of artificial intelligence and virtual reality technologies on human life, how these fears were desired as a result of the aestheticization of these effects and the altered perceptions of place, were highlighted. The fear that existed from the beginning to the last moment of human life was in some cases used as the main source of food for the media and in some cases as a tool to impose political authority. The feeling of fear in individuals, which took on a social dimension, paved the way for the creation of a culture of fear. While people’s fear was primitive in prehistoric times, fear took on a digital dimension in the 21st century. Although it has been transformed into different forms through changes over the centuries, the main cause of fear is the “unknown”. Especially the developments in artificial intelligence technologies, influence and shape people’s perspectives and expectations of the future. People has made many tools and materials that help him for different purposes and facilitate their own work. The history of mankind has been shaped by the effects of the tools and devices developed by it, and these tools have become important turning points in the development of mankind. Up to this point, all these tools that people have developed in accordance with their thoughts, feelings and goals have been designed to change the world they live in, the things they use, the environment they live in, 252

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but technological developments have made great strides in understanding their own existence. The person who has shaped their life by using the tools they have developed up to this point to shape their life by changing their environment is now trying to shape themselves by interfering with the technological developments that have reached them. Just as people have developed various tools to overcome and combat their weakness in the environment in which their lives, they are now moving rapidly towards a technological development that can intervene and change their own weaknesses.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to the light of my life, Hale who supported me with love and understanding.

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ADDITIONAL READING Bini, S. A. (2018). Artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, and cognitive computing: What do these terms mean and how will they impact health care? The Journal of Arthroplasty, 33(8), 2358–2361. doi:10.1016/j.arth.2018.02.067 PMID:29656964 Geroch, R. (1968). What is a singularity in general relativity? Annals of Physics, 48(3), 526–540. doi:10.1016/0003-4916(68)90144-9 Ghosh, A., Chakraborty, D., & Law, A. (2018). Artificial intelligence in internet of things. CAAI Transactions on Intelligence Technology, 3(18), 208–218. doi:10.1049/trit.2018.1008 Hawking, S. (2018). Brief Answers to the Big Questions. Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. Kurzweil, R. (2005). The singularity is near: When humans transcend biology. Penguin Group. Livingston, S., & Risse, M. (2019). The future impact of artificial intelligence on humans and human rights. Ethics & International Affairs, 33(2), 141–158. doi:10.1017/S089267941900011X Özdemir, V., & Hekim, N. (2018). Birth of industry 5.0: Making sense of big data with artificial intelligence, “the internet of things” and next-generation technology policy. OMICS: A Journal of Integrative Biology, 22(1), 1–12. doi:10.1089/omi.2017.0194 PMID:29293405 Yanqing, D., Edwards, J. S., & Dwivedi, Y. K. (2019). Artificial intelligence for decision making in the era of big data – evolution, challenges and research agenda. International Journal of Information Management, 48, 63–71. doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2019.01.021

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aesthetics: Aesthetics is the philosophical branch of inquiry concerned with beauty, art, and perception. Augmented Reality (AR): Augmented reality is the technology that expands our physical world, adding layers of digital information onto it. Digital: Digital describes electronic technology that generates, stores, and processes data in terms of two states: positive and non-positive. Dystopia: A dystopia is a community or society that is undesirable or frightening. Dystopias are often characterized by dehumanization, tyrannical governments, environmental disaster, or other characteristics associated with a cataclysmic decline in society.

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Fear: Fear is a natural, powerful, and primitive human emotion. Pleasure: Pleasure is a broad class of mental states that humans and other conscious animals experience as positive, enjoyable, or worth seeking. Technology: Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to the practical aims of human life or, as it is sometimes phrased, to the change and manipulation of the human environment. Violence: Violence can be defined as the use of physical or psychological force, applying pressure consciously or unconsciously on an individual or group. Virtual Reality (VR): Virtual reality (VR) is a simulated experience that can be similar to or completely different from the real world. Applications of virtual reality can include entertainment (i.e. video games) and educational purposes (i.e. medical or military training). Other, distinct types of VR style technology include augmented reality and mixed reality.

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Chapter 14

Tainted Away:

Violence Over Nature in the Anime of Hayao Miyazaki Merve Çay İstanbul Bilgi University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Global climate change and its effects on the planet attract attention by policymakers as well as scholars. Global ecological crises are gradually being examined both in cultural and scientific terms all over the world as a concept as the relationship between nature and people is examined further. Japanese animation director Hayao Miyazaki stands out with his critical approach to the relationship between humans and nature. Miyazaki’s animated films such as Princess Mononoke, Spirited Away, and Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind provide us with a different perspective on Mother Earth and the relationship between nature and people in connection to “past,” “present,” and “future.” In this chapter, Miyazaki’s three films are examined through three approaches in ecocriticism—deep ecology, ecofeminism, and dark ecology—to show how Miyazaki maintains a unifying, and a not discriminatory, narrative in our perception of nature by finding balancing solutions to dichotomies such as nature-man, human-nonhuman, man-woman, technology-nature.

INTRODUCTION Miyazaki, in his filmography, deals with issues related to human-induced environmental degeneration. In doing so, he addresses the conflicts between the dualities of the mother earth-modern world / femininity-masculinity / humans-animals and translates these philosophically relevant conflicts into a visual language. Ecocriticism serves as a useful tool to address these conflicts, since, genealogically, it consists of a body of literature that expresses the different ways in which artists and philosophers re-evaluated their relationship to nature in the face of an emerging environmental crisis. Ecocriticism gradually merged with posthumanism which conceives of humans as part of an evolving ecosystem. In general, we can DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch014

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say that ecocriticism & posthumanism, considering humans as a part of nature / not the master of it, blurs the above distinction. Since the 1970s, distinct eco-philosophies and different approaches to the environment were developed. Each approach –such as Deep Ecology, Ecofeminism and Posthuman Ecocriticism– explains environmental crises in its own way, and therefore offers solutions it holds dearest. As critic Yoshiyuki Shimizu explains, Miyazaki’s works mostly take place in worlds where the systematical structures and processes of rationalization of the modern world have been dismantled, in addition to a situation of chaos and commotion (S. J. Napier, 2016: p. 153). Moreover as Cavallaro points out that there is a subtle understanding between East and West in Miyazaki’s films which is also heightened by a thematic and structural exchange. There are specific themes he uses recurrently. One such theme is a persisting concern over the ecosystem. He tackles these continuing issues in three of his animes. These issues over a diverse time scale can be observed in the different settings he used from ancient Japan in Mononoke to the present day in Spirited Away as well as a post-apocalyptic future in Nausicaä (Cavallaro, 2015: p. 9). Mayumi argues that Miyazaki helps us to recognize the intricacy of our world by depicting power relationships between characters, in this way he shares his understanding of contemporary environmental problems (Mayumi et al., 2005: p. 6). Miyazaki mostly uses child figures who are open to possibilities, non-altered with adulthood realities and bias. He makes them confront major challenges and responsibilities. In Princess Mononoke, we observe outsiders with different backgrounds. The conflict that was born from these differences makes finding a common ground important especially in environmental issues. Setting in the past, Mononoke-Hime shows us the beginning of human-induced destruction of nature. Spirited Away displays how humans have continued to harm nature until today. Spirited Away’s main character must work hard to fit into the imagined society. By working hard, she connects with nature/ spirit world and eventually matures. Thus, with her new relationship to nature/spirit world, she sees the modern world and the problems of our environment with a new perspective. In Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, we meet with a post-apocalyptic world where humans altered the balance of nature because of wars. The main character shows us a way to establish a good relationship with nature and humans. In all of them, Miyazaki creates a mediator, a balancing character in a setting with different disasters or ecological problems. While he is depicting these worlds/settings he does not separate the social problems and the environment. On the other contrary, he approaches them together as one.

BACKGROUND Ecocriticism was established as a literary theory in the late 1970s. In that period the human-induced environmental degeneration forced mainly artists and philosophers to re-evaluate their relationship with nature. Glotfelty states that ecocriticism is simply the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment. She adds that whereas feminist theory analyzes text from a gender-conscious perspective and Marxism examines it in the light of production and economic class, Ecocriticism takes an earth-centered approach to literary studies. As a theoretical statement, ecocriticism tries to find a middle ground between the human and the nonhuman, taking a critical stance that sits squarely between literature and earth (Glotfelty & Fromm, 1996: pp. xviii–xix). Although environmentalism as a cultural, political and philosophical phenomenon is relatively new, it has already given rise to different eco-philosophies such as Deep Ecology, Ecofeminism, Posthuman Ecocriticism, Dark Ecology, as well as other approaches. Every approach has its own way of defining 260

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environmental crises and offers solutions in terms of the values it holds dearest (Garrard, 200: p. 16). Recent times have seen an impact of posthuman on ecocriticism, and with this impact, ecocriticism has become “post-human, post-natural, and post-green” in the assessment of the classification of the human and the non-human (Oppermann, 2016). Deep Ecology is among the most influential approaches outside academia. Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss explains key points of this approach in Deep Ecology for the 21st Century (1995). One of the crucial key points is that human and non-human life has “intrinsic value and inherent worth”, independent of its usefulness to human gains. Another is that the growth of nonhuman life necessitates a smaller human population. Therefore, deep ecologists demand a shift from anthropocentric to eco-centric value systems, criticizing the dualism between humans and nature promoted by Western culture. One of the major criticisms against Deep Ecology is that ecocentrism is misanthropic. Though briefly put, Deep Ecology views “the anthropocentric dualism of human/nature as the ultimate source of anti-ecological beliefs and practices” (Garrard, 2004: pp. 21–22). On the other hand, Ecofeminism claims that environmental crises not only stem from anthropocentrism as Deep Ecology says but also androcentrism, which assumes male superiority over women, and by doing so attempts to unite women’s movement with the ecological movement. Moreover, Ecofeminist Val Plumwood’s analysis points out that just showing the dualistic natures between man/woman, nature/ human does not create problematic anthropocentrism or androcentrism. Pointing to how René Descartes introduced the separation of mind and body, she critiques the gendered reason/nature dualism. Only after liberating reason from the androcentric philosophy, we can respect ‘earth others’ (Garrard, 2004: pp. 23–26). With the posthumanist perspective humanities have been put in a serious conversation with technology and life sciences, animal and gender studies. With posthumanism one can see the radical incompleteness of the human, thus pointing to “a refusal to take the distinction between ‘human’ and ‘nonhuman’ for granted, and to found analyses on this presumably fixed and inherent set of categories” (Iovino, 2016: p. 13). Recent posthumanist theories about the environment stress the importance of ‘decentering’ nature by placing it in the background, that is, in areas ‘surrounding’ the center. From this perspective, a major change from ‘deep ecology’ to ‘dark ecology’ has taken place at the turn of the twenty-first century (Aretoulakis, 2014: p. 172). Timothy Morton and Paul Kingsnorth coined the term “dark ecology” to draw attention to the current ecological condition affected by global pollution. Morton and Kingsnorth suggest that green ecology is insufficient to describe today’s environmental dilemma since, as Morton puts it, “[e]excluding contamination is part of performing Nature as pristine, wild, immediate and pure.” Is it even possible to consider a remote place that does not bear the pollution caused by socio-cultural activities and practices? For them, such a thing as wild nature without pollution does not exist. Consequently, pollution is the central factor in Dark Ecology (Yazgünoğlu, n.d.: p. 42). Though with all these different approaches, literary ecocriticism has investigated how the author’s use of language and metaphor reveals their perception and experience of nature. On the other hand, cinematic ecocriticism –what others term “green film criticism” or “eco-cinecriticism”– must discuss how visual representations portray nature and natural features, how they are framed by the lens of the camera or formed by the editing process (Willoquet-Maricondi, 2010: pp. 8–9). On the other hand, animation studies were thought as separate from film studies until quite recently. This change can be clearly observed in different editions, the second edition from 1986 and the 9th edition of the prominent book Film Art: An Introduction from David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson 261

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(Bordwell & Thompson, 2009), in which discussions on animation advanced from being sub-chapters to having their own chapters. It can be clearly seen that animation has managed to distinguish itself as a valid cinematic form (Murray & Heumann, 2011: pp. 22–23). Ecocritics as well initially paid little attention to animated films, especially Japanese animation – Jhan Hochman’s Green Cultural Studies: Nature in Film, Novel, and Theory (1998), Gregg Mitman’s Reel Nature: America’s Romance with Wildlife on Film (2009 [1999]), and Robin L. Murray and Joseph K. Heumann’s Ecology and Popular Film: Cinema on the Edge (2009) do not mention animation. In recent years, though, the animation genre has been analyzed in greater depth: Alexander Wilson’s The Culture of Nature: North American Landscape from Disney to the Exxon Valdez (1992) and David Ingram’s Green Screen: Environmentalism and Hollywood Cinema (2000) have provided analyses of Disney’s films. Susan Napier’s Anime (2005 [2001]) and Sean Cubitt’s EcoMedia (2005) examine Miyazaki’s engagement with environmental issues, and the first book-length study on Disney is David Whitley’s The Idea of Nature in Disney Animation (2008). Murray and Heumann’s That’s All Folks? Ecocritical Readings of American Animated Features (2011) and Deidre M. Pike’s Enviro-Toons: Green Themes in Animated Cinema and Television (2012) broaden the research on American animated works (Heise, 2014: p. 303). Overall these critical studies as Heise puts it, emphasize how animated films “mobilize particular cultural templates [it uses] in portraying nature, how they define humans’ relationship with nonhumans, to what extent they engage with ecological crisis, and what sociopolitical ideologies they criticize or encourage.” She explains that mostly as a matter of thematic content, they construe the relationship between animation and environmentalism. In the process, they approach animated film much as they do other works of fiction in film or literature. While doing it they treat animated film just as they do cinema and literature (Heise, 2014: p. 303). Following the same essay, Hadl says that animation “preserves and revives animist (or post-humanist) thoughts through its technology” (by animating the inanimate). The nonhuman acting like humans, such as animals and plants with speech, cause the audience to entertain the notion of humanity not being the sole possessor of “liveliness, intentionality, and agency in the fictional worlds of animation, in which human interests and endeavors are often pitted against those of animals, machines, or objects” (Hadl, 2018).

NARRATIVES OF NATURE IN MIYAZAKI’S WORKS Director Hayao Miyazaki’s works cannot be understood fully unless we also understand the influences on him about his nature-based world view. Napier states that he is “his own best spokesman” by what he depicts in his films and what he wrote in magazines and his book (Napier, 2018).

The Man Behind the Frame Miyazaki in one of his interviews says that “[but] I do endeavor to make films that express my own ideals about what is important and what is wrong with the world that we currently live in” (Miyazaki, 2014a: p. 173). In a broad sense in Miyazaki’s movies, the main drive of typical heroines and heroes is not to achieve fulfillment but balance and peace between different worlds; romance is mostly a side-theme; the settings are incredibly detailed and realistic, even when they belong to a fantastic world; discrepancies between good and evil are mostly insignificant or deliberately indistinct. He does not offer easy or

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simple solutions for complex problems. Moreover, the endings of the movies, which are more relieving than happy, are usually beginnings of an ambiguous future. Miyazaki came to be known as an environmentalist director because of his skill to create and animate insects and plants then successfully placing them in a multilayered ecosystem. Furthermore, he is an artist who is particularly sensitive to environmental stress and can express the relations between human and non-human in intriguing ways (Napier, 2018). For example, one of his movies, Nausicaä shows the effects of a series of environmental crises happened in Minamata that took place in the 1950s and 1960s in Japan. Chisso Corporation released chemicals such as methylmercury to Minamata Bay between 1932 to 1968. These highly toxic chemicals bioaccumulated in shellfish and fish, resulting in mercury poisoning when eaten by the locals. After dumping was banned in the Minamata Bay, fish started to come back. Miyazaki’s vision of nonhuman beings recovering after the pollution human-caused in the Nausicaä movie comes from the news about the fish returning. He commented that the news about the fish “coming back in numbers otherwise never seen in Japan’s other seas” had “sent a cold shiver down my spine” (Napier, 2018). The influences from other sources about environmental issues do not consist of only these kinds of catastrophes. He also recognizes fictional inspirations like Dune, and most importantly Brian Aldiss’s The Long Afternoon of Earth book. Brian Aldiss creates a world that is overwhelmed by plants and giant insects and where a few diverged human communities try to survive. Napier speculates that for Miyazaki who “really hated Japan” because of WWII, Aldiss’s eco-oriented book may have helped to gain consciousness about Japan’s deep connection with nature (Napier, 2018). Actually, the book Saibai shokubutsu to nōkō no kigen 栽培植物と農耕の起源, (Cultivated Plants and the Origins of Agriculture, 1966) by Sasuke Nakao (1916–1993) had a more profound effect on Miyazaki. Nakao was a professor at Osaka Prefecture University who introduced a hypothesis of “Culture of Broadleaf Evergreen Forest”. In this hypothesis, Nakao explains that because of the high productivity of Japanese oak, many animals, fish, and other plants can exist side by side and its cultural background consists of not only Japan but a larger part of Asia. With his theory, Nakao also confirmed Eiichi Fujimori’s hypothesis that Japan began agriculture within the Jomon Period (about 13,000-300 B.C.E.). Because of this theory, Miyazaki’s thinking shifted to a significant extent, especially about the Japanese people’s roots (Mayumi et al., 2005: p. 3). Miyazaki was to adapt Nakao’s ideas more clearly into Mononoke and more implicitly into Totoro, but Nausicaä’s power dynamics and animistic components already indicate a major shift towards a more east-Asian and environmental world-view (Napier, 2018). We can understand the influence of this book from an interview given by Miyazaki: I felt greatly relieved when I realized that the country I had thought was confined to the Japanese archipelago (...) actually connected to the wider world borders and ethnic groups. (...) I felt the clouds are clear when I realized that even though Japanese may have committed various mistakes, we are not limited to that history (...) It allowed me to look with more freedom than ever before at history as a whole (...) Looking at Japan with this perspective, I was able to reassess myself, to figure out what sort of baggage I carried (...) suddenly liberate myself, and embrace the broadleaf evergreen forest culture. (...) It was then that I realized how valuable plants are and how important the issue of cultural climate is to us. If we were to destroy that climate, I would lose my last connection to being Japanese (Miyazaki, 2014a: pp. 357–358).

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From Miyazaki’s comments, we can understand that Nakao’s book changed him profoundly as a person and his perception of being a Japanese. It is also evident that he came into terms with being a Japanese and reshaped himself in the light of nature, human and nonhuman relations. In relation to this, it is also important to investigate Japanese perception of nature. The Japanese are often known as people who have a deep love of nature, a passion that is often expressed in their art and material culture. Over the decades, Japanese and Japanese scholars have reflected on this common view again and again (Kellert, 1991: p. 299). Moreover, the idea that the Japanese live in harmony with nature, a characteristic that is often contrasted with the quest for the “conquest of nature” that allegedly exists among the Western world, is closely connected with this concept of love as well (Kalland & Asquith, n.d.: p. 1). On the other hand, Haruo Shirane explores the concept of “secondary nature” which is not on overt awareness or involvement in the natural world, but on a culturally-built one which is a substitution for the primary nature. Throughout traditional Japan, he points out that nature was often viewed as an untamed and undoubtedly violent power, held in check by ceremonies and stories about supernatural forces which are capable of controlling the environment. Modern times, rapid industrialization and urbanization intensified a deforestation cycle but Shirane states that it actually started a lot earlier with the development of large rice fields in rural areas, because of it, the scale and value of the natural landscape for society was greatly reduced (Heine, 2014: p. 1101). Moreover, in Kellert’s research of “Japanese Perceptions of Wildlife”, one can see Japanese respect for nature was very limited and idealized, also show no ethical or ecological concern towards protecting nature and wildlife (Kellert, 1991: p. 305). In brief, the Japanese perception of nature is not, as some observers want us to believe, actually is a “secondary nature”, actually an idealized version of nature. Outside of this human-controlled and shaped “secondary nature” world, Japanese people feared the wilderness, the untamed nature and the kami (gods) in it. In Hizen no kuni fudoki (Hizen Province Gazetteer) one can see the untamed nature is viewed as a realm of the araburu kami (violent gods) in which the gods are described as the obstacles in cultivating and controlling the region for humans: “To the west of the county, there was a river. The name of it was the Saka River. At the upper reaches of this river were violent gods [araburu kami] who let live half of the people who came and killed the other half” (Shirane, 2012: p. 14). From this example one can see the separation between araburu kami and the Japanese people which established shrines at the base of mountains “to honor and pacify” these violent gods (Shirane, 2012: p. 14). A big change in attitude towards nature took place from the middle to late Heian period. Iinuma Kenji states that from the archaeological findings one can see that many of the araburu kami which are opposed to the agricultural enlargement were altered to be gods for agriculture. By doing so, from the point of view of humans, a harmonious relation was born. This transformation also mirrors the increased control of human beings, especially the technological advancement of water and irrigation management (Shirane, 2012: p. 14). Before analyzing Miyazaki’s films, the author needs to note that, the kami as used in the latter part of does not refer to the religion of Shinto which was re-interpreted by the Meiji government to serve the purposes of nationalism. On the contrary, it is used as animism without implying any religious sect or institution. Miyazaki himself also said that “I do like animism. I can understand the idea of ascribing character to stones or wind. But I didn’t want to laud it as a religion” (Reinders, 2016: p. 2).

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Dreams of the Past: Princess Mononoke In the opening scenes of Princess Mononoke, Miyazaki shows us the wildlife where nature rules. And there are some intertitles which appear on the forest background: “In ancient times, a land lay covered in forests, where, from ages long past, dwelt the spirits of the gods. Back then, man and beast lived in harmony. But as time went by, most of the great forests were destroyed. Those that remained were guarded by gigantic beasts who owed their allegiance to the great forest spirit for those were the days of gods and demons” (Miyazaki, 2014c). The film was set in the fourteenth and fifteenth-century, in the film pamphlet of Princess Mononoke, Miyazaki describes this period as follows: Disorder and fluidity were the norms in the world of the Muromachi period (1336-1573), the setting for this film. It was a time when present-day Japan was being formed out of social upheaval. (...) This was a more unpredictable and fluid time, more magnanimous and free, with less clear class distinctions between warriors and villagers and women as depicted in the drawings of artisans and tradespeople. In such a time, the contours of life and death were very clear. (...) Life was not full of ambiguities. (...) Herein lies the meaning in creating this world, as we face the coming chaotic era of the twenty-first century (Miyazaki, 2014b: p. 16). In the opening scenes, Miyazaki shows us a dark forest and wriggling black worm-like things that harm the forest, knocking down the trees. Then we cut to Ashitaka, an inhabitant of Emishi village. He climbs to the human-made observation tower where he can look down on the forest. He puts himself in a powerful position in nature/human duality. Making your own weapon or construction is what makes humans a dominant figure against nature. However, from the peaceful depiction of the village, one can argue that this kind of technology is not a problem for nature or the director himself. The upcoming problem is a consequence of a different kind of technology. Miyazaki coded this visually as a shadow, a darkness in the opening scenes of the film. Yet the darkness and light duality does not have the meaning of good or evil, more like seeable, perceptible or not. In one of his interviews, Miyazaki said that he dislikes dichotomy of light/darkness as good/evil and added that he doesn’t consider things this way (Miyazaki, 2014a: p. 359). The brightness of the village and darkness of the forest makes a deliberate contrast. Miyazaki coding humans as something under the light, perceptible. The non-human emphasis also shows us that the forest is not a realm of humans but the realm of the non-human, the imperceptible. In 1988, much before Princess Mononoke came to the theaters but after Miyazaki finished Totoro, he explains his thoughts about this subject: For Japanese (...) the gods are in the darkness. They may come out into light at times, but they are usually deep in the forest or mountains. (...) That is why, in the shrines that are closest to their original form that still exist in Okinawa, though there are altars in the shrines, the image of the god is just a tree or a stone. And such a shrine isn’t in a bright, shining place, it’s in an overgrown dark area where the silence is deep (...) When I went there with my children, they felt the eeriness and said it was scary. It felt as if something were there. This sense of dark awe is the sort of veneration that Japanese have toward certain forests and natural objects – in short, it’s an animistic primitive religion. (...) I’m not a believer in the occult, but the world is more than we can fathom with our five senses (Miyazaki, 2014a: p. 359).

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The next scene shows the onset of darkness. The wickedness or the power of the upcoming non-human greaten, Ashitaka’s face and the background fully stays in the darkness. Something black starts to ooze from the stones of the wall. With the destruction of the wall, we see the tatarigami, red-eyed cursed god. The reason for the curse is an iron ball, a bullet that is made by the technology/industrialization. Boar kami tries to protect its forest, but humans consume the earth for iron, cuts down trees and pollute rivers because of byproducts. Though humans with the leadership of Lady Eboshi pollute the area in a different part of the country, the pollution/the curse shows its effect in the Emishi village. It is not important that Emishi people live in harmony with nature, after the industrialization, the pollution effects anywhere, just like deep ecology scholars say, we cannot find a remote place that is not polluted. Moreover, as Miyazaki shows, for nature itself, it is not important who pollute, the consequences affect everybody. The animation indicates that pollution is caused individually but its consequences are shared collectively. When the village girls are in danger, Ashitaka tries to save them by drawing the attention of tatarigami to himself, in the process the curse wraps up his arm then tatarigami dies. In the last breaths of tatarigami we see that Hii-sama bows to “araburu kami” then she says “Bear us no hate and be at peace.” But tatarigami answers “You loathsome humans, you shall know my hate and my grief” (Miyazaki, 2014c). The last words of tatarigami is an indication that for the forces of nature there is no differentiation of human beings. Such as if people cannot find a place polluted by pollution, therefore it does not make a difference for nature who polluted it. It is important that after this scene Hii-sama tells Ashitaka that the curse will seep into his bones and he will die. She adds “You cannot change your fate. Though you can rise to meet it” (Miyazaki, 2014c). She shows the iron ball and then she says which will become one of the most important statements of Miyazaki: “Journey there, and see with eyes unclouded” (Miyazaki, 2014c). To “see with eyes unclouded” as Napier puts it, one has to sever his or her ties with prejudices and bias so that he/she can observe in a clear, objective way (Napier, 2018). This is also evident in Miyazaki’s other films. Using child characters who are not shaped by prejudices and bias, making them call their own shots, then showing the child characters’ transition to adulthood is very characteristic of Miyazaki animations. Therefore, Ashitaka in his journey, tries finding a cure, observing, deciding upon what is right or wrong with a clear vision. He acts as a mediator between nature and humanity, primal and modern. Then, we see ox drivers climbing a mountain. It makes us remember the memorable scene of Werner Herzog’s Aguirre, the Wrath of God’s opening scene. With a colonialist subtext, Eboshi’s men seem challenging nature. Then we see San and wolf clan standing up to this challenge. At the end of this scene, Ashitaka finds two ox drivers near the river and rescues them. Then one of the ox drivers fears a kodama, a semitransparent childlike figure of nature. Ashitaka looks unafraid and tells that kodama is a sign of a healthy forest and puts the ox driver’s mind at peace and tells him that Yakul is not afraid. This scene is also another hint of Ashitaka’s view of life and nature, that he is a mediator, a balance giver in the film. San, the wolf princess that Ashitaka meets in the forest, symbolizes the primal human. Her other name, mostly used by Tatara people, Princess Mononoke means literally possessed princess, possessed by the spirits of nature. Miyazaki specifically designs San’s appearance, inspired by the Jōmon period (Miyazaki, 2014b: p. 15). Jōmon period is the name of Japan’s Neolithic era. On the opposite side of San, we see Lady Eboshi. She is the embodiment of the modern era. She is smart, and she is a leader who is loved by her people. She is not afraid of kami or gods, and just like the people who live in the “enlightened world”, she does not believe in curses.

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As Hadl puts it, Princess Mononoke with its characters shows us a “clash of ideologies”, Ashitaka and Emishi people are shamanic, San and clans of animals/kami are bio-centric. Lady Eboshi has materialistic tendencies. She is a techno-feminist and anthropocentric just like the people of patriarchy such as emperor, warlords, and samurai. The Buddhist monk Jigo brings Buddhism to the equation and the kami represent animism (Hadl, 2018: pp. 355–356). In a patriarchal world, Lady Eboshi empowers women in Tatara. She saves enslaved brothel girls and brings them to Tatara to live freely. However, the patriarchal constructions of femininity associate the female figure with nature. As Garrard puts it, some radical ecofeminists embrace this approach. But this ‘feminine essence’ criticized by ecofeminists who comes from philosophical and sociological background. They emphasize that “a truly feminist perspective cannot embrace either the feminine or the masculine uncritically” (Garrard, 2004: p. 24). From the lifestyle of Tatara and its leader Lady Eboshi, we see Miyazaki also challenges preconceptions about associating women with nature. Moreover, the otherness of the non-human, especially Shishigami keeps the film from succumbing to clichés such as simplifying nature as cute, noble and vulnerable. The kami depicted in the film is not “humans in another guise” as Ursula Heise explains. She puts emphasis on the fact that the animation as a medium is highly skilled at “open[ing] up a world that is being worked on by nonhuman agents in ways that resonate with environmentalist thought – all the more so if they are not simply presented as humans in another guise but inhabit modes of thought and being all their own” (Heise, 2008: p. 304). Moreover, Napier utilizes the explanation of Heise and adds that the film discusses the idea of nonhuman entities “inhabit[ing] modes of thought and being all their own” with passion and vivacity (Napier, 2018). Through kodama Miyazaki explains his perspective of nature: Essentially, they don’t do anything, and their presence is to be there as witnesses, isn’t it? If nature is seen to be either useful or not useful, these kodama spirits are not useful, and in a way nature is full of things that aren’t useful to us. This is why I think the solution to environmental issues must be to shift our perspective from preserving nature because it is useful, to preserving it because it is not useful (Miyazaki, 2014b: p. 32). The story suggests that, without respect to kami and nature, destruction is inevitable. However, even those who bring about this destruction, Lady Eboshi and the people of Tatara, are not depicted as villains. Therefore, the symbolism of them as industrialization and technology is also not depicted as a villain. As Ashitaka tries to observe both sides with eyes unclouded, Miyazaki too, shows us two sides of nature-human dichotomy in a complex but neutral way. On the other side of the dichotomy, Miyazaki does not depict nature as vulnerable and noble. For him, “the real character of nature is more cruel and brutal. If we discuss environmental issues or issues of nature without mentioning the irrationality, cruelty, and brutality of life itself, it becomes a shallow and insipid exercise” (Miyazaki, 2014b: p. 43). For M. Jimmie Killingsworth, the main point of the film is “the survival of animism in the modern world” especially in the scene where Lady Eboshi severs the head of the Shishigami (Killingsworth, 2010: pp. 28–29). Ashitaka and San give its head back with an emphasis that it has to be given in the hands of a human. After that, the forest where, in the beginning of the film, be a dark and fearful place turns into a gentler forest, a modern version of Japan. Reinders, argues that Miyazaki identified as a deep ecologist because he does not believe nature is preserved for its usefulness, also all nonhuman has an intrinsic value separate from their usefulness. (Reinders, 2016: p. 2). However, Barkman states that because Shinto is monistic, one cannot find any 267

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moral law, there is no right or wrong, “since these would presuppose something outside of the monistic whole that can judge the rightness or wrongness of a particular action within. This denial, it must be noted, should include denial of any intrinsic or absolute value for anything since if there is no absolute Value-Giver or Source, no absolute or intrinsic value can be spoken of” (Barkman, 2019). Furthermore, Killingsworth debates, the indigenous animism has turned into a modern neo-animism, where imagination is required to feel the sacredness as all of it has now become mundane and has lost the mystic touch. Princess Mononoke does a great job questioning the unrestrained military-industrialism that can be highly destructive while accepting that the developments in technology do improve people’s lives. In the end, the film acknowledges the collapse of animism. Nonetheless, Killingsworth ruminates; “...a poet or cinematic artist or nature writer to say that animals speak to me, or that some place is sacred, or that some tree possesses a spirit is to say that these things have value beyond any price you can put on them” (Killingsworth, 2010: pp. 28–29). Miyazaki believes the forest which is explained by Sasuke Nakao’s book disappeared in this period (Miyazaki, 2014b: p. 60). Set in a time where Japan is transitioning from the culture of the broadleaf evergreen forest as a “nature-based conception of life” (Napier, 2018) to the modern era where industrialization and technology reigns. In the end, people lost their fear and respect for kami and as a result of this, the connection with nature lost too. The gentle forest also indicates the loss of wilderness. Snyder explains wilderness in as follows “Wilderness is a place where the wild potential is fully expressed, a diversity of living and non-living beings flourishing according to their own sorts of order. [...] To speak of wilderness is to speak of wholeness” (Snyder, 2003: p. 12). As seen in the definition, Miyazaki approaches the forest as a wilderness where non-human can flourish independently from “usefulness” which human beings impose upon. However, for this loss, Miyazaki does not put blame on anyone, he gets the viewers to watch the complexities of world in which Napier puts “a wide range of human and nonhuman characters cross conventional boundary lines of physicality, gender, species, and the natural and supernatural. Ultimately, the film offers a vision of life as a densely interwoven design, rather than a simple allegory of dichotomized opposites” (Napier, 2018).

Disillusioned With Present Times: Spirited Away Spirited Away (Sen to Chihiro no kamikakushi) is the first Miyazaki film which takes place in the modern era. One could say this at least about the beginning and the ending of the film if not the middle parts. The main character from modern Japan goes into the kami world which is depicted as a modernizing Japan, therefore, an industrialized and capitalist world. In the opening of the film, in contrast to Princess Mononoke, which starts in the wilderness, we see a flower bouquet, a product of human-controlled nature. Princess Mononoke symbolizes the past of Japan, where eventually wilderness became a gentle, calm forest. On the other hand, Spirited Away illustrates today by showing the consequences of the change that started in Princess Mononoke. She and her family are going to their new house in their car and Chihiro is upset because of moving. On the road, we see a residential area on a quarried mountain peak. They choose the wrong way where asphalt road turns to stone pavement and they get lost in the deep forest. Throughout the road, we see some destroyed hokora 祠, miniature Shinto shrines. This shows us that there is no respect for kami in modern days. On the other hand, we understand that gradually we are drifting apart from the modern world.

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Then they find an abandoned theme park that remains from the era of the economic bubble. Her parents smell food and find a restaurant but there is no one around. Her mother says they can pay when someone shows up; then they start to eat. Chihiro still being reluctant says that the owners will be mad. However, this is not a problem for her father because he says they can pay up by credit card or cash. Their eating becomes an extravagance. Beginning and ending of this eating scene, we see Miyazaki put food/material upper than humans in his modern-day description. For Miyazaki, “Our world appears ever more fuzzy and confusing, yet in spite of that it threatens to corrode and devour us.” Therefore, he adds that the main preoccupation of this film is to depict modern Japan in a fantastic frame to have clarity (Miyazaki, 2014b: p. 197). With the emphasis on money and extravagance, capitalism and materialism are evident in this scene. Chihiro comes back and founds her parents turn into pigs. They still sit on the stool like humans, her father still tries to eat more but gets a whipping in front of her child. The feared Chihiro runs to the entrance but the river blocks her way. We see a lot of kami becomes apparent while she starts to fade away. Haku comes to her rescue and gives her something seems like a berry. Then takes her to the beautiful garden of the Yuya. The tended garden an element of secondary nature shows even kami are affected and therefore changed because of the human world. It is shown as kami could not find any place, any wild forest to live after the events shown in Princess Mononoke. The beautiful Japanese front facade of the Yuya, and the back, such as an industrial area or a factory, shows us a big contrast. They look like two sides of a medallion; one side depicted in a traditional Japanese style the other is a product of capitalism and industrialism. Miyazaki, therefore, shows us the changes both in the human world and in the kami world. Chihiro asks the boiler man Kamaji to give her a job. However, Kamaji sends her to Yubaba with Lin. This is the first time we see the inner parts of the Yuya. The Yuya is a place for kami to relax and purify because they are neglected and polluted by humans. However, the interesting part is that they have to pay for the services. This again shows us the Yuya is actually a place of capitalism just like the theme park itself which is the outcome of extreme money and wealth in the bubble economy time. The top floor of the Yuya is where Yubaba lives. The interior is decorated in Western-style just like the outside of the Yuya (the top floor) has Western elements. Yubaba is the only one who does paperwork and dressed in a Western-style dress. She is the symbol of the West. Miyazaki says that for Japanese people, the definition of “deluxe” is a combination of Japanese traditional styles and Western styles. He also adds that the Yuya “is really like one of today’s leisure land theme parks, but it’s something that could also have existed in the Muromachi and Edo periods. So what we’re ultimately depicting is the real Japan” (Miyazaki, 2014b: p. 218). If the beginning of the industrialization is depicted in Princess Mononoke, Spirited Away shows us the consequences of that period: consumerism, materialism and capitalism. It can be seen that because of these consequences and Western influence, the disengagement with the spiritual world and therefore with nature deepens. This deepening disengagement depicted in the scenes where we see okusare, stink spirit and the No-face. When Chihiro starts to work as Sen, she works slowly and makes mistakes. Because she is the “new girl”, Yubaba makes her clean big bath, the dirtiest place in the Yuya. While working, she sees No-face and believing it is a customer, takes it inside. Even though she is a klutz sometimes, she works hard and does not complain. Sen tries to get some tags for an herbal bath but she could not get it, No-face gives her one. In the bath also it tries to give her more, but she says she does not need that much. Therefore, we understand that Chihiro/Sen is also a mediator, a balancing figure in the materialist, greedy world. 269

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When okusare approaches the Yuya, workers try to stop it make it turn back. Sen has to greet okusare and after taking money from it, she takes it to the big tub. The pollution and stink even make the food go bad. She really shows effort to clean okusare and finds a thorn. When Sen removes the thorn, it turns out human garbage thrown to the river and okusare turns out to be a noble river kami, a white dragon. This scene shows again how Yuya makes money. The business depends on human pollution and neglect. Moreover, Miyazaki uses this scene to show us how humans violate nature. Thrupkaew interprets Miyazaki’s intention with a question: “If humans don’t tend to the earth, how much can the gods do?” (Thrupkaew, 2002) Heise states that even this scene depicted as supernatural, it makes good use of one of the oldest specialties of animation which is making objects behave and talk in the same manner as sensitive beings. Miyazaki uses this characteristic in an environmentalist perspective with a delicately amusing twist by using water to purify a polluted body of water (Heise, 2014: pp. 305–306). It is also interesting to see that the old, noble river kami polluted with human garbage cleaned in the hands of humans just like the scene where Ashitaka and San give the head of shishigami back to it in Princess Mononoke. Therefore, one can say that for Miyazaki it is important to have a balanced relationship with nature but having that relationship is up to humans and their effort to clean their dirt from nature. The greediness of Yuya becomes an important issue in the next scene. A frog comes to find gold to the big tub, No-face gives him some and then eats the frog. The author argues that No-Face is like a child, a mirror to its society. Miyazaki wanted to show consumerism and materialism in modern times, therefore, he created a fantasy world where kami –which are affected by human greed and industrialism, capitalism– lives. The extravagance and greed we see in No-Face is actually shows us the greed of the people and the place it is in. Like a child learning from its environment and form a character, No-Face too becomes an embodiment of greed. In the following scenes, we see No-Face giving gold to the people of Yuya and eats lavishly just as Chihiro’s parents. When Chihiro comes and rejects gold, he creates chaos in the Yuya. Every time he eats someone or something his appetite grows. In a later scene, Haku takes Chihiro back to save her parents. In the journey, Chihiro remembers his name, Nigihayami Kohaku Nushi. We learn that he is a river spirit which is all built over, but it flows underground. It shows another kind of pollution humans make. Mick Broderick points out, “The post-industrial age for Miyazaki is tempered by a sense of loss, not so much of innocence, but of origin where the importance of space, place, and context needs reinvigoration” (Cavallaro, 2015: p. 138). Reider comments on materialism and the pollution created by technology with a different perspective, she states that the kami which lost their place in human/physical world, find a new place again with technology such as animation and pc games (Reider, 2005: p. 21).

A Mythic Future: Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind Nausicaä of the Valley of the Winds (1984) based on the manga Miyazaki started in 1982. He had completed only two of seven volumes when he adapted the manga to an animated feature. Therefore, the ending of the film and the manga changes. The name of the story comes from its heroine: Nausicaä. Her story is not a coming age story, she is characterized as fearsome, a childish but a mature woman even in the beginning. Her responsibilities are harder than all the characters Miyazaki created. Her quest is to resurrect a world that is nearly destructed by wars. The apocalyptical setting makes life harder for any kind.

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In the opening, we see a dead forest covered by something which resembles fungi, one of them explodes and spreads spores, in the air snow-like particles float. Two horseclaws –large, two-legged flightless birds– and a man wearing shohki masks –which designed to protect the wearer from the miasma in the Fukai– go along the trees. We understand that the air is poisonous both animals and humans. They come to village, which is like the trees covered by fungi. The man dismounts from his horseclaw opens a door, inside of the house is no different than outside. With a close up we see three skeletons. He takes a baby doll from the ground, it falls to pieces. This is one of the stunning images of the opening scene. By this image, Miyazaki creates an atmosphere of apocalypse strongly. The man leaves the house, looks up, we see strange and big flies in the sky which is a sign that other animals without masks live in this toxic environment. Therefore, Miyazaki shows us two different types of animals, one is wild and living in the Fukai, the other is domesticated and has to use masks like humans. The man says this village also will be consumed in the Fukai, sea of decay soon. Therefore, we understand that this Fukai is expanding. The air also depicted as brown. The colors of the opening mostly white, brown and grey support the apocalyptic atmosphere. Then just like Princess Mononoke, a written explanation appears on the film: “1.000 years after the collapse of industrial civilization, the Fukai, a swamp exuding toxic vapors, covered an earth strewn with rusting ruins, threatening human survival” (Miyazaki, 2005). In the title sequence, we see a tapestry with mythical imagery. It starts with a girl look like an angel with a background of blue sky and half of the screen is reddish-brown with a sword and snake-like creatures. These colors and the contrast between them will be a fundamental coding in the film. From the mythic personification of both past and future events of this world, we understand that Nausicaä’s story will become a myth. It seems like Miyazaki still has hope for humanity and thinks that Nausicaä’s story will be told in later generations. Napier states that “Wordless and enigmatic, the credit sequence immediately establishes the seriousness and strangeness of the film to come, something different from anything ever seen before in animation” (Napier, 2018). In the title sequence Miyazaki cuts from the tapestry to a blue sky, with a contrast on the opening scene, we see Nausicaä riding her mehve. For Mehmet Korkut Öztekin, mehve (German: Möve meaning gull) shown in the film as the most peaceful, pure and fun form of flying (Oztekin, 2011: p. 104). It has an environmental-friendly machine. And it will be an inseparable part of Nausicaä, which is also apparent from the tapestry, with the symbolism of wings. In this scene, we also see a gigantic skull, which was showed at the beginning of the title sequence. They were bringing destruction and war to the world. From the moss and greenery, we understand that it was a war of the past. Also, we see forest of Fukai for the first time, its scale along with the skull shows humans are small and insignificant against nature. We see Nausicaä collecting spores, wander in the forest and then find an empty Ohmu shell with a childish giggle. The blue-toned colors in this scene and the calm attitude of Nausicaä make us feel peaceful. Then she hears a gunshot. She goes in haste to help. An Ohmu blinded by rage with its red eyes chases the person we saw in the opening. The first reaction of Nausicaä is “what an amazing Ohmu” (Miyazaki, 2005). Then she says that the ohmu is blinded by rage. Both this sentence and the red eyes of Ohmu makes us remember the Tatarigami from Princess Mononoke. She saves both sides without using violence. The sublime connection of Nausicaä to nature makes us understand that Nausicaä like Ashitaka and Chihiro is a mediator character in this film. Even in a dangerous situation, she looks with eyes unclouded. She tries to protect both non-human and human, bring about an agreement between the two sides of the war. Moreover, Miyazaki said that “Nausicaä is not a protagonist who defeats an opponent, but a 271

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protagonist who understands or accepts. She is someone who lives in a different dimension” (Cavallaro, 2015: p. 50). Miyazaki shows us Fukai as a wilderness. Moreover, this huge toxic fungus forest created by humans. Because of the cataclysmic conflict known as Seven Days of Fire and over-industrialization, the toxins’ apocalyptic consequences resulted in creating the Fukai. One can say that it was actually created because of the misuse of technology and humans’ meaningless wars. In the Fukai phosphorescent plants, fungi and huge trees like canopies grow; mutant insects and the giant Ohmus roam. Moreover, we see that Nausicaä making experiments about Fukai. We learn that it is not because of the fungi but the soil creates a toxic environment. For Mumcu and Yılmaz, Miyazaki’s aim to depict a forest which cleans the pollution in the toxic world of Nausicaä is not to show the usefulness of the Fukai for the people, on the contrary, he tries to demonstrate how humanity makes unfair assumptions and prejudiced (Mumcu & Yılmaz, 2018: p. 9). It is true when we think about the perspectives about Fukai in the film. Developed from the opening scenes, people show two different perspectives to Fukai. One is the Nausicaä’s view, coded with blue. For Nausicaä Fukai is a dynamic, living thing; dangerous but respected also scientifically analyzed. With Nausicaä’s empathy towards non-human, she can wander in the forest without harm. The second view is shared by especially people from Pejite and Torumekia. The Valley, hometown of Nausicaä eventually is surrounded by the violent battle of Pejite and Torumekia, but the most important battlefront will be the war against Fukai. Both Pejite and Torumekia are trying to seize power for their benefit and burn down the toxic forest to re-establish human dominance over nature. They cannot think about other possibilities such as peaceful alliances. Their attempt to steal kyoshinhei, the God Warrior bring the war to the Valley. Cavallaro states that the film delivers one of Miyazaki’s most extraordinary examples of the finesse of creating multilayered and clearly non-stereotypical personalities in Kushana’s, Torumekian princess’s figure: although represented as the villain of the piece, it is also directly linked to persuading motivations and emotions that rationalize her rigid quest of vengeance (Cavallaro, 2015: p. 50). This multilayered and non-stereotypical character type also comes up in Princess Mononoke as Lady Eboshi. While Kushana and her soldiers trying to revive the god warrior in the Valley. She gives a speech to the village about how they are on the brink of extinction because of the Fukai, therefore, they shall burn away it and resurrect the earth. The shaman of the village gives an important answer. We understand that countless times humans tried to burn Fukai. But every time herds of Ohmu, blinded with rage, have swarmed the earth. Therefore, humans must not touch the Fukai. After Nausicaä and Kushana headed to Torumekia, we see Asbel, a warrior of Pejite attacks Torumekian airplanes. It is important to note that, Nausicaä without bias or prejudice tries to prevent more killings. Moreover, she saves Kushana from the crashing plane. Also, she removes her mask to encourage people from her village in the toxic environment. These characteristics of Nausicaä show her commitment not just non-human, human too. When their planes put down on the sea in Fukai, people of the Valley cannot understand the reason Nausicaä saving Kushana, even Kushana remarks that Nausicaä is a fool. It makes us remember the scenes when Ashitaka saving or helping two sides of the conflict. Nausicaä warns Kushana not to fire her gun, that Fukai is not like the human world. We see her knowledge, but Kushana does not listen and fire her gun. In the non-human sphere, she still tries to order people. Nausicaä’s question is important here: “What are you so afraid of?” Then Ohmus come. It is evident that one of the most feared things in this world is Ohmu. With a peaceful and calm manner Nausicaä talks with them. 272

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Nausicaä after following Ohmus, find and saves Asbel. From the scenes where Asbel shoots at insects and they violently trip him up, we understand that they are reacting violence. They find themselves in a place with canopy like trees. She finds the same sand she used in her experiments. As Hadl puts by this revelation “The landscape introduced so dramatically early in the film turns out not to be a main protagonist” (Hadl, 2018: p. 354). Understanding fully what is Fukai, she notices Ohmus and other nonhuman life are actually protecting it for further human destruction. The reason for their aggressiveness has its source in this. In a way, they are like the kami of this half-European, half-alien world. Miyazaki’s animism can be seen in this film too. He commented: “I feel that there is something inside myself that can be called animism rather than religion. In fact, Nausicaä herself in this film is governed by a sort of animism” (Mayumi et al., 2005: p. 3) For Napier, the color palette used in the Fukai turns it “strangely beautiful Otherness”. She adds that the sphere of the nonhuman, the Fukai, through its complex ecosystem and the many huge insect inhabitants, claims its authority over the Earth, because they are the heirs of the polluted history of mankind. It’s no wonder the Ohmu are staying there. Their size, strength (physical and mental) and emotional depth indicate they may very well be the rightful inheritors of this post-apocalyptic world (Napier, 2018). For Cavallaro, The Ohmu is an enigmatic blend of violence and compassion, hatred and calmness (Cavallaro, 2015: p. 50). Murphy situates the Fukai as wilderness. It reflects nature as a “transcendent Other”. And because it generates the clean air and water which is essential for all existence, its disappearance as a consequence of any further human conflict will put an end not just to nature, but also to humanity itself. Secondly, the wilderness of Nausicaä is not over-idealized in its own right; it is depicted as toxic as it is now and eternally because of human conflict and harmful growth (Murphy, 2009: p. 12). Miyazaki’s vision of nonhuman beings recovering after the pollution human-caused comes from an environmental crisis in Japan namely the Minamata disaster. As explained before, after dumping chemicals were banned in the Minamata Bay, non-human life started to come back and this affected him deeply. He also adds that in the same period he was also disturbed about where humanity was headed (Miyazaki, 2014a: p. 392). When we come to the ending of the film, other than Nausicaä, everybody is headed to war. Pejite people start their second phase in the war. For wiping out Tolmekians they provoke an insect attack because they have to recover the kyoshinhei before they revive it. And the interesting thing is, for them, it is for saving the world. Both kyoshinhei and Ohmu is just a tool in their power relations. When Miyazaki talks about kyoshinhei, he says that in popular culture there are a lot of giant characters which give people power and he explains this “as a human desire for a larger existence than oneself or a desire for growth” however he adds his own commentary, for him, “the most power probably been created by technology. I think that technology is by itself neutral, innocent.” He gives the example of automobile, a loyal, neutral and innocent tool of technology. He adds that it may be safe to say that machines do not have souls, but people actually give souls to them. Just as a dog would follow his master’s commands as cruel the master maybe, its obedience, dedication, and self-sacrifice are the heart of a machine (Miyazaki, 2014a: p. 394). For Miyazaki, technology is not a non-natural thing, it is neutral, innocent, therefore, the people who use that technology is important. He embraces technology and nature as one. In Nausicaä, the Seven Days of Fire was happened because of the misuse of technology. Not because of the creation of kyoshinhei because they used it in a destructive way. While Nausicaä imprisoned by the solders of Pejite, the women of Pejite help her escape. She hurries back to Valley and finds the soldiers of Pejite carrying a wounded baby ohm. In the meantime, whole 273

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ground simmers with Ohmus headed to the Valley. She saves the baby ohm, her clothes turn into blue because of the Ohmu blood. The mythic story of a savior with blue clothes is visually reminded to us. Kushana brings kyoshinhei with its undeveloped body, as a body of thousand years old, it starts to rot but in his last breaths do as its master says. Its firepower seems like a nuclear bomb. After kyoshinhei rots, we see Nausicaä. The difference between the attitudes in two princesses can be read from their body language. Nausicaä touching baby Ohmu like she is trying to ease it, on the other side Kushana brings destruction by showing an enemy to kyoshinhei. Ohmus do not stop and Nausicaä dies, their attack to Valley continues. Then Master Yupa with the Pejite people looks at the herd of Ohmus. From the center, their rageful red eyes change into blue. Their golden feelers carry the dead Nausicaä. People from the Pejite, Torumekia and the Valley witness a miracle. Nausicaä comes back to life thanks to Ohmus. The final scene seems to suggest that they can find a third way in their relationship with nonhuman and Fukai, learn to live together in a peaceful manner and embrace nature. Nausicaä has a more hopeful ending in comparison with Mononoke-Hime. As Napier states when the latter problematizes an optimistic solution, Nausicaä’s apocalyptic vision ends with collective redemption and hope (Napier, 2016: p. 260). Murphy points out that when the non-human return with the baby Ohmu to the Fukai at the end of the film, their position has not been compromised. After the sacrifice of young Nausicaä, it was the people who had to change their ways (Murphy, 2009: p. 12). Therefore, nature remains faithful to their nature, as depicted in the film, for Miyazaki, it is the humanity who has to change, look with different perspectives not just useful or not.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS While the ecological crises become destructive, it is important to encourage further research on the human-nature relationship on the emerging crises of ecology where the traditional art of animation meshes perfectly with the momentous insights of posthumanism and ecocriticism. Because animation, as Hadl says, “preserves and revives animist (or post-humanist) thoughts through its technology” due to animating the inanimate (Hadl, 2018). Also, by getting to the core of what is ‘live’ and using drawings to create worlds and characters which are still forms sketched on dead wood, namely paper, but giving it ‘life’, it becomes the perfect medium for narrating and expressing the characteristics of the non-human.

CONCLUSION Hayao Miyazaki’s nature narratives in Mononoke-Hime, Spirited Away and Nausicaä the Valley of the Wind, reflect a synthesis of his life, his early works, his artistic and aesthetic philosophy along with his social, ethical and political worldview. In Mononoke-Hime, Miyazaki depicts a vision of a past, and the beginning of industrialization. The non-human kami and nature sphere and human sphere are in conflict. Ashitaka as a mediator stands between the forces of nature and humans. Miyazaki praises neither side. The important thing is seeing with eyes unclouded. The products of industrialization kill the great Shishigami and wilderness becomes a calm, peaceful and human-controlled nature. The continuation of industrialization, consumerism, and materialism is depicted in Spirited Away. Miyazaki shows us the kami, spirit realm that is polluted because of the human world. Even kami need 274

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to go to the bathhouse to relax and purify, and as a consequence of capitalism they end up paying for the services. Here, Miyazaki tries to warn us again of our excess consumerism. In this film, Chihiro also acts as a mediator. She does not want more than she needs. The ecological issues become apparent with polluted river kami and Haku another river spirit who lost his river to urban construction. Miyazaki shows the present time as a turning point. Finally, the future brings an apocalypse in Nausicaä. Because of over-industrialization and the misuse of technology, a toxic environment was created by human hands. Fukai, which is believed to be a toxic wilderness, actually purifies human-induced pollution. Nausicaä acts as a mediator between nonhuman and human. Moreover, it is important not to have a bias towards others and keep an open mind to different kinds of relationships. Nausicaä has to die for humanity to show other possibilities of living together with the non-human. Both Fukai and the forest of Shishigami are good examples of wilderness. They are ruled by nature and reflect the bias of humanity against nature. Shishigami’s forest eventually polluted by the human, on the contrary, Fukai was born from pollution. Spirited Away’s Yuya, on the other hand, shows us the cultural pollution created by humans. All depictions are coherent with Dark Ecology. Although Miyazaki never even hints at any restructuring of modern human communities, the “intrinsic value and inherent worth” of Deep Ecology corresponds with his approach to kami. However, if we consider that there is no judge of right or wrong in Shinto, we cannot talk about any absolute or intrinsic value in anything. Furthermore, the hierarchical relationships between women and man/femininity and masculinity are in line with the ecofeminism approach. The women of Tataraba in Mononoke and Kushana in Nausicaä break the preconceptions of women who are connected with nature. On the contrary, Ashitaka as a man does not symbolize rationalism but nature and balance. Princess Mononoke, Spirited Away and Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind have Miyazaki’s most ecological narratives. Sitting in a perfect timeline –past, present, future– these films offer new perspectives to look at nature and create new myths and histories. Miyazaki creates his own brand of myth of the past in Princess Mononoke by re-writing the Japanese history through an emphasis on outsiders, non-human and animism rather than conquests. He depicts a “hero’s journey” without resorting to the usual conqueror-hero, in a world where man and nature are in a conflict because of man’s own misconduct regarding technology and nature. He gives us balancing alternatives, mediator characters to see our past, not through the perspective of a patriarchal society and a history of victors over both nature and other men. Miyazaki carries these “past” myths onto the “present” in Spirited Away by showing the disengagement of humans with the spiritual part of the earth, namely the kami. And then he shapes a new myth around them: an evolution, or rather de-volution of the kami where these ancient spirits of nature have been affected thoroughly from human societies’ cultural and environmental pollution. He shows us that we can only find a balance for both us and the non-human if we reconnect with our roots in nature. He warns us about the “future” in Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind by showing us a postapocalyptic world where human-induced degeneration causes an apocalyptic ecological crisis. Even on the brink of extinction, we can still change our way of life, our relationship with nature, by seeing with eyes unclouded and showing respect to the earth and controlling our actions towards nature, which have up to now created over-industrialization, consumerism and materialism. As Val Plumwood puts it, merely showing the dualistic nature of man/woman, nature/human does not create problematic anthropocentrism or androcentrism. The main problem is rooted in Descartes’s introduction of separation of mind and body, along with the gendered dualism of mind and body. If we cannot free reason from androcentric philosophy, we cannot respect “earth others” (Garrard, 2004: pp. 275

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23–26). We can say that Miyazaki does not adopt the dualistic nature created by “Enlightenment”. On the contrary, by creating “fantasy spaces” with folkloric elements of animism like the kami, he also tries to connect us with our mythical past, which is not kneaded with “reason” of Western “humanistic” thought. This is a similar stance to that of ecological posthumanism. As Rosi Braidotti states, environmental theory underlines the connection between the designation of Man as the measure of all be it human or non-human, and the conquest of nature, thus condemning the misconducts of science and technology. Both involve epistemic and corporal abuse against the structural’ others’ and have their roots in the all-encompassing concept of “reason” as it was defined by European Enlightenment. She adds that especially in this search for new substantial forms of universality, Shiva and Mies emphasize the import of life-sustaining spirituality: a devotion to the sanctity of life, and profound respect for all living things. For Braidotti, Shiva and Mies in a broad sense, demand for the “re-enchantment of the world” or for restoring the Earth and that which has been so cruelly separated. Instead of the stressing on independence from the realm of “natural necessity”, Shiva asks for a form of independence that exists within that realm and in balance with it (Braidotti, 2013: p. 49). While the ecological crises become destructive, while utopias, distopias or other forms of narratives are used for introducing statements and arguments on nature, the new myths and histories Miyazaki narrate get more and more important. Miyazaki uses the specialties of animation fully by inviting the viewers to identify with the non-human on an emotional basis without resorting to anthropocentrism.

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Heise, U. K. (2008). Sense of place and sense of planet: The environmental imagination of the global (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195335637.001.0001 Heise, U. K. (2014). Plasmatic nature: Environmentalism and animated film. Public Culture, 26(2 (73)), 301–318. doi:10.1215/08992363-2392075 Iovino, S. (2016). Posthumanism in literature and ecocriticism. Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism, 4(1), 11–20. Kalland, A., & Asquith, P. J. (n.d.). Japanese perceptions of nature—ideals and illusions. In P. J. Asquith & A. Kalland (Eds.), Japanese Images of Nature (pp. 1–35). Retrieved December 10, 2019, from https:// books.google.com/books/about/Japanese_Images_of_Nature.html?hl=tr&id=XbvX9LKrgI8C Kellert, S. R. (1991). Japanese perceptions of wildlife. Conservation Biology, 5(3), 297–308. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1991.tb00141.x Killingsworth, M. J. (2010). “As if the beasts spoke”: The animal/animist/animated Walt Whitman. Walt Whitman Quarterly Review, 28(1–2), 19–35. doi:10.13008/2153-3695.1949 Mayumi, K., Solomon, B. D., & Chang, J. (2005). The ecological and consumption themes of the films of Hayao Miyazaki. Ecological Economics, 54(1), 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.03.012 Miyazaki, H. (2005, September 26). Nausicaa of the valley of the wind. Studiocanal. Miyazaki, H. (2014a). Starting point, 1979-1996 (B. Cary & F. L. Schodt, Trans.). VIZ Media LLC. Miyazaki, H. (2014b). Turning point, 1997-2008 (B. Cary & F. L. Schodt, Trans.). VIZ Media LLC. Miyazaki, H. (2014c, November 18). Princess Mononoke. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. Mumcu, S., & Yılmaz, S. (2018). Anime landscapes as a tool for analyzing the human–environment relationship: Hayao Miyazaki films. Arts, 7(2), 16. doi:10.3390/arts7020016 Murphy, A. (2009). Future traditions of nature. Traditional Dwellings and Settlements Review, 21(1), 7–20. Murray, R. L., & Heumann, J. K. (2011). That’s all folks? Ecocritical readings of American animated features. University of Nebraska Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1df4gsn Napier, S. (2018). Miyazakiworld: A life in art. Yale University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv5cg9q3 Napier, S. J. (2016). Anime from Akira to Howl’s Moving Castle: Experiencing contemporary Japanese animation (2nd ed.). St. Martin’s Griffin. Oppermann, S. (2013). Feminist ecocriticism—A posthumanist direction in ecocritical trajectory. In G. Gaard, S. C. Estok, & S. Oppermann (Eds.), International Perspectives in Feminist Ecocriticism (pp. 19–36). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203520840-2 Oppermann, S. (2016). From posthumanism to posthuman ecocriticism. Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism, 4(1), 23–37. doi:10.7358/rela-2016-001-oppe Oztekin, M. K. (2011). Manga—bir kulturel direnis araci. Iletisim Yayınları.

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Reider, N. T. (2005). “Spirited Away”: Film of the fantastic and evolving Japanese folk symbols. Film Criticism, 29(3), 4–27. Reinders, E. (2016). The moral narratives of Hayao Miyazaki. McFarland & Company. Shirane, H. (2012). Japan and the culture of the four seasons: Nature, literature, and the arts. Columbia University Press. Snyder, G. (2003). The practice of the wild: Essays. Counterpoint. Suzuki, A. (n.d.). A nightmare of capitalist Japan: “Spirited Away.” Retrieved October 16, 2019, from https://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/jc51.2009/SpiritedAway/ Thrupkaew, N. (2002, October 21). Animation sensation: Why Japan’s magical Spirited Away plays well anywhere. (The Critics Film). The American Prospect. Retrieved from, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/ doc/A92686794/AONE?sid=lms Willoquet-Maricondi, P. (2010). Introduction: From literary to cinematic ecocriticism. In P. WilloquetMaricondi (Ed.), Framing the World (pp. 1–22). University of Virginia Press. Yazgünoğlu, K. C. (n.d.). The postecological world of John Burnside: Dark green nature, pollution, and eco-grief in Glister. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi, 59(1), 41-69.

ADDITIONAL READING Buell, L. (2005). The future of environmental criticism: Environmental crisis and literary imagination. Wiley-Blackwell. Greenberg, R. (2018). Hayao Miyazaki: Exploring the early work of Japan’s greatest animator. Bloomsbury Academic. doi:10.5040/9781501335976 Hu, T.-Y. G. (2010). Frames of anime: Culture and image-building. Hong Kong University Press. doi:10.5790/hongkong/9789622090972.001.0001 Koyama-Richard, B. (2010). Japanese animation: From painted scrolls to Pokemon. Flammarion. Lamarre, T. (2013). The anime machine: A media theory of animation. U of Minnesota Press. McCarthy, H. (1999). Hayao Miyazaki: Master of Japanese animation : Films, themes, artistry. Stone Bridge Press. McCloud, S. (1994). Understanding comics: The invisible art. William Morrow Paperbacks. Poitras, G. (2008). Contemporary Anime in Japanese Pop Culture. In M. W. MacWilliams (Ed.), Japanese Visual Culture (pp. 48–67). Routledge. Schodt, F. L. (2013). Manga! Manga!: The world of Japanese comics (Reprint edition). Kodansha International.

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Tallmadge, J., & Harrington, H. (2000). Reading under the sign of nature: New essays in ecocriticism. University of Utah Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Androcentrism: Evaluating things such as cultures and individuals with a male-centric worldview male. Anime: Japanese style animation aimed both children and adults. Anthropocentrism: Putting human beings in front of God and beings other than human, regarding them as a central element in existence. Consumerism: Increasing consumption of goods which are mostly unnecessary in an industrial society. Dichotomy: A division and difference between two contradictory, opposite ideas, or entities. Industrialization: The development process of industries in a country or culture. Materialism: The belief that material possessions and comfort are more important than spiritual values. Shinto: Indigenous Japanese belief system which is polytheistic and revolves around both animate and inanimate things.

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The Unbearable Aesthetics of Violence That Comes From Another Dimension: Gotham City

Filiz Erdoğan Tuğran https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2793-0289 Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT In the 2000s, when the possibilities of cinema increased considerably, many violent stories became animatable with the help of technology. The Joker has been seen as the enemy of Batman and the city called Gotham City with unjustified violent acts. The film The Joker focuses on the Joker’s life before all the acts of violence and how he went through the processes before doing these acts. In other words, the script of the film turned into the cause of the violence and took action to find the main reasons why the Joker turned into such a brutal character. This chapter will focus on the aesthetization of violence in cinema based on the Joker character and The Joker film that released in 2019. It will try to shed light on the relationship between art and violence based on the question of how the violence presented in many works of cinema can be approved.

INTRODUCTION: THE AESTHETICS OF VIOLENCE OR THE VIOLENCE OF AESTHETICS The end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century mark a period of history in which very important political and social developments took place for the whole World. It is inevitable to see that movements such as the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment and the French Revolution that started in Europe in the 16th century followed a chain development. All these movements significantly affect the artistic organization as well as the social order. The Romanticism movement that emerged against Classicism1 in art with the French Revolution is largely an indicator of artistic change. There are DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch015

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callous art movements before Romanticism, but Romanticism focuses entirely on emotion. “In every field, artists moved away from the literature and philosophy of the ancient world glorified by the Neoclassical style and turned towards a very personal, very emotional subjectivity” (Melick, 2015: p.238). The movement, without a doubt, makes its most important breakthrough with literature. Famous writers of the period begin to reflect the love, war, class conflict and many moods to the readers with their works. As of the time of its release, literature serves as a kind of cinema, and builds characters that people can imitate. Famous romanticist of the period also invite people to see themselves and to recognize these new emotions with dozens of works in which emotions are revealed. Themes such as love sprouting during war, romantic relationships outside marriage, courage and death pour down on the people from the pen of romantic writers. These works, which point to an admirable feeling in almost everything, are effective not only in literature but also in many art fields such as painting, music and sculpture.

ROMANTICISM AND KANT’S CRITIQUE OF JUDGMENT The first representatives of the Romanticism movement are seen as literary figures. Adopting irregularity as a reaction to the prescriptive works of the classical movement and bringing subjectivity to the forefront instead of objectivity, the artists who are representatives of this movement breathed their artistic spirit into the period. In the classical period, the artist aims to reflect reality to the finest detail, almost like a camera, and literary works reveal almost perfect heroes. These heroes are ideal people who are extremely courageous, extremely strong, show no weakness under any circumstances, and do almost everything necessary to face the destiny that presented to them. “The authors, who were overwhelmed by the strict normality of classicism and had to produce works within the framework of dictated themes, gathered around this trend thanks to the characteristic of romantic understanding that cares about individuality and gives them the opportunity to observe, think and write freely” (Şahbaz, 2016: p.339). Together with the backgrounds such as the French Revolution, the July Revolution, and the Enlightenment thought, which the current is particularly nurtured, it has important contributions in revealing the revolutionary dynamics of the “subject” in the art world. If we are going to talk about the Romanticism movement, it is necessary to deal with this subject in connection with Immanuel Kant’s III. Critique, ” Critique of Judgment “. Art has always pursued the aesthetic, but the addressee of aesthetic judgment has changed with Kant and later with the romantics. Kant brings a different perspective to the mathematical, calculable, objective aesthetic judgments of the preceding period by putting the subject in the foreground. According to Kant, finding something nice or good is hidden in the relation between the design of the object and the existence of the subject, but the judgment of taste is all about the audience, and the audience does not care about the object’s design or need to connect it with its own existence. So what is beautiful is universally pleasurable without concept. (Kant, 2006: p.40). Although Kant, who put forward the judgment of taste as a judgment about the audience, tries to universalize the aesthetic and pleasant in his later statements, what he actually does can be seen as giving the audience an unlimited word on aesthetic taste. Kant continues his explanations by detailing the concept of the sublime and beautiful. He suggests that the sense of beauty can be felt against certain objects in form, while depicting the sublime as a feeling that develops for things with unlimited and 281

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indeterminate forms that are astonishment. “Kant calls “astonishment” in front of nature, and “a sense of beauty” in the face of a work of art” (Baker, 2015: p.162). In other words, Kant distinguishes between nature and non-nature and determines the aesthetic as completely human production. From this point of view, aesthetics now becomes something worldly, even belonging to the subject, by bidding farewell to its old definitions such as the production of a genius, the design of a higher power. However, Kant will leave the freedom he offers to the subject orphans, since he says that it is necessary to reach a compromise for what is beautiful. For Kant, the subject is both free and chained. If they are romantics, they want to free him from their chains. The most important thing that the Romantics learned from Kant is that the world is not a readymade work. According to Kant, the knowledge of the world is the result of the activity of the knowing subject. The knowledge of the world does not belong to the world, it belongs to the subject. (Dellaloğlu, 2010: p.26). From this point of view, the subject will become stronger than ever before, thanks to Kant, and the Romanticist will ascribe to the subject the power to determine the destiny of himself and the world altogether. Kant, who gives the modern definition to art, separates aesthetics from ethics and logistics and suggests that the purpose and meaning of art consists of itself (Artun, 2011: p.24). Thus, while Kant actually attributes a different power of judgment to aesthetics, it causes art to stray from its past meanings, almost making it independent. If Kant recognized his autonomy by detaching art from the theoretical and practical mind, the romantics who followed him also structured this autonomy (Artun, 2011: p.25). The subject is no longer the religious or science-based subject of the past, the subject itself is the founder. The Romanticist’s vision of the subject does not only start from what is, it tries to create by including what is not. The romantic subject is not only constitutive but also destructive, and actively acts on the imagination of other universes, they aim at a subject who often asks itself what else is possible. Kant detaches not only the subject but also the concept of the beautiful, it is no longer a reflection of the nature perfectly imitated in the classical sense, for the romantics “that is, they liberate the” beautiful “from the epistemological dominance of the knowledge of the” good “and” true ” (Artun, 2011: p.24). Romanticism can be defined as one of the most important steps when it comes to individualization of human beings because to know your feelings, to understand what your feelings are means to know yourself. It is precisely at this point that although the movement opposed many things in its period (and Enlightenment thought is one of them), it takes the support of Enlightenment; it also takes support on Rene Descartes well known words “I think therefore I am” and Kant’s well known thougts” Sapere aude!” (have courage to use your own reason). “Enlightenment is man’s release from his self-incurred tutelage. Tutelage is man’s inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another. Self-incurred is this tutelage when its cause lies not in lack of reason but in lack of resolution and courage to use it without direction from another. Sapera aude! Have courage to use your own reason (Kant, 2000: p.17). The Romanticist put endless possibilities on the subject and art, in order not to take this blame on them. Based on Kant’s distinction, the subject will decide what the beauty is, but it is not something that romantics can accept if a consensus is reached on this decision. “The experience of the beauty also enables us to realize ‘aesthetic ideas’” (Wood, 2009: p.193). The constantly experienced beauty causes the same reaction to certain patterns, which is a liking reaction because beauty is pleasant and creates a sense of liking in people. At this point, the aesthetic awareness of the subject will reach a high level and life will gradually become a place where aesthetics become more evident. “For the Romanticist, 282

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the aestheticization of life is a liberation; even though they expressed it in a whisper” (Dellaloğlu, 2010: p.30). However, unlike Kant, the romantics insist that the subject must be completely free in making this decision, according to them, beauty need not be something that is constantly experienced or compromised. “The romantic work cannot be based on a causal relationship; unpredictable; it is always open to joke, irony, parody. The most important reason for this is that romantic reality is a reality constructed by subjective imagination. Romanticist doesn’t try to transform the world, it builds a whole new world” (Dellaloğlu, 2010: p.82). This point of view makes it necessary to refer to Gilles Deleuze’s concepts of actuality, virtuality and therefore the sensory-motor mechanism. Deleuze explains his actual concept especially based on experiences, according to him, an event experienced once becomes actual for people. For example, once a plant blooms, you know how it will bloom again, and this becomes actual, but thinking about how a plant you have never seen blooming will make it virtual. In other words, in the face of an unexperienced event, a person will experience virtuality, not actuality. “Not only are there as many statements as there are effectuations, but all of the statements are present in the effectuation of one among them, so that the line of variation is virtual, in other words, real without being actual, and consequently continuous regardless of the leaps the statement makes” (Deleuze & Guattari, 2005: p.94). After these concepts, Deleuze talks about the sensory-motor mechanism. This concept, which is frequently used in movement-image cinema, is about the audience finding the next scene of the film predictable. A cliche is a sensory-motor image of the thing... We therefore normally perceive only cliches. But, if our sensory-motor schemata jam or break, then a different type of image can appear: a pure optical-sound image, the whole image without metaphor, brings out the thing in itself, literally, in its excess of horror or beauty, in its radical or unjustifiable character, because it no longer has to be) justified’ for better or for worse…(Deleuze, 1997: p.20). The audience, who witnesses similar scenes, predicts the direction of the narrative and watches the movie accordingly. However, cinema, which started to produce images especially after the Second World War, transforms and changes, movies are far from being computable according to the sensorymotor mechanism, time-image cinema offers the audience unpredictable images that they have never experienced before, so the cinema becomes virtual. In fact, indirectly, this virtuality bears similarities with the Romantic thought, and the movement of Romanticism turns its eye not on existing orders, but on those that have not yet been realized, which brings with it a new vision of the world, and the starting point of the movement is, in a way, the French Revolution, which is the most important step taken to make what has not happened before.

ART AND VIOLENCE The history of art is often known as the history of the western world, and is actually a small reflection of violent, horrifying events. It can be said that even the earliest cave paintings contain blood and violence, and the art, which mostly tries to reflect mythological and religious events, has been intimate with violence from the very beginning. “Art of the Western world is particularly prone to images of violence; so much so that its history is narrated in connection with the conditions of violence that describe the major periods of Western civilization” (Trend, 2008: pp.103-104). The first known narratives such as mythologies and religious narratives, are full of violent scenes. “Greek mythology is full of blood and 283

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shattered bodies. Violence in the eyes of the gods is a perfectly normal, even natural means to achieve purpose and to impose willpower” (Chul-Han, 2017: p.15). Therefore, the Western World and its history are intertwined with violence, just like the mythological and religious history of the Eastern World. At this point, the Romnaticism Movement that we mentioned in the first parts of the article mentions the perpetuation of violence only by free subjects. However, art, which has existed since the emergence of human, is actually the art of violence and fear. It is possible to find fierce emotions in almost every piece on historical artifacts, from the Egyptian Pyramids to the Greek Temples. According to the cultural critic Susan Sontag, she wrote that ” It seems that the appetite for pictures showing bodies in pain is as keen, almost, as the desire for ones that show bodies naked” (Sontag, 2005: p.40). The reason for the opening of this title is to not think that violence is the work of Romanticist only. Violence is conveyed to people through art through colors, notes or landscapes, and the aestheticization of it by art makes it easier to watch. Therefore, “art is both the violence itself and the message it contains, it is even in the expectation it contains” (Ötgün, 2008: p.91). Artworks undoubtedly keep records of the history of violence, many religious, mythical, historical events, and almost every remarkable development that is remembered with the violence they contain, are recorded as works of art by the artists. But how is it decided what is entitled to be portrayed, whose monumental structures can be built and which is right? According to Sontag; The sufferings most often deemed worthy of representation are those understood to be the product of wrath, divine or human. (Suffering from natural causes, such as illness or childbirth, is scantily represented in the history of art; that caused by accident, virtually not at all—as if there were no such thing as suffering by inadvertence or misadventure.) (Sontag, 2005: 39). At this point, it would be appropriate to refer to the painting named ” Landscape with the Fall of Icarus” attributed to Pieter Brueghel in 1558. The story of Icarus and his father Deadalus2, perhaps one of the most tragic stories in Greek Mythology, is presented in an interesting way by Brueghel. Deadalus is known as the most important and most skillful inventor ever seen in the ancient Greek world. His greatest achievement is that he trapped Minotauros, the terrible creature with a bull head, human body and feeding on human flesh, into a labyrinth hard to escape. However, this situation is not enough to solve the problems of the local people because every year seven women and seven men have to be sacrificed to Minotauros. Finally, the hero Theseus, who hears the voice of the public, takes the path of the labyrinth to kill Minotauros, but at the entrance to the maze, he will meet and fall in love with King Minos’s beautiful daughter Ariadne. Because Ariadne is afraid that Theseus will not return, she will ask Deadalus for help, thanks to a red ball of rope, Theseus will kill Minotauros and gets his love out of the labyrinth without losing his way.“For centuries, Deadalus represented the artist-scientist type: surprisingly carefree, an almost demonic type of person standing beyond the usual limits of social judgment, attached to the morality of his art, not his age” (Campbell, 2017: p.36). But this carelessness was harmed by a small decision, and Deadalus set out on his own tragedy. Learning that Deadalus is involved in this, the King imprisons him and his son in a tower. No matter what happens, Deadalus sets out to flee from the tower with his son, sticking the feathers he collected with wax and making his son Icarus and himself a pair of wings, they move away from the tower. Before flying from the tower, Deadalus will warn his son not to fly too high and close to the sun, he will warn his son by telling that he has glued the wings with wax, that if he approaches the sun, the wax will melt and the feathers will fall off. But with the joy of being able to fly and the influence of youth, Icarus forgets his father’s words and as he rises, he rises, triggering a chain of events that will cause his wings to be damaged and eventually to fall. Throughout 284

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Figure 1. Landscape with the Fall of Icarus” attributed to Pieter Brueghel in 1558 (https://lunantique. blogspot.com/)

the history of art, it is seen that this tragic event has been depicted many times or is subject to many different fields of art, but Brueghel’s work differs from all other depictions. Looking at the painting, which is understood from its name, which is the subject of one of the most tragic stories of Greek Mythology, it is seen that the story stands in the background to highlight an ordinary scene in the work. In fact, an observer unfamiliar with the story may not even pay attention to the feet of a drowning person in the sea at the bottom right of the painting. The people in the painting are unaware of this tragic incident, and no one notices that Icarus, pictured in the details as he just fell through, is about to die. There is not even a work in this picture of the father Deadalus, who was dragged into deep pain by the fall of his son, so the most tragic story in the history of mythology is completely left in the background with such a narration. Art also allows us to see reality from another perspective. “We may have to tolerate the moral rift between imagination and reality, the horrors that will not be tolerated in society, the rape and mutilation with art” (Paglia, 1996: p.100). Looking at violence is mediated through aesthetics, and the audience can comfortably glance at the tragedy by combining the narrative that needs to be seen with other aesthetic elements.

CINEMA AND VIOLENCE Since its first performance in 1896, cinema has always been in close contact with literature and all other branches of art. In addition to the Lumière Brothers, who transferred real-life scenes to the big screen as they were, Georg Mélies, who aimed to construct a magical reality and appeared before the public with many literary adaptations, also put forward his art in the early years of cinema. “The Cinematographe, in which the Lumière first showed documentaries, was a proof of French superiority; but his

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compatriot Georg Mélies became the world’s foremost filmmaker during this early stage of cinema” (Nowell-Smith, 2008: p.31). Although it is known that these two different poles are still continuing in cinema, the art of cinema started to transfer literary adaptations to cinema at great speed. The striking works of the 1900s, especially the classics with plenty of fans, were transferred to the cinema one after another, and they realized that the works aimed at certain emotions such as violence, love, revenge, passion, fear attracted the audience more to the cinema. With this realization, genres will be created in the cinema, films that have the potential to attract more viewers even for certain age groups and certain seasons will begin to be produced. Just like the division of literary works into genres, the art of cinema will be divided into genres and will connect the audience who are passionate about each genre to the big screen with different films. Romanticism, realism, expressionism, classicism will often find their place on the screens with different narratives, and cinema will continue to benefit from these movements. Not only literary works, but also theatrical works, which are considered to be the closest art to cinema, will often become the subject of cinema. Dracula (1931), directed by Tod Browning, one of the first horror films to be presented to the audience on the big screen, conveys the walking savagery of violence to the audience, Dracula has some reasons to suck people’s blood, but another film of the period, Das Cabinet Des Dr Caligari (1920), directed by Robert Wiene, the violence experienced in his practice is mostly unreasonable, taking a mental illness fund as his background, giving the viewer frantic frames. “Violence sometimes becomes causal (war, reckoning, seeking justice) or sometimes, as if it is an unconnected and self-sufficient phenomenon, declaring its independence, defending its own rights and drawing its boundaries (aesthetics and customs), gradually gaining its romance, painting it red” (Scognamillo, 1996: pp.357-358). Western films reconstruct a history written in guns and blood. Hollywood, the heart of the cinema industry, continues to reflect violence from movies, despite many laws created on the negative effects of violence in movies. Alfred Hitchcock made the movie Psycho (1960) without blood and knife blow, walked the boundaries of prohibitions with her overlapping fictional techniques and drew the roadmap for shooting creepy scenes by obeying all the rules. Alfred Hitchcock made the movie Psycho (1960) without blood and knife blow, walked the boundaries of prohibitions with his overlapping fictional techniques and drew the roadmap for shooting creepy scenes by obeying all the rules. In an interview with François Truffaut, the famous French New Wave director, he answers Truffaut’s question of why you wanted to film this novel: “I think the thing that appealed to me and maybe decide to do the Picture was the suddenness of the murder in the shower, coming, as it were, out of the blue. That was about all” (Kolker, 2004: p.14). It is interesting that Hitchcock’s ordinary answer is in fact set on his mind to transfer this novel to the film thanks to unreasonable and sudden violence, he seems sure that if he pursues it, the viewer will also fall, and the sudden murder of a woman bathing in the shower is quite attractive. “The cause of violence is often unclear, but the object of violence has clear boundaries. The object of violence is the ‘other’, the one that can be sacrificed or, in the most naive definition, one that is not ‘me’ (Girard, 2003: p.12). Therefore, in many films, the victims of violence are coded as the others, the excluded, the powerless, women and children, that is, the victims, whereas the perpetrators are usually the scary villains of the movies. “All the qualities that make violence scary, that blind brute force, the nonsense of being unleashed, is not the only feature of violence: besides these, violence has that strange tendency to attack the substitute victim, which allows him/her to be deceived as an enemy, to throw a poor loot to satisfy him/her at the right moment” (Girard, 2003: p.12). Violence with this kind of background is often familiar to people, even a brief history reading shows that pre-Modern States violence was publicly held as a sacrifice ceremony or a dietary reckoning. “The staging of violence in both archaic culture and 286

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antiquity is an internal yes, even a central element of social communication. Cruel violence in modernity increasingly loses its legitimacy not only on the political scene, but on almost all social levels” (ChulHan, 2017: p.17). According to Foucault, there is also violence in Modernity, but this violence is carried out in closed spaces, not in visible spaces: “Physical pain, the pain of the body itself, is no longer the constituent element ... At the beginning of the nineteenth century, then, the great spectacle of physical punishment disappeared; the tortured body ... of seventy, one did not go beyond this stage” (Foucault, 1992: pp.16-17). Although this situation eliminated the daily manifestations of punitive violence, the description of violence and the demonstration of violence continued as a viewing activity in other media (literature, painting, photography, cinema). With the developing technology after the early years of cinema, cinema will set its eyes on the world of comics, and comic book stories, which already have many fans, will be presented to a wide fan base on the big screen. “A study examining the latest trends in big-budget Hollywood Movies in 2002 documented the superiority of violent genres over categories such as family movies, comedy and drama” (Trend, 2008: pp.117). Especially since the early 2000s, as a result of the successful filming of The Lord of the Rings, directed by Peter Jakson, the Hollywood industry will include a lot of stories from the two giant comics industries, Marvel and DC Comics, and the majority of the market develops it’s share completely based on these films. Many films under the name of Superman, Wonderwoman, Batman, Captain America and Avengers will meet with the audience, and the developing CGI technology will offer huge opportunities for creating scenes that challenge the imagination. The Joker movie, born into such a movie universe, comes from the Batman series, which is known as the most important character of DC Comics. Following Tim Burton’s trilogy that was full of expressionist references in the 1980s and 1990s, Christopher Nolan also makes a quick start to the 2000s with Batman movies. In both series, very famous actors play both the Batman character and the Joker character, leading to a perfect transfer of the eternal hostility between these two characters to the audience. The prominent actors who play the Joker in these films can be identified as Jack Nicholson (1989), Heath Ledger (2005) and Joaquin Phoenix (2019). All three actors are Oscar-winning actors with a wide fan base. Of these, Heath Ledger was found dead right after the shooting of the film, and his teammates had to accept the Oscar statue instead of him. This added much more credits to the Joker’s reputation both in comics and on the big screen, and the solo movie rumors, which were discussed for a long time, came to the fore in 2015. This character, which is in stark contrast to the existence of Batman for heroism and justice, has acquired a wide fan base, and his quality performances have deeply impressed the audience. In the end, Todd Philips announced that he will shoot a solo Joker movie, and from then on, all serial enthusiasts have their eyes on the release date of the movie. When this movie, which is a Hollywood production like the other series, was released in theaters, a certain fan base was disappointed, and they stated that they did not like the movie when they could not see the action scenes they were accustomed to and eagerly anticipated. Although the movie looks like a classic Hollywood movie, it has returned with awards from many festivals abroad, and with its successful art direction, cinematography, music, color palette and meticulous scenes of the director, all the qualities of a real festival movie have been clarified. At the end of the first week of its release in theaters, many countries banned from entering the movie in clown costume, and many politicians openly declared that the film dragged the audience to anarchy. The film elaborates on the character of the Joker that was previously seen in the Batman movie as an in-depth character, showing the audience behind the scenes of how he became Batman’s arch-enemy, his ascension as Gotham City’s prince of evil. The film, which emphasizes the human side of the Joker, draws attention with the fact that the name Joker is 287

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never used until the end of the movie. The main character of the film is Arhur Fleck, and of course he will be the Joker, but in this story, which is obvious from the beginning, this character, which is reflected in three dimensions for the first time, will turn into a Joker with the effect of the experiences that he has to witness. This character, who organizes acts of violence that shakes the authority and inflicts a lot of pain on the people, is a person who appears before people with his flesh and bones, is crushed by the society, ignored by politicians, marginalized, and has psychological problems. Shot under the direction of Tod Philips, the film offered viewers the opportunity to look at the character of the Joker as Arthur Fleck, and offered them to look at the violence for it’s reasons. “Particularly, the audience, who both celebrates violence by embodying it in their real life and at the same time condemns violence due to the perception in the society, causes the difference between the types of violence presented in different media and the deployment of violence”(Gül, Sepetçi, 2018: p.26). This person, who emerges from the people and tries to deal with the standard problems of daily life in his own way, realizes that he has gotten his life and wages war against the order, and the ordinary people or the audience start to wait for this war by supporting him. When it comes to the Joker movie, it can be it can be thought that a consensus has been reached about about the movie’s goodness, considering the movie’s viewing statistics, awards and IMDB score. However, before going into the details of this solo film for an antihero, we need to take a brief look at the antihero character.

THE JOKER AND THE RISE OF THE ANTI-HERO The concept of antihero is one of the most frequently encountered concepts in cinema and literature. Although the name antihero is generally not used in Ancient Greek Tragedies, this person, who is positioned opposite the hero, is an important detail in terms of reinforcing the character of the hero. The fact that the main character is a strong, fair, honest character becomes more prominent when her/his opposite character is organized as an unfair, deceitful and powerless character. This narrative designated as hero and its opposite is perfectly similar to Western dualism. However, this concept has actually started to be used quite recently and first appeared before the reader as the main character in a literary work. Antihero is first used in trader Dostoyevski’s novel Notes from Underground (1864) in place of hero or protagonist ... with underground man, Dostoevsky portrays a contrary example of a hero who does not satisfy the expectations of readers, but still dominates the novel as the main character (Kadiroğlu, 2012: p.2). After Dostoyevsky’s novel The Gambler, the reader will often begin to encounter such characters, indeed, later the cinema will recruit this character and use it in many films, but especially in the film-noir genre, this person will function as the locomotive of the film. “In A Glosson of Literary Terms, literon critic M.H. Abrons defines antihero as ‘ the chief person in a modern novel or play whose character is widely ...or dishonest’” (Kadiroğlu, 2012: p.3). The reason that the concept of Antihero, which does not have the characteristics of the classic hero, such as honesty and determination, has become so strong with modernity can actually be sought in modern cities and in the modern world. The known enemy of ancient tragedies has turned into an anti-hero in modern cities, sometimes even depicted as the fall of a hero, and has become an anti-hero as a character that has morally collapsed in the ruined world. . ‘A modern villain is often a foil fort he hero or at the very least a dark reflection of what the hero hides or could have become’(Purushothaman, 2020: 154). Georg Simmel, in his article “Metropolis and Mental Life” written in 1903, talks about the role the metropolis plays in the change of individuals and the weary attitude that it obliges people to wear. 288

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In the blasé attitude theconcentration of men and things stimulate the nervous system of the individual to its highest achievement so that it attains its peak. Through the mere quantitative intensification of the same conditioning factors this achievement is transformed into its opposite and appears in the peculiar adjustment of the blasé attitude. In this phenomenon the nerves find in therefusal to react to their stimulation the last possibility of accommodating to the contents andforms of metropolitan life. The self-preservation of certain personalities is brought at the price of devaluating the whole objective world, a devaluation which in the end unavoidably drags one’s own personality down into a feeling of the same worthlessness. (Simmel, 2005: p.174). Throughout the film, it is not overlooked how devalued the character of Arthur Fleck is. He cannot act as a victim in a violent incident committed against him, and even though he is mentally unstable, the state refuses to help him. Even though he is dragged into crime, he will receive attention, he will go after law enforcement, he will be mentioned anonymously in the media and will receive the support of a certain section of the public in the face of the reasons stated in the following parts of the article. However, while all this is happening, the place is always metropolis, Arthur Fleck and the character of the Joker, which he later transformed into, emerges in the conditions of the modern metropolis. After feudalism, with the industrial revolution and capitalism, the period is no longer the period of heroes, but of the workers, the bourgeois class, the alienated individuals in the city. Although most of these individuals, who disappear in the endless stream of life, have features that make them distinctive, they will be doomed to disappear thanks to the lights of the city. Although most of these individuals, who disappear in the endless stream of life, whom maybe have features that make them distinctive, all of them will be doomed to disappear thanks to the lights of the city. The modern individual, who commutes between work and home and establishes secondary relationships, will no longer be able to come to the fore by doing heroic acts, they rather have features such as messing up everything in their hands and not being able to think solution-oriented in the face of problems. An antihero might not have high moral standards and might be indecent unlike the traditional principle character of mythology folklore or legends . Lacking valour, he is sometimes a coward . As a result, he is not behonored as a saviour or leader (Kadiroğlu, 2012: p.3). However, the audience still finds a way to hold on to these anti-heroes, to support them. The audience supports them, whether they win, sometimes because of the feeling of being next to the weak, and sometimes by thinking that all the injustices that have been done to them are also done to the anti-hero. However, antiheroes who are successful enough to get their revenge often cannot be saviors or leaders because most of them lack of leadership qualities.

Arthur Fleck’s Ordinary Life It all starts with the news on TV, audiences hear the news from tv and it’s talking about Gotham City’s corrupted situation. When the audiences are hearing all about big rats and garbarge problems in Gotham City, Arthur Fleck is wearing his make up in front of the mirror and trying to get ready for his show. He seems that he does’t care about any news on TV, sitting in front of a mirror in a clown office’s dressing room. Then the camera moves on at the scene where Arthur is sitting in a clown clothes, making his moves with a sign in front of the Kenny’s Music. Three teenagers started to make fun of his shoes and mocking with him, then take his sign and run away with it. Arthur begins to chase them right in to the alley, finally he thinks he can catch them they started to beat him up for no reasons.

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Next scene opens in social services, Arhur is talking to a lady which is obvious that she is a pyscholog, after a lot of laughters he has at the meeting, the audiences understand something wrong with him because even if he wanted to stop laughing he couldn’t seem to manege to stop. Finally after he stops laughing, he asks her ‘Is it just me or is it just getting crazier out there?’ and at first time he seems like he is interesting with the outside world esspecially the news about Gotham City. After pyscholog confirms his anxiety about the outside world she asks about his journal that she wanted before to bring that up to the meetings that they regularly have. At first he hesitates to give his journal to her but after she insists a few times, he brings the journal to her and explain that he is using it as a joke diary to. After they speak about his seven different medications he leaves out and goes to his apartment. He cheks his mailbox and then gets in to his home that he shares with his mum Penny Fleck. When he comes in, she asks him ‘Happy, did you chek the mailbox’ and he answers ‘Yeah, Mum, nothing’, in this scene, the audiences are sure that Penny has never received an answer to her letters before. Penny Fleck is a single mum, who seems desperate and sick all the time doing nothing when Happy (she calls his son Happy) is not around the house. Happy is the one who cleans the house, cooks and even helps her to have a bath… She constantly talks about the letters she sent to Thomas Wayne, how good man he was and how she thinks that her letters did not reach to him. This is how Arthur Flecks ordinary life looks like in the beginning of the movie. As a heroine he never looks happy even though his mother nicknamed him Happy. In the morning he goes his work and when he is trying to wear his clown shoes a colleague of him comes nearby, his name is Randall and he tries to give him a gun. At first Arhur dosesn’t want that gun but later after Randall insists he takes the gun from him. The audiences see Arthur’s bruises on his back. Then another colleague of him comes in and tells him that “the boss wants to see you in his office” and he goes to there. Arthur’s boss talks about the sign and how the owners of Kenney’s reach him about the sign that Arhur never gives back. He tries to explain his boss about the fight and the sign but his boss is not cooperate with him, all he wants that sign but Arthur doesn’t have that. Later on the audiences see him outside of the bulding kicking the trash can and hurting himself. This is the first violence he uses that seem and he is self violeted himself. Arthur, who seems calm from the beginning of the movie, cannot speak out at the injustices made to him, gets angry and directs his anger towards himself as an act of violence. Figure 2. A scene from the movie (https://lunantique.blogspot.com/)

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As it can be seen in the Picture 2 Arthur Kicks the Trash Can and appears on the stage as the same color as the trash, his appearance being the same color as them as he takes his anger out of the trash can, makes it difficult to distinguish him from the trash. This inability to distinguish leads to the devaluation of Arthur’s existence. After this scene he goes his home and chats with Penny about Thomas Wayne again while giving a bath to her. All she talks about the bad situations they have and how only the Thomas Wayne can save them from this miserable life they have. At first Atrhur doesn’t seem to carry but then he begins to offensive about his mothers words and he says ‘i can take care of both of us’ but Penny doesn’t seem to understand what those words mean. The only thing that makes Arthur happy is The Murray Show that they watch all the episodes on TV. Arthur loves Murray and because all he wanted to be a comedian he fantasies about this talk show, like he was one of the audiences and Murray notices him between all the audiences, at first they make fun with him and then they realize how nice man that Arthur Fleck is and they clap him like he is a champ. In his fantasy he hugs Murray and tells him that he loves him a lot and all he wants to be like him. In the movie his fantasies and reality are always interwined and the audiences never know which one is fact or fantasy after all. After he took the gun from his friend Randall, he goes to work in a hospital as a clown to entertain sick kids. He seems that he is good at what he does and all the children seem to have fun with his funny dance. But while he is dancing suddenly the gun drops out from his pocket and he tries to make like its a part of his show. At the next scene, the audiences learn that hospital staff has complained about him and his boss fired him because of the gun that he carried. At first he lies about it, then he tries to explain himself but his boss doesn’t seem to care. When he is leaving his job, his friend Randall makes fun with him even though he is the one that gives the gun to Athur. Arthur seems both dissappointed and furious at the same time but he leaves the office after he breaks the card reading machine and after that he scribbles the ‘forget’ word on the sign which says ‘don’t forget to smile’ ends up after scribbling ‘don’t smile’. At this passage of the movie he starts to lie and makes vandalism because of his anger. In the next scene, Arthur looks uncomfortable because of the three men in his carriage harassing a woman. He starts to laughs constantly and finally woman manages to escape from those men using Arthurr’s act as a distruction. Then those men started to harras and attack him because the way he looks and the way he laughs, finally when he realizes that he can’t even had a chance against them, he takes out his gun and shots two of them and after a little chase, he shots and kill the last man who is on the run. He seems terrified and runs like hell into the streets finally he finds a public toilet to hide but when he gets in the toilet he starts to dance with a theme song in the movie. After a very violent scene when he dance with this misterious music, the audiences all seem to understand that this is only the beginning of his violence acts because he seems confortable about what he did just seconds ago. After he went his apartment he directly knock his neighbour Sophie’s door whom he met couple days ago, she is a single mum and when she opens the door he suddenly starts to kiss her and goes in. With the death of those three men, Arthur starts to realize he is turning into something else, the audiences can see this at the conversation of him during the therapy he said that he finally feels himself being visible, but then he realizes that all his therapy sessions finished because of the goverment cuts the social services budget. He no longer can take his medications for free eventhough he needs them desperately. After this cut, he stops using his medications and gives himself compeletely to achive his dream job, becoming a comedian in someday is all he wants from life since the beginning.

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Figure 3. A Scene From the Movie (https://lunantique.blogspot.com/)

Arthur is seen shooting 3 white-collar young men who beat him on the subway. As the lights flash throughout the scene, the imbalance of Arthur and the men he killed is reinforced on the stage by the shaking and flashing lights of the subway. I just hope my death makes more sense than my life. “I just hope my death makes more sense than my life” this is the only visible sentence to the audiences while his therapist asks Arthur’s journal for to read it at their theraphy sessions. He writes all his miserable and vicious toughts in there and after a few scenes later, it is possible to read another sentences from that journal which is; ‘I used to think that my life was a tragedy but now i realize it’s a fucking comedy.’ This seemingly trivial sentence by Arthur makes great sense for the article, because Aristotle tried hard to distinguish these two genres. Ultimately “There is also a difference between tragedy and comedy: one tries to imitate better people than ordinary people, while the other tries to imitate worse ones” (Aristotle: 2005: p.II). Arthur is portrayed as the best character ever drawn in the movie until the subway murders. But these good behaviours will bring him a big downfall. His thoughts begin to change after the incident at the subway and he started to take control in his life, now he has a girlfriend who loves him back and finally he takes his chance at the comedy club which he used to be an audience. He goes on to stage and after a few laughters he manages to make some of his own jokes from his joke diary and when he is on stage a romantic and happy music started to play. At this point it seems that all things start to get normal in Arthurs life, now he starts to achive his goals one by one. The subway scene can be presented as an example of the turn of chance concept that defined in the tragedy. “Now, recognition and the ‘return of luck’ are two elements of the story, and the third is the emotional impact. The return of luck and recognition were explained; The ‘emotional effect’ has not yet been explained and it is a destructive and upsetting act. For example, the deaths, great pain, injuries and other acts shown on the stage (Aristotle, 2005: p.43). Therefore, although this part of the film starts with the opening of Arthur’s fortune, quite tragedic events are expected in the later parts of the film.

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He finds a girlfriend, makes his show in a comedy club and starts to protect himself no matter what happens. When he is walking with his girlfriend, she sees a Daily paper, the headline is about the three people brutally murdered in subway but Sophie says “the guy who did this is a hero, three less pricks in Gotham City, only a million more to go” and Arthur likes this idea. After this romantic date and a beautiful night Arthur goes his home. His mother Penny starts her words with Thomas Wayne again during Arthur and her start to dance with the song on TV (Murray Franklin Shows theme song) she says that she wrote another letter and asks him to post it to Thomas Wayne again but suddenly she realizes that Arthur’s parfume and he says he had a date tonight. Finally after Penny went her bed, Arthur opens her letter to Thomas Wayne and it says Thomas Wayne is Arthur’s real father. He is going crazy about it ang starts to fight with his mother. This is the third act of violence he involved in the movie, this time it is very clear that his mother is really afraid from him and this makes us to think about his past actions before the time of the movie starts. “…the heroes of tragedy are connected by close kinship. The source of the tragic effect has been this close kinship bond. This kinship commitment should also be fueled by a moral valuation. It must imitate movements that evoke feelings of tragedy, fear, and pity; this is characteristic of art called tragedy.” (Tunalı, 1998: p.237). In the story of Arthur Fleck, he is actually not related to anyone, his mother adopted him, Thomas Wayne, whom he thought to be his father, is nothing more than a description of the dreams of his mother, who does not actually have blood ties with him. However, all the stones of the tragedy are set in place with this kind of narrative. At the next scene he is on the train, going somewhere misterious and far away, when he arrives, the audiences realize that it is Thomas Wayne’s residence. He sees Bruce Wayne for the first time but it is an important thing for the original plot of the movie because the audiences know that they are going to become mortal enemies in one day and Bruce Wayne is going to be Batman in the future. He tries to entertain Bruce with his magic tricks but Bruce doesn’t seem to entertained and when Bruce approaches Arthur’s side through the gate, Arthur grabs his neck and all of a sudden, an expression of anger appears on Arthur’s face, but he releases Bruce’s neck with no reason and pushes his lips like he is smiling. Alfred yells at Bruce behind the garden and tries to make Arthur leave the place but Arthur asks him to see Thomas Wayne. He tells Alfred that his mum Penny Fleck is used to work here and his mother and Thomas Wayne had a love affair. Alfred tells the truth about his mother; “ yes she used to work here, she is a very sick woman and Thomas Wayne and her didn’t have an affair, she was delusional”. Arthur chooses not to believe him and tries to strangle him with his hands, finally Alfred manages to save himself, he fires Arthur and Arthur leaves the house under the child’s fearful gaze. When he arrives his home he finds out that her mum got sick, there is an ambulance and the medics are about to take her to the hospital. He freaks out, goes with his mum and when they arrive to the hospital he learns that his mum had a stroke because of two dedectives came to his house earlier this day and asked her about killings at the subway and told her that Arthur’s name is in the suspects list. Arthur blames the detectives about his mums illness and refuses to talk with them about the gun. Then he goes inside his mothers room and sits next to his girlfriend who is already sitting on the couch. He sees himself as a guest on Murray Franklin Show while sitting in the hospital, but the reason he is a guest there is because they make fun of him especially with his performance at the comedy club, now he seems disappointed. The next day, Arthur manages to enter a pretty cool movie theater unseen and changes his clothes like he is working there. While audiences are watching Modern Times, he walks among them and he sees Thomas Wayne’s spot. When he gets out his seat, he follows him all the way to the toilet. The two of them starts to talk at the toilet and after Arthur asks him about his mum and their relationship, Thomas Wayne laughs at him and explains him there wasn’t any relationship between them. Arthur refuses to 293

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believe, tells him that they are almost look alike because he is his father but Thomes Wayne cuts his words and tells him “i’m not your father and Penny is not your real mother either, you are adopted didn’t you know that?”. Arthur gets mad at the end of this statement, and Thomas Wayne punches him in the nose, threatening him, reminding him of his visit to his son and then he leaves the toilet. Here it is seen that Arthur’s tragedy developed with what he thought of kinship relations. Arthur is subjected to violence by the person he thinks to be his father, and his mother has been told lies but soon he realized that she isn’t even his mother. According to K. Jaspers (1883-1969): “The tragic is understood as the result of the crime and the crime itself. The destruction of the tragic hero is also the payment for this crime.” (Jaspers’dan Akt. -Tunalı, 1998: p.237) however, the price Arthur paid is not only the price of the three lives he received on the subway, it seems that he has already committed a crime with his existence. In the next scene, Arthur is seen sitting helplessly in his home, his phone rings constantly and is directed to the answering machine. While the detectives who left a message on the answering machine still said they wanted to see him, Arthur emptied the refrigerator and sat down in it. At this moment, even if his behavior resembles a suicide, he leaves the refrigerator due to the ringing of the phone and the sound on the answering machine he picks up the phone because its from the Murray Franklin Show and they want him to attend their show at next Thursday, he says yes and hangs up the phone. Scene opens in a public bus, he is going to Arkham State Hospital, where his mum stayed years ago. He wants his mums file from an officer and he acts weird as always and tells: “Sometimes, I don’t know what to do. Last time, I ended up taking it out on some people. I thought it was gonna bother me, but it really hasn’t. I fucked up and did some bad shit. You know what I’m talking about, it’s so hard to just try and be happy all the time.” After his words, officer refuses to give Penny’s file to him and starts to read it outloud “Penny Fleck was suffer from delusional psychosis and narcissistic personality disorder, was found guilty of endangering the welfare of her own child.” when the officer realizes the document is talking about the man in front of him, he stops reading it and refuses to give the file to him again but somehow Arthur manages to receive the file and starts to run through the stairs. After he realizes no one is following him, he starts to read the file and suddenly scene changes, now he is in a white room with young Penny Fleck and she is talking about Arthur to her psychiatrist. She denies that Arthur is adopted and says they made it up with Thomas. But the psychiatrist doesn’t seem to belive her and continues talking about her son, he tells her “while your boyfriend torments your son, you have watched and the child is found tied to a radiator, malnourished with multiple bruises across his body, and severe trauma to his head”. Penny doesn’t seem surpriesed and doesn’t reject his claims, she says ‘I never heard him cry he’s always been such a happy little boy’. After these words Arthur seems to gone mad, goes his apartment directly and opens his girlfiends door when she is inside her kids bedroom. When she gets out her kids bedroom, she sees Arthur and she freaks out, suddenly the audiences realize that all Arthurs love life with this woman is only a fantasy becase she doesn’t want Arthur in her apartment. Arthur is all wet and says “i’m having a bad day”, she asks “do you want me to call someone”, he doesn’t reply her question, he just goes to his apartment. Scene opens in the hospital, the sound of the device that measures the heartbeat is heard, Arthur starts to talk with his mother. He says ‘Penny Fleck, i always hated that name, you know how you used to tell me that my laugh was a condition? That there was something wrong with me? There isn’t. That’s the real me.” After she calls him ‘Happy’ as always he replies ‘I haven’t been happy one minute of my entire fucking life. You know what’s funny? You know what really makes me laugh? I used to think that my life was a tragedy But now I realize it’s a fucking comedy.’ Right after these words, he strangles his mother with a pillow, walks to the window and turns his face to the sun and takes a deep breath. 294

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Figure 4. Scenes from the movie (https://lunantique.blogspot.com/)

As Arthur suffocates his mother Penny, a staging is used as if someone from the doorway is watching them, Arthur is in the corner of the stage, after he kills Penny, he is seen centrally on the stage, the light hitting his face through the window brings him into full light. Tragedy has to create affects. As long as the affective events take place between very close people, they deserve to be studied: siblings are killing each other or children are trying to kill their parents etc. (Aristotle, 2005: p.49). So, the act of killing at this scene is looking like a tragedy that Arsitoteles define many centuries ago. In the next scene, Arthur is at his home. He prepares his own show by watching the Murray Franklin Shows old episodes, while dying his hair in green, there is a cheerful music on the background. Suddenly the door knocks, the cheerful music on the background gets quieter, Arthur takes the scissors in his hand and goes to the door with tense steps. Those who came were his friends from work, Randall and Gary. Gary came to cheer Arthur for hearing that his mother was dead. But Randall has a different agenda, he wants to know what Arthur talked with those two detectives who are investigating the subway killings but Gary says he didn’t know anything about this. Gary is a midget that everyone, especially Randall is always making fun with it. Randall learned that they want to talk with him and he wants to know why. Arthur doesn’t seem to interest but all of a sudden he kills Randall with his scissors by cutting his throat. Gary starts to yell at him, it seems that he doesn’t understand what’s going on and he scares from Arthur like hell. Arthur says i’m not going to hurt you; ‘you were the only one that was ever nice to me”. Arthur kisses him on the forehead as Gary passes by but Gary can’t reach the lock of his door. Arthur helps him to get out of his house and he tries to make fun with him by schocking him, Gary runs out of Arthur’s apartment. Arthur is shown talking to his friend Gary with an amors shot, this is right after he brutally killed Randall, with a peaceful expression on his face, this shot makes the person speaking blurry, while focusing on the speaking character, directing all the listener’s attention to the speaker.

You Created Me! The next scene opens up the stairs, where Arthur is seen dancing down the stairs while he has always been seen climbing those stairs from the beginning of the movie. It is seen that he is not only goes

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Figure 5. A Scene from the movie (https://lunantique.blogspot.com/)

down the stairs, but also dances using a very interesting figures with the red suit he wears while there is a loud rock music playing at the background. While the shooting angles are positioned pretty low, the director gives Arthur a divine image. All of a sudden he realizes two detectives are coming for him and he begins to run. A long chase between Arthur and the detectives begins, but this chase scene ends with the detectives killed on the subway. There are hundreds of people dressed in clown clothes on the subway ready to go to rally, and this is the perfect opportunity for Arthur to escape. Although the two detectives pull out their weapons to catch Arthur and open the way, they fail. One of the weapons they have suddenly explodes, a man is injured, and people in clown costumes jump over the detectives and kill them. Surviving all this chase, Arthur manages to reach the channel where the Murray Franklin Show was filmed. Having the opportunity to talk to Murray from behind the scenes, Arthur asks him to introduce himself to the stage as the ‘Joker’. Arthur, finally using the name of the Joker, sheds light on his role in the main story, he is no longer Arthur, but is in front of the audience as Batman’s main enemy Joker. The next scene is very important for Arthur’s well-known Joker character, after this scene Arthur Fleck will now be referred to as the Joker. It starts with Murray Franklin’s call his name as a Joker, right in front of the auidences and he enters inside as the star of the show. He shakes hands with Murray and kiss another woman guest as if she is his girlfriend. While the audience applauds and booes like crazy, the Joker is happy to sits his place in Murray shows. At first he keeps quiet, than he started to make jokes but his first joke is about a car crash and neither the audience nor the Murray like this joke and find it offensive. The Joker confirms him and continues ‘It’s just, you know, it’s been a rough few weeks, Murray. Ever since I killed those three Wall Street guys’, Murray asks him “ok i’m waiting for the punchline?” but he says there is no punchline and it was all true. Before the Joker shoots Murray in the face, a dialogue develops between them: J: Comedy is subjective, Murray. Isn’t that what they say? All of you, the system that knows so much, you decide what’s right or wrong. The same way that you decide what’s funny or not! M: Well, okay, I think I might understand that you did this to start a movement, to become a symbol?

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J: Come on, Murray. Do I look like the kind of clown that could start a movement? I killed those guys because they were awful. Everybody is awful these days. It’s enough to make anyone crazy. M: Okay. So, that’s it, you’re crazy. That’s your defense for killing three young men? J: No. They couldn’t carry a tune to save their lives. Oh, why is everybody so upset about these guys? If it was me dying on the sidewalk, you’d walk right over me! I pass you every day, and you don’t notice me. But these guys, what, because Thomas Wayne went and cried about them on TV? M: You have a problem with Thomas Wayne, too? J: Yes, I do. Have you seen what it’s like out there, Murray? Do you ever actually leave the studio? Everybody just yells and screams at each other. Nobody’s civil anymore. Nobody thinks what it’s like to be the other guy. You think men like Thomas Wayne ever think what it’s like to be someone like me? To be somebody but themselves? They don’t. They think that we’ll just sit there and take it, like good little boys! That we won’t werewolf and go wild! M: You finished? I mean, it’s so much self-pity, Arthur. You sound like you’re making excuses for killing those young men. Not everybody, and I’ll tell you this, not everyone is awful. J: You’re awful, Murray. M: Me? I’m awful? Oh, yeah, how am I awful? J: Playing my video. Inviting me on this show.You just wanted to make fun of me. You’re just like the rest of them. M: You don’t know the first thing about me, pal. Look what happened, because of what you did. What it led to.There are riots out there.Two policemen are in critical condition, and you’re laughing. You’re laughing. Someone was killed today, because of what you did. Figure 6. A Scene from the movie (https://lunantique.blogspot.com/)

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The Joker is seen on The Murray Franklin Show, where he kills Murray. The scene is clear and balanced, the scene is shot right across, the calmness of the Joker is striking, and the skyline of Gotham City is seen in the background of the scene. The Joker can no longer go back to the past and says goodbye to Arthur Fleck. After Murray’s last words, the Joker shoots him in the face and begins dancing in front of the audience. In this scene, all the audience gets mixed up, the audiences in the Murray Show, the audience in the movie theater and the rest of the audience… Crime, the crime that constitutes the essence of the tragic, cannot be determined by the actions of a single person, the crime is based on the existence of what we call human. According to Schopenhauer, who saw a conflict of will with itself in tragedy: “The main meaning of tragedy is that the pain suffered by the hero is not his individual fault, but is generally the fault of man. (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung)” (Tunalı, 1998: pp.237-238). At the end of the movie it seems that right from the begining Arthur Fleck’s life is a fault, not for being Arthur Fleck or Joker or someone else, but just being. The last scene is described as the scene where the Joker rises. Just like the movie called ‘Dark Night Rises’ but this time it isn’t Batman that rises high above, this time, the person who rises at the request of the helpless crowd is the Joker who’s been a bad guy for so many years now is a ‘hero’ whom public needs. This time, the last person who smiles becomes the Joker. While being taken to the police station in the police car, he really smiles looking at the chaos in the city and at the same time, another activist who wears a clown mask kills Batman’s family in an alley they enter when they left the theater. This is just the reversal of the long-standing heroic narrative in the Hollywood Endustry. Joker is not a heroine, he is the distilled form of the crowd, just like the crowd he is a pure looser, an otherized individual, and just because of these reason he is saved by the crowds from the police car that he captured. When he finally realizes that he is the one that the crowds cheer for, he puts a smile on his face with using the blood in his mouth. Now he looks like a total hero, who ends up Arkham Asylum at the end of the movie but who never stops killing people even in mental enstitute because this man’s problem has not yet been solved by the system. There is only one person left; it is found in the middle of both types above; it is extraordinary neither in morality, in fairness, nor in evil and moral devotion. Rather, he/she is someone who has been accused of any crime. So the essence of the tragic depends on what the crime is, on the determination of the crime. What is the crime accordingly? According to Jaspers: “The question of what crime is must be understood in all its relevance not with the actions and experiences of individual people, but with the human being in which each person is involved”. (Tunalı, 1998: pp.237). Crime begins with the existence of Arthur Fleck, and his entire destiny is laid before him, creating a path towards his crimes. Arthur Fleck’s existence drives him to be the Joker, because in tragedy the crime begins with the existence of man in the first place.

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CONCLUSION As can be understood from its extended summary, the film tells the tragic story of an individual who has been marginalized by society, combined with the tragic story of an uncared city. In the movie, the first character is the Joker, while the second one is definitely Gotham City. Apart from the Joker, another character who has degenerated is Gotham City, with its neglected streets, uncollected garbage, giant rats, unemployed piles and people with a tendency towards crime. The film is the story of the two of them being defeated in a tough test, but the Joker decides to embrace this defeat after a point and begins to enjoy his fall. After he killed three young people on the subway, he quickly takes an irreversible path and from the moment he realizes that he does not feel guilty, he turns into a vigilante to avenge what was done to him. ‘Beauty gives pleasure, ugliness does not give pleasure, but if both are used at the same time, confusion arises, and whichever side dominates, the brain focuses on it.’ (Wood, 2006: p.193). Although Arthur Fleck’s movements in the film bear traces of ugliness, the aesthetics of the presentation and the miserable situation of Arthur, which is excluded by the society, prevent the audience from looking at the stage from the right angle. Because Arthur sets sail to misfortune from the moment he was born, the woman who adopted him, the violence inflicted on him as a child, his mental balance, perhaps because of this violence, and the life conditions, the audience feels pain for him. “Tragedy is human pain or death; in this pain, in this death ‘it is wholly enough to fill us with fear and pain, even if no extremely powerful and overwhelming force appears” (Çernışevskiy, 2012: p.20). The fact that the Joker received great support from many sections of the public, unlike other antiheroes, due to this pain, is presented as a surprising development. The disruption of the existing order by Arthur and the ordinary people living in Gotham City is shown by the actions and riots. The film closes with a sequence that makes the audience think that that possibility is too close for Gotham City. A Klee painting named Angelus Novus shows an angel looking as though he is about to move away from something he is fixedly contemplating. His eyes are staring, his mouth is open, his wings are spread. This is how one pictures the angel of history. His face is turned toward the past. Where we perceive a chain of events, he sees one single catastrophe which keeps piling wreckage upon wreckage and hurls it in front of his feet. (Benjamin, 2012: pp.43-44). Walter Benjamin says that the order in his age can only be changed with great destruction. According to him, the person who will bring this destruction is the “Angelus Novus” in Paul Klee’s painting, his last look at the world he lives in is hopeful, but the world will be ruthlessly destroyed and replaced by a brand new order. The closing scene of the Joker movie is reminiscent of this depiction in many ways. The uncontrolled character Joker, who becomes a folk hero in the last scene where he smiles to the public on the car, becomes apparent in this scene as the worst enemy of the established orders. After this scene, the movie tells us that nothing will ever be the same in Gotham City, both to the people of the city and to us. “Towards the end he is no longer a poor guy who works outside and make people laugh, he is now the tearmaker, the most fearless villain of all time”(Marar, 2020: p.5232). In the next scene, although it is shown that he is locked in a mental hospital, he is presented to the audience that he continues his violent acts there, and as it is already known from the comic book, he will leave the mental hospital after a while and will continue to cause the crime rates to rise in Gotham City.

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Figure 7. Paul Klee’s work Angelus Novus and the Joker character appearing in the final scene of the movie Joker (2019) (https://lunantique.blogspot.com/)

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The study was prepared in order to shed light on the characters defined as anti-heroes and in this respect, it is thought that it will contribute to writers who can make anti-hero studies in both literature and cinema. Anti-heroes, which we have frequently encountered in movies and TV series recently, attract the attention of many researchers, and these productions reach intensive viewing rates. Characters like Loki in Marvel Comics, Bojack Horseman, the protagonist of the series Bojack, are unusual, but they have many fans, and any study of why these characters are loved may be more attractive after this article.

REFERENCES Aristotle. (2005). Poetika (N. Kalaycı, Trans.). Bilim ve Sanat. Artun, A. (2011). Sanat Manifestoları: Avangard Sanat ve Direniş. İletişim Yayınları. Baker, U. (2015). Sanat ve Arzu. İletişim Yayınları. Benjamin, W. (2012). Son Bakışta Aşk (N. Gürbilek, Trans.). Metis. Bulfinch, T. (2011). Bulfinch Mitolojileri (E. Özer, Trans.). Kabalcı. Campbell, J. (2017). Kahramanın Sonsuz Yolculuğu (S. Gürses, Trans.). İthaki. Chul-Han, B. (2017). Şiddetin Topolojisi (D. Zaptçıoğlu, Trans.). Metis. Deleuze, G. (1997). Cinema 2 The Time-Image (H. Tomlinson & R. Caleta, Trans.). University of Minnesota Press. Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. A. (2005). Thousand Plateaus, Trns. Brian Massumi. University of Minnesota Press. Dellaloğlu, B. (2010). Romantik Muamma. Ayrıntı Yayınları.

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Girard, R. (2003). Şiddet ve Kutsal (N. Alpay, Trans.). Kanat Kitap. Gül, M. E., & Sepetçi, T. (2018). Sinemada Şiddetin Estetize Edilmesi: Zincirsiz ve Birkaç Dolar İçin Filmlerinin Metinlerarası Karşılaştırması. Abant Kültürel Araştırmalar Dergisi, 3(5), 21–42. Kadiroğlu, M. (2012). A Genealogy of Antihero. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi, 52, 231–249. Kant, I. (2006). Yargı Yetisinin Eleştirisi (A. Yardımlı, Trans.). İdea. Kolker, R. (2004). Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho: A Casebook. Oxford University Press. Marar, K. S. (2020). Red, Yellow, Green and Blue for the Clown Prince of Crime: Analysis of Inner Psyche of Joker. Studies of Indian Places Names, 40(50), 5227–5232. Melick, T. (Ed.). (2015). Tarih Boyunca Sanat. D. Şendil & S. Evren. YKY. Nowell-Smith, G. (Ed.). (2008). Dünya Sinema Tarihi. Kabalcı. Ötgün, C. (2008). Sanatın ve Şiddetin Sınırları. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 1(1), 90–103. Şahbaz, D. (2016). Urdu Nesrinde Romantizmin Yükselişi. Ankara Üniversitesi. Dil ve Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi, 56(1), 338–354. Saran Dev, V. (2020). Villain or Victim: An Analysis of The Joker. Purakala Journal, 31(30), 153–163. Simmel, G. (2005). Şehir ve Cemiyet (A. Aydoğan, Trans.). İz Yayıncılık. Sontag, S. (2005). Başkalarının Acılarına Bakmak. O. Akınhay (Trans.). Ágora. Trend, D. (2008). Medyada Şiddet Efsanesi (G. Bostancı, Trans.). İletişim. Tunalı, İ. (1998). Estetik. Remzi Kitabevi. Wood, A. W. (2009). Kant. Dost Kitabevi. https://lunantique.blogspot.com/

ENDNOTES 1



2



“Romanticism actually arises against the current known as Neoclassicism, but here Neoclassicism is referred to as Classicism because Neoclassicism is referred to as “the expression of a longing for the ancient past, that is to Classical Ancient Art” (Melick, 2015: p.246). The story of Deadalus has been told differently in many mythological sources. However, the basic motives of the story remained the same. Deadelus is somehow disgraced and punished. He found his escape from the tower he and his son was closed to by flying from there, but as stated above, the story ends in disappointment. Further more information; Bulfinch’s Mythology.

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Aesthetics of Power

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Chapter 16

Context and Space as the Tools to Legitimize and Produce Violence:

Broadening Hassan’s Perspective on East-West Dichotomy Ahmet Faruk Çeçen https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3561-2915 Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Hassan thought the reason of the never-ending clash between East and West is the difference between their varied time perception. Albeit accepting many of Hassan’s claims, the author believes the difference between their time perception cannot be the sole reason of the conflict. Examining the conflict through power relations and seeing violence as a tool of it, the study aimed to show how structural violence helps sustaining global, national, local, and domestic economic, social, and cultural inequalities. As far as we know, the legal structures that sustained state-mandated overt discrimination have been dismantled in the West, meaning the equal treatment of all races and religions under the law. However, it is obvious that there are structural obstacles preventing the law from being practiced the way it is intended. Through the concepts ‘context’ and ‘space’, the researcher will try to explain how discriminative practices are sustained, produced, legitimized, which pave the way for the conflicts to go on (e.g., East and West).

INTRODUCTION Hassan (2018) in his essay “Sources of Resilience in Political Islam: Sacred time, earthly pragmatism, and digital media” pursued the answer of the intertwined questions of how could the groups like Al Qaeda and ISIS somewhat achieve to survive even though they are economically and technologically inferior to western countries they fight against and how have western democracies been unable to adopt DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch016

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coherent and long-term strategies to defeat the enemy, considering they seem to have the necessary tools to handle. According to him, political Islam and western modernity consider the time from a difference angle. Political Islam derives it from Quran mandating Muslims to consider time sacred and preordained and live for afterlife and western modernity’s temporal approach that judges everything, including time by efficiency, which creates asynchronicity between the West and political Islam explaining the persistence of the present conflict ‘Clash of Temporalities.’ What Hassan suggests might make us think that Muslim and Western civilizations not only experience and perceive time differently but also they turn out to be seem to live in another time period. Albeit accepting many of his claims on time and the proposed difference of perceived time between the aforementioned civilizations, I would suggest explaining the conflict might require dealing with the problem from many aspects. Considering that it is a conflict, even escalating to warfare, the author believes that violence should be the key concept as it is something conducted verbally, psychologically and physically to show one’s hate towards others, keep them under control and harm or destroy them. Who or which actor should be allowed to commit violence, what has been legitimizing it and under which conditions can it be considered legitimate to use it are the questions which thinkers have been striving to answer. In a Hobbesian perspective, some might believe the authority of the sovereign, including the right to commit violence should be absolute to prevent a situation, named state of nature where every man fights against the other. Over years, following the limitation of sovereignty, the way the state conducts violence has dramatically changed in Foucauldian sense, at least the way the punishment is carried out has transformed from criminals being punished in public as a spectacle by means of states showing publicly that they do their part of the social contract into prison sentence that has seemingly no aim to make it a public show. However, the Hobbesian perspective remains somewhat same for ‘the modern world’ characterized by nation states and positive law, which means that states and citizens keep their word to obey the social contract metaphorically signed by our ancestors. Some might argue that violence is a concept that is inherent in state which Weber (1947) emphasized saying state crime seems inevitable as long as there are states, but it can also be claimed that violence might mean much more than Hobbesian state or modern governments. One might claim that violence is a tool to maintain order belonging not only a monarch and democratically elected government (thought to be legitimate) but also for example a bunch of prisoners beating and dominating other prisoners (thought to be illegitimate). Nietzsche, setting violence as a central theme in his political thought, thinks violence is inherent in our race (he believes not sexual desire but violence lies at the heart of the ‘unconscious’) by saying ‘we have never lost our instinct for cruelty— we have only refined it (2002).’ What makes violence inherent might be as Woolf said, glory and satisfaction or the necessity to defend oneself and one’s genes to survive like Dawkins’ concept of Survival Machines (2016). Moreover, one might even be pleased by and grateful for the sense of confidence by being away from violence and its varied versions. According to Zizek (2019) “the sight of the other’s suffering is the obscure cause of desire which sustains our own happiness (bliss in heaven) – if we take it away, our bliss appears in all its sterile stupidity.” Zizek believes media plays a strong role by showing us Third World horrors (wars, starvations, violence) so that we can sustain the happiness of our consumerist heaven. So, people living in stable and wealthy countries might need seeing others’ suffering and a potential threat to be grateful for what they have. As Hassan (2018) said that some might believe “violence of political Islam was something that the imperialist West ‘asked for’ ” and others like Kumar (2012) believes that Islam turned out to be the new enemy, taking place of communism (from red scare to green scare) and Eco (2012) believed Islam became a tool for USA to maintain its identity by creating a new enemy and a chance to keep its citizens 304

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grateful for what they have. From now on, the researcher is going to try to pave the way to understand the dimensions of violence which I would believe could be explanatory the ever-changing character of it.

POWER, VIOLENCE AND STRUCTURAL VIOLENCE As Bauman (1995: p. 139) said violence is a highly contested concept which according to some like Scheper-Hughes Bourgois (2004) might stem from the fact that it is a slippery one with the qualities such as nonlinear, productive, destructive, and reproductive. These qualities unavoidably give birth to violence again, which is where we can about chains, spirals and mirrors of violence -continuum of violence. Han also believes that violence doesn’t disappear even in Modernity (2018). However, it is known that aversion to violence has been modernity’s hallmark, so it is not meant to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them which show the humanistic side of the modern. To Reemtsma, Modernity’s aversion to violence is not universal but particular and contingent. So, he believes that humans’ capability of violence cannot be changed by Modernity. Then the question of ‘what makes modernity modern’ pops up which for Reemtsma is its prohibition of autotelic violence1 and understanding that it is an exception. Consequently, to commit it equals to throw the demands of modern civilization overboard (2012). However, Reemtsma’s approach on aversion to violence and the delegitimation of violence in the modern, he has only raw, corporeal violence in mind. He does not take note of systemic violence or more subtle forms of violence (Han, 2018). Against this background, one needs to clarify two different approaches on violence one of which defines violence just physically (minimalist) and the latter of which sees it as an umbrella term including not only physical but also psychological forms. For example, for the first approach, categorizing a racist slur as a form of violence would be impossible as it lacks the physical dimension, but the latter wouldn’t hesitate to do so, naming it hate speech or hate crime which is a form of violence. Another example would be media violence which according to the former approach would be a meaningless denotation as nobody can physically harm others through television screen2. Physical violence and psychological violence appeal to different concepts. While the formerincludes body, physical integrity and force, the latter includes verbal abuse (bullying or implicit forms) and systematic exclusion (a form of structural violence). Both forms of violence might lead the victims feel inferiority complex, detach themselves from society and be inclined to self-censor. Put it differently, both forms of violence can serve the aim that may repress the victim. Unless the repression is strong enough to silence the victims, then the volume of violence can grow and with the increasing tension, there may be a conflict. Anders Behring Breivik’s massive killing, known as 2011 Norway attacks, is apparently a physical violence. However, if we reduce what has been done there just the domain of the physical and not prefer to look into the underlying and subtle elements such as racism, the growing migrant population in Europe, hate speech, and cultural differences, one needs to consider that he is a lunatic, attacking random people. However, albeit accepting that he might suffer from a possible mental disorder, it is not the case. Breivik (2011) is as intellectual as to read both what he terms harmful literature, generally consisted of Frankfurt School’s thinkers’ works and far right figures’ publications all around the world to criticize and cite in order to write his manifesto. So, as the aforementioned approaches might have something in common like Breivik’s terror act which includes not only physical but also psychological violence. That attack should be categorized under violence as a communication as he declared that his main motive for the attacks was to publicize his manifesto. In this sense, Breivik’s act has been conducted not just to kill innocent people who gathered around for the Labour Party’s youth camp but send a message to 305

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whole country (and ‘the enemy within’ Muslims living in the West) in order to change the way it moves by encouraging his supporters and discouraging ones who he deems passive or collaborator to the socalled ‘Muslim takeover’ of Norway and Western Europe. Considering that it was performed to spread fear, it would be hard to claim that what Breivik has done is much more different than the ones that were conducted by the repressive state (namely sovereign) which reminds us of the fact that violence is a tool for ruling and manipulating which ties it with power in a way it is realized within a typical social relationship: command-obedience. Understanding power the way Nietzsche (2002) has done as a social relationship based on commandobedience, we would assume that ones like Breivik (except for he is a lone wolf not a leader of a country) has been following the path of others in the past who successfully or unsuccessfully have used their power over others. The ones who have been successful, namely victors, not only won the wars but also gained the privilege to shape the reality or history. So, according to which mechanism are we allowed to say Breivik is a monster not a hero, considering he is a ‘hero’ to some like the way Osama Bin Laden and Hitler was a ‘hero’ to others. What if Axis Powers briefly Hitler had won World War II, would then we be allowed to say that we would perceive things as we have done or there might be an alternative history, emphasizing terrible things Allies had done, for example atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki causing massive civilian loss. As mentioned earlier, to Nietzsche and Max Weber, only authority to hold the monopoly of the legitimate use of violence is state, so based on this approach we can see that Breivik’s and Laden’s actions are not legitimate but Hitler’s are. Expanding especially Weber’s (1947: p. 152) stand on power, we might suggest that he opts for seeing it as a domination, defining it “the probability that one actor within social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this probability rests” or more proper translation “within a social relationship, power means any chance, (no matter whereon this chance is based) to carry through one’s (individual or collective) own will (even against resistance” (Wallimann, Tatsis, and Zito, 1977).Both translations clearly show an example of dominant approach but the author believes Weber’s emphasis on the base of power by saying “regardless of the basis on which this probability rests” or “no matter whereon this chance is based” have to be explained. According to Wallimann, Tatsis, and Zito, if this part is omitted in the definition, researchers are apt to distinguish only those highly specific occurrences relating to a single dimension, as e.g., only ’government’ may be perceived to entail power relations, while sexual relations, commercial enterprise and family decision-making may be incorrectly excluded (1977). So, power to Weber would mean that x makes y to act against his/her will no matter x is a government or not. Considering, making one to do something he/she doesn’t want might naturally include violence. It is very explicit in Nietzsche and Weber’s understanding, as Clastres (1987) implied they openly declared that political power is manifested within a relation that ultimately comes down to coercion. They follow the path of Hobbes who thinks violence would be evident no matter there exists a state or not which sees the state one and only actor legitimate to use it, which makes us go back to square one where brutal methods applied by states need to be seen legitimate. Then this would mean that the methods of National Socialist in Germany and ultra-conservatives in Margaret Atwood’s Handmaid’s Tale should be legitimate as they somehow managed to rise to power. So, we can argue that ones who destroyed the old order and built the new one would gain the authority to make law which enables their action before and after rising power to be seen legitimate. That would explain “one man’s terrorist another man’s freedom fighter” situation. Surprisingly, in contrast to terrorism’s contemporary usage, terrorism had a decidedly positive connotation when the logic of modern government was being shaped. Hoffman believes that ironically, perhaps, terrorism in its original context was also closely associated with 306

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the ideals of virtue and democracy. The revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre firmly believed that virtue was the mainspring of a popular government at peace, but that during the time of revolution virtue must be allied with terror in order for democracy to triumph. He appealed famously to “virtue, without which terror is evil; terror, without which virtue is helpless” and proclaimed: “Terror is nothing but justice, prompt, severe and inflexible; it is therefore an emanation of virtue (1998).” So not only a very recent terror act like Breivik’s but also ones committed by the pioneers of modern states during the French Revolution like Robespierre have always been not just a solid physical act, but a message motivated by the desire to rule and manipulate. Arendt reminds us that when we look at on the phenomenon of power no matter they are from to Left or Right political theorist believe “violence is nothing more than the most flagrant manifestation of power, exemplifying C. Wright Mills: ‘All politics is a struggle for power; the ultimate kind of power is violence.” This declaration is a reference to Max Weber’s definition of the state as ‘the rule of men over men based on the means of legitimate, that is allegedly legitimate, violence (Arendt, 1969).’ Against this background, Arendt finds that consensus very strange and thinks power and violence are antithetical, saying ‘where power reigns, there is persuasion, not violence. And when violence reigns, it destroys power (1969).’ Similar to Arendt, in spite of the all differences between Liberal and Marxist ideologies Foucault consider a common point for their conception of political power which is ‘economism’ meaning that power is something which can be possessed so can be transferred or alienated (Foucault, 1980: p. 88). He has tried to conduct a non-economic analysis of power and believed “power is neither given, nor exchanged, nor recovered, but rather exercised, and that it only exists in action.” Foucault explains the distinction between power and physical influence (he didn’t mention by name saying ‘that which is exerted over things and gives the ability to modify, use, consume or destroy them). The distinction proves to be a real distinction; while power is “action upon action,” physical influence or violence is an “objective capacity” “inherent in the body or relayed by external instruments” but power and physical influence are not separated domains; Foucault calls them different “types of relationships which … overlap … support … and use each other mutually (Karskens, 2009: p. 133).” Foucault sought to show the evolution of power from the sovereign age to the disciplinary age. In order to clarify this evolution, Foucault believes one needs to take a look at a specific time (exactly 1656) in European history, serving as a landmark when the perception of power has changed irrevocably thanks to a foundation of Hôpital Général which in spite of being seemingly a medical institution has nothing to do with curing people. To Foucault, it is rather a sort of semijudicial structure, an administrative entity which, along with the already constituted powers, and outside of the courts, decides, judges, and executes…Hôpital Général is a strange power that the King establishes between the police and the courts, at the limits of the law: a third order of repression (1988). Having no intention to cure people, it is an institution for discipline and order, specifically to Foucault (1988) of monarchical and bourgeois order being organized in France during this period. It was directly linked with the royal power which placed it under the authority of the civil government alone. In several years, an entire network had spread across Europe where according to Porter beggars, petty criminals, layabouts, prostitutes - became liable to sequestration higgledy-piggledy with the sick and the old, the lame and lunatic. Such problem people, though different from normal citizens, were identical amongst themselves. Their common denominator was idleness. The mad did not work; those who did not work were the essence of unreason (1990: p. 47). So, the whole point of this confinement would seem to discipline the problem people but actually it was first stage in the early modern history of discipline 1600–1750 (Deacon, 2006). The discipline that turns out to be common, making the great confinement a general phenomenon which is not only for the so-called lunatics but also 307

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the whole society and each individual and their soul. So, power has transformed into something else in the West which is not stable anymore and a status named capillary power reaches into the very grain of individuals, touches their bodies and inserts itself into their actions and attitudes, their discourses, learning processes and everyday lives (Foucault, 1980), in other words it reaches into individuals so deeply that it makes them who they are (Alford, 2000). It should be emphasized that power as a mechanism capable of making people who they are, need to be clarified in every aspect, including its dynamics and tools. So, understanding the relationship between power and violence, which according to author functions as a tool of power is vital for this study. As aforementioned, in literature, there are many different versions for violence such as political, structural, direct, cultural, asymmetric and symbolic put forward by ones such as Habermas, Galtung, Schmid and De Graaf. This research focuses on the conflict between East-West Dichotomy. Therefore, it is aimed to understand how violence is affecting this conflict and to broaden Hassan’s perspective on East-West Dichotomy. In order to broaden his perspective, the author believes it is needed to look the conflict from a different standpoint, taking advantage of Foucauldian concept of power and Galtung’s stand on violence, researcher strives to explain a highly discussed concept, namely structural violence. As Foucault claimed violence dramatically transformed from visible (a public spectacle) to invisible (prison) in other words from spectacle to incarceration that is where one needs to delve into the idea that violence that works on the body transforms into violence that works on the soul or more complex or combined form of it. Violence to the author is an interactive phenomenon consisted of social, cultural and political dimensions. When it comes to structural violence, a proper effort to define it would be structural violence is as a type of violence that might include physical or psychological elements or both and depending on the context might operate latently or manifestly, committed systematically against a certain group of people (or just a member of certain group of people) to discriminate and oppress for creating and sustaining global, national, local and domestic economic, social and cultural inequalities. To make the definition more understandable, the author believes that some examples need to be given. A member of a specific group might be discriminated and rejected due to his/her identity when he/ she applies for a job while others (for example a member of dominant culture) take advantage of their ascribed status. In the movie Philadelphia, Andrew Beckett, portrayed by Tom Hanks, is discriminated against and fired because of his sexual orientation. He seemingly was a white male who is a member of the dominant culture of USA but when his sexual orientation turned out to be obvious to everyone, he somehow lost his status. In that particular example, the culture of the corporate law firm he works for is the mini-version of male-dominant structure of society. The way the LGBT rights in the USA has evolved over time is a vital example of the concept of context which the researcher is going to explain in detail below. For now, it is obvious to claim that it would be hard to treat (structurally discriminate) gays the way they were being treated in the past in USA where same-sex marriage is legalized, which was celebrated by White House by lighting with rainbow colors. However, this news which is good for some might be alarming to others or other countries. For example, Saudi religious police went after gay rainbows when a school’s rooftop was painted the colors of rainbow. So, when we change the space, similar action might get varied reactions. Returning to America which seems a safe space for the members of LGBT+, can it be safe to say that nobody will ever discriminate them or a boss who can’t fire his/her gay employees when he/she finds out they are homosexual thanks to a possible public reaction doesn’t hate them the way he/she used to do? When one looks at the social media where people can be anonymous or act more recklessly thanks to echo chambers and non-physical presence, it can be observed that people can speak more ‘honestly,’ showing what they really think of something. However, when 308

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people are physically together with the ones they actually hate, it is not so easy to act the way they do anonymously or on social media, which is the difference between physical and virtual space. People who are occupying both of them are the same, but their behaviors differ according to where they are (e.g. in a physical job or in a Facebook group). Being victim of structural violence doesn’t necessitate to be a part of a minority, but minorities are naturally exposed to more violent behaviors which means being a member of the dominant culture has some advantages. However, the dominant culture would depend on context and space as well. White minority of South Africa that used to dominate South African politics are now claimed to be in danger of dying out after black South Africans started rising to power. Even in USA where white dominance still exists, a white family living in a black ghetto or a predominantly black neighborhood can be counted as minority, depending on where they live. They belong nationally dominant and locally minority culture which show the dynamic structure of violence and power. A stereotype which the researcher calls discriminative sub-discourse “all Muslims are terrorist” can be echoed more easily in a predominantly white neighborhood in USA where there are no or almost no Muslim (discourse community). The direct opposite example would be that a Muslim living in USA wouldn’t act as if nothing happened just after the day 11 September attacks. Some might think those examples above are all in individual level. On the contrary, they are all structural because of their cultural, political, historical and social dimensions which emphasizes the fact that the individual examples of violence stemming from structural causes are in fact structural violence. Violence doesn’t necessarily have to have political motives. In order to explain that, it would be fruitful to look at a Hollywood cliché that a teenager is made fun of as he/she has yet to have sex. Did Hollywood change the sex taboo of a conservative society or just followed the footsteps of sexual revolution? It is a “which came first, the chicken or the egg” situation where the answer would probably be more complex and combined. Leaving behind that and focusing on teenagers making fun of the ones who have yet to have sex, it can be claimed that sex is not just sex which transforms into a sign showing if someone is a loser or not. If this type of violence is committed just for ego satisfaction regardless of victim’s identity, we couldn’t call it structural violence. However, considering a situation where a teenager girl is made fun of because of her conservative stance like in the movie Carrie, then it is possible to talk about structural violence which is always regarding a specific victim who belongs a group of people the perpetrators hold grudge. Questioning the motivation of a clear example of direct violence, the mysterious Jack the Ripper case whose attacks typically involved female prostitutes (as above-mentioned specific victims), it can be argued that it is not just a type of direct but also structural violence, presumably motivated by religious beliefs, making the killer to wage a war on sin. So, the prostitutes would be the symbols of hate stemming from religious beliefs. Let’s examine an imaginary situation that a driver fights with another one in the traffic which seemingly has no root cause. Broadening the example with two actors one of whom is black and the other of whom is white, it might be concluded that a possible fight between them might be fueled by their identities, nation’s background and what they have experienced so far. Black guy, who might be touched by the recent police brutality against black community might be inclined to take it out on a random white guy he came across. The root cause of his rage is the systemic racism towards black people in USA which ones like George Floyd can be killed in police custody for nothing. It is vital to note that blacks have long outnumbered whites in U.S. prisons even though whites make up 60 percent and blacks make up only 13 percent of the population (https:// www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/IPE120218). Is social injustice (Galtung uses it as a substitute for structural violence) enough to explain why black people ended up being imprisoned much more than whites in the first place? As far as we know the legal structures that sustained state-mandated overt 309

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discrimination have been dismantled (Wiecek, 2011), meaning the equal treatment of all races under the law. However, when it comes to social practices and how the law is practiced by police and justice system, some questions need to be asked: Is there a racial bias for police arrest decisions, does justice system treat black community equally and are white people inclined to use police and justice system to radicalize blacks? The last question has a very recent example that is the case of Christian Cooper the birdwatcher who would have been going to be framed by a white woman if he hadn’t recorded what happened when he asked her to leash her dog. When she threatened him to call the cops, saying ‘I’m going to tell them there’s an African American man threatening my life’ which is the reflection of structural violence to social encounters and practices. She knew what to do even if what was happening had nothing to do with race and in case that he hadn’t chosen to film and share it on social media, he might have faced the consequences George Floyd had suffered, being brutally murdered by police. So, the police inherently know what to do when they treat this kind of situation, protecting the valued member of a superior skin color from a problematic black offender which is called everyday racism. It should be to re-emphasized that structural violence is not just about visible effects, it has cultural, religious, social and historical roots and it is a tool to determine a hierarchy and to help to build command-obedience relationship. Briefly Weberian sense, it is a tool of power letting x to make y to act against his/her will.

CONTEXT AND SPACE AS THE TOOLS TO LEGITIMATE AND PRODUCE VIOLENCE The relationship with time which according to Hassan is the major difference between Western modernity and political Islam, the first of which is heavily dependent on efficiency [to Hassan (2018) ‘fetishism of efficiency’] and the latter of which perceives time as a sacred concept and the world as a test contrary to West’s temporal approach. Morozov’s (2013) term ‘solutionism’ which is based on the idea that technology can solve all of mankind’s problems is a similar version of ‘fetishism of efficiency.’ Based on this logic we can produce technologies or robots to kill ‘problematic people’ like the way soldiers kill humanoid mutants known as roaches that are actually human thanks to their implants displaying enemy not as a bunch of scared humans, but as the disgusting giant roaches in Black Mirror’s Men Against Fire episode. Who would guarantee that that type of war tech and drone soldiers will be used just to protect civilians and won’t lead to more chaotic world than ever before? So, the author believes this approach on efficiency and the solutionism might lead more casualties, making the killing of the enemy or the whole process look like running a company, profit and loss account (calculating how many enemy is killed with these x amount drones powered by x amount of electricity). Similar to this temporal account of time, perceiving time as a sacred entity (with enough propaganda) can let the violence against the ‘infidels’ to appear legitimate and naturally lead more violence. The researcher argues that not only the perception of time but also ‘context’ and ‘space’ serve as a tool to legitimate and produce violence. Perception of time, context and space as the other concepts used so far are all closely associated and some of them might be substitute for other concepts. Structural violence, per se, was used in this text as a concept that has a similar meaning with context which emphasizes the focal event cannot be properly understood, interpreted appropriately, or described in a relevant fashion, unless one looks beyond the event itself to other phenomena (for example cultural setting, speech situation, shared background assumptions) within which the event is embedded, or alternatively that features of the talk itself invoke particular background assumptions relevant to the organization of subsequent interaction. The context 310

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is thus a frame that surrounds the event being examined and provides resources for its appropriate interpretation (Goodwin & Duranti, 1992: p. 3). No one can understand a visible event without background knowledge. However, isn’t it possible to have varied backgrounds, different perspectives and alternative interpretations of a single event? So, context can be most basically defined as highlighting some facets of events and ignoring other interpretations in a given situation. Like Goodwin and Duranti, I will use context as a frame and take advantage of the way Entman’s (2004) definition of framing: “selecting and highlighting some facets of events or issues, and making connections among them so as to promote a particular interpretation, evaluation, and/ or solution.” Some dimensions of context are proposed in the study, which are subjectiveness-belongingness (selfother perspective stemming from belonging varied groups, class, identity and geography- It is preferred to use a newly coined concept to explain it ‘discourse community’-) and episteme-historical a priori (Foucaldian periodicity) and language-discourse. First of all, the researcher is going to delve into subjectiveness- belongingness. Context has something to do with how people identify themselves ontologically, even it be Benedict Anderson’s imagined community (nation) or an ethnical or religious minority living (subculture) in that imagined community. For instance, Muslims living in the West (of course some of them might highly assimilate the essentials of the country they live. However, it is also possible to reject the essentials of the dominant culture or partly assimilate) might differ in culture and religion as well as having a different mother tongue. So, it is so natural for them to perceive things differently than both other Americans and even the ones residing in their original country, a possible hybrid identity like neither Turkish nor German. Belonging a group is highly vital for the identity construction but first of all, it comes first to emphasize individuality or selfhood. The Self might be basically who we are, that is directly one person, Ahmet living in Turkey. Karim and Eid (2012: p.11) points out at the beginnings of individual consciousness, a baby begins to realize that she is distinct from her mother—with whom she has shared an intimate sense of Self. The infant becomes aware of her own characteristics in relation to Others, and in this develops the conception of a separate identity. Her gender and age become pertinent features in relationships with members of her family. She mentally integrates individual and collective notions (stereotypes) of the Self in relation to Other entities. Drawing on the explanation above, we can understand why human has the tendency to imagine the world as divided into the Self and the Other (van Dijk cited in Eid & Karim, 2014: p.3). According to Van Dijk, such concepts operate in the mind as primary organizing ideas that shape discourse about relationships; they are cognitive frameworks that we use to compartmentalize information about the world (ibid. p.3). Karim and Eid (2012: p.11) indicate that one belongs to extended Self, based on gender, kinship, culture, ethnicity, religion, class, and nationality, social categories that may or may not overlap with each other. One learns to deal with the apparent contradictions in which certain people may be considered the part of the extended Self in some contexts but not in others. The researcher is going to use Karim and Eid’s extended self to strengthen a term the researcher coined which is discourse community. Albeit showing some similarity to the way Swales (1990) uses the concept of “discourse community”, such as a discourse community that has a broadly agreed set of common public goals and mechanisms of intercommunication among its members, there is a substantial difference between two concepts. In Swales’ concept, there can be many discourse communities one participates in, such as a hobby group or an academic group which are flexible and not ideologically laden. However, as mentioned above, according to the way the researcher uses the discourse community, one generally cannot participate in but belongs to a discourse community due to the fact that people are born to a particular culture. Albeit accepting there are parameters such as education and social encounters, culture or sub-cultures (e.g. male culture, Muslim culture or Protestant 311

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culture) make people frame the way they perceive their external environment.. Discourse communities produce a set of discourse to be able to reproduce itself, its identity and ideology. So, they are ideologically laden communities. Returning to Self-Other, Self that whether can be directly one person, Ahmet living in Turkey or can be his family, culture or country helps to form varied discourse communities. The Self can be thought of as the first person subject or as the entire universe and, similarly, the Other as the second person object or as nature (Karim & Eid, 2012: p. 10). Therefore, in a given situation, we can claim that the Other is not part of the any of Self’s discourse community. However, x that is Other in one context might be included in Self in another context. So, identity or Self (who we are) and Other can be relative in varied context. Karim and Eid (2012: p.10) state how the Self and the Other might be relative: The worldview of each culture and the circumstances of its particular discourses at a given time shape the specific identity of the entities that are placed within these cognitive frameworks. At different times, the Self can be I, my family, my football team, my neighborhood, my culture, my ethnic group, my religious group, my country, or humanity. Similarly, the Other can be a spouse, an adjacent community, a neighboring state, another civilization, or nature. An entity that is viewed as another in one context comes to be seen as part of the Self in an alternative placement; for example, a rival state is incorporated into the larger Self in the situations where one identifies with all of humanity. The author shares a similar perspective on the relativity of the Self (who we are). As already stated, the extended self and discourse community have several characteristics in common. As a broad and amorphous discourse community, Christians might have a similar thought pattern between each other against Muslims but Protestants’ thought pattern differs from the one of Catholics’ when it comes to the their approach to Christianity. For example, a protestant Christian might think, thanks to their upbringing, all Catholics will go to hell (it is not meant that it is a dominant thought or common sense) but it would be very rare to see anyone stating that kind of suggestion publicly because it would be considered very rude and might lead a clash. The abovementioned example is similar to a situation where two Christians sharing a familiar thought that all Muslims have the tendency to be terrorists but again they would hesitate sharing this thought pattern to their Muslim colleagues in a given situation (it is not to mean that all Christians would share that thought pattern). As an ethnic group, Circassians might be inclined to see Russians very negatively, considering they suffered too much and this thought pattern naturally might be so common among Circassians, especially the ones in diaspora (the importance of the space will be discussed below in detail) as they are freer to express themselves than in Russia. However, even if Circassians as an ethnic community have a common background, shaped by Circassians Exile and Islamic tradition, some of them might vary in their way to see Islam, according to whom is the source of cultural degeneration and adaptation of Arabic culture to their culture. Thus, it would be impossible to wait devout and secular (secular may not be appropriate to use in here as a Muslim can be secular too, maybe atheist or deist might be a better fit) Circassians that are a discourse community about Russian problem to be a discourse community when it comes to religion. So just like structural violence, discourse community is always about the enemy or Self-Other. Discourse communities produce both public and sub-discourses, expected to be discriminative. As it might be expected, it is hard a discourse containing hate against a particular group to appear in public discourse. The above-mentioned discourse patterns relating to Christianity-Islam or East-West conflict have been shaped by many parameters such as conflicts (political and structural violence) and wars of those 312

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two religions throughout ages and the production of the other in a Foucauldian perspective. Similar to Foucault’s notion of history (episteme), the continuity is not a characteristic of the discourse communities and discriminative sub-discourses. Just like the way the members of discourse communities change in time based on technology, recent politics and social developments, discourse communities are subject to change. For the discriminative sub-discourse, it can be claimed that what is considered at the present time to be a discriminative sub-discourse can be visible (public discourse) in different eras. For example, when Germany was not a democratic and stable country under Nazi rule, discourses, including hate speech that targeted Jews would not be an example of the discriminative sub-discourse owing to the fact that, even if it consists of discriminative and subjective values, it would be publicly acceptable to use them. In other words, subjectivity and discrimination are highly important aspects of the discriminative sub-discourse, but no matter how subjective and discriminative a discourse might be, if it is public discourse, it cannot be classified as the discriminative sub-discourse. The author believes that it is the most striking difference between hate speech and the discriminative sub-discourse. A basic definition of discriminative sub-discourse is discriminative and subjective discourse, immersed in culture that promotes hate speech which is also a type of discourse based on the circulation of knowledge gained through not reason but speculation, which makes it impossible to figure out if a subdiscourse is authentic or not as they are highly subjective due to the fact that they are based on cultural values (detailed definition below). At least in democratic and stable countries, to avoid the conflicts, the researcher argues that the mainstream discourse of any community (except for extreme groups such as KKK) should be in need of being built on ideas and thought patterns which can be acceptable to any member of that community and at least bearable to a non-member of that community so that there can exist an imagined agreement between the citizens of a nation consisted of various groups with varied discourses, e.g. in America Muslims, Christians, or their varied sects or ethnic identities. For example, a situation where Protestant Christians and Catholics in America publicly regard each other as infidels similar to what happened in Europe in the past can lead the spiral of distorted communication as well as the spiral of violence. In researcher’s opinion, conspiracy theories or conspiracy mind-set is one of the most important tools for the discriminative sub-discourses to reproduce or reshape themselves. Barrack Obama being Muslim and Muslims living in the West helping Muslims countries aiming to take over western counterparts can be seen examples of that phenomenon. When viewed from this aspect, conspiracy theories can be a tool to be considered and produced for discourse communities. The author believes that conspiracy theories which don’t contain the discriminative sub-discourse can be visible in public discourse more easily. The most striking difference between those concepts is whereas conspiracy theories (firstly as a method) are more universal (they can be used by different discourse communities), the discriminative sub-discourses are shaped by in-group dynamics. So, it can be argued that conspiracy theories can be circulated through mass media more easily than the discriminative sub-discourse (when it comes to new media both might have same effect). However, conspiracy theories containing discriminative sub-discourses are hard to circulate through mass media. In new media environment, similar to circulation of conspiracy theories, it is easy to produce or re-produce sub-discourses, which are normally expected to be circulated in group communication, thanks to internet’s nature which lets users to be anonymous. Discriminative sub-discourse can be very visible when there is a massive dissentient between two communities like a civil war. Of course, it would be no longer considered as sub-discourse, but normally, sub-discourses aren’t expected to be visible in public discourse due to the fact that there might be legal, moral or social sanctions, especially in democratic and stable countries. I don’t propose that these dis313

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courses never become visible in this type of countries, but people who use them are generally regarded as unstable and they are criticized and marginalized by almost each section of the society, including the very cultural or ideological group the one using that speech belongs to. However, the contention is that even in a democratic and seemingly stable country, due to the raising political and structural violence, tension between a minority group and majority of a nation can raise, leading to the fact that sub-discourses become visible in public and political discourse or at least we can talk about the reflection or residue of them in public and political discourse. For instance, “all Muslims are inclined to be a terrorist,” is subdiscourse and Trump’s words “I will ban all Muslims from entering USA” is the reflection or residue of it. Trump has been criticized by almost every section of the American society (including his party). However, considering the public support he consolidated so far, the power of sub-discourses against Muslims can be claimed to outweigh America’s democratic potential. As already explained in the study, victors not only won the wars but also gained the privilege to shape the reality or history. So, they gained the power to make a horrible act like the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki look like legitimate. It was argued that in democratic and stable countries, one wouldn’t expect discriminative sub-discourses appear in public discourse. However, many people even academics claim that atomic bombing of civilians saved millions of lives including Japans which sounds terrifying even if it seemingly includes no direct hate against others. This example shows us that hate and othering can find a way to public discourse sometimes through scientific arguments and sometimes as a common sense. Maybe it has been generally accepted just because America built postwar world system, showing that if Axis Powers briefly Hitler had won the World War II, people would have perceived things differently than they have done and there might have been an alternative history. So, hegemony of America doesn’t let us see an alternative frame, emphasizing the unjust nature of killing civilians. Foucault’s archaeological method encompassed a description or uncovering of the unconscious ideas and thoughts he labelled epistemes. He focused on the relationship between knowledge and power and attempted to trace epistemes that he considered to be linked with the discourses of an epoch (Howell, 2012). Foucauldian episteme is a subset of his other concept historical a priori. Discourse that the researcher is going to explain below as the last dimension of context is central to both episteme and historical a priori. Referred to also as the ‘positive unconscious of knowledge’ by Foucault, historical a priori denotes the order underlying any given culture at any given period of history, which the episteme, scientific forms of knowledge, is a subset of (Bibri, 2015). Episteme is the historical a priori that grounds knowledge and its discourses within a particular epoch. A number of epistemes may co-exist and interact at the same time and make up power-knowledge systems. It is like an unconscious underpinning and based on fundamental assumptions that go unnoticed by individuals existing in a particular epoch. Episteme is the ‘epistemological unconsciousness’ of an era (Howell, 2012). Some might think Foucault’s episteme and Kuhn’s paradigm are identical but Foucault’s emphasis on the unconsciousness of epistemes is the vital difference between them. According to him even scientists don’t understand that epistemes ground the knowledge, discourses and all background epistemological assumptions they base their studies on. Europe which had a Jewish Question similar to name of Marx’s publication somewhat solved this problem and Jews now appear to be a part of Western civilization, namely Judeo-Christian civilization. Interestingly, at in 19th century, Jews just like Muslims had been thought to be culturally different which was the reflection of historical a priori or episteme of that epoch. The Zionist impressed by Christian theology and Enlightenment when they decide to return to Palestine claims Brandar (2018) who posited Jews on the side of modernity in opposition to the Orientalist world of the Arab, who became for the Jewish, as for Christian Europeans, a backward, inferior people. The ideology of improvement and progress, informed 314

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entirely by a European episteme, was an inherent part of modern political Zionist ideology (130). Jews who used to be seen as the inferior people like in 19th century was no longer the Other as they adopted modernity, historical a priori and episteme of that particular epoch. Language-discourse is naturally attached to Foucauldian episteme, which is defined as a priori which grounds knowledge and its discourses and thus represents the condition of their possibility within a particular epoch (Foucault, 2005). Language-discourse is understood in this work as a reflection of power and hegemonic conditions. The main idea is that while people talk, they draw from historically available, ideologically laden, systematic ways to construct versions of the world, which they then negotiate and re-construct in the course of their everyday interactions. According to this approach, talk is not politically or ideologically neutral (Tseliou, 2020). In the words of Foucault, ‘There is no power relation without the correlative constitution of a field of knowledge, nor any knowledge that does not presuppose and constitute at the same time power relations (in Franklin et al. 2004: pp. 183-184). This study is trying to examine the proposed East-West conflict through Foucauldian discourse and its broadening by Edward Said borrowing Foucault’s concept, coins a new term ‘Orientalism’ attempting to illustrate how power operates through discourse, how power produces knowledge and therefore how knowledge about ‘the Orient’ is itself an index of social power relations (1978). In addition to that, discourse will be used accordingly with discourse community to explain discriminative sub-discourses. The detailed definition of discriminative sub-discourses is subjective, veiled and non-public discourses, immersed in particular culture or community, namely discourse communities. They contain hate speech against other groups in a particular society to be able to reproduce the related communities which people generally hesitate to use due to the fact that there might be legal, moral or social sanctions, especially in democratic and stable countries and they are based on the circulation of knowledge gained through not reason but speculation, which makes it impossible to figure out if a sub-discourse is authentic or not as they are highly subjective due to the fact that they are based on cultural values. It is not argued that these discourses never become visible in this type of countries, but people who use them are generally regarded as unstable and they are criticized and marginalized by almost each section of the society, including the very cultural or ideological group the one using that speech. As explaining discourse community, the researcher mentioned of its many aspects. While examining space below the researcher is going to reevaluate discriminative sub-discourses which the researcher argues that have started being more visible thanks to the new technological developments in communication. Space is any media, mean or medium through which a message is sent and received. Its types are so varied from face-to-face communication and hard copy print to any electronic communication e.g. radio, television and digital formats. The reason why this concept is not reduced to the catchword ‘media’ but specified as the space is because it is aimed to reflect on the complexity of communication and interaction (human-human, human-machine and machine-machine). In pre-social media era, opposing strong media effects that theorize audiences are passive, thinkers of the two-step flow of communication model proved that people’s opinions are formed not only by the mass media but also opinion leaders which emphasizes the complexity of social practices. In today’s much more complicated media structure where individuals have their own media (large or small), it should be tried to be understood which tool influences whom to what extent. If one tries to perceive this complex structure as a one big amorphous space, one might seek to find a better understanding of it. Of course, compared to pre-social media, it is highly difficult to name who is the sender and receiver or information on our screen is produced by whom. An example would be explanatory in here, while watching evening news, one can be curious about a terrorist attack that targeted a U.S consulate, googling it and finding a news produced by New York Times (NYT) and 315

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they can reproduce this news on their Twitter account by giving the link, and adding their thoughts. In this spiral process, after being reproduced by a user who adds her comments, the news is no longer the original article produced by NYT for those who saw it on their news feed on Facebook. Or because of SEO (Search Engine Optimization) and Google Trends, news organizations are inclined to follow the users’ agenda in the first place. As above-mentioned this media environment is so complex, but it is not always necessary for professional media organizations to be main part of it. Internet on its own is so huge that it can draw the whole attention in a way that mass media feels obliged to follow it just like what happened ISIS gruesome beheading videos. This space includes both ISIS beheading videos till they get banned, two main characters’ heads getting smashed in the TV series Walking Dead by a fictional character Negan (an all of the memes about it) and killing people randomly in a popular games called GTA and PUBG while making fun of other players from all around world, based on their ethnicity like calling a Pakistani guy ‘Paki.’ Maybe just like Curran said all the different aspects of the real world penetrate cyberspace producing a ruined tower of Babel with multiple languages, hate websites, nationalist discourses, censored speech and over-representation of the advantaged (2012). In the TV series named Black Mirror, it was questioned the belief that hate towards internet is not real. In the episode called ‘Hated in Nation,’ a hacker who goes by the name, Garrett Scholes kills people via internet polling. Scholes explains the situation in a video named “Game of Consequences” (people write the names of people they wish death upon and people whose names are mentioned the most under the hashtag “#DeathTo” by 17.00 o’clock are killed by drone bees every day). Thus, internet hate, which is not seen as real hate in a sense, is rendered concrete and it gains the ability to hurt people. In that particular episode, the woman who had organized the delivery of a cake that reads “fucking bitch” to one of the victims, Jo Powers, normalizes the “deathtojopowers” hashtag by saying “That’s just, it’s a hashtag game, you know, like ‘Death to’, you insert the name of someone who’s being an arsehole. It’s not real. It’s a joke thing”. So, people taking advantage of being anonymous and the non-physical presence can choose to act recklessly, swearing and abusing others which is generally the Other that is the one apart from the Self. It has been observed that discriminative sub-discourses that are not expected to be visible in public discourse started being visible thanks to the nature of this new space explained above. Discourse communities, sometimes as a Facebook group and sometimes as a YouTube channel (maybe in the comment section of it) may appear in public discourse with their discriminative discourses containing hate speech against the Other, taking advantage of new media’s features and algorithm, leading echo chambers. Another vital aspect of this space is its ability to promote and legitimize the aesthetic dimensions of violence by propagating and normalizing it. A quarrel or a verbal abuse like an insult can be categorized under violence. However, it is generally expected that aestheticization of violence has to be related to physical violence first. As abovementioned, Nietzsche believes violence is inherent in our race which might stem from the fact that it serves as a tool for ruling and manipulating, a typical commandobedience relation. In addition to this, it can be claimed that violence can occur for no reason other than itself without cause and effect relation, the will to violence. Irrespective of the reason, as Braud (2004) puts it “Violence exists because suffering exists.” Regardless of individuals taking pleasure from others’ suffering stems from whether cause and effect relation or violence itself, they have got the chance to produce, propagate and witness violence towards others through the tools this space provides. The bottom line is that violence is the object of desire, meaning it is something demanded which makes it performative in nature. Similar to gladiatorial fights, staged animal hunts and the executions of convicted criminals and prisoners of war in Rome served as a spectacle to satisfy people’s violent urges, thanks 316

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to the new developments in communication technologies they can satisfy that urge by watching ISIS’ beheading videos, watching violent movies or playing violent games such as GTA or Call of Duty. As Dunkle (2013) points out gladiatorial combat and all spectacles were gifts to the Roman people who demanded in the first place. Contrary to general opinion, Dunkle (ibid) claims these games were a kind of sport. So, one should judge an ancient sport by the standards of its contemporary cultural context. Doherty (2001) believes Gladiatorial games in Ancient Rome and modem sports have more in common. Violence has been a key component to the success of each of these activities. Many spectators watched as the Coliseum was filled with blood from brutal gladiatorial matches. Today, hundreds of fans watch as two grown men hit one another in a boxing ring. Some film critics might prefer to believe that screen violence is not real violence but the motivation of people watching these films might stem from their desire to commit violence.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This work provides a toolset and conceptual framework to examine conflicts, especially East- West conflict. It should be emphasized that for any conflict resolution the dynamics of that conflict must be considered and analyzed. However, a conflict with dimensions such as hegemony (cultural, military and political), assimilation, migration (forced or labor) and cultural differences would give researchers a hard time analyzing and finding solutions. The recommendations for future studies would be to analyze the dynamics of the conflict separately by using the toolset and conceptual frame provided by this study.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The conceptual framework provided by this study (structural violence, context and space) require to be improved. Future researches might prefer to discuss those concepts used in that particular study for East-West conflict for varied topics.

CONCLUSION Hassan (2018) thought the reason of never-ending clash between East and West is the difference between their varied time perception (sacred and temporal). Albeit accepting many of his claims about the proposed difference of perceived time between East and West, the author believes there are other concepts ‘context’ and ‘space’ to legitimate and produce violence which the author sees as vital elements to understand the proposed conflict. Before delving into these concepts, the researcher discussed power and violence. Foucault (1982) doesn’t believe there can be a society without relations of power, the researcher argues that there can be no relation without relations of power e.g. relations between countries and even so-called civilizations. Not only military operations and capacities but also cultural imperialism and the discussions about cultural adaptation of Muslims living in the West have been shaping the power struggle between these civilizations. Understanding power x makes y to act against his/her will, it can be claimed that structural violence is its tool to determine the hierarchy and to help to build command-obedience relationship. In order to sustain power relations, violence is expected to be continuous which naturally 317

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might lead conflicts, so giving birth to violence again (spirals of violence). The seemingly harmless ideas that a Muslim or a Muslim organization is worried that the society has become too Westernized and a Christian and secular European is concerned that Muslims living in West unable to assimilate Western culture try to change it are both the reflection, cause and the result of structural violence. As far as we know the legal structures that sustained state-mandated overt discrimination have been dismantled (Wiecek, 2011) in the West, meaning the equal treatment of all races and religions under the law. Despite that, many believe that there are structural obstacles preventing the law is practiced the way it is intended (e.g. police treatment and the way justice system works). As a reflection of structural violence ‘I’m going to tell them there’s an African American man threatening my life’ was the words of white woman who thinks she gets she wants even if she is not right when she calls 911 as she believes she is discussing with someone from a ‘socially inferior race’. How can a discourse like that pop up that quickly in the middle of conservation and how could she be that sure to make that call, believing the police would back her? It depends the fact that this type of discourse has been repeated latently in her white discourse community, keeping them on guard and making calling police is the best option. When discourse became public, then it started to be problematic. Episteme or historical a priori as another subset of context is vital as they ground knowledge and its discourses within a particular epoch which doesn’t necessarily have to be in past which shows us the ever-changing character of world can transform thought patterns, behaviors and relations as we know them. White minority of South Africa that used to dominate South African politics are now claimed to be in danger of dying out after black South Africans started rising to power. Why didn’t they prefer to sustain apartheid rule? Because they knew the Western episteme has changed and it was impossible to sustain undemocratic and repressive rule. So, considering a possible crisis in the world similar to Corona might lead to another episteme where we can see authoritarian governments would be in charge. It is like Carl Schmitt’s criticism to Liberalism that when liberal societies face a crisis sovereign considered to be removed somehow pops up at some level. Context’s last subset language-discourse should be understood in this work as a reflection of power and hegemonic conditions. The above-mentioned discourse communities and their discriminative subdiscourses need so much quantitative date and critical assessments. So just like structural violence, discourse community is always about the enemy or Self-Other. Discourse communities produce both public and sub-discourses, expected to be discriminative. As it might be expected, it is hard a discourse containing hate against a particular group to appear in public discourse. However, thanks to being anonymous and the non-physical presence and echo chambers on internet, discourse communities sometimes as a Facebook group and sometimes as a YouTube channel (maybe in the comment section of it) may appear in public discourse with their discriminative discourses containing hate speech against the Other. So, this new media environment or as the author calls space might lead discriminative sub-discourses to be visible, making structural violence which is already part of society reproduce on internet. As mentioned above, a conflict with dimensions such as hegemony (cultural, military and political), assimilation, migration (forced or labor) and cultural differences can’t be explained just by the difference between their time perception (sacred and temporal). It is proposed in this study that context and space have been affecting and changing this conflict just like other conflicts. For instance, Jews who used to be seen as the inferior people like in 19th century is no longer the Other for the West as they adopted modernity, historical a priori and episteme of that particular epoch (context). However, that doesn’t mean that hate and humiliation towards Jews completely disappeared. White supremacy groups on internet still hold the ideas that Jews are inferior and they try to demolish Western culture (space). Context and 318

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space dynamically shape every possible relationship and even conflict, including East-West conflict. It is aimed in this paper to provide an explanatory perspective of East-West conflict. However, conclusions reached in this study should be supported and broadened by other studies that might include data obtained in ethnographic fieldwork or other quantitative or qualitative methods.

REFERENCES Alford, C. F. (2000). What would it matter if everything foucault said about prison were wrong? “discipline and punish” after twenty years. Theory and Society, 29(1), 125–146. doi:10.1023/A:1007014831641 Arendt, H. (1969). Reflections on violence. Journal of International Affairs, 23(1), 1–35. Bauman, Z. (1995). Life in Fragments: Essays in Postmodern Morality. Blackwell Publishers. Bhandar, B. (2018). Colonial Lives of Property: Law, Land, and Racial Regimes of Ownership. U.S. Duke University Press. doi:10.1215/9780822371571 Bibri, S. E. (2015). The Shaping of Ambient Intelligence and the Internet of Things. France. Atlantis Press. doi:10.2991/978-94-6239-142-0 Braud, P. (2004). Violences Politiques. France. Seuil. Breivik, A. B. (2011). 2083: A European Declaration of Independence. Retrieved from: https://publicintelligence.net/anders-behring-breiviks-complete-manifesto-2083-a-european-declaration-of-independence/ Clastres, P. (1987). Society Against the State: Essays in Political Anthropology. Zone Books. Curran, J. (2012). Why has the Internet changed so little? Retrieved from: https://www.opendemocracy. net/en/why-has-internet-changed-so-little/ Deacon, R. (2006). From Confinement to Attachment: Michel Foucault on the Rise of the School. The European Legacy, Toward New Paradigms, 11(2), 121–138. doi:10.1080/10848770600587896 Doherty, A. (2001). Violence in Sports: A Comparison of Gladiatorial Games in Ancient Rome to the Sports of America (Thesis). Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Retrieved from: https://opensiuc. lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1011&context=uhp_theses Dunkle, R. (2013). Gladiators: Violence and Spectacle in Ancient Rome. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315847887 Eco, U. (2012). Inventing the Enemy and Other Occasional Writings. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Entman, R. M. (2004). Projections of Power: Framing News, Public Opinion, and US Foreign Policy. University of Chicago Press. Ferguson, C. J. (2010). Media violence effects and violent crime: Good science or moral panic? In C. J. Ferguson (Ed.), Violent crime: Clinical and social implications (pp. 37–56). Sage Publications, Inc. Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings. 1972-1977. Pantheon Books.

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Foucault, M. (1982). The Subject and Power. Critical Inquiry, 8(4), 777–795. doi:10.1086/448181 Foucault, M. (1988). Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason. Vintage Books. Foucault, M. (2005). The Order of Things. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203996645 Franklin, B., & ... . (2005). Key concepts in journalism studies. Sage (Atlanta, Ga.). Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, Peace, and Peace Research. Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167–191. doi:10.1177/002234336900600301 Goodwin, C., & Duranti, A. (Eds.). (1992). Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive Phenomenon. Cambridge University Press. Han, B. C. (2018). Topology of Violence (Vol. 9). MIT Press. Hassan, R. (2018). Sources of Resilience in Political Islam: Sacred Time, Earthly Pragmatism, and Digital Media. Arab Media & Society, 25, 24-41. Hoffman, B. (1998). Inside Terrorism. U.S. Columbia University Press. Howell, K. E. (2012). An introduction to the philosophy of methodology. Sage (Atlanta, Ga.). Karim, K. H., & Eid, M. (2012). Clash of ignorance. Global Media Journal—Canadian Edition, 5(1), 7-27. Karskens, M. (2009). Biopower–A slip of the polemical mind. In S. Binkley & J. Capetillo (Eds.), A Foucault for the 21 st Century: Governmentality, Biopolitics and Discipline in the New Millennium (pp. 122–138). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Kumar, K. (2002). The Nation-State, the European Union, and Transnational Identities. In N. AlSayyad & M. Castells (Eds.), Muslim Europe or Euro-Islam: Politics, Culture, and Citizenship in the Age of Globalization (pp. 53–68). Lexington Books. Morozov, E. (2013). To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism. Public Affairs. Nietzsche, F. (2002). Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future. Cambridge University Press. Porter, R. (1990). Foucault’s Great Confinement. History of the Human Sciences, 3(1), 47–54. doi:10.1177/095269519000300107 Reemtsma, J. P. (2012). Trust and Violence: An Essay on a Modern Relationship. Princeton University Press. Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. Vintage. Scheper-Hughes, N., & Bourgois, P. (Eds.). (2004). Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology. Blackwell. Swales, J. (1990). Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge.

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Tseliou, E. (2020). Discourse Analysis and Systemic Family Therapy Research: The Methodological Contribution of Discursive Psychology. In M. Ochs, M. Borcsa, & J. Schweitzer (Eds.), Systemic Research in Individual, Couple, and Family Therapy and Counseling. European Family Therapy Association Series (pp. 125–141). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-36560-8_8 Wallimann, I., Tatsis, N. C., & Zito, G. V. (1977). On Max Weber’s definition of power. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 13(3), 231–235. doi:10.1177/144078337701300308 Weber, M. (1947). The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation. Free Press. Wiecek, W. M. (2011). Structural Racism and the Law in America Today: An Introduction. Kentucky Law Journal (Lexington, Ky.), 100(1). https://uknowledge.uky.edu/klj/vol100/iss1/2 Zizek. (2019). Margaret Atwood’s work illustrates our need to enjoy other people’s pain. Retrieved from: https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/margaret-atwood-handmaids-tale-testaments-human-rightsslavoj-zizek-a9105151.html

ADDITIONAL READING Ben-David, A., & Fernández, A. M. (2016). Hate speech and covert discrimination on social media: Monitoring the Facebook pages of extreme-right political parties in Spain. International Journal of Communication, 10, 1167–1193. Bonilla-Silva, E. (2006). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Bonilla-Silva, E., & Forman, T. A. (2000). “I Am Not a Racist But...”: Mapping White College Students’ Racial Ideology in the USA. Discourse & Society, 11(1), 50–85. doi:10.1177/0957926500011001003 Couldry, N. (2012). Media, society, world: Social theory and digital media practice. Polity. Daniels, J. (2009). Cyber racism: White supremacy online and the new attack on civil rights. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence culture: Where old and new media collide. NYU Press. Marmura, S. M. (2010). Hegemony in the digital age: The Arab/Israeli conflict online. Lexington Books. Papacharissi, Z. (2009). The virtual geographies of social networks: A comparative analysis of Facebook, LinkedIn and ASmallWorld. New Media & Society, 11(1-2), 199–220. doi:10.1177/1461444808099577

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Context: It is the focal event that cannot be properly understood, interpreted appropriately, or described in a relevant fashion, unless one looks beyond the event itself to other phenomena (Goodwin and Duranti, 1992, 3). In this study, concepts such as subjectiveness-belongingness (self-other perspective stemming from belonging varied groups, class, identity and geography. It is preferred to use a newly coined concept to explain it ‘discourse community’ and episteme-historical a priori (Foucaldian periodicity) and language-discourse are used as the dimensions of context,. Discourse Community: A community one generally cannot participate in but belongs to due to the fact that people are born to a particular culture (even a sub-culture) within a society, which together with ideology they gain in time. So, this type of communities frames the way people perceive their external environment. Discourse communities produce a set of discourse to be able to reproduce itself, its identity and ideology. So, they are ideologically laden communities. Discriminative Sub-Discourse: Subjective, veiled, and non-public discourses, immersed in particular culture or community, namely discourse communities. They contain hate speech against other groups in a particular society to be able to reproduce the related communities which people generally hesitate to use due to the fact that there might be legal, moral or social sanctions, especially in democratic and stable countries and they are based on the circulation of knowledge gained through not reason but speculation, which makes it impossible to figure out if a sub-discourse is authentic or not as they are highly subjective due to the fact that they are based on cultural values. It is not argued that these discourses never become visible in this type of countries, but people who use them are generally regarded as unstable and they are criticized and marginalized by almost each section of the society, including the very cultural or ideological group the one using that speech. Episteme: Episteme is the historical a priori that grounds knowledge and its discourses within a particular epoch in an unconscious manner. Power: X makes y to act against his/her will. Space: Space is any media, mean or medium through which a message is sent and received. Its types are so varied from face-to-face communication and hard copy print to any electronic communication (e.g., radio, television, and digital formats). The reason why this concept is not reduced to the catchword ‘media’ but specified as the space is because it is aimed to reflect on the complexity of communication and interaction (human-human, human-machine and machine-machine). Structural Violence: A type of violence that might include physical or psychological elements or both and depending on the context might operate latently or manifestly, committed systematically against a certain group of people (or just a member of certain group of people) to discriminate and oppress for creating and sustaining global, national, local and domestic economic, social and cultural inequalities.

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Reemtsma (2012, p. 62) says autotelic violence is about destroying the body which is not merely a possible consequence, it’s the point. Of the three forms of violence (raptive and locative), autotelic violence disturbs us most, for it’s the one that most escapes understanding and explanation— at least today— which is why we speak of “senseless cruelty”. Schinkel (2004) has a similar definition of it, who explains autotelic violence as violence occurring for no reason other than itself without cause

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2



and effect relation, a violence that is its own goal, in which means and end are melted together. The will to violence only wills violence itself. He believes cultural signs seem to justify the idea that violence can be a self-referential act, due to a will to violence. Galtung (1969) rejects the approach according to which violence is somatic incapacitation or deprivation of health, alone (with killing as the extreme form), the hands of an actor who intends this to be the consequence and finds it as a narrow concept of violence as it concentrates on physical violence only.

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Chapter 17

The Aesthetics of Fear and Power in Soviet Posters Ömer Çakın Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Mehmet A. Günay Gümüşhane University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The concept of aesthetics has been one of the most discussed topics from past to present. Marxists saw aesthetics as an aesthetic assimilation of nature and reality and defined it as the laws of artistic culture. In this sense, Russian artists did not compromise on aesthetics in the paintings and posters which they produced. In these artworks, where aesthetics are not ignored, it is possible to see how the government creates the hegemony over fear. On this account, governments can easily manage this orientation process by establishing domination of individuals and institutions with fear. The posters produced in the Soviet Union, which also functioned to direct the society, became one of the most important propaganda tools of the government. These posters, presented with an aesthetic value, played an important role in reflecting the will of the government to the society. This study reveals how the fear and power had been transformed into an aesthetic appearance in the Soviet posters through the semiotics analysis method.

INTRODUCTION Since its foundation, the Soviet Union had made great efforts on building a new social structure. The low literacy rate was effective for the Bolsheviks to use the propaganda method in posters during this construction process. In the Soviet Union, visual arts had been used extensively in both internal and external propaganda activities. Eventually, posters had become a popular way as a means of spreading propaganda (Stepler, 2008: p. 37). The Soviet Union considered the posters as an effective way of communication and used them to guide and inform people. Consequently, posters had become mass media that had been used extensively (Ayhan et al., 2019: p. 106). DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch017

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 The Aesthetics of Fear and Power in Soviet Posters

Evaluating propaganda products, especially posters, reveals that propaganda generally focuses on the emotional weaknesses of people. These weaknesses include fear, anger, happiness, commiseration, safety need, protection, compassion, etc. In this regard, Lenin and Hitler, who use contemporary propaganda methods frequently, had mostly adopted the method that benefits from such emotions to spread their ideologies and take action (Rızvanoğlu, 2001: p. 4). Posters were used as a tool to trap the eye (Özerkan & İnceoğlu, 1995). Perception of posters in communication as an object beyond photography and the shock and punch effect of the passionate combination of an image with a sentence is the reason that posters were used by the leaders to make their mark in history (Seguela, 1991). Soviet Propaganda activities were mostly aimed at imperialism, capitalism and especially Nazis. While the imperialists were portrayed in posters as ugly faced with top hat and frock, the Nazis were highlighted as monsters, barbarian, and fascist (İnceoğlu, 2013: pp. 29-32). Almost all hate-themed, anti-Nazi Soviet propaganda posters included the fylfot symbol. The Nazis were depicted in these posters as monsters and bloody barbarians. Many issues such as disgracing religion, opposition to imperialists, anti-communism, and the Nazis were tried to be imposed on the public through posters. The Soviet Union implemented the collectivization policy and therefore, private ownership is not allowed. Land and goods owned by the individual were transferred to collective labor (Kolhoz). Within the framework of this policy, the lands, machinery, animals, and products of the rich peasants were confiscated and transferred to the state-owned collective farm. The lands owned by the noble, great landowners, and the church were seized (Turan, 2011: pp.312-313). The wealthy individuals who hide their property have been declared public enemies. In this sense, the Soviet Government opposed ownership and fight with property owners, ruined their reputation in the society by humiliating them with propaganda activities. Posters were also actively used for this purpose. Lenin pointed out that the proletariat, a large segment of the society, was exploited by the capitalist class, a small minority. He likened religion to a spiritual drink and stated that all the labor was exploited in exchange for a heavenly reward, provided that people were obedient and patient (Lenin, 1965: p. 83). In this sense, especially in the construction of this new humanity, great efforts have been made to eliminate superstitions in the Soviet Union. According to the Bolshevik perspective, religion is considered as man’s greatest. People were asked to abandon their religious beliefs and worship. Religion was seen as a bourgeoisie tool for the communist ideology to assimilate the proletariat. For this reason, propaganda activities were carried out against religion and clergymen. This study aims to reveal how the fear and power themes are aestheticized in the posters in which the Soviet administration carried out its propaganda activities towards the total transformation of society. Therefore, concepts such as aesthetics, aesthetic communication, media aesthetics, media, fear, and power are discussed first, and posters prepared against religion, private ownership, anti-communism, Nazis, and imperialism are evaluated within the framework of semiotic analysis in the following sections.

AESTHETICS The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek “aisthesis” or “aisthanesthai” terms. “Aisthesis” word means sensation and “aisthanesthai” word related to perceiving, feel, sense (Tunalı, 1998; Turani, 1995: p. 40; Shusterman, 2000). The Greeks used the concept of aesthetics in an epistemological context. In other words, the word “aesthetics” is an epistemological word used in the meaning of information revealed by

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our senses and perceptions. Since the outside world is constantly changing, unlike the knowledge gained through the mind, it reveals what we know about the changing World (Taşdelen & Yazıcı, 2012: p. 3). Philosopher Alexander G. Baumgarten (1714-1762) used the word aesthetics in the meaning of sensory cognition without removing it from the context used by the ancient Greek philosophers, and also made it a specific field of research and considered the word aesthetics as a science in his work Aesthetica from the 18th century. Baumgarten developed the concept of aesthetics based on the sense-based cognition, expressed as the top and down cognition (facultas cognoscitiua inferior), which includes the ability to mind and understanding. Accordingly, Baumgarten explains aesthetics as “science of sensory knowledge” and “The goal of his aesthetics was to exercise sensory cognition perfectly, and this perfection of the sensory is beauty” (Baumgarten, 2007: pp. 1, 14, 383). While logic determines reality with clear and distinct concepts, aesthetics, on the other side, by its very nature, defines reality in a vaguer way (Wessell, 1972: p. 336). Various attempts have been made to define Aesthetics. Nevertheless, there is no comprehensive definition has been agreed upon by scholars yet. According to Ziss, the reason why experts do not agree on the definition of aesthetics is based on two arguments. According to the first argument, aesthetics is a single-themed area. The evolution laws of art and the essence of artistic creation. Therefore, aesthetics is regarded only as general art theory. According to the second argument, aesthetics and general art theory address the evolution laws of art and the essence of artistic creation; on the other side, aesthetics is the science of beauty in art and reality (1984: p.7). Another obstacle to a comprehensive definition of aesthetics is the trends that shape today’s aesthetics. Bozkurt (1995: p. 10) divides these trends into three. These trends also point to the limits of aesthetics. The first of these trends reflects the evolution of forms in nature and art and shares the integrative attempt that tries to define the essence of beauty in classical philosophies. The second trend addresses issues such as the viewer’s judgment of taste, artistic creation, and the determination or indetermination of aesthetic pleasure, that is, phenomenological aesthetics, aesthetics of creation, and aesthetics regarding economics or libido. The third trend covers many different approaches such as experimental aesthetics, art-science, art psychoanalysis, art sociology, semiotics of literary or painting, and industrial aesthetics. These trends also demonstrated that the aesthetic word is often used for different purposes or intentions (de Bolla, 2006: p. 17). Aesthetics examines the nature, scope, value, and origin of art. Aestheticists “research the global structure of art and they propose theories” (Kırışoğlu & Stokrocki, 1997: pp.1, 32). Immanuel Kant used aesthetics in terms of emotion-sense-feeling and also its knowledge and the beauty, that is, he used in both senses (Yenişehirlioğlu, 1993: pp. 13-14). Aesthetics is a discipline seeking answers to questions such as what is the art and its questioning, what is called a work of art, what is the connection and distinction between nature and art, what is beautiful and beauty, what is aesthetic theory and what is the world of art, etc. (Karabulut et al., 2010: p. 99). As a discipline, aesthetic phenomena are divided into following four different areas and are examined within this framework: 1) The subject having aesthetic pleasure 2) Aesthetic object 3) Aesthetic values, and finally, 4) Aesthetic tastes and judgment (Bozkurt, 1995: p. 39). The examination of aesthetics in the context of art philosophy reveals that it does not include only the concepts related to the beautiful and beauty, but also philosophical, psychological, sociological and anthropological phenomena, and archaeological finds such as “good”, “charming”, “nice”, “tragic”, “dramatic”, “funny”, “ugly”, “fear”, “repulsion”,“ disgust”, “loneliness”, “strangeness”, “wild”, “alienation”, “partiality”, “individuality”, “nausea”, “depression”, etc. (Yenişehirlioğlu, 1993: p. 59). Although the philosophy of art and aesthetics have close meanings, they differ from each other in some aspects.

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When we study the history of aesthetics, it is seen that it went through a speculative and dogmatic period at first; this period lasted from Socrates to Baumgarten. Later on, we see a period shaped by Kant and subsequent philosophers (between 1750-1850), which we can call critical or scientific. In the positivist era when technology comes to the fore, we face an increasing crisis; in this period, discussions on the values of arts made in the intellectual framework were shaped by the market economy with pragmatic calculations (Bozkurt, 1995: p. 39). Mentioning about aesthetics before Baumgarten was first based on Plato and Aristotle. Plato (2015: p. 101) defines beauty as “When beauty is caused by a shine, shape, or something like that, I ignore other confusing reasons and consider that the beauty in that thing is due to the presence of beauty in it or because of its integration with absolute beauty. I did not think of anything positive about its past, I am just saying that nothing but beauty makes things beautiful.” When evaluated from this point of view, it is seen that Plato’s understanding of beauty is related to idealist philosophy. According to the beauty understanding of Plato, the things that seem beautiful to us, are beautiful to the extent that they share in or are images of this beauty. According to Plato, an object that changes and ages over time cannot be beautiful. Because this object leaves behind something from itself and therefore disappears after a while. But the true source of beauty is timeless and therefore always remains beautiful. On the other side, Aristotle considers beauty as an element of balance. For him, the most important factor for beauty is balance. Accordingly, the proportions are important and mathematical. Only the harmony of all particles reveals the beauty (Kavuran & Dede, 2013: p. 57). In fact, Aristotle developed this view from his teacher Plato. Hence, Plato was also influenced by Pythagorasists in his late period and considered beauty as a mathematical concept. Accordingly, beauty became a measurable thing. In Ancient Greece, the concept of “beautiful” and “good” are considered the same. They even have a single word for this: kalokagathia (kalos: beautiful, agathos: good). This shows us that ethical and aesthetic values are not separated from each other in Ancient Greece (Taşdelen & Yazıcı, 2012: p. 7). Similarly, Tolstoy (2016: p. 20) states that ancient philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle did not dwell on the concept of ‘beauty’ different from the ‘good’ that forms the basis and goal of today’s aesthetics. Therefore, in ancient times, beautiful and good meant the same meanings. Alain, who is known as a very deep French thinker, introduces two books as a guide in the field of aesthetics: Kant’s “Critique of Judgement” and Hegel’s “Aesthetics is dry” (Yetkin, 1936: p. 4). What Hegel calls aesthetics or art is the philosophy of fine arts. Accordingly, aesthetics has a very general meaning; it includes arts and fine arts (Arıcan, 2006: p. 200). According to Hegel, aesthetics comprises three parts: a- Examination of what is ideal in art; b-Discussion of symbolic art, classical art, and romantic art; c- Architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and poetry as different forms of art (Hegel, 2011: pp. 99105). First of all, Hegel keeps the beauty of nature out of the field of examination of aesthetic or artistic beauty (Taşdelen & Yazıcı, 2012: p. 113). “For the beauty of art is beauty born of the spirit and born again. and the higher the spirit and its productions stand above nature and its phenomena, the higher to is the beauty of art above that of nature.” (Hegel, 1994: p. 2). Because the beautiful cannot exist in the world beneath the absolute spirit stage. Even a mistake and an illusion of the mind, the spirit of human beings are above all kinds of natural creations; because it represents spirituality (Bozkurt, 1995: p. 145). Kant uses the “taste”, which he expresses as the ability to judge the beauty, and “aesthetic judgment” in the same sense. The criteria that describe the beauty of an object are revealed by the analysis of the judgment of taste. The judgment of taste is not a logical judgment, but an aesthetic judgment (Kant, 2011: p. 53). According to Kant, the roots of aesthetics are based on some of the following foundations: Man has knowledge of nature outside him and of himself in nature. Man seeks goodness in himself and 327

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seeks truth in nature, outside himself. One of them is the practical reason and the other is pure reason. Besides them, there are judging and decision-making ability. It is the capacity that forms judgments without reasoning and forms pleasure without desire. It is the basis of aesthetics feeing. According to Kant, beauty is a subjective meaning and liked in general without reasoning and without any practical interest. In objective meaning, it is a form of the object as far as it perceived without knowing anything about its purpose (Tolstoy, 2016: pp. 25-26). Thus, the judgment of taste differs from logical judgments by being subjective. The most prominent reason for being subjective is that they are based on a sense of pleasure (Taşdelen & Yazıcı, 2012: p. 21).

AESTHETIC COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA AESTHETICS Although the aesthetic communication and media aesthetics terms are close to each other in terms of field and meaning, in fact, these two concepts are separated by sharp lines. Both terms include the concepts of communication, media, and aesthetics. The association of the communication and media concepts with the concept of aesthetics makes it necessary to form a bond with art. A more obvious difference between communication and media terms can be expressed based on their definitions. Communication in general terms “is the transmission of a certain message at a certain time, in a certain place, by certain senders, to a particular recipient using a certain or more means.” The sender of the message sends this message for certain purposes for himself (Erdoğan, 1997: p. 62-63). Or, it is “encoding the meaning between the sender and receiver by symbols and the process of decoding this code.” (Thyssen, 201: p. 1). Fisk defines communication as “social interaction through messages”. All types of communication include codes and indicators. While the indicators are interpretation structures, codes are the systems that determine how the indicators can be related to each other. Transferring or receiving indicators/codes/ communication is a social relations practice (Fiske, 2003: pp. 15-16). Forest (1984), one of the leading scholars in aesthetic communication, defines aesthetic communication as the natural and logical extension of sociological art. And sociology of art is the examination of art and literature works in terms of social relations (Kongar, 1983: p. 68). If evaluated according to this information, aesthetic communication is rather the addressing of indicators and codes in the context of social relations. Naturally, this process has an aesthetic aspect. The term media is a plural form of the Latin word ‘medium’. What the media experts agree on is that it is combined in any mean (media) that carries a transmission, message, or meaning regardless of time and place. Accordingly, cave paintings, various inscriptions, or any kind of communication means that have survived to the present day and contain information that can be accepted as media. Because the use of communication tools by humanity dates back to ancient times (Aytaç, 2005: p. 9; Kayaoğlu, 2009: pp. 28-39). The definition of the printed materials and printing house as ‘art tools for all kinds of communication’ by Fichte (1807: p. 127), one of the 19th-century philosophers, also reminds us the current definition of media. Considering the characteristics of this period, today, the mentioned tools consist of not only books and printing houses, but also all electronic and mechanic, shortly, all the tools that provide communication (Keles & Can, 2016). When evaluated in the context of these definitions, it is seen that the media is closely related to the mass media which have functionality especially collectively. The resulting bond makes necessary the connection of theorists such as Aristotle, Barthes, Lacan, Kittler, Peirce, Foucault, Hume, and Saussure with media aesthetics.

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Aesthetic Communication Electricity, electronics, and computer technologies have made us tightly connected with communication society. These technologies have been at the center of changes in social reconstruction for centuries and they have changed not only our physical environment but also our mental representation systems. This change necessitates to constantly review our perceptions in order to perceive the world we live in. Over the ages, the emergence of new technologies one after the other has included people in various and successive forms of expression. Today’s artist, more precisely, the communication artist, transforms aesthetics into its original anthropological function as a system of symbols and actions. This has revealed a new aesthetic: “communication aesthetics”. Communication aesthetics can be considered as the natural and logical extension of sociological art (Forest, 1984). In the aesthetic communication experience, the element that leads to aesthetic experience is artwork, and at the same time, this artwork is defined as an object that creates aesthetic experience (Bolla, 2006: p. 20). The concept of aesthetics can be applied at many different levels, from the visual characteristics of a particular artwork to the emotional experience in the world. Social or cultural aesthetics are generally related to the sensory experience dimension, in which people are socialized, and as David MacDougall calls “an aesthetic landscape”, “a social abstraction” and a kind of “poetry type” (Morphy, 2005: p. 63). Today, communication aesthetics reveals the intention to expand previously discovered areas and also aims to correct some confirmations that conflict with experience. The viewpoint of communication aesthetics is at a more inclusive level. Today, we are concerned not only with the relationship of man with society at the local level, but also his relationship with the world. In recent years, a different context has been created as a result of the change of ideas, technological developments, social upheavals, the attraction of oriental mysticism, and increased ecological awareness. After experiencing the industrial and consumer society at the highest level, today, mankind gradually moving towards the Communication Society, which promises new values. Aesthetic communication aims to enable the developing modern society to re-comprehend the world. The communication artist, through his actions, tries to demonstrate that we are at the center of a global information process, and new information added around, a complex method of functioning, places the individual in a completely new position where he has to discover and invent new forms of harmony. The purpose of communication artists is to show us how communication practices interact with our whole sensory system in general (Forest, 1984). The social reality of art should no longer be sought in art objects, but in the center of aesthetic communication, because this reality is now a part of the modern one with an aesthetic coding. Elements of aesthetic communication are sought through art objects, and art itself takes place as part of this communication. As art provides communication in an aesthetic way and aims to make perception more attractive with implicit and mysterious meanings, its existence will be more durable (Plumpe, 1993: p. 8). While communicating, one should focus on not only what the sender and the recipients said, but also how they express that is said. Hence, the aesthetic communication field is entered as an inevitable dimension of communication (Thyssen, 201: p. 2). Aesthetic communication is one of the most enigmatic and universal processes experienced. Within this period, the person feels grieve, euphoric, sad, happy, and pain, briefly he fed with aesthetic pleasure. Because in this process a new life, a new world, and a new universe, which are attractive and creatively patterned are objectified (Atalayer, 1994: p. 3). Communication in organizations has six aesthetic fields. These are image, rhetoric, narrative, design, advertising, and architecture. Each of these six fields is for recipients. These recipients include both formal buyers and informal recipients. Therefore, image works or advertisements are not only for recipients or 329

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customers but also for the organization’s own employees. Each of the six areas mentioned below is about communication, whether they are words, images/pictures, or physical objects (Thyssen, 2010: p. 59). Image: When the organization communicates with itself and its circle, mass media necessarily use images related to the organization. Images used by the organization function to ensure mutual consent. Image is a special field for the presentation of images that have functionality as aesthetically (Thyssen, 2010: p. 58). Because increasing the acceptance of the target groups against the organization and providing a mutual understanding are achieved only by affecting them emotionally. This makes an artistic activity compulsory. Rhetoric: The organization should evaluate very precisely and in detail which messages and images are effective and which ones are not. Therefore, rhetoric is another area where an organization inevitably uses aesthetic tools. Even an attempt to put the whole picture of the organization requires a rhetorical effort (Thyssen, 2010: p. 59). Aristo divides artistic evidence in rhetoric into three. These are logos: logical argument, pathos: emotional appeals, and ethos: the sociology of good character. Logos is the main basis that makes something understandable to us (Aristotle, 1995: p. 19). Narrative: When the organization simplifies its communication and guides strategically and successfully in line with decisions and goals, it achieves a historical improvement. When such an organization wants to define itself over time, the stories inevitably take narrative form. Therefore, narrative is the third aesthetic field (Thyssen, 2010: p. 59). Narratives can be used for different purposes over time. They can be used to attract people to a different world by complementing their beliefs on different topics (Bolat, 2018: p. 307). Design: Visual identity, which is closely connected with the design, is an element that shows and explains the organization and ensures to keep it in minds with the most effective and best way by symbolizing the philosophy and the identity of the institution, and the work done in it (Ak, 1998: p. 80). The fact that the design is especially related to the eye, strengthens its connection with art and aesthetics. The description of the organization itself as a whole by symbolization with various tools can only be achieved with the success of aesthetic communication. Advertising: The art of advertising is the most important tool for creating demand. We buy a good or service when we think we need it. Advertising aims to create new needs in people by introducing the goods and services with their pleasant aspects (Bir & Mavis, 1988: p. 18). Despite some differences, it is a fact that the advertisement texts have surprising similarities and common points with works of arts from time to time, especially works of arts with visual content, to be more specific with oil paintings (Berger, 2014: p. 138). Architecture: One of the elements that effectively reveal the visual identity of the organization is the architectural and interior design identity of the organization. The architectural and interior design of the organization is very important in terms of the impressions of those who work in the organization, those who visit the organization, those who live around it and other people related to the organization (Kaya, 2006: pp. 34-35). The six aesthetic areas stated (Table 1) do not point to all aesthetic areas. An organization consists of communication and all communication types and forms have an aesthetic dimension. The fact that aesthetics is spread over such a large area makes it unlimited. Although elements such as in-store design, job postings, dress code, and in a gastronomic context, creating a distinctive taste, etc. contain aesthetic efforts and meanings, the six areas mentioned above are the main areas of aesthetic communication. Despite the variety of these areas, basically, these six aesthetic areas have a single function in an organization:

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Table 1. Aesthetic identity Communication with signs and pictures Primarily aimed at surroundings Aimed at system and environment

Advertising, Image, Rhetoric, Narrative

Communication with physical objects Design, Architecture

Source: Thyssen, Aesthetic Communication, 2010

The aim is to promote the organization’s continuity. This is done through various tools. The choice of aesthetic tools affects how an organization decides how to address the emotions and how to regulate its meaning (Thyssen, 2010: pp. 60,43). This can only be achieved with aesthetic communication concerns.

MEDIA, FEAR AND POWER In all eras of human history, the different ways of communication, the techniques, and tools used in communication have been the most important power to affect and dominate individuals, groups, and societies. The governments, who are aware of this power, have given special importance to communication in order to ensure that the masses adopt their ideology and to maintain these ideologies. Especially after the printing press was invented, the opportunity to spread the ideas and ideologies through systematization led to fundamental changes in the public. Hence, the publication of Martin Luther’s 95 thesis in a printing press and its rapid spread among the masses resulted in the birth of the Protestant Reformation, and the promotion of the Renaissance in Europe in the following periods is the reflection of these developments (Günay, 2019: p. 10). Today, rapid developments in communication technologies have strengthened its power by enabling the emergence of new communication channels and techniques and reach a wider audience faster. Thus, masses are reconstructed with communication technologies (Sirer, 2019: p. 126). Media, one of the ideological tools of power, operates using ideology. The media, like other ideological tools of power, try to achieve the same goals. All the ideological tools of power contribute to the reproduction of capitalist exploitation relations in their own way. While political tools adapt individuals to the political ideology of the power, media tools feed citizens with the doses of press, radio, television and daily nationalism, chauvinism, liberalism, moralism, etc. The ideological devices of the power are covered and hidden globally by the dominant bourgeois ideology. Accordingly, the reproduction of capitalist relations of production is placed in the minds (Althusser, 1994: pp. 59, 60). According to Niebuhr, the primary way to maintain power’s dominance over the “masses” is a psychological bond between citizens and the idea of state (Steele, 2010: p. 29). The media play an important role in ensuring that people adapt to the society they are in. It helps people adapt to world order (Sirer, 2020: p. 48). The media, which provides the psychological connection, is an area where social representations of individuals, that is, the system of values, beliefs, and practices that allow discovering, perceiving and organizing life, are constantly produced, structured, and transformed (Odabaş, 2008: p. 56). The media, which displays a world with pictures and images, shapes perception that drives people’s views and behaves in this world (Bolat & Çakın, 201:, p. 318). In this process, for the powers that form an ideological body to create hegemony by being dominant, controlling the structural features of written and oral communication is essentially important (Mora, 2008: p. 6). The media, which creates a system that transmits messages and symbols to the public, instills the values, beliefs and behaviors that allow individuals to integrate with the organizational structure of

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society by entertaining and informing them. In countries where the state bureaucracy holds the instruments of power, systematic propaganda over the media serves the interests of the dominant elite class (Chomsky & Herman, 2004: p. 35). The news discourse that is established between the sender and the receiver in the media is transformed into the word of the public. Hence, the media turns the rhetoric of state into a consensus and plays an active role in the formation of consent for hegemony in this process (İnal, 1996: p. 114). The governments have always tended to use the media in a way to consolidate their own power, being aware of the impact of the media on public opinion. Accordingly, Napoleon defined the newspaper as “the printed matter which supports the decisions of the government and acts in the way it wants”. Lenin, founder of the USSR by making the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, confirmed the power of the media with his statement “the newspaper is the strongest weapon of the revolution” and used the media to impose and reinforce his own ideology. For such powers, media has become the language and therefore the power of authority (İnuğur, 2005: p. 22). The media has always been an important force not only in authoritarian regimes, but also in all forms of regimes, both in the context of propaganda and in the public relations that constitute consent-based acceptance. Therefore, Althusser describes the media as one of the tools that power uses to convey the official ideology of the state to citizens (Althusser, 2003: p. 169). Throughout human history, fear has been used in different structures as an indispensable motivation tool for government activity. Sometimes it was externalized to support political unity inside and sometimes used to legitimize the actions of power (Tangün, 2018: p. 42). Maintaining and further consolidating power requires being surrounded by fear. Without fear, the function of political power to ‘shutting down’ society cannot be performed. The shutting down function is realized not only with a political power-play but also with a cultural and ideological enclosure (Çetin, 2012:p. 23). Governing power uses fear, an important strategy of persuasion to consolidate its ideology and sovereignty. It generates the feeling and thought that power is needed by using the crisis, sadness, war, and threats experienced in the government process as a source of fear. In this case, the governing regime, which manifests itself as a power, manages to stay in power using the “fearful” and sadness of the public. It is the power itself that produces fear, and it is also itself that would eliminate this fear (Karakum, 2016). Therefore, in our age, our fears have reached an unbelievable degree and turned into sales, profit, and governing power (Ak, 2001). Especially the developments in the USA, China, Nazi, and USSR sides during and after World War II enabled the enemy image to emerge as an element of fear. The creation of enemy image had been used as a very critical tool both for supporting the bipolar world view and for the transformation of the anti-communist struggle a state policy by the US with the 1945 Truman Doctrine, as well as for legitimizing the increased violence against those who are associated with communism. A popular red scare spreading all over the world was processed by the media, and thus, ideology and power were reinforced (Tangün, 2018: p. 16). During this time, the media consisted mainly of printing, film, radio, and TV. This was before the popularity of decentralized media organizations such as electronic social media. This is a remarkable point, because of the fact that the publication requires large amounts of funding caused central media to be extremely sensitive to state control (Bernhard, 1999). To maintain power, obedience is needed in addition to fear and force. Without hegemony, power cannot continue consistently. This is a kind of compromise (Anar, 2016). Members of one group can idealize their own group and reflect their bad sides to other groups; thus, after reflecting their urge to harm other groups, they start to fear of the others will attack/conspire themselves (Tepeli & Demirok, 2014: p. 52).

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According to Althusser, it is impossible to avoid ideology. Ideology forces individuals to assimilate sovereign values, enabling them to be in harmony with the system they live in or to establish new harmonious life systems (Gürçınar, 2015). In this context, power relations directly interfere with the body. The power surrounds the body, stigmatizes, tames, tortures, and runs it to work, forces to join the ceremonies, and demands signs from it. According to complex and mutual relations, this political encirclement of the body is related to its economic use; the reason that the body is surrounded by the relations of power and sovereignty is largely due to the fact that it is the production power. The body’s functioning as a workforce depends solely on obedience. According to power, the body becomes a useful force only when it is both obedient and productive. The obedience of the body is provided only by means of violence or ideology (Foucault, 1992: p. 31). The ideological means of the regime play an active role in the obedience of the individual to the power. In this process, artists/art has an important function. Art has served certain ideologies since ancient times. In the 18th century, the unprecedented flood of new aesthetic discourse was not a challenge to political authority; rather, it can be considered as a sign of an ideological dilemma that exists at the core of absolute power. This kind of power needs to take into account ‘sensible’ life for its own purposes. Because without understanding this life, no domination can be reliable. The mind must find a way to penetrate the world of perception, but it should not endanger absolute power in doing so (Eagleton, 2010: pp. 33-34). In the period of mass consumption, instrumental rationality, by transforming and reducing the instrumental mind, has tried to convince people that the satisfaction of all their material, spiritual or aesthetic needs depend on it. Therefore, it is very difficult to say that Jean Baudrillard is completely wrong, claiming that art will be completely destroyed by leaving its place to advertising in the near future (Selim, 1999: p. 128). In the process that commodity aesthetics take artistic forms, the system uses artistic activities and artists for its own purposes and reinforces its effect by using certain works of art while representing itself (Haug, 199: p. 138). Accordingly, aesthetics and art play a major role in the fetishization of the commodity. Aesthetics are important in perceiving, recognizing, interpreting, understanding and using the object (Veryzer, 1995: p. 641), and offers a positive value to the consumer who wants to see himself differently (Bayar & Özkaya, 2019). Hence, commodity fetishism, which strengthened by aesthetics in the structure of commodities, is a result of strengthening the obedience of design and aesthetics to fetishism (Babadağ, 2013: p. 313).

POSTERS AS A PROPAGANDA TOOL IN THE USSR From the beginning of the Soviet regime, posters had been considered as a vital tool to communicate and educate the vast population of the USSR territory. While movies became a major competitor of posters in the late 1930s, during the Stalin’s leadership, posters that produced under strict central control remained the primary propaganda tool to closely reflect the evolving priorities of the regime (Pisch, 2016: pp. 2-3). In the early years of the revolution, the use of avant-garde art on posters supported the Soviet government. Since 1922, avant-garde art had been considered with suspicion and the pioneers of this art had been accused of “capitalist cosmopolitanism”. Starting from this date, with the promotion of realistic painting art, a uniform poster understanding had emerged in all Eastern bloc countries in the long term. Until Stalin’s anti-avant-garde attitude emerged in the 1930s, the Soviet Union defined and continued a highly progressive stage to bring social issues into revolutionary aesthetics and turn them into products, 333

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and allowed graphic design, especially through the poster, a leading position in mass communication, in the industrial-machine age (Rızvanoğlu, 2001: p. 46). Especially in the chaotic environment of the First World War and the Russian Revolution, in the period from overthrow of the Tsarist regime to the civil war in Russia and the establishment of the Soviet Union, a golden age of art was experienced in Russia (Bektaş, 1992: p. 56). This golden age of art had also affected the development of posters, the propaganda tools that require an aesthetic creation. Propaganda techniques are communication tools that intend to transfer a certain ideology to the masses through mass media and to direct the masses in the desired direction (Jowett & Odonnell, 2014: p. 1), were used as a direct tool against the enemy with various media tools. Soviet media also used radio tools in their own states and other countries as a transnational form of propaganda. Because the Soviet media was censored by the state and tried to legitimize its appearance by camouflaging its origins of production (Stafford, 2013). Posters were not a new phenomenon in Russian life. In 1897, St. Petersburg hosted an important international exhibition of artistic posters, and at the beginning of the 20th century there was a small industry primarily on the production of films and advertising posters. With the Bolsheviks, the use of the poster has been greatly expanded and changed in design and purpose. Poster campaigns were at the center of propaganda efforts during the Soviet era and were very suited to address the needs of the regime to widely and rapidly publicize a great number of policies and initiatives, to identify people’s enemies, and to promote unified aims and visions (Pisch, 2016: p. 32). Another reason for the use of posters was that they created a high effect due to the instant visualization and perception of the visual symbols in it (Günay, 2018: p. 85). Artists played a central role in the structuring of the Soviet system. In 1932, Stalin used a famous definition that the artist is “the engineer of the human soul”. In every art movement, artists shared the communist ideal. These artists believed that new forms of art could train the human mind to see the world from a more socialist perspective. Since they believed that consciousness was shaped by the environment, they focus on forms of art that affect people’s daily life, such as architectural and documentary films, photomontage and poster art, clothing and fabric design, household objects, and furniture (Orlando, 2002: pp. 513-515). The regime realized the need to transform the basic concepts of Marxism and Leninism into a form so they can be understood by the proletariat and peasants. This could only be achieved through different art forms. In the early days of the Bolshevik regime, party members were sent to the public to determine the effectiveness of their propaganda campaigns. The information received by the regime showed that the language used in media tools such as propaganda and newspapers was not well understood by both urban and rural workers. A more effective way had to be chosen to dominate meanings, shape society, and change beliefs. Poster was a relatively inexpensive and accessible medium that was particularly suitable for the period and the purposes of mass propaganda (Pisch, 2016: p. 32). Due to the low literacy level and the deep-rooted visual traditions of the Russian people, visual methods were used for persuasion and teaching purposes (Bonnell, 1997: p. 3-4). As well as painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, theater, music, and porcelain types, new tools such as movies, trains, and agit-ships, festivals and parades were used in spreading the Soviet ideology. These tools with their symbols and images collectively announced the values of the Bolshevik ideas to the community. Symbols act as a lens in which people perceive and shape their current realities, remember and interpret the past, and make predictions about the future. In order to initiate the required dramatic transformation in humans and society, the Bolshevik leaders had to both seize power and capture and redefine discourse (Pisch, 2016: p. 30). The Bolsheviks preferred the images while conveying their mes334

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sages to ordinary people. In 1923, Nadejda Krupskaya, wife of Lenin, expressed the feelings of many party members with the following words: “For the present and the near future, a peasant can learn to improve his production if taught with visual examples.” (Bonnell, 1997: p. 4).

RESEARCH METHOD Semiotics emerges as a “discipline that studies the production and reproduction of meaning” (Mutlu, 2004: p. 114). Semiotics is a science in which indicators used to analyze meanings. Semiotics helps people to interpret their environment by analyzing the indicators (Mazıcı & Çakı, 2018: p. 295). Since Ferdinand de Saussure and Charles Sanders Peirce developed a theory on the same subject without being aware of each other, the concepts of semiology and semiotic emerged in English (Yılmaz & Çakın, 2017: p. 534). Within the framework of linguistic studies, Charles Sanders Peirce in the United States and Ferdinand de Saussure in Europe and Russia were the first names to reveal the subject of semiotics (Yücel, 2008: p. 110). Peirce considered the indicator as a substitute of thing that producing or characterizing it (semiology) and described the indicator as a representation which suits to its object (Peirce, 1982: pp. 323-339). On the other side, Saussure is the first linguist to apply the concept of indicator (semiotic) to a specific definition of a language (Maxlina, 2010: p. 7). Besides, French linguist Roland Barthes, applied the indicators to mediums including visual elements such as pictures, photographs, and films, and provided applying the patterns of semiotics to different fields. Therefore, he provided analysis of visual materials such as painting and photographs. Barthes used several concepts while making a semiotic analysis. In order to understand Barthes’s semiotic analysis correctly, these concepts, that is, “denotation, connotation, myth, metaphor, metonymy, and symbol” must be well known (Çakın, 2019: p. 106). Two main concepts, denotation and connotation, stand out in Barthes’s semiotic analysis. Denotation is accepted as the real meaning of indicators that do not differ from person to person and which has a common meaning by everyone (Barthes, 2016: pp. 19-20). Apart from its real meaning, indicators also have a meaning that varies from person to person. Connotation expresses a broad sense of interpretation such as cultural differences and individual experiences. Gottdiener (2005: pp. 30-31), considers connotation as a secondary indicator reflecting a cultural value. Differences in people such as history and the cultural world enrich the connotation. Myth consists of narratives that tell about the changes and developments in a culture (Fiske, 2017: p. 185). Beyond what has been expressed clearly, the myth also includes the underlying elements. Myth always carries an ideology. They put forward an ideology rather than expressing a message clearly. Because myths contain many connotations about ideology. Regarding myths, in addition to denotations, there is always a transition to connotations (Bircan, 2015: pp. 27-28). It is only possible for a myth to display connotations with the existence of a constantly changing and transforming style. A Metaphor is telling something as if it was another thing. Metaphors can create social realities for us. Therefore, it plays a guiding role in our future actions. Also, metaphors differ across cultures (Parın, 2017: pp. 149-150). Rather than direct expression, it is an indirect expression of a concept or object with another concept or object. These two concepts, compared with each other are normally not related. However, the mind realizes this interpretation based on its past experiences. For example, the use of a polar bear in a beverage ad conveys the message to the audience that it should be drunk cold.

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Metonymy refers to a small part of the whole. In the case of two concepts with more or fewer connections between each other, one of them is used instead of the other (Çakı, 2018: p. 282). If explained through a poster created for propaganda purposes, in a statue of a general monumentalized on a rampant horse, the general’s horse and guns are a metonym of the forces he controls. The symbol is the substitution of something else through an object, agreement, and use (Fiske, 2017: p. 123). For example, the use of the hammer and sickle is a symbol of communism in the ideological context. Within the scope of this study, the posters selected from the soviet posters were analyzed using the semiotic analysis method, as a qualitative research method. The posters were examined within the framework of the notions of French Linguist Roland Barthes: denotation, connotation, and myth. This study aims to reveal how the elements of fear and violence were aestheticized in the propaganda posters that the Soviet Union prepared for domestic and foreign policy to maintain its regime. Thus, how the element of fear and violence in Soviet posters is used in propaganda activities will be explained. This study is important in terms of showing how the element of fear and violence was aestheticized while giving messages to the public in posters, which is the most common propaganda tool of the Soviet Union. The population of the study consists of all the posters prepared for Soviet propaganda. However, sampling is used in the study due to the difficulty of accessing all posters. 51 posters made in the Sovietera themed religion, ownership, anti-communism, Nazis, and imperialism are determined as samples. Fear and violence in the posters are examined as visual and message elements and posters with similar contents are eliminated within 51 posters using the purposeful sampling method. Accordingly, 8 propaganda posters are selected as the sample of the study, since it is considered that they reflect the universe better in the best manner. Attention is given to ensure that the posters selected for the study have reliable sources and that they have history and producer information. Although many media tools were used for propaganda activities in the Soviet Union, this work is limited to posters. Furthermore, another limitation of the study is that the posters are evaluated only on the basis of the denotation and connotation notions of Roland Barthes. Indeed, in semiotics, there are many different analysis methods such as Ferdinand de Saussure’s signifier-signified, Jakobson’s model of linguistic communication, Levi-Strauss’s Levi-Strauss’s binary opposites theory.

RESULTS The First Poster The first poster was made in 1932 by D. S. Orlov. Many visuals were included in this poster. The poster depicts a man sitting with a hat, a priest holding a cross and a community of churchmen right in front of him. Just behind them is a silhouette of a worker with a red uniform and hat with a star symbol. If we look at the details of the man with the hat in the poster, it can be seen that his shirt button is in the shape of a swastika, there is the phrase ‘made in USA’ included on his seat, and rich people and members of other religions crushed under his feet. On the lower left of the poster, very small military hangars and an exhausted family silhouette draw attention. On the upper left of the poster a text is included: “We will expose the anti-Soviet plans of the capitalists and churchmen! Long live the proletarian worldrevolution!” (Разоблачим антисоветские замыслы капиталистов и церковников! Да здравствует

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мировая пролетарская революция!). (See First Poster: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rkdgcBn RY2o&feature=youtu.be). The poster tries to show that priests, churchmen and other imperialists made common plans against the Soviet Union. Based on Barthes’ idea of evaluating the indicators as a whole, the visuals and the text “We will expose the anti-Soviet plans of the capitalists and churchmen! Long live the proletarian world-revolution!” presented in the poster imply that the USA, Nazis, Priests and Churchmen, rich antiSoviet people and members of the other religions made plans against the Soviets, but no one could stand against the Soviet Proletarian Revolution. When evaluated within the scope of the detonation, a man sitting with a hat and priest holding a cross and a community of churchmen right in front of him, and a silhouette of a worker with red dress and hat with a star symbol just behind them, and in the details, we can see that while his shirt button is in the shape of a swastika, there is the phrase ‘made in USA’ included on his seat, it is believed that rich people and members of other religions crushed under his feet were depicted. On the other side, if evaluated within the scope of the Barthes’s connotation frame, it is tried to be described that the USsupported clergymen, who are regarded as imperialists, are making plans to destroy the Soviets by using the Nazis, but the Soviet proletarian would not allow this. Moreover, a fear appeal was created against the USA, churchmen and Nazis included in the codes of the poster. Barthes emphasizes that the indicators should be interpreted according to historical and cultural infrastructure. Accordingly, the Bolsheviks always expressed that they were against the bourgeoisie and religion. Lenin stated that “Marxism has always regarded all modern religions and churches, all and of every kind of religious organizations are always considered by Marxism as the organs of bourgeois reaction, used for the protection of the exploitation and the stupefaction of the working class” (Lenin, 1909: p. 402).

The Second Poster The second poster is an anonymous poster prepared in 1919. The poster features a big, fat louse and a skeleton. Bolshevik enemies are likened to bloodsucking lice in the poster. The poster emphasizes the idea that the anti-Communist Bolshevik enemies are lice sucking the blood of society and tries to create fear in society against such people. The poster features «Louse and Death are Friends» with large fonts and «Eliminate the lice that spread the infection» with small fonts. (See Second Poster: https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=rkdgcBnRY2o&feature=youtu.be). The poster also features an hourglass. In the poster, representation of a big, fat ordinary louse was used as a metonym in the codes of presentation, directly reflects the Bolshevik enemies exploiting the resources of the society. Bolshevik enemies were not displayed directly in the poster; however, a big and fat louse was highlighted through the metonym as the enemy of the system. The poster emphasizes that the enemies of the system, who are exploiting the resources of the society, have taken everything even the lives of the people. Accordingly, the poster displays the Soviet people as a skeleton and tries to indicate that the louse would not stop until it took the lives of all the people supported with the image that the louse put its sickle on the neck of the skeleton. Moreover, the poster, in its codes, tries to express how dangerous and scary the enemies of the system are by using a louse instead of them as a metonym. In the context of fear, the people are given a message that they must be careful against the Bolshevik enemies, otherwise, they can be dangerous like a louse.

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Within the scope of the Barthes’s detonation frame, the poster features an ordinary louse and a skeleton. However, these louse with a sickle in its hand and the skeleton, on the connotation dimension, the image that the louse put its sickle on the neck of the skeleton gives the message that these lice would not stop until they took the lives of all the people. The big and fat louse was presented with a “danger” metaphor. Consequently, if overall evaluated, the text «Louse and Death are Friends» on the top of the poster with large fonts combined with the louse and the skeleton in the codes of presentation, evoke their danger in the background. Finally, the poster states how dangerous are the enemies of the system represented with louse as a metaphor. It indicates enemies of the system are dangerous as a louse and people should avoid them.

The Third Poster The third poster was prepared by M. Borovkov in 1925. In the poster, there is an image of a worker cleaning with a broom represents the proletariat, who made the Bolshevik revolution in the Soviet Union. Besides, the poster features a building represents the Soviet Union and at the bottom, depicts the clergymen and rich who are against the system. In the poster, those representing the Soviet Union are displayed in red and the enemies of the system and clergymen are shown in black background. On the top, “No Place” and on the visual “Moscow Council” texts are included (See Third Poster: https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=rkdgcBnRY2o&feature=youtu.be). It is seen that the Soviet proletarian sweeps away clergymen and rich people against the system with his red broom in front of the Soviet Union. If all these codes and the text “No Place” evaluated as a whole according to the signs of the Barthes, obviously, the idea is given that there is no place for those who have religious beliefs and those who try to acquire private property in the Soviet Union. In the presentation codes of the poster, people who have religious beliefs and own private property represented with a ‘garbage’ metaphor. When evaluated within the detonation frame, the poster depicts a proletarian cleaning in front of the Moscow Council. On the other side, if it is evaluated from the connotation frame of Barthes, the idea is that people who have religious beliefs and those who try to own private property would be swept away like garbage. Barthes emphasizes that the indicators should be interpreted according to historical and cultural infrastructure. Accordingly, the establishment of the Socialism system in the Soviet Union, the fact that religious beliefs and private property are forbidden supports such messages. Soviet leaders destroyed churches, executed clergymen, and declared religious people as terrorists (Stepler, 2008: p. 32).

The Fourth Poster The fourth poster was prepared by the Association of Artists of the Revolution in 1929. At the background of the poster, the silhouette of the church is given in black. In the center of the poster, a proletarian with a red uniform throwing garbage with a shovel in his hand attracts attention. A text, “To the Trash!” text is included at the bottom right of the poster. In the shovel of the proletarian, there are church accessories such as the statue of the Virgin Mary, cross, candelabrum, priest clothes and biretta (See Fourth Poster: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= rkdgcBnRY2o&feature=youtu.be). The fact that the church is shown in black silhouette, indicates the myth that the church is the place of dark thoughts and that people with this belief can be dangerous. Presenting the church accessories 338

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in the shovel of the proletarian is a metonym that represents beliefs. If the text “No Place” included at the bottom of the poster evaluated according to the signs of the Barthes, the idea emerges that religious beliefs have no place in the Soviet Union. In the codes of the poster, the objects belong to the church represented with a ‘garbage’ metaphor. In terms of its denotation meaning, there is a proletarian put garbage in his shovel. However, in term of Barthes’s connotation frame, the fact that church is given in a black silhouette on the background and placing objects that belong to the church in the shovel of the proletarian, state that religious beliefs have no place in the Soviet Union and those who adopt the Christian faith should abandon these beliefs. Religion’s damage to labor productivity has been seen as a problem for the Bolsheviks. The reason why the Bolsheviks made great criticism, especially to the Russian peasants is the abundance of religious holidays based on the church calendar. These religious holidays, which were about 50 days, effecting productivity negatively. The fact that a large part of the population consumes alcohol during the religious holidays decreases the efficiency of the proletarians and this negates the view of religion (Husband, 2000: p. 88).Barthes emphasizes that the indicators should be interpreted according to historical and cultural infrastructure. Accordingly, the Bolsheviks’ feeling of hate towards religion emerged with the revolution. With the Bolshevik revolution, the seizure of the church’s property by the regime, the systematic destruction of the church, and the elimination of the clergy by execution had proved this.” (Stepler, 2008: p. 8).

The Fifth Poster The fifth poster was prepared in 1941. The poster depicts a crow sat on the head of a Nazi soldier buried in the snow on a winter day, with a hat including a fylfot symbol. At the top of the poster a text, “Zima” (Winter), and at the bottom “Freezing German bandits will find their graves in the snow piles before Moscow.” are included. The main purpose of the poster is to show that the Fascist period ended (See The fifth poster: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rkdgcBnRY2o&feature=youtu.be) From the detonation frame, the poster depicts a crow sat on the head of a Nazi soldier with a hat including a fylfot symbol buried in the snow on a winter day. On the other side, from the view of the connotation meaning, combining the crow singing on the head of a Nazi soldier with a hat including a fylfot symbol buried in the snow on a winter day with the text, “Freezing German bandits will find their graves in the snow piles before Moscow.” below represent another view. The connotation meaning gives the message that Moscow will be the grave of the German soldiers and they will disappear in this desolate land lonely. The poster mystified with the crow figure that fascism ended and entering the Russian territory would bring them bad luck. The idea that entering the Russian territory would bring Nazi military bad luck is represented by winter and crow figures. Nazi soldiers represented in the poster in negative metaphors such as death, bad luck, banditry, etc. Those who see the poster will remember the Nazis through these metaphors.

The Sixth Poster The sixth poster was prepared in 1939 by V. N. Denis and N. A. Dolgorukov. The denotation meaning of the poster depicts that a sword-holding hand cutting the hand of the beast with claws with this sword. There are the hammer and sickle symbol on the sword, and a fylfot symbol on the hand of the monster who wants to claw. In the background of the poster red color, the color of communism is used. The 339

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poster features a text, “Long live the awake guardian of the revolution, NKVD, the naked sword of the proletariat.” On the other side, from the connotation view, the hand of the monster who wants to claw the Soviet represents Nazis and the sword represents preventing Nazis’ ambitions that extended to the Soviets. The red color used in the background of the poster represents the Soviet Union (See the sixth poster: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rkdgcBnRY2o&feature=youtu.be). The representation of the Nazis in the form of monster hands, as the definition of Barthes, is a mythization that presented to the public. It tells the masses that the Nazis are as dangerous as a monster and want to take over the entire Soviet Union. However, the readiness of the Soviet Union’s sword means that it can destroy this monster and is strong enough to defend itself. In the poster, the hand of the monster is used in negative metaphors such as attackers, killers, etc. Those who see the poster will remember that the Nazis are aggressive killers and they will stand behind the Strong Soviet Union. Soviet propaganda presents the Nazis as a monster, invader and murderer, who aims the Soviet Union.

The Seventh Poster The seventh poster was prepared by A. I. Volkov in 1941. The poster was made in the years when the history of World War II began. In the middle of the poster, a moving red missile with a star is depicted. The target of the missile is a metal robot standing on the earth with a bloody ax and a weapon. There is a fylfot on the helmet of the robot. The missile represents the Soviet Union, and the helmet with a fylfot represents the Nazis. The message given with the connotation meaning is that Nazis were bloody murderers who killed millions of people and that German tanks would not stand against the Soviet Union. In the poster, the Nazis are depicted with a bloody ax and they were represented in negative metaphors such as barbarian, murderer, etc. Those who look at the poster will remember the Nazis as the brutal murderer, and when the visual combined with the poster’s slogan, they will consider the Soviet Union as heroes who will eliminate these murderers (See the seventh poster: https://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=rkdgcBnRY2o&feature=youtu.be). In the poster, the Nazis are given with a metonym of a robot and a bloody ax. The poster tries to demonstrate that the technology of the Germans is bloody monsters in the world. It was also emphasized the Nazis, declared as the greatest enemy for Soviet propaganda, are very dangerous.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In this study, the propaganda activities of the Soviet Union on religion, property ownership, anticommunism, Nazis and imperialism are investigated through the propaganda posters. However, the main limitation of the study is the evaluations were made only within the scope of the findings obtained through the examination of the posters. In this respect, it is thought that future studies may examine the propaganda activities carried out by the Soviet Union in these areas through different mass media such as newspapers, magazines, radio and television, and comparison of the findings with this study can contribute to the field.

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CONCLUSION In this study, posters prepared for propaganda purposes in the Soviet Union are evaluated using a semiotic analysis method. It is seen in the posters that propaganda activities were carried out within the framework of the policies adopted by the Soviet administration. The findings obtained by the semiotic analysis of the posters revealed that the Soviet Union prefers fear and hate speech in posters prepared against themes of religion, property ownership, anti-communism, Nazis and imperialism. At this point, it was observed that the Soviet propaganda attributed negative meanings to these elements through the posters created against religion, property ownership, imperialism and the Nazis and tried to create fear against these values in its society. On the other hand, it was seen that all posters had positive meanings on the values related to the Soviet Union. In the Soviet propaganda posters, especially Nazis, were represented as monsters, bloody murderers, bandits and the idea that they massacred the Soviet Union and other countries, attacked civilians and were dangerous for humanity, is presented in every Nazi-themed poster. In this way, an anti-Nazi idea was tried to be created among the Soviet Union. Accordingly, fear was created against the Nazis among the Soviet people and it was tried to keep the people away from the Nazis. It is obvious that the discourses of the Soviet Union on the religious policy are directly included in the propaganda activities. The attitude against religion and therefore the clergymen in the posters are clearly seen. In these posters, which were created to completely remove religion from people’s lives, clergymen were charged with breaking the socialist order, using religion for their own benefit, cooperating with the imperialists and the Nazis, being a partner of crimes, and supporting Soviet enemies. It is revealed that religion and clergymen were matched with negative meanings in the posters. In the propaganda posters of the Soviet Union, propaganda was made against the Church, priests and believers and a fear culture were created on the church and the clergymen to eliminate religion across the country, and it was effectively emphasized that people should stay away from such values. In the posters, connections were established between particular concepts such as imperialism, property ownership, Soviet hostility, capitalism, and clergymen. It was tried to demonstrate that the clergy and Nazis are the puppets of the imperialists. In these propaganda themes created in posters, the elements of fear and humor were used. Representing the Nazis as monsters and clergymen as dwarves are examples of this. Therefore, the expectations of the people against them had been eliminated.

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Karabulut, N., Bilirdönmez, K., & Ayduslu, N. (2010). Sanat eğitiminde bir alt disiplin olarak estetik öğretimi alanı, içerikleri ve yöntemleri. Ekev Akademi Dergisi, 14(44), 99–116. Karakum, A. (2016). Devlet-toplum ilişkisinde bir güç kaynağı olarak korku. Retrieved 19 April 2020, from https://gaiadergi.com/devlet-toplum-iliskisinde-bir-guc-kaynagi-olarak-korku/ Kavuran, T. & Dede, B. (2013). Platon ve Aristoteles’in sanat etiği, estetik kavramı ve yansımaları. Sanat Dergisi, (23), 47-64. Kaya, F. B. Ü. (2006). Kurum kimliği ve kurumsal tasarım. Tasarım+ Kuram, 3(4), 27-37. Kayaoğlu, E. (2009). Edebiyat biliminde yeni bir yaklaşım: Medyalararsılık. Selenge Yayınları. Keleş, A., & Can, M. Z. (2016). Medya kavramına bir bakış ve estetik iletişimin bir medyası olarak edebiyat. In 14. Uluslararası Türk Dünyası Sosyal Bilimler Kongresi. Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakfı. Kirişoğlu, O., & Stokrrocki, M. (1997). Ortaöğretim sanat öğretimi. Yök-Dünya Bankası Milli Eğitimi Geliştirme Projesi, Hizmet Öncesi Öğretmen Eğitimi. Kongar, E. (1983). Demokrasi ve kültür: kültür üzerine (Vol. 2). Hil Yayınları. Lenin, V. I. (1909). The attitude of the workers party to religion. Collected Works, 15, 402-413. Retrieved 13 March 2020 from, https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1909/may/13.htm Lenin, V. I. (1965). Socialism and religion. In Lenin Collected Works (Vol. 10). Moscow: Progress Publishers. Retrieved 13 March 2020 from, https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1905/dec/03.htm Mazıcı, T. E., & Çakı, C. (2018). Adolf Hitler’in korku çekiciliği bağlamında kamu spotu reklamlarında kullanımı. Erciyes İletişim Dergisi, 5(3), 290–305. doi:10.17680/erciyesakademia.369487 Mora, N. (2008). Medya çalışmaları medya pedagojisi ve küresel iletişim. Altkitap. Mutlu, E. (2004). İletişim sözlüğü. Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları. Odabaş, S. (2008). Güzelliğin on para etmez şu estetik cerrahlar olmasa: Medyada beden politikalarının temsili. Kültür ve İletişim, 11(1), 53–72. Özerkan, Ş., & İnceoolu, Y. (1995). İletişimde etkileme süreci - seçim kampanyalarından örneklerle. Pan Yayınları. Parın, K. (2017). Metaforlar: Hayat, anlam ve dil. Söylem Filoloji Dergisi, 2(3), 149–151. doi:10.29110oylemdergi.313312 Parret, H. (1993). The Aesthetics of Communication Pragmatics and Beyond. Sprınger-Scıence+Busıness Medıa, B.V. Peirce, C. S. (1982). Writings Of Charles S. Pierce. Modern Language Association of America. Pısch, A. (2016). Stalın in Sovıet posters, 1929–1953 archetypes, inventıons & fabrıcatıons. Anu Press. Platon. (2015). Phaidon. İstanbul. Say Yayınları. Plumpe, G. (1993). Ästhetische Kommunikation Der Moderne. Westdeutscher Verlag.

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Posters. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rkdgcBnRY2o&feature=youtu.be Rızvanoğlu, K. (2001). Propaganda afişlerinin tarihsel gelişimi: başlangıcından 1968’e (Unpublished master dissertation). Mimar Sinan University, İstanbul, Turkey. Selim, Ö. (1999). Sanat, güncellik iletişim ve reklam. Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü Dergisi, (5), 123-139. Sequela, J. (1991). Hollywood daha beyaz yıkar (İ. Yerguz, Trans.). Afa Yayınevi. Shepler, R. (2008). The Bolshevik campaign against religion in Soviet Russia: 1917-1932 (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). The Ohio State University. Shusterman, R. (2000). Pragmatic aesthetics: living beauty, rethinking art (2nd ed.). Rowan & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Sirer, E. (2019). Televizyon yayıncılığının küreselleşmesi bağlamında devlet televizyonlarının durumu ERT örneği. In C. Kandemir (Ed.), Dijital Çağda Televizyon ve Medya (pp. 109–130). Der Yayınları. Sirer, E. (2020). Zamanın Ruhu: Eşzamansızlık. In E. Sirer (Ed.), Televizyon 4.0 Toplum 5.0 Döneminde Yeni İzlence Yeni İzlerkitle (pp. 45–61). Literatürk Akademia. Soykan, Ö. N. (1996). Sanat, kitle iletişimi ve ahlaksal -toplumsal boyut; kavramsal bir çözümleme, Toplumbilim Dergisi, (4), 83-88. Stafford, A. (2013). The role of the media during the Cold War. Retrieved 19 April 2020, from https:// www.e-ir.info/2013/10/26/the-role-of-the-media-during-the-cold-war/ Tangün, Y. A. (2018). Bilgi ve iktidar ilişkisinde yönetimselliğin bir aracı olarak komplo teorileri: 2013’ten 2017’ye gazete köşe yazıları üzerine bir inceleme (Unpublished Master Dissertation). Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey. Taşdelen, D. & Yazıcı, A. (2012). Estetik ve sanat felsefesi. Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıköğretim Fakültesi Yayınları. Thyssen, O. (2010). Aesthetic communication. Palgrave Macmıllan. Topsümer, F., & Elden, M. (2015). Reklamcılık kavramlar, kararlar, kurumlar. İletişim Yayınları. Tunalı, İ. (1998). Estetik. Remzi Kitabevi. Turan, M. (2011). SSCB’de toprak mülkiyeti. Ankara Üniversitesi SDF Dergisi, 66(3), 307–332. doi:10.1501/SBFder_0000002224 Turani, A. (1995). Sanat terimleri sözlüğü. Remzi Kitabevi. Ulusoy, T. (2019). Lisans programlarında sanat sosyolojisi derslerinin uzman görüşlerine ve ders içeriklerine göre değerlendirilmesi (Unpublished Master Dissertation). Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey. Veryzer, R. W. Jr. (1995). The place of product design and aesthetics in consumer research. Advances in Consumer Research. Association for Consumer Research (U. S.), (22), 641–645. Wessell, L. P. Jr. (1972). Alexander Baumgarten’s contribution to the development of aesthetics. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 30(3), 333–342. doi:10.2307/428739

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Yetkin, S. K. (1936). Hegel estetik. Dün ve Yarın Tercüme Külliyatı. Vakit. Yılmaz, R., & Çakın, Ö. (2017). Reklamda süblatif kodlama üzerine bir inceleme. Manas Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 6(4), 531–539. Yücel, T. (2008). Yapısalcılık. Can Yayınları. Zettl, H. (2008). Sight sound motion: applied media aesthetics. Thomson Higher Education. Ziss, A. (1984). Estetik. De Yayınevi.

ADDITIONAL READING Callanan, V. J. (2005). Feeding the fear of crime: crime-related media and support for three strikes. Lfb Scholarly Pub. Chadee, D. (Ed.). (2015). Psychology of fear, crime and the media: international perspectives. Psychology Press. doi:10.4324/9781315779812 Kenez, P. (1985). The birth of the propaganda state: Soviet methods of mass mobilization, 1917-1929. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511572623 Nacos, B. L., Bloch-Elkon, Y., & Shapiro, R. Y. (2011). Selling fear: counterterrorism, the media, and public opinion. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226567204.001.0001 Rummel, R. J. (2017). Lethal politics: Soviet genocide and mass murder since 1917. Routledge. Redavantgarde. Retrieved 15 March 2020, from http://redavantgarde.com

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aesthetic: Sensory perception, is the branch of philosophy related to beauty and the effects of beauty on the human mind and emotions. The concept of aesthetics originally derived from the Greek “aisthesis” and was first used by Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (d: 26.05.1762). Collectivization: Collectivization is the Marxist-Leninist policy implemented in the Soviet Union from 1928 to 1933. It aimed to replace the soils owned by the individuals and also the individual labor with collective agriculture and labor (kolkhoz). Ideology: It is a set of thoughts that form an intellectual, social, or political doctrine, and can also be adopted as an ideal, directing the behavior of individuals and institutions. Poster: It is prepared to announce or introduce an idea, and hanged where the crowds can see it and is usually defined as a picture, wall poster, etc. Proletariat: The term proletariat (from the Latin word, ‘proles’) is used to describe the sub-social class, and people belonging to this class are called proletarians. Propaganda: Propaganda is derived from The Latin word, “propagare”, which means ‘plant saplings’. Propaganda is trying to influence the emotional thoughts, attitudes and behaviors of a certain group in order to contribute the targeted purpose.

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Chapter 18

Aestheticization Through Representation of Power in Built Environment:

Urban Public Spaces as Site of Display Tugce Sanli Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The concepts of power, aesthetics, and fear beyond the boundaries of art reveals tangible and intangible existence through urban space, and public space stands as the centre of attention due to its transforming meaning and spatiality reflecting the global-local thresholds of economic, political, and social compositions of different time periods. The research aims to unfold the layers of ‘power’ that are capable of manifesting through built environment using state apparatuses, that is, urban planning, land-use changes, architecture, securitization, and pacification of symbolic and socially constructed meanings and connotations of particular urban spaces, each of which upholds its own aesthetic formation that is unstable, sensational, and perceptual. Turkey is chosen for its rich and yet complex social and political history as the case concentrating on Kızılay Square in Ankara due to its potential of reflecting a rich historical passage starting with a modernisation implication of a new capital to tyranny of forms of institutional, political, and representational power at display.

INTRODUCTION Cities, having administrative boundaries therefore dependant on statutory formalities and governmentalities in hierarchical form, in their essence are socially constructed, complex-living organisms prone to constant reproduction of space, where each reproduction process reveals various representations in numerous forms of economic, political and social relations. Echoing this explanation, urban public spaces, due to their claim of publicness as opposing to private-ness, positioned somewhere between society and state (Arendt, 1958), have always been the most explicit stage of those representations particularly in DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch018

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reflecting power and relations of power. Urban public space therefore, act both as the producer and the product of these relations through their socially constructed contexts and their ideological, institutional and economical spatiality. Power, on the other hand, when simply expressed means the capability to do something; is an elusive concept (Booher and Innes, 2002) manifested in a process that can be adjusted to the situation in a carefully detailed, transformed, organized way rather than being a naked reality or an institutional right (Foucault, 1982: p. 792). The relation of power with urban space to exemplify resembles an analogy to the relationship between the wall and the picture stated by Perec as “pictures efface walls” (1974: p. 39), where the built formation of urban space – like the “picture” – efface power – like the “walls” given that the power performs at its best when disguised and least observable (Lukes, 2005). It is therefore, space “is fundamental in any exercise of power” (Foucault 1991: p. 252). However, what makes space as the main concentration is not its spatiality per se, but rather its relationality to the representation of relations of macro and micro-politics built in space ascribed to secure the trilogy of hegemony, discipline and government (Brighenti, 2010). In this sense, the story of urban space told by the organisation of power constructs a rather complex representation through constant reproduction relations of power and simultaneous reproduction of urban space. Similar to power, the concept of aesthetics and its acting form of aestheticization is also a tricky one, which vitally requires an avoidance of descriptive explanations and rather necessitates a recognition of its multifaced, sensual, perceptual nature and therefore is highly capable in potential for establishing suitable grounds for power to operate and manipulate. The chapter therefore, puts forward a particular focus in the relation of power and aesthetics and their operating capacity on urban space generating permeable hinterlands and targets to achieve on the basis of dominant ideology of the politics and market. However, since the reflection of authorization of ideology and growth on urban space through aestheticization hinges throughout global and local qualities and attributions, an investigation towards power and urban space requires context dependant particular cases to exemplify, unfold and magnify in detail and to provide international outcomes. The nature and relationship between the public and private in the socio-spatial production and management of built environment has been altered. Particularly for contemporary cities, it has been recently argued that, the cities have been dealing with the phenomenon of segregation, social stratification, exclusion and lack of publicness, which can be seen from residential areas to public spaces (Graham, Aurigi, 1997; Mitchell, 1995) remarking the threat to the integrated structure of the society (Iveson, 1998, 2003; Zukin, 1995). Therefore, the issue of public space has been seen as one of the most problematic one in academic discussions regarding urban space because of its complex structure and greatly claimed decline (Sennet, 1977; Sorkin, 1992; Boyer, 1996; Mitchell, 1995, Zukin, 1995). Therefore, this chapter targets to elaborate an analysis of aestheticization, face lifted by the relations of power reflected on urban space stretched between its concrete and abstract terms. In doing so, the initial mission of this chapter to unfold the layers of ‘power’ that is capable of manifesting itself through built environment by using state apparatuses i.e. urban planning, land-use changes, architecture, securitisation and passivization on both spatial and symbolic and socially constructed meanings including connotations of particular urban spaces each of which upholds its own unstable, sensational and perceptual formation. However, the relation between power and urban space that this research intends to dismantle is not limited to the one constructed by aestheticized buildings of concrete and brick displaying the power of architecture, and architecture as an art; instead objects to attract attention towards the recognition of power as a veiled concept capable of manipulating the collective connotative meanings of those spaces while disguising itself through the 348

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mechanisms of its own production through reproduction of urban public space. Therefore, such ambition requires a deeper analysis yet necessitates a particular context to nail down and frame such triggering conceptualization that concentrates on a particular public space and urban politics, that alter and become mobilised through relations, conditions and historical trajectories to exemplify. Thus, Turkey is chosen for its rich and yet complex social and political history; and the reflective capacity of its main public spaces prone to major transformation of both in concrete and symbolic attributions. The research reveals the story of one of the urban public spaces of Ankara, which become the modernity project of the new Republican period as the new capital, told by its transformation venture over years. Concentrating on the main central square Kızılay as the leading historical passage, this chapter investigates the spatialization of power through space in tandem with aestheticization of urban space that is prone to constant reproduction while itself being the product. Starting with modernisation implications for the new capital the transformation of the square continued to the tyranny of forms of institutional, ideological, economic, representational and societal power at display. The spatial transformation encouraged by socio-political and economic impacts each of which generate its peculiar reflections from global to local, in the long run, reduced the use and meaning of the square from an urban public space as the site of free social and politic representation to a traffic roundabout surrounded by bits and pieces of fragmented public spaces then to further deterioration of the space dominated by a large scale shopping mall. Despite all these spatial interventions distorting the “publicness” quality of the space contributed by the intentional emergence of consumption culture in response, the connotative socio-political representation of space has reawakened by its users during the times of political thresholds and in some ways passivized by power holders if needed. In order to build and then to bride an investigation of literature with contextual exemplification the chapter opens up with the discussion of power as a disguised tool continuing with aesthetics in spatialized politics and aestheticization through spatialized power to blend the discussion of reproduction of urban space. Following section then, aims to unfold production and reproduction of space leading towards the public space elaborating on the contemporary criticism from the literature in order to position the role of various representations in public spaces. Reaching towards the diversified representations over and through public space via urban politics enabling planning, design and architecture practices to act; and/or via socially constructed capacity appear both as the producer and the product of an everlasting continuity, finally, this rich discussion of literature is elaborated within the case section through peculiar exemplification of selected public space of Ankara.

MANIFESTING URBAN SPACE AS THE DISPLAY OF POWER: AESTHETICIZATION AS A DISGUISED TOOL TO (RE)PRODUCE SPACE City-making is about making choices, applying values, using politics to turn values into policies and exerting power to get your way… Power determines the kind of cities we have and politics is its medium (Landry, 2006: p. 14). The nature of power as a multiplicity of force relations occurs towards repetitive struggles and confrontations, strengths, alters, reorders and finds itself in one another in order to get support. However, such relations require a strong legitimatization therefore a representation through institutions and law grounding on state structures in diverse social hegemonies (Foucault, 1982) but no longer structured just 349

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on sovereignty yet dispersed throughout society (Gregory, et al, 2009). Power “comes from everywhere” (Foucault, 1979) and working with daily relations (economic, sexual, work pattern etc.) and comes from daily practices. Therefore, the requirement for a realization that the space and its conceptualisation is becoming more and more important in terms of power relations and political economic environment because “space now more than time that hide things from us, that the demystification of spatiality and its veiled instrumentality of power is the key” to understand the contemporary configuration of space that is being postmodern and “multinational” (Soja, 1989: pp. 61-88). Production and re-production of space “is fundamental in any form of communal life; space is fundamental in any exercise of power” (Foucault 1994: p. 361). Therefore, space and discourse of power, where the body is embedded at their core (Lefebvre, 1991), coexist together, yet they jointly and severally represent a synchronized concrete and an abstract entity that is shaped by networks and relations of power and socially constructed by its inhabitants and accumulated over the history. Taking the view point of Foucault on space and power and their relation to history, a balanced investigation is required on the analysis of “history of powers” revealing an new perspective on space which would be formed “from the great strategies of geopolitics to the little tactics of the habitat” (Foucault, 1980: p.149), meaning from global network relations of geographies to local autonomy of domination of built-environment. There, urban space and its concrete and abstract connotations tell us stories using the language of spatial text, which mediates, forms and (re)produces relations of power (Dovey, 2008). Therefore, rather than being a commodity, power is defined by and defines relations (Killian, 1998). Whether being on the exerting or receiving side, power therefore, eliminates any attempt to categorisation of possessing or non-possession due to its active relational condition. However, when analysed through the legitimate exertion or dictating, power, although being embedded in state apparatus in different forms, the capacity and capability of power not limited to the state or authorisation apparatus not merely a negative and oppressive too either. It is because, power rather requires a realization through its different abilities which can be productive: produces discourse; forms knowledge and permeate through networks of the whole social body (Foucault, 1991). Since knowledge or discourse are vulnerable to get formed by power, however still, have the risk of being used in a subtle oppressive way and can be exercised through manipulating information contributed by the mass media and the process of socialisation that influences the other’s wants (Luke, 2005). Being composed through tangible and intangible relations and having a special skill to craft the tools of the state apparatus, power acts in shaping the urban space and thus the social constructions over it. The analysis of power relations requires the analysis of society that links to socio-political and economic transformations in the cities. Therefore, power and its capacity manifest through its multiplicity is formed through daily practices hinged within the forms of capital gaining a certain importance for shaping and reshaping our urban public spaces and formulating and reformulating the management approaches by controlling through these spaces. In other words, power, having a slippery nature and capable of camouflaging itself via creation of representations both in explicit or implicit forms, is best perceived and understood through the spatial text of built environment (Dovey, 2008: p. 16) with a historical path to follow the traces of soco-political and economic transitions. There, the expression of power should not only understood as exertion in authoritarian way but adding new strategies masking that authority through promotion of various forms of capital1 in urban space. It is because, not limited to material form of the framed built environment, this promotion has capacity to educate the gazes of the public in the spaces of supermodernity (Auge, 2008) at societal levels in the long run, which reaches to the education of collective memory as its fin350

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ishing line. The perception, here, is manipulated through the production, promotion (or passivization if needed) of the urban space and its connotative meanings. It is able to alter from one culture to another fed by different trajectories of political and economic history generating its own peculiarities though under the globalized demands of conurbation. In that sense, power in its most explicit form emerges as power to design and re-produce these spaces as well itself being the product of these spaces. Therefore, not limited to the spatialized interventions of “power to” reproduction of urban space, centralised in the political agenda regenerates also generates an uplifting capacity of “power over” the users of that space through managing the perception of “what is appealing”, therefore renewing the perception towards what is aesthetic and uses aestheticization as an apparatus to its own will.

Aesthetics in Spatialized Politics, Aestheticization of Spatialized Power ….Yet aesthetic ideology continues to mold attitudes toward environmental design and urban development because it is reinforced by academics and policy-makers who operate as powerful allies of “official culture.” Aesthetic ideology remains a potent vehicle for the perpetuation of urban, economic, and social inequalities, and serves as reinforcement for another oppressive ideology. (Rubin, 1979: p. 361). Aesthetics as a philosophical conceptualization have long related to the cultivated form of sensual cognition encompassing through taste, perception and appeal with reference to beauty. Aesthetic sense of cognition with regard to semantic feature bred from aesthetics encapsulates both sensation and perception in which the former connotes to appeal and emotional quality, the latter requires and object to be perceived with cognition (Welsh, 1997). Then, the question arises around the act of cultivation as: how this form of sensual cognition and taste is being cultivated and by whom? Calling out further questions: is it the subject as the perceiver who determines the aesthetic taste therefore incapable of aestheticization of the already given object and rather following an expected cultivation process through the conscious? Or is it the intangible manifestation of relations of power through tangible reflections that mainly sublimes the object through aestheticization? Aestheticization, if it’s meant to be “unaesthetic is made, or understood to be, aesthetic” (Welsh 1995: p. 18) then, it can be argued that, the term used by Benjamin (1969) “aestheticization of politics” can broaden its scope form aestheticization of war for ideological representation for the events of his time, to aestheticization of globally mediatized politics of today (Harvey, 1989); and to aestheticization of power through constant reproduction of urban space whether through concrete bricks or political practices gaining meaning through symbolised condition of sense of place. Differing from the relation of art with aesthetics that has been evolved through aesthetic regime and stretched beyond its boundaries (Rancière, 2002), and non-art linked term emerged as environmental aesthetics referring to natural and human environments. In addition, within the field of architecture and planning that usually grounds on the matters of built environment the relation of aesthetics with art switches to design and ethics (Basta and Moroni, 2013). However, such deductions neglect the complex and organic essence of urban space and obscure the representation of aesthetics and aestheticization by space, particularly urban space through its spatio-temporal and socio-spatial qualities grounding on complexity of relations and power. The spatialization of politics, which in this research refers to spatial expression of politics through urban space, is usually related to the discussions over the spatial character of capitalist condition of neoliberalism. Where attracting and leading the key literature the discussions starts to ground on the Marxist class relations, excessive urban growth emerged from the changes of the mode of production 351

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and advanced capitalism (Castells, 1977, 1978; Harvey, 1985; Soja, 1989) as the expression of ‘urbanisation of injustice’ (Hubbard, 2011: p. 99) that operated by the capitalist relations of power, expressed through organisation of space, contributed by evolution of technology as the informational dynamics of capitalism added to the economic restructurings. Starting from 1950-60s developments in transportation technologies also information-communication technologies afterwards, the far become close and this led financial deregulation (Harvey, 2000) in the globalisation process which then accelerated the process is neoliberalism in a way Soja called “globalized neoliberalism” (1989). New roads and highways have been constructed and new demands for motor vehicles have been increased (Tibbalds, 1992), and market economy started to dominate the urban spaces through urban politics and through managing our perception to these spaces. The contemporary period of globalisation and neo-liberalisation have paved the ways towards privatisation, commodification, competitive cities, new life styles through new consumption culture. There, as Low and Smith suggest “the control of public space” emerges as “a central strategy of that neoliberalism” (2006: p. 15) meaning: power to and power over managing urban space in capacity of various types of capital both in concrete and symbolic means while providing a new understanding of aesthetics. Therefore, the design and management of urban space through architecture and planning usually (intentionally or not) delivers the requests of the present dominant ideology and market demands (both at global and local levels) by acting through aesthetic representations, where the spatialized politics and these inter-scales, therefore, summons aestheticization to manage urban space.

(RE)PRODUCTION OF PUBLIC SPACE: DESIGNING AESTHETICIZED SPACES OR AESTHETICIZED EXPERIENCES? Hidden within the modernity that was taking shape was a profound ‘spatial fix’. At every scale of life, from global to local, the spatial organization of society was being restructured to meet the urgent demands of capitalism in crisis – to open up new opportunities for super – profits, to find new ways to maintain social control, to stimulate increased production and consumption. (Soja, 1989: p. 34). Compatible with what Habermas (1989) and Arendt (1958) suggest regarding the public sphere as political representation, Lefebvre (1991) states that space is the site of the representation suggesting a composition of spatial practices, spaces of representation, representational space for mounting the components of (re)production of space. Here the key ingredient but also the challenging linkage between the power and urban space whether explicit or veiled emerges as “representation”. With this in mind, public space traditionally raises a challenging ground in exploring its meaning differing from its dichotomous companion private space due to the multidimensional condition it accommodates such as rules of access and use, capacity to be revealed as site of representation or non-representation2 and its inherent skill to reflect locally cultural and globally cultural trajectories. However, due to the aim and the limits of this chapter, the focus is narrowed down to the most recent impacts and changes emergent in public spaces through relations of power and its spatialized politics paving way towards a new way for representation attaching aestheticization as a veil to urban public space. The socio-spatial impact of the global capitalism in cities, received great intention of many researchers, some put the attention to the class relation; urban growth, consumption and space as an expression of political, economic and ideological structure through process of postmodernism, advanced capitalism and their impacts (Castells, 1978; Soja, 1989; Harvey, 1989; Smith, 2008). Some others, through their 352

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long-cited works, proposed an interrelated conceptualisation of space interrogating its spatial quality and quantity to representations and relativity, where the space is proclaimed as a social product with perceptions and lived experiences are expressed through and time has been the driver (Harvey, 2005; Lefebvre, 1991). The shift from treating space as “immobile” background to a dynamic and socially – and also continuously – dynamic entity as it evolves resembles similarities with the continuity of life itself is also emphasised by the Foucauldian perspective of the production of space which is constituted by intersecting networks more than a merely historical evolvement (Foucault, 1980) and a socially produced human activity constituting social relations (Lefebvre, 1991; Smith, 1998). Therefore it is a heterogeneous space that we live in, rather than a “void” filled with “individuals and things” nor can be “coloured with diverse shades of light” which actually is an assemblage of set of relations that cannot be reduced to one or “superimposable on one another” (Foucault, 1986: p.23 in Soja, 1989: p. 17). However, still neither seeing space only constituted via the intersection of relations and networks nor as a mere product of social relations would be enough if it’s unstitched from the contextual historical trajectories. It is because the time space compression generates the “spatiotemporal” frame that we locate ourselves and leads our actions as well as our understanding and perception upon space (Harvey, 2005). In other words, social relations produce the space and interactions between these social relations with space (which we can call socio-spatial production), where “spatialisations are not just physical arrangements of things but also spatial patterns of social action and routine as well as historical conceptions of space and the world.... They add up to an socio-spatial imaginary and outlook, which manifests itself in our every intuition” and “this system of space operates at all scales” (Shields, 1999: p.146). Echoing these, the hegemony of the historical accumulative occurrences on the production of space and social relations (not only among the public but also various actors and networks) referring to space and time dialectic requires a further reviewing, since as a whole this assemblage becomes actual coherent experience. Thus, public space cannot be understand distanced from its social constructions; which contains the meanings, cultures, identities, emotions, memories and values of the users; and which are also always active, accumulative and renewed through reproduction processes because these are the features which makes the public space to come into existence in reality through “articulated moments in networks of social relations an understandings” (Massey, 1991 quoted in Hillier, 1998: p.208). For instance, the architecture, as applicable to the city, as the organiser of the places and the spatial pieces and producer of relations among these pieces, includes artistic and aesthetic meanings on the abstract ground yet being geometrical and tangible generating concrete reality and spatial experience also symbolises culture; social order; aspirations; needs and fears, therefore, understanding spatial form requires to find out about “the symbolic qualities of that form” (Harvey, 1973: pp. 31-32). As Zukin mentions, the social control upon cities is the control of cultures as a way of controlling “urban ills” (1995: p. 2) reflecting on economy, fear of crime, distrust and disorder to name but a few. There, the condition of public space and management of it in close proximity with power each provide a peculiar capacity to redefine the built environment and meanings attached to them. “People with economic and political power have the greatest opportunity to shape public culture by controlling the building of the city’s public spaces in stone and concrete” (Zukin, 1995: p. 11) enabling powerful to exert a new vision for the public through aestheticization of the built environment. The recent period of neo-liberalisation witnessed the aggressive transition experienced by urban public spaces. Their transformation has been the most vivid expression of the dogma of economic expediency dictating urban form and the supplanting of private interests over public ones with the built environment (Low and Smith, 2006; Minton, 2006). While some become effectively ‘publicised private spaces’ 353

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(Banerjee, 2001: p. 12) many express the contestation between public and private (Madanipour, 2003). In large urban areas of developing economies, there has been a relentless commodification and privatisation of urban land, which on the one hand has reshaped the spatial condition of urban space and the way people live out their everyday lives, and on the other hand has reformulated urban power relations operating behind urban development through exploiting planning in practice (Sanli and Townshend, 2018; Flybjerg and Richardson, 2002; Hillier, 2002). This transition shifted the physical appearance of the urban space as well as its socially constructed qualities, however, not least, redefined, if not disrupt, the nature composed of relational, historical, cultural identity and sense of belonging linkages and therefore instead produced what Auge calls ‘non-places’ (2008) that are non-anthropological with distorted or perished links to its earlier places. Where, the spaces of supermodernity, emerged from the intersection of consumption, communication and circulation that at the global level (through globalisation) centralises networking with its economic; technical; scientific and political parameters and the history; culture and geography have been undergone through a representation of the sameness as the “globetrotting tourist” (Auge, 2008: p. XII). There emerging through commodity and consumption culture the interventions of privatization contributed to the fear of crime and brought the phenomena in security and demonstrated enclave communities and new the design approaches with these concerns with high surveillance generating new connotations with regard to representation of power in built environment.

Managing Spatiality by Design: Aesthetics, Fear and Social Control ... public spaces are bound to contain a certain element of disorder and tension, and that is part of the rich mix that makes public space eternally varied and fascinating. Conversely, a recurring struggle against disorder in public space has also long been a feature of urban management strategies, a struggle that takes many different forms, including, at its most extreme, pressures for privatisation, conformity, and exclusion. (Carmona, Magalhaes et al. 2008: p. 200) The conventional role of urban design has been long argued phenomenon in urban studies, especially when the shifts3 in theories related with city are taken into account, in which the significance of urban design is considered related to the public space (Carmona, Tiesdell, 2007). Therefore, urban design has become to “be seen as the socio-spatial management of the urban environment using both visual and verbal means of communication and engaging in a variety of scales of urban social-spatial phenomena” (Madanipour, 1997: p.16). The modernism period in urban design approaches had a focus on “design of an abstract but integrated space” (Madanipour,1997: p14) while the following period of postmodernism’s interest was more on considering the meaning of the smaller scale places in with the same abstraction related to political, economic and cultural changes in the cities (Madanipour, 1997). Carmona, on the other hand, states the problem towards the management of public spaces with regard to design as the “two side of the same coin” (2010: p. 145) and determines them as under-managed4 and over-managed5 spaces. Among the variety of discourses in the literature upon the problem of contemporary public space and its management in the modern cities Carmona states two of them (which he actually agrees are the “two sides of the same coin” (2010: p. 145): first is the under-management of the public space and second is the over-management of the public space. However, it is not the design or matter of management per se that educates the individual and collective gazes that builds up to the image through aestheticization. Since the dilemma emerges in questioning the management of a public space by design in the period

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of supermodernity as a path to merely shaping the space or as a way to add meaning and provision to aestheticize the space for public or selective public. Architecture and urban design are highly social arts wherein the task is to link aesthetic imagination to the public interest” (Dovey, 2008: p. 5) although partially agreeing with this statement, the term “public interest” due to its vague nature embodies the risk of simplified and generalised assumption and a mistaken consensus on who this “public” refers to. Additionally, the position of the architect, designer or planner in a particular project (although in an ideal world their role should stretch beyond their technical capacity) among the group of actors (stakeholders one may also say) each having a strong capacity in managing different types of capital. Similar to this argument Sternberg puts the emphasis on market economy and the role of the designer: “Urban designer engages a physical world driven by the dynamics of private commerce and public affairs. After all, the openings or closings of business establishments, occupation and abandonment of houses, and juxtapositions of buildings are driven far more by the market process than by any designer’s creative imagination. This is a world in which price mechanisms, power relations, and interest-group conflicts bring about urban form” (Sternberg, 2000: p.34). Hereby, the bilateral relation of the designer with its customer (economic capital holder managed by market demands) and the latter’s bilateral relation to approving authority (granting construction permits) both representing power on their own terms. It is therefore, the final part of the Dovey’s statement might be rephrased as “…social arts although the task is to link aesthetic imagination to public interest, the shadows of reality defines its own public and regarding aestheticization that is open to manipulation and domination through the relations of power. Even though the word space connotates heavily physical and spatial meanings, this production process politics and the power, although usually being disguised, has a central role with combination of the economic aspects (land, labour, ownership and capital) in which citizens’ mind creates the image of the city as spatial language to be spoken through its public and pseudo-public spaces. Therefore, managing spaces especially public spaces, where the most interaction takes place, reveals the design approaches of managing and manipulating the visibility and invisibilities by social control, order and spatial power. In this essence, while the economic demands of the market given incentives by authority approvals managed the concrete existence and design of the urban space, through their capacity to exclude or include and their capacity to promote such interventions (both via various kinds of media and other publicized interventions), namely capacity of managing different types of capital, the understanding of aesthetic and the capacity of aestheticization also shifted.

Aestheticization Through Securitization If the term public space inherently connotes inclusiveness attributing its publicness qualities, why then the most criticisms evolve around the emphasis of the gradual loss and the idealistic design solutions in reality operates nothing more than internal patches to be unstitched at any time? In his work Ted Kilian (1998) analyses two modes of public spaces which he then connects them with public private and power relations. The first one is the public space as a site of contact, where Richard Sennets and Jane Jacobs concerns are taken into account and mainly advocates the contact “togetherness” (1998: p: 116) in the public space as the main requirement, which also sees the privacy as a privilege and “the provision of contact” that needs to be occur “outside the private” (Sennets, Jacobs, 1998: p. 119). This type of public space, on one hand, trying to create a good and idealised space which is inclusive and active. However, on the other hand, tries to do that with the disguised aim of having a place full of “normal users thereby 355

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eliminate the “undesirables” by referring to the Jacob’s “eyes on the street” and Newman’s “defensible space” suggestions. This approach then ends up with an exclusionary space and the struggle for inclusiveness become unavailing and naïve through overly managing space to appropriate, meaning inevitably getting rid of inappropriateness. The power to exclude “undesirables” from public spaces (while attaining the ‘pseudo’ prefix to public space) reveals the notion of “fear of crime” (as the intention to minimize the risk of not yet existed potential crime) putting the emphasis on the management of such spaces either through design, security additions or symbolic power displays, which in return has to be aestheticized through re-producing those spatial contexts to make them more appealing to the gazes of its users by providing and promoting safety from an unknown enemy6. As Mitchell, Low and Nemeth stated securitisation, high surveillance and intensive policing of public space reaching out an extreme designation as ‘militarising’ (Davis, 1992) are leading the new turnaround within the transformation of public space and privatisation as a whole and as management in particular (Davis, 1992; Mitchell, 1995; Low, 2006; Nemeth and Schmidth, 2007). CCTVs, safety guards, barriers, fences, walls, time restrictions, signs, warnings can be counted as the face value of the securitisation in public spaces, which can be seen as design elements and /or management approaches of public space. There, the meaning of security as “freedom from imagined danger in the present or future” (Gregory; Johnston, et al., 2009) needs an emphasize on the word “imagined” that it is not for the actual danger itself but rather the fear from it. Securitisation in design and behaviour is to against inappropriate behaviour and users, “perceived ills of urban public spaces” and the reason is to be sure that these spaces are still “’public’ rather than hijacked by undesirable users” (Mitchell, 2003: p.2). Moreover, managing the “threat of uncontrolled social interaction” Mitchell refers to disneyification of the space that “implies increasing alienation of people from the possibilities of unmediated social interaction and increasing control by powerful economic and social actors over the production and use of space” (Mitchell, 1995: p. 120). Such attempt, therefore, uses design as an implicit code of inclusion or if needed exclusion and promotes regarding aestheticization as another implicit code to educate our gazes in the process of appropriation.

Aestheticization Through Experience Creation by Leisure and Consumption as a Globalized Culture Living in a world full of opportunities - each one more appetizing and alluring than the previous one...... is an exhilarating experience (Bauman 2000: p.62). Culture, with a broad definition consists of collective and accumulative existence and inevitably inclusive of the experiences of the individual oriented with historical sense, traditions and identity. The relation of culture with urban space and public space, on the other hand, due to their capacity of encapsulating similar collective and individual experiences at most, reflects the representations of the culture, in ways of expressions of “collective memory” (Boyer, 1996); social behaviour and symbolised the economic and political agenda – both at local and global scale – attached to that space that all together when managed enable superior control over public (Zukin, 1991; Oc, Tiesdell, 1999). Moreover, promoting public space as a product/as a commodity through various projects of the market demands through political and economic restructurings of neoliberalism resulted in the waves pushing towards privatisation, contestation and branding of cities. Thus, the quality of cities gained more importance and therefore the public space has further become the show off place for the salability of urban areas, where “the city becomes 356

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a showplace for the private ego at the expense of the public realm.” (Trancik, 1986: p. 67) and there “the image of the city and the symbolic economy that constitutes the core of the attraction and branding have become a product to be sold (Zukin, 1995). Therefore, the spatialization of the culture refurbished as a globalised commodity and, on the account of the new culture of consumption, urban spaces have witnessed the spatialization of transcultural cognition. Nevertheless, although Neil Smith refers “different societies and different modes of production produce space differently; they produce their own kind of space” (1998: p.54) and despite the partial agreement on this statement, the contemporary rationale of the reality; the inevitable effect of globalisation and capitalist mode of production on different cultures cities have been facing with the standardisation of spaces. Therefore, the appeal and desire for aesthetic taste manifest itself to a shiny aura as the culture industry, where the aesthetic production tiers up to a standardized market demands (Adorno and Horkheimer, 1993; Dovey, 2008). Put another way, the period of transcultural reflections have generated and have been re-generating an official understanding of aesthetics – in a way fabricating a new spatial language similar to the global use of emojis as a new communicative language - contributed by the mode of consumption and educated perception due to the affected mode of production and the consumption of space as a commodity. The discussions around the consumption, city and the public initially were referring to the state systems through criticising capitalist and modernist approaches centralizing production at the centre while assessing the consumption increasingly collective and interdependent and dominated by the interests of private capital reflecting a shift from production to consumption. However, the seemingly dichotomous relation between production and consumption in practice is a bounded continuous one with a strong coexistence of both, that similar to the blurred distinction of public and private space. It is because the production mentioned here in relation to space and public not merely refers to the industrialised concrete production but also to the symbolic production and reproduction of space which is consumable yet simultaneously producible. As Baudrillard states when we consume a product, we consume its meaning through advertising (Baudrillard in Poster, Mourrain, 2002) through its connotative symbolised meanings as well. Thus, constant evolvement of new means of consumption gains its success via “control and exploitation of the consumer” (Ritzler, 2010). Within this new era the capital required to find new ways in which it can restructure itself in order to treat the hardship that emerged because of having more products to be consumed than it was actually consumed, therefore, “like a veil, the market system shrouds our consciousness while plumping up desire and consumption” (Landry, 2006: p.3) inducing the new way of aesthetic appeal “to anticipate consumers’ preferences... and to control them” (Clarke and Bradford 1998: p.874). The alteration in the way we consume; the amount we consume and the importance of the consumption in society led to e new culture via putting the consumption in the centre that seeks for a more comfortable life while colouring it up by leisure and entertainment. In his work Ritzler, where he presents a deep investigation on the contemporary consumption patterns and spaces through their continuity and change, associates the spaces of the new means of consumption with religious spaces of the old times and renames as “cathedrals of consumption” as these new spaces become the place of hajj for the middle class to “practice their consumer religion” and as both spatial settings have been providing social connection and reproduced enhancement on demand when novelty of the space ages (2010: p.78). The impact of this on the development of the urban sites with the new consumption culture has the leisure at the centre, and concurrently reshapes the culture via commodifying the traditions as a product (Zukin, 1995; Lorentzen and Hansen 2004), ‘Shoppertainment’ (Landry, 2006) where shopping comes 357

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together with leisure both as the meaning and the reality practice to be provided as a full experience by developers and experience emerging as a new commodity following culture become the main attention. The “experience economy”, having the roots from experience industry provided as an alternative to capitalism or communism (Toffler, 1971), where “foods and services become commoditized” there “the customer experiences that companies create will matter most” (Pine and Gilmore, 1998: p. 97) and where the commodified environments, contemporary public spaces as this chapter focuses, become environments of experience. The spatial configuration through internal and external design and the social environment generated through that design settings and the activities provided, added to the economic psychology and behaviour presented by “economic people” including public as the consumers and the producers as the developers and professionals (Van Raaij, 1981: p. 5). This is interrelated with social and spatial behaviour promoting the overall perceptions of people on both sides. Therefore, the city is a complete experience that is all the time dynamic and open to changes, yet “cities are like relatives: you never really escape” (Landry, 2006: p. 2). In addition, it cannot be wrong to propose similar claim for the experience of public space, especially in the context where the shopping malls as an example crave for the qualities of ‘public spaces’ since the investors and managers of such private organization considers these qualities as ‘non-income generating’ through ‘necessary evils’ providing the essential layout for a social setting to increase attractiveness (Chiu and Yau, 2007: p.302). The success of the place or settings of that place, can be served as a product or a service, where the physical settings are assessed through the user’s memory of that space contributing to the idea of experience creation referring to the tactics to increase attractiveness place through branding and aestheticization. Such practices of memorable experience creation have become the new trend and business needed to be provided (Pine II and Gilmore 1998; Lorentzen and Hansen 2009). Therefore, public space accommodating all above stated facilities and experiences becomes the de facto product to be promoted by aestheticization of its concrete and symbolic settings by its managers.

RE-PRODUCING CONNOTATIONS VERSUS TRANSFORMING INTERVENTIONS: REPRESENTATION OF KIZILAY The urbanization process of Turkey can be briefly characterized in five periods each representing a transformational threshold prevailing the political and economic re-structuring of the country. Starting with the late Imperial term (end of 19th century and the beginning of 20th century) presents initial attempts in managing urban space through legitimate interventions that were limited to Istanbul as the imperial capital; continued with a strong shift in urbanization attempts during the early Republican Period (19231950) aiming to put forward the modernization interventions as the urban experience of new republic starting with moving the state capital to Ankara. Therefore, the necessity raised to prepare small town Ankara to develop to a new capital that inevitably host all bureaucratic matters and officers attached to them required an intense intervention for urban developments. the third period (1950–1980) saw the inception of multi-party politics, when at the same time rapid urbanisation due to industrialisation and labour power took place and extensive migration from rural areas to urban space occurred, generating new problems on urban land (squatter areas); and the last period is from 1980 onwards, which is considered as being one of the most significant turning points of the country’s economic and social structure due to the adaptation of liberal policies meaning integrating with the globalization trends. However, the period

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of after 2000s, has generated even more significant and sudden change with the further adaptation to the neoliberal policies resembling an aggressive urbanisation of capital. In Turkey, urban power relations among various explicit and implicit actors have been the basis for the decision-making processes and production of urban space in the recent past often by-passing formal planning processes if needed (Sanli and Townshend, 2018). Especially, Ankara as the political capital of the country has always been the site of display of the modernisation project of the Turkish Republic reflecting how urban space, especially urban public space is transformed and modified via various forms of power and relations of power. Through the modernisation history of Ankara from small Anatolian town to a capital city of a new republic started with a planning attempts by German architects and planners highlighting “urban aesthetics” as the “primary concern” (Tankut, 1993: p. 79). Therefore, urbanization as a new way through modernization brightened via planning and architectural concerns aiming a modern aesthetic look for the new capital, in a way aestheticization through urbanization. When it comes to the urbanization process peculiar to Ankara, the first planning attempt for the capital was the Lörcher Plan, which aimed to place and set up the main infrastructure and to provide the urban space requirements for a capital city. The plan put new residential settings on the south side of the city, in Çankaya region, and also had a more detailed design scheme for public spaces like squares and some other open spaces, most of which were abused by later plans as well as later interventions. In terms of changing patterns of public spaces, the first two plans (the Lochrer and Jansen Plans, Figure 6.8) of the city were definitive. The former proposed many squares on the main axis of the city, connecting the old town with the new town, while the latter opposed to former for: ‘proposing squares frequently on the main road without any system’ (Jansen Plan Report, 1928, quoted in Cengizkan, 2009). However, after these two plans, in the long run, piecemeal changes were implemented on the squares (i.e. subway stations and entrances were built) and building rights were increased near the squares; thus, the existing spaces of the squares were reduced. In addition, certain ideological policies have also contributed to this destruction as some of the central squares developed connotations with public protest (through the clashes of the left- and right-wing supporters), especially in the late 1970s and beginning of 1980s. Thus, the political power of the period (state and military) was also in favour of passivizing those connotations (Cengizkan, 2009; Batuman, 2009). Similar incidents succeeded several times in the capital’s history through interventions of political, and at times of military for passivization of the symbolic meaning of square as the site of political representation via public protests, ideological conflicts and public meetings of the political parties. 12th September, morning: Kizilay Square was invaded by military tanks and a totally new discursive frame was achieved; a new meaning in parallel with destruction of the public space and without permitting any activism by opponents ... For Kizilay Square this new identity is applied through three big projects: the transformation of Guvenpark; the Kizilay Facilities Building and the Kizilay metro station project (Batuman, 2009: p. 44) From the legal and planning perspective, the importance of development ‘at any cost’ has become apparent and in some cases regardless of any objection and court decisions against plan approvals the potential project investment could continue without interference (Sanli and Townshend, 2018). However, high numbers of mall developments yet limited numbers of public space developments in especially metropolitan cities of Turkey also contributes to the idea that while not providing enough genuine public spaces leads further manipulation over socio-spatial experience via generation of pseudo-public 359

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spaces and their pseudo-publicness. An example from Ankara, which typifies the problem is provided in Kizilay (central core of the city) (See Figure 1). The process of this transformation is representative for the transformation in the people’s perceptions through promotion and production reaching to a tangible spatial experience. Below figure represents the genealogy of the location, where was once three floor Kizilay Services Building including an open park with a small pond with a statue in it, therefore was initially called ‘pool side square’ then called Kizilay Square though in use it has become rather a traffic roundabout in time and lately the high-security controls at the entrance of the mall eliminated the previous public-space configuration on the same area (Batuman, 2009). In addition, the space under the square, where the central subway station is located and an underground shopping centre is provided with further security (security guards, CCTVs and small police station) also finalises the transformation of what was once a public space and the representative of the new city of the new republic into a shopping centre. As can be seen from the attached group of pictures the area resembles this aggressive urbanisation of capital through mall development that once in 1920s was designed as a main square with a park in centre. Figure 1. Transformation of Kizilay Square into a roundabout and Kizilay park to a shopping mall: Lochrer’s design for thesquare; Kizilay in 1960s; Kizilay in 2012 and current air view Source: Author 2012

Nevertheless, considering all these the recent two examples of ‘public protest’ become prominent displaying an attempt to reclaim public space by the public, when the role of political display of free public representation is remembered and celebrated recently in 2013 and in 2015. The former was resembling the public unrest (state opposers) bred from Istanbul with reference to the Gezi Park faced with strong pushback from the state and therefore later reputed as the public evil. The latter, on the other hand, had presented a complete turnaround in its nature since the call came from President Erdogan to his supporters since the coup attempt was unsuccessfully aimed to overthrow him and his government

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gained echo from public (state supporters). This time the state as the authority was in need and therefore was in power of reproducing the space for political representation, and succeeded in attempt not only in concrete but also to generate semi-strained connotations. There the official name of Kizilay was also changed to “15 Temmuz Kızılay Milli İrade Meydanı” meaning ‘15th July Kızılay National Will Square’ to represent a political power disguised with public protests and to generate new connotation of political representation of AKP victory against the coup attempt. Although the socio-political analysis of both incidents is quite rich it is beyond the target of this chapter.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The question of how space is being represented and how individuals are representing themselves through that initial representation needs a closer attention as these representations are at the heart of the “social translations” of the language that space use. The space embodies a spatial setting of social relations of different agents where the alterations in the social organisation of space disorganises the existing spatial constructs of places. The social organisation and the alterations that Massey argued inhabits similarities of what Castel calls as “space of flows”, where the meaning of it has been replaced by spaces of places, and where the actual social meaning is being weaken through “space of flows” and there the places are replaced by network information flows through new information technologies (Castells, 1989). In this process “the social meaning evaporates from the places, and therefore form the society” and diluted in space of flows (Castells, 1989: p. 349). However, social meaning should not be considered as something that can evaporate, as Castells would argue, because it is rather a socio-spatial setting including its own complexities; being affected via global and local changes and political economic fluctuations; continuously being re-shaped and gain new meanings accordingly. The impact of the technology on representation and space emerging a relocation from actual to cyber resembles at a smaller scale the contemporary understanding of public spaces where the boundaries of public and private is being blurred and where the horizontal modes of communication (at a more individual scale) is highly intersecting with vertical modes of communication of the mass media generating a shift from public spheres of the nation-state to a public space generated through media system (Hubbard, 2011). Therefore, especially given the recent pandemic circumstances and its reflections on public space and how the society perceived them future researches should provide grounds for a new contextualization of urban public space in tandem with cyber public spaces. In addition, such an attempt must target to question the role and ways to intervene aestheticization via spatialization of politics in new generation of cyber-public spaces as pseudo-public spaces.

CONCLUSION Urban public spaces, despite the conventional meaning they compose and the broad literature criticising the annihilation of the meaning and despite their calling for the necessity for new design and management strategies to facilitate ‘the public’ to claim their ‘right to the city’, have already evolved to a hybrid and mobile glocal setting. In such a scenery, where the global trends of capitalist neoliberal policies contributed by local interests forming glocal relations of power drifted urban public spaces towards a continuous transformative relation of circular loop of consumption and reproduction as commodities. 361

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The management of these spaces in their spatial and social contexts succeeded by the interventions and the power of urban politics. The two-tier relationship of the reproduction of space through physical formation and connotative meanings renders the transcultural experience creation, under the safe hands of securitization treatments by sterilizing the spatial representations of the design while accustoming public to accumulations of artificial publicness experiences. Therefore, the story of Kızılay, told by its socio-spatial and socio-political language, portrays a transformation from professionally designed public square celebrating inclusive publicness surrounded by open parks and recreation areas with ‘Trust Statue’ of republican national independence to a reduction of its publicness qualities of the time periods and further to a compressed traffic roundabout with a massive shopping mall attached to its one corner and a large scale textual statue as a constant reminder of national will against coup attempt the of political representation formed by the periodical interventions of spatialized politics, in each representing historical trajectories of the nation. Nevertheless, the chapter unfolded the tactical actions of the power and its veiled nature is not limited to use of urban planning, design and architecture as a state apparatus or the market force per se. Over and above this, the generous promotion of these actions which capacitates much wider impact operating as a new hybrid apparatus that is able to eventuate the gradual re-cultivation of the spatial taste, transcultural desires, socio-spatial appropriation. Therefore, aestheticization emerges as a strategic tool in the relations of power as a socio-spatial and ideological way of control and domination. Achieved deep and quiet the education of collective gazes paves the through building up new connotations linking to the reproduced socio-spatial setting that is both representational and representing through experiences. In other words, through its intangible – and in some instances veiled – nature, power and its aestheticization (though the former has capacity to manipulate the latter) is capable of running in the background of the urban space production process as a tool of spatialized politics in act, inherently capable of intervening and manipulating the collective connotations of society who is exposed to that of space to its interest. Finally, aestheticization veiling spatialized politics have become the new panacea of the urban space and its appropriation.

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Foucault, M. (1982). Subject and power. Critical Inquiry, 8(4), 777–795. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343197. doi:10.1086/448181 Foucault, M. (1990). The history of sexuality: Vol. 1. An introduction. Penguin. Foucault, M. (1991). The Foucault reader: an introduction to Foucault’s thought. Pantheon. Foucault, M. (1994). Power: Essential works of Foucault 1954-1984 (J. D. Faubion, Ed.). Penguin Books. Graham, S., & Aurigi, A. (1997). Virtual cities, social polarization, and crisis in urban public space. Journal of Urban Technology, 4(1), 19–52. doi:10.1080/10630739708724546 Gregory, D., Johnston, R., Pratt, G., Watts, M., & Whatmore, S. (2009). The dictionary of human geography. John Wiley & Sons. Habermas, J. (1989). The structural transformation of the public sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeois society. MIT press. Harvey, D. (1973). Social justice and the city. Johns Hopkins University Press. Harvey, D. (1985). The urbanization of capital: studies in the history and theory of capitalist urbanization. John Hopkins University Press. Harvey, D. (2000). Spaces of hope. Edinburgh University Press. Harvey, D. (2005). Spaces of neoliberalization: towards a theory of uneven geographical development (Vol. 8). Franz Steiner Verlag. Hillier, J. (1998). Representation, ıdentity, and the communicative shaping of place. In A. Light & J. M. Smith (Eds.), The Production of Public Space (pp. 207–232). Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. Hillier, J. (2002). Shadows of power: an allegory of prudence in land-use planning. Routledge. Hubbard, P. (2011). Manuel Castells. In P. Hubbard & R. Kitchin (Eds.), Key thinkers on space and place (pp. 98–105). Sage. Iveson, K. (1998). Putting the public back into public space. Urban Policy and Research, 16(1), 21–33. doi:10.1080/08111149808727745 Iveson, K. (2003). Justifying exclusion: The politics of publci space and the dispute over access to McIvers Ladies’ baths, Sydney. Gender, Place and Culture, 10(3), 215–228. doi:10.1080/0966369032000113993 Landry, C. (2006). The art of city making. Earthscan. Lefebvre, H. (1991). The production of space. Blackwell Publishing. Low, S. (2006). How private interests take over public space: zoning, taxes, and incorporation of gated communities. In S. Low & N. Smith (Eds.), The Politics of Public Space (pp. 81–103). Routledge. Low, S., & Smith, N. (2006). The politics of public space. Routledge. Lukes, S. (2005). Power: A radical view. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-0-230-80257-5

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Madanipour, A. (1997). Ambiguities of urban design. In M. Carmona & S. Tiesdell (Eds.), Urban Design Reader (pp. 12–23). Elsevier. Madanipour, A. (2003). Public and private spaces of the city. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203402856 Minton, A. (2006). The privatisation of public space: what kind of world are we building? RICS. Nemeth, J., & Schmidt, S. (2007). Toward a Methodology for Measuring the Security of Publicly Acessible Spaces. Journal of the American Planning Association, 73(3), 283–297. doi:10.1080/01944360708977978 Oc, T., & Tiesdell, S. (1999). The Fortress, the panoptic, the regulatory and the animated: Planning and urban design approaches to safer city centres. Landscape Research, 24(3), 265–286. doi:10.1080/01426399908706563 Perec, G. (1974). Species of spaces. In J. Sturrock (Ed.), Species of Spaces and Other Pieces (pp. 1–91). Penguin Books. Pine, B. J. II, & Gilmore, J. H. (1998). Welcome to the experience economy. Harvard Business Review, 76, 97–105. PMID:10181589 Poster, M., & Mourrain, J. (Eds.). (2002). Jean Baudrillard: Selected Writings (2nd ed.). Stanford University Press. Rancière, J. (2002). On the aesthetic revolution. New Left Review, 14, 133. Ritzer, G. (2010). Enchanting a disenchanted world: Continuity and change in the cathedrals of consumption. Pine Forge Press. doi:10.4135/9781483349572 Rubin, B. (1979). Aesthetic ideology and urban design. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 69(3), 339–361. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1979.tb01261.x Sanli, T., & Townshend, T. (2018). Hegemonic power relations in real practices of spatial planning: The case of Turkey. European Planning Studies, 26(6), 1242–1268. doi:10.1080/09654313.2018.1448755 Sennett, R. (1974). The fall of public man. Penguin Books. Shields, R. (1999). Lefebvre, love and struggle - spatial dialectics. Routledge. Smith, N. (1998). Antinomies of space and nature in Henri Lefabvre’s production of public space. In A. Light & J. M. Smith (Eds.), The Production of Space (pp. 49–70). Rowman and Littlefoeld Publishers. Smith, N. (2008). Uneven development: Nature, capital, and the production of space. University of Georgia Press. Soja, E. W. (1989). Postmodern geographies: the reassertion of space in critical social theory. Verso. Sorkin, M. (1992). See you in Disneyland. In M. Sorkin (Ed.), Variations on a Theme Park: The New American City and the End of Public Space. Hill and Wang. doi:10.2307/4091260 Sternberg, E. (2000). An integrative theory of urban design. In M. Carmona & S. Tiesdell (Eds.), Urban Design Reader (pp. 33–42). Architectural press, Elsevier. Tankut, G. (1993). Bir başkentin imarı: Ankara, 1929-1939. Altn Kitaplar.

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Tibbalds, F. (1992). “Places” matter most. In M. Carmona & S. Tiesdell (Eds.), Urban Design Reader (pp. 9–11). Elsevier. Toffler, A. (1971). Future shock. Pan Books. Trancik, R. (1986). What is lost space? In M. Carmona & S. Tiesdell (Eds.), Urban Design Reader (pp. 63–69). Architectural press, Elsevier. Van-Raaij, W. F. (1993). Postmodern consumption. Journal of Economic Psychology, 14(3), 541–563. doi:10.1016/0167-4870(93)90032-G Welsch, W. (1995). Aesthetics beyond aesthetics. In Proceedings of the XIIIth International Congress of Aesthetics, Lahti (Vol. 3, pp. 18–37). Academic Press. Welsch, W. (1997). Undoing aesthetics. Sage Publications Ltd. Zukin, S. (1991). Landscapes of power: from Detroit to Disney world. University of California Press. Zukin, S. (1995). The cultures of the cities. Blackwell.

ADDITIONAL READING Adler, H. (Ed.). (2002). Aesthetics and aisthesis: new perspectives and (re)discoveries. Peter Lang. Allen, C. (2019). Environmental Aesthetics. In n. Zalta (ed.) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2019 Edition), retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/environmental-aesthetics/ Amin,A.(2008).Collectivecultureandurbanpublicspace. City,12(1),5–24.doi:10.1080/13604810801933495 Castells, M. (1997). The power of ıdentity (the ınformation age: economy, society and culture, volume ıı). Blackwell. Flyvbjerg, B. (1998). Rationality and power: Democracy in practice. University of Chicago Press. Gehl, J. (2011). Life between buildings: using public space. Island Press. Graham, S. (2011). Cities under siege: The new military urbanism. Verso Books. Ittelson, W. H. (1978). Environmental perception and urban experience. Environment and Behavior, 10(2), 193–213. doi:10.1177/0013916578102004 Relph, E. (1976). On the identity of places. (M. Carmona & S. Tiesdell, Eds.), Urban Design Reader. Oxford. Architectural Press, Elsevier. Sanli, T., & Townshend, T., & Thompson, ian. (2015). An insight towards perceptions over contemporary public space: influencing connotations, culture and practices. International Conference on Changing Cities – II: Spatial, Design, Landscape and Socio & Economic Dimensions. Porto Heli, Greece.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Commodity Culture: Culture reformulated through materialization of products/values to be purchased and consumed as private meta. Education of Gaze: Although in pedagogy discipline the terms refers to the conscious and realization of the gaze’s link to a perspective, in this chapter the term used to refer to spatial perception with gradual visionary memory creation, habituating the transforming spatial setting, which when accumulated generates revised collective and individual connotations and refurbished symbolized meanings to that setting. Experience Economy: Promotion of services provided as value added experiences for customers. The aim is to generate memory of the experience therefore a commodity to be advertised. Glocal: The bounded relation between the global as the impacts and demands of globalization and local as the indigenous qualities and expectations. Publicness: Notion referring to publicity qualities that is inclusive to public – people at large. Spatialized Power: Power exerted in and through spatial configurations, in other words powwr using spatial language to speak. Supermodernity: The period of excesses of modernity (as Auge’s terms) and even postmodernity in an aggressive form contributing to further urbanization of capital to the expense of perishing anthropological place to non-places. Urban Public Space: Public spaces within urban space, supposedly promising to provide free access and representation for all.

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For discussions on different types of capital (except mainstream association of capital with economy) see Bourdieu, 1986, Coleman, 1990, Landry, 2006. As argued by Bourdieu, capital, as a concept that is accumulative and has the capacity to be reproduced and its sub-types resembles the social world by stepping out of the reality recognized merely by economic theory (1986) and “presents itself under three fundamental species (each with its own subtypes), namely, economic capital, cultural capital, and social capital” where the social capital is the sum of actual and virtual resources (Bourdieu, in Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992: p. 119). However, the types of capital is not limited to these three, as Landry (2006) remarked the notion of human capital representing the knowledge and the abilities of people; intellectual capital; creativity capital; leadership capital (motivation to lead and taking responsibility for the purpose) and environmental capital that represents the spatial and visual diversity, and each of these types of capital needs to be consulted by urban professionals. On the other hand, Coleman, schematises his perspective of social capital with a triangle, where the edges of the triangle refer to the human capital and the sides are the social capital as the connectors of the edges (Coleman, 1990: p. 305). Social relationships, bred from different kinds of “exchanges and unilateral transfers of control that actors engage in to achieve their interest”, as Coleman argues not only are the “component of social structures” but also are the “resources for the individuals” (Coleman, 1990: p. 300). For him the relations of authority; of trust and norms are different configurations of social capital. The ‘non-representation’ here refers to the uneasy conditional structure regardless of its traditional inclusive and representational connotations, the capacity of the relations of power over public space

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3



4



5



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management can generate intentionally non-representational spatial and social setting discouraging the conventional meaning. If needed. This shift can be explained by referring to the shift from modernism to postmodernism (also transition to current neo period) even to supermodernity. The effects of capitalist market demands, and globalisation reaching out to neoliberal city fuses these shifts which also effect urban space in every meaning, from political-economic to spatial and to social context. Carmona refers under-managed space as a critique focusing on neglected space (physically neglected spaces and also poorly maintained vacant spaces), Invaded space where is invaded by cars either in the traffic or in parking (invasion of pavements and streets and considering only movement rather than taking social aspects into account), exclusionary space where the tangible and intangible barriers are allowed to control the place as a result of fear of crime, segregated space where the aim of exclusion is operated in order to satisfy the expectation of affluent groups’ desire, and domestic, third and virtual space where people preferred to be in their privatized individual or domestic life. Similarly, for the over-managed space he puts the emphasis on privatized space where public spaces represented by private corporations or there is a transfer of the management of the public space from state to private actors. Consumption space where the only aim is to consume; invented space where the space is over-designed for the purpose of entertainment and scary space where the exclusionary policing, different methods for controlling space, in other words securitization, is operated as a consequence of fear of crime are also categorised as over-management of public spaces Here the author’s intention is not to neglect the importance of security measurements not to promote random and insecure places, the intention here is to highlight the aestheticized celebration of the securitization for public managed through design and officers and how our gazes appropriates such a scenery within the vision of designed public spaces, as these have been with us since the beginning of the time.

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Chapter 19

Aestheticization of Fear and Violence via Public Relations: A Study Case on 12th of September Military Coup in Turkey H. Burcu Önder Memiş İstanbul Arel University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Fear is a human emotion that allows a person to survive. It has a function to ensure the continuity of life. The definition of fear has changed over time. Along with human development, transition to sedentary life, the industrial revolution, and modern life, fear and the things feared have changed. Fear has started to be marketed, especially in post-industrial societies. The governments have seen that fear and violence work to regulate, control, and passivate people. Political governments have had the unique opportunity to use fear as a mechanism for control and surveillance. The governments have aestheticized the fear and presented it indirectly with the support of media. The masses have been shaped as weak, scared, anxious, and helpless in the shadow of fear and violence. This study tries to shed light on the attempt to persuade the society about the legitimacy of the military government by presenting fear and violence to people in aestheticized forms in the 1980s in Turkey.

INTRODUCTION Considering the existence of political powers from past to present, fear and violence are seen as important tools of power.While these two factors cause anxiety, fear, and panic in the societies, they also cause societies to embrace governments and authorities for a safer life. In this way, the powers both ensure their legitimacy and make it easier for the societies to obey themselves. When the definitions of the concepts of state, power and authority are evaluated it is seen how much they are intertwined with fear and violence. Political governments employ various mechanisms of fear to ensure their legitimacy. The state has the power and monopoly to use violence. Fear is such a strong feeling that it has the funcDOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch019

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 Aestheticization of Fear and Violence via Public Relations

tion for individuals to survive. Therefore, it is not possible for individuals to refrain from an element and maintain their lives unless they fear such element and perceive it as a threat. Politics is an area that provides legitimacy for the government by easily manipulate the individual’s desire to survive and feel safe, driven by his instincts. It is easier to obey, influence and direct societies that are afraid, worried or helpless. Thus, the rulers can also implement the policies they wish. For this reason, fear and violence are brought into the daily life of individuals in estheticized ways through the media. News, movies, various events are produced to emphasize a world full of fear and violence to individuals. Art is added to this and the images of fear and violence are exposed in estheticized ways. In this study, a case study (Özdemirci & Saruhan, 2013: pp. 333,334) was conducted in this context on how fear and violence are aestheticized through public relations in politics. This case study is limited to the military coup staged in Turkey on September 12, 1980. Therefore, it aims to draw attention to the political, social, and cultural developments and experiences in Turkey during the period of September 12, 1980. It tries to demonstrate the aspects of this period that are specific to Turkey under the title of this study. Therefore, the political, social, and cultural developments that occurred in other countries during coups may be different from those examined here. Archival research (Özdemirci & Saruhan, 2013: pp. 333,334) was conducted as part of this case study, and the statements of the witnesses of the period and main news stories were examined. September 12 is a process where an atmosphere of fear and violence was created, supported by aesthetic elements. Before the coup, public opinion was created that the army, one of the oppression elements of the state, should take over the administration and a leader should rule. For this purpose, the media and opinion leaders were used skillfully. In this process, street clashes and the number of people who died in these has increased rapidly in Turkey. Violence has become or has been made an important part of daily life. Tired of violence and with the increased fears in their daily lives, people started to want the military to take over and a militarist administration to rule. Thus, the society has psychologically been made ready for the coup through fear and violence. The media played an important role in this preparation process and acted almost as the spokesperson of the September 12. It formed the public relations leg of September 12. Making music which was defined with September 12 after the coup took place, forcing the song (Müşerref Akay-Türkiye’m) ordered by the coup administration to be listened in prisons, and the erection of Kenan Evren’s sculptures show how art was used as a tool of violence and fear in this period. Thus, the fear and violence of September 12 were reached in public spaces and prisons in estheticized ways. At the same time, this aesthetic horror and violence cycle has made the communication of September 12 in the social field. By giving the names of the coup generals to schools and streets, the violence and fear of the period were kept alive in public spaces. This study aims to examine the public relations process of the period by considering September 12 with these elements. In the first and second chapters, fear, violence, power, state, politics, elements of fear used by politics are discussed. In the third chapter, media, public relations and estheticized fear and violence are explained. In the fourth chapter, it is examined how the public relations of September 12 were carried out, what methods and techniques were used with art, fear and violence.

THE USE OF FEAR AND VIOLENCE BY POWER AND POLITICS Although fear is seen as a negative emotion, it is a feeling with functionality. The function of fear is that it helps an individual to survive; because in general, fear begins with the presence of a dangerous and threatening element. This threatening element enables a person to develop a reaction (fight or flight) to 370

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survive (Eren, 2005: pp. 23, 24). The fear is the instant state of focus that human mind creates with the emergence of an unidentified or unpredictable situation. Past experiences and events have an influence in shaping fears. However, today, even if people have not experienced much fear, they feel the existence of fear more than ever. Presence is now felt even more compared to generations that lived through wars, and experienced economic, social devastation and deprivations created as a result. Therefore, people are living in a culture of fear (Furedi, 2017: p. 8). Fear thus has a cultural and social feature (Eren, 2005: pp. 23, 24). Therefore, it also affects social life. Violence is harming a person’s body, attempting to end the right to life, harming a person’s possession, and creating destructiveness by acting against the laws. However, there are other forms of violence. Forcing people to do something they do not want, conveying feelings superficially, harming the spiritual integrity of a person, manipulating a person, not telling the truth are also included within the scope of violence (Michaud & Galtung, quoted in Özerkmen &Gölbaşı, 2010: p. 24). As stated, violence is a concept that exists and creates an impact not only physically but also psychologically. There is a strong connection between fear, violence, state, politics and power, and it is possible to explain these three elements in relation to each other. In reality, political power is not an egalitarian structure. Therefore, political power has to find a legitimate ground for itself in this unequal structure. Political power wants to impose its authority and administration on the society and get the consent of the society. Fear comes into play at this point and acts as a tool to ensure the legitimacy of political power. Fear is a good tool to control societies in the non-political sphere as well. Thus, institutions struggling with danger and threat elements gain power and authority as long as they protect societies from feared elements. Both power and fear fill important gaps in the political sphere. If power allows for gaps in society and in various areas of society, and if it fails to fill them, then its authority is shaken. This leads to the loss of power of the governments and they may be overthrown over time. For this reason, governments do not refrain from filling the gaps and these gaps are filled with a wide variety of fear, such as various threats, chaos, and confusion risks to strengthen the government. Therefore, fear inevitably exists where there is a government that seeks the ground of legitimacy (Mannoni, Aktay and Berle, quoted in Çetin, 201: pp. 27-30). As can be seen, fear emerges spontaneously in the relationship of power and legitimacy. According to Elias (2007), violence is the result of the centralization of the tax collection system with the monopolization of structures that apply violence. According to Tilly (2001), centralization of violence and capital is effective in the emergence of the state. States have both military power and mandate structures to ensure continuous and planned control over society. On the other hand, Elias (2007) interprets the monopoly of violence as a progress and development in terms of controlling the human mind, instincts and making the behavior civilized (Akkanat, 2011: pp. 33, 34). In Hobbes’ understanding, it is seen that people escaped fear and delegated authority to the government. The underlying reason for their surrender to authority is the disorder in social life and the fear of the dangers to be caused by violence. This fear is felt so strongly that people want the sovereignty of an authority and they will settle for the punishment that comes from it (Gambetti, 2009: p. 151). As can be seen, fear makes people feel helpless in the social life and in the political sphere. Thus, people who stagger under fear deeply need the existence of an authority and the order it brings. One of the most important features of political power is that it is not based on an egalitarian relationship. It is mostly based on a hierarchical relationship structure. The political power is superior and has the authority to influence and control the societies it governs. Political power holds the power of using force, physical force. In this sense, it has a monopoly. Along with these features, a political power is obliged to make itself accepted among the governed. So this points to its consent and obedience features. 371

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Those governed accept political power, consent to it, and obey it. However, the fact that political power has the ability to use force and demonstrate its power when necessary does not mean that it will always convince societies in this way. In society, individuals voluntarily obey the government and consent to it. Individuals’ voluntary obedience to political power is a matter to be discussed. Fear of punishment and feeling of helplessness are among the most important factors that lead individuals to voluntarily obey to the political power. Therefore, although political power is a combination of the concepts of power and consent, the feelings of anxiety, fear and helplessness that individuals feel psychologically appear as important motivations that lead them to obey power (Kapani, 1999: pp. 35, 48-50). There is a relationship between feeling fear and obedience. The government involves having authority. Similarly, authority also has some qualities. These are trust, jurisdiction, discipline and creating fear. Individuals expect to live an orderly life in the field of social life too. They expect this order to be provided by the authority itself. Therefore, the authority clearly shows its existence in public spaces with various structures and symbols. It is aware of what is expected of it and makes itself felt as an element that will always exist in the future. Statues, monuments, official buildings and churches appear as structures that the authority constantly reminds of in the public sphere (Sennett, 2011: pp. 28, 29). Individuals demand the existence of authority in anticipation of order. Creating fear appears as a feature that the authority makes its presence felt on individuals. Therefore, authority is a situation inherent in power and immanent in power as a concept that is desired, demanded and feared by societies. As the concepts of state, political power and authority are analyzed, it is seen that fear is common among these concepts.

FEAR TOOLS USED BY POLITICAL POWER The fear sources of political powers are religion and mythology, ideology, nation and people, education and science (Çetin, 2012: pp. 49-74): Religion and Mythology: Religion and mythology try to create obedience in individuals by attributing holiness to what they describe. In this sense, mythology describes the battle of good and evil, underlining that good will win in any case. It shapes the future by telling the past. It constantly reminds what mistakes should be avoided in the future through the heroes, what happened to them and the struggle of good and evil. Thus, it enables individuals to accept the issues by telling them in such a way that they cannot resist, while keeping the fear and hope and belief side by side and alive. Regarding religions, the biggest function of religions is to create enemies and others, and describe the relations with this other. In this way, it tries to ensure that the society acts in unity by defining the internal and external enemies. At the same time, anger is created against these enemies. Fear is kept alive by reminding them of their threats. It is noteworthy that feelings of fear and anger are side by side. Religions establish punishment and reward systems. They emphasize unity and solidarity in response to the fear of disintegration and destruction, thus enabling the frightened individuals to take refuge and obey the rulers who use these beliefs (Gager, Goff and Weber, quoted in Çetin, 2012: pp. 50-54). As stated, belief systems emerge as a very important and impressive element that connects societies to power. Ideology: Ideologies soften the power of political powers to exert pressure on people and make them more tolerable. Thus, they shape individuals according to ideology by bringing individuals to a certain mental attitude. The most basic point where ideologies and religions resemble each other is that ideologies create fear and require belief like religions. The outside world they portray is a world full of 372

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chaos and surrounded by enemies. They call on individuals from this world to their safe, hopeful, faithful world. Out of the ideology’s own understanding and belief, the world contains conflict, chaos and danger. Therefore, they punish this area. Thus, it promises to establish a security against fear and threat. In order for ideology to continue itself, it has to arouse fear in the societies where it exists, to constantly remind threat factors, to repeat the chaos hazards and the risk of extinction. However, they do all this in such a way that people do not see any pressure or coercion. Ideology often places these in the minds of individuals without showing them and thus ensures obedience to the power (Linz, Shils, and Aktay, quoted in Çetin, 2012: pp. 57-59). So how does ideology achieve this? At this point, it is necessary to look at his state and ideological devices within the scope of Althusser’s understanding of ideology. We need to clarify the concept of propaganda from that perspective, because ideology and propaganda go hand in hand and support each other. Firstly, it will be appropriate to examine the ideological devices of the state within the scope of Althusser’s ideology. Accordingly, the state has suppressive devices and ideological devices. Suppressing devices are government, police, army, judicial institutions that can use violence and force directly when necessary. The ideological devices of the state, on the other hand, are the institutions that strengthen the ruling class that holds power, reinforce its power, establish and spread its hegemony. These do not directly use force like the police and the army. They are areas and institutions that spread ideology much more differently and indirectly. They are churches, schools, mass media such as radio, television, newspaper. In addition, they are areas that are placed in the branches of art and confronted by individuals in the arms of art such as literature, fine arts. Individuals enter the present ideological system and surrender indirectly while receiving information about any issue from the mass media during the education process, at the time of worship. According to Althusser, the aim here is to ensure the continuity of existing capitalist relation structures, capitalist production relations (Vergin, 2011: pp. 93, 94). Propaganda, on the other hand, is the way those who have some interests, expectations influence and change the behavior, ideas and attitudes of others. In doing so, they apply various persuasion and suggestion methods by realizing their own interests. According to Lasswell, propaganda uses various symbols while doing this. It creates some narratives. It takes advantage of memorable elements such as stories, rumors, music, pictures, and photographs. The ideologies of Marxism, fascism, and ideologies of Hitler were given and spread through propaganda. Especially in the case of Hitler, the application of propaganda was the basis for the masses to accept his ideology (Bektaş, 2000: pp. 150, 155, 156). Therefore, it is possible to infuse a concept such as ideology that reinforces power through propaganda. While describing the propaganda, Domenach (1995: p. 55) states that the aforementioned methods of fear, creating enemy, and building of the other were already used. Thus, by creating narratives through these, it nourishes and propagates the ideology it serves (Özkan, 2009: pp. 37, 38). According to the conclusion drawn from all these explanations, propaganda functions as a tool that strengthens the ideology, which is one of the fear tools of political power, and enables the mechanisms of fear as it gets stronger. Nation and People: Nation and people are defined as having indivisible integrity. The threat of disruption of this integrity and the disappearance of the nation is constantly reminded. Sacredness is attributed to the concept of nation. The army protects the nation and the common building blocks of the nation are built through education. If there is no state, nation also disappears (Gellner, Balibar and Wallerstein, quoted in Çetin, 2012: pp. 60-61). Education and Science: Education is used for ideological purposes. In this context, education is one of the most important sources that power tries to consolidate its legitimacy by spreading the culture of fear. Through education, people are raised as individuals who are in line with the ideology that the 373

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government wants. Science, on the other hand, provokes the fears and risks with the data it gains through various researches (Bilici, Illich and Mannoni, quoted in Çetin, 2012: pp. 68, 69, 73). Furedi (2017: pp. 34-35) also states that scientific researches are used to continuously raise and remind fears, risks, and the results of these researches increase public anxiety and worry.

MEDIA, PUBLIC RELATIONS, ESTHETICIZED FEAR AND VIOLENCE The media has a great influence on the formation of a culture of fear. While the media presents the fear of risk factors, it creates various perceptions. These perceptions are effective in reinforcing the culture of fear and maintaining its continuity. The coverage of the news in the media, the width of the information provided by the media, how the media defines and presents the threatening elements, the descriptions used, the metaphors, the discourses it produces, the symbols it uses are important (Kasperson & Kasperson, quoted in Furedi, 2017: p. 91). Therefore, the media constantly pumps fear by using and repeating these elements. An issue about fear can be reported on television and in newspapers, mentioned on the radio and presented in the cinema at the same time. Thus, it is processed in a memorable way by different media organs at the same time. The culture of fear can be conveyed by the media in a fun way, by giving information. In addition, threats and risks are supported by including the opinions of experts. News, documentaries and TV series are the broadcasts in which fear is masterfully processed and placed in the minds of individuals (Yurdigül, 2014: pp. 95-96). Thus, the media creates fear in the society and nurtures the culture of fear with the elements of fear that it processes simultaneously through different channels. For example, one of the programs handled by the horror elements in Turkey “Müge Anlı ile Tatlı Sert” is a program called. This program is included in the top three programs that women liked most from the programs prepared for them in the research conducted by the Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK). However, the program sets out from the events that are the subject of the third pages of the newspapers and tries to solve the murders and find the missing people. Therefore, the program takes place in an environment of fear, anxiety and tension. A psychiatrist and lawyer are also included in the program. Thus, guests are questioned for hours under the control of experts (RTÜK, 2010: p. 13; Kaya, 2012: p. 192). Programs like this, which women say they love and watch, are pumping fear, tension. It also keeps savagery on the agenda. Just like in these kinds of women’s programs, one of the publications in which the fear in the media is strengthened is the main news bulletins. In the main news bulletins on television, the events that are the subject of the news are presented in a narrative structure that nourishes and strengthens the culture of fear. Including expert opinions, manipulating, exaggerating, normalizing, presenting examples, emulation, the use of special effects technologies, categorizing, reality, picture superiority, language and discourse, negation are included in the narrative structure used to feed the fear in television news. Thus, the news calls and announces violence, terrorism, diseases, natural disasters and other disasters. In a way, they serve as the public relations of fear and violence, which is carried out through the media with news (Yurdigül, 2014: pp. 120-121). By using these techniques, the culture of fear is strengthened through news. Individuals unwittingly take many perceptions of fear when they use the news for information. Thus, the techniques used in the news have an important role in presenting fear in the media. Receivers who listen to the news perceive the events from a certain level of reality. The reasons these situations are the comments of journalists, the language they use, the discourse and especially the words they 374

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choose. These comments, the chosen language, the words are constructed in accordance with a certain ideology. This situation is arranged in favor of political powers, certain interest groups. Thus, individuals, when receiving news, perceive the events not as they are, but at the request of the ruling or power circles (Yağlı, 2007: pp. 359-360). Curran (1989), emphasizes that cultural studies define media as a field of struggle where social consent is gained or lost. Within the framework of British Cultural Studies, the media is one of the mechanisms of power in society. Therefore, media is effective in creating social meaning. According to the Structuralist Marxist Approaches (Murdock,1980), the media creates appropriate ideological environments for the implementation of conservative policies. GUMG (1995), Burton (1995) and Hall (1973) state that the news are selected and arranged to serve the ideology of the dominant groups (Curran, Burton, Murdock, GUMG and Hall, quoted in Dursun, 2001: pp. 20,27,124). Therefore, some techniques are used in the news to produce meanings in favor of the ruling groups and to persuade the society. These techniques are: Determination of some narrative features in television news, selection of sentence structures and words, presenting images in a way that produces certain meanings, ideological calls in the news are one of these techniques (Dursun, 2001: p. 152). Therefore, the desired perceptions and effects are created by using these techniques in media presentation. Fear is one of these effects that are desired to be created. Especially the news is actually the construction of reality. They are presented as other representations of reality. Visuals used in the news, shooting techniques, technical possibilities, the journalist presenting the news and his/her point of view, the way he/she presents the news, the way he/she handles the event, beliefs in the society, the photos shown, the sentences and the description of the event, the broadcasting policy of the media organ affect the description of the reality of the event and its presentation. For example, in a news story about snatchers, the presentation of the news with terms such as “nightmare of women”, “snatching terror” combine the elements of violence, terror and fear. When presenting fearful and violent news, creating the news using these techniques affects the audience in terms of fear. The news shows the outside world in a fearful, terrorist, violent reality (Dursun and Yurdigül, quoted in Yurdigül, 2014: pp. 122-124). In order to explain the strengthening of fear by the media and public relations the movie of the Wag The Dog is a good example. The movie, Wag the Dog, starring Robert De Niro and Dustin Hoffman, begins with the outbreak of the president’s sexual harassment scandal shortly before the elections. The president’s election victory should not be put at risk. As a result, the scandal should be removed from the public agenda and people should forget it. Thus, a strong public relations campaign is initiated. However, the elements used in the campaign are quite interesting: war, violence and fear. The US suddenly goes into war with Albania. Suddenly, war images are shown in the prime news. A girl in rubble who escaped from the explosion and war with her cat in her lap, a US soldier who was taken captive and giving the message “Courage, Mom” on his sweater are shown on the screen. It is not a coincidence that these fearful images are featured on the prime-time news. Dustin Hoffman is hired for the job and professional films are prepared in Hollywood studios. The war images are served to the media by making subtle adjustments to the camera, camera angles, light, sound, flowing images and effects mentioned above. The media publishes these images through the news. Not only images are edited and presented in the news, but special events are also made up, one of which being the Harvest Festival. Due to the Harvest Festival, the US President is given a wheat bunch and then the President puts his coat on the shoulders of an old woman. Music as well as the songs composed are used during the scene. Perception management is perfectly maintained and concretized by hanging old shoes on trees. Thus, the agenda of sexual harassment scandal was forgotten by the public by making use of fear of war, images of war 375

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and violence. This movie comes to mind when public relations, fear and violence are brought together. Perception management of fear can be done in this way through public relations. Moreover, with the use of artistic instruments such as music and artists, a culture of fear and violence supported by public relations is successfully dominated in societies. Just like in this film, horror and violence are transferred to the political life and from there to daily life intertwined with art in aestheticized forms with elements such as songs composed and photographs taken skillfully. In addition, dictators were also interested in art. Adolf Hitler is an example worthy of study in view of the fearful dictators’ interest in art. The art and paintings of Adolf Hitler, who made his mark on the history and created one of humanity’s greatest processes of fear and violence, are interesting in terms of the dictatorship-art relationship (https://www.gzt.com/aktuel-kultur/hitlerin-ressamlik-donemindeyaptigi-35-tablo-2552734, Accessed on: 30.12.2019). Kenan Evren, the creator of the September 12 period, which is the subject of this study, was also interested in the art of painting and has paintings. The acquisition of his paintings by businessmen led to controversy (https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/ kultur-sanat/274291/evrenin-tablolarini-kimler-aldi.html, Accessed on: 15.01.2020). Art and artists play an important role in a leader’s or a political group’s access to power. While art is really an important element in understanding societies, interpreting their subconscious, interpreting the world and life, it can also serve the purposes of the governments. “If societies use art as a service tool to power in this sense, then art cannot go beyond a demonstration of aestheticism”. (Atam, 2016). In this context, art can perform an ingenious function in the creation of fear, violence in aesthetized forms and the power that is intertwined with them. Walter Benjamin expressed fascism as “aesthetized policy”. Indeed, when we look at fascist governments that have used violence and fear in history, it is seen that they attribute a special importance to aesthetics. They used this importance given to aesthetics in their propaganda. In fascist movements, aesthetics influenced from uniform designs to the design of the symbols of their cases and power. Thus, they used aesthetics as a tool to convey their messages more strongly. Hitler’s swastika and forms of greeting are examples of this. Fascist theatricality is also included in this situation. Effective rallies in Germany were organized with special sound arrangements. These rallies, in which theatricality and cinema elements were used intensely, were broadcast on the radio and shown in cinemas using mass media. The spaces were specially designed. The architectural design and construction of the spaces was also made to serve the purposes of fascist power. The idea of ​​Gesamtkunstwerk, which expresses the work of art in which Weimar period used theater, music, architecture and choreography together, was used in the meetings of Hitler period. Art was used in the Nazi movement to “bring many symbols and images to their cultural missions”. In addition to Hitler, Mussolini defined himself by saying “I am not a statesman, but rather a crazy poet” (Clark, 2017: p.p. 63-67). Therefore, mass media, art, propaganda, fear, violence, manipulation and public relations emerge as much correlated concepts. We need to touch on another concept recalled by these concepts. It is Bourdieu’s concept of symbolic violence. In this way, it will be seen that violence is not only a physical exercise, but it is observed in many different ways and practiced indirectly. Bourdieu creates the definition of symbolic violence based on Weber’s definition of state. According to Weber, the state is the authority that has the power to use legitimate physical violence on a land. At this point, Bourdieu focuses on legitimacy. Bourdieu states that legitimacy constitutes the symbolic side of violence because it means acceptance, affirmation and recognition. According to him, symbolic violence does not appear to be direct physical violence, but it constitutes a much different form of violence. His symbolic violence concept is related to habitus, space, and cultural capital and is produced in fields such as education and media. The ruling classes use 376

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symbolic violence to justify themselves. Symbolic violence also undertakes a political mission by creating a domination-obedience relationship (Bourdieu, quoted in Ölçer, 2019: pp. 34-49). In his symbolic violence explanation, Bourdieu (2014: pp. 50-52) states that those who are governed by domination look at matters from the viewpoint of those who rule (dominate). He emphasizes that this situation leads to the dominated people to devalue themselves. According to him, this type of violence is “soft and often invisible”. At this point, it is necessary to look at “consent, force and voluntary, calculated obedience”. Bourdieu (2014: pp. 53-54) explains that symbolic domination works with schemes of perception and understanding, symbolic power is a “magical power applied without physical force on body”. Public relations gives the messages it wants to give through various news by using the media. In this sense, it creates special newsworthy events that can be news in the press; makes managers or leaders give speeches; publish press releases; organize press conferences and interviews; and use visual elements such as films, photographs, pictures. It organizes various meetings and travels. It designs posters, brochures. In addition, it publishes special publications. (Peltekoğlu, 2014: pp. 219-255, 280-283, 330-361, 262274; Tortop, 2009: pp. 43-80). Public relations take an important place with perception management. It is determined how individuals will approach which topics, how they will comprehend them. Positive perceptions are tried to be created by the institutions (Özkan, 2009: pp. 101-105). Perceptions of those governed are managed by the perception management application. Thus, as Bourdieu puts it, symbolic violence, domination, power relations are constantly produced through media and public relations.

WHAT IS SEPTEMBER 12? September 12 coup was carried out on September 12, 1980 by military government seizing control of the government in Turkey. September 12 is a process of oppression. After the coup, “an oppressive Constitution” was prepared “to protect the state against citizens” (Belge, 1992: p. 10). September 12 aimed to create an obedient society to further strengthen the state and make it more dominant. Those who digressed from the dictate of the coup government, and hence the state, were destroyed both physically and spiritually. They were subjected to various kinds of torture in prisons, and those outside were made unable to express themselves, their identity and their thoughts. The press has become the media organ of the state. The media could not resist the practices of the coup administration. They could not make real news. Those who did were closed by the September 12 administration. The September 12 military intervention was staged to end the civil war, terrorism, and end all ideologies other than Kemalism. Turkish society did not oppose September 12 because it got tired of the conflict in the streets (Belge, 1992: pp. 9-19). As Belge (1992: p. 19) states, the society “put up with the coup”. According to Belge (1992: pp. 19-20), the society was already into a psychological state and attitude that could accept September 12. According to him, the reason for this acceptance was that the political expectations of the Turkish society were let down, and they lost their belief in politics. According to Kongar (1993: p. 17), the 1982 Constitution, which was made immediately after the September 12 coup, was one of the biggest obstacles to Turkish democracy. Because this constitution blocks the way of democracy with the provisions it introduced and the cultural climate it created. Kongar (1993) defines September 12 by introducing two approaches: The first is that September 12 was a period of complete change and accordingly, there were stages of “Response Formation”, “Seizure of Power”, “Practice”, “Institutionalization”. The second is, “It was one of the four stages of a ‘Change Period’ bigger than itself”. This means that September 12 corresponds to a “Seizure of Power”. 377

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As Belge (1992) and Kongar (1993) expressed, September 12 caused many obstacles between democracy and Turkey for many years as it was a military intervention. It has used and harmed Kemalism in the name of protecting it. It led to the withdrawal of the civilian political leadership in Turkey for a long time. This means that the people elected by the society could not continue their political life. It also means the elimination of the political choices of society and their responsibility to make these choices. Silencing different identities and thoughts in society means threatening and controlling society with fear and violence. Turkish society has suffered and paid for the damages of September 12 (prison tortures, oppression, ignoring and suppression of different groups, etc.) for many years. In the following chapters, the period of September 12, 1980 is explained in more detail. Thus, the question of what this period really is will find clearer answers.

LOOKING AT SEPTEMBER 12 FROM PUBLIC RELATIONS September 12 period is not just about September 12, 1980. This period is a process with media organs, propaganda activities, rhetoric, discourses, and ceremonial events. September 12 is also a social engineering initiated by creating consent. It is a social engineering deliberately undertaken in order to rebuild the society, redesign the minds of individuals, and place Turkey in the capitalist neo-liberal system in the world. This period was created by presenting the culture of fear, chaos, violence and/or existing events to society by using propaganda for pre-constructed purposes. The same methods and techniques continued after the coup. Threats to return to the environment of chaos and violence were made through propaganda. People were tried to be disciplined with a militaristic understanding. Studies in the field of political science, journalists’ books are full of expressions that extend from America’s statements of “our children did a good job” to the architect of the period, Evren and other politicians’ acceptance of the “Special Warfare Department” (Çetin, 2016: pp. 1 -132). In this context, Çetin’s (2016) study presents a wide range of literature including Belge (1983), Şahin (2014), Çaylak, Göktepe et al., (2009), Çavdar (2008), Birand (1985), İnan (1995), Akgün (2009), Tanör (2002), Özdemir (2015), Eroğul (2009), Akşin, Tanör and Boratav (2005), Bahçivan (2005), Dursun (2008), Tekerek (2012), Özçelik (2011), Tanör (1994), Akşin (2007), Tanör (1995), Oran (1990), Akman (2006), Sunay (2009), and Akçalı (2007). When the research presented by Çetin (2016: p. 105) in this comprehensive study and which he says he interprets in the light of these studies are examined separately, it will be seen that the authors point out the aforementioned statements about the period. In addition, Evren (1990)’s own memoirs, “Söylev ve Demeçleri” (Speeches and Statements) (1982), records of the period, archives, media archives, interviews, statements of the witnesses of the period give us this information in detail through the eyes of the people living in the period, as well as journalists and writers. Therefore, the literature carries extensive traces of the abovementioned statements of the period. When these studies are analyzed separately, an entire picture of public relations stands out. Within the framework of the picture we see in this study, it is aimed to approach and interpret the period from the public relations perspective on the communication-public relations level. Firstly, as set out above, the definition of September 12 was made. Thus, by answering the question of “what is September 12 in reality”, the answer or answers to the question of “what was September 12 in the communication-public relations level” will be sought in the next step. With her work titled The Shock Doctrine in 2007, Naomi Klein (2010) tells us military coups which conducted by developing an environment of fear, chaos and violence in various countries. When Klein (2010)’s study is examined, it is seen that there is another underlying reason behind what follows after 378

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fueling fear and violence. These activities are carried out by following a certain order. First, an environment of chaos, violence and fear is created. The reasons created for this environment can be from any category. The reason can be natural disaster, assassination, economic crises, epidemic disease, dangers in daily life, accidents, risks, deadly diseases, troubles, thefts, robberies, murders, child abuse, rapes. Political, socio-cultural-psychological-economic crises occurring in societies can also create an environment of violence and fear, especially with uncertain events and their accumulation. What the frightened people do in such situations is to take shelter in an authority, state-government-leader authority, and accept commands from it as protective and safe measures. Just as Hobbes (Gambetti, 2009: p. 151) stated, the people sacrifice themselves for greater security and consciously open themselves to the indoctrination from the state-government-leader. The aim is to survive in safety. In this cause, the instinct of the people to survive safely is skillfully used and manipulated. Along with this information, another reality expressed in the work of Klein (2010) draws attention to a completely different point, essentially the main purpose of all these activities. It is the realization of the free market economy and neo-liberal policies in that country after the functionalization of these scenarios full of fear, violence and chaos. This is the main goal of nurturing the culture of fear and causing violence. All kinds of military, economic and political interventions aimed at preventing fear and violence and bringing security become legitimate. It turns into a mass submission ritual that almost all of the public consents. Under this, of course, there is a deep obedience and authorization for the sake of security. These points are explained in detail in the fear tools section used by politics. The reason why it is repeated here is that these points coincide with what Klein suggested in her work called “The Shock Doctrine”. The September 12, 1980 coup took place in a similar environment.

September 12 Rhetoric and Promotion Activities of 1982 Constitution After the coup was carried out, Kenan Evren who staged the coup was very much interested in introducing the 1982 Constitution to the public. Evren started “The Program of Introducing the 1982 Constitution on behalf of the State” on October 24, 1982 using radio-television and ended it on November 5, 1982. He traveled to 11 cities as part of the program to introduce the new constitution. He held speeches there. He also benefited from the October 29 celebration activities for this purpose and delivered a speech at Hippodrome of Ankara on October 29. His speeches included the September 12 rhetoric. Evren’s speeches to introduce the 1982 Constitution included expressions such as “love of country and nation, loyalty to the state, loyalty to the Republic, turcophobes, traitors”. Again, as part of this speech, fear and panic were created by emphasizing that “the country is tried to be left unprotected, and the army is tried to be defeated”. Enemies were frequently identified through “brainwashed, sold, degenerates”. As can be seen from here, September 12 came within the framework of a certain rhetoric and propaganda. Propaganda was used extensively both in the promotional activities of the new constitution, and in all other speeches and statements regarding the press and the public. The expressions of “treacherous spirits”, “snitches”, “destructive, reactionary and divisive traitors”, “traitors”, “treacherous assassins”, “treacherous inside powers” were especially used to keep the social unrest awake (Çetin, 2016: pp. 52 -54). The definitions of some actors and cause-effect relationships of events were left uncertain, in order not to end this unrest, to keep them constantly alert and functional. As can be seen, fear, anxiety, unrest caused by uncertainty about what happened and what would happen before the coup was constantly kept active as a stimulus. In the propaganda period of 12 September 1980, the enemy creation rule of propaganda was used. Domenach (1995: p. 55; Özkan, 2009: p. 38) explains the “single enemy rule” in propaganda and explains 379

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how to create enemies/others in the creation and conviction of a case. In the discourse of September 12, “internal and external traitors” were shown against “patriotic people and the state protecting it”. There was an enemy structure, which was not defined precisely, intangible, not identified, acted against the state and the nation, which inflicted the mind of the innocent people. This structure acted as a single body inside and outside as an enemy, threatening the state and the army. Therefore, in the process of September 12, the public was first convinced of the presence of the enemy acting as a single body inside and outside. The question of who these internal and external traitors were was left unanswered. It doesn’t matter if there is an answer. The important thing is the threatening presence of the enemy, the unrest it creates and fear. Another noteworthy point in the promotion activities of Evren is the speeches he delivered according to the characteristics of the target audiences he addressed. Accordingly, the cities that he traveled to and the characteristics of these cities, the general tendencies of the people in these cities were the main elements that determined persuasive speech texts. He focused on nationalism, national values in Trabzon, religious elements in Erzurum, the issues of “legitimacy, integration, identity, representation, participation, distribution” in Diyarbakır, the threat of democracy in Ankara, the fight between brothers and benefits of the coup that stopped this fight in Istanbul. Evren’s persuasion efforts in this context went back and forth in the treachery-heroism pendulum. Crises, on the other hand, constitute the main ground supporting this pendulum. It is also noteworthy that the “brother fight”, which dominated the September 12 rhetoric, was frequently used in the constitutional speeches as an element of fear and perception of risk. On November 5th, 1982, the promotional activities for the constitution were completed with the question “Do we want to go back before September 12?” reminding of the chaos, tension, fear and environment before September 12. He described the period before September 12 as “fear of death, insecurity, sorrow, grief, despair.” Thus, he tried to make people envision the pre-September 12 as fearful as possible. Therefore, he especially emphasized the “fear of death” (Çetin, 2016: pp. 54-61). Fight between brothers, fear of death, sorrow, grief, despair are intense anxious feelings. In the mind of the society, the picture before September 12 was created with descriptions based on these emotions. It is not a coincidence that the expression of “brother fight”, “fratricide” or “enemy brothers” as Dindar (2014: p. 74) states, constitutes an important part of the language of September 12. According to Dindar (2014: pp. 74-77), psychologically and psychoanalytically, “In order for the father to come and intervene with full authority, the brothers’ mistakes must be highly accumulated”. Therefore, Dindar (2014: pp. 74-77) reminds the question “Why the brother killings that stopped on September 12 were not stopped on September 11?” and gives the answer: As the “brother fight” got stronger, it became easier for the “father” to be built as a “chief” and his authority to intervene increased. Thus, the intervention of the “father” (leader, authority) became legitimate. Therefore, the September 12 communication process also has deep aspects in terms of social psychology. Some metaphors, images, imaginations, dreams, symbols are not created in vain. “Traitors”, “brother fight” calling for the discipline of the father, hit somewhere in the spiritual world of the whole society (such as family, holiness, paternity and violence). In his study Darbeci 12 Eylül Ruhu Ya da Halkın Yüce Milletle İmtihanı (Pro-Coup September 12 Spirit or the People’s Test of the Supreme Nationality) (2014), Dindar explains what the discourse of the September 12 rhetoric points in the social memory and the spirit world of the society. Then, it is understood that, as Dindar (2014) states, nothing built with language is not a coincidence, and the language of September 12 skillfully provided the spiritual persuasion of the society. This language was imposed on the public by using it in the press.

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Molding Public Opinion Through Press Relations, Using Journalists and Opinion Leaders George Orwell describes in “1984” how society is formed by media. Thus, the media plays a major role in advancing the goals of political power (Orwell, 2014: pp. 62, 63). In this context, September 12 period is a period that received a lot of support from the press and completed all its goals through the press. The fact that the coup was announced on the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) and the coup statement was read on TRT created a symbolic situation. Therefore, the Turkish Armed Forces seized the press along with the government of the whole country. From now on, the press would be the spokesperson of September 12. Following the coup on September 12, 1980, the reaction of the Turkish press was as follows with newspaper headlines: Hürriyet: “Follow in Atatürk’s Footsteps”, Tercüman: “Ordu Had No Other Choice”, Milliyet: “Everyone Should Help the New Government”, Cumhuriyet: “Main Target is Kemalism: Success of September 12 is Essential for Democracy” (Çetin, 2016: p. 35). It is seen that the press was used to legitimize the coup in the eyes of the public and to persuade the public once again. We can interpret the use of the press in the process of September 12 as pre-coup and post-coup. Before September 12, the press was used to prepare social psychology for the coup. To this end, it nurtured fear in society. Later, the press continued its broadcasting with the establishment of the new system, the design of the new society and support for Evren. It is seen that Turkish newspapers with highest circulation strengthened the fear by continuously publishing news about the chaos and violence in the country before the coup. In these news, the number of casualties was repeated and terrorist actions were mentioned. Inability of the current political power to prevent the environment of violence with political will was emphasized. Thus, it was pointed out by the press that the political will could not exercise its powers properly, could not provide authority and discipline and could not protect its citizens. For example, the following news were published: “25 People Died in Anarchic Incidents” in Milliyet on 27 August 1980, “1361 people died in Demirel’s power of 170 days” in Cumhuriyet on 12 May 1980, “Pilot Provinces were selected for Terrorist Action” in Hürriyet on 9 September 1980. The number of dead people given in these news articles increased the fear and terror in the society. For example, 2 September 1980 dated Milliyet anarchy report said 1606 people died in 8 months from January to September (Katurman, 2007, https://m.bianet.org/bianet/toplum/93099-12-eylul-askeri-darbesi-ve-basin, Accessed on: 21.01.2020; http://bianet.org/bianet/print/93099-12-eylul-askeri-darbesi-ve-basin, Accessed on: 20.01.2020). The press thus served as an important element shaping the process, convincing the public, forming the public relations leg of the intervention, promoting the new system, and forming its relations, both before and after September 12. Kenan Evren talks about the support articles of the press in his memories. Especially a journalist’s article “Talk, my General! Your nation will love you…” (Dindar, 2014: p. 103) is an indication that the press of the period served as the public relations part of the September 12 process. Oktay Ekşi said, “Turkey has come under the rule of a repair government. This government has an attitude that will satisfy those who adhere to the libertarian democratic system and Ataturk’s principles.” (http://bianet.org/bianet/print/93099-12-eylul-askeri-darbesi-ve-basin, Accessed on: 20.01.2020). Güneri Civaoğlu wrote on September 17, 1980: “Meanwhile, one fact that no one should doubt is that: Violence organizations will be strictly cracked down. The presentation of warning signposts in the coming days should not surprise anyone. Executions which will satisfy the public conscience quickly... The sword of justice will prevail to prevent new violent crimes at a deterrent speed. This is expected.” (https://m.bianet. 381

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org/bianet/toplum/132623-31-yil-onceki-koselerden-80-darbesi, Accessed on: 20.01.2020). Especially the expressions of “presentation of warning signposts”, “executions which will satisfy the public conscience”, “sword of justice” are interesting in terms of presenting the promotional texts of September 12. Evren frequently visited journalists and media organs. For example, he visited the Journalists Association of Ankara on 18 December 1980. In the visit, expressing his discomfort upon the question of Europe about when Turkey will return to political life and a civilian government; he replied that only himself could know the answer to such question and that a statement will be made about the subject. In the process of September 12, which was mad widespread especially with the support of the press, 650 thousand people were detained, 1 million 680 thousand people were blacklisted, 210 thousand lawsuits were filed, 230 thousand people were tried, 7 thousand people were charged with death penalty, 517 people got the supreme punishment 50 people were executed, 14 thousand people were denaturalized. 300 people died in suspicious and uncertain ways, 171 people died due to torture. 95 people were killed in the conflicts. 43 people committed suicide (Dindar, 2014: pp. 102, 172, 173). An article series published by Hürriyet on September 10 draws attention as it shows how the press carried out the public relations of the coup before September 12. This article series was titled “Leader” and wrote exactly how a leader should be in times of disorder. According to the newspaper, leaders should have nerves of steel. Many articles, such as this article series, formed the public opinion of September 12. After September 12, Evren used TRT to introduce the 1982 Constitution and held introductory speeches in many newspapers. He described those who did not accept the new constitution as traitors. “Those who are impervious to admonition should be rebuked; The recalcitrant remaining impervious to rebuke deserves to be beaten. Young people may not know, this couplet is very popular. So advise first, then alert and finally beat. We first try to get the job done with advice,” sentences he said in Adana show the threat of the persuasive speeches of the 1982 Constitution within the scope of the promotional activities. The country’s 1982 Constitution was adopted by 91.37% of the votes, with Kenan Evren’s trips to the country, speech texts prepared for persuasion, his statements to the press, and efforts of the media to create public opinion in favor of September 12 before and after the coup (Katurman, 2007, https://m.bianet.org/bianet/ toplum/93099-12-eylul-askeri-darbesi-ve-basin, Accessed on: 21.02.2020).

Sacrificial Ceremonies/Rituals Another point that Kenan Evren frequently emphasized in his memoirs is that animals were sacrificed during Evren’s nationwide tour (Evren, 1991: p. 301; Dindar, 2014: p. 94). It is the people who sacrifice the animals, and obviously after a while the sacrificial ceremonies have become traditional in places visited by Evren. Such a ritual or action by the public serves the purpose of the government. It is not known who organized these sacrificial ceremonies at that time. It could be organized either with the direction of the government, or by the people who support the coup, voluntarily. In any case, the recurring sacrificial ritual is noteworthy. Psychologically, sacrifice is a ritual that connects and strengthens the bond between the members of the community who sacrifice an animal (Freud, quoted in Dindar, 2014: pp. 95, 96). Therefore, the public’s sacrifice during the trips of Evren is a reference to this connection. While it confirms Evren, his leadership and authority, it is also an indication that many things can be sacrificed voluntarily for this purpose. Ceremonies with themes of death, sacrifice, sacrificial on the trips where Evren communicated face to face with the citizens were the events that perfectly nurtured the death and fearful spirit of September 12. 382

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Activities in public relations have a special aspect. Special events and ceremonies that include action have an intense effect, which strengthens the bond with the target audience, creates images, creates effective environments in the delivery of messages to the public, and creates the ground for partnership between the source and the target audience. It provides messages to be more memorable and believable because there is action in it (Gültekin, 2006: p. 7). Therefore, whether it was organized by Evren government in the process of September 12 or regular activities that were organized voluntarily by the people, the rituals of sacrifice had a communicative meaning in the period of September 12. This meaning was something that supported the spirit of September 12, nurtured and expanded the atmosphere of fear, violence and death of September 12.

Carnivalesque Violence of September 12 and Public Relations in the Context of Torture of Art Art has been used for various purposes in history with its various branches. These purposes also include the governments showing their power combined with violence. The governments have exhibited their strength using art. For example, while music is good for mental health and is a branch of art that feeds people from various aspects, anthem music was also used to scare the enemy, to inform the beginning of wars and attacks. Therefore, music was also used as a means of violence for intimidation. For this reason, art has included functions as a means of violence and fear that has been aesthetized from the past to the present and these functions have been used by the governments (Ötgün, 2008: p. 91). September 12 is a process when art was used as a tool of fear and torture. Both the paintings of Kenan Evren which reached a wide audience, especially capitalists, in the nineties, and torture in prisons through music, and the statues of Evren erected were the proofs of this situation. The purchased paintings made by Evren show that the traumatic effects created by Evren somehow continued to be kept alive and reminded in the society, and this is another form of violence, as Bourdieu mentioned. Sacrificial ceremonies, which were held outside in the process of September 12 and became a demonstration of obedience to Evren through death, continued in other forms in prisons. Society continued to make sacrifices for this purpose. Torture was carried out in prisons. These types of torture have continued by explaining the violence and pain caused by torture in social life. The forms of torture in prisons have transformed the September 12 process into a “carnivalesque violence environment” as stated by Dindar. Meals which were served with blood in them, tortures made by prisoners who were forced with marches, and torture forms to destroy the bodies show how the mentality of September 12 was obsessed with violence, death and destructiveness. (Dindar, 2014, p.p. 150-154). Besides the tortures aimed at physical suffering and destruction of the body in the prisons, it is worth noting that Evren turned towards the body by painting nudes in his later periods. “Paintings of Evren glorifying the body, while he is the symbol of violence to the body,” constitutes a point worth discussing on psychological level and the dictator-violence-art level (Dindar, 2014: p. 33). One thing is certain that this case which emerged in the context of the dictator-violence-art relationship, forms part of carnivalesque violence. Art was used in the tortures and management of the process in the September 12 period. Loud marches and songs were played in prisons. One of these songs is Müşerref Akay’s “Türkiyem” which left its mark on the period. (Ünker, 2019, https://www.dw.com/tr/12-eylül-şarkılarla-işkence/a-50385544, Accessed on: 21.01.2020). Composer and singer of the song, Akay, said that “Türkiyem” which was identified with the September 12 coup was ordered by 7 generals of the coup. Barış Manço was first considered by the generals to prepare a coup song. However, the generals decided that the song should be composed 383

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by “a young woman with a decent life” and they decided on Akay. Akay was called to Ankara and she completed the song request by the coup generals in a week. (https://www.evrensel.net/haber/182249/ muserref-akay-turkiyem-sarkisini-pasalar-yazdirdi, Accessed on: 21.01.2020). This song was played to prisoners during torture in prisons (https://www.sabah.com.tr/gundem/2010/03/26/iskencecisini_3500_liraya_esir_aldi, Accessed on: 21.01.2020). Thus, art became a torture tool of the September 12 period and violence was applied to individuals in aesthetized way. While many artists and their works were banned on September 12, many artists were in fact supporters of September 12. Supporters such as press, journalists and opinion leaders, functioned to form a public opinion in favor of September 12. Popular artists like Bülent Ersoy, Zerrin Özer, Sezen Aksu and Ferdi Tayfur stated that they welcomed the military coup of September 12, 1980 and made statements to “Hey”, the tabloid newspaper supplement of Milliyet daily. Zerrin Özer: “I was expecting that; I am very glad. I was very upset to listen to TV every day. I hope this will bring good luck to our people. I am very happy as a member of the society”; Bülent Ersoy: “I am very pleased; the tension has been escalating lately. I would like to thank all the military officers, especially the valuable commander Enver Pasha”; Sezen Aksu: “I think the Turkish Armed Forces took control of the government by making a rightful and timely decision. I wish this will bring good luck to our people.” (Aslangül, 2014, https://t24.com.tr/ haber/sanatcilarin-siyasetle-imtihani-1980-darbesine-kim-ne-demisti,264981, Accessed on: 21.01.2020). In the context of violence-fear, September 12 period brought an unprecedented carnival. The reasons for this carnival are the trips of Evren in the process of September 12, promotion activities of the new constitution and system, the fear, threats, violent discourses that dominate his speeches, the September 12 rhetoric created by these discourses, and the atmosphere of unrest, anxiety, fear and panic that it spread to the public (Dindar, 2014: p. 152). After 1989, Evren took up painting. His paintings were bought by the capitalists of the period at high prices. His paintings were bought by Sakıp Sabancı at the auction held in Kenan Evren High School in 1991 for 50 million liras and by Koç Group in 1992 for 110 million liras. (Keskin, 2015, https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/kultur-sanat/274291/evrenin-tablolarini-kimleraldi.html, Accessed on: 21.01.2020). Another example of keeping fear and violence alive through art during and after September 12 is the statue of Evren erected in public spaces. The statue of Evren was erected in his hometown, Manisa. In later periods, the statue became a matter of debate. (https://www. hurriyet.com.tr/ege/kenan-evrenin-heykeli-alasehiri-ikiye-boldu-23753333, Accessed on: 27.01.2020). While September 12 was widely supported in its own period, it was discussed and criticized much later, and the trial of Evren came to the agenda. The discussion about the statue is one of them. The torture through the use of art, the creation and symbolization of the September 12 music, especially the artists’ supporting the process point to two things. First, fear and violence were conveyed in aesthetic ways in this period, as well as being directly created. Second, aesthetized fear and violence created a very strong structure that supported the communication and public relations leg of September 12.

Public Relations of September 12 Through Keeping Fear and Violence Alive in Public Spaces The streets, boulevards, and streets bearing the name of the coup are indicators of the September 12 carnivales violence. Fear and violence were not limited to the process created by the September 12 period. This fear, violence and pain have been kept alive in public spaces for many years. In Turkey, 38 streets, squares, neighborhoods and schools were named after the coup plotters Kenan Evren, Tahsin Şahinkaya, Nejat Tümer, Nurettin Ersin, and Sedat Celasun. According to 2012 data, there are 44 streets, avenues, 384

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boulevards, and 17 schools named after Kenan Evren across Turkey. There is a street and an avenue named after Nurettin Ersin and three streets, one named after Nejat Tümer, one named after Tahsin Şahinkaya and one named after Sedat Celasun. There are also schools named Ersin, Şahinkaya and Celasun (https:// www.star.com.tr/politika/darbecilerin-adi-38-cadde-ve-18-okulda-yasatiliyor-haber-695063/, Accessed on: 23.01.2020). It is noteworthy that the names of those who carried out the coup were given to public places. Thus, fear and violence are reminded at every moment of social life. This point is reminiscent of Bourdieu’s symbolic domination and symbolic violence statements.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The confusions that occurs in various places is not a coincidence. Events developing in the political field follow each other. It is noticed that these events complement each other when attention is paid. The media supports events to follow and complement each other. The developments reflected piece by piece through the media are actually an expression of a completeness of purpose. Creating aesthetics by fear and violence helps achieve political goals. Therefore, military coups in various countries should be examined in this direction. Public relations and the conduct of press studies should be investigated to obtain public approval before the coups. Aestheticizing fear and violence through art forms part of public relations work. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to what is presented to the society by aestheticizing in daily life. These can be part of propaganda strategies developed to achieve political goals. It is necessary to increase the education level of the society and the level of media literacy to notice this kind of situations.

FUTURE RESEARCH AND DIRECTIONS In Turkey, the coup of September 12, 1980 and the developments afterward are worth examining in many ways. The mass media prepared the public for the coup. Especially television and radio broadcasts were used. Before the coup, public opinion was formed by the mass media. After the coup, promotional activities were carried out for the new constitution. Opinion leaders and journalists took part in these activities. The coup was kept alive in public spaces by naming streets and schools after September 12. Furthermore, the public was constantly reminded of the coup in public spaces. In this context, military coups in other countries can be examined from these aspects. The news stories covered by the mass media, what the mass media presented to the public, and how different branches of art served this process before the coups in other countries can be examined. Studies can focus on the public relations techniques and tools used to present these coups to the public and make people accept them in the countries where they were staged. Furthermore, the social and psychological characteristics of countries and societies are worth examining in this context. These characteristics can be examined by asking questions such as “What are the attitudes of societies?” and “How did the media affect and change their opinions before and after the coup?” In addition, it can be examined how art was used during such coups and how it affected countries and societies. For example, studies may focus on how violence and fear spread through the media in the countries where military coups were staged; how these elements were aestheticized and glorified through art, and how public opinion was

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formed by presenting them to the public through public relations techniques. Studies may focus on the similarities and differences revealed.

CONCLUSION September 12 is a process that can be discussed in terms of communication-public relations as well as politics. Media’s important role in the preparation of the society for September 12 coup is clear. In this period, press and the opinion leaders made publications in order to create a public perception and attitude and to change the public opinion in favor of September 12. We can see that a desire for the coup was created in the society when we look at the news and articles in the newspapers. September 12 was first introduced to the public. In this process, propagandas indicated that violence and fear would end and life would be sustained in a safer environment in the event that the army seized power. It is seen that a special rhetoric was created for September 12 in the propaganda process. In this sense, Kenan Evren made statements based on the rule of creating enemies such as traitors, internal and external enemies. Thus, he showed the definition of the coup and its reasons through these enemies. It is noteworthy that fear and violence escalated before September 12. The society was afraid of conflicts while continuing their daily life. This led individuals to seek security and order. Indeed, as Hobbes said, the public empowered, obeyed, and consented to the new militarist government and coup to live in safety. As a proof, the September 12 Constitution was adopted with a rate of 90%. After the coup, people were constantly frightened by the threat of “returning to the atmosphere of chaos and violence before September 12”. Thus, while the society was impressed with confidence, it was stated that the chaos would come back if they did not obey the new government. The obedience of the society to the new government was achieved based on fear and violence. All these were not done directly. In other words, voluntary obedience and consent of the society was acquired indirectly without direct physical force. While there was a clear and direct violence in prisons, individuals were often faced with symbolic domination elements in areas outside the prisons as expressed by Bourdieu. Moreover, these were supported by various art branches. For example, Müşerref Akay’s song “Türkiyem” turned into a form of torture. Even today, this song is referred to as the symbol of September 12. Statues of Kenan Evren mean that September 12 fear and violence will be kept alive in public spaces through art. Even though the statue of Evren is viewed negatively in his hometown today, it was kept alive in the public arena as a symbolic expression of September 12 fear and violence. Thus, while those in prisons were subjected to direct violence, individuals outside the prisons were exposed to the symbolic domination and violence of the new government through art, in aesthetic ways. This also includes the fact that the names of military officers who staged the coup were used in public spaces, avenues, streets, educational institutions. The violence and fear transmitted through art were kept alive in the public spaces through language as well. This justifies Bourdieu in all respects. Face-to-face communication, which has an important place in public relations, was frequently used by Evren in the promotional activities of the September 12 Constitution. During this period, Evren also frequently made statements to the press while traveling the country. Thus, September 12 became violence and fear itself. Another remarkable aspect of the period of September 12, 1980 was the great support of the media for the coup. The period of September 12, 1980 is worth examining in terms of issues such as creating a culture of fear through news stories with the support of the media and presenting violence to the public with aestheticized images. These news stories increased the levels of fear among the public. The reason 386

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for the fear instilled through the media during this period was to make the public want to turn to the coup for protection. Thus, the fearful society relied on coup leaders. They dreamt of a safer life. Perhaps the fear instilled led to its own violence. Isn’t instilling fear a form of violence, anyway? However, fearful masses may resort to violence to protect themselves. At this point, it is not important whether the objects or events feared are real or not. When people perceive something as a threat and fear it, they will definitely respond to this feeling, even if the threat is fictional. In response to this feeling, they will try to protect themselves. Based on the fact that life continues where there is trust, they will do their best to find this trust. They will adopt the same approach in politics as well. On the other hand, our daily lives, which we believe to be safe, may not actually be safe. In fact, it may even be more dangerous and frightening than an environment where there are real threats. Did all the concerning factors disappear after the coup of September 12, 1980? Were people’s lives really safer? The culture of fear and violence always wants more. More security, more obedience, and more order are the never-ending demands of the culture of fear and violence. This culture creates an obsession with security. With this obsession, individuals obey political authorities and other disciplinary bodies more. They become attached to them unconditionally. After the coup of September 12, 1980, the Turkish people surrendered to the mentality and system created by this coup with all the institutions. It was the media that led them to surrender. While it instilled fear through the news stories it covered on TV, in newspapers, and on the radio; acts of violence and terrorism provoked in public spaces took over the minds of people. The next phase was to ensure that this trauma is not forgotten by society. The coup was staged once. However, it reminded people of itself for years. Violence was blessed and aestheticized. When naming avenues, streets, and buildings after this period, it was aimed to keep it alive in public spaces for years. It is painful that art was used as a manipulation tool in this period. While art is banned and censored as a means of expression of free thought, it turns into something else at the hands of governments. When history is examined from this perspective, the way dictators use art and their interest in it becomes remarkable. It also explains why dictators attach such great importance to art. The ability of art to fascinate the human soul was used by authoritarian governments. Authoritarian governments’ practice of conveying their messages through branches of art undoubtedly left much deeper marks on societies. It traumatized societies more because violence, fear, cruelty, and pain were aestheticized through art. Therefore, the messages that governments wanted to convey were imprinted on the minds of people through much more effective methods. The practice of torturing people in prisons when playing the song of a famous artist in Turkey in the period of September 12, 1980 is an example of how the coup leaders of the period aestheticized violence through these methods and presented it to the public through public relations. Perhaps, we should ask ourselves the following questions frequently to prevent the media from numbing our minds and keep our eyes open for manipulations: What do we actually see, watch, or listen to? What is the truth behind the things we believe or feel? Are they real? Or could the reality be completely different? What would we do, think, or enjoy if there were no media or governments? We should ask ourselves these questions over and over again when we look at a work of art, sing a song, or examine a statue or an architectural structure on the street. It is because we may surrender to something that we would never want to surrender to and that could harm us while manipulations placed skillfully in the lyrics of a song and the gaze of a statue take over our minds. It is a painful situation. We can notice the aestheticized forms of violence and fear and stay away from them only when we keep our eyes open. This will affect many of our choices, including our political choices, and make a great difference.

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Glasgow University Media Group (GUMG). (1995). News content, language and visual. Routledge. Goff, L., J., (2008). Avrupa’nın doğuşu [The Birth of Europe]. Literatür Yayınları. Gültekin, B. (2006). Halkla ilişkilerde etkinlik yoluyla imaj oluşturulması. Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Gurr, T. R. (1973). The revolution-social change nexus: Some old theories and new hypothesis. Comparative Politics, 5(3), 359–392. doi:10.2307/421270 Hall, S. (1973). The determinations of news photographs. In The Manufacture of News (pp. 177-189). Sage Publications. Illich, I., (1988). Şenlikli toplum [Tools for Conviviality]. Ayrıntı Yayınları. İnan, K. (1995). Siyasetin içinden. Milliyet Yayınları. Kapani, M. (1999). Politika bilimine giriş. Bilgi Yayınevi. Kasperson, E. R., & Kasperson, X. J. (1996). The social amplification and attenuation of risk. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 545(1), 95–105. doi:10.1177/0002716296545001010 Katurman, E. (2007). 12 eylül askeri darbesi ve basın. Retrieved 21.01.2020, from https://m.bianet.org/ bianet/toplum/93099-12-eylul-askeri-darbesi-ve-basin Kaya, Ş., Ş. (2012). Sahibinden satılık korkular: Kadının korkutulan özne olarak inşasında medyanın rolü. Gaziantep Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 11(1), 191–211. Keskin, M. (2015). Evren’in tablolarını kimler aldı? Retrieved 21.01.2020, from https://www.cumhuriyet. com.tr/haber/kultur-sanat/274291/evrenin-tablolarini-kimler-aldi.html Klein, N., (2010). Şok doktrini [The Shock Doctrine]. Agora Kitaplığı. Kongar, E. (1993). 12 eylül kültürü. Remzi Kitabevi. Lasswell, D. H. (1937). Propaganda. In Encyclopedia of The Social Sciences. New York: MacMillan. Lasswell, H., & Kaplan, A. (1950). Power and society. New Haven. Yale University Press - Yale Law School Studies. Linz, J., J., (1984). Totoliter ve otoriter rejimler [Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes]. Siyasal İlimler Türk Derneği. Mannoni, P. (1990). Korku. Yeni Yüzyıl Kitaplığı Yayınları. Matelski, J., M., (2000). Tv haberciliğinde etik [TV News Ethics]. Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Michaud, Y. (1991). Şiddet. İletişim. Murdock, G. (1980). Class, power and the press: problems of conceptualization and evidence. In H. Christon (Ed.), The Sociology of Journalism and The Press (pp. 37-67). J.H. Bookers (printers) Ltd. Ölçer, H. (2019). Pierre bourdieu sosyolojisinde simgesel şiddet sorunsalı ve biçimleri. Uluslararası Toplum ve Kültür Çalışmaları Dergisi, 2, 34–49.

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Oran, B. (1990). Kenan Evren’in yazılmamış anıları: son defter. Bilgi Yayınevi. Orwell, G., (2014). 1984. Can Yayınları. Ötgün, C. (2008). Sanatın şiddeti ve sınırları. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 1(1), 90–103. Özçelik, K. P. (2011). 12 eylül’ü anlamak. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 66(1), 73–93. doi:10.1501/ SBFder_0000002195 Özdemir, H. (2015). 1980 ve sonrası. Retrieved 14.02.2020, from https://www.tarihtarih. com/?Syf=26&Syz=354795&/1980-ve-Sonras%C4%B1-/-Prof.-Dr.-Hikmet-%C3%96zdemirÖzdemirci, A. & Saruhan, C., Ş. (2013). Bilim, felsefe ve metodoloji. Beta Basım Yayım Dağıtım. Özerkmen, N., & Gölbaşi, H. (2010). Toplumsal bir olgu olarak şiddet. Sosyal Bilimler Araştırma Dergisi, 15, 23–37. Özkan, A. (2009). Halkla ilişkiler yönetimi. İstanbul Ticaret Odası Yayınları Sosyal Yayınlar. Peltekoğlu, F. (2014). Halkla ilişkiler nedir? Beta Basım Yayım Dağıtım A.Ş. Poyraz, B. (2002). Haber ve haber programlarında ideoloji ve gerçeklik. Ütopya. Radyo Televizyon Üst Kurulu (RTÜK). (2010). Kadınların televizyon izleme eğlimleri araştırması 2. kamuoyu. Yayın Araştırmaları ve Ölçme Daire Başkanlığı. Şahin, İ. (2014). 12 mart’tan 12 eylül’e 68 kuşağı öğrenci hareketleri [Unpublished master dissertation]. Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey. Sennett, R. (2011). Otorite. Ayrıntı Yayınları. Shils, E. (1968). The concept and function of ideology. In D. L. Sills (Ed.), International encyclopedia of social sciences (Vol. 7, pp. 66–76). The Macmillan Company and The Free Press. Sunay, C. (2009). 12 eylül dönemi türk siyasetinde sivil asker ilişkileri: 1980-1987 [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Marmara University, İstanbul, Turkey. Tanör, B. (1994). İki anayasa. Beta Yayınları. Tanör, B. (1995). Siyasal tarih: 1980-1995. In S. Akşin (Ed.), Türkiye tarihi: 5. Cem Yayınevi. Tanör, B. (2002). 12 eylül rejimi: 1980-1983. In S. Akşin (Ed.), Türkiye Tarihi: 5. Cem Yayınevi. Tekerek, M. (2012). 12 eylül askeri müdahalesi ve ekonomi politikaları [Unpublished master dissertation]. Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey. Tilly, C. (2001). Zor, sermaye ve avrupa devletlerinin oluşumu [Coercion, Capital, and European States]. İmge Yayınları. Tortop, N. (2009). Halkla ilişkilere giriş. Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Ünker, P. (2019). 12 eylül: şarkılarla işkence, Retrieved 21.01.2020, from https://www.dw.com/tr/12eylül-şarkılarla-işkence/a-50385544

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Vergin, N. (2011). Siyasetin sosyolojisi kavramlar, tanımlar, yaklaşımlar. Doğan Kitap. Weber, M., (1993). Sosyoloji yazıları [Sociological writings]. Hürriyet Vakfı Yayınları. Yağlı, S. (2007). Haber ve ideoloji ilişkisi: Haber metinlerinde gerçekliğin sunumu. Yeni Düşünceler, 2, 355–366. Yalom, I. (2001). Varoluşçu psikoterapi [Existential Psychotherapy]. Kabalcı Yayınevi. Yurdigül, A. (2014). Televizyon ana haber bültenlerinde korku kültürünün inşası [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. İstanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey. Yurdigül, Y. (2002). Türkiye’de televizyon haberciliğinde sıradışı kimliğin sunumu: travesti konulu haberler [Unpublished master dissertation]. İstanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey. Yurdigül, Y. (2007). Avrupa Birliği’ne Uyum Sürecinde Ulusal Kimlik Olgusu ve Ulusal Kimliğin Televizyon Haberlerinde Sunumu [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. İstanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey. Yurdigül, Y. (2011). Kurgusal gerçeklik bağlamında haber ve gerçeklik ilişkisi. Atatürk İletişim Dergisi, 1, 13–25.

ADDITIONAL READING Chomsky, N. (1995). Necessary illusions: Thought control in democratic societies. House of Anansi. Çölaşan, E. (1984). 24 Ocak Bir dönemin perde arkası. Milliyet Publication. Devran, Y. (2010). Haber söylem ideoloji. Hiperlink. Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (2010). Manufacturing consent: The political economy of the mass media. Random House.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Constitution of 1982: It refers to the legal basis formed to legitimize the coup by carrying out public relations/promotional activities through the national visits of General Kenan Evren, leader of the coup, after the coup staged on September 12, 1980. It was approved by 90% of the people as a result of the press and public relations activities of Kenan Evren. Military Coup: It is the military’s seizure of political power. It is the military’s action to seize control of the government elected by civil will. It is staged in authoritarian political structures that do not exist in democratic governments and where democracy does not exist. Process/Period of September 12: It refers to the military coup staged in Turkey on September 12, 1980 and the process/period covering the developments before and after the coup in Turkey.

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September 12 (1980): It is the name and date of the coup that made its mark on Turkish politics and affected Turkey for years in the political, economic, and socio-cultural sense. September 12 Mentality: It refers to the system that the coup of September 12, 1980 built and the structure it aimed to create in Turkey. It is still used by Turkish politicians to refer to the oppressive, anti-democratic, and militarist mindset and political attitude.

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State, Masculinity, and the Aestheticization of Violence: An Alternative Reading of Behzat Ç Erol Subasi Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Turkey Selda Tunc Subasi Independent Researcher, Turkey

ABSTRACT Violence is a fundamental bio-sociological phenomenon. It can take many forms including psychological, emotional, economic, gender-based, religious, cultural, and political. The latter is primarily associated with the state. Historically, all states exercised violence in accordance with their law. Thus, law is the codification of violence. State and violence are also associated with masculinity, which is not fixed biological but rather a flexible sociological category. Masculinity is concretized in specific patterns of behaviors. In this perspective, the present study analyzes the famous Turkish TV Series, Behzat Ç: An Ankara Detective Story. It argues that since the Turkish law system could not function of its violence due to the struggles of various socio-political actors within the state, the protagonist, Behzat, aestheticizes and mimics state violence through his masculine performances. That is, state violence is materialized in the masculinity of Behzat who by resorting to violence brings the justice that the state fails to provide.

INTRODUCTION Violence is a fundamental bio-sociological phenomenon, that Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines as “the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy”. However, it can take many forms including, psychological, emotional, economic, gender-based, religious, cultural and political. The latter is primarily associated with the state. Historically, the state-formation was closely related to the capacity to exercise political violence through wars as Tilly’s (1975: p. 42) famous formulation: “war made the state, and the state made war” suggested. This can be complemented by Neocleous’s (2000) argument DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch020

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 State, Masculinity, and the Aestheticization of Violence

that state’s capacity for juridical violence in the form of police power was crucial in the fabricating the social order. There is thus a powerful link between juridical violence and the law enforcement system. Even in its modern, Weberian sense, (2004) the state as a political institution is characterized by its monopoly of legitimate violence. As Poulantzas, (1978: p. 77) argues contrary to liberal misconceptions, law and state violence have never been on opposite sides nor excluded each other. Rather, law should be understood as the “codification of violence”. Hence, one of the fundamental characteristics of a state is its ability to enforce the law and exercise violence. A state that cannot perpetrate violence cannot enforce laws and vice versa. Violence is mostly associated with masculinity (see Robert W. Connell, 2000) while the state has been a patriarchal institution from the start. “The state, for instance, is a masculine institution” (Connell, 2005: p. 73). Yet, this masculinity is not an intrinsic feature: “the state is not inherently patriarchal, but is historically constructed as patriarchal in a political process whose outcome is open” (Connell, 1987: p. 129). Since the state is not a monolithic institution, various parts have specific masculinized relations. For instance, the military and police tend to specialize in displaying “physical aggression” (Connell, 1987: pp. 127–128). Furthermore, “The state both institutionalizes hegemonic masculinity and expends great energy in controlling it.” (Connell, 1987: p. 128). The concept of hegemonic masculinity refers to the multiplicity of practices of masculinities. It suggests that, in a given historico-social context, it “was understood as the pattern of practice (i.e., things done, not just a set of role expectations or an identity) that allowed men’s dominance over women to continue” (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005: p. 832). Hence, hegemonic masculinity is materialized in specific masculine performances. Drawing on this perspective, the present study analyzes the state, masculinity and the aestheticization of violence in the popular Turkish television series Behzat Ç: An Ankara Detective Story [Behzat Ç: Bir Ankara Polisiyesi], (Henceforth Behzat Ç refers to the series and Behzat to the specific character). This is a Turkish police, crime, drama series that aired on Star TV from September 19, 2010 to May 17, 2013. It then aired for one more season on an on-demand streaming service, Blu TV, during 2019. The series received many positive reviews, being praised as depicting real life situations, as well as criticism for misrepresenting the Turkish police, encouraging violence, alcohol, profanity, extramarital affairs, which some considered harmful to “Turkish family values” (for a detailed description of the delegitimization of Behzat Ç, see İşisağ, 2015). The series therefore triggered an intense political debate between secular and left-leaning segments of society and mainly right-wing political actors on whether it should continue. Turkey’s Radio and Television Supreme Council [RTUK in Turkish] fined Star TV because of Behzat Ç violating Article 8 Subparagraph h of Law No.6112 on the Establishment of Radio and Television Enterprises and their Media Services that programs “ shall not encourage the use of addictive substances such as alcohol, tobacco products and narcotics or the gambling” and Article 8 Paragraph 2: “In radio and television broadcasting services, program that may impair the physical, mental or moral development of minors and young people shall not be broadcast during at times when they are likely to watch and without the presence of a warning symbol”. This fine led viewers to support the series with the hashtag #behzatcmedokunma [donttouchmybehzatc], a form of “hashtag activism” while fans watched four episodes for four weeks in Ankara’s Yüksel Street. Even the Mayor of Çankaya, an important district of Ankara, participated in the activism. Thus, the series left an important mark as a popular cultural product and became a cult classic of Turkish television.

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A growing body of literature has emerged on Behzat Ç, ranging from books, articles, and theses to newspaper articles. This literature includes a diverse set of theoretical and analytical perspectives that vary according to their practical aims. Many studies analyze Behzat Ç through the concepts of hero, anti-hero, or the hero’s journey (Gedik, 2016; Medin, 2016; Atay, 2019), masculinity or the crisis of masculinity (Akkaya, 2018; Temelkuran, 2011; Erdemir, 2011; Köseoğlu, 2019; Yücel, 2012), or the city and city culture (Sevinç, 2012; Tuncer, 2017). Others focus on how audiences receive it (Şeker & Çavuş, 2011), its effects on the viewer (Özsoy, 2011; Çelik, 2013), it is as a quality drama (Yörük, 2012), social media’s role in broadcasting policies and Behzat Ç as an example (Aydın, 2013), as an adaptation of literary work (Tanrıvermiş, 2019), or popular cultural product, and the interpretation of its characters, narrative, story and political relevance (Tekelioğlu, 2011, 2012; Atay, 2011, 2013). The present study distances itself from its predecessors by its theoretical orientation and its way of reading. To do this, all episodes were watched, including those of fourth season. The analysis uses a method that provides a socio-political instead of psychoanalytical or semiological reading of Behzat Ç. This method draws on a Poulantzasian approach to state, law, and violence, and a gender perspective of masculinity studies. By combining these two approaches, the study reveals the aestheticization of male violence as a substitute for state violence. The main argument is that the protagonist, Behzat, aestheticizes and mimics state violence through his masculine performances (beating suspects during interrogations, swearing, drinking to excess, fiddling with prayer beads, wearing a black leather jacket, having long hair and stubble, visiting bars and night clubs, and following football matches and animal documentaries). That is, state violence is materialized in the masculinity of Behzat who by resorting to violence brings the justice that the state fails to provide. The paper is divided into three sections. The first discusses the relationship between state, violence, and law within a Poulantzasian approach. The second section provides an overview of the concept of masculinity and its performances. The final section offers a new reading on Behzat Ç’s aestheticized masculine performances of violence before linking it to state violence and law.

State, Law, and Violence: A Poulantzasian Approach Compared to pre-capitalist periods, the role of the law has changed dramatically in terms of physical violence. The common view that the capitalist laws of the capitalist state have ended the arbitrariness of the sovereign and the exercise of violence is a misconception. Poulantzas argues that supposedly limitary functions of law were only established after the capitalist state was fully institutionalized. Even so, the dichotomy between law and terror, established by early bourgeois intellectuals, is deceptive because they are not mutually exclusive. Every form of state in history, from Sumerian city states, Assyrians, Greeks, and Romans through the Middle Ages to and including modern states, have had forms of law that did not prevent them from exercising violence. To give a relatively recent example, the 1936 Constitution of Stalin’s Russia was probably the most democratic of that period. Yet the state violence was at a peak. Therefore, the simple argument that law is the opposite of violence must be rejected. Niccolo Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Karl Marx, and even Max Weber should be credited for refuting this misleading dichotomy. Rather than being the opposite pole to violence, law is a form of violence. More precisely, law is formalized, abstracted, universalized, verbalized and coded violence. In modern times, it is even harder to separate violence from the law, because, as Weber (2004: p. 33) famously noted, it is characterized by the “monopoly of legitimate physical violence” to which Poulantzas (1978: pp. 76–77) adds the “monopoly of war”. 396

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Every state operationalizes law to systematize violence within the social space. It issues constitutions and codes, imposes prohibitions, and institutionalizes law enforcement. Moreover, it shapes its circumstances, defines its patterns and establishes its institutional forms. That is, “law is the code of organized public violence [emphasis in the original]” (Poulantzas, 1978: p. 77), which means that its role in organizing physical violence is crucial. Analyzers of power who underestimate the role of law exclude violence as an analytical category. Foucault is a good example here of ignoring the role of law and violence in favor of “disciplinary mechanisms” and unconscious internationalizations. Although, Foucault rightly rejects the legality-terror dichotomy, he mistakenly replaces overt physical violence with “less” physically violent but more cunning techniques of power. His main argument (Foucault, 1995) is that the techniques of power have altered through history. Until the eighteenth century, for instance, criminals were publicly tortured and killed whereas, from the eighteenth century onwards, punishing became covert by subjecting criminals a “great confinement”. Instead of the body, power was exercised over souls and minds. New techniques of power and disciplinary mechanisms were operationalized in more strategic and subtle ways, which gradually reduced the severity of physical violence. Here, however, Foucault not only fails to appreciate the role played by law and violence in exercising power, but also disregards the state’s role in organizing repression. This is especially so through the state’s apparatus of repression, such as the “army, police and judicial system”, which Foucault treats as mere appendages of disciplinary dispositions (Poulantzas, 1978: p. 77). Poulantzas stresses that this line of argument, according to which modern power is no longer rooted in physical violence but in “ideological-symbolic manipulation”, is not limited to Foucault. Early liberal-bourgeois intellectuals also argued that law was the counterpart of and limiting factor on physical violence. Frankfurt School thinkers argued that the family itself had become an authoritarian police power. Bourdieu claimed that “symbolic violence” had become the determining factor in exercising power, such that the state’s exercise of physical violence gradually became rare. Poulantzas discusses two criticisms of this position. First, it clearly ignores the state’s capacity for deadly physical violence. Second, it offers a “zero-sum” conception of the consent-repression couplet by considering each as a quantifiable object. Consequently, any decrease in one necessarily signifies an increase in the other. However, this is problematic because these categories are neither quantifiable objects nor substances, so there is no inverse correlation between them. Weber made a valuable contribution to social theory by identifying the state’s role as monopolizer of physical violence. In its capitalist form, the state has a privileged “rational-legal” legitimacy regarding violence, such that its monopolization of violence the juridification of life have developed hand in hand. The theatrical decrease in physical violence by the state directly results from its monopolization of the mechanisms of violence. The European capitalist state was established though pacifying various feudal forces and acquiring the privilege to centralize all armed forces. Nevertheless, Europe has also provided examples of extremely violent and exceptional capitalist state forms, such as fascism, Nazism, and military dictatorship, along with the most violent wars that humanity has ever experienced: the First and Second World Wars. Hence, violence should not be underestimated as a characteristic of power. Rather than disappearing, it still plays a decisive role in forming power relations. Even when it is not implemented on a daily basis, constitutionalized and monopolized violence has a seminal influence on power relations. To understand the function of violence, it thus is necessary to abandon the Machiavellian analogy of the Centaur. Consent and violence are neither opposites nor mutually substitutable. Moreover, violence is not a reserve force to be exercised when the state fails to gain consent. Rather:

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State-monopolized physical violence permanently underlies the techniques of power and mechanisms of consent: it is inscribed in the web of disciplinary and ideological devices; and even when not directly exercised, it shapes the materiality of the social body upon which domination is brought to bear (Poulantzas, 1978: p. 81). Violence and consent are simultaneously operational. Even the condition of consent is violence itself. Therefore, one can argue that there can be no consent without violence because “violence underpins all forms of political power” (Jessop, 1985: p. 121). For instance, the very existence of the working class is not based on a “free contractual” relationship (i.e. consensual), but, on constitutionalized violence. All mechanisms of consent, from prison to school or; from parliament to the right to vote, assume physically organized violence. More significantly, this is not a diachronic causal relationship; rather the national army, modern schools and parliament were formed synchronically. Violence therefore retains a determining role in exercising power. There is no zero-sum relationship between violence and consent. It is not that the degree of violence is diminished when the level of consent is raised. Instead, violence is materially inscribed within the state’s apparatuses. Law is not just about organized violence or repression; it is also directly related to fabricating consent. It concretizes the dominant ideology, links state apparatuses together, and conceals socio-political inequalities by creating an illusion of legal equality. It also generates legitimacy by providing both obligations and rights for the dominated classes. Furthermore, the state’s capability of maneuver goes well beyond the limits shaped by the juridico-legal system. Capitalist state should not be seen as an innocent Rechtstaat (Jessop, 1985: p. 121). First, there are administrative-institutional gaps and grey areas where law mostly fails to penetrate. Second, the state mostly acts against its own legal rules. This is frequently legitimized by “the higher interests of the state” (Raison d’Etat) so that legality is always covered with illegality and vice versa. Because every legal system has its own illegalities, legality does not exclude illegality. Even John Locke (1982: pp. 99–100), liberal intellectual, defined prerogative as a “normal” and “exceptional” moment in the exercise of state power: “This power to act according to discretion, for the public good, without the prescription of the law, and sometimes even against it, is that which is called prerogative.” (For a detailed account of relationship between prerogative and the discourse of normality and emergency see Neocleous, 2008). Capitalist law differs from its predecessors having “abstract, general, formal and strictly regulated norms” (Poulantzas, 1978: p. 86). These characteristics led some Marxists to develop a highly abstractformal theory of capitalist law, specifically the Soviet Marxist legal theorist Evgeny Pashukanis’s General Theory of Law and Marxism, Della Volpe’s Rousseau and Marx, and Lefebvre’s On State. This line of argument suggests that capitalist law is the expression of commodity-exchange between formally juridico-legal subjects. Poulantzas, however, criticizes this position. He argues that capitalist law gains its form from the isolation and unifying effects rooted in the social division of labor and the relations of production. This said, abstraction, universality, and formalism also result of the capitalist extraction of surplus labor. During pre-capitalist periods, surplus value was extracted by repression (by the “extraeconomic” factor) from the direct producers whereas today it relies on a “free” contractual relationship between capitalist and worker. Capitalist law posits an axiomatic framework where direct producers are “free” from the means of production, open violence is rare and the formal separation of economics (relations of production) and politics (the state).

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Capitalist law also concretizes a sui generis space-time matrix that is “serial, cumulative, continuous” (Poulantzas, 1978: p. 86). Taylorism and Fordism are perhaps the two best examples of the capitalist social organization of work and life. This is also applied to the social body; law individualizes the social body as equal citizens while uniting them as a people-nation. Consequently, law, not only masks class differences but supports their creation before making them invisible within a homogenous whole. Whereas feudal law, was based on heterogeneity, status differences, and “juridical particularity”, capitalist law divides people into distinct juridico-political subjects while simultaneously homogenizing them. Another key characteristic of capitalist law is its function of giving sovereignty a secular character. Legitimacy from divine authority replaced by abstracted, and mostly self-referential rules. As in feudal times, law functions to cement the various layers of social formation under the domination of ruling class but in a secular rather than religious form (Jessop, 1985: p. 121). Poulantzas argues that religion was the dominant ideological form, in pre-capitalist formations whereas “juridical” ideology has become the dominant form in capitalist formations. This is because “extra-economic factors” no longer play a meaningful role in extracting surplus value (Poulantzas, 1978: pp. 86–88). Capitalist law also has the vital function of providing “operational unity”. As an abstract form of rules, law frames the exercise of power by state apparatuses and organizes the conditions of admission to these apparatuses. It also constitutes the horizons of actions for various fractions of capital within the power bloc. It is so flexible that it helps to absorb political crises before they can create state crises. Law guarantees a certain degree of relative autonomy for various fractions of the power-bloc to secure their unity under the hegemony of a class and/or class fraction. Capitalist law also considers the “unstable equilibria of compromise” forced by the dominated classes and their historical gains. Thus, the limiting power of the law comes from this class-relevant factor and the changing balance of class forces can underline this function of law with exceptional capitalist state forms such as fascism, military dictatorship and Bonapartism.

Masculinity and its Performances It is commonplace to highlight that feminism does not have a distinct theory of the state. Liberal feminists tend to be loyal to the liberal view that the state is neutral, above all social determinations, a referee between various social groups, and open equally, at least in theory, to different groups. Existing inequalities between male and female citizens can be overcome by social reforms, mostly through the state, such as for the right to vote. In contrast, socialist feminists tend to see the state as the culmination of the capitalist-patriarchal exploitation while radical feminists usually view it as a direct reflection of patriarchal power, mostly as an “instrument” of male domination. They believe that the state has an inherently male perspective. As Catharine Mackinnon (1989: pp. 161–162) explains: The state is male in the feminist sense: the law sees and treats women the way men see and treat women. The liberal state coercively and authoritatively constitutes the social order in the interest of men as a gender- through its legitimating norms, forms, relations to society, and substantive policies. Even though these insights have merit, this should not eventually lead to a point where the state is considered as essentially male or that every state substantively represents a form of patriarchal domination because that would entail a certain kind of “gender-essentialism” (Jessop, 2007: p. 70). Instead, it is acknowledged here that there is a “contingent articulation between patriarchal and capitalist forms of 399

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domination crystallized in the state.” (Jessop, 1990: p. 14). Moreover, states, including capitalist state, have “gender selectivities”, which means that gender relations are structurally inscribed within the state’s institutional architecture. This state apparatus is not equally open to all gendered identities. While some genders are privileged, others seem to be marginalized to say the least. As Connel (1987: p. 126) famously notes “the state arms men and disarms women”. Thus, it is crucial to focus on how gender relations take various forms within the state apparatus in different historical periods. However, all this said, the study does not deal with particular forms of feminist state theory nor the gender relations underpinning state power. Rather, it focuses on specific gender performances -masculine in this case- as a field where state power concretizes. Thus, study suggests that an analogy between state and male violence can be established. This is not a substantive suggestion; it does not argue that the state is male, nor state violence is derived from male violence and vice versa. Rather, it argues that a link can be established between state power and masculine performances to analyze the symbolic interactions between them. From the 1960s and 1970s, masculinity has been predominantly understood through sex-role theory which offers a sociological account of women, sex, and gender. Sex-role theory which is based on the sociological distinct roles played by males and females, argues that biological features play a primary role in defining social functions. It accepts that there are natural, given, and stable differences between male and female members of a society which determine the available sex role that ultimately define masculinity and femininity. After dominating the sociological arena during 1960s and 1970s, sex role theory could not escape criticism, primarily that it was biologically reductive. A key criticism of sex-role theory is that it considers sex-roles as natural rather than derived from unequal power relations between male and female identities. Male and female behaviors are viewed as resulting from sex-roles, rather than domination and subordination (Schrock & Schwalbe, 2009: p. 278). Thus, masculinity is not a static pattern within a structure of gender relations (Connell, 2000: p. 23). The central argument is that masculinity as patriarchy is characterized by gendered hierarchies, social division, and inequality (Haywood & Mac an Ghaill, 2003: p. 8). For example, many professions are divided by gender: while being a nurse is almost always associated with femaleness, the majority of doctors are male. Connell (2000) notes that, in many countries, soldiers are men, and that, even if a country enrolls women, almost all the commanders are men. Besides, men have dominated other areas requiring physical force, such as the police, and public and private security. In short, to a large extent, women have largely consented subordinant positions within the patriarchal structure (Connell, 1987, p. 70). Furthermore, there is no single form of masculinity but rather masculinities. These vary according to historical, sociological, political, and cultural contexts. Nevertheless, a single form called “hegemonic masculinity” may become prominent through complex social process. The following section concentrates on the concept of hegemonic masculinity and some examples of masculine performances.

Hegemonic Masculinity According to Connell (2005, p. 77) “hegemonic masculinity can be defined as the configuration of gender practice which embodies the currently accepted answer to the problem of the legitimacy of patriarchy, which guarantees (or is taken to guarantee) the dominant position of men and the subordination of women.” The concept of “hegemony”, which originated from Antonio Gramsci’s (1971) analysis of class relations, refers to the cultural dynamics whereby one class or class fraction claims and maintains leadership in social life by gaining the consent of subordinate classes. To be hegemonic, the ruling class must have the ability to define morality, impose a definition of the situation, and determine which is400

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sues get discussed. Hegemony involves persuading a majority of the population, via the state’s and civil societies’ institutions, to organize social life in ways that appear “natural”, “ordinary”, and “normal”. The state plays a vital role in organizing hegemony through a combination of coercion and consent (Donaldson, 1993, p. 645). Hegemony creates consent through institutions, but without implying pure power or guaranteeing domination; instead it emphasizes a balance of power and an ongoing struggle to maintain it. If the historical background and social tendencies change, the hegemonic framework can be questioned and challenged. Hegemony thus implies possible modifications and changes in forms of masculinity (Hammarén & Johansson, 2014, p. 3). Until the late 1980s, political sociology and gender politics conceptualized male superiority as the dominance of men over women. Connell and Messerschmidt (2005) highlight the hegemonic and normative aspect of masculinity; they consider subordination of women as a process that involves ideologically legitimizing factors. Although it inevitably includes a certain level of violence, it predominantly refers to consent (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005, p. 832). Thus, hegemonic masculinity is a male superiority that is mostly achieved through culture, corporations, and persuasion. Accordingly, hegemonic masculinity always results from contentious and perpetual struggle (Connell, 2005, p. 76; Kimmel & Aronson, 2004, p. 508). Hegemonic masculinity involves culturized, aestheticized forms of violence. Hence, movie characters and fantasy figures may also perform hegemonic masculinity (Connell, 2005, p. 77). To give some examples, as an analogy of war, sport helps to renew patriarchal values and reinforce hegemonic styles of masculinity. The sport metaphor represents male solidarity constituted by a specific use of language, aggression, war tactics, game plans, heroism, and violence (Haywood & Mac an Ghaill, 2003, p. 95). This means that violence does not have to be direct but can appear in different forms in the cultural environment. Hegemony signifies cultural dominance over different identities. Connell (2005, p. 78) remarks that “the most important case in European/American society is the dominance of heterosexual men and the subordination of homosexual men”. That is, gay identities are culturally stigmatized while gay men are subordinant to straight men. To a certain degree, then, hegemonic masculinity is homophobic and repressive towards women, who are mostly treated as sex objects and a verification code for heterosexuality. Hegemonic masculinity also represents a culturally idealized form of work, money and breadwinning. Although not all men perform hegemonic masculinity, almost all benefit from a masculine image that is “exclusive, anxiety-provoking, hierarchically differentiated, brutal, and violent” (Donaldson, 1993, p. 646). Hegemonic masculinity is materialized in masculine performances.

MALE HOMOSOCIALITY AND MALE BONDING Masculine identity is mainly constructed in opposition to femininity and homosexuality. Homosociality refers to “seeking, enjoyment, and/or preference for the company of the same sex” (Lipman-Blumen, 1976: p. 16). Male homosociality is used to explain how men, in their friendships and collaborations with other men, sustain and preserve the gender order and patriarchy (Hammarén & Johansson, 2014: p. 1). This includes getting together, playing football, drinking beer, or having a barbecue. These masculine acts construct an identity of an exclusive gender group (Schrock & Schwalbe, 2009: p. 286). For example, football might be a socially acceptable activity for male-to-male interaction (Kimmel & Aronson, 2004: p. 310; Schrock & Schwalbe, 2009: p. 289). 401

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The term male bonding describes “a distinct psychological and social attachment based on the parties’ shared maleness” (Kimmel & Aronson, 2004: p. 488). It can take many forms including friendship, colleagueship or camaraderie. Yet, it can also be situational, as two male not knowing each other can display this form of specific connectedness. Nevertheless it mostly occurs during male-dominated activities such as war, hunting, sport, barbecue, poker, motor sports and so on. It feeds male solidarity among men and functions as masculine affirmation. It also helps to build a barrier against certain forms of masculinities, femininity and homosexuality by creating a series of norms and patterns of behavior describing what it takes to be a “real man”.

SOME MASCULINE PERFORMANCES Sport Since sport involves competition, it makes male roles explicit. Masculinity in sport is also an entry point into an institutional framework. A boy not only learns a sport but also discovers the competitive and hierarchical structure of its institutional setting (Connell, 2005: p. 35). For instance, in the United States of America (USA) with its widespread competitive culture, sport both nourishes and contributes into creating new forms of competitive individualism. More generally, American football, rugby, and cricket demand competitive sportsmen (Whannel, 2002: p. 69). According to Connell, (2005: p. 35), rugby has an essentialist notion of masculinity which creates a homogeneous male sphere. Sport generally refers to male bodies in action and competition. There are running, throwing, jumping or hitting movements in sports performances (Connell, 2005: p. 54). Another convergence between sport and masculinity is violence because many sports glorify male aggressiveness and physical violence (MacKinnon, 2003: p. 10). Violence in sport has a gender framework; which extends beyond the limits of sport to social relations. A study on ice hockey players, (Gilligan, 2004) shows how aggressive attitudes normalized in sport can recur in private life in different forms; from bar fights to conjugal violence. By privileging physical struggle, team spirit, and companionship, hockey creates a war-like atmosphere in which male aggressivity is celebrated (Gilligan, 2004: pp. 541–544). By representing ideal forms of the male body, sports stars and movie actors help to normalize hegemonic masculinity (Connell, 2000: p. 22). For example, famous film series like Rambo, Rocky, Terminator, or Robocop depict the desire for a muscular, invulnerable male body. Through sport, media representations of violence embodied by stars such as Arnold Schwarzenegger, Sylvester Stallone, and Jean-Claude Van Damme can give deadly aggression imagery to audiences. Movies with powerful male figures also create homoeroticism from the star’s spectacular male bodies (Connell, 2000: p. 22; MacKinnon, 2003: pp. 10–12; Whannel, 2002: p. 160).

Drinking Alcohol The construction of hegemonic male identity is also related to consuming alcohol. Since men are perceived to consume more alcohol than women, drinking habits are understood in many cultures as an integral part of being a man. For instance, Russel Lemle and Marce Mishkind (1989) analyzed the relationship between social and alcoholic drinking from the perspective of masculinity. They found that drinking tends to be a male problem, with women drinking less than men. As a symbol of masculinity, alcohol 402

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use enables acceptance within male groups. Heavy drinking implies greater masculinity than lighter drinking, while buying or being bought a drink increases masculinity (Lemle & Mishkind, 1989: p. 214). Drinking establishes its own norms and values in terms of gender relations. For example, while drinking liqueur can be a feminine act, beer drinking is mostly associated with masculinity. In many cultures, drinking patterns draw a line between masculinity and femininity. From their analysis of alcohol-related behaviors among working-class Russian men, Brian P. Hinote and Gretchen R. Webber (2012: p. 294) conclude that one of the reasons for their excessive alcohol consumption is to reproduce male-female difference and maintain power on women. As the most popular drink in Russia, vodka is embedded in domestic, religious, political and economic rituals. For the Russian peasantry, it means friendship and happiness in all celebrations. Vodka particularly is part of an essential ritual in the worker’s world, while consumption in the workplace gives a special meaning to masculinity. Vodka is a symbol of the power and prestige of the hegemonic masculine type that gives a feeling of being “real man” and “real worker”. Even though irresponsible alcohol consumption causes many health problems, Russian men cannot abandon drinking since it is directly related to their understanding of masculinity (Hinote & Webber, 2012: pp. 297–301).

BEHZAT Ç: STATE VIOLENCE MATERIALIZED IN MASCULINE PERFORMANCES “There is Something Rotten” Behzat Ç: An Ankara Detective Story [ Behzat Ç: Bir Ankara Polisiyesi] is a Turkish police, crime, mystery, and drama TV series, which aired for three seasons from 2010 to 2013 on Star TV, a private Turkish TV channel. A fourth season was released in 2019 to BluTV, an on-demand streaming service. Fans waiting for season five were disappointed to learn from BluTV that disagreements with the leading actor, Erdal Beşikçioğlu, caused cancellation of seasons. Two movies have also been made: Behzat Ç: I Buried You in My Heart [Behzat Ç: Seni Kalbime Gömdüm] (2011) and Behzat Ç: Ankara is on Fire [Behzat Ç: Ankara Yanıyor] (2013). The series is an adaptation of two novels by writer Emrah Serbes, Every Contact Leaves a Trace [Her Temas İz Bırakır] (2006) and Last Excavation [Son Hafriyat] (2008). The series was critically acclaimed, and celebrated for its critical stance; compared to mainstream TV series, and its realistic approach to Turkey’s recent socio-political problems. These included conflicts between groups within the state apparatus, the deep state, corrupt officers, criminal networks, Saturday mothers, the assassination of Hrant Dink, and of Engin Ceber, extrajudicial killings, the Kurdish problem, anti-gentrification protests, and violence against women and LGBTQs. In particular, the series earned the acclaim of secular, left leaning and anti-government segments of Turkish society. The series tells the story of Behzat Ç, the head of the homicide bureau of Ankara police department, and his homicide team. He is tough, hard-headed, honest, violence-prone, yet remains a sentimental anti-hero. His team comprises of Harun, a short-tempered yet comic, straight forward and trustworthy character who is in love with Eda. She is the only female team member and rarely goes outside from her desk job. Hayalet, [Ghost] is a former intelligence bureau officer, who grew up in the slums. Akbaba, [Vulture], a self-educated forensic expert, has long hair, earrings and an emaciated body. Selim, who is first, Eda’s lover and later fiancé is excluded from the team’s inner circle for being from the upper-class and unreliable. Cevdet, who joins the series in the fifth episode, is an agricultural engineering graduate 403

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who has joined the police after losing his job as an agricultural engineer due to the economic crisis. Like Selim, he is initially marginalized as a newcomer. Two other essential supporting characters are Behzat’s caring older brother Şevket and Şule, who turns out to be Behzat’s unknown daughter and also killer of Berna. The story line has several general themes and side murder stories. Each season also has a main subplot. The first season is based on the apparent suicide of Behzat’s daughter Berna, who had a difficult relationship with her father due to her parent’s divorce. She has accused his father of abandoning her and her mother Ceyda, Behzat’s ex-wife, who has mental health issues, at least partly related to Behzat’s impulsive behaviors. The second season follows the story of a finger-cutting serial killer who murder molesters and rapists. The third season centers on Behzat’s search for the killers of his wife, prosecutor Esra and a Dexter-like serial killer team comprising Barbaros, a forensic doctor, and Muzaffer, a janitor in the Forensic Medicine Institute. Season three leads up to Behzat’s suspension by the chief constable and driving his red Volkswagen beetle away to nowhere, implying that Behzat has resigned and left everything behind. The fourth season celebrates his return to deal with a violent conflict between opposing factions within the state apparatus after the attempted coup of July 15 2016. The story focuses on re-establishing the homicide bureau, whose previous members have been killed to persuade Behzat to return to duty as a tool against rival cliques. The male protagonist Behzat had a difficult childhood and adolescence. His mother who harbored great ambitions for herself beyond being a housewife divorced Behzat’s father, to marry a general. She than formed a criminal organization associated with state actors and other interest groups and even led it under the pseudonym “Miss” [Hanımefendi]. Behzat never forgave her for leaving the family, such that he initially refused to offer her sympathy when she was on her apparent deathbed. His father, the colonel Rahmet, wanted Behzat to follow his career. However, after getting into a fight with one of his teachers at military school, he was dismissed, which disappointed his father. Behzat continually had trouble with authority, which becomes a problem as a police officer as his “disrespectful” behavior to superiors hinders his career. In episode three, civil inspector remarks of him “I’ve never seen such a record in my years as an inspector”. While his peers became directors, he makes no progress. In episode eighteen, Tahsin, the head of the public order department and a friend of Behzat’s from the police academy, yells at Behzat “If you you’d behaved yourself, if you hadn’t got your rank reduced, you’d be the head of the public order department”. The story of Behzat Ç is mostly praised as realistically representing the changing configuration of power relations in Turkey, particularly by accurately depicting power struggles between various factions within the state apparatus. Behzat Ç, portrays state as a strategic “center and site of exercise of power” as Poulantzas (2000: p. 148) puts it. In Turkey’s recent history, emerging socio-political actors have attempted to organize within various branches of the state and struggle against the existing cadres, thereby disrupting the state’s relative operational unity of the state. The lack of any hegemonic ideology to cement the different state actors and institutions has produced new fractions within the institutional structure of the state. After the Justice and Development Party (JDP), established by the reformist wing of the Islamist Virtue Party, came to power in 2002, it allied with the Gulenist movement, an Islamic organization led by a self-exiled, US-based cleric, Fetullah Gülen, to decrease the influence of the “secularist military-bureaucratic alliance” within the state apparatus and the so-called “tutelage democracy”. With the support of other strategically influential socio-political actors, they helped create a state form in which police and judiciary play decisive roles instead of military which at that time, still included many secular-Kemalist officers (Akça, 2014: p. 38). Gulenists with the help of JDP, waged a “war of position” 404

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(Hendrick, 2015) to build their own “deep-state”, meaning “a system composed of high-level elements within the intelligence services, military, security, judiciary, and organized crime” (Jessop, 2016: p. 224). The Gulenist movement already had a long history of organizing within strategic state institutions like the military, secret service, judiciary, and police. By partnering with the ruling JDP, Gulenists dramatically increased their cadres within the state apparatus, especially in the judiciary and police. This created conflicts between the new Islamist and old secular cadres which was exacerbated when other actors such as deep state, former gladio members, mafia organizations, and corrupt businessmen joined the struggle. The demands of these different groups and fragmentation resulting from their conflicts has destroyed the internal operational unity of Turkey’s legal system and paralyzed it. Once the law enforcement system became a “battlefield” between rival actors, the law lost its ability to serve “justice”, instead it became instrumentalized to intimidate the opposition. Various trials, particularly Ergenekon, Oda TV, KCK (Kurdistan Communities Union) and Devrimci Karargah are considered politically motivated juridical operations to silence opponents of the “New Turkey.” Trials procedures have been heavily criticized regarding the prosecution process. Many believe that supposed crimes are fabricated by secret witnesses and fake evidence while suspects apprehended by one group are then released by organized opponents within the judiciary. Thus, parallel and informal power networks now dominate Turkey’s legal system. In line with Poulantzas’s claims above, state power in Turkey since 2010 seems to have been increasingly characterized by a combination of legality and illegality. Behzat Ç gives an accurate picture of the multiplicity of numerous actors operating in Turkey, including, the ruling JDP, Gulenists, former Gladio members, the deep state, and secular-Kemalists. Although the series does not always name them, these political actors are implied through “masculine” performances. (e.g. drinking or not drinking alcohol, smoking or not smoking, swearing or not swearing, having a particular type of mustache or not). For instance, in the first episode, the head of the political bureau, Aybars, quits smoking since he expects a promotion, saying that “the new boss doesn’t like smokers.” It is well known that neither JDP leader Recep Tayyip Erdogan, nor Fetullah Gülen approve of smoking. Likewise, in episode fourteen, Behzat goes to a reception to talk with a corrupt undersecretary. The reception is apparently modern: there are two tango dancers, well-dressed men and women, and waiters serving food and beverages. However when Behzat asks for a beer, he learns from the waiter that they do not serve alcoholic beverages anymore. “What? Are they all drinking juice?” he asks and the answer he received is yes. Thus, as one of the most visible symptoms of the changing balance of forces, even secular bureaucrats have to adopt these increasingly conservative conditions. Behzat and his team can be described as politically neutral, except for Hayalet, whose father was a left-wing activist and who still lives in the slums where there is strong resistance against gentrification. The homicide bureau itself is politically sterile compared to counter-terror or organized crime bureaus. Having said that, all the team members are secular, consume alcohol, and do not practice religion. Contrary to a popular misconception, Behzat is neither leftist nor left-leaning; rather, his political apathy, like that of the homicide bureaus, reflects a desire for a neutral or at least non-partisan state, which would echo the liberalist-pluralist conception of the state as “neutral”, reflecting the “common good” (Carnoy 1984), and being a “referee” (Heywood, 2013). Behzat only seems to be left-wing because the axis of Turkey’s state apparatus has increasingly shifted to the rightwards since the 1980s. Emblematic of this context is Behzat’s question in episode ten, to Fuat Sarıdağ, a member of the intelligence bureau. “Are you a cop or a militant?” Without answering, Fuat asks Behzat “Who are you?” Behzat answers, “I am a cop” implying that he is not a member of any clique. Thus, the series seems to be calling for the rule

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of law and an inclusive state project that can gain the consent of “others”, including women, Kurds, leftists and LGBTQs. The police department itself is riven by a harsh confrontation between rival factions. Its chief constables are mostly members of competing groups that primarily aim to purge the department of the other cliques’ members. In episode ten, for instance, Fuat Sarıdağ, who is a member of a clique within the intelligence bureau, explains the situation as follows: “Intelligence, counter terror, organized crime, these are the key bureaus. Everyone tries to put their own men here.” The power behind the conspiracy is the general director himself, who has ordered Behzat to investigate the incident. Similarly, in episode ten, after finishing the investigation, Behzat directly accuses the Director in front of Prosecutor Esra and the Inspector: “Their aim is to put their men in the key positions within the police force. Everyone is trying to organize within the police. Mr. Director is the head of one such clique”. In the same episode, Behzat says of this factional infighting “Not even we know for whom we work”. The series also portrays Gulenists as falsifying evidence to suit their long-term aims. One example is in the first episode when Behzat realizes that someone has changed a ballistics report by stating that a particular gun, which is evidence for an investigation, was broken although it was initially working. Although Behzat has sent the gun to a specific expert, Recep, someone else prepares the report instead of him. Later, during a secret meeting, Recep tells Behzat that “They have become the state” “Who the hell are we?” in reference to the Gulen movement, and their methods for falsifying evidence. Similarly, while following a suspect in episode one, Hayalet comes across members of department’s intelligence bureau. One member gets angry because the homicide bureau is supposedly meddling in an ongoing operation. He phones Behzat to threaten him: “I am the guy who can finish you in five minutes” “ Look at your watch!” Five minutes later the deputy general director of police enters Behzat’s office and yells at him: “Will you take the man from the hands of intelligence?” “Who the hell are you Behzat Ç?” Thus, the episode implies that a Gulenist clique has already seized control of the intelligence bureau. Businessmen and former Gladio members are also involved in this factional war. Episode thirteen includes a psychopathic businessman who later becomes a major protagonist in the series, Ercümen Çözer. He has “dirty” relations with various important actors, including an undersecretary, ex-deep state members, and other mafia organizations. While Ercüment is a dominant masculine character like Behzat, he is also a narcissistic, cold-blooded murderer, obsessed with respect, whose violence is extreme compared to Behzat’s, needless and lacking any sense of justice. This makes Behzat’s violence is preferable and more innocent in the eyes of the audience. Ercüment’s loyal partner, Memduh Başgan, a former gladio member, who fought in the past against left-wing militants before the military coup of September 12 1980, and later against Kurdish militants in 1990s in Southeastern Anatolia has still powerful connections with deep state actors, through whom he protects and helps Ercüment Çözer. Because of the factions within the state apparatus, the law cannot fulfill its function of imposing violence, so criminals go unpunished. At his point, Behzat resorts to violence on the state’s behalf. Yet, his violence is not Dexter-like. He is not searching for “absolute” justice. In this sense, Behzat is different from Barbaros, and his accomplice Muzaffer. Barbaros, wants to establish a transcendent, divine form of justice whereby criminals get what they deserve. His view of justice is also an oedipal reaction to his father, who is a judge unable to dispense justice because of his relation to the deep state. Thus, by killing, Barbaros creates himself vis-à-vis his father. In contrast, Behzat, does not see himself as a “selfrighteous punisher”; rather, he simply wants to enforce the law. In episode twenty, Prosecutor Esra yells at Behzat: “Everybody has to obey the law!”. He answers, “That’s what I try, Prosecutor. I worked my

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entire life so that everybody abides by the law. But if you treat people differently, it is not the law then. It is to help the rich and ditch the poor.” Again, Behzat calls for the neutrality of law. State violence is materialized in the masculine performances of Behzat and other male characters. While Behzat has been prone to violence since his adolescence, his tendency takes on new forms as a police officer. The most common forms in the series, displayed by Behzat and other male characters are swearing, slapping and punching suspects during interrogations. In episode seven, for example, as Cevdet, a newcomer, tries to investigate a suspect by making him write his statement, Behzat, interrupts and starts to beat the suspect to show Cevdet how to conduct a “proper” investigation. The most extreme form of violence is to kill the criminal. In episode two, traumatized by the loss of his daughter, Behzat becomes involved in a gunfight during which a woman hostage is shot by a gunman and dies in Behzat’s arms. Behzat then shoots the killer although he has already surrendered and been captured by his colleagues. There are other forms of violence too. In episode two, Behzat and Harun need answers regarding two missing children. Beside a swimming pool, they tie a weight around the neck of a surgeon involved with the organ mafia. In episode seven, Behzat slaps a molester teacher while lying sick in his bed. Again, in episode seven, Behzat severely beats a child rapist, a retired officer of the Child Protection Service to make him confess to his crime. After being released due to lack of evidence, his daughters’ lover shoots him outside the courthouse. In episode seventeen, Behzat beats a suspect, who killed his wife and tortured his daughter, thereby pacifying the audience through a “cathartic” performance of violence. Such examples can be multiplied.

Anti-hero but Hegemonic The character of Behzat, in spite of being an “anti-hero” is a representation of hegemonic masculinity: He is a father and father figure for some, violent and workaholic captain of homicide bureau, a protector lover, and have many women in his life. First and foremost, Behzat is a father, but his fatherhood does not match hegemonic ideals. For example, Behzat faces continual conflict with his daughter until her death because he is incapable of being either a husband or father. This relationship drives him to depression, such that he ends up in a mental institution. Because Behzat is unable to cope psychologically with his own family’s affairs, these problems reappeared as violence against himself. He also discovers that he has another daughter, Şule, from an earlier relationship. She suddenly enters his life to revenge him of causing her mother’s death. Berna accuses Behzat of not being a good father and asks for an account of the past. However, he yells at her and even slaps her once, which represents a hegemonic masculinity performance, as in her father of not being a good father and asked for an account of the past. Behzat cannot offer fatherhood because hegemonic masculinity requires superiority and hierarchy. He sustains his masculinity by hiding his feelings and pushing inner violence onto himself. He engages in aestheticized acts of violence through performances like workaholism, sexist language, sleeplessness, beatings, and excessive drinking. These performances increase much more while he tries to cope with his daughter’s death. Behzat’s masculinity is then damaged as a breadwinner after he suffers depression due to his broken family story. “Hanımefendi”, despite being a woman is also a representation of hegemonic masculinity. Although Behzat has cut his relationship completely with her and denied her existence for years. She has achieved great prestige from gradually accumulating wealth within illegal organizations. She has survived by obeying men’s rules in a man’s world specifically by employing armed men with luxurious cars, sunglasses and dark suits who manipulate rules through violence. Thus, despite her gender, she embraces a culturally 407

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constructed masculinity position within mafia and an in illegal organizations. “Hanımefendi” and her team reproduce violence through masculine practices, including shootings, beatings and aggressiveness. In episode sixty seven, in her apparent deathbed, Behzat says his mother that “ My father’s rank was not enough for you.” “Hanımefendi” replies “ Someone had to be strong. Your father was weak.” Eda, the only woman in the team, is also the only computer-literate member. This enables her to gather homicide evidence using the department’s computer and investigate a suspect’s history and credentials efficiently for Behzat. Even though she wants to pursue suspects outside the office, just as Harun and Akbaba do, Behzat only gives her paperwork jobs to investigate criminal or suspicious files. Despite being a good cop, Eda is confined to office work because, according to Behzat, it is too dangerous outside for a woman. It is a representation of sexual division of labor based on gender hierarchy in a state institution. Since homicide, is a gendered issue and bureau is strictly masculinized, Eda is seen as an outsider. In episode twenty two, Eda is so fed up with the men’s swearing that she leaves the bureau to switch to IT office. When Behzat tries to convince her to return to the bureau, she actually complains of hegemonic masculinity: You always swear and yell. It’s not only you. Everyone except Selim and Cevdet do the same. I don’t understand how you treat people like that…You try to handle everything with cursing and violence. What kind of justice is this? I have no value there. I’m just sitting inside. You are out every day. I do nothing… I will come back under one condition. I don’t want anyone swearing anymore, including slang.

“I Drink Often” Drinking alcohol and masculinity are key to maintaining hegemonic masculinity through internalized behaviors and attitudes. Throughout the series, raki and beer play critical roles in forming Behzat’s masculinity. According to Yücel (2012: p. 219) drinking is the main form of anti-heroization of the criminal characters in Behzat Ç. Drinking is an essential ritual to exhibit these performances (Köseoğlu, 2019: p. 96). Behzat and his team usually drink in taverns, night clubs or Akbaba’s home, when they talk about cases, their personal problems, their love affairs, or football. Tolerance to alcohol is one of the signs of masculinity. A man who can drink heavily without becoming drunk, is considered more masculine. As an anti-hero, Behzat’s drinking helps him face and overcome the tragedies he has experienced. Alcohol is an integral part of Behzat’s everyday life, particularly beer. Behzat’s favorite drinking place is “Hüseyin’s Tavern” where he meets team members and where female characters rarely appear. In episode four, the owner Hüseyin, passes phone to Akbaba who asks “How do they know I’m here?” Hüseyin replies, “You spend more time here than at the station, son.” The tavern is a place that requires a certain masculine style and morals. It is often portrayed as a place where a person who knows how to drink should go. Hüseyin is portrayed as longtime close friend of Behzat. Behzat was drinks both beer and raki, which are an important cultural symbols that have influenced literature, art, and music from the Ottoman Empire to the present day. Drinking raki has created a tavern tradition, including binge drinking and special appetizers (Kesmez & Aydın, 2014: p. 8). Appropriately, the tavern plays songs by Neşet Ertaş, who is known as the folk bard in Turkey. However, Behzat generally drinks vodka in a coffee mug from his desk drawer in police department. His drinking habits at work are tolerated by his boss, Tahsin. Alcohol also becomes a catalyst in between obeying or disobeying the state’s rules. Both, when solving murders and, after going home and falling asleep in front of the Tv, there is always a bottle of beer on his coffee table. Behzat comes home, sits in 408

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his single seat, drinks the beer he pulls out of a black bag, and watches an animal documentary. Sometimes, Şevket, his older brother, or Şule, his daughter join him. In episode sixty one, when Behzat and his older brother Şevket goes to ask for the girls hand, Prossecutor Esra’s father asks Behzat whether he has any drinking habit. Şevket interrupts and says never. Yet, Behzat tells the truth: “I drink often.” “Akbaba”, who constantly checks the radio for murders, drinks beer at home with “Hayalet”. At every stage of an investigation, they find a way to drink. For example, “Akbaba” can drink while waiting for a suspect in front of his house. After drinking, enough alcohol to work up his courage, Harun goes to Eda’s house to tell her how much he loves her, and that he wants to get married. Although they work in the same department, Harun would be unable to do this in daylight. In episode thirty, the alcohol gives him enough courage and confidence to declare: Don’t get me wrong, OK? I’ve come here and I’ll leave as a friend. That Selim cheated on you once. He might do it again. I need you tell you something. Eda I’m serious. OK? I’ve been engaged for an hour and a half. But if you tell me to break it off, I’ll do it for you. I’d cut my finger for you, Eda. I swear. I’m drunk sorry.

“We are Like Brothers” The relationship between Behzat and his team can be characterized as homosociality. As the leader, Behzat’s words about work and private issues carry importance. The homosocial team draws closer together by chasing suspects, finding criminals, and solving cases. In a way, Behzat and his team exemplify male bonding. The team members have worked together in the homicide bureau for many years and are also very good friends. This creates an inner circle around Behzat that is hard to join. The team meet as a group in various venues, particularly Hüseyin’s tavern, the Akbaba’s house, and the night club. Alcohol must be part of these gatherings as no subject can be discussed without beer. Homosociality and male bonding help remove the boundaries between private and professional life, such that it is unclear where this border lies. If one member has a problem in his private life, the others help. This powerful group solidarity also has also an exclusionary aspect. Both Selim and the new recruit Cevdet fail to join the team’s inner circle. Selim is excluded by his middle-class family background and living in Çankaya, a wealthy and modern district of Ankara. His metro-sexuality, earrings, dress, and language differentiate him from the others. Being younger than the others, he frequents bars rather than night clubs. He does not seem faithful or sincere and lacks the necessary professional qualities to be a homicide officer. Thus, he is left in the office with Eda and not given responsibilities relevant to the homicide cases. Selim constantly complains about this systematic exclusion and shares his dissatisfaction with his girlfriend, Eda, who always tries to soothe him. In episode seven, for example, Selim whines to Behzat “You don’t treat me like a man.” However, he later proves his unreliability: cheating on Eda, who is his fiancée by then and by joining of Memduh Başgan’s organization as an informer. Behzat first encounters Cevdet, in episode five, when he punches him after mistaking him for someone else. After Cevdet is introduced by the other team members, Behzat gives his opinion: “He looks like a bank manager for God’s sake!”. Due to his emotional personality, Cevdet’s character does not fit in with the codes of the bureau. In episode five, when Harun learns that he was originally an agricultural engineer who lost his job due to the economic crisis before becoming a policeman, he humiliates him by saying, “A cabbage engineer can’t be a cop!”. The team find his enthusiasm for reading books, odd because they believe the job cannot be learned from books. Joining Behzat’s homosocial group is thus 409

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not easy. Cevdet has been regarded a freshman for a long time and constantly asked to bring tea by other team members. It takes a long time for Cevdet to finally win their trust and join them where they gather, socialize and drink. Akbaba’s house is another homosocial space for the team. His house has two sofa beds in the lounge while the fridge at the entrance to next the front door contains more beer than food. After his shanty house gets demolished, Hayalet moves into Akbaba’s house while Harun sometimes stays there when his father kicks him out. The house thus serves as a place for gathering and male bonding. The highlight is episode seventy- eight, when the entire team, including even Eda and Cevdet, gathers there. Although Eda had initially wanted to stay, Behzat sends her home because he wants a male-to-male confession session, he says: “ The night is long, a deep subject, we will talk.” They drink a lot, open up and reveal many secrets that night. The night club is a suitable venue for masculine performances because women there have low status and are dependent on men economically. The club has its own rules that must be followed by everybody including men and women. Men maintain prestige by spending money there. Thus, the night clubs reinforce women’s sex object position. Behzat and his team especially behave in night clubs as police department’s members claiming exclusive status. For example, although Behzat’s lover, Gönül, works in a night club as a singer, she avoids being hostess because Behzat protects her, both from other customers and her boss. The night club strengthens heterosexuality through alcohol, aggressiveness and the sexual objectification of women. When Behzat goes to the night club, Gönül sings before spending time at Behzat’s table. If there are any incidents, Behzat simply shows his badge, says “I’m a cop” and the dispute is resolved quickly.

The Wind of Ankara Football has long been central to the construction of masculine identity. In the series, football is portrayed as a gender-specific performance in which Behzat supports Gençlerbirliği, while Harun supports Ankaragücü, both Ankara football teams. Behzat played semi-professionally as a stopper in his youth. And would be a footballer or a football trainer if he wasn’t cop. In episode one, Hüseyin suggests that Behzat should become the coach of Cebecispor football club, since he has a football coaching certificate. However, Behzat replies, “ I’m saving that certificate for my retirement, Hüseyin.” Football is one of Behzat’s few interests. In episode seven, Behzat and Prosecutor Esra meet, at a restaurant, on the day when she gets divorced. As Behzat goes on about murders, Esra interrupts to ask, “Behzat, can’t you talk about anything else? You can only talk about murder right?” Behzat answers, “No! Football!” Thus football is one of his favorite topics, apart from finding murderers. Stadiums are male-dominated spaces while football matches involve aggressiveness, struggling, and contesting. Football fans in stadiums use bad language and make obscene gestures. Behzat also tries to go to watch Gençlerbirliği’s matches. In episode twelve, for example, he takes Esra to Gençlerbirliği match which on what is their first real date. Behzat tries to animate Esra who seems to be too calm for a football match, “Oh, come on! You can’t watch the game like this. You need to try to enjoy it! This isn’t a court room!” Similar to homicide, football allows Behzat to demonstrate some characteristics associated with masculinity such as using physical force, swearing, and shouting. In terms of hegemonic masculinity, being a potential football coach is not far from being the captain of the homicide bureau. As with searching for murders, football depends on men’s solidarity.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The present study attempted to establish links between state, law, violence, aesthetics, masculinity and representation of masculinity. With the rising of authoritarian statism all over the world and the popularization of debates on gender relations, the issue becomes even more relevant. First, further studies should explore the ways in which changing forms of state and state violence intertwined with various forms of masculinity. Second, the masculinity studies, as a fertile ground should be incorporated into the media studies. Third, a possibility of developing a socio-political analysis of movies and television series should seriously be considered. Fourth, the concept of anti-hero should be reevaluated as a form of hegemonic masculinity and not just as a marginal character.

CONCLUSION Violence is a socio-biological phenomenon. All living beings display certain forms of violence to varying degrees for various ends. Humans resort to physical, psychological, gender-based, economic and political violence. The most extreme form of political violence is the violence of the state. All states have employed violence and most of the time their legitimacy has come from their capacity to exercise it. Yet, all states, also claim to follow a certain form of law. The historical development of the capitalist state and state of law led to a popular misconception that violence and law are mutually exclusive. According to Poulantzas, however, this has never been the case. From Greek city-states to modern capitalist states, law has never excluded violence; rather, law is the codification of organized public violence. Another misleading view, according to Poulantzas, is to consider the capitalist state as less violent than its historical counterparts. However, as Weber argued, contrary to pre-modern states, the capitalist state is unique in that it managed to monopolize legitimate violence, which gives it the ultimate capacity for violence. Thus, even though the execution of physical violence seems to have declined, violence is so concentrated by the state, that it underpins, more than ever, socio-political power relations. Feminist thinkers sometimes associate the violent character of the state with male violence. Even though feminism lacks its own state theory, various lines within feminism have developed their own conceptions of the state. While liberal feminists tend to adopt a pluralist theory of the state, socialist feminists focus on the state’s capitalist characteristics while radical feminists generally argue, that state is essentially male and/or instrument of male domination. However, accepting this conception uncritically may lead to “gender essentialism”. Having said that, one can establish analogies between state violence and male violence without necessarily considering the state as inherently male. Thus, rather than claiming that state violence results from male violence and vice versa, the present study argued that the traces of state violence can be tracked through public performances. Its specific objective was therefore to trace state violence back into masculinity, specifically in masculine performances. Masculinity is a relatively new research field born from feminist literature. The main argument is that, like femininity, masculinity has no substantive, unchangeable essence; rather, it is a socio-historically constructed identity around some stereotypical features, including physical appearances, beliefs, norms, values, and patterns of behavior. Thus, there has been a shift from a sex-based, role theory of masculinity to a more flexible, gender-based theory underlining the social and cultural conditions that define what it takes to be man. Another core argument of masculinity studies is that there are masculinities rather than one single fixed version of masculinity. Various competing conceptions of masculinity are at 411

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stake. Drawing on Gramsci’s concept of hegemony, hegemonic masculinity describes the leading form of masculinity, which is normalized as the “gold standard” by various segments of society. Hegemonic masculinity is associated with various masculine performances, ranging from doing sport, drinking alcohol, male homosociality and male bonding to eating meat and other activities. These qualities define what hegemonic masculinity looks like. Based on this theoretical orientation, the study analyzed the successful Turkish Tv series, Behzat Ç: An Ankara Detective Story. This follows the story of Behzat, the head of an Ankara homicide bureau, his personal tragedies, and his professional life. The series also situates him within the socio-political conjuncture of 2010s’ Turkey. It thereby realistically reflects the changing balance of forces and its consequences on state apparatuses, including the legal system and the police. Drawing on a Poulantzasian concept of the state as a “center and space” that various socio-political actors compete to “conquer”, this study argued that the series provides a Poulantzasian analysis of the struggles between existing and rising powers. It claimed that the Turkish state is so paralyzed by the struggles of multiple socio-political actors that it cannot perform its duty by enforcing the law. In a Poulantzasian framework, this means exercising violence against criminals. Behzat’s masculine performances achieve this function instead of the state to give the audience a sense of justice.

REFERENCES Akça, İ. (2014). Hegemonic projects in post-1980 Turkey and the changing forms of authoritarianism. In İ. Akça, A. Bekmen, & B. A. Özden (Eds.), Turkey Reframed: Constituting Neoliberal Hegemony (pp. 14–46). Pluto Press. Akkaya, Ö. (2018). The crisis of masculinity on the screen: Conflicted masculinities in Behzat Ç. Bir Ankara Polisiyesi and Poyraz Karayel. Global Media Journal Tr Edition, 9(17), 128–173. Atay, T. (2011, November 20). Behzat’ın dili nasıl çözülmeli? Retrieved from: https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/ tayfun-atay/behzatin-dili-nasil-cozulmeli Atay, T. (2013, November 1). My name is Che, Behzat Che! Retrieved from: http://www.radikal.com.tr/ yazarlar/tayfun-atay/my-name-is-che-behzat-che-1158385/ Atay, T. (2019, July 28). Kahramanın dönüşü: Behzat Ç, Retrieved from: https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/ tayfun-atay-pazar/kahramanin-donusu-behzat-c, 23270 Aydan, Ö. (2011). Televizyon ve İzleyici: Türkiye’de dönüşen televizyon kültürü ve izleyici. Ütopya Yayınevi. Aydın, B. (2013). Televizyon yayın politikalarında sosyal medya etkisi: Behzat Ç. örneği. İstanbul Arel Üniversitesi İletişim Çalışmaları Dergisi, 3(6), 13–41. Carnoy, M. (1984). State and political theory. Princeton University Press. doi:10.1515/9781400853458 Çelik, H. (2013). Televizyon programlarındaki şiddet içerikli görüntülerin yetişkinler üzerindeki etkileri: Behzat Ç. örneği (Unpublished master dissertation). Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Turkey. Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics. Polity Press.

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Connell, R. W. (2000). Arms and the man: Using the new research on masculinity to understand violence and promote peace in the contemporary world. In I. Breines, R. Connell, & I. Eide (Eds.), Male roles, masculinities and violence: A culture of peace perspective- Male Roles, Masculinities and Violence: A Culture of Peace Perspective (pp. 21–33). UNESCO. Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities. Polity. Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859. doi:10.1177/0891243205278639 Donaldson, M. (1993). What is hegemonic masculinity? Theory and Society, 22(5), 643–657. doi:10.1007/ BF00993540 Erdemir, F. (2011). Geleneksel erkek imgesinin dönüşümü: Behzat Ç.’nin erkeklik halleri. In İ. Erdoğan (Ed.), Medyada Hegemonik Erkek(lik) ve Temsil. Kalkedon. Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline&Punish: The birth of the prison (2nd ed., A. Sheridan, Trans.). Vintage Books. Gedik, E. (2016). Bir tüketim kültürü ürünü olarak anti-kahraman erkek imajları. ViraVerita E-Dergi, 4, 37–58. Gilligan, J. (2004). Culture, gender, and violence: We are not women. In M. S. Kimmel & A. Aronson (Eds.), The gendered society reader (2nd ed., pp. 427–436). Oxford University Press. Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. In (Q. Hoare & G. Nowell Smith, Eds. & Trans.). Lawrence and Wishart. Hammarén, N., & Johansson, T. (2014). Homosociality: In between power and intimacy. SAGE Open, 4(1), 1–11. doi:10.1177/2158244013518057 Haywood, C., & Mac an Ghaill, M. (2003). Men and masculinities: Theory, research and social practice. Open University Press. Hendrick, J. D. (2015). Globalization, Islamic activism, and passive revolution in Turkey: The case of Fethullah Gülen. In N. Balkan, E. Balkan, & A. Öncü (Eds.), The Neoliberal Landscape and the Rise of Islamist Capital in Turkey (pp. 235–271). Berghahn. Heywood, A. (2013). Politics (4th ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-1-137-27244-7 Hinote, B. P., & Webber, G. R. (2012). Drinking toward manhood: Masculinity and alcohol in the former USSR. Men and Masculinities, 15(3), 292–310. doi:10.1177/1097184X12448466 İşisağ, A. S. (2015). Delegitimation of a cultural product: The case of Turkish television drama Behzat Ç (Unpublished master dissertation). Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey. Jessop, B. (1985). Nicos Poulantzas: Marxist theory and political strategy. Macmillan. doi:10.1007/9781-349-17950-3 Jessop, B. (1990). State theory: Putting the capitalist state in its place. Polity Press. Jessop, B. (2007). State power: A strategic-relational approach. Polity.

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Jessop, B. (2016). The state: Past, present, future. Polity Press. Kesmez, M., & Aydın, M. S. (2014). Rakı cep kitabı. Overteam Yayınları. Kimmel, A. & Aronson, A. (2004). Men and masculinities. A social, cultural, and historical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. Inc. Köseoğlu, M. A. (2019). Kriz, yüzleşme, yeniden inşa: Behzat Ç.’de erkeklik anlatıları (Unpublished master dissertation). Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey. Lemle, R., & Mishkind, M. E. (1989). Alcohol and masculinity. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 6(4), 213–222. doi:10.1016/0740-5472(89)90045-7 PMID:2687480 Lipman-Blumen, J. (1976). Toward a homosocial theory of sex roles: An explanation of the sex segregation of social institutions. Signs (Chicago, Ill.), 1(3, Part 2), 15–31. doi:10.1086/493272 Locke, J. (1982). Second treatise of government. Harlan Davidson Inc. Croft Classics. MacKinnon, C. A. (1989). Toward a feminist theory of the state. Harvard University Press. MacKinnon, K. (2003). Representing men: Maleness and masculinity in the media. Arnold. Medin, B. (2016). Kahramanın Ç hali: Temsil ve özdeşlik bağlamında Behzat Ç. üzerine bir alımlama çalışması. Abant Kültürel Araştırmalar Dergisi, 1(1), 96–118. Neocleous, M. (2000). The fabrication of social order: A critical theory of police power. Pluto Press. Neocleous, M. (2008). Critique of security. Edinburgh University Press. doi:10.3366/edinburgh/9780748633289.001.0001 Poulantzas, N. (1978). State, power, socialism. New Left Books. Poulantzas, N. (2000). State, power, socialism. Verso. Schrock, D., & Schwalbe, M. (2009). Men, masculinity, and manhood acts. Annual Review of Sociology, 35(1), 277–295. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115933 Şeker, T., & Çavuş, S. (2011). “Behzat Ç. Bir Ankara Polisiyesi” dizisinin alımlama analizi. Global Media Journal, 2, 84–102. Sevinç, M. (2012, July 15). Behzat Ç. Ankara’dır. Retrieved from: http://www.radikal.com.tr/radikal2/ behzat-c-ankaradir-1094096/ Tanrıvermiş, Ş. (2019). Edebi eserlerin sinemadan çok televizyonda uygunluğu üzerine bir değerlendirme: Behzat Ç. örneklemi. İdil Sanat ve Dil Dergisi, 8(57), 681–688. Tekelioğlu, O. (2011, May 31). “Behzat Ç” ve “Kurtlar Vadisi” muhalif mi? Retrieved from: https:// www.gazeteciler.com/haber/behzat-c-ve-kurtlar-vadisi-muhalif-mi/192849 Tekelioğlu, O. (2012, April 8). Hayrola amirim? Retrieved from: http://www.radikal.com.tr/radikal2/ hayrola-amirim-1084419/

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TemelkuranE. (2011, January 3). Behzat Ç. Retrieved from: https://www.haberturk.com/yazarlar/ecetemelkuran/587539-behzat-c Tilly, C. (1975). Reflections on the history of European state-making. In C. Tilly (Ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe (pp. 3–83). Princeton University Press. Tuncer, S. (2017). Behzat Ç.: Kent, kimlik ve yerellik ekseninde bir ankara hikâyesi. In F. Şenol Cantek (Ed.), İcad Edilmiş Şehir: Ankara. İletişim. Weber, M. (2004). Politics as vocation. In D. Owen & T. B. Strong (Eds.), R. Livingstone (Trans.), Vocation Lectures: Science as Vocation, Politics as Vocation (pp. 32–94). Hackett Publishing Company. Whannel, G. (2002). Media sport stars: Masculinities and moralities. Routledge. Yörük, E. (2012). Televizyonda nitelik sorunu hakkında bir tartışma: Behzat Ç. örneği. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 67(03), 219–263. doi:10.1501/SBFder_0000002260 Yücel, V. (2012). The camera-political construction of masculinity in 2000s: The synthesis, discourse and identity of crime-fictional heroism (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Mimar Sinan Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi, İstanbul, Turkey.

ADDITIONAL READINGS Benjamin, W. (1995). Critic of violence. Reflections: Essays. Aphorisms, Autobiographical Writings. Bourdieu, P. (2001). Masculine domination. Stanford University Press. Edwards, T. (2004). Cultures of masculinity. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203005224 Foucault, M. (2019). The history of sexuality: 1: the will to knowledge. Penguin. Giddens, A. (1987). The nation-state and violence. Berkeley. CA and Los Angeles. University of California Press. Guzy, T. (2017). The appearance of power: How masculinity ıs expressed through aesthetics. Create Space Independent Publishing Platform. Lehman, P. (2007). Running scared: Masculinity and the representation of the male body. Wayne State University Press. Peberdy, D. (2011). Masculinity and film performance: male angst in contemporary American cinema. Halgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230308701 Poulantzas, N. A. (1978). Political power and social classes. Verso.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aesthetics: Philosophical inquiry on the nature of beauty.

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Behzat Ç: An Ankara Detective Story: A famous and controversial Turkish crime series aired between 2010-2013 and in 2019. Detective Drama: A type of TV series about police solving mysterious cases. Hegemonic Masculinity: The relative socio-cultural superiority of one forms of masculinity over the others. Law: The codification of violence by supreme and sovereign authority. Masculine Performances: Manifestation of certain values attributed to the maleness in the form of certain behaviors. Masculinity: A series of performances socially constructed around the values of patriarchal culture. Violence: Use or threat of use of power to physically or non-physically harm.

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Chapter 21

Ottomentality as Technology of Self:

How Do Mobile Games Aestheticize the Entrepreneurial Self? Hasan Turgut Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Neslihan Yayla Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Extreme-right populist tendencies are getting stronger day by day. Although there are various factors that make the extreme-right populist tendencies stronger, the fact that cannot be ignored is that these tendencies must be reproduced discursively (history, culture, etc.) by the ruling power structures. Today, digital media and especially games are the primary areas where this reproduction process is most visible. Mobile games, in particular, turn into dominant cultural phenomena related to daily life beyond leisure, entertainment, and mind refreshing functions. Within this view, it is claimed that the mobile games based on the historical narratives in Turkey work as technology of self to contribute to the discourse of neo-Ottomanism. In order to test this claim, the three most downloaded mobile games (Game of Sultans, Magnificent Ottoman, and Age of Ottomans) in the Appstore and Android markets are selected as examples, and the aesthetic production realized through the structural elements of the game will be analyzed.

INTRODUCTION With the increasing use of digital technologies in all areas of daily life, the areas of study in social sciences are expanding. In particular, it should be said that there is a large literature on digital and mobile games. This situation raises the question of how mobile games are integrated into daily life from various angles. Today, mobile games are not just platforms that a certain group uses to spend their free time and DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch021

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 Ottomentality as Technology of Self

have fun. These platforms also function as socializing platforms. As a matter of fact, the links established through mobile games exist both online and offline, and as a result, play a role in shaping social relations. This study is based on the claim that mobile games are involved in the reproduction of hegemonic discourses in the shaping of social relations. In this process, although mobile games do not take part in the establishment of hegemonic discourse, they play a role in its adoption by the players. In this context, if we use Foucault’s terminology, mobile games can be considered as dispositif in which social relations between players are shaped. In this respect, mobile games, on the one hand, contribute to the banalization, ordinaryization and internalization of the hegemonic discourse among the players, on the other hand, they also allow the formation of the entrepreneurial-self ethics of neoliberal governance. The entrepreneurial-self project of neoliberal governmentality, in the context of neo-Ottomanism discussions to address the ethical-cultural has become essential, in Turkey since 2009. New Turkey rhetoric being established links with the Ottoman past masculine and power-oriented, are becoming visible in many areas of everyday life. Mobile games are one of the most visible environments of this ethical-cultural project regarding entrepreneurial subjectivity in daily life. Historical-strategy games based on the Ottoman past do not only promise the players as entertainment and leisure activities; In another aspect, it gives players the opportunity to redesign the past in a glorious way with its scenarios, visual effects, characters (playability). This design allows the player to construct a new reality with the past beyond the official historical narrative.

GAME/DISPOSITIF AND THE GAMES OF TRUTH Dispositif is a conceptualization put forward by M. Foucault to express the network formed by the articulation of the discursive and non-discursive. According to Foucault, our subjectivities emerge as a result of the relationality between knowledge (epistemology) -power and ethical (self-care) networks. Foucault thus adopts an approach which leaves the understanding of external knowledge and power to the subject concept. Power and knowledge are articulated in discourse (Foucault, 2012: p. 72). Accordingly, knowledge cannot be thought without power, but also power cannot exist without knowledge. Foucault rejects a state of being with self-care in which the subject is formed under the decisive power of an external power. Power takes on meaning only when it is with free subjects; otherwise it is necessary to talk about domination, not power. From this point of view, according to Foucault, resistance is immanent in power; power must protect the formation of a subjectivity, albeit minimally, otherwise it ceases to be power (Deveci, 2005: pp. 34-35). The subject, then, is not a given by power, but a state of social formation that establishes itself (in relation to itself) in the context of the games of truth (jeux de vérité) between discursive and non-discursive practices. In his post-1980 studies, Foucault begins to deal with the processes of subjectivation in order to understand power relations. According to Foucault, self-care is the knowledge of the person himself. However, it is also the knowledge of certain rules of conduct and principles that are both truth and imperative (Foucault, 2014: p. 227). Because the self-care always appears in institutionalized structures and associations. Therefore, it is shaped not only by the networks of power, but also by relations within communities such as kinship and friendship. Essentially, at this point, the ways of knowing of power come into play, and according to Foucault, the person establishes power relationship called himself, arche. In this context, it is the relationality between technologies of domination and technologies of self that determines the field of power relations (Lemke, 2016: p. 369). 418

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Foucault’s concept of self-care requires attention to processes of subjectivation from another perspective. Foucault proposes the idea of the subject as the product of a historical organization rather than a universal-willing subject. Accordingly, experience is the element that enables the subject to be considered as a concrete-historical construction. In this context, it is obvious that as the experience changes, the subject will change. Experience resides at a point that connects the individual with the collective. Because individual experiences cannot be considered separately from the collective practices that make these experiences possible (Lemke, 2016: p. 375). According to Foucault, who rejects the concept of a pre-given subject, the subject passes through games of truth and constructs himself as both the object of knowledge and the subject of an experience (Koloş, 2016: p. 170). In this context, while the subject is objectified as his knowledge in games of truth, he becomes subject of experience. At this stage, the key question for Foucault is how the subject began to recognize himself as the object of his knowledge. At this stage, Foucault elaborates on the concept of governmentality by detailing power analysis in his recent lessons. According to him, management is a delicate strategy based on directing the person through the production of truth rather than directly domination (Lemke, 2016: p. 460). In this strategy, truth is a set of rules that impose power effects on what is considered correct rather than the foundation that forms the basis of knowledge (Koloş, 2016: p. 169). In this context, games of truth and the technologies of self related to it constitute an indirect field of activity between strategy as an attempt to restructure the action areas of Others and domination as oppression of Others (Lemke, 2015: p. 32-34). According to Lemke, Foucault tries to analyze institutionalization practices and individualization processes as a whole with management analytics (2015: p. 52). In this context, it is possible to evaluate dispositives based on the articulation of discursive and non-discursive elements as actual management practices. This study is based on Foucault’s assumption that mobile games are neoliberal governance dispositions using the concepts set above. Mobile games are dispositives in which the actor participates in the production of knowledge about himself and experiences of his encounters with techniques of domination are added. On the one hand, the player deals with himself as the free actor in the game, while on the other hand the action area is limited to the pre-structured domination structures of the game. This limit is important in terms of showing the area where individual experience meets collective practice. In another aspect, it is possible to define mobile games as political technologies that associate the subject with society. Foucault defines political technologies as a set of technologies that allow the subject to recognize himself as part of social existence (nation or state) (Lemke, 2015: p. 52). Therefore, it is possible to evaluate history, race, nation, and religion as technologies that remind the individual to belong to the individual in the context of the reality regimes they have built. At this stage, it is necessary to establish a connection between the game concept and Foucault’s above-mentioned concepts. Foucault analyzes the disciplinary society in three dimensions - knowledge, power and ethics. Within this framework, it is possible to handle mobile games in a knowledge, power and ethical dimension as dispositives to the control society. In this context, mobile games can be considered as dispositives that provide a certain truth regime with their playability and performance characteristics; the production of ethical values that enable the internalization of power and neoliberal rationality in the context of social imagination, space consumption and identity tourism. These three moments are the three pillars that enable the establishment of neoliberal subjectivity, which Foucault calls the entrepreneurial self.

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GAME, CULTURE AND SUBJECTIVITY J. Huizinga defines the game as a phenomenon older than culture but integrated with culture (2017: p. 17). The concepts of game and culture are in a bilateral union. What we mean here is not that the game has turned into culture, but on the contrary, it carries the lines of a game from the early stages of culture and develops in the game environment under game forms. In this bilateral cooperation of culture and game, game creates the primary element that can be objectively observed and concretely identified (Huizinga, 2017: p. 74-75). Games can be described as the way societies express themselves, their rules, their lives, their rituals. This relationship of the game with culture is transforming in parallel with technological developments. Recent game studies have begun to address the hypothesis that our societies are gradually turning into game society. Accordingly, as a result of technological developments, the game is increasingly becoming a part of everyday life and acquires a culturally dominant position (Mayra, 2017: p. 49). Digital games have been found in modern culture, from gaming consoles connected to television to personal computers and mobile phones (Baerg, 2009: p. 115). In this context, Fogg (2002) has dealt with digital media as a persuasive technology in changing people’s attitudes and behaviors. Because digital games are used as advertising space, in-game advertising is seen as a qualified way for effective communication. Digital games are platforms where political communication campaigns, promotional activities of brands, institutions can easily convey their messages to them in order to influence the users. While playing the game, it is advantageous for the players to adapt themselves completely to the game and to be isolated from external factors, to be interested only in the alternative universe created through the game, and to convey the messages to be given directly to the target audience. This situation makes in-game narratives, discourses and representations important in game studies. Huizinga says that the game creates order and that this order has reached a temporary and limited perfection in the imperfect world (2010: p. 28). However, this perfection can only be achieved when the rules of the game are adopted and not questioned (Huizinga, 2010: p. 29). In the context of mobile games, the perfection created by isolating the player from reality is only possible if the player adopts the game’s design, script, narrative, and in short, finds the game playable. In this context, the playability of the game constitutes the truth regime of the game, if we use Foucault’s terminology. But playability doesn’t just happen in the perfect world built by the game. The rules of the game, as a form of power, impose truths that categorize the player and determine the player’s subjectivity. The narratives and scenarios that the game has constructed create social images. These images have connections with the real world beyond the perfect but fictional world that the game has constructed. As in any media text, representations in games are not produced independently, so they should not be considered as neutral structures. Games also produce dominant ideologies, institutionalized power relations and social-economic differences (Aupers, 2012: p. 355; Kline, 2003: p. 265). In this context, it is possible to say that in-game narratives are effective in culture formation, transfer and accumulation. Therefore, the truth regime of the perfect world and the truth regime of the real world, which the game has constructed, are interconnected. When evaluated in the context of mobile games, playability does not only occur by representing the real world in another space. The perfection created by the game also has the potential to be actualized at all times. Indeed, the relationality between play and subjectivity requires focusing on the dialectic of representation and actualization.

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Looking at the literature, it should be said that there are many studies focusing on the relationship between digital games and subjectivity. Andrew Baerg (2009) claims that digital games are effective in adopting values ​​related to neoliberal manageriality. According to Baerg (2009: p. 119), digital games contribute to the players’ internalizing the market’s ability to determine the truth by taking risks and making choices, which are the core values ​​of neoliberal governance in the offline world. In this respect, digital games turn into the areas of risk management and the above-mentioned neoliberal values ​​become legitimate and natural (Baerg, 2009: p. 125). Similar to Baerg’s work, the work of Oliva et al. (2018) reveals the effect of digital games in the neoliberal formation of subjectivity, arguing that digital games are technologies of self that contribute to the production process of neoliberal subjectivity. F. Russell (2018), in his study, which questions the role of game culture in the process of internalizing neoliberal values, emphasizes that games define subjectivities on the basis of neoliberal values, utility, productiveness and competitiveness and this invites various mental diseases. Reyni Hong (2013), in her earlier study, emphasizes that neoliberal themes in digital games are the products of entrepreneurial indexed digital labor processes. In another respect, Daniel Bos focuses on the spatial production of subjectivity processes through digital games. According to Bos (2018), digital games, as daily activities, have an important function in the space consumption and perceptions of the player. Similarly . J. Grandinetti and C. Ecenbarger (2018) discusses the integration of digital / mobile games into daily life along with the technology that develops in the context of the Pokemon Go. J. Grandinetti and C. Ecenbarger (2018) deal with Pokemon Go through the virtual concept of Deleuze and Guattari. Accordingly, Pokemon Go points to the actualization of virtuity, which is potential with its augmented reality (AR) technology, in “real” spaces. In this context, augmented reality practices such as Pokemon Go point to unity between real and virtual, or between real and virtual rather than a Platonic contrast (Grandinetti & Ecenbarger, 2018: p. 441). In another aspect, augmented reality technology enables virtualization to perform the desire and the capitalist subjectivity controlled through this desire to circulate in these places (Grandinetti & Ecenbarger, 2018: p. 446). In another study, Voorhees (2009) examined the Civilization and found that the relationship between player and game design (scenario, narrative, field of action within the framework of options offered to the player) reproduces Cartesian subjectivity (cogito). According to Voorhees, the Civilization game series goes beyond the pure physicality of the player and recommends cogito-ian, cognitive-based action (2009: p. 255). Doh & Whang’s (2014) experimental work with adolescent actors in Korea is important in terms of showing the subjectivities that players have built through digital games. In the study, Doh and Whang found that players developed success-based, control-based and relational-based behaviors and associated identities. Feng Zhu (2020) examines player preferences in the context of alienation and freedom dialect in The Stanley Parable. P. Wilde & A. Evans (2019), on the other hand, deals with the complex interaction between actor and avatar in the MMORPG World of Warcraft game and the fluid and borderless subjectivity experiences between human and posthuman, based on the posthuman concept of names such as Karen Barad, Rosi Braidotti, N. Katherine Hayles. receive. Another of the early studies that focused on the relationship between online games and the concepts of Foucault are the articles Discipline and Dragon Kill Points in the Online Power Game by M. Silverman and B. Simon. According to Simon and Silverman (2009), online games are the devices that control players within a certain network of power relations as panoptic structures of digital culture.

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Another study focusing on the relationship between space and subjectivity is the article entitled Imagined Commodities: Video Game Localization and Mythologies of Cultural Difference by Carlson and Corliss. According to Carlson and Corliss (2011), digital games produce various images for players, but players from different cultures and geographies translate and localize them. Similarly, P. Martin found that the Western Black Africa image was reproduced in the Resident Evil game designed by the Japanese game company. However, as Martin pointed out, the Black Africa imagery in Resident Evil is a hybrid imagination. Because Japanese imagery is both affected by this Western imagination and transforms it in the context of the game.

OTTOMENTALITY, NEO-OTTOMANTALISM OR NATIVISM: THE SELF-CARE OF NEW TURKEY DISCOURSE The Justice and Development Party (JDP), which came to power on November 3, 2002, has received the support of an alliance, which extends beyond the traditional conservatives, from the liberals to the Kurdish movement, from the liberal-left sections to the democrats. In the context of the neoliberal economic policies, privatization policies, EU membership, and relations with the USA, the alliance lasted until 2010 with partial tremors. As of 2011, the JDP has left behind the support of the alliance and started to build its political hegemony on a new discourse base with an increasing Islamist tone. In this process, neo-Ottomanism was conditioned as a component of this hegemony construction with a more introspective discursive setup (more nationally and natively). Although the “One Minute” crisis at the Davos summit in 2009 showed the effects of neo-Ottomanism in international relations, it would not be wrong to claim that it was used as domestic policy material when the discourse of neo-Ottomanism in circulation was looked after1. The rationality that C. Erdem (2017) calls Ottomentality expresses the relationship between neo-Ottomanism and neoliberal governance in the JDP period. According to Foucault, neoliberal governmentality is a market-based rationality. Accordingly, while the market reaches a level of truth as the determinant of everything, competition is naturalized. However, since competition is not a natural phenomenon, it should be supported continuously (by the state). Brown argues that Foucault’s statement of neoliberal rationality should be reconsidered in the context of financialization and responsible subjectivities today. Today, neoliberal governance is based on a rationality in which the influence of power is increasingly intensified in the context of responsible subjectivity (Brown, 2018: 81-84). In this context, Ottomentality constitutes both the political and socio-cultural component of neoliberal policies adopted during the JDP period. As stated by Eroler in his study examining the education policies of 2002-2016 period, JDP, on the one hand, challenged the Kemalist modernization process, on the other hand, brought the education system to neoliberal governance. In line with the target of raising a religious generation, the philosophy of education was de-secularized and tried to be Islamized in this period. This transformation in the philosophy of education as a reckoning with the Kemalist modernization process has revealed a reproduction process in which Islamic motifs gain weight as a component of the nation’s identity. In this period, citizenship morality was Islamized and Islamism was introduced as the true culture of the people (Eroler, 2019: p. 303-304). The education philosophy, which is shaped in line with the goal of raising a religious generation, aims at transforming the generation into the individuals who are aware of their responsibilities and essence on the axis of Islam, which is the real culture of the people, on the

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other hand, the education system is brought together with neoliberal economic policies in the context of various projects (FATİH project, 4 + 4 + 4) (Eroler, 2019). Ottomentality cannot be handled only in the context of JDP based policies. As Erdem stated, series and films such as Muhteşem Yüzyıl (Magnificent Century), Fetih 1453 (Conquest 1453), Diriliş Ertuğrul (Resurrection Ertuğrul), Payitaht (Kingdom), are beyond the products produced for the market in the context of neoliberal rationality, constitute the cultural fighting areas of the Ottomentality (Kulturkampf). In fact, such cultural events related to the Ottoman period can be brought back to the conquest festivities revived after the 1994 elections, where the Welfare Party (WP) was received by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality. However, the series Muhteşem Yüzyıl, which deals with the relations between Suleiman the Magnificent and Hürrem Sultan, has reignited this cultural war. The series, which was frequently criticized by the prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan at the time for distorting historical facts, gave a new dimension to Islamist-dominated neo-Ottomanism, which the JDP saw as the true culture of the people. Although the Muhteşem Yüzyıl series, especially in many countries in the Middle East and the Balkans, and contributed to the international relations leg of the neo-Ottomanism in this context, it caused a neoliberal intervention in the JDP’s cultural policies due to the debate it initiated towards real culture in domestic politics. As a matter of fact, both the role of public institutions such as TRT in the emergence of other series and movies mentioned above, and the interest in the state for these products are important in terms of showing the immanence of the state to neoliberal governance. In other respects, Kulturkampf also accelerated the meeting of neo-Ottomanism with populism. As a matter of fact, the conquest festivities of Istanbul, which was carried out during the JDP period, were turned into concerts in a way to ensure the participation of large groups, and the series and films in question became ways for the people to learn the true culture. In this process, the knowledge of the past was distorted and presented to the service of populist discourses. Müller (2019: p. 15-16) says that populism is anti-elitist, speaking on behalf of the people, a morally alleged identity policy. With this dimension, neo-Ottomanism or Ottomentality is reproduced as a moral claim expressing the truth in the market as the true culture of the people. The populist reproduction of the neo-Ottomanism turns it into a habitus of a politics of hatred and hate (Tokdoğan, 2018: p. 263). Habitus is a concept developed by P. Bourdieu to express that individuals produce behaviors that meet the expectations of social norms without having to think in certain situations (Jourdain and Naulin, 2016: p. 45). Accordingly, neo-Ottomanism as a habitus provides the production of symbolic values ​​as a component of the transformation of the national identity, which was attempted during the JDP period. This discourse embodied in the leader penetrates the behaviors and emotions of all segments without being limited to a certain segment. In this process, the leader and the party, as the carrier of the true folk culture, with the discourse that embraces not only a segment but also all the segments (my nation… etc.) become to the carrier of the past (RTE, Adnan Menderes, Turgut Özal heritage and the identification of Abdulhamit II). As M. Bilig expressed in the context of banal nationalism, the infiltration of neo-Ottomanism through all symbols of everyday life through the symbols and its influence on behavior reproduces it as a habitus. We see that this new ethos, which we describe as “banal Ottomanism”, spreads from the language to architecture, from education to the media, from national rituals to daily life practices, and to the capillaries of institutions and cultural and social life and has managed to create a pathos (Tokdoğan, 2018: p. 82).

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In this sense, it is necessary to look at the pedagogical factors behind their production as a final element in order to examine the banalization and the transformation of populism into habitus beyond symbols, behaviors and emotions. As stated earlier, the transformation in the education system during the JDP period was expressed as a showdown with Kemalist modernization. However, it is also necessary to pay attention to the continuity of this showdown with Kemalism in the context of the security and threat paradigm. As Eroler (2019: p. 310) stated, the transformation in the content of the education philosophy of the JDP period is a transformation in which Islamic motifs have become dominant, but the security and threat paradigm has been continuously adopted. In this context, the militarist-sexist nation construct of Kemalism was also adopted in the education philosophy of the JDP period. Therefore, the pedagogical factor behind neo-Ottomanism’s appeal to all segments as a habitus should be sought in this continuum in content. Beyond the nep-Ottomanism and Ottomentality discussions Fırat Mollaer (2016; 2018) examines the matter in the context of nativism, being nativ and national and suggests that nativism rhetoric is based on the metaphysical culturalisation of country (Turkey). This is the element that will bring dignity to citizens living in this metaphysics itself. However, in fact, very few people (intellectuals) have the knowledge of dignity and their value is also unknown (Mollaer, 2018: pp. 17-19). Mollaer (2018: p. 20) claims that the aim of the nativism rhetoric is cultural power, but eventually it has turned into a rhetoric that desires the desire of the Other (West). In this state, nativism discourses turn into populist rhetoric. As a matter of fact, according to Mollaer (2018: pp. 20-21), the most prominent areas of this populism are the narratives of culture and especially domestic and national past and sultans, in the recent series.

METHODS In the study, after the searching made with the word Ottoman in Appstore and Android Store markets, the three most downloaded games were taken as samples and the playability elements of these games were analyzed descriptively. Accordingly, scenarios, visuals, discourses continued throughout the game as structural elements that determine the playability of the games were included in the analysis and descriptive analysis was tried to be sonutized with various examples.

Game of Sultans Game of Sultans is a war and strategy game based on the Ottoman Period. The player starts the game by choosing a name for himself. While the game offers random name suggestions to the player, the player himself can determine his name. Game is played on mobile devices, the first image that appears to the player is as in Figure 1. Looking at the logo of the game, the mosque silhouette stands out. Accordingly, it can be said that the logo has an Islamic emphasis. Similarly, when looking at the fonts used and the folded figures under the text, it can be said that Anatolian and Ottoman emphasis was made. It is believed that the logo’s golden color and bright appearance are intended to reflect the magnificence and richness of the Ottoman Empire. It is stated in the intro of the game that the ruler of the world is sick, that the player must return to the palace. While in the palace, the sultan states that he is sick, that it may be the last words and that the player will be the head of the State. Meanwhile, the Sultan mentions the justice, power and descendants of the Ottoman Empire and states that the continuation of them depends on the player and the Sultan is 424

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sentenced to eternity. The actor, starts the game as a new Sultan in company with “Long live my Sultan!” slogans. When the player is active in the game, it is guided by the scenerio that the Byzantine Emperor Manuel should be attacked and sent troops here. This situation in the game has been directed towards the national feelings of the player from the first stage since the ongoing wars between Ottoman and Byzantine and racially Turkish - Greek tension which is still exist. In addition, military training is mentioned in the next stage, with a reference to the fact that the state is ruled by army traditions and gives importance to the army in Turkish history. When the visual characteristics of the Sultan and the Byzantine Emperor are compared, the eastern and western distinctions can be clearly seen in the character costumes. Figure 1.

Figure 2.

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Figure 3.

Figure 4.

In the game, you can go to the expedition through the door called Sefer-i Hümayun. The fortress I is attacked by the enemy army which has the Crusader symbol. After the attack on the fortress is won, the enemy state emperor and his army are attacked and the player can choose the vizier during the other attacks. Scenerio leads the player to failure in the first attack. The purpose of this is to direct the playability of the game automatically and to be able to perceive some features by the player. In order for viziers to be successful in attacks and state administration, power, knowledge, policy and reputation characteristics of viziers should be developed. Victory is achieved after these features are developed. After this part, in-game training is completed and the player is left to his own preferences. During the attacks, the conversations between The Sultan and Emperor which are automatically determined, is seen

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such as: “Attack my heros”, “Hey Sultan, what are you (Muslims) doing here for the sake of God!” “I came to take your soul, bring me the head of this heretic!”. In the game, the player needs to collect grain and janissaries and develop their viziers in order to develop their own character. These are loaded over time and need to be collected or improved by the player. Depending on the direction of the scenerio, the player goes to Disguise (Tedbil-i Kıyafet) section and meets the first female character. The way to enter the harem is through disguise. When the disguise section is activated, the visual that appears, is given in Figure 5, and the image when the Harem section is activated, is given in Figure 6. Figure 5.

Figure 6.

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As can be seen, the beauty of the concubines are emphasized in the text. At the same time, the idea that “the man has the freedom to choose the concubine that he wants, even he can choose more than one concubine, the concubines do not have a say about this subject anyway” can be seen as a subtext of the image. (promise of happy marriage) Canfeza Hatun is the first female character encountered in the harem. She is selected as concubine with the direction of the scenerio. At the beginning of the game, the player is not asked about sex, the player will play with a male character in all circumstances, because he is the sultan, the sultans are male. At this point, it can be said that the target audience of the game consists of men. The characteristics of the concubines are listed as “experience, child, attraction and sincerity”. In the game, the sultan, the player, can reach the first concubine effortlessly and immediately make a child. Clicking on the “Private Visit” button, the sultan and concubine have sexual intercourse, but this is not shown in the game. However, it can be understood from the birth of a new child by clicking on the special visit button that is entered into the relationship (not every time). Born children are called heirs, which the player can raise as he wishes within the direction of the game. There is even an area in the game called Varices System, where this training is provided. At the same time, when the special visit button is clicked, Canfeza Hatun makes a sentence saying “State affairs are very tired of you”. Besides, 3 other sentences that Canfeza Hatun says draw attention. These sentences are “Our women are coy,” “Sit and I will take care of you” and “Do you want me to dance?” In order for the Sultan to reach other concubines, he needs to level up by performing the tasks in the game. At this point, it should be noted that women are the kind that will rest men, remove them from state affairs and relax them. There is no such situation in dialogues between other men or women. However, it is seen that the concubine was a character who undertook the duty of serving her man. The sultan’s award is concubine. The reward of the concubine is also the sultan. Because the sultan’s power offers the concubine a better life than other women. Female fertility also stands out in the game. Being the mother of the sultan’s child is a means of gaining privileges in the palace and among other concubines. (Maternity) Looking at the costumes on the concubines in the harem, it is seen that most of them are chest low-cut. Considering the female characters’ costumes and the fact that women are seen as serving men, the woman is presented as a commodified object in the game. Figure 7.

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Figure 8.

In the part called the room of presentation (arz odası) in the game, the player is interested in state affairs and can collect income, grain and janissaries. Again, the state affairs he may be interested in are limited, and the period must be expired for the next one. All of the characters interested in government affairs are male characters. In the in-game chat, which is another structural feature of the game, the players who use the cyrillic alphabet as well as the Turkish-speaking players stand out. In the conversation section, candidates to be married for the coexistence of the princes and girls are sought, and the importance of establishing marriage-kinship relations in the past interstate relations is referred.

The Magnificent Ottoman The magnificent Ottoman is a war and strategy game based on the Ottoman Period. Throughout the game, the player is expected to build spaces such as lumberjacks, farms, training tents, and collect revenues from these, as these are collected, awards are earned and indirectly increased. In addition, it is expected from the player to fight against enemies encountered in the game and actions such as attack and conquest of other troops. The game starts with the visual of the game’s starting character accompanied by a mehter music “Heroes never die!” “Heroes never die!” is also the motto of the game in Play Store and AppStore. Traditional moon and star symbols can be seen in the game’s logo. It can be said that these symbols bear the attribution of “Turkishness”. Similarly, when looking at the font used in the logo, it can be thought that it emphasizes Anatolian in an orientalist trend. The image of the male on the rearing horse on the text again refers to Turkishness and symbolizes nomadic equestrianism. The golden and bright appearance of the logo color reminds the magnificence of the Ottoman Empire. In the intro, it is said that the monarch devoted his life to witness the magnificence of the empire accompanied by the images of war, that none of the years of wars, conquests and rebellions could stop the rise of the glorious Ottoman. The monarch entrusts the empire to the player with the words “Empire is in your hands”. In addition, the azan sound, Ottoman Flag and Mosque visuals can be seen in the intro.

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Besides, it is said to be a century of war, and aestheticized blood images, images on the battlefields are featured, and heroism is emphasized. At the end of the intron, it is seen that the hero, the actor, emphasizes nationalism in his words, “My beautiful hometown, we finally got back again.” Ottoman History is described as “magnificent”. There is also an emphasis that the Ottoman Empire was facing an unprecedented war and that the state was the legacy of the ancestors. It is seen that the history of the Ottoman Empire is mentioned about the invincibility myth of the empire. My dear, the future of the empire is in your hands ”, makes the player play a savior role. It should also be added that the heroine is a male character, and he emphasizes the masculine representation of the game, such as courage, warfare, domination and power, with the concept of heroism. Figure 9.

Figure 10.

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Figure 11.

In the image following the intro, it is understood that the young ruler, the player, was appreciated by the Sultan after his victory at sea and therefore he was appointed as the city governor. Then comes the image of the enemy. This character named Zeheb is also a man. He wants gold, silver, grain and women as the spoils of war. The ruler accepted these words as an insult to the empire and said, “My lions! My brave! Attack and show who we are to this cruel!” Here again patriarchy and masculine dominance is seen. While women are seen as a spoils of war, the enemy must be again male, just like the ruler. Only masculine power can be used against masculine power. It is seen with the nourishment of the historical myth that even though there are two masculine powers, the nationalist stance of the Ottoman ruler and the power of the empire overcome the opposing masculine power. It should be added that while the image of the Ottoman hero is in an orientalist line that reflects the Ottoman Empire exactly, the image of the opposing character is more western. At this point, an Oxidentalist attitude towards the foreign rival character and an orientalist attitude towards the game from the foreign character are observed. Figure 12.

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Subsequently, the scenerio directs the player to various activities required for war, such as grain collection, training troops, and the continuation of the state. As these missions are completed, the player gains gold, and as he gains gold, he can level up. The discourses that warriors “fight like a lion, are strong and invincible, astonish the enemy” against the enemy support the myth of the Ottoman invincibility. After the war, the enemy escapes and the Hünkar wants to fight him. When Lala Ahmet said that the fires were out of control due to the war, Hünkâr said, “Okay, I am donating the life of that melun for now. “Clean the battlefield now and run to the aid of the injured.” It is understood that he forgives the enemy’s life because his people are in a difficult situation. Immediately after this promise, ruined city and village images and fire images are given, while in the background, sad music is heard accompanied by the crying sounds of babies and women. After this scene, Lala Ahmet says that if nothing is done, the city will face famine. For this reason, help is requested from one of the heroes in the place called “hall of heroes”. The scenerio automatically assigns the hero. The first hero is Nursema Hatun. The tension music that plays in the background up to this point changes with the emergence of the character and turns into a music with more positive effects. As soon as Nursema Hatun appears on the screen, the following slogan is heard: “Peace is hidden in this fertile land.” Nursema Hatun Hünkâr said, “You must be the new Ruler who saved the people of the city from the hands of that cruel. It is a great honor to meet you, My Honor. ” In this dialogue, the adjuvant is also attributed to the ruler. Then, it is aimed to develop agriculture by establishing various farms in the game. Farms start to produce grains, but Lala Ahmet says that the refugees in the surrounding area took refuge in the Ottoman Empire after the last attack. Due to the shortage of food, he proposes to Sultan to close the gates of the city to the refugees. In response, Sultan says “Impossible! I am an Ottoman ruler, it is my duty to help the needy and the oppressed. We have responsibilities against them and the empire with Allah’s permission, and I will fulfill them all. ” From this discourse, protectionism, one of the values of Ottoman thought, the situation of creating a sense of heroism against the other and a liberating attitude are observed. It is also noteworthy that this scenario addresses the current migration crisis and the refugee perception. In the 3rd part’s intro, it is said that the Sultan was right in his initial praises, the player successfully accomplished the tasks, but the success brought the danger. The city’s doors are opened to the horse carts that come to the city saying that they brought gifts from the Sultan and suddenly the conflict begins. It is understood that the Ottoman general, who was the head of the incoming team, was in cooperation with the enemy. General tells Sultan that he can continue his life if he gives gold, silver, women and officers to him and helps him collect tribute. At this point, there are two options: “resist” and “accept”. When the Resist option is chosen, Nursema Hatun convinces Sultan that they are not strong enough now and accept what they say until they gather allies. General then captures the silver and almost all food in the city, as well as Nursema Hatun, leaving the city to return for collecting tribute tomorrow. Before leaving, Sultan tells Nursema Hatun that he will never let her hurt, and that he will bring freedom to her and their lands again. The sultan is also a savior, both as the governor of the state and as a male character. In addition to these details in the two sections, the Ottoman air is dominant in the characters and costumes seen so far. The embroidered dress in the female character, the embroidered costumes, the armor, and the trumpets in the male characters ... The fact that the male characters use weapons and armor and that the fighters are completely men is a reference to the patriarchal masculine power. The captivity of the female character is also the same. Scenerio draws the image of a woman who is weak and waiting to be rescued by a man.

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Figure 13.

Age of Ottoman While loading the game, the image in Picture 15 is encountered. This image is also the logo of the game. The game starts in the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, not in the imperial order like in other games. Unlike other games, Age of Ottoman is a more limited game. It is seen that it is not as rich as other games in terms of visual elements. Like others, it does not have a logo that emphasizes the magnificence of the Ottoman Empire. As can be seen in the logo, a man with a flag is on top of a mountain and the sun is in the background. Here, the man - who is thought to be the player who will establish the Ottoman State - is at the summit and the flag in his hand represents victory. It is expected to the player to assign and choose his nickname. The player is then asked to choose either Byzantine or Ottoman side. Due to the scope of the study, the Ottoman side was chosen while playing this game. Then the player comes up with the situation, war, my army, shop, one-to-one network menus. In the game, there is music with Anatolian melodies accompanied by saz. As in other games, the player is expected to fight to win gold in this game. Clicking the Status button, the image in Picture 16 is encountered. “Alp” is added next to the name of the player and “sons of …….” appears in the background. When the War button is pressed, a storytelling is encountered. In the First Chapter of the Seignoiry Period, this narrative flows only on the screen in writing and is as follows: “There was a brave who listened to the call of Anatolia and devoted his soul to the land to which he belonged. Young Kabul2 Alp felt that Anatolia belonged to Kabiloğulları. These lands were so worthy to carry the banner of Islam in their hearts that Anatolia had its own soul, emotion and character. Knowing this, Kabil Alp fell in love with the domination of Anatolia. He took the raiders, many of whom were his old friends, relatives, friends and companions, and he resisted the migration route.” From these discourses, it is understood that the emphasis on Islam in the narrative context is also made in this game. At the same time, with the desire to protect and rule over Anatolia, a reference is made to today’s sense of nationalism.

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Figure 14.

Figure 15.

War visuals in the game are not as impressive as in other games. Such words like “Coyotes!” is heard during the game. Visually, it is seen that when any soldier died, blood spilled. However, since this image is given instantly, it does not attract much attention. As the game progresses, it is seen that the player is given the role of a savior. The player is asked to save the area from bandits based on territories and bandits. It is said that the Byzantines were haunted by the tribes living in small settlements, exploited their crops, and the people of the region asked the actor for help. Intermittent storytelling also includes rhetoric that Kabul Alp vows to save these people and that it will clear Anatolia from these oppressors.

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The automatic determination of the actor as a male character makes it possible to have an idea about the target audience of the game and brings to mind the masculine idea that the man represents power. The power of the masculine to establish a new state, that is, to form power, is based on war. Similarly, he has to fight and collect loot to maintain his masculine power. It should also be added that there are no violent moves in the game. Even though the Age of Ottoman is weak from the other games,Magnificent Ottoman and Game of Sultans, in terms of graphic and sound elements, it can be said that it has similar objectives with these games. There is a more superficial, simple and simple way to play than just them.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS The relationship between mobile games and everyday life is worth exploring in many ways. It is not possible to measure the impact of mobile games on daily life through analyzes that are attempted descriptively throughout this study. Nevertheless, this study is intended to guide empirical studies to measure the effect in question. In particular, the chat features and social media accounts of mobile games await researchers’ interest as areas where this measurement can be made.

CONCLUSION Neo-Ottomanism or Ottomentality has gained visibility in all areas of everyday life, as a component of the cultural policy operated since 2009, by the ruling party JDP in Turkey. Accordingly, neo-Ottomanism is a cultural policy based on the revival of the Ottoman past, which was denied by Kemalist modernization. As pointed out by Erdem (2017) the Ottomentality concept as a rationality of New Turkey discourse, is a discursive incubator to produce the desired entrepreneurial-self who is bound to the true value. In this context, it is possible to say that neo-Ottomanism as a culture policy and Ottomentality as a mentality based on neoliberal rationality are complementary formations like two halves of an apple. Mobile games are one of the most visible areas of this formation in daily life. It is possible to say that the historicality that provides the playability of the games analyzed throughout the study is based on the past fiction of neo-Ottomanism and Ottomentality. Accordingly, the predetermined characters (Ottoman Byzantine, Muslim-Infidel… etc) are compatible with the xenophobic configuration of the past. Adjectives attributed to these characters also support xenophobic discourse. Similarly, the design of games targeting male players in line with the claim that men make history reflects the masculine character of neo-Ottomanism and Ottomentality. In this context, it is possible to talk about xenophobia and sexist language practices as two components of neo-Ottomanism and Ottomentality. As a matter of fact, these two components also emerge as the characteristics of entrepreneurial subjectivity devoted to the neo-Ottoman past fiction and values ​​that are targeted with the slogan of “raising a religious generation”. Therefore, it is possible to claim that the scenarios have social and political counterparts as the gameplay factors. Games that are made playable especially with xenophobia and sexist language practices make it easier for these hate speeches to be kept alive in everyday life. It is clear, however, that this claim needs to be supported by empirical studies.

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Another factor that strengthens the playability is that connections can be established with current social and political developments through game scenarios. It is obvious that, as in the magnificent Ottoman game, the structural elements related to the scenario, such as an Ottoman Pasha betraying the player or helping the player to face the refugee crisis and demonstrate Ottoman protection, are closely linked to current political developments. In this context, it can be said that the game scenario is compatible with current populist tendencies. Finally, the integration of mobile games into everyday life brings up aesthetics of the dominant power relations from another perspective. Because the establishment of power cannot be considered independently from the installation of docile subjectivities that will accept and internalize the adoption and legitimacy of this power. In this context, the components of mobile games, playability should be evaluated together with the components that the ruling power relations make sense. Throughout the study, it is possible to say that the three mobile games analyzed with scenarios, orientalist visuals and music based on the Ottoman past also played a role in the establishment of the religious subjectivity of neo-Ottomanism and the entrepreneurial subjectivity of Ottomentality as aesthetic components that fortified the ruling power relations.

REFERENCES Aupers, S. (2012). Enchantment, Inc.: Online gaming between spiritual experience and commodity fetishism. In D. Houtman & B. Meyer (Eds.), Things: Religion and the Question of Materiality (pp. 339–355). Fordham University Press. doi:10.5422/fordham/9780823239450.003.0020 Baerg, A. (2009). Govermentality, Neoliberalism, and the Digital Game. Symploke, 17(1-2), 115–127. doi:10.1353ym.2009.0028 Bos, D. (2018). Answering the Call of Duty: Everyday encounters with the popular geopolitics of militarythemed videogames. Political Geography, 63, 54–64. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2018.01.001 Carlson, R., & Corliss, J. (2011). Imagined commodities: Video game localization and mythologies of cultural difference. Games and Culture, 6(1), 61–82. doi:10.1177/1555412010377322 Deveci, C. (2005). Foucault’nun iktidar kavramsallaştırmasında siyasal boyutun ayrıştırılamazlığı. Doğu-Batı, 9, 25–43. Doh, Y. Y., & Whang, S. M. L. (2014). From separation to ıntegration: Identity development of Korean adult players in online game world. Games and Culture, 9(1), 30–57. doi:10.1177/1555412013498301 Durdu, P., Hotamaroğlu, A., & Çağıltay, K. (2004). Turkish collage students ‘Game Characteristics: A descriptive study [Paper presentation]. BTIE Conference 2004, Ankara, Turkey. Erdem, C. Y. (2017). Ottomentality: Neoliberal governance of culture and neo-ottoman management of diversity. Turkish Studies, 18(4), 710-728. DOI: / doi:10.1080/14683849.2017.1354702 Eroler, E. G. (2019). Dindar nesil yetiştirmek” Türkiye’nin eğitim politikalarında ulus ve vatandaş inşası (2002-2016). İletişim.

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Fogg, B. J. (2002). Persuasive technology: Using computers to change what we think and do. Morgan Kaufmann. Foucault, M. (2012). Cinselliğin tarihi. Ayrıntı. Foucault, M. (2014). Bir özgürlük pratiği olarak kendilik kaygısı etiği. In F. Keskin (Ed.), Özne ve İktidar (pp. 221–247). Ayrıntı Yayınları. Grandinetti, J., & Ecenbarger, C. (2018). Imagine Pokémon in the “real” world: A Deleuzian approach to Pokémon GO and augmented reality. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 35(5), 440–454. do i:10.1080/15295036.2018.1512751 Hong, R. (2013). Game modding, prosumerism and neoliberal labor practices. International Journal of Communication, 7, 984–1002. Işık, S. (2014). Foucault’da kendilik etiği ve sanat yapıtı olarak yaşam. Felsefe ve Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 17, 101–116. Jourdain, A., & Naulin, S. (2016). Pierre Bourdieu’nün kuramı ve sosyolojik kullanımları (Ö. Elitez, Trans.). İletişim. Kline, S., Dyer-Witheford, N., & De Peuter, G. (2003). Digital play: The interaction of technology, culture, and marketing. McGill-Queen’s University Press. Malone, T. W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 5(4), 333–369. doi:10.120715516709cog0504_2 Mollaer, F. (2016). Teknomuhafazakarlığın eleştirisi. İletişim. Mollaer, F. (2018). Yerliciliğin retoriği. Phoenix. Nakamura, L. (2008). Cyberrace. PMLA, 123(5), 1673–1682. doi:10.1632/pmla.2008.123.5.1673 Russell, F. (2018). I’m not playing: Gamification, mental illness, and neoliberal subjectivity. Journal for Cultural Research, 22(4), 396–411. doi:10.1080/14797585.2019.1631997 Silverman, M., & Simon, B. (2009). Discipline and dragon kill points in the online power game. Games and Culture, 4(4), 353–378. doi:10.1177/1555412009343572 Tekelioğlu, O. (2005). Moderniteye sıkışan özgürlük: Foucault’nun “kendilik teknolojileri”ne bir bakış. Doğu-Batı, 9, 45–55. Tokdoğan, N. (2018). Yeni Osmanlıcılık hınç, nostalji, narsizm. İletişim. Voorhees, G. A. (2009). I play therefore ı amsid meier’s civilization, turn-basedstrategy games and the cogito. Games and Culture, 4(3), 254–275. doi:10.1177/1555412009339728 Wilde, P., & Evans, A. (2019). Empathy at play: Embodying posthuman subjectivities in gaming. Convergence (London), 25(5-6), 791–806. doi:10.1177/1354856517709987 Zhu, F. (2020). The freedom of alienated reflexive subjectivity in The Stanley Parable. Convergence (London), 26(1), 116–134. doi:10.1177/1354856517751389

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ADDITIONAL READING Aslan, A., Coban, M., Karakus Yilmaz, T., & Goktas, Y. (2017). The native symbols engaging turkish players to digital games in a playability perspective. Simulation & Gaming, 48(4), 480–497. doi:10.1177/1046878117704684 Fromme, J., & Unger, A. (Eds.). (2012). Computer games and new media cultures: A handbook of digital games studies. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2777-9 Kapell, M. W., & Elliot, N. B. R. (Eds.). (2013). Playing with the past: Digital games and the simulation of history. Bloomsbury. Oliva, M., Pérez-Latorre, Ó., & Besalú, R. (2018). ‘Choose, collect, manage, win!’: Neoliberalism, enterprising culture and risk society in video game covers. Convergence (London), 24(6), 607–622. doi:10.1177/1354856516680324 Wolf, M. J., & Perron, B. (Eds.). (2014). The Routledge companion to video game studies. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203114261 Zulkarnain, I. (2014). “Playable” nationalism: “Nusantra Online” and the “Gamic” reconstructions of national history. Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, 29(1), 31–62. doi:10.1355j29-1b

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Entrepreneurial Self: The conceptualization Foucault uses to express neoliberal subjectivity. Ottomentality: Conceptualization used by C. Erdem to express the logic of subjectivity in which the Ottoman past was harmonized with neoliberal rationality. Playability: It is the whole of the structural elements that make it easier to choose a game (scenario, visuals, discourses) Technology of Self: The name given by Foucault to all the material components that make up the self. True Folk Culture: It is the slogan that aims to remind people of their history who is alienated by the Kemalist modernization project, by right-wing populist political discourse in Turkey.

ENDNOTES 1



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Nagehan Tokdoğan (2018: p. 134) shows that the “One Minute” crisis at the Davos summit also had a positive effect on many people who did not position themselves as nationalist-conservative at that time. According to these people, the “One Minute” output argues that not only one section expresses their views, but that all the victims of the extreme Western tone of Kemalist modernization address the feelings. According to Tokdoğan, making the neo-Ottomanism the most dominant component of the nation identity building process of the JDP era after 2011 is the addressing not only to one segment but also to all Turkish identity in the context of addressing emotions. We choose Kabul nicknames for to assign to the game.

Section 4

Aesthetics of Violence Beyond Power

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Chapter 22

Resisting With Art:

The Surveillance Art Against Surveillance Nihal Kocabay-Sener https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4018-082X Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Surveillance has become an element of everyday life. Modern society is used to surveillance. It has become inconspicuous. But art makes surveillance apparent. In this chapter, the notion of surveillance art was debated, and surveillance art was evaluated as activist art. In surveillance art, there are artworks created by singular artists or art groups. In this chapter, two groups were analyzed: Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers. The two art groups focused on CCTV. Surveillance Camera Players tried to take attention by playing in front of the CCTV in the public sphere. Surveillance Camera Players created awareness for surveillance cameras that normalized in everyday life. Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers also invited to make a film via CCTV footage. The manifesto noticed to determine with the act. Consequently, surveillance art creates social awareness, and it is a way to resist surveillance.

INTRODUCTION Surveillance is one of the important elements in modern society. Surveillance studies have continued for a long time. However, these studies have increased when digitalization has begun. Surveillance has become an element of everyday life. Art also started to include surveillance. It is possible to define art in many different ways. The lives of individuals have become a subject of the art. Namely, societies and individuals give form to art. Art has a critical perspective. It can gain attention for some subjects and can create social awareness. In this chapter, the relationship between surveillance and art has been discussed. The relationship has been evaluated with approach of surveillance studies. From literature to cinema, from theater to painting, it is possible to examine surveillance in works of art. The relationship between the two notions can explain as follow: 1. Some artworks can make normalize (acceptable) surveillance; 2. Some artworks can resist to surveillance. These two determinations seem to contrast each other. However, art is not only DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch022

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 Resisting With Art

normalization but also a resistance area. Art can make normalize surveillance and at the same time, it can be an area that to form a resistance against surveillance. The chapter prefers to dwell on the second one. The intersection of surveillance and art as surveillance art is evaluated as activist art. Some basic notions were focused in the chapter. Primarily, the relationship between surveillance and aesthetics was discussed. The debate was made over the notion of the aesthetics of surveillance. Additionally, the relationship between surveillance studies and aesthetics was discussed. Another notion is surveillance art. This notion includes the relationship between surveillance and art. Generally, surveillance art refers to the art that creates using surveillance technologies. There are some artworks that can be evaluated as surveillance art. In surveillance art, there are artworks created by singular artists or art groups. In this chapter, two art groups were analyzed: Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers. These two groups focused on closed-circuit television (CCTV). There are different elements in surveillance technologies, in other words, surveillance technologies do not involve only CCTV. But CCTV is the most known and the most visible of surveillance technologies. Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers have published some documents. Consequently, the documents can inspire other art groups. The art groups can apply strategies in the documents and can create the same artworks. These two groups do not have only artistic purposes. One of their purposes is also to create social awareness. For this reason, their activity can be defined as activism. These two art groups were selected to analyze due to being activists. Document analysis was applied for the analysis of Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers. The chapter’s subject is discussed with the approach of surveillance studies. The chapter has two scopes. First, the chapter tries to consider general overview studies about surveillance art. It has been observed that there are limited studies related to surveillance art during the literature review. Thus the chapter overviewed literature about surveillance art. The second scope is to discuss surveillance art as art activism. It tries to draw attention to the importance of art in noticing surveillance.

SURVEILLANCE AND AESTHETICS In this title, first, surveillance and aesthetics concepts will be discussed than the aesthetics of surveillance concept as the intersection of surveillance and aesthetics will be debated. Surveillance is defined as following in lexical meaning: “The act of carefully watching a person suspected of a crime or a place where a crime may be committed” (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, n. d.). Namely, a person that under surveillance is evaluated as a person of interest or a suspect. This definition has assigned negative meaning for surveillance. According to Gary T Marx (2015), surveillance is neither good nor bad, but context and comportment do make it so (p. 733). The notion of surveillance is though, with the relationship between control and power, the notion usually is discussed in that perspective. Jeremy Bentham’s panopticon, which is one of the cornerstones of surveillance studies, is about control. Bentham (1995) discussed to provide how to keep under surveillance via architecture. His panopticon has also been an inspiration to other surveillance studies. Bentham said “a simple idea in architecture!” (1995: p. 31) about panopticon. According to Miran Božovič, “the panopticon is nothing more than ‘a simple idea in architecture’, never realized, describing ‘a new mode of obtaining power of mind over mind, in a quantity hitherto without example’ –the possessor of this power is ‘the inspector’ with his invisible omnipresence, ‘an utterly dark spot’ in the all-transparent, light-flooded unverse of the panopticon” (1995: p. 1). 441

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Another publication in surveillance studies field is Michel Foucault’s book named “Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison” (1995). Foucault examined Bentham’s model in the ‘Panopticism’ section of the book: By the effect of backlighting, one can observe from the tower, standing out precisely against the light, the small captive shadows in the cells of the periphery. They are like so many cages, so many small theatres, in which each actor is alone, perfectly individualized and constantly visible. The panoptic mechanism arranges spatial unities that make it possible to see constantly and to recognize immediately. In short, it reverses the principle of the dungeon; or rather of its three functions – to enclose, to deprive of light and to hide – it preserves only the first and eliminates the other two. Full lighting and the eye of a supervisor capture better than darkness, which ultimately protected. Visibility is a trap (Foucault, 1995: p. 200). Foucault analyzed how the architecture elements (such as windows, tower, cells) that formed the panopticon transformed into techniques of discipline. According to Foucault (1995), the panopticon “is a machine for dissociating the see/being seen dyad” (p. 201) and “is the diagram of a mechanism of power reduced to its ideal form; its functioning, abstracted from any obstacle, resistance or friction, must be represented as a pure architectural and optical system: it is in fact a figure of political technology that may and must be detached from any specific use” (Foucault, 1995: p. 205). A lot of researches have been published in field of surveillance studies. According to Marx’s classification can tabularized them as follow (2015: p. 733): Studies cited before in this chapter and the notions draw the lines of surveillance studies and at the same time, they determine wide scope the field. Nevertheless, it shall be kept in mind, the main focus of this chapter is the aesthetics and surveillance. But the above-mentioned studies are fundamental to understand the relationship between surveillance, power, and security. Surveillance studies are debated along with issues like economic, political, classification, security. In other words, surveillance studies are not just limited to the panopticon. Even though this chapter is focused on the panopticon as David Lyon (2006) said “surveillance theory for the twenty-first century is obliged to look beyond the panopticon” (p. 18). The notion of aesthetics includes more detailed and a larger field. It is not possible to discuss the whole notion in this chapter. Hence, the notion of aesthetics will not been debate here. The debates on this concept have discussed in detail in philosophy and history of art. From now on, the relationship between aesthetics and surveillance is debated. The historical connection of aesthetics and surveillance is also revealed when Bentham’s panopticon is acknowledged as cornerstone of surveillance studies (Marx, 2015). Since architecture is a branch of art, it is already linked with aesthetics. Even though Bentham evaluated architecture as a tool for the panopticon, he took the first step to connect with surveillance and aesthetics. It is possible to find a relationship between surveillance and aesthetics at above-mentioned citation from Foucault. This relationship was explained with light, architectural elements and every cell turned into a theater stage by Foucault. Surveillance has been the subject of many artworks. Besides “Surveillance emerges as an aesthetic in almost all aspects of cultural production: from fashion and advertising to architecture and design” (Howeler, 2002). Relationship between surveillance and art is discussed in the next title in this chapter.

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Table 1. The theoretician/s and the notion/s on surveillance study (The table was created by the author) The theoretician/s

The notion/s

(Bentham, 1995)

The panopticon

(Foucault, 1977, 1998)

Disciplinary society, the gaze and bio-power

(Marx, 1985, 2015)

Surveillance society, the new surveillance and maximum security society

(Cohen, 1985)

Net widening

(Laudon, 1986)

Dossier society

(Clarke, 1988)

Dataveillance

(Poster, 1990)

Super-panopticon

(Deleuze, 1992)

Society of control

(Palidda, 1992)

L’anamorphose de l’etat-nation

(Gandy, 1993)

Panoptic sort

(Blomberg, 1987)

Minimum security society

(Mathiesen, 1997)

Synopticon

(Buzan et al., 1998)

Securitization

(Bogard, 1996)

Telematic society

(Nogala, 1995)

Techno-policing

(Brin, 1998)

Transparent society

(Norris and Armstrong, 1999)

The maximum surveillance society

(Bauman, 2000)

Liquid modernity

(Hardt and Negri, 2001)

Information empire

(Haggerty and Ericson, 2006)

Surveillant assemblage

(Boyne, 2000)

Post-panopticon

(Gabriel, 2005)

Glass cage

(Bigo, 2006)

Ban-opticon

(Brodeur and Leman-Langlois, 2006)

High policing

(Greenfield, 2006)

Ubiquitous computing

(Michael et al., 2008)

Ubereveillance

(Wright et al., 2008)

Ambient intelligence

(Lyon, 2007)

Safe society

(Torpey, 2007)

Thick and thin surveillance

Source: (Marx, 2015)

Notions of surveillance aesthetics and aesthetic of surveillance are used in the studies about relationship between aesthetics and surveillance. Eric Howeler researched relationship between surveillance and architecture in his article named “Anxious architectures. The aesthetics of surveillance” (Howeler, 2002). Howeler points out that architecture has long structured the systems of surveillance and control. But architecture is not only issue in his article:

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Cultural artefacts like advertising images and architectural designs incorporate and manifest the new aesthetics of surveillance as a new cultural condition. Fashion has appropriated the visual elements of surveillance as a style to seduce the viewer/consumer. Architecture incorporates new spatial anxieties and optical relationships, highlighting the fact that surveillance and control are inherently architectural issues. The prevalence of the aesthetics of surveillance signal a new cultural condition – saturated with data, fraught with uncertainties, visually and spatially anxious. Architectural responses to the new aesthetics of surveillance are varied and uneven; no new strategy has emerged as a cultural dominant. Instead, the new condition is characterized by a proliferation of strategies: camouflage, decoys, proxies and dissimulation (Howeler, 2002). Peter Eckersall (2003) who used the notion of surveillance aesthetics expressed the term as follow: The surveillance aesthetic comes into being when we begin to see and experience our world though the ever present chimera of surveillance. It is part of a new spatial and cultural formation; one that watches and listens, compares, and directs. It constructs systems and hierarchies as organising principals to determine the ways that we might see and relate to the world around us. According to Eckersall (2003), the convergence of media and communications feeds from and helps to organise such surveillance aesthetics. Both Howeler and Eckersall point out to media while they discuss aesthetics and surveillance. Jonathan Finn also takes notice of media and explains as follow: “In addition to the rise in camera and other forms of surveillance practice, surveillance increasingly appears as a subject in film, television, video games, social networking sites, advertising and art” (Finn, 2012: p. 67). Jonathan Finn (2012) defined surveillance as an aesthetic concept in the article. Finn referred to Paul Frosh’s book named “The Image Factory: Consumer Culture, Photography and the Visual Content Industry” (2003). Frosh searched using the keyword ‘surveillance’ on Corbis and Getty Images as image archives and he found a lot of image results. According to Finn, surveillance became commercial in stock photography, however to him; Importantly, the existence of surveillance as an aesthetic concept and the prevalence of surveillance images in creative image archives is not simply a reflection of the ubiquity of surveillance in contemporary life; rather it functions in a larger, cultural reconceptualization of surveillance as a banal part of daily life – as common and as symbolic as the windows, flowers and sunshine that dominate stock imagery. (Finn, 2012: p. 74). When Roland Schöny debated the aesthetics of surveillance, he thought “one could write a pictorial history of the aesthetics of surveillance in the area where contemporary art, new media culture and film overlap” (Schöny, 2008). To Schöny, it should be taken into consideration two studies in this history. These are Lev Manovich’s “Modern surveillance machines: Perspective, radar, 3-d computer graphics, and computer vision” (2002) and Bruce Nauman’s Video Surveillance Piece (Public Room, Private Room)1. On the other side, Paola Baretto Leblanc (2010) also added other theoreticians for understanding the aesthetics of surveillance:

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As a device that produces images, video-surveillance circuits also require evaluation from an aesthetic aspect. Artistic works such as urba intervention, performance and video art realised since the 60s (for example, Bruce Nauman, Nam June Paik, Peter Campus, Dan Graham, Bill Viola, Sophie Calle, Marie Sester) show us varied ways to deal with this device that reconfigures public and private spaces. With this in mind we propose the conceptualisation of an aesthetic of surveillance. Works by Thomas Levin (2003), Paul Virilio (1993) and Fernanda Bruno (2007, 2008) can help us understand the aesthetic dimension of this device. (Leblanc, 2010: p. 103). It should be remembered that Walter Benjamin can also be added in addition to the aforementioned theorists. Flâneur, one of Benjamin’s important notions, can be suggested to consider about the aesthetics of surveillance (Benjamin, 1968). The aesthetics of surveillance is “the aesthetics of play between invisibility and visibility” (Gordon, 2009: p. 40). Surveillance devices are usually invisible but their existence is perceivable. Most of the studies on the aesthetics of surveillance have focused on the cameras. Cameras cover most of the everyday life, such as streets, schools, malls, computers, mobile phones. These cameras produce a great deal of footage on daily basis, some footages get into circulation, additionally, some footages are produced to get into circulation. For example, they are shared on social media or on the internet. When all of these is considered, the aesthetics of surveillance can be defined as follow: “By surveillance aesthetics, we understand a compound of artistic practices, which include the appropriation of dispositifs such as closed circuit video, webcams, satellite images, algorithms and computer vision, among others, placing them within new visibility, attention and experience regimes (Bruno and Lins, 2007, 2010 as cited in Bruno, Barreto, Szafir, 2012: p. 83). This definition shows that the notion of surveillance aesthetics or aesthetics of surveillance includes footage that produces via technology. The same definition also gives point to art. The relationship between art and surveillance will be debated in the next title in this chapter. Before finishing this title, which discusses the relationship between surveillance and aesthetics, it is required to mention to another author. David Bell (2009) presented one of the most interesting points of view. Bell evaluated whether the mobilization of voyeurism and exhibitionism can be read as ways of resisting surveillance in the article. His paper focused on sites where surveillance technologies and an emerging ‘surveillance aesthetic’ was being repurposed through their overt sexualization. Bell explained that eroticization as a way of resisting or hijacking surveillance (Bell, 2009: p. 1). Bell thought that surveillance is a way of standing against surveillance. On the other hand, Liu (2004) also has an assessment of the aestheticization of surveillance: The aestheticization of surveillance is a dangerous and perhaps necessary strategy for artists, but it is not necessarily an irresponsible celebration of the surplus pleasure produced by watching and being watched. An ethical, historical, and political dimension of this work, the making visible or accounting for surveillance technologies, also alerts us to the diffusion of Bentham’s panopticon principle. Although we can no longer share Kant’s optimism about the public exercise of reason—nor sign on the dotted line of his contract with a sovereign—we can refuse to abandon the public sphere to the pyrotechnics of spectacle and voyeurism on the one hand and surveillance and control on the other. Aesthetic interventions compensate for polemical weakness with conceptual or theoretical strength: autonomy of the work depends upon an ascetic attitude with regard to denunciation or condemnation. The artwork is severely limited in its capacity as a transmitter of a political message; it is most powerful when it is able

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to reflect upon its own medium and materials. The emancipation of contemporary art, however, goes hand in hand with the destruction of old regimes. (Liu, 2004: p. 115). The resist of surveillance that Bell debated in his article is also included in Liu’s article. Now, whether this resistance is possible in art and the relationship between art and surveillance will be discussed.

ART AND SURVEILLANCE: SURVEILLANCE ART It is always difficult to define a notion. Because defining is to set boundaries. To define becomes more difficult when the notion of art is tried to be described. Up to this time, a lot of books and articles have been written about art. Different artists have explained their different opinions for art and various art movements have risen and will rise. For these reasons, it is difficult to define art. E. H. Gombrich (1951) explained the difficulty as follow: There really is no such thing as Art. There are only artists. Once these were men who took coloured earth and roughed out the forms of a bison on the wall of a cave; today they buy their paints, and design posters for the underground; they did many things in between. There is no harm in calling all these activities art as long as we keep in mind that such a word may mean very different things in different times and places, and as long as we realize that Art with a capital A has no existence. For Art with a capital A has come to be something of a bogey and a fetish. (Gombrich, 1951: p. 5). As Gombrich said, if there is no art, but there are artists, it is possible to define as many art as the number of artists. It would be better to leave the discussion on the definition of art aside and focus on the relationship between surveillance and art. Surveillance does not involve only seeing but it is one of the important elements. If art is going to be considered then, it is required to discuss concepts of seeing and glance/sight. According to John Berger, “to look is an act of choice” (1972: p. 8). But at the same time, to be looked at is a pleasure. Laura Mulvey (2006) said “There are circumstances in which looking itself is a source of pleasure, just as, in the reverse formation, there is pleasure in being looked at” (Mulvey, 2006: p. 344). Although Mulvey explained cinema and glance in her article, she also remarked how voyeuristic gaze show up. When thinking about art and glance, the glance both directs to artworks and directs from artworks. Namely the glance is two-sided. As mentioned above, surveillance does not involve only seeing but seeing is one of the important elements. It is not necessary to discuss more deeply about seeing and glance in here. Seeing and glance were debated from different perspectives (Merleau-Ponty, 2006; Lacan, 1998, 2007). These issues was explained shortly in this head, now it can evaluated art and surveillance. The first encountered notion which defines the relationship between art and surveillance is surveillance art. It is defined to use surveillance technologies in art. However this notion tries to notice about surveillance, in other words, the notion of surveillance art is a critical. “Surveillance art, as a genre of political activism and performance, combats the common tendency within surveillance society to succumb to a kind of amnesia of convenience, an ambivalent state in which the majority of user-consumers are willing to forget or look past the risks of using surveillance technologies in prescribed ways because of perceived economic, political and social gains” (Morisson, 2015: p. 126).

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Surveillance art is a genre of activist art. It stands against surveillance via surveillance devices. Surveillance art provides to notice surveillance by society and it is intrinsically political. According to Merx, “the framework of surveillance art helps to point out the critical and subversive nature of the project and how digital surveillance technologies can be used to create alternative regimes of visibility and participation” (2017: pp. 158-159). The surveyed as object can reach to the subject position with surveillance art. To support that thought, it is necessary to peruse Kafer’s opinion: Surveillance art formulates critical responses to the processes and technologies of monitoring, recording, and storing information on human activity. In this sense, surveillance artists need not exclusively use surveillance technologies or processes in their art making practice. Rather, they aim to mobilize a critical discourse on the rise and proliferation of surveillance in contemporary society by engaging with the politics and power relations configured by surveillance systems. (Kafer, 2016: p. 230). Andrea Mubi Brighenti also has studied surveillance art. Brighenti (2010) defined ‘artveillance’ in his article named “Artveillance: At the Crossroad of Art and Surveillance”, examined as follow: “While it is probably an inaccurate tag, for the sake of brevity in the following I am going to use the term ‘surveillance art’ to address every contemporary artwork that in some way hints to or deals with topics, concerns and procedures that fall within the interest of surveillance studies” (2010: p. 137). In this article, Brighenti noticed to use surveillance in art. According to Brighenti, “some artists have been increasingly focusing their work on surveillance, while others have evoked it only occasionally or only during a certain period of their production. While some artists refer to surveillance in their work, others actually use surveillance technologies to make art” (Brighenti, 2010: p. 137). He selected various samples of surveillance art in the paper and he examined how to represent surveillance in the selected samples. His suggestion for the method is as below: suggest to use a distinction between three models, or paradigms of visibility: the visibility of recognition, the visibility of control, and the visibility of spectacle (Brighenti, 2010: p. 138; Brighenti, 2008). Bruno, Barreto, and Szafir criticized Brighenti in their paper. According to them, Brighenti did not examine the notion of the aesthetics of surveillance in detail. In their article, they said that they tried to fill the blank (Bruno, Barreto, and Szafir, 2012: p. 84). They studied surveillance art in Latin America and explained their research: “In Latin America, art produced in the context of surveillance devices and processes has been modestly analyzed by academics and curators. Our intention is to assemble a selection of works indicating the existence of a wider base of production that cannot be considered occasional and needs to be investigated” (Bruno, Barreto, and Szafir, 2012: p. 84). Katherine Barnard-Wills and David Barnard-Wills (2012) referred towards arguably more relevant cultural representations of surveillance which should also be considered in surveillance studies. According to them, surveillance studies engages with cultural depictions of surveillance, which often mirrors the artistic focus upon vision and the body, and can frequently be uncritical and unreflective in its approach to the medium, unaware of the art-historical approaches already in existence (Barnard-Wills, Barnard-Wills, 2012: p. 205). According to Barnard-Wills and Barnard-Wills, Art historical scholarship could be further modified and enhanced by a deeper understanding of both the issues surrounding dataveillance and identity, and by contemporary arts practice in this area. For surveillance studies this is important because it offers the potential for new narrative and interpretive reservoirs, with the potential to challenge new and emergent cultures of surveillance, to response to new technologies and new social arrangements, and even to support research dissemination (Barnard-Wills, Barnard-Wills, 2012: p. 213). 447

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Another person who criticizes the relationship between art and surveillance is Torin Monahan. Monahan (2018) claimed that critical artworks about surveillance introduce compelling possibilities for rethinking the relationship of people to larger systems of control. He addressed that there are different approaches to critical surveillance artwork. These can be listed as follows: Some works enact plays of avoidance; others expose surveillance practices to heighten transparency; others interrupt or confound data collection and processing and then there are those that emphasize viewers’ complicity or participation in the regimes in question (Monahan, 2018: p. 560). In his paper, Monahan included the viewers in the relationship between surveillance and art: By fostering ambiguity and decentring the viewing subject, critical surveillance art can capitalize on the anxiety of viewers to motivate questions that might lead to greater awareness of surveillance systems, protocols and power dynamics. Works that use participation to make viewers uncomfortable can guide moments of self-reflexivity about one’s relationship – and obligation – to others within surveillance networks. The task seems to be to find ways of extending states of dis-ease beyond momentary encounters with artworks or installations, thereby setting the stage for the emergence of a new aesthetic landscape. (Monahan, 2018: p. 576). Elise Morisson, who also an artist defined the surveillance art as “theatre, installation and performance artworks that stage and engage material technologies and techniques of surveillance” (2011: p. 240). Moreover accordingly Morrison, ‘surveillance art’ works strategically redeploy mainstream surveillance technologies in order to defamiliarize and disrupt the normalized operations of surveillance within public space and everyday life (Morrisson, 2011: p. 239). In the study, Morisson noticed to surveillance that normalize in everyday life. Morisson mentioned artworks of contemporary artists Jill Magid and the Surveillance Camera Players. In the conclusion of the paper, she indicated as below: Surveillance art works remind us that seemingly totalizing and connected surveillance systems are, after all, made up of a series of particular instances of surveillance: discreet times and places in which people interact with tools of vision and communication. Each moment that we, the contemporary citizens of surveillance society, can show that another, smaller and more connected world is possible constitutes a step out of current models of discipline and control, and towards a world in which other ways of being are possible. (Morisson, 2011: p. 256). Simon Hogue (2016) also focused on viewer’s (spectatorship) approach to artworks. Despite the disciplinary power of surveillance, Hogue debated artistic performances may also provide a space of resistance and self-fashioning. To understand the political effect of artistic performances, Hogue discussed one needs to look at how they participate to the redefinition of individual and collective selves. This must include attention to spectatorship as a different category from state and corporate surveillance. Hogue did not claim that all spectators actively engage with the performances seen. He thought that “but by giving attention to an often-neglected set of eyes one can appreciate more broadly the transformative effect of artistic performances” (Hogue, 2016: p. 180). As it is seen, there are different approaches to art and surveillance. The notion of surveillance art is artworks created by using surveillance technologies. Some of these artworks have been done to draw attention to surveillance technologies. The reason of these artworks creates social awareness. The sur-

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veillance technologies have adapted in everyday life and they have been normalized. As a consequence, it is difficult for the society to realize them. Surveillance art tries to uncover hidden control network.

ART OR ACTIVISM OR BOTH? Although art is related to aesthetics, art is one of the most important ways to reveal political problems. Even if there are compensations for surveillance, there are downsides to surveillance too. Surveillance in an individual’s life has been the subject of various artworks. There are a lot of samples as surveillance art. But in here, more known ones were tried to be chosen among these. Chosen samples are Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers. Two samples focus on CCTV. But both distinctly use CCTV footage. Why these two samples were chosen? Because CCTVs are one of the most encountered surveillance formats in everyday life.

Surveillance Camera Players Surveillance Camera Players was founded in 1996 and it disbanded in 2006. Their debut performance in late 1996 was an adaptation of Alfred Jarry’s Ubu Roi, and their last recorded performance was in Montreal in 2009 where they performed an adaption of Denis Beaubois’ in the Event of Amnesia the City Will Recall (Harding, 2015: p. 132). Surveillance Camera Players performed different performances from theater plays and books in front of the CCTVs. These performances put on in the public sphere. Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven,” Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot,” and Alfred Jarry’s “Ubu Roi” was enacted at New York subway platform2. In New York, Surveillance Camera Players presented 1984 written by George Orwell3. Except for these, they have a lot of other performances4. It can be remarked that there are two documents for Surveillance Camera Players. The first is “Guerilla Programming of Video Surveillance Equipment” written by M. Carter (1995). The document was emphasized two different types of surveillance cameras: Some cameras are monitored live, while others record to tape that will probably be viewed only in the event of some crime taking place during the hours of its operation. “Guerilla programming is production of an action, not consumption of a product. It may be that the surveillance camera can give us a focus point on the street (or the mall, or the cafe, or the bathroom) in which to utilize the few salvageable aspects of performance art or “happenings” without the elitism and reliance on the media inherent in such fluff” (Carter, 1995). At the same time, “Guerilla Programming of Video Surveillance Equipment” declared to criticize surveillance society and to attack it. For the document, as theory and practice must occur simultaneously, so must critique and subversion. The second document for Surveillance Camera Players is “Programming Note for The First Season” written by Bill Brown in 1996. The document was noticed to decrease the crime rate via surveillance cameras in metropoles. For this reason, or untold numbers of police surveillants, there is less and less to watch and – less and less to watch out for - every day: “And so we have both an opportunity and a problem here. The opportunity is to get those law enforcement officials watching something on TV that isn’t all sex and violence; and the problem is that a bored surveillant is an inattentive surveillant, and an inattentive surveillant is a waste of space, time and money” (Brown, 1996).

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There is Surveillance Camera Players’ two target audience. The first is people who watched closedcircuit television surveillance systems; namely such as security staff, police officers. If the place where enact is a stage, the audience is the person who watches to CCTV screen. Because the performance locates accordingly the person who monitors screens. The second audience is the people in the public space where Surveillance Camera Players play. Surveillance Camera Players performed in the public sphere such as subway stations, streets. Consequently, the people who in to be in the public sphere were Surveillance Camera Players’ target audience. People who do interesting things in the public sphere attract everyone’s attention and people look at the players. Surveillance Camera Players motivates people to think about the surveillance society. When the people saw Surveillance Camera Players, they noticed surveillance cameras which normalized.

Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers Another sample of surveillance art is also Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers. It is not as known as Surveillance Camera Players but it is an important sample. Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers are different from each other. Surveillance Camera Players is an art group, Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers is an invitation. Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers was composed by Manu Luksch who made a film named Faceless5 (2007). The story of Faceless is shortly as follows: There are still a few laws like the Data Protection Act, in the United Kingdom that protect privacy. So an Austrian artist living in London made use of this text, which precisely stipulates private or public surveillance companies must be able to supply the media upon which any petitioner appears to the petitioner, in order to make her film Faceless. (…)The law stipulates that all faces, other than the petitioner, must be masked. So the filmmaker came up with the story of a person who realizes that her own face has been preserved in a world without faces (Moulon, n. d.: pp. 8-9). Faceless is the first full length film which was compiled from surveillance cameras footage so that makes it important. The film is made under the constraints of the Manifesto—images are obtained from existing CCTV systems by the director/protagonist exercising her rights as a “surveilled person” under the DPA. Obviously the protagonist has to be present in every frame. To comply with privacy legislation, CCTV operators are obliged to render other people in the recordings unidentifiable—typically by erasing their faces, hence the “faceless” world depicted in the film. The scenario of Faceless thus derives from the legal properties of CCTV images (Luksch, Patel, 2007: p. 73). While the art examines the law, the law forms art. According to Data Protection Act, the image of the applicant can be seen and other people’s faces are masked in the footage. Thus legal boundaries decide the aesthetics. In the manifesto it is expressed as follows: “The manifesto is constructed with reference to the Data Protection Act 1998 and related privacy legislation that gives the subjects of data records (including CCTV footage) access to copies of the data” (Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers, n. d.). Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers has six articles and sub-articles. It was published by Manu Luksch in 2008. Six articles include as below: general, script, location, footage requests, sound, distribution. In the manifesto, its cause was explained:

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The most prolific documentarists are no longer to be found in film schools and TV stations. In some European and American cities, every street corner is under constant surveillance using recording closedcircuit TV (CCTV) cameras. Such cameras are typically operated by local government, police, private security firms, large corporations and small businesses, and private individuals, and may be automatic or controlled (zoomed and panned) from a remote control room. Filmmakers, and in particular documentarists of all flavors, should reflect on this constant gaze. (Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers, n. d.). Accordingly the manifesto, the filmmaker is not permitted to introduce any cameras or lighting into the location. In brief, only surveillance cameras footage should be used. But there is an explanation for this article: In addition to the boom in surveillance, the proliferation of miniature mobile cameras (many built into phones and other handheld devices) has led to the phenomenon of “sous-veillance” activities carried out by the population at large. News services now actively solicit amateur recordings from camcorders and even mobile phones, often combining them with CCTV footage where they have access to it, when reporting from scenes of crimes, accidents or natural disasters. The manifesto can be extended to provide a framework for films that work with acts of sous-veillance. (Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers, n. d.). The manifesto accepted sous-veillance images in addition to CCTV images. Sous-veillance set against to surveillance by power. Therefore it is important that the manifesto includes sous-veillance footage An expression is remarkable in “script” article in the manifesto: All people other than the protagonist (“third parties”) will be rendered unidentifiable on the data obtained from the CCTV operators. Typically, operators blur or mask out faces of third parties. The filmmaker is to consider the visual impact of this manipulation, and to establish a rule for the handling of footage delivered with ineffectual masking or blurring–for example, reporting the offence. (Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers, n. d.). According to Data Protection Act, people’s faces -except to the applicant’s face- have to been masked or blurred. If this operation is not done, the filmmaker should report it. At that, filmmaker transform into a mechanism that controls to the practice of law. The mechanism is to compare the application in practice and law. Filmmaker’s control is limited with only that. Her or his task of inspection continues during capturing videos for the film. Manu Luksch –the filmmaker of Faceless- points out as follow: My requests were more often than not replied to in an inadequate or uninformed way - the controllers had clearly not heard of the Data Protection Act. (…) Others attempted to charge thousands of pounds for “post-production”, even though the DPA says that only a standard fee of £10 can be charged. (BBC, 2007). There may be differences between practice and the law. For example, fee is £10 in the Data Protection Act for CCTV videos. But, in the practice the fee can increase thousands of pounds. CCTV filmmakers inform about purview and application of the law.

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CCTV films can be considered an activist art. The filmmakers provide that the society notice surveillance via CCTV films. In addition, their films present the purview of law about the protection of personal data. Thus, the practice of law exhibits to the audience with art. Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers created to get inspired by Data Production Act that enforces in the United Kingdom. It should not be forgotten that the law of every country is different from each other. But the manifesto can adapt to other legal regulations.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Surveillance became everyday life practice. Unfortunately, it is impossible to prevent surveillance. But it is always possible to resist. Art is one of the resistance formats. There are many samples that surveillance art as a form of resistance. In this chapter, only two samples were discussed: Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers. Now, the recommendations will be tried to submit about surveillance art. The recommendations will be evaluated for three shareholders: Artists, audience and institutions (state and private).

For Artists Artists use surveillance to criticize it or to create artworks via surveillance technologies. This chapter focused on the artworks that criticize surveillance. It may be possible for artists to reach their target audience by using various platforms. The artworks are created to make society notice surveillance. It is required to reach a bigger audience for social awareness. Thus, artists should use digital platforms along with art galleries or any physical fields. In addition, it is important that groups -such as Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers- become prevalent in other countries. Thus, the surveillance practices of different countries come to the agenda with an artistic perspective.

For Audience This chapter was not evaluated surveillance art for audience. Surveillance artworks aim to create social awareness for the audience about the normalized surveillance in everyday life. People did not even notice surveillance cameras, yet. But the cameras can be noticed with such artworks. The responsibility of art audience is to do not evaluate these artworks only as art. The artworks are alerts for surveillance.

For Institutions (State and Private) Surveillance is not only done by the state. Private institutions and companies are also big-time operators of surveillance ecosystem. The biggest “supporters” of surveillance art are institutions. Surveillance practices were placed by institutions in everyday life. The resistance is against them. The institutions allege security as a reason to justify surveillance. This is partially true. Surveillance provides security. On the other hand, there is privacy. Surveillance damages privacy.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS It was explained what is possible to do for surveillance art in “Solutions and Recommendations”. In this heading, studies on surveillance art, which is an academic field, will be proposed. When the notion of “surveillance art” was searched on Google Scholar, results were 868 by July 2020. Results were 27 when the keyword was searched on “in the title of the article”. The cause of mentioning this information is to remark boundedness in the academic studies about surveillance art. However, there can be other studies related to this issue without using the keyword “surveillance art”. Surveillance art is a meeting point of surveillance and art. Surveillance art has begun to come into prominence by the reason of the increase of surveillance, digitalization of art, growth of activist art. Surveillance art means to create artworks by using surveillance technologies. Surveillance art samples have been examined in academic studies. Surveillance art with two samples evaluated in this chapter. It is possible to offer suggestions for future researches: • • •

Researches on surveillance art samples in different countries can be done. Comparative analyses can present similarity or discrepancy from the perspectives of surveillance. Audience experience can be researched about surveillance artworks. One of the purposes of surveillance art is to create awareness for surveillance. Do artworks create awareness for audience? How does the audience experience artwork? Answers to such questions can be researched. This study is a chapter about CCTV. But there are some artworks using data. These are also evaluated as surveillance art. It is possible to study on these artworks.

It is possible to increase suggestions for the future resarches. The researches topics about surveillan art are a wide variety. But the academic researches in this field correlate with production of artworks in surveillance art.

CONCLUSION Surveillance is one of the most important characteristics of modern society. Surveillance has become widespread because of the development of technology and the rise of violence and for such reasons. For security reasons, society was tried to persuade surveillance. As surveillance increased, privacy decreased. Surveillance is not only done via CCTV. Social networks, mobile phones, identity cards, bank cards, personal data are uses for surveillance. The scope of surveillance is getting bigger day after day. Today, it is impossible to escape from surveillance but it is possible to resist it. Surveillance studies that begin Bentham’s panopticon are very important for understanding to today’s world. Bentham suggested a prison model. In this chapter, relationship between surveillance and aesthetics has been emphasised. The relationship traces to the panopticon that Bentham’sı prison model suggestion. In conclusion, the prison suggestion is an architecture suggestion. It is possible to accept the relationship between aesthetics and surveillance with the suggestion. Today, the relationship refers as the aesthetics of surveillance. The notion of aesthetics of surveillance involves media, painting, photograph, video, cinema, architecture and other art branches. Aestheticization of surveillance is related to art. When considered the relationship between art and surveillance, it is possible to discuss very many art branches. For example, representation of surveillance in literacy, surveillance in painting, the relation453

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ship between cinema and surveillance, etc… But this chapter focused on surveillance art and it pointed out criticism of surveillance society in art. Surveillance art was evaluated as activism, thus analyzed two samples were selected: Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers. Both samples focus on CCTV. As stated before surveillance is not limited with CCTV but it is the most visible of form surveillance. Surveillance Camera Players tried to take attention by playing in front of the CCTV in the public sphere. Surveillance Camera Players created awareness for surveillance cameras that normalized in everyday life. Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers also invited to make a film via CCTV footage. The manifesto noticed to determine with the act. Both Surveillance Camera Players and Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers asked to make authentic artworks. There are some documents that publish by these groups and the documents invite other artists to perform against surveillance. The invitation is for creating awareness in surveillance society.

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Hogue, S. (2016). Performing, translating, fashioning: Spectatorship in the surveillant world. Surveillance & Society, 14(2), 168–183. doi:10.24908s.v14i2.6016 Howeler, E. (2002). Anxious architectures the aesthetics of surveillance. ARCHIS, (3), 11-24. Retrieved from http://volumeproject.org/anxious-architectures-the-aesthetics-of-surveillance/ Kafer, G. (2016). Reimagining resistance: Performing transparency and anonymity in surveillance art. Surveillance & Society, 14(2), 227–239. doi:10.24908s.v14i2.6005 Lacan, J. (1998). The four fundamental concepts of psycho-analysis. Norton. Lacan, J. (2007). The other side of psychoanalysis. Norton. Laudon, K. C. (1986). Data quality and due process in large record systems: Criminal record systems. Communications of the ACM, 29(1), 4–11. doi:10.1145/5465.5466 Leblanc, P. B. (2010). From closed-circuit television to the open network of live cinema. Surveillance & Society, 7(2), 102–114. doi:10.24908s.v7i2.4137 Liu, C. (2004). A brief genealogy of privacy: CTRL [space]: Rhetorics of surveillance from Bentham to Big Brother. Grey Room, 15, 102–118. doi:10.1162/1526381041165485 Luksch, M. (2007). Faceless. Ambient Information Systems, Amour Fou Filmproduktion. Luksch, M., & Patel, M. (2007). Faceless: Chasing the data shadow. In G. Stocker & C. Schöpf (Eds.), Goodbye privacy (pp. 72–85). Hatje Cantz Pub. Lyon, D. (2006). The search for surveillance theories. In D. Lyon (Ed.), Theorizing surveillance (pp. 17–34). Willan Publishing. doi:10.4324/9781843926818 Lyon, D. (2007). Surveillance studies: An overview. Polity. Manifesto for CCTV Filmmakers. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mascontext.com/issues/22-surveillance-summer-14/manifesto-for-cctv-filmmakers/ Manovich, L. (2002). Modern surveillance machines: Perspective, radar, 3-d computer graphics, and computer vision. In T. Y. Levin, U. Frohne, P. Weibel, P. (Eds.), CTRL [SPACE]: Rhetorics of surveillance from Bentham to Big Brother. Karlsruhe: ZKM Center for Art and Media. Marx, G. T. (1985). The surveillance socitey. The Futurist, 19(3), 21–26. Marx, G. T. (2015). Surveillance studies. In J. Wright (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (pp. 733-741). Elsevier. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.64025-4 Marx, G. T. (2016). Windows into the soul: Surveillance and society in an age of high technology. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226286075.001.0001 Mathiesen, T. (1997). The viewer society: Michel Foucault’s panopticon revisited. Theoretical Criminology, 1(2), 215–234. doi:10.1177/1362480697001002003 Merleau-Ponty, M. (2006). Eye and mind. In S. Manghani, A. Piper, & J. Simons (Eds.), Images: A Reader (pp. 131–134). Sage.

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Merx, S. (2017). Mapping invisibility. Surveillance art and the potential of performative cartography. In M. Leeker, I. Schipper, & T. Beyes (Eds.), Performing the Digital (pp. 157–170). Transcript. Michael, M. G., Fusco, S. J., & Michael, K. (2008). A research note on ethics in the emerging age of überveillance. Computer Communications, 31(6), 1192–1199. doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2008.01.023 Monahan, T. (2018). Ways of being seen: Surveillance art and the interpellation of viewing subjects. Cultural Studies, 32(4), 560–581. doi:10.1080/09502386.2017.1374424 Morrison, E. (2011). Performing citizen arrest: Surveillance art and the passerby. International Journal of Performance Arts and Digital Media, 7(2), 239–257. doi:10.1386/padm.7.2.239_1 Morrison, E. (2015). Surveillance society needs performance theory and arts practice. International Journal of Performance Arts and Digital Media, 11(2), 125–130. doi:10.1080/14794713.2015.1084812 Moulon, D. (n.d.). Art, science, technology and society. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/ viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.457.361&rep=rep1&type=pdf Mulvey, L. (2006). Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema. In M. G. Durham & D. M. Kellner (Eds.), Media and cultural studies: Keyworks (pp. 342–32). Blackwell. Nauman, B. (1969). Video surveillance piece public room, private room. Retrieved from http://www. medienkunstnetz.de/works/video-surveillance-piece/ Nogala, D. (1995). The future role of technology in policing. In J. P. Brodeur (Ed.), Comparisons in Policing: An International Perspective (pp. 191–210). Avebury Publishing. Norris, C., & Armstrong, G. (1999). The maximum surveillance society: The rise of CCTV. Oxford University Press. Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries. (n.d.). Surveillance. Retrieved from https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/surveillance?q=surveillance Palidda, S. (1992). L’anamorphose de l’Etat-Nation: Le cas italien. Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, 269–298. Poster, M. (1990). The mode of information: Poststructuralism and social context. University of Chicago Press. Schöny, R. (2008). Within the apparatus of control. on the enduring fascination of surveillance aesthetics. Springerin, 4(8), 1-4. Retrieved from https://springerin.at/en/2008/4/im-dispositiv-der-kontrolle/ Torpey, J. (2007). Through thick and thin: Surveillance after 9/11. Contemporary Sociology, 36(2), 116–119. Wright, D. (Eds.). (2008). Safeguard in a world of ambient intelligence. Springer.

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ADDITIONAL READING Albrechtslund, A., & Dubbeld, L. (2005). The plays and arts of surveillance: Studying surveillance as entertainment. Surveillance & Society, 3(2/3), 216–221. Cardullo, P. (2017). CCTV oddity: Archaeology and aesthetics of video surveillance. Visual Studies, 32(2), 124–132. doi:10.1080/1472586X.2017.1328988 de Vasconcelos Cardoso, B. (2012). The paradox of caught-in-the-act surveillance scenes: Dilemmas of police video surveillance in Rio de Janeiro. Surveillance & Society, 10(1), 51–64. doi:10.24908s. v10i1.4112 Howeler, E. (2004). Paranoia chic: The aesthetics of surveillance. LoudPaperS Magazine. Retrived from http://www.loudpapermag.com/articles/paranoia-chic-the-aesthetics-of-surveillance Levin, T. Y. (2002). Rhetoric of the temporal index: surveillant narration and the cinema of “real time”. In T. Y. Levin, U. Frohne, P. Weibel, P. (Eds.).CTRL [SPACE]: Rhetorics of surveillance from Bentham to Big Brother. (pp. 578-593). Karlsruhe: ZKM Center for Art and Media. Levin, T. Y. (2010). Surveillance, aesthesis, literacy. In M. Nerland (ed.). Twenty-Five: An Anthology for the 25th Anniversary of BIT Teatergarasjen. 189-193. Retrived from https://scholar.princeton.edu/ tylevin/publications/surveillance-aesthesis-literacy Pollack, B. (2014). When does surveillance art cross the line. ARTnews, (September), 9. Søilen, K. L. G. (2020). Safe is a wonderful feeling: Atmospheres of surveillance and contemporary art. Surveillance & Society, 18(2), 170–184. doi:10.24908s.v18i2.12756 Surveillance Camera Players. (2006). We know you are watching. Factory School. White, J. (2017). Intimate encounters: Screendance and surveillance. The International Journal of Screendance, 8, 29–46. doi:10.18061/ijsd.v8i0.5364

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Activist Art: It is an art form in which political and social events are reflected and social awareness is aimed. Aesthetics of Surveillance: It is to present surveillance in different fields as an aesthetic element from architecture to media. CCTV: Technology that allows monitoring someone or somewhere via the camera. Surveillance: To follow directly or indirectly (via technology) something or somebody. Surveillance Art: It is defined to use surveillance technologies in art. However, this notion tries to notice about surveillance, in other words, the notion of surveillance art is critical. Surveillance Society: Modern societies where surveillance is normalized. Surveillance Technologies: Monitoring technologies that enable the surveillance to continue and to keep individuals under control.

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ENDNOTES 1



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You first experience the installation «Video Surveillance Piece: Public Room, Private Room» (Nauman, 1969) by entering a small room. In one corner, there is a monitor placed at floor level. It screens a camera pan of the room. Positioned on the ceiling a camera diagonally opposite films the situation. When attempting to see yourself on the monitor, you soon discover you only appear via another monitor. You see yourself in a monitor which features another monitor image – namely the movements in the room you are in. At this point things start to grate with customary perception for the experimentation with simultaneous transmission evolves into active observation and being under surveillance. When you walk around the outside of the installation you soon find that it is twice the size of the room you first entered. Typically, Nauman’s title provides a solution to this riddle. The video surveillance occurs in two rooms: a public and a private one. The rooms are adjoining and of equal size. Indeed, the private room is so private it lacks access. Or so it would seem: since this room is also monitored by identical surveillance equipment, its events are likewise transmitted to the outside world. (http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/works/video-surveillance-piece/ images/1/). For performance; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TUxQQGXQZVs&list=UUJkkS8i4cSuJB DSeDWfaAoA&index=2 For performance; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dg950YgmN6k&list=UUJkkS8i4cSuJBD SeDWfaAoA&index=8 For performance; https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCJkkS8i4cSuJBDSeDWfaAoA About the film https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1068949/; for trailer https://vimeo.com/307940

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Chapter 23

Why Should We Still Be Hopeful? Aestheticization of Power and Resistance Hasan Turgut Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT As dispositif, power has to make itself aesthetics in three planes: desire, body, and space. Firstly, desire makes mobilization possible in which power is constituted, whether it is regarded as a deficiency or as a production-machine of socius. Secondly, space provides publicity and timelessness to power. Finally, the omnipresence ability of power is revealed by the body. Actualizing of power come in sight throughout the synchronic relationality of these three planes. So, the aestheticization and actualization of power are the same processes. Therefore, power is in need of organization of images and feelings. This is what aestheticization of power is. So, the study is based on the claim that the aesthetics of power and the aesthetics of resistance are immanent. Within the framework of the theoretical analyses, the chapter discusses whether aestheticizations of power and resistance will provide opportunities for hopefulness.

INTRODUCTION There are many studies in the literature that define art as political criticism. The fields that the aesthetics of art have always been related to the production of the difference as the emergence of the new and specific. However, this is not enough to define art as a political-critical event. The area that the work of art aesthetizes may well be strengthening the hegemonic power relations. Hence, the field of art takes place through a dual process: molecular and molar. These conceptualizations, which Deleuze and Guattari use in many different contexts, are important for the functions of art. Art-machine, which Deleuze and Guattari (1987) conceptualize as molecular flow, is the assemblage of experiments aimed at the virtual-being of meaning. So, the art-machine means more than the artistic activity, which is reduced to a representative activity trapped in the dichotomy of the signifier-signified. The art-machine produces the process that does not represent. So, this comprehension of art involves Kant’s transcendental aesthetic to Spinoza’s immanence aesthetic-ethical approach. While Kant’s transcendental aesthetic approach aims the representation of Beauty and Supreme, Spinoza’s field of ethical immanence takes a tough stance DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch023

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against representation and rejects the outside assumption. This work will move from Spinoza’s immanence ethical ground to address the concept of aesthetics and its relationship to the senses and the body. Secondly, understanding the concept of aesthetics in relation to body and senses makes it necessary to consider aesthetics as an ontological process. This is the same as M. Foucault’s recent claim to “to become life as a work of art”. Therefore, it is an imperative to talk about an aesthetic setup of existence in every situation that are talking about, not power, but power relations. On the one hand, the aestheticization of the body regulated by power relations and the time-space that it acts within the body; on the other hand, it is art-machine as an abstract machine that deterritorialise the aestheticization. Therefore, art practices that are unrepresentative, beyond the definition of homogeneous critical art, work as lines of flight (Zepke, 2005: p.3). This is the multi-functionality that Foucault and Deleuze express with the toolbox metaphor. Every lines of flight is made possible by experiments with those in the toolbox. But these experiments are not intended to build the machine as an organism. Because the machine should work first of all, and it works only if each part is broken and communicates with others, rather than the organization between its parts. So what is in the toolbox (runs the power-machine) that enables the aestheticizations of power? At the moment art as an abstract-machine intersect with the dispositif of power, the overdetermination of labour creates ethical creation processes: subjecti(vati)on1. It should be mentioned that this connection between aesthetics and ethics is very sensitive. This sensitivity is mostly due to the ambiguous definition of both areas. First, aesthetics is accepted as a judicial power that cannot be objectively based on the transcendental particularity that Kant tries to link with the notion of purposiveness. Although Kant attempts to theorize aesthetics without reducing the purposiveness to the theological transcendence of his age, this secular theorizing effort of aesthetics and therefore judicial power has been trapped in the rational transcendence of the Enlightenment period. According to Kant, taste is a subjective judicial power and cannot be objectified. However, what is related to Beauty cannot be reduced to taste and pleasure, and cannot be evaluated in subjectively. Beauty is not a concept of the object and cannot be attributed to the object. But the existence of the object is necessary for the Beauty judgment. So, how can the universal beauty judgment be mentioned? If beauty is not a feature of the object, how can beauty judgment demand universality? These questions can only be answered by defining universality. The universality demand of the beauty judgment is possible only with the assumption of compromise between subjects: universal transmissibility (Mittheilbarkeit). In the Critique of Pure Reason (1999), Kant claims that the data of the imagination (affection) are transformed into knowledge, subject to the power of comprehension (Yüksel, 2016: pp.42-45). So the power of comprehension establishes domination over imagination. But it is necessary to mention the existence of a free game (Spiel) between imagination and comprehension power in the formation of the beauty judgment. Although Kant frees imagination from the domination of the power of consensus with the existence of free play, the assumption of universal consensus puts affections into the domination of the mind. The assumption of consensus, which enables universal transmissibility, leads to the publicization of aesthetics. This publicization has two important consequences. Firstly, aesthetics based on consensus cannot reach the universality that it targets due to the existence of the outside, which is not always included in the consensus. Therefore, it will always be doomed to remain partial (to be particular), which will be defined as universality. Secondly, consensus-based aesthetics will acquire a self-professed purposiveness: the mission of universalizing the particular. In regards to ethics, the problem is about defining the word synonmy of morality, as a whole of social norms, or practically compressing it into narrow areas such as professional ethics. Every situation in which ethics is integrated into morality reveals a debt relationship in the sense that Nietzsche (2011: 461

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p.57) expresses. Conceptualizing ethics as moral provides an opportunity to expand the field of power by taking randomness and particularity from it (by putting it in a debt relationship). For this reason, the relationship between aesthetics and ethics can only be understood by focusing on the processes of subjectivati)on - which Foucault conceptualized as the ethics of self. Aesthetics is always ethic, as long as the embodiment of aesthetics takes place through the meeting of reception (affection) based on particularity that brings it (as an act of creation) to labour (affective labour) vice versa it is necessary to claim that ethics is always aesthetic, since the rejection of any norm that it tries to free itself from the chains of debt that is called affection. Finally, it is necessary to focus on power technologies as the area where the transition between aesthetics and ethics is most visible. Evolution from disciplinary societies to control societies enabled the power to meet the technology. On the one hand, while technology is increasingly moving power to new limits, it can only be achieved by deterritorialising the existing power relations. Power relations, on the other hand, arise only at the moments when the aforementioned deterritorialisations are territorialised by producing new indebted-subjectivities. But this imperative occurs in an area where resistance is prioritized, as Foucault puts it. Resistance prioritizes power. Therefore, the technology dispositif firstly draws lines of flight. But this is not emancipation, as Deleuze and Guattari often remind us, it does not guarantee freedom.

AESTHETICIZATIONS OF POWER AND RESISTANCE The issue of the connection between politics and aesthetics is still a matter of debate by many theorists. Despite the approximation and methodological differences between these discussions, it is possible to mention two-footed: a) aesthetication of politics, and b) volarization of aesthetics as political concern (Vihalem, 2018: p.2). Gathering the relationship between politics and aesthetics under these two headings understands both politics and aesthetics as practical. In this section, this connection between politics and aesthetics will be tried to be handled through body, desire and time-space.

Configuration of Body The distinction between mind and body is at the top of the dualities that dominate the Continental European philosophy. Although the trace can be taken back to Plato’s philosophy of ideas, Rene Descartes’ distinction between the body as a machine and the mind that dominated it, has been an important moment in the establishment of this duality. Descartes separates the mind from the brain and positions it in a transcendental place. The mind does not live in the brain, but it operates through the brain. Therefore, even if the organism ends (the brain dies), the mind remains (Audi, 1999: p.684). Therefore, when the cogito ergo sum deduction assumes existence as a state of cognition to be achieved as a result of mental processes, the body comes under the domination of the mind as an object of the outside world. This approach of Descartes later finds a response in Kant’s transcendental philosophy. Throughout this line, the body is a phenomenon that fulfills the directions and orders of the mind, do not have any value by himself2. The 17th century does not only correspond to the emergence of the Cartesian subject. The Cartesian subject plays a role in the organization of the social and political as the central phenomenon that shapes the power-information relationship. The domination of the mind over the body is political as stated by 462

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Foucault’s analysis of power. In this process, two bodies emerge as the unit of analysis of power: the body of the individual to knowledge, and the political body (Leviathan) that ruled society in the sense that Hobbes and then social contract theorists assume (Foucault, 1984: pp.170-177). The material body is an intensity that needs to be kept healthy for the well-being of the individual, and this dimension is associated with the development of medical science. This intensity also expresses the intersectionality where well-being and health are being burdened with debt more and more by the political body. As power ceases to be power as austerity3 on life, life itself becomes an object that is included in the sphere of protection, development and management (of the political body). The shift from power to govermentality in Foucault is related to the transformation of life into the object of politics. Power as austerity is a disciplinary field of action in relation to anatomo-political processes. In this field, the power manufactures a discipline by making a restrictions on the body. The body is disciplined through and by the institutions. This is the trace which Foucault is trying to show through the history of institutions. However, the govermentality process, called biopolitics, deterrioritalise the body by taking advantage of this anatomo-political scale and by covering it as a technology. Biopolitics is a control rather than a specific disciplinary technique. Biopolitics means that the social body is tamed through the control of the population; it corresponds to a liberal governance where life is internalized through objectification through the production of safety and constant danger culture, and finally this objectified life is positioned in an economic habitus, and the self is functionalized as an enterprise (Özmakas, 2012: pp.65-75; Lemke, 2014; Lemke, 2016). On the one hand, Foucault points out the transformation of life with biopolitics into the object of politics, and on the other hand, it depicts the relation of power with liberalism as a management. Because of this the body points to more than the material form of life. Foucault does not treat the body as substance. Body is the node and transition point in the sense expressed by Judith Butler in the form it is produced by institutions (Butler, 2012: p.280). The relationship between subject and power cannot be followed without understanding the relationship between power and forms of knowledge (truth). Power, while producing subjectivity, does this by producing ways of knowing (norms) that the subject will define himself. But this is not a one-way process; the subject always has the potential to transform power. According to Butler, the body as a node and transition point in this process is the place that is exposed to power but causes actions to be redirected and reproduced by performing actions that the power cannot predict (2012: p.280). At the beginning of The Psychic Life of Power, Butler emphasized the dual meaning of subjection: “Subjection” signifies the process of becoming subordinated by power as well as the process of becoming a subject (1997: p.2). According to Butler, the process of subjection requires seeing Hegel in Foucault’s work. Power subordinates the subject by connecting it to his own identity. To accomplish this, it imposes on the subject norms (socialities) to which he will define himself. Because the subject is always full of desire to be recognized by Others: On this understanding, subjection is the paradoxical effect of a regime of power in which the very “conditions of existence,” the possibility of continuing as a recognizable social being, requires the formation and maintenance of the subject in subordination (Butler, 1997: p.27). Thus, the subject is recognized only in the context of the truth of power, and thus is attached to the identity of power. But this situation creates a fragility in power. Due to this fragility, the body as a space reveals the contradiction of power as both affecting and effecting (Butler, 2012: pp.281-285). While the

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body reveals the contradictions of power, it also brings affection into equation. Bringing the affection into equation makes it necessary to go through two moments: self-governance and Spinoza’s body concept. Foucault conceptualize the care of self by returning to the experience of Ancient Greece in the History of Sexuality (1986) to depict an ethical insight into the creation of life as work of art. As stated earlier, the relationship between subject and power begins to form at a historical moment where subjective experiences and behaviors are problematized (Keskin, 2017). So, the subject definition of Foucault is that the subjective experience is determined as a problematized-dimensions (epistemologicalized) and that the relations of power are organized in these discursive and non-discursive dimensions; it ultimately refers to the subject’s positioning himself as a perpetrator through this discursive and non-discursive governance. Foucault himself says that the govermentality emerged at the point where the relations of subjective experience and power are discovered (as cited in Lemke, 2016: p.371). So what is the care of self? It is possible to answer this question simply through the process of ethical subjecti(vati)on. The care of Self are the actions of subjecti(vati)on that a person performs to perfect himself through a number of techniques and technologies and the body that stands out at this stage as the place of pleasure and affects. According to Foucault, the problem here stems from the attempt of modern positive law science (generally it is possible to say the knowledge-power link) to make ethics identical to morality. Moralization of ethics establishes the subject by charging him and that disconnects him (subject) from its potential. The control and framing of the subjective experience is possible through the non-external, immanent management of power. Thus, power does not control the subject with external pressure, but rather objectifies life through discourses that encode the subject’s behavior and experiences as a problem. This objectification is moralized and creates norms for everyday life and behavior. The precept according to which one must give attention to oneself was in any case an The Cultivation of the Self imperative that circulated among a number of different doctrines. It also took the form of an attitude, a mode of behavior; it became instilled in ways of living; it evolved into procedures, practices, and formulas that people reflected on, developed, perfected, and taught. It thus came to constitute a social practice, giving rise to relationships between individuals, to exchanges and communications, and at times even to institutions. And it gave rise, finally, to a certain mode of knowledge and to the elaboration of a science (Foucault, 1986: pp.44-45). Therefore, whether the norm is coded as a law with its legal dimension or socially coded in the form of morality, it detaches One from its power. Here, the care of the self as the possibility of resistance found by Foucault in Ancient Greece through the use of pleasures is inherent to this potential of bodies that cannot be overdetermined. What is the potential of the body? How should we define it? At this stage, it is necessary to direct the discussion to another name: Spinoza. “…we don’t even know [savons] what a body is capable of, we prattle on about the soul and the mind and we don’t know what a body can do.” Deleuze says that Spinoza gifted the body as a new philosophical ground to philosophers with this proposition. Accordingly, the body transcends information about itself, and thought transcends consciousness about itself (Deleuze, 2011: pp.26-27). Spinoza takes the body and mind as integrity, far from the Cartesian subject. The body is the space of ideas of the human mind: “What we have is the idea of what happens to our body, how our body is affected; We know and recognize our body and other bodies, our minds and other minds only like this” (Deleuze, 2011: p.110).

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When Spinoza treats the body as a model, another factor that creates incompatible ideas that occur through what happens to the body is included in the equation: sensations. Sensations are influences of the body, and while the ideas are representative, sensations are not represented (Deleuze, 2011: p.66). Spinoza treats the body as a multitude of affections. This view is similar to Foucault’s perception of the subject. Therefore, the affection of the body overflows from the sphere of power, as it cannot be represented as the possibility of subjective experience. As a matter of fact, Spinoza emphasizes this possibility of overflow with the concept of conatus, which he describes as an effort to survive in certain affectivity (as Deleuze defines it as desire). As an effort to increase joy and keep grief away, conatus is the right of the body (Deleuze, 2011: p.77). In this framework, Spinoza pioneers Nietzsche and Foucault and establishes a distinction between morality and ethics. Accordingly, good and evil (morality) as social indicators is the law of the despot, which tries to prevent the body from exercising its right and realizing its potentia. According to Deleuze, Spinoza’s trying to do is the devaluation of sorrowful feelings in favor of the joyful feelings, which corresponds to the devaluation of morality against ethics. According to this, three types of moralists are a) the slave as the human of sorrowful feelings, b) the despot that holds power by leaning on the sorrowful feelings, and c) the grieving feelings and the priest who is grieved by their existence (Deleuze, 2011: p.34) that these are the cruel of the moral law that disconnects the individual from his/her power. So, where do Spinoza and Foucault meet? What is the intersection set between Spinoza’s conatus concept and Foucault’s the care of self concepts? Is it possible to say that this question meets in the aesthetics of resistance? For neither Spinoza nor Foucault give us the magic formula of freedom. But it can be said that the distinction between morality and ethics, which exists in Spinoza and Foucault from different perspectives, constitutes potentia for the aesthetic configuration of resistance. This potentia, in Spinoza, through body-affect-conatus; in Foucault, through ethical subjecti(vati)on processes to evaluate life as a work of art can be driven. In this context, it can be said that the criticism of capitalism that Deleuze and Guattari have been trying to develop since The Anti-Oedipus (1983) is based on this intersection between Spinoza and Foucault. As mentioned earlier, traditional political theory assumes a distinction between the two bodies. In this distinction, the social body (socius) is the surface on which all flows are recorded. This record refers to the positioning of non-codings which are necessary for the establishment of the social order, in a debt relationship. Deleuze and Guattari show the existence of socius through three social formations. In the primitive territorial machine, the socius is immanent in the soil and the tribe. Debt is to soil and tribe. The record of the debt is marked as symbolic to the body. But this marking is not an inequality relationship; vice versa assumes an equality: no one is exempt from this stigma. In the primitive territorial machine, the accumulation no longer consists of the surplus product resulting from the exchange, the surplus value of code can be mentioned here. The surplus value of code emerges in an intangible way by the distribution of surplus products that the chef owes to the tribe: the chef accumulates reputation and the excessive accumulation of this reputation is the cause of social hierarchy and institutionalization (Deleuze & Guattari, 1983: p.150). Unlike the primitive territorial machine, the debt in the barbaricdespotic machine is reconstructed for the despot, which overcoded the codings of the primitive territorial machine, by supplying them to a new alliance system and supposed to have a direct relationship with God. The socius of the barbarian-despotic machine turns into the despot itself (Deleuze & Guattari, 1983: p.192; Demirtaş, 2016: 59). At this stage, the debt turns into an ontological debt, which must be paid as a debt belonging to the despot in a relationship with a transcendent God. At this stage, over-coding establishes the essence of the state (Demirtaş, 2016: p.60). In the civilized-capitalist machine, it is nec465

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essary to talk about capital as a socious. However, the capitalist machine does not encode flows, on the contrary, the flows encoded by the primitive domestic machine and the barbaric despotic machine are decoded. This codec is not a liberation. On the contrary, capitalist machine decodes codes and makes them axiomatic. Thus, the decodings of the codes gain the ability to control all social flows by functionalizing them (Deleuze & Guattari, 1983: pp.223,225; Demirtaş, 2016: p.62). Even though capitalist axiomatic creates irreversible functionalities that it emerges the deterritorization tendencies (Deleuze and Guattari therefore envision capitalism as a trend), these tendencies do not raise contradictions that will destroy capitalism. Labour, sexuality, body, desires, space and time… etc. They are functionalized by the capitalist axiomatic in the body of capital (capital-socius). At this stage, while all flows encoded by other social formations are free, attempts to define these flows become impossible. Capital becomes the source of production and life, and the state is the guarantor of the universal market. The struggle, then, can be designed based on the impossibility of any axiomatic of the capitalist machine that identifies and subjugates the body. Because, whether by coding or axiomatization, control through the institutionalization created by the surplus value of code breaks the body and affects from its potentia. For this reason, Foucault’s ethical problematization to become life into a work of art, as well as the lines of flight and revolutionary-being of Deleuze and Guattari based on making the axiomatization power of capitalism impossible, are attempts to return the potentia to the body in the sense of Spinozian. Moreover, these initiatives advise to perceive the body as intensities (multitude) rather than the powers in the current power relations. The body as multitude is possible only by not desiring the desire to suppress itself in One.

Configuration of Desire In traditional Western thought, desire is defined as a deficiency that the subject feels. Desire is a problematic lack of satisfaction as body appetites. Although this deficiency will never be filled, it must be suppressed. This suppression is about the formation of the Cartesian subject and the social, in a way whose origins can be brought back to Ancient Greece. For Plato, being able to restrain his appetites is one of the primary issues for searching the truth. Aristotle’s zoon politicon (citizen) is a man who finds the middle way between the public and private spheres, keeps his desires under control. It is possible to see the adventure of this oppression in the Middle Ages, while establishing the believing subject of the religious institution, in an attempt to isolate it from life. As a matter of fact, this suppression is realized by defining desire as the opposite of reason and rationality during the Enlightenment period. As a shortcoming, desire is an unsatisfactory emptiness and only the social formation is saved the subject from falling into this emptiness (nihilism). So, according to deficiency theories, suppression of desire has two main consequences: the establishment of subjectivity and the establishment of the social. According to Hegel, desire is the appetite that the subject wants to have and consume. But the target of desire as appetite, is not material satisfaction; the subject asks the Other to recognize himself through Hegelian dialectical process based on negation. The subject will complete himself only through recognition. Therefore, the purpose of desire of the dialectical process based on negation is to satisfy this mutual recognition between the subject and the Other (Hegel, 2010: pp.157-159; Hughes, 2014: p.135). Lacan is another thinker based on the theory of deficiency. According to him, the subject is composed of a deficiency that will never be completed. Expressing the demands through language, is the first moment that alienates the subject against his desire (Chiesa, 2007: pp.35-37). Lacan’s deficiency, which he calls object a, is an ontological deficiency in the subject and points to a process where the subject can never 466

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be satisfied because object a is objectless. The subject is eternal adjournment. But, according to Lacan, since the subject experiences this deficiency in the symbolic order in which the object a is benefited by the Other, not only the subject is delayed, but the Other intervenes as the Law (prohibiter) between the subject and the jouissance (Hughes, 2014: p.137). Lacan shows the Father’s Law in the Symbolic Order as an example of this recognition process as the law that prevents the desire for the mother. Suppression of the desire (suppression of the child’s desire for the mother) establishes the subject through the Father’s Law (the presence of the Father who will have the mother and his prohibitions). The subject becomes the subject by not completing, suppressing his desire as a deficiency; By obeying the Father’s Law (Lacan, 2005: pp.201-207). Herein, another setup becomes more visible: the formation of the social, consisting of subjectivities of suppression of desire. The familial process Freud indicates with the Odipus complex envisages a sociality composed of subjectivities established as the product of these processes. The individual, who adopts the obedience of the Father in the family, does not have a problem in placing the State as a Father at the social level. Deficiency theories bestow an ontological status to this unsatisfactory lack. Meaning and Law are established by suppressing this lack. So, this lack exists initially, it is ontological (Hughes, 2014: p.141). Deleuze and Guattari accept the lack but object to the ontological status of the lack. According to them, the desire is productive, and the suppression activity between desire and its productivity, is not organized by an ontological deficit based on the Odipus complex as a familial process. Therefore, the deficiency is the result rather than a constitutive ontology. In The Anti-Odipus, Deleuze and Guattari’s main thesis say that the desire is productive and that the deficiency is produced and regulated in socius. If desire produces, its product is real. If desire is productive, it can be productive only in the real world and can produce only reality. Desire is the set of passive syntheses that engineer partial objects, flows, and bodies, and that function as units of production. The real is the end product, the result of the passive syntheses of desire as autoproduction of the unconscious. Desire does not lack anything; it does not lack its object. It is, rather, the subject that is missing in desire, or desire that lacks a fixed subject; there is no fixed subject unless there is repression. Desire and its object are one and the same thing: the machine, as a machine of a machine. Desire is a machine, and the object of desire is another machine connected to it (Deleuze & Guattari, 1983: p.26) According to Deleuze and Guattari, desiring-production works as a machine, it creates a form of schizophrenia in which production cannot be considered separately from the product. The machine is formed by the assemblage of heterogeneous parts, but each heterogeneous part works as part of a new formation in these assemblage: the machine operates by breaking down. Deleuze and Guattari explain the machine-functioning with three syntheses: connective-synthesis, disjunctive-synthesis, and conjunctivesynthesis. Desire establishes connections between heterogeneous parts, just like the machine, connects them (connective-synthesis): “ … the coupling that takes place within the partial object-flow connective synthesis…. Producing is always something “grafted onto” the product; and for thatreason desiringproduction is production of production, just, as every machine is a machine connected to another machine”. Every part of the desire-machines is involved in a process of difference due to the possibility of other connections (virtually). This process of differentiation takes place through bodies witout organs within the desire-machines; the body without organ is differentiater as the anti- production proccess in production (Deleuze and Guattari, 1983: pp.11-14). 467

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… when the productive connections pass from machines to the body without organs (as from labor to capital), it would seem that they then come under another law that expresses a distribution in relation to the nonproductive element as a “natural or divine presupposition” (the disjunctions of capital). Machines attach themselves to the body without organs as so many points of disjunction, between which an entire network of new syntheses is now woven, marking the surface off into co-ordinates, like a grid (Deleuze & Guattari, 1983: p.12). Therefore, the body without organs, as opposed to the organization and the organism, is a disjunctive synthesis. According to Deleuze and Guattari, subjectivity occurs at the conjunctive synthesis; it is a gathering of the densities it passes through, so it is nomadic. Ego is a schizophrenic form formed by the traces left by these densities in the memory (Hughes, 2014: p.154). According to Deleuze and Guattari, the attachment of a desire to I, means the molarization of the desire in which social repression organizes around the deficiency. Since the social is the direct result of the molecular desire currents (Hughes, 2014: p.158), the establishment of the social takes place through the desire to suppress the desire itself. According to Deleuze and Guattari, the Odipus complex provides the installation of the I through the desire to suppress the desire itself in the triangle of the mother-father-child. Because, the flows of desire connected to the I, become controllable. Here, it is necessary to explain the molar and molecular concepts of Deleuze and Guattari. First, molar does not mean general or social, molecular special or individual. Or the molecular does not correspond to the micro-policy field in Foucauldian perspective. The individual may be molar by capturing and controlling desire, or molecular may occur within the collective. Socius is organized through to molar-sliced pieces (family, school, army, work ... etc.) as the registration surface, and the subject is defined and controlled in this molar-sliced pieces by the norms of the institution in which the subject is subjected to. This is a claim close to Foucault’s disciplinary societies thesis, but according to Deleuze and Guattari there is more to discipline than when it comes to desire-production and its machine functioning: supervision through desire currents. Deleuze and Guattari talk about three social formations: the primitive-territorial machine, the barbarian-despotic machine and the civilized-capitalist machine. The first two machines record desire in a socius (primitive-machine-to-territory, despotic-machine-to-despot), whereas capitalism does not code, unlike others, it is a schizophrenic machine that tends to decode. However, this decoding is superficial, although Deleuze and Guattari say that the civilized-capitalist machine has a function that constantly pushes itself to the boundaries, but they do not expect spontaneous revolutionary-being from there. The capitalist-machine combines the decoded capital and labor flows and becomes the epiphenomel cause (quasi-cause) of everything as the differentiating body without organs in capital production (Deleuze & Guattari, 1983: pp.10-12,227). Therefore, according to Deleuze and Guattari, the capitalist machine tries to keep subjects under control not by disciplining them, but by controlling the decoded flows. In this process, the state turns into a market device that over-codes decoded codes. Deleuze and Guattari seem to approach the traditional Marxist theses that define the state as the governing tool of the ruling class, but there is a big difference: a state image based on the existence of social classes as the subject evolves in a device based on the overcoding of flows of desire. Capitalism, then, is the name of a flowcutoff process in which the flows overcoded by the state are undermined by capital flows as socius. Capitalism needs the state apparatus to control every flows of desire that is released: Capitalism must control even the most micro-flows of desire, nothing should escape.

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According to Deleuze and Guattari, the reason for resistance prioritizing the formation of power is because the social is the direct consequence of the molecular flows of desire. Deleuze, unlike Foucault, defines the power-relations as the relations produced by the desires-productions that desire (molarize) to suppress itself. Resistance always starts on an ethical ground, as the molecular desire becomes manageable (controllable) by suppression organizations such as the Oedipus complex or the Law (Deleuze, 2009: pp.134-136). But there is no prescription for emancipation for this ethical ground. The transformation of the person into the body without organs may also end with the molarization (fascistization) of the molecular desire. So what is the transformation into a body without organs? One can turn into a body without organs by conducting experiments with a state of being that he/she does not need to say I. The subject does not need I as much as he/she can open himself/herself up to multiplicity and creation through these experiments on the lines of flight. The moments of the identity crisis are not the moments when the molarization that make up the identity are not functional, but the moments when the new and unrecognizable ones are encountered and are not absorbed by the molar assemblage. Therefore, it is the event that enables the identification of the subject or cause the identity-crisis (the person does not need to say I am); is the moment that opens the person to the multitude, it is the process of rejection of constants. The existence of the event is the possible ground of becoming-nomadic. This ground is the moment of molecular flows of desires in the establishment of subjectivity to meet the political as an ethical project. The identity, which is envisaged as the subject, as I or as any molar-molecular flows are resolved and re-territorialized by encountering an event. This intersectionality itself is also the foundation of an ethic-aesthetic policy to the extent that it is the place of formation of the body without organs. Because, according to Deleuze, eventuality is also affective. Lines of flights and every deterritorializations are carried both eventually and affectively in the body. Therefore, the body is a bio-political and collective intensity (Deleuze, 2009: p.137). So, as a manifestation of desire-productions, power regulations also work by organizing this biological, political and collective body ethic-aesthetically.

Configuration of Time and Space G. Bachelard states that, space is envisioned as a boundary based on the dialectic of inside and outside. This inside-outside dialect imprisons the subject in binary structures: thought or non-thought, existent or non-existent, inside or outside, yes or no… etc. Bachelard states that Hyppolite spoke of a first myth of outside and inside: …you feel the full significance of this myth of outside and inside in alienation, which is founded on these two terms. Beyond what is expressed in their formal opposition lie alienation and hostility between the two (1994: p.212). This dialectical imagination of the space is also seen in the structure of the two-sexed families developed by Deleuze and Guattari in The Anti-Oedipus. Just as the family stuck in the oedipus complex is undermined by the flows non-heterenormative sex, the structure of the space based on inside-outside dialectic is also carried the detteritorializing potential in itself. Space is an important element in the establishment of power relations. M. Foucault points to the importance of the physical existence of institutions in his analysis of disciplinary societies. The most obvious example of this is the panoptic architectural design of J. Bentham: seen without knowing whether he/she is seen or control of less over more. In Foucault’s analysis of power relations composed of discur469

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sive and non-discursive formations, space constitutes the non-discursive as its visibility form. Deleuze (2013) shows the continuity between the early discursive formations in Foucault and the establishment of late subjectivity by drawing attention to the content and expression dimensions of power relations in the monograph he wrote after Foucault’s death. The prison is a space of visibility as a form of content. The substance of this content is prisoners. The disciplinary dispositive is formed in conjunction with criminality as subtance of expression and the penal code which is the form of expression that it transforms non-discursive being to discursive (Deleuze, 2013: pp.51,67). Therefore, discipline is technology that consists of areas of visibility, and discourse rather than pressure, and is social in this context before being technical (Deleuze, 2013: 59). The space is connected with the regulation of visibility as a form of content in the production of the truth that provides the configuration of subjectivities. As a form of content, space is the place where the subjectivity, as the form of expression enunciates, becomes actualized. This space cannot be regarded only as the physical place where actualization occurs; at the same time, subjectivity as a form of expression is reproduced as a form content. This reproduction is consistent with Bachelard’s phenomenological claim that space has concentraced Being by allocating protective boundaries (1994: p.xxxvi). The space consists of imaginary asamblage where molar identification becomes visible. Monuments, public spaces, institutions, parks… etc. are the striated memory spaces and images of the moral identification processes: Loyalties to the nation, to the family, to institutions, to the state… etc. It is organized in these striated spaces by the imagination of these spaces. Molarization does not only rely on the organization of space as visibility. While the space intensifies the boundary between in and out, time organizes the experiences within this space. Time makes the episteme diagram, which Foucault thinks in two areas as visibility and discoursive-ability, in three dimensions. Space as a field of visibility and language as a field of discoursive-ability are both subject to a certain temporality and time is reproduced in these two areas. The division of the day into timezones has a different meaning from the previous social formations within the capitalist axiomatic, where labor and capital flows are liberated. The daily practices that this division builds are different compared to others. In the social formation based on the existence of the despot (barbarian-despotic machine), the subject is defined in the context of the debt relationship rather than the specified time. The important thing is not to realize production and work in a certain time period, but to pay the debt [infinite debt]. There is always a monotheism on the horizon of despotism: the debt becomes a debt of existence, a debt of the existence of the subjects themselves. A time will come when the creditor has not yet lent while the debtor never quits repaying, for repaying is a duty but lending is an option (Deleuze and Guattari, 1983: pp.197-198). For this reason in the barbarian-despotic machine, time itself is also debited. However, with capitalism, the decoding of labor and capital flows (the debt of its assets) liberated and transformed the production process, and this transformation has become one of the determinants of time and value. The worker puts his labor in the service of the employer (capital) in a certain place (factory) in a certain time period (working hour). The organization of working hours and overtime is compatible with the functioning of the space based on inside-outside dialectics. The factory spatializes production and isolates it from everyday life. This isolation is required on the one hand to guarantee maximum profit, on the other hand it is necessary for the establishment of worker-subjectivity. As the Great Depression of 1929 shows, capitalism based on overproduction is limited to the existence of masses who cannot consume this production. The traditional capitalist mode of production, based on the inside-outside dialectic, therefore requires the 470

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presence of the productive worker inside the factory, and the masses that can consume this production outside the factory (which is directly related to the working class). Keynesian social democracy, while constructing subjectivity as two sides of Janus - producing at the factory, consuming it outside the factory - the schizophrenic capitalist machine decodes the limited production within the factory: there is no longer exploitation of labor, but of the whole society. Exploitation of the whole society is possible through the production of timeless-temporality and spaceless-spatiality. Production no longer requires working time, which must be organized in each time period. Likewise, the distinction between inside and outside of the factory disappears. Nevertheless, this timelessness and spacelessness must also be organized. Timeless-temporality and spatial-spatiality have gained momentum with the transformation in information and communication technologies today. Thanks to these technologies, the production becomes out of place when it goes out of the factory (in fact, it becomes spatialized again as it becomes available everywhere), this non-space also deepens the exploitation of labor that enables the emergence of its product as the determinant of value. The growth of finance-capitalism and the service sector, and the fact that production gains intangible dimensions such as emotion, perception, memory, are at the heart of this timelessness and spacelessness. The production process turns into an event that does not have to take place in the factory, where the person has devices such as computers and smartphones … etc. As a result, daily life and production processes become inseparable4.

LIFE BECOMES A WORK OF ART? So far, three-dimensional (body, desire and space-time) profile of subjecti(vati)on has been tried to be drawn. The reason why the Cartesian subject, who traditionally defines the subject based on rationality, is not included in this profile is that the project of transforming existence into a work of art should be missed primarily from the tendency of Cartesian subjectivity. Because what makes the resistance a priority to power is that the resistance is always located outside the diagram while the power relations which is formed by integrating the visibility and discoursive-ability areas, working inside the diagram. This is an imperative field, as Deleuze puts it, as they are the source / problematization areas of the games of truth that form power relations (2013: pp.107-108). Deleuze states that, from this necessity, power objectifies life: “When it takes life as an object of power, life becomes resistance to power” (Deleuze, 2013: p.110). All objections to objectification of life, then, are potentially immanent in the project of transforming existence into a work of art as resistance to power. Because while power molarizes subjectivity on the Cartesian duality line because it is based on the production of truths about it in order to objectify life, experimental molecular flows based on lines of the flight is related to aesthetics of life. Therefore, the three-dimensional setup of the subject in terms of body, desire and time-space is an ethical-aesthetic setup. The configuration of power relations implies that the labor and production processes that cross the three-dimensional diagram are molarized and aesthetized, and in terms of resistance, these molarized subjectivities on the lines of flight are aesthetized by deterritorialization. So, power relations are established by disciplining the body by institutions that make it docile, controlling desire through familial processes based on the Oedipus complex, and defining time and space in the context of the mode of production. However, the three-dimensional setup of subjectivity is not only composed of epistemological definition and overdetermination processes, as has been tried to be expressed before. Games of truth are also aesthetic processes. The body is aestheticized by gendering from birth. The desire is aestheticized by Odipus complex. Time-space is aestheticized by the imagina471

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tion of memory as political technology. The production of space should build an aesthetic organization based on controlling the reception of subjectivities beyond its aesthetics (architectural organization). The same is true for the organization of time. This can be observed most concretely in the formation and administrative organization of public spaces. By producing images as museums, monuments, sculptures, memory spaces, they aesthetize the reception of space and time. Through such organizations, docile subjectivities are constructed as I, anchored in the past. So, is it just about creating an aesthetic opposition to the power aestheticization? This question is important in terms of making sense of the aesthetics of resistance. Because there are some pitfalls of equipping aesthetic reception with a purposefulness in the Kantian sense. Before making these traps visible, it is useful to mention the views of those approaching in terms of aesthetics against the question. In this context, in order to embody the discussion, Chantal Mouffe’s (2017) approach, which sees the artivist movements and art as the nodes of the process of counter-hegemony, can be taken as an example. When aesthetic is imagined as counter-hegemony through artivist actions, this means equipping it with the aim of resisting power. The socialization of the art based on the concept of Gramscien common-sense (art for everyone) equates art and aesthetic reception with anti-power. But this equation also means the molarisation of aesthetics and art, because art no longer acts on an escape line or on a border, it is included in the diagram (where relations of power occur). According to Deleuze, the most important function of art is to eliminate our immersion in our world of life and our position as an abstract observer of reality (Zizek, 2013: pp.66-67). In this process, art acts as a pure Event in the crack between meaning and reality by de-substancing affections. The affection created by a work of art becomes meaningful, independent of a subject’s reception. As the meaning produced by a work of art becomes actualized in an infinite flow, from Being to Existence5, each transition results in a betrayal towards the Being. But this betrayal makes it possible for the New to appear. According to Deleuze, the new emerges only by the differantial acts of repetition (Zizek, 2013: p.45). Thus, the production of the meaning of a work of art that transcends time-space depends on the realization of it by differential repetition: The emergence of the new happens when a work exceeds its historical context (Zizek, 2013: pp.43,49). Zizek points out the similarity between the incomplete causality (quasi-cause) in Deleuze and the objet petit a of Lacan, saying that Deleuze’s ontology shows the irreducibility of meaning to real (2013: p.64). This crack between the meaning and reality pointed out by Zizek is valuable in two respects. This crack gives the arts the pure affective quality as an incorporeal event, and secondly defines the area of aesthetic and ethical integration of resistance. Urinal, the ready-made artwork of Duchamp mentioned by Zizek, can be given as an example. Its receptional practice that gives the urinal the status of work of art; not the quality of the urinal-object itself (2013: p.213). However, this does not mean that the practice of reception is produced and fixed in a certain time-space. In other words, the urinal is NOT reproduced by positioning it only in an artistic context, it is the interminability of the repetition (the practice of purchase) that gives the meaning to the urinal (articulation) each time it becomes interminable (Becoming objectless pure affection). When this REPEAT and DIFFERENCE relationship is braced, the crack between meaning and reality closes, and as Zizek emphasizes, the relationship between them remains only the relationship of objects (2013: p.64); The urinal can never be a work of art. Second, the transformation of existence into a work of art implies the integration of aesthetics and ethics. But this integration is not neither aesthetics of life nor a pure ethicization of aesthetics. The notion of purposiveness that can be found in the line following the concept of aesthetics formulated by Kant means the fixing (molarization) of art in certain time-places. Whether hegemon reproduces the 472

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emotions that nurture power relations or is used as a counter-revolutionary practice, the purposiveness of art reduces it to a non-affective activity. This is where the difference between Kant and Nietzsche (thus Deleuze) becomes visible. Kant combines the notion of purposiveness and aesthetics with teleological judgment and opens it to daily experience; Kant also refers to the body for aesthetic taste, but the body is the means of waking the mind. Whereas Nietzsche and therefore Deleuze argue that art is not neutral activity; they see it as the stimulus of the will to power. According to Hughes, this is no longer a neutral but still a Kantian project (2014: p.147). Although such a purposiveness is seen as an ethical-aesthetic setup, it carries the risk of turning aesthetics into a tool of ethics. The main area of this ethical-aesthetic struggle is about creating ambiguities in which power (potentia) cannot desire power (potestas) as a way of limiting and determining itself. Ranciere argues that an-arkhe dissensus is at the heart of both politics and aesthetics. Accordingly, the political / social distinction that has been accepted since Plato and Aristotle was defined through pre-given competencies, based on the existence of two groups capable of managing and desiring to be governed. However, according to Ranciere, democracy is neither a form of government nor a social life. Democracy is an an-arkhe politics where the power of governing in society has no ground. Democracy is an action based on the preclude of all pre-determined divisions (Vihalem, 2018: p.4). Unlike the animal, Aristotle’s zoon politicon establishes a consensus over the logos instead of phone. However, the consensus always leaves someone outside (class / group ... etc). In Plato, demos (people) are out of consensus as a class that produces but has no right to speak. Consensus takes place in a narrow space. For this reason, Ranciere defines the demand for the right to speak as politics. If the whole of the rules called social order is based on a consensus among those who think they have the right to speak, politics and political practice are based on dissensus as an attempt to disrupt this order of participation. In this process, according to Ranciere, aesthetics is political action in connection with those who are excluded from consensus, making themselves perceivable, visible and audible (Oranlı, 2016: p.115). Politics revolves around what is seen and what can be said about it, around who has the ability to see and the talent to speak, around the properties of spaces and the possibilities of time (Ranciere, 2013: p.8). Within this framework, Ranciere uses distribution of the sensible (Partage du Sensible) to draw attention to the control of both the political and aesthetic consensus over the sensible. The pre-established-order tries to make its assets not perceptible, invisible and inaudible to, the group, who makes politics by demanding the right to speak. For this reason, aesthetics as a form of political action is the name of this effort to be seen, heard, perceived (re-demands the distributing of the sensible). Politics as the demand for equality of those who do not get a share of the cake, is always aesthetic as an effort to show this inequality (Vihalem, 2018: 9). As those who are positioned outside the consensus try to get in, there will be a re-distributing of the sensible (Oranlı, 2016: p.116). As Ranciere stated in his interview with Gabriel Rockhill: … aesthetic politics always defines itself by a certain recasting of the distribution of the sensible, a reconfiguration of the given perceptual forms. The notion of ‘heterology’ refers to the way in which the meaningful fabric of the sensible is disturbed: a spectacle does not fit within the sensible framework defined by a network of meanings, an expression does not find its place in the system of visible coordinates where it appears. The dream of a suitable political work of art is in fact the dream of disrupting the relationship between the visible, the sayable, and the thinkable without having to use the terms of a message as a vehicle. It is the dream of an art that would transmit meanings in the form of a rupture with the very logic of meaningful situations. As a matter of fact, political art cannot work in the simple form of a meaningful spectacle that would lead to an ‘awareness’ of the state of the world. Suitable

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political art would ensure, at one and the same time, the production of a double effect: the readability of a political signification and a sensible or perceptual shock caused, conversely, by the uncanny, by that which resists signification. In fact, this ideal effect is always the object of a negotiation between opposites, between the readability of the message that threatens to destroy the sensible form of art and the radical uncanniness that threatens to destroy all political meaning (Ranciere, 2013: p.59). As Ranciere points out, consensus-based politics, based on the organization of the polis, places the Kantian purposefulness at the center of both aesthetics and politics. This positioning results in the “acceptable” subjectivity of the negotiation as a solution to any demand for equality, based on inside and an outside dialectic. Therefore, Ranciere’s aesthetics and politics is an ethical initiative outside of consensus in relation to the processes of subjection that demand equality. As Vihalem expresses the aesthetic regime is not primarily related to art, but implies that the aesthetic regime of art is first of all a sophisticated version of aesthetic regime of life, aimed at intensifying our everyday aesthesis and creating new modes of aesthetic experience (2018: p.9). Moreover, this initiative moves from the same ethical ground as attempts to invent the lines of flight that was tried to be followed from Nietzsche to Deleuze throughout the work. So how can existence be transformed into a work of art? Is art possible, which is not neutral, but at the same time not fixed in anti-power? According to Deleuze, what Foucault is trying to do with the relationship of ethics and self in the History of Sexuality is an effort to find an answer to these question. Indeed, Foucault himself expresses this effort with the following words: What strikes me is the fact that in our society, art has become something which is related only to objects and not to individuals, or to life . That art is something which is specialized or which is done by experts who are artists . But couldn’t everyone’s life become a work of art? Why should the lamp or the house be an art object, but not our life? (1984: p.350) According to Deleuze, Foucault shares Nietzsche’s question: Do we have enough artistic life-styles? Deleuze says that for Foucault to become life as a work of art is not only an aesthetic project, it is what he called ethics as the opposite of morality. Hereunder, moral actions arise as a whole of a special type of coercive rules, consisting of evaluating them by linking them to transcendental values; ethic is a set of optional rules that evaluate what we do, what we say, according to the mode of existence it requires (Deleuze, 2013: pp.109-110). At this stage, it is necessary to return to the BEING and EXISTENCE binary again. The problem relates to the betrayal against the virtual in the process of the actualization of the BEING, as long as the processes of subjection are to be carried out on the lines of flight (the project of to become life as a work of art as a non-neutral empiricism or a will to power). For this reason, lines of flight, for Deleuze, must be created against the establishment of the BEING in present, because every actualization in the present, is the molarizations that claim to be perfect, since BEING in the past and future will be imperfect. Therefore, nothing will be replaced by aesthetics when it breaks down our immersion in life and our abstract observer status of reality. Moreover, Zizek object to this equation by inserting another element into: If everything is created by virtual and virtual is the only producer, where does production occur? Because, according to Zizek, production cannot be positioned immanently in the virtual since it is a process of actualization (2013: p.55).

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Will the production of the material and its relation to the body not always be an actualization? Isn’t the production of the material being always be the actualization of virtual labor? Is it because the “nomadicsubject” project that Deleuze and Guattari are trying to develop is a border-project that they intend to overcome this paradox? All these questions are closely related to the subjection, and to its dispositive and production styles, which are tried to be discussed above. G. Agamben follows the genocide of the dispositif conceptualization used by Foucault until oikonomia. Oikonomia, used in the meaning of household management in Ancient Greece, has experienced a change in use with the Christian era and has acquired a theological nature: the way God ruled the world and the economy of salvation. According to Agamben, there are processes of subjection that accompany every dispositive, otherwise power can only actualize as oppression (Agamben, 2012: p.36). But Agamben takes the concept of dispositive in a wider perspective: living things as a substance on the one hand, discipline, control, modeling… etc on the other as positivities and the relationality of the two as subjectivity. Under capitalism, desoggettivazione processes can be mentioned rather than subjection processes accompanying power dispositives. Desoggettivazione from subject is not a transition from one subject to another. This takes place in the processes of subjection in capitalist dispositives (Agamben, 2012: p.37). So, what needs to be done is the publicization of indisponsible (indisponsibilita) dispositives that sanctify the capital cynicism and mysticism that Deleuze and Guattari express in Anti-Oedipus. According to Agamben, the practice of profanazione (earthlyization) in Roman theology is suitable for breaking the discipline / controlling power of dispositives. The things / objects sanctified as belonging to the Gods in Ancient Rome are considered to be intact. In this context, while religion (consecrations, rituals, rituals, etc.) is abstracting the thing, time, and space as a dispositive, profanare opens them back to public and free use (Agamben, 2012: pp.34-35). Is it possible to think of art as a libertarian dispositif using Agamben’s concepts? If the answer is yes then what is the role of art as a dispositive in the process of profanazione? Subtraction from subjection processes (Desoggettivazione) accompanying the capitalist dispositive takes place not by coding and re-coding dialectics but by axiomatization as Deleuze and Guattari express. Artistic labour, as Negri (2013: p.60) puts it, has the potential to constantly undermine capitalist axiomatics due to its ability as a liberated labor. So what is liberated labour? Negri answers this question as follows: Liberated labour is the language that is the collective essence of the overflow of existence… it is a beautiful, new being, an overflow built with collective labor, produced by the creative power of labor. This production that determines the beautiful event, this beautiful production is a labor liberated from power… Art can only be experienced in a liberation process (2013: pp.62-63). Since artistic activity is a mode of labour, this mode is captured in the axiomatic of capitalism (commodification of artistic activity), but this capture undermines the capitalist-axiomatic because of the virtuality of artistic production: The artist moves the boundary forward (Hughes, 2014: p.108). Because in the moment in which the work of art becomes actual, it commodifies by incorporating BEING into EXISTENCE, but resists the closing of meaning by establishing the language that makes it possible to receive it. For this reason, the artistic mode of labor is always an EVENT overflowing from the production process and object. As an event, artistic labor is founder: the artistic phenomenon presents itself as something that goes beyond itself, which transcends the independence and autonomy of its own production - in this world that no longer knows outside (Negri, 2013: p.119).

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BECOMING-REVOLUTIONARY OR BECOMING-MACHINE Considering the progress of material technologies, the convergence of existence with aesthetics and material technologies is evident. This convergence, on the one hand, reveals the social subjection due to the subjecti(vati)on by art as a capitalist dispositif that identities, sexes, nationalities…etc. are defined and positioned in this artistic action on the other hand it generates machinic-enslavement as non-representative and functional-operational processes (Flisfeder, 2018: p.463), because artistic action which is always living labor that de-subjectivitizes the subject but territorialize these subjectivities in capitalist axiomatics. If art is an activity of impenetrability as an EVENT, it is ethical - as the invention of the nomadic war machine - to invent the lines of flight from social subjection and machinic-enslavement as the modes of engagement of this activity. So, inventing the lines of flight for the aestheticization of being, disintegrating artistic activity and shattering folds of subjectivation styles accompanying this aestheticization is possible to transform the artistic activity into a war machine against itself (The nomadic-invention of art). The nomadic invention of art has no purposiveness in itself. The nomadic-invention of art into as a war machine should be understood as eliminating the stages of subjectivation accompanying it. This is a way of creation that makes the art impossible to become power dispositives as a transcendental creator, founder of the artistic subjects. Because every subjection comes to the world with morality and debt relationship as Nietzsche warned us. Here it is necessary to remind that Deleuze and Guattari’s concept of machine are not a metaphor. According to them, the machine is assemblage in which the machinic work will be possible thanks to the communication between the different elements, but the parts work only with the breakdown. In the traditional imagining of the machine, which is envisaged as being composed of various parts, the parts carry out an extension or certain functions of the human limbs. Constructing different parts as an organism / integrity reduces the parts to tools that will not work in any other context. Whereas in the terminology of Deleuze and Guattari, machine assemblages make a non-transcendental reference as the embodiment of abstract machines (Choat, 2014: p.35). In this context, transforming art into a war machine is not simply an over-coding that will be carried out between pieces of art (works, practices… etc) that form a counter-power block. In Thousand Plateaus (1987), Deleuze and Guattari talk about the nomads transforming themselves into war machines. However, this transformation is made possible by the invention of nomadic inventions (inventio), not fixing in a particular way of subjection. As nomads transform themselves into war machines, they develop the ability to invent new worlds (Raunig, 2012: p.61). Every invention starts with the invention of a technique, but is not limited to the technical level, it produces social outcomes. A material tool emerges (becomes operational) through technical inventions, but every invention is social before it is technical: it is based on the cumulative accumulation and social absorption of knowledge, taste, function. A work of art that has become operative with the invention of a new style and technique goes beyond the innovation that makes it actual; it produces collective assemblages of enunciation. According to Zepke, art as an abstract-machine is three-dimensional as ethical, practical and ontological. Deleuze and Guattari’s conceptualization of art as an abstract machine is based on affirmation of life. According to this, Deleuze treats Nietzsche ethically (as affirmation of affirmation) through the will to power; approaches Spinoza in terms of practice, which enables the rhizomatic construction of power, and Bergson in terms of ontology (where action is the same as creating). These three names are the coordinates of art as the abstract machine that creates and expresses life (Zepke, 2005: p.7). The

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joyfulness and experimentalness of art as an abstract machine opens life to new ones. This joyfulness and experimentation is political, due to its potential to destroy them beyond any predetermined and institutionalized representation. As Zepke puts it: Here art will become a politics of lived experience, a realm of experimentation that opens life up ro alternative modes of being, affirming new realities, new communiries, and new methods ofself-organisation. Art becomes a kind of bio-politics, an experimenration with life as jr is lived, a contestation in the realm ofexperience with everyrhing rhar seeks ro prevent us from affirming our power of composirion. Art is a mechanism ro increase our power, to liberare ourselves from the limits of represenration… Art is the freedom to experiment on our conditions of exisrence, and is the ethical condition ofany revolution. Art as ethics, and as bio-politics, serves to emphasise the fict that art is always concerned witb very practical problems (Zepke, 2005: p.9). According to Deleuze, there is no subject, there are collective assemblages of enunciation. Subject is the name of the density which is called the collective assemblages of enunciation. As Porter points out ‘collective assemblage of enunciation’ implies or implicates itself in language as a series of orderwords; of already regulated or patterned actions… or as the social-institutional environment… in which statements assume force and meaning, or meaning as force (2009: p12). Collective assemblages of enunciation do not originate from the language being a representative institution and its creation by representing the social order. Language intervenes in the appellation (social) of the social and political. Representative appellation is a grabbing device that causes the limitation of meaning as a hegemonic practice. It ensures that the unfamiliar is familiar. But, as previously emphasized, meaning is always an eventuality that transcends its limits, and this eventuality preclude appellation. However, the founding power of the language is hidden in this event. Deleuze and Guattari show Kafka as an example of the language’s undermining of what the practice of appellation makes familiar. According to them, the minor language of Kafka does not represent justice in The Trial, on the contrary, it de-territorializes this representation. Kafka’s writings imply…. effecting a real movement, a defamiliarization or what they call ‘deterritorialization’ of the world that is itself expressly political (Porter, 2009: p.6). For this reason, when Deleuze says that art and sensation are not representative, he means: Aesthetic sensations, therefore, do not represent lived experience. Rather, they capture the basis of lived experience… compound of affects and percepts is made up of preserved affections and perceptions, or aesthetic sensations render sensible the forces behind lived experience, or sensations are extracted, liberated from the auditory and visual clichés governing lived experience (Conway, 2013: pp.20-22). Unrepresentative language establishes the link between art and philosophy. According to Deleuze, philosophy is the practice of creating concepts, while art is the practice of creating blocks of sensations. For this reason, philosophy should listen to the artists first. Because the sensations that create the unrecognizable and the unfamiliar, which give the opportunity to create new concepts by taking the thought out of the familiar, are artist practices. Therefore, the artist is a state of being who tries to develop his own way, rather than universalism. Similarly, it is possible to find the traces of the non-representative founding character of the minor language in the nomadic-subjectivity project in Thousand Plateaus. Nomads are not subjects, but densities, as collective assemblages of enunciation. As a matter of fact, Deleuze and Guattari talk about 477

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nomads, they do not mean those who are traveling. Nomads are those who act at the boundaries between the overdeterminations of the collective assemblages of enunciation without leaving their locations. So, the connection between the transforming art to war machine, which makes the art de-subjectivation machine, and the nomadic subjectivity of Deleuze and Guattari come to light. When the collective assemblage, which establishes the context of the aesthetic desire that provides the purchase of the work of art, is saved from the purpose of turning into words and expressions belonging to individual subjects, the moment called subjection does not occur. Eliminating this moment makes it impossible to assume an indebted subject configuration. Nietzsche argues that the social is established by the ontological debt which is built by morality: Being subordinated to society occurs by being subjected to ontological debt. Every moment that identifies substances (living beings) as subjects is formed by the establishment of this ontological debt, which becomes actual as domination, which expresses the obligation to pay infinite repayment due to its ontological nature (Nietzsche, 2010; Guattari, 2014: p.32; Lazzarto, 2015a: p.29; 2015b: p.64). While Nietzsche defines the first sin in Christian theology (peccatum originis) as Slave Morality, he draws attention to the existence of this ontological debt. In every situation where the social formation takes place based on the dialectic between the outside and inside (us-them / friend-enemy ... etc.), the person is known to the extent that social morality accepts the debt imposed on him. For this reason, as Lazzarato puts it, the pressure exerted on the debtor [via ontological debt] results from the individual himself rather than the society (2015b, p.58). So, what is the connection between the aesthetics of being and the indebted subjectivities? Nietzsche’s effort to transform life into a work of art is related to the will to power as an ethical-ontological effort. This is the eventuality that does not accept anything as given before, and that the experimentality performs with life arises due to affirmation or negation of the will to power. ‘To negate will to power means to deny life and results in nihiism, whereas to affirm is to create, and so participate in life‘s vital becoming. (Zepke, 2005: p.15). Ontological debt does not only satisfy the individual’s desire to be recognized; it also draws the limits of freedom, shows the individual the limits of his own limited freedom. The limitation of freedom is realized and controlled only if the subjectivities, which are constructed as collective assemblages of enunciation, define the ontological debt as their own. Indeed, the destruction of the ontological debt relationship, which determines and limits subjectivity by following a Nietzschean line, does not result in nihilism, contrary to what the Western metaphysics based on negation claims; on the contrary, emancipation is possible with this destruction. The means of this destruction can be obtained by the joyful affection of art as an abstract machine. The art of critique frees life from its divine judgement, from its human limitations and moral determinations, and affirms (that is embodies) the will to power as creative life (Zepke, 2005: p.15). At this point, Lazzarato emphasizes the role of mass media (especially television) in the production of collective assemblages of enunciation. Mass media are involved in the construction of subjection as areas where modes of expression are produced that enable the formation of collective assemblages. Mass media as time crystallization machines are spaces where the multiplicities (concepts, images, sounds, etc.) in the individual are produced, reproduced, regulated, hierarchicalized, so they intervene in the processes of subject production (Lazzarato, 2017: pp.148,160). In this context, Lazzarato claims that mass media as the capitalist dispositif inactivate multitudes by rationalizing them (2017: p.149). But this rationalization [information economy] does not occur by discipline, but rather that it organizes by directing every emotions and desires towards profit management. Based on the non-standardized

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production style, this production dispositive is based on the stimulation and reproduction of fluctuations and deviations rather than the standardization of actions (Lazzarato, 2017: pp.162,172). So how can existence be freed from this liquid control? Undoubtedly, the answer to this question is the same as the question of how limited freedoms can be overcome. According to Lazzarato, machinic integration penetrate the entire life. Time crystallization machines encourage subjects to involve the resonance in which subjection is occurred between social subjection and machinic enslavement. While social subjection is related to the signifying semiotics (representations, ideas ... etc.) machinic enslavement which is related to a-signifying semiotics (emotions, intensity, durations… etc) (Lazzarato, 2017: pp.165-170). With the targeting of life by power relations, the exploitation spreads to the whole social area, and it is affective by the subject’s affectional capture as collective assemblages of enunciation. So, overcoming limited liberties is possible only when artistic action implosions the establishment of ontological debt, which determines the area of ​​limited liberties.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This study attempted to open the aesthetics of power and resistance to discussion on theoretical ground. It is necessary to strengthen the discussion ground with empirical studies related to this field, which aims to create a large literature. Especially when the empirical studies on human-machine convergence, human-nature, human-technology relations are analyzed together with the role of artistic practice in its own language creation, it will open new areas of ethical-political discussion. Throughout the work, intersectionality created with references to works such as Michel Foucault, Deleuze & Guattari, M. Lazzarato can be concretized by being supported by artistic practices that have the ability to perform the virtual one. In this respect, it is hoped that the theoretical track followed throughout the study will guide different studies by offering different perspectives.

CONCLUSION When we return to the original problem, to become life as a work of art, which is targeted as the object of the power dispositions, is resistance. This is not simply through the aestheticizations of life or an ethical-political purposefulness to be imposed on art, but it is the invention of the lines of flight that will deactivate power dispositives that are trying to determine life and render a resistance based on experiments on these lines. Experiments that will take place from the overdetermination of the capitalist axiomatic (subjection), which always contains the danger of micro-fascism, will enable aesthetics of Being. In this experimental way, art, as a form of de-subjection machine and affective labor, is the Event that has the potential to shatter subjectivity that defines itself as an abstract-founder in immersion in life. The destructiveness of art as an event can only be revealed by taking into account the affective aspect of subjectivity. For this reason, in the study, the subjection of subjectivity was considered in the axes of body, desire and time-space, while the rational subject (homo rationalis) was excluded from the setup in question. Today, it is necessary to say that the three dimensions that the capitalist axiomatic controls the subject by decoding, are the body, desire and time-space. Therefore, the priority areas of aestheticization of Being depend on the lines of flight to be drawn in such dimensions, bringing aesthetics and ethics together. Aesthetics is always ethic, as long as the embodiment of aesthetics takes place through 479

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the meeting of reception (affective) based on particularity that brings it (as an act of creation) to labor vice versa it is necessary to claim that ethics is always aesthetic, since the rejection of any norm that it tries to free itself from the chains of debt, is affective. Finally, it is necessary to return to the basic question that has not yet been answered throughout the study: Why should we still be hopeful? or What To Do? To answer these two questions, it is necessary to put Lazzarato’s concept of time crystallization machines back into work. First, the answer to the first question requires focusing on the virtuosity of the meaning that the relationality between artistic activity and time crystallization machines perform and multiply throughout the work. Time crystallization machines open cracks, conflict areas, which make it impossible to close the meaning in the process of reinventing the real and social. The unfillability of this crack is the incubation of life itself turning into resistance against power. Especially artistic practices based on human-machine convergence have the potential to open aesthetics of Being to new temporality and spatiality by producing new materiality and affects. The answer to the second question becomes concrete in Guattari’s determination that “art should not only tell stories, but also create the dispositions of stories” (act. Lazzarato, 2017: 219). For the Being where aesthetics and ethics become inseparable can only be envisioned by artistic production, which enables the rejection of ontological debt.

REFERENCES Agamben, G. (2012). Dispozitif Nedir? / Dost (E. Dedeoğlu, Trans.). MonoKL. Bachelard, G. (1994). The Peotics of Space (M. Jolas, Trans.). Beacon Press. Butler, J. (1997). The Psychic Life of Power. Theories in Subjection. Stanford University Press. Butler, J. (2012). Bedenler ve İktidar, Tekrar. Cogito: Michel Foucault, 70-71, 275–288. Chiesa, L. (2007). Subjectivity and Otherness: A Philosophical Reading of Lacan. The MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/7454.001.0001 Choat, S. (2014). Deleuze, Marx ve Felsefenin Politikleşmesi (A. İkizoğlu, Trans.). In JainD. (Ed.), Özgürleşme Makineleri (pp. 17–44). Otonom. Conway, J. (2014). The Role and Place of Art in Deleuze’s Philosophy. In A. Calcagno, J. Vernon, & S. G. Lofts (Eds.), Intensities and lines of flight: Deleuze/Guattari and the arts (pp. 13–33). Rowman & Littlefield International. Deleuze, G. (1990). Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza (M. Joughin, Trans.). Zone Books. Deleuze, G. (2009). İki Delilik Rejimi Metinler ve Söyleşiler 1975-1995 (D. Lapoujade, Ed.). Bağlam. Deleuze, G. (2013). Foucault (B. Yalım & E. Koyuncu, Trans.). Norgunk. Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1983). Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (R. Hurley, M. Seem, & H. R. Lane, Trans.). University of Minnesota Press. Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1987). A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (B. Massumi, Trans.). University of Minnesota Press.

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Demirtaş, M. (2016). Arzu Politikası: Deleuze ve Guattari Etkisi. Otonom. Flisfeder, M. (2018). The Ideological Algorithmic Apparatus: Subjection Before Enslavement. Theory & Event, 21(2), 457–484. Foucault, M. (1984). The Body of Condemned. In P. Rabinow (Ed.), The Foucault Reader (pp. 170–177). Pantheon Books. Foucault, M. (1986). The Care of the Self: Vol. 3. History of Sexuality (R. Hurley, Trans.). Pantheon Books. Foucault, M. (2017). Subjectivity and Truth. Lectures at the College de France 1980-1981 (G. Burchell, Trans.). Palgrave Macmilan. Guattari, F. (2014). Kaçış Çizgileri (I. Ergüden, Trans.). Otonom. Hegel, G. W. F. (2010). Philosophy of Mind (W. Wallace & A. V. Miller, Trans.). Clarendon Press. Hughes, J. (2014). Deleuze’den Sonra Felsefe (F. Ege, Trans.). Bilim ve Sosyalizm Yayınları. Kant, I. (1999). Critique of Pure Reason (P. Guyer & A. W. Wood, Eds. & Trans.). Cambridge University Press. Keskin, F. (2017). İktidarın Özneyi Kurması (Öznenin Kurulması Ne Demek?). Retrieved form: https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=g7FY8d73i30 Lacan, J. (2005). Écrits: A Selection (A. Sheridan, Trans.). Routledge. Lazzarato, M. (2015a). Borçlandırılmış İnsanın İmali (M. Erşen, Trans.). Açılım Kitap. Lazzarato, M. (2015b). Borçla Yönetmek (Ş. Çiltaş, Trans.). Otonom. Lazzarato, M. (2017). Video Felsefe (Ş. Çiltaş Solmaz, Trans.). Otonom. Lemke, T. (2014). Biyopolitika (U. Özmakas, Trans.). İletişim. Lemke, T. (2016). Politik Aklın Eleştirisi: Foucault’nun Modern Yönetimsellik Çözümlemesi (Ö. Karlık, Trans.). Phoenix. Mouffe, C. (2017). Dünyayı Politik Düşünmek (M. Bozluolcay, Trans.). İletişim. Negri, A. (2013). Sanat ve Çokluk (S. Sönmezgil, Trans.). MonoKL. Nietzsche, F. (2011). Ahlakın Soykütüğü Bir Polemik (Z. Alangoya, Trans.). Kabalcı. Oranlı, İ. (2016). Ranciere’de Siyasi Olanın Estetik Boyutu: Siyaset Üzerine On Tez ve Duyumsanır Olanın Paylaşımı. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 14, 108–116. Özmakas, U. (2012). Foucault: İktidardan Biyoiktidara. Cogito: Michel Foucault, 70-71, 53–81. Porter, R. (2009). Deleuze and Guattari: Aesthetics and Politics. University of Wales Press. Ranciere, J. (2013). The Politics of Aesthetics: The Distribution of the Sensible (G. Rockhill, Ed. & Trans.). Bloomsbury.

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Raunig, G. (2013). Bin Makine Toplumsal Hareket Olarak Makinenin Kısa Felsefesi (M. Çelik, Trans.). Otonom. Vihalem, M. (2018). Everyday Aesthetics and Jacques Rancière: Reconfiguring the Common Field of Aesthetics and Politics. Journal of Aesthetics & Culture, 10(1), 1506209. doi:10.1080/20004214.2018 .1506209 Yüksel, C. (2016). Kant Estetiğinde Güzellik Yargılarının Evrensel Geçerliliği. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 14, 39–48. Zepke, S. (2005). Art as Abstract Machine: Onthology and Aesthetics in Deleuze and Guattari. Routledge.

ADDITIONAL READING Braidotti, R. (1994). Nomadic Subjects: Embodiment and Sexual Difference in Contemporary Feminist Theory. Columbia University Press. Bringinshaw, V. A. (2001). Dance, Space and Subjectivity. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230508538 Bronner, S. E. (2012). Modernism at the Barricades: Aesthetics, Politics, Utopia. Columbia University Press. Criton, P. (2019). Intensive Difference and Subjectivations. In D. Olkowski & E. Pirovolakis (Eds.), Deleuze and Guattari’s Philosophy of Freedom (pp. 146–152). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429022562-11 Lorraine, T. (2011). Deleuze and Guattari’s Immanent Ethics: Theory, Subjectivity and Duration. State University of New York Press. MacKenzie, I., & Porter, R. (2011). Dramatizing the Political: Deleuze and Guattari. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230353244 Nabais, C. P. (2019). Kafka and Melville: The Same Struggle for a People. In D. Olkowski & E. Pirovolakis (Eds.), Deleuze and Guattari’s Philosophy of Freedom (pp. 81–88). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429022562-6 Pile, S. (1996). The Body and the City: Psychoanalysis, Space and Subjectivity. Routledge. Steele, B. J. (2013). Defacing Power: The Aesthetics of Insecurity in Global Politics. The University of Michigan Press. Valdovinos, J. I. (2018). Transparency as Ideology, Ideology as Transparency: Towards a Critique of the Meta-aesthetics of Neoliberal Hegemony. Open Cultural Studies, 2(1), 654–667. doi:10.1515/culture-2018-0059

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Actualisation: It is the emergence that the being, which makes the meaning infinite in a certain time-space, is temporarily fixed as existence. Aestheticization: It is the realization of Being in a sensible dimension against the power relations that enable the subject to be set up in body, desire, and time-space coordinates. Becoming: It is the ethical-aesthetic transformation in which the integrity defined as the subject goes beyond all the pre-given norms and pre-established institutionalization, making it impossible to establish this integrity. Collective Assemblage of Enunciation: It is the collective norms that express the social obligations that enable the body to be defined as the subject. Dispositive: It is the techniques and technologies of subjection that are made up of discursive and non-discursive practices that enable the establishment of a power-knowledge relationship. Ethics: Confused with morality, but unlike morality, not subordinating the subject to social norms; on the contrary, they are actions that appear immanently to the subject. Subjecti(vati)on: It is the power processes that define the subjection by subordinating and also identifying the subjectivity. Virtual: It is the extension of Beings that makes the meaning infinite.

ENDNOTES 1



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Throughout the study, the concept of subjecti(vati)on was used in this way to express both the meaning of being subjected (subjection) and the processes of the establishment of subjectivity. “Himself” affix is deliberately chosen to demonstrate masculine domination in Western metaphysics. Austerity is deliberately chosen to state both savings and thoughness/stiffness. Elaborating this discussion goes beyond the scope of this study. Regarding the timelessness and lack of space of production, see: Gerald Raunig, Gene Ray & Ulf Wuggenig (Eds.) Critique of Creativity: Precarity, Subjectivity and Resistance in the ‘ Creative Industries’; Birte Heidkamp & David Kergel (Eds.) Precarity within the Digital Age: Media Change and Social Insecurity; Chris Hann & Jonathan Parry (Eds.), Industrial Labor on the Margins of Capitalism: Precarity, Class, and the Neoliberal Subject. As a matter of fact, according to Zizek, the dichotomy of Being and Existence in Deleuze is basically overdetermined as the BAD-GOOD contrast (2013: p.65).

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Chapter 24

Aestheticizing Violence Within Transmedia Storytelling Context: V For Vendetta Case Ferhat Zengin Gelisim University, Turkey Bahadır Kapır https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4602-9859 Marmara University, Turkey

ABSTRACT In this study, V for Vendetta (2006) directed by James McTeigue, is analysed based on Henry Jenkins’s transmedia storytelling terms. Henry Jenkins defines re-creating a story with different media tools as “transmedia storytelling” and evaluates this new storytelling form that emerged in the digital age as a new aesthetic linked with active participation that creates new demands on the consumer. V for Vendetta with a large fan audience has a story that became the symbol of the social movements that emerged against totalitarian regimes created in the modern state and social organisation. The story V for Vendetta that was first published at the beginning of 1980s as a dystopic comic book prioritising violence and terror experienced changes in the story with the effect of different narrative media. Within this context, this study with Henry Jenkins’s transmedia storytelling theoretical basis analyzes how the main narrative elements of the story such as terror, violence, fear, and freedom are reflected in the V for Vendetta movie by using semiotic methods.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch024

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 Aestheticizing Violence Within Transmedia Storytelling Context

INTRODUCTION With digital technologies, we are constantly witnessing the invention of new technological devices or observing the transformation of current devices to new forms in this revolutionary process. Media device mediums are highly influenced by these radical changes and transformations. Technology-based media tools of today’s world which are associated with “New” prefix have opened the doors of mass and active participation than old media tools referred as “Traditional” and created a more unique narrative structure. In this digital era where new media tools are intertwined with convergence tendency, story narratives are re-designed and re-created in this sense. This re-creation process experienced by the modern entertainment industry required “building new entertainment fields” as expressed by Henry Jenkins. The real meaning of this is that story can no longer be produced for one tool or platform. Jenkins explains this situation with his new term: “Transmedia storytelling.” This term is used for explaining the re-creation of a story by using different media tools. According to Jenkins (2003), transmedia storytelling indicates a new aesthetic born against new demand creation, active participation-dependent media convergence on the consumers. Famous communication scientist emphasised transmedia storytelling as “the art of creating a world” stated that “a story can be introduced in a movie, expanded with television, novels and comic books and the world of it can be discovered and experienced with games” (2003). Therefore, the story can be re-shaped based on the properties of the tool or media and show a fluid property. In this sense, it is important to follow the contextual and stylistic changes and transformation when the narrative flows in different media to understand the narrative. The story of V for Vendetta that started as a comic book but failed to gain attention in the first years turned into a popular narrative when it was adapted to a movie in 2005. The story of V for Vendetta that commonly has chaos, violence, terrorism, fear and freedom themes has become the symbol of the libertarian and revolutionary movement against the totalitarian regimes emerged due to the modern state and social structuring especially via V who was the protagonist of the movie. Later, this story flowed between media by being the subject of different media. According to Jenkins (2003), a good character in a transmedia narrative can sustain numerous narrative. In V for Vendetta, V’s mythicised character and symbolic mask enabled contextual re-creation of the story on various media. Within this context, while the basic story structure was the same, V for Vendetta’s movie adaption influenced masses and social structure rather than the comic book is important evidence that cinema’s unique characteristics contribute to the narrative and presentation of the narrative. In James Monaco’s (2013: p. 165) “How to Read a Film”, it is stated that “the drama and attraction of the movie lie in the fact that how it is filmed and presented rather than what is filmed (this is the drama of the topic)”. In this sense, the main question is about how concerning content such as violence, fear, terrorism, chaos in V for Vendetta’s comic book is presented in the cinematic media. According to Yuriy M. Lotman (2012: p. 63), everything in cinema has a meaning and transfer information. To him, the influence power of the cinema comes from the multidimensional structure with planned and highly intense information. This multidimensionality must be understood as the whole of all intellectual and emotional structures transferred to the audience. Lotman sees the investigation of this influence mechanism as the starting point of semiotic in the cinema. Therefore, this study with Henry Jenkins’ transmedia storytelling theoretical basis must analyse how V for Vendetta story content aestheticize violence in cinema setting by using the semiotic method.

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Monaco expressed that it is vital to learn to read the image and audience can obtain the power of the tool this way. Because reading and understanding the image better means having more power on it (2013: p. 155). In this sense, semiotics give us this power. Christina Metz who uses semiotics to create scientific meaning for cinema stated that semiotic is “the method to discover the secrets of cinema work rather than being a belief related to the quality of cinema” by definition (Andres, 2010: p. 324). Cinema is a sign of tool and art with extensions. The majority of the meaning comes from the things we don’t see rather than we see (or hear) or more accurately from the on-going relationship between what we see and we don’t see (Monaco, 2013: p. 164). “Semiotics is semantics and cinema semiotics proposes to create a comprehensive model that can explain how a movie creates meaning or what that movie means for the audience. Semiology aims to identify the laws that make watching a movie possible and uncovering unique meaning patterns that give the special character of an individual movie or cinema genre” (Andrew, 2010: p. 324). In this sense, semiotics is “a logical and mostly illuminating system that helps to define how cinema does what it does” (Monaco, 2013: p. 166). Susan Hayward (2012: p. 190) stated: “semiotic attempts to solve structural relationships functioning to generate meaning in a system” and asserts that this basically happens in two ways: “A sign generates the meaning simultaneously as a combination of “what it is not” and “what it is”. Barthes adds the third ideology and explains this at two signification level: central meaning and connotation: The first level is the basic meaning: basic first meaning level of the meaning is the word by word superficial meaning. Signs works in two ways at the second level: connotative mediators and myth makers. This second level of interpretation emerges when combined with first-order culture values and discourse (Hartley, 1982: p. 215). Connotation, as the word suggests, is defined as the entire relationship and marker meanings attached to the sign by the society or the individual- and it is always connected with the content (Hayward, 2012: p. 190). According to Oguz Adanır (2013: p. 19), “while the central meaning indicates the widely accepted objective characteristics at the image level, the connotation is attaching sensory, poetic, aesthetic, ideologic, metaphoric etc. meanings to this thing (Adanır, 2013: p. 19).

TRANSMEDIA STORYTELLING “Transmedia” in English was derived from combining to Latin words “trans and medium”. This new term compounded with “trans” preposition/verb prefix that means “going beyond, beyond, against, transcending” in Latin and “medium” that means “tool, environment” can be interpreted as “beyond media/ tool”. Transmedia term was first used by American Professor Marsha Kinder from the University of South California. Kinder frequently used the transmedia term with “intertextuality” term in her “Playing with Power in Movies, Television, and Video Games: From Muppet Babies to Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles” book published in 1991. Transmedia storytelling was first used by famous new media theorists American Professor Henry Jenkins from University of South California in his “Transmedia Storytelling” article published in 2003 on MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Technology Review website. In this article, Jenkins (2003) stated that we are in a new media convergence age where multiple media channel content flow 486

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is almost inevitable and within this context, a content is the development of the creative process in different media. According to him, everything related to the modern entertainment industry structure was designed by building and developing new entertainment fields. Jenkins explained that young consumers have become information hunters and gatherers and enjoyed following the character backgrounds and event (stories) and forming connections between different texts in the same franchise. Therefore, the young audience expects to watch fictional worlds that offer new expansions. Within this context, famous thinker suggests transmedia storytelling in his “Transmedia Storytelling” article, explains that “in transmedia storytelling, ideally, every media does its best - thus, a story can be introduced in a movie, expanded with television, novel and comic books and its world can ve discovered and experienced in games” and stats that transferring the characters from books to movies, video games with transmedia storytelling will make these characters stronger and more attractive. Jenkins explains this situation with the Pokemon example and emphasises that Pokemon spread with games, television programs, movies and books. He underlines that each content/story must be autonomous to be sufficient on its own. This means you don’t need to watch the movie to enjoy the game; the opposite is also true. According to Jenkins, transmedia storytelling provides a deep experience motivating more consumption by sustaining reading between media; thus, new experience renews the franchise and increases potential market revenue by sustaining consumer loyalty (Jenkins, 2003). Based on Jenkins’ statements, transmedia storytelling briefly has a special storytelling structure expanding/spreading between both different languages (verbal, iconic etc.) and different media (cinema, comic book television, video games etc.). Transmedia storytelling is not about adaptation from one media to the other. Accordingly, the story in the comic books is not the same as the story on the television or in the movies; different media and languages join and contribute to building the world that the media narrates (Scolari, 2009: p. 587). Transmedia storytelling which gained attention in the academic field in a short time was considered by Henry Jenkins in 2006 in “Converge Culture Where Old and Media Collide” book and “Searching for the Origami Unicorn: The Matrix and Transmedia Storytelling” section with The Matrix (1999) phenomenon. In this article, Jenkins (2016: p. 152) states “in 1999 for the first time in the public language, audience and critics attempted to interpret Blair Witch (1999) which is a low-budget independent movie with great revenue” and makes this statement about the movie production stage: More than one years before the cinema boom, it created fans on the internet. Many people find out about Burkittsville witch and disappearing of the movie production team which is the main subject of the movie from this weird but real looking website. The website presented the documents of various witch sight incidents; most of them were not direct references to the movie. A fake-documentary investigating the witch was broadcasted on Sci-Fi channels; there were little things that differentiated this documentary from other supernatural documentaries periodically broadcasted in the network. After the film was released, Oni Press released various comic books that are suggested to be based on the statements of a person who met the witch while walking in the forest near Burkittsville. Even the soundtrack was released as a cassette found in an abandoned car. All these elements contributed to the creative team called Haxans that used different shooting style with a hand camera and immediateness provided with improvisation behaviour and made the world of the movie more persuasive (Jenkins, 2016: p. 152-153). By using the Blair Witch movie, Jenkins’ abovementioned statements present us with an important framework to understand transmedia storytelling. Because the fictional world of the movie offers an entirely different world before and after and the audience dives into this extraordinary universe experienced for the first time. Blair Witch movie screenplay writer Ed Sanchez explained this situation to Jenkins as 487

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follows: “We learned this from Blair Witch; if you give people enough materials to discover, they will. Not everyone but some. Those who discover and benefit from all worlds will be your fans forever; they give you energy you can’t buy with advertisement... What will sustain people’s interest and work for that is this information network prepared for this. If people need to work for something, they will give more time. And they will give more emotional value to that” (Jenkins, 2016: p. 153). Jenkins (2016: p. 43) emphasises that transmedia storytelling is “the art of creating a world” and states that “to completely experience a fictional world, consumers must have hunter-gatherer roles, follow the tracks of the story between media channels, compare their notes with online discussion groups and collaborate for everyone spending time and efforts to achieve richer entertainment experience” (2016: p. 42-43).

DYSTOPIC STORY OF AN UNACHIEVED CAUSE: V FOR VENDETTA “Remember, remember, the 5th of November...” V for Vendetta movie which is the co-production of USA-Germany-England written by Lana and Lily Wachowski and directed by James McTeigue was released in 2006. Starring Hugo Weaving (V) and Natalie Portman (Evey Hammond), the movie is based on a dystopic comic books series written by Alan Moore and illustrated by David Lloyd. V for Vendetta that was first published black and white on British comic book Warrior between 1982-1985 was republished by American comic book published DC Comics that produces story content for adults on 1988 with 10 volume Vertigo series. Although V for Vendetta was generally behind other comic books published on the Vertigo series of DC Comics, Wachowski sisters who gained fame with Matrix (1999) movie wrote a script from this comic book and adapted to the movie which brought the current popularity. V for Vendetta comic book that has a special fan base is a dystopic story in a futuristic world written by Alan Moore in 1981. V for Vendetta movie adapted from Alan Moore’s comic book written against the politics of “Iron Lady” Thatcher in a different time and place (Keşaplı, 2008, p.33) depicts a fascist administration which the society is kept under control and censorship and Big Brother can be felt in every corner (Akdir, 2012). The story is in future England administrated by an authoritarian and dominant regime. V who moves to wake the public from this nightmare is a masked, anarchist hero who starts an individual fight against the autocratic ruling. This mask with an exaggerated smile, thin moustache growing upward and red cheek design was designed by David Lloyd to describe Guy Fawkes who attempted to blow the British Parliament on 05 November 1605. Within this context, Guy Fawkes myth associated with the mask which is an important metaphor in the V for Vendetta story narrative plays an important role in the story universe. Guy Fawkes mask that becomes a symbol after adapting the narrative to the movie has become a global symbol as the freedom and uprising in protests and publish demonstrations against the system. For example, world-famous hacktivist group Anonymous choose this mask as their face. These group members whose real identities are unknown wear Guy Fawkes masks in network-based communication channels and acted that have repercussions in the international arena. Guy Fawkes mask symbolised with libertarian, revolutionist, anarchist spirit have become an inspiration to Anonymous and influenced the mission of this hacker group. Thus, mask with a mythical narrative was carried to the real-like in idea, thought and belief context. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the historical and cultural past of the story to correctly interpret the V for Vendetta story narrative universe. 488

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Story Background On 05 November 1605 which is known as “Bonfire Day” or “Guy Fawkes Day”, a group of assassins including Guy Fawkes attempted to kill the King, ministers and noblemen by blowing up the British Parliament to form a Catholic administration. But when this attempt was heard by the King, Guy Fawkes and his friends were captured and he was executed as a traitor. “5th November” which is the day that ended up with an unsuccessful attempt was later declared a national holiday in England and firework festival representing the gunpowder was organised on every 5th November (Allen, 2019). In the four centuries since 05 November 1605, Guy Fawkes Day had different meanings to “have the support of different groups, on different times and with different purposes”. While this date which is only celebrated in England with bonfire and fireworks “at the end of Queen Victoria reign and until 20th century” and which is a popular holiday was a Protestant salvation celebration until the 17th century, it has become “the day of opportunities for rebellion, discomfort and bad administration demonstration” among the lower class” (Cannadine, 2005 quoted in John, 2012). As a traitor was depicted as a revolutionaries hero with the popularity and influence of the graphic novel V on the 1980s and the movie with the same day, Guy Fawkes Day gained a greater meaning than it had in the 16th century. This is a nobler meaning than the referenced individual (History By Day, 2020). It is possible to talk about the same change in meaning for “Remember, remember, the fifth of November” phrase. Although this line which is frequently used in today’s world is considered from a freedom-related slogan perspective within the critical discourse narrative, in reality, this phrase was written by John Milton on 1626 in a poem to celebrate the failure and never to forget rebels. Therefore, the rebellion narrative of these poetic lines is not supportive phrases for rebel Fawkes and his friends. With the influence of the popular culture, the poet has strayed away from its own meaning and gained a completely different noble meaning; in a way, it alienated to its original meaning.

The Story of V for Vendetta Movie “There is an idea behind this mask. And ideas are bulletproof!” V for Vendetta movie adapted from a comic book shows similarities with the story framework of the comic book. But the movie is not the same as the comic book in terms of storyline. The story of the movie has a new narrative and changes than the original story. Alan Moore, the creator of V For Vendetta suggested that his writing was twisted beyond recognition, called the screenplay “rubbish” and withdraw from the movie he regarded as “completely American movie” (Itzkoff, 2016). V for Vendetta movie starts on a 5th November night centuries later 05 November 1605 which Guy Fawkes was captured and executed for his attempt to blow the British Parliament when V blows the building of justice (Old Balley) in a glamour way. Then, V captures the BTN (British Television Network) television channel controlled by the ruling party and criticises the oppressive government and calls for the public and invites the British people to meet and resist in front of the Parliament building on 5th November against this tyranny administration. The ruling party under Prime Minister Adam Sutler’s administration increases the oppression and arrest in the public to find V and fails to prevent the murder of top managers of the part although he tries to twist V’s actions by using the media. After V’s strength-

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ening image along with the public, British people start to question the system and gathered in front of the Parliament building by wearing Guy Fawkes mask worn by V. After killing the Prime Minister and top managers of the party, V blows up the parliament building which is the symbol of resistance in front of the public who are on the streets against the government. V who is one of the people captivated in “Larkhill Detention Centre” for genetic experiments by government-supported scientists is named after the cell number five written by the Roman numerals. V’s face and body were burned in a big blast on Larkhill Detention Centre where hundreds of people were killed with experiments. The experiments only work on V, after surviving from a great fire, he goes back to the city after years to avenge the victims and he avenges them from torturers. After each killing, he leaves a symbolic red rose on the murdered person for reference to the victims. One of the important characters in the movie is Evey. Evey raised in an opposing family regarded as a political activist by the state grow up in a correction house after her mother, father and sister were the victims of state terror. Evey who had an ordinary life was passivated in the fear atmosphere like other people in the society although she had great suffering. V tortures Evey in different ways for her to have the same awakening as he does. Each experiences a spiritual awakening after V’s tortures is the complimentary of the parliament building blow up the project. Another important character of the movie is inspector Finch (Stephen Rea). Finch is one of the five party members who can talk to Prime Minister Sutler. The inspector facing the realities of the party with V’s actions and narrative steps in an awakening process by questioning the system and overlooks V’s detonation action before he dies. V created by using terror and violence in the chaotic environment when necessary to save the public from the fear environment, urge the people to awake and give them their freedom back has a multilayered structured as a fearless, brave, artistic, intellectual and enlightened hero. In this sense, V’s name is metaphorical. The name comes from the cell number V (five) written by Roman numerals. V plans the terrorist attack on 5th of November and listens to Beethoven Symphonie No 5. V letter is also the symbol of peace sign we make with our fingers. Also, it is striking that the English pronunciation of V is “we”. In this sense, who V is and where V comes from is not mentioned and V himself can’t remember that. In the movie, codes supporting “we” image are frequently emphasised in a connotative way.

Transmedia Transformation of The Story of “V For Vendetta” V For Vendetta’s story that started as a comic book continued as different media platforms expanded the story. V for Vendetta that experienced increasing popularity after the movie adaptation which could be considered as the breaking point of the story continued to flow on various media such as theatre, video games, music, websites, blogs, multimedia tools, video clips, caricatures, paintings and illustrations and new narratives unique to the story emerged. For example, David Jay was inspired by Moore’s comic book in his 1984 “V For Vendetta” album. In 2000, a Swedish theatre group performed a video-music mixture multimedia performance called “Landet där man gör som man vill” which is created from the graphic novel. In the DVD released between 2006-2008 with different formats, “Freedom Forever” behind the scenes images, movie production process, short documentaries, special clips for the cast were added to enrich the narrative. In 2017, Raconteur radio broadcasting in New Jersey, USA broadcasted a radio play parody with V for Vendetta name for the human right’s campaign and in the same year, the television series adaptation of the comic book by American Channel 4 was released. In the same year, BBC broadcasted a three-episode mini-series called “Gunpowder” that tells the story of the assassination attempt to King James on 05 November 1605 and this TV show included Guy Fawkes character 490

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popularised with V for Vendetta narrative. At the same time, various commercial products are launched as unique content such as V mask, swords, costumes, toys and cloth. Thus, each media created new pieces unique to the main story. According to Jenkins, the unique contribution of each media to the story is transforming the story into a transmedia narrative. Each media enabled the systematically expanding story to be re-discovered and experienced by the audience/reader. This experience that takes the audience to “moment to moment emotional journey” (Pratten, 2015: p. 2) and includes in the content creation process provided an important contribution to creating a fan and participant culture. Because “in the transmedia, audience is the part of a growing participant culture” (Hazboun, 2014: pp. 20-21 quoted in Ozlem Dugan). The movie found a reflection in real life in participant culture context. Various protests against the system around the world use images of V For Vendetta narrative. Therefore, V For Vendetta narrative represents, presents and expands the story universe in each media with their own instrumental properties. Within this context, it is important to analyse how violence elements which are one of the important main themes of the story in cinema movie adaptation are presented.

Aestheticization of Violence in V For Vendetta Movie “Violence can be used for good...” The simplest and clear statement of V For Vendetta movie which is “violence can be used for good” is transferred by V himself. V who believes that violence is needed for justice to reach this purpose advises violence and terrorism. Because society is not free and intimidated with fear. Therefore, society must be awakened, freed from fear and directed to individual enlightenment and fight. Within this framework, tortures experienced by V and Evey are presented as individual catharsis, liberation and evolution. For V, Sutler administration applies violence and hostile politics to “have complete hegemonic domination. The ruling party that captured the state with the hegemonic administration wheels where freedom in the public sphere disappeared, law and justice were suspended, critical thinking was eliminated, privacy and differences were wiped out and that had tortures and executions wants to sustain the consent-based administration build with oppression and fear atmosphere. Against this fear atmosphere, V emphasises by using Evey that the movement must be “Public must not fear the state. The state must fear the public.” belief philosophy. V that believes to show vital courage against reinforced fear explains his idea of life with “By the power of truth, I, while living, have conquered the universe” quoted from Faust engraved to the mirror and “I dare do all that may become a man/ Who dares do more is none” from William Shakespeare’s Macbeth. Extreme conservative and nationalistic authority under Prime Minister Adam Sutler tries to restore the order with the oppressive methods by using military, police and special forces (Fingerman) and punishes those who do not follow the order with anti-democratic methods. At the same time, oppressive ruling party infuses that the public must consent to follow the current order by using the manipulative news and propaganda over the controlled media. Within this context, administration-administered relationship in V for Vendetta is executed and sustain by the ideologic state apparatus suggested by Louis Althusser1. Additionally, British people under Sutler rule are constantly monitored and controlled by the secretly moving vehicles. Television is expressed as the most important mass communication tool of this surveillance society in the movie. Television screens are positioned at the centre at homes, in bars, cafes and on the streets and squares. This vehicle adorned by the people and watched with hypnotised gazes was

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aestheticized as a living organism. Prothero who became famous as “The Voice of London” on BTN canalises his own discourses to the public. This reflects the “powerful effect of mass communication tools” suggested in the first years of communication studies. According to this view, the audience are individuals open for all types of influence and guidance, passive and atomised. V’s first speech criticising the ruling party and the system was first presented on the television.

Fear and Desire to Defecting to Authority V for Vendetta is about totalitarianism over the British people who feel the need to take sanctuary to an authority in the fear atmosphere after the terrorist attacks. Therefore, this movie is striking to show before and after a totalitarian regime. V summarises this process with these words: “Our story like all these stories start with a young and promising politician. He is religious and he is a member of the Tory. He only has one purpose and he does not care about the political process. As he gains power, his zealotry is more clear and the supporters are becoming more aggressive. (…) Fear has become the most important tool of this government.” The Norsefire party in the movie is a political party that uses the chaotic situation of the war to politics. Norsefire party under Sutler administration that blamed extreme religionists in the terrorist attacks that lead to great chaos among the British people and killed thousands of people - which were planned by the government - wins a great victory with order and security promises: Just like it happened in Hitler, an individual with power comes and redefines authority and just like defined by Hobbes in Leviathan (1651), people sell their freedom for security. Individual freedom is strictly limited and citizens are monitored with cameras and secret police. Censorship, curfew and paternalists (paternalism derived from Latin “pattern” (father) means forcing someone to do something for their own good) behaviour transform an open society to a closed society and this society is similar to George Orwell’s 1984 novel just like all other totalitarian societies. Technology and media are used for controlling the thoughts and movements of the citizens and creating a thoughtless and submissive society that sees no problem in their lives. Big Brother still watches and uses violence in many ways rather than just watching (Berg, 2015). Berg (2015) stated that fear instinct in V for Vendetta movie context was used “to restrict individual freedom and justify expanding state power” and a totalitarian society is formed as a result of that: “The society under Norse fire regime is the typical example of a totalitarian state: Police is the executive branch of the “Big Brother”. Media is under the control of the state and used for propaganda. Norsefire regime has a socially conservative agenda: The church is under the state’s administration just like the Vatican was under Mussolini. Homosexuality is forbidden and actively suppressed. Art and freedom for expression is a taboo like any closed and oppressor society ” (Berg, 2015). According to Berg, anyone against the ruling party can be prosecuted as a terrorist in these societies and become a victim of torture. Therefore, Berg states that totalitarian society has numerous victims and the lives of free individuals are unjustly limited. According to him, “nothing other than the ideologic path of the ruling path is permitted” in a totalitarian society. Berg especially emphasised and underlined that when an open society is closed by restricting individual freedom, the society is left to the subject of terror. Therefore, “the precautions of the authorities against terrorism leads terror to win” (Berg, 2015).

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The ruling party that consolidated the social fear under totalitarian rule passivized the British people with controlled ideologic apparatus. The public especially subjected to constant propaganda via media shows consent to strict rules for the so-called future of the country. Mass resistance is necessary to take the country out of this fear atmosphere and to raise awareness among the public. In this sense, V attempts to globalise his individual struggle. Additionally, there is a strong system criticism in terms of ruling party-media-religion-society relationships. For example, the Revenant is a figure that abuses his power and has a twisted relationship by using religion for his desires. Although “The Voice of London” Prothero is an ex-commander overlooking the killing of innocent people at the detention centre became the head of the media with interest and money-based relationship with the ruling party. In V for Vendetta movie, banning artistic works such as movies, music, painting and book by “Ministry of Objectionable Materials”; alienating rules for religion and gender; destroying different and unwanted individuals; depriving the society of everything that will evoke the critical thinking reminds the Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) novel by George Orwell. In this sense, Moore’s V for Vendetta story highly influenced by George Orwell’s dystopic world in Nineteen Eighty-Four. For example, “I remember how different turned into dangerous” line is added to a scene where gay lovers hold hands and the change of positive meaning of images/scenes/icons and words into negative and prohibited new meanings are emphasised. This is the expression of new radicalised social order and standardised public with “new discourses”2 in Nineteen Eighty-Four novel. In V for Vendetta, this is done by the blacklists of dictator Adam Sutler. Another example can be given in the media context. The role of “Ministry of Truth” in Nineteen EightFour that constantly changes the past based on the ideology of the ruling party is played by the media in V for Vendetta. Historical justice building Old Bailey which has a symbolic meaning and blown up by V in the movie was presented with “a building that is planned to be demolished but a glamorous farewell of the responsible demolishing team” manipulation. Thus, the party constantly tries to change and rebuild the public memory and history. This situation is described as follows in Orwell’s dystopia: “Who controls the past controls the future; who controls the present controls the past.” Moreover, while the past is changeable by definition, it was never changed. What is real now is real forever. It was simple. The only thing we need is to win an endless victory against our own memory. “They called it “truth supervision”: In the new discourse, “doublethink”. (Orwell, 2019: p. 45). Monaco (2013: p. 165) stated that “one of the sources of big power in the cinema is that cinema recreates most of the metaphors in other arts.” V for Vendetta movie with numerous symbolic meaning and philosophical background as well as references to various mythical, historical and cultural events has an eclectic structure due to interdisciplinary relationship between art, literature, philosophy, sociology and psychology. Especially quotes from George Orwell, William Shakespeare, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ludwig van Beethoven, Gaston Leroux, Alexandre Dumas and artistic associations plays an important role to enrich the story. This situation that opens the doors for different associations and readings also deepen, romanticised V character as aestheticized by the movie and increased the interest to him. But for some critics, new associations independent from the comic book transformed Alan Moore’s V into a “classic liberalism advocate rather than being the poster boy of anarchism” (Crow, 2019). The love between V and Evey resembling the love relationship that has romantic elements in “The Phantom of the Opera” (1909) novel by Gaston Leroux is an example of these new associations. Because V in Moore’s comic book has a reckless anarchist soul with radical political views who can even kill the innocent people. Within this context, violent acts of V in the movie that don’t hurt the innocent people is more 493

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acceptable, inured, legitimised and understandable than V portrait in the comic book.3 This situation at the same time is a factor that amplifies the identity relationship between V as the protagonist and the audience. This identity in the movies is consolidated with “we” images presented with iconic and textual metaphoric approaches. V wearing his mask with a subjective plan (zooming to the camera lens) in front of the mirror in the first scene of the movie and “He was all of us” words of Evey after V’s death in the big explosion in the last scene clearly shows this situation. The music listened by V, books, movies, central meaning sings that reflect the intellectual and artistic spirit of V in a system which he believes there is no justice made V character special than other heroes. In terms of connotation, Guy Fawkes mask worn by V which is used as a metaphor as the continuator of rebellion emphasises the revolutionary and libertarian side of the character behind violence and terrorism. Before beating the “Fingerman” law enforcement who are the SS of the fascist regime or before killing pervert reverend Bishop Anthony Lilliman, V reads passages from Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Hamlet and Richard III and leaves a red rose next to those people he killed by symbolising the victims murdered by the ruling party. V goes with the same red roses to blow the parliamentary building and uses a sword like Zorro who relentlessly fights against the bad. In addition to these archaic signs, V defends his actions in the movie with these words: “A building is a symbol, as is the act of destroying it. Symbols are given power by people. Alone, a symbol is meaningless, but with enough people, blowing up a building can change the world.” V expect people to understand and support him with this belief and philosophy. All these signs which could be considered as codes conceal the terrorist image at the consciousness level of the protagonist (the mask characterise that it must not be forgotten that Fawkes was a traitor terrorist in England) with aesthetic narrative and make the protagonist reputable and strong against the audience.

Aestheticization of Violence Violence aggrandised in the comic book narrative is handled with aesthetic elements in V for Vendetta movie. For example, at the beginning of the movie, preparation rituals of V before blowing the justice statue in the city is presented with Evey’s beautification. The mise-en-scene of this scene presented with cross-cutting dialectic chains aesthetic elements that emphasise violence and beauty. The cross-cutting technique is a fictional cinema technique that presents the simultaneously occurring events/actions in the movie to the audience. According to Hayward (2012: p.270), this technique which “is limited to define two different series of events occurring simultaneously and connected within the narrative” is used for building tension. In this scene that uses this technique, V and Evey are in front of the mirror. The television with the same television program is right next to two characters and the sound of the television is used as a cut-in scene as “sound bridge”4. In the mise-en-scene, while V is wearing his mask in front of the mirror, Evet is wearing her make-up. Fast, parallel and simultaneous fictional cuts show V combing his hair, wearing his boots, girding himself with sword and wearing his cape. In a similar plot, Evey combs her hair, wears his cloth and heels and gets dressed. When Evey wears her jewellery, V at the same time girds himself with a sword. As the two characters get ready for a sacred ceremony, Evey’s lipstick and comb are the objects that emphasise beauty while V holds objects (sword) that describe fear and violence. Therefore, while aesthetic was created over the female character as the object of life, living, beauty; death, fear, violence and tension signs were presented over V character. Television is seen as the third character in this chiastic scene. Media itself with hatred and anger-based discourse, alienating, polarising language and representations of Prothero on the television had the seat of honour as a tool instrumentalising violence and anger. These speed of Prothero resembling television propaganda 494

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in Michael Radford’s 1984 (1984) movie adapted from Orwell’s novel are presented with close-up and big close-up that strikingly cover the frame. Hayward (2012: p. 109) stated that “when the shooting is close, audience eye is more directed to the reading determined by the camera”. Within this context, the cinematographic language here focuses the audience to violence. Based on this, it is possible to state that the media between V and Evey is aestheticized by placing to the context between life and death. Another important scene in terms of aestheticizing violence elements is blowing the Old Bailey. Remember, remember, the Fifth of November, the Gunpowder Treason and Plot. I know of no reason why the Gunpowder Treason Should ever be forgotten.” is followed by it is to Madame Justice that I dedicate this concerto, in honour of the holiday that she seems to have taken from these parts, and in recognition of the impostor that stands in her stead. and V blows up the Justice Building with 1812 Overture of Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky playing at the background. Blowing the justice statute with a visual feast that has poem, music and fireworks and using low angle in a cinematographic sense is the aestheticization of in some sense elevated terrorist action. Prime Minister Sutler5 who resembles Adolf Hitler, the dictator of Nazi Germany in terms of his ruling and politics is visualised with a mise-en-scene abstracted from time and space. With “Big Brother” representation, Sutler who speaks in front of the big screen and by looking at the camera is placed at the centre of the narrative with close-up and frames. Monaco related a movie with a mostly close-up shooting that deprives us of the decor with claustrophobia fear and stated that the effects can be drastic (2013: p. 189). Sutler’s look at the camera strengthens this effect and adds special meaning. “Looking at the camera” is generally not used to keep the audience in the movie reality and avoid feeling the watching consciousness. Because when the audience losses the feeling to watch a movie, the audience will stray away from the epic narrative of the cinema and faces with existing reality. Within this context, Sutler who speaks by looking at the camera in the one-way communication process as the response of fear and violence makes the audience feel confined, oppressed and constrained thereby ensure the audience to face with the reality on the focusing screen. Also, after Adam Sutler saying “I want everyone to remember why they need us! to the top managers, media injecting manipulative or fake news to the society to create chaos and fear atmosphere to increase the loyalty to the government -or to close the ranks- is the presentation of the reality at consciousness level to the audience who makes eye contact with Sutler. In totalitarian regimes, people should be constantly reminded that they need the state apparatus. People must believe that they will not be sure of their security without the state, they will be open for violence and they won’t be able to protect themselves. The irony can be seen at this stage. People who fear violence and who want to get rid of violence face violence by the state. The movie strikingly presents that violence could be an important tool of the ruling party” (Ozden, 2013: p. 193).

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Art and media are a vital phenomenon in social life. With these tools, we gain new approaches without different and free thought. The story and movie of V for Vendetta show us how it is to live in a society without freedom in the public sphere, suspending law and justice and ignoring being different or thinking - just like the metamorphosis of Gregor Samsa turning into a bug. From another perspective, V for Vendetta mirrors us and shows us that how we unconsciously build oppressive authority with consent and how we must show courage against consolidated fear with “Public must not fear the state. The state must fear the public” motto. 495

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V for Vendetta movie is a presented strayed from the core of the comic book story. Within this context, although the starting point of the movie is V for Vendetta comic book, the core of the story was re-considered and basic narrative elements in the comic book were romanticised and adapted to the movie. Although the movie was successful in the box office, the essence of the story is missed and therefore, Alan Moore as the creator of the story did not take part in the movie team. Handling various important concepts such as totalitarianism, terror, violence, fear and oppression that are in almost every field of our modern life and that must be questioned by preserving the essence of the story in media spaces is important to raise awareness towards this phenomenon in the digital era. The stories that show transmedia storytelling should clearly present how violence is built in the society without biases and with lean art forms without a rating, box office, view (clicks) concerns.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Transmedia storytelling created new storytelling. This new storytelling presents a new experience to the audience different than the old storytelling. These new experiences enable the story to flow in new content with different media tools. The important thing here is to inclusion and participation of the audience to the story flow process. Storytellers in the digital era storytelling will create more stories which the consumers can contribute to the production process. Within this context, consumers can follow the story content via multiple platforms, experience the story, interact with the fictional world with online platforms (sharing emotions and thoughts on digital spaces such as social media, blog etc., commenting and discussing) and have an emotional closeness with the story and follow the story as if completing a small piece of a large mosaic. As in V for Vendetta movie, new or old stories in the digital media will have unique properties of various media spaces in terms of transmedia storytelling and enriched. But the important thing to be considered here is how well the essence of the story is preserved. In this study, it was seen that when the original V for Vendetta comic study is adapted to the movie, there have been changes such as aestheticizing violence or romanticising V character. Due to the urge for the story to address everyone in the transmedia storytelling, the story will stray away from the essence and merely alienate to itself. Within this context, how the stories of novels, comic books, caricatures which have freer writing area are/will be represented in cinema, television, digital platforms will become an important research field.

CONCLUSION V for Vendetta narrative that started as a comic book at the beginning of 1980s was presented in various spaces such as a book, theatre, painting, music, game, animation, cinema, television and social media and transformed into transmedia storytelling; however, the story gained its real popularity after 2005 movie adaptation. V for Vendetta movie presents different associations to the audience and it is an important production enabling different readings. Although the movie that has differences than the real storyline in the comic book transferred a dystopic narrative, the story shed light to the realities of today in the ruling party, society and media context under administrator and administrated relationship framework. The movie shows an almost real-like presentation of fear, oppression, violence and restricted freedom

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in the society after a totalitarian regime as the ruling party. Therefore, V for Vendetta movie enables in-depth reading with connotations and subtext, symbols, codes, representations, different interactions and associations. The movie represents themes such as terrorism, violence and fear by aestheticizing with artistic associations. Within this context, V character in the movie is presented as more humane and as one-of-us compared to V character in the comic book. In terms of cinematography, violent acts are aestheticized contextually and stylistically. The movie narrative and character structure with aestheticized violence and terrorism play an important to form an identity relationship between the movie and the audience. Especially the appropriation of the audience via Guy Fawkes mask and this identity feeling based on the sense of belonging led the story to be carried to real life. In this sense, V’s mask has become a tool iconic symbolising civil disobedience and turned into a metaphoric narrative used as the face of protestors in all social protests and events against the system.

REFERENCES Adanır, O. (2013). Göstergebilimsel film kuramı. In Z. Ozarslan (Ed.), Sinema Kuramları-2: Beyaz Predeyi Aydınlatan Kuramlar (p. 13-32). Su. Akdir, A. (2012, Oct 2). V for vendetta. Retrieved July 25, 2020 from Aksit Akdir Wordpress: https:// aksitakdir.wordpress.com/2012/10/02/v-for-vendetta/ Allen, F. (2019, Nov 5). “Remember, remember the fifth of november, gunpowder, treason and plot,” goes the traditional rhyme. Retrieved March 8, 2020 from The Sun: https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/4705508/ remember-the-fifth-of-november-rhyme/ Andrew, J. D. (2010). Büyük sinema kuramları (Z. Atam, Trans.). Doruk. Berg, F. V. (2015, Novermber 19). The open society and its enemies V for vendetta. Retrieved March 20, 2020 from Philosophy Now: https://philosophynow.org/issues/71/V_for_Vendetta Berg, F. V. (2017, Novermber 17). Açık toplum ve düşmanları ‘V for vendetta’. Retrieved March 21, 2020 from Libido: http://libidodergisi.com/acik-toplum-ve-dusmanlari-v-for-vendetta/ Cannadine, D. (2005). Introduction: The fifth of november remembered and forgotten. In Gunpowder Plots: A Celebration of 400 Years of Bonfire Night (pp. 1–6). Penguin Group. Crow, D. (2019, November 5). The creeping reality of V for vendetta. Retrieved from https://www.denofgeek.com/books/v-for-vendetta-future/ Edmonds, S. (2010). “Transmedia learning”. Training & development in Australia. Training&Development in Australia, 37(6), 36–38. Gezmen, B., & Gurkan, H. (2016, June). V for vendetta fı̇lmı̇ üzerı̇nden i̇deolojı̇k bı̇r okuma. E-Kurgu, 24(2), 198–213. Gulol, G. (2014). V For Vendetta. Panorama, (14), 16-20. Panorama: Retrieved from http://panorama. khas.edu.tr/v-for-vendetta-176

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Hayward, S. (2012). Sinemanın temel kavramları. Es. History By Day. (2020). Remember remember the 5th of vovember. Retrieved March 15, 2020 from https:// www.historybyday.com/pop-culture/remember-remember-the-5th-of-november/8.html?br_t=ch&fab=1 Itzkoff, D. (2016, March 12). The Vendetta behind ‘V for vendetta’. Retrieved from The Newyork Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/12/movies/the-vendetta-behind-v-for-vendetta.html Jenkins, H. (2003, Jan 15). Transmedia storytelling. Retrieved Nov 7, 2019 from Technology Review: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/401760/transmedia-storytelling/ Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence culture: Where old and new media collide. New York University Press. Jenkins, H. (2007, March 21). Transmedia storytelling 101. Retrieved Nov 4, 2019 from http://henryjenkins.org/: http://henryjenkins.org/blog/2007/03/transmedia_storytelling_101.html?rq=transmedia Jenkins, H. (2010, 21 July). Transmedia education: the 7 principles revisited. Retrieved Nov 2, 2019 from http://henryjenkins.org/: http://henryjenkins.org/blog/2010/06/transmedia_education_the_7_pri.html Jenkins, H. (2010, December). Transmedia storytelling and entertainment: An annotated syllabus. Continuum (Perth), 24(6), 943–958. doi:10.1080/10304312.2010.510599 Jenkins, H. (2016). Cesur yeni medya: Teknolojiler ve hayran kültürü (N. Yeğengil, Trans.). İletişim. John, C. (2012, November 3). Remember remember the 5th of November. Retrieved March 1, 2020 from https://publish.illinois.edu/iaslibrary/2012/11/03/remember-remember-the-5th-of-november/ Karakullukcu, B., & Şahin, E. (2018). Gelenekselden dijitale pazarlama 4.0 bağlamında transmedya hikâyeleştirme: masumiyet müzesi örneği. In Pazarlama Kongresi (pp. 259-283). Kocaeli University. Kesaplı, O. (2008, Dec). V for vendetta’nın çağrışımları. Azizm Sanat, (14), 32-41. Kinder, M. (1991). Playing with power in movies, television, and video games: from muppet babies to teenage mutant ninja turtles. University of California Press. doi:10.1525/9780520912434 Koca, S. E. (2019). Sinemada anlam yaratma sürecinde rengin metaforik kullanımı. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, (23), 223-239. Lotman, Y. M. (2012). Sinemada göstergebilimi (O. Özügül, Trans.). Nirengikitap. Monaco, J. (2013). Bir film nasıl okunur? (E. Yılmaz, Trans.). Oğlak. Orwell, G. (2019). 1984 (C. Üster, Trans.). Can. Ozden, K. (2013, March). V For Vendetta’da mitolojik öğeler, simgeler ve ritler. E-Gifder, 2(1), 190–214. Oztat, F. (2019). Gerçeklik, iktidar ve beden kavramları işığında matrix filmi. Selçuk İletişim, 12(1), 312–324. Petersen, A. B. (2006). Internet and cross media productions: Case studies in two major Danish media organizations. Australian Journal of Emerging Technologies and Society, 2(4), 94–107.

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Pratten, R. (2015). Getting started with transmedia storytelling a practical guide for beginners. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform Retrieved March 17, 2020 from History by Day: https:// www.historybyday.com/pop-culture/remember-remember-the-5th-of-november/8.html?br_t=ch&fab=1 Scolari, C. A. (2009). Transmedia storytelling: Implicit consumers, narrative worlds, and branding in contemporary media production. International Journal of Communication, (3), 586–606. Scolari, C. A., & Ibrus, I. (2019). Transmedia critical: Empirical investigations into multiplatform and collaborative storytelling. International Journal of Communication, 1(8), 2191–2200.

ADDITIONAL READING Althusser, L. (1984). Essays on ideology. Verso. Althusser, L. (2014). On the reproduction of capitalism: ideology and ideological state apparatuses. Verso Trade. Baudrillard, J. (2002). The spirit of terrorism and other essays (C. Turner, Trans.). Verso. Chomsky, N. (2002). Media control: The spectacular achievements of propaganda. Seven Stories. Coutinho, C. N. (2012). Gramsci’s political thought. Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004230255 Eagleton, T. (1991). Ideology: An introduction. Verso. Fontana, B. (1993). Hegemony and qower: On the relation between Gramsci and Machiavelli. University of Minnesota Press. Freud, S. (2004). Mass psychology and other writings. Penguin. Friedman, R. B. (1990). On the concept of authority in political philosophy. Authority, 56-91. Habermas, J. (1991). The structural transformation of the public sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeois society. MIT Press. Hall, S. (1988). The hard road to renewal: thatcherism and the crisis of the left. Verso. Herman, E. S., & Chomsky, N. (1988). Manufacturing consent: The political economy of the mass media. Pantheon Books. Lippmann, W. (1993). The phantom public. Transaction Publishers. Lippmann, W. (1998). Public opinion. Transaction Publishers. Manovich, L. (2001). The language of new media. MIT Press. Mills, C. W. (1956). The power elite. Oxford University Press. Van Dijk, T. A. (1998). Ideology, a multidisciplinary approach. Sage Publications.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Convergence: According to Jenkins, by convergence, the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behavior of media audiences who will go almost anywhere in search of the kinds of entertainment experiences they want. Digital Cinema: It is the production of a motion picture, production distribution and display in digital formats. Digitalization: Transformation of sound, picture and other information in analog systems into digital formats. Semiotics: Semiotics is the science that studies signs and symbols. Transmedia Storytelling: Henry Jenkins (2003) defines re-creating a story with different media tools as “transmedia storytelling” and evaluates this new storytelling form that emerged in the digital age as a new aesthetic linked with active participation that creates new demands on the consumer. Jenkins emphasised transmedia storytelling as “the art of creating a world” stated that “a story can be introduced in a movie, expanded with television, novels and comic books and the world of it can be discovered and experienced with games.” V for Vendetta (2005): V for Vendetta movie which is the co-production of USA- Germany-England written by Lana and Lily Wachowski and directed by James McTeigue was released in 2006. Starring Hugo Weaving (V) and Natalie Portman (Evey Hammond), the movie is based on a dystopic comic books series written by Alan Moore and illustrated by David Lloyd. V for Vendetta that was first published black and white on British comic book Warrior between 1982-1985 was republished by American comic book published DC Comics that produces story content for adults on 1988 with 10 volume Vertigo series.

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As expressed in Louis Althusser’s ideologic state apparatus, the ruling party consolidates the dominance by using enforcement such as military and police and ideologic apparatus such as media, school, mass communication tools and religious institutions. “We are destroying the words; every day, we are eliminating tens and thousands of them. We are minimising the language” (Orwell, 2019: p. 61). “Can’t you understand that the all the purpose of new discourse is to restrict the horizon of thought? Word will decrease more every year and consciousness area will become smaller every year” (Orwell, 2019: p. 63). How could you have a slogan like ‘freedom is slavery’ when the concept of freedom has been abolished? The whole climate of thought will be different. In fact there will be no thought, as we understand it now. Orthodoxy means not thinking—not needing to think. Orthodoxy is unconsciousness.’ (Orwell, 2019: p. 64). Sound Bridge: It is a technique that links two scenes. According to this technique, the sound that starts in the first scene continues in the second scene or the sound of a second scene which is not seen is heard in the first one. John Hurt who plays Adam Sutler in the movie also played the leading role Winston Smith in Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984) movie.

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Chapter 25

The Aestheticization of Counterpower:

The Iconography of New Social Movements in Network Society Enes Abanoz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4250-1845 Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT The impact of new communication technologies—especially social networks such as Twitter, YouTube, and Facebook—on democracy and mass movements has been a core subject in the area of social and political research ever since these technologies have started to play a crucial role in dissemination of ideas that go beyond the limits of mass media and foster symmetrical communication on an unprecedented scale. One of the important features of these technologies is the image sharing ability with network members. It is a propulsive force to turn a crowd into a mass with creating a collective subjectivity (the we) of mass through image, which turns into an iconography. This iconography is per se an aesthetic medium of ideology that is against the political totalizations in new digital public sphere. Thus, in this chapter, the authors focus on the formation of new social movements in network societies, then the aesthetic dimension of iconographic images in these movements.

INTRODUCTION We all live in a society where people have a common territory, culture and social code system. As Emile Durkheim says: Society is not a simple aggregate of individuals who, when they enter it, bring their own intrinsic morality with them; rather, man is a moral being only because he lives in society, since morality consists in being solidary with a group and varies with this solidarity (Reisman, 1990: p. 173). DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch025

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 The Aestheticization of Counterpower

Like morality; ideas and behaviors of individuals emerge, gain meaning within society and get affected. Society is not a unified, homogeneous and stable structure. There are different groups, organizations and clusters that are built on political, religious, ethnic and cultural differences in it. These structures strive for the establishment of general rules and structures that are useful to them. Therefore, there is a dynamic and constant struggle to gain the necessary power elements to manage and direct society. This process can be clearly seen with the actions during social movements, political participation, adaptation of new technologies, policies and innovations. Across social science, there is a vast empirical evidence that shows that social interactions can alter choice. These evidences have stressed that there is an important coexistence of individual decision and social relation. Although social interactions can alter the choice on the individual level, it needs a collective action in order to reach a power level that can affect all society. The decision to join collective action is influenced by the action of other participants (Passy, 2003: p. 25). These collective actions cause movements which can be gathered under three basic types: social, historical and cultural. Social movements can be defined as efforts to gain and control power on cultural patterns such as ethics and knowledges of society. Historical movements aim to control the process of changing from one societal type to another one. A cultural movement, on the contrary, is a type of social movement in which the transformation of cultural values plays a central role but in which social conflict appears within this process of transformation of values (Touraine, 1985: p. 776). Writers in the dominant political process approach view social movements as sustained and organized public collective action aimed at making claims involving political authorities (Pinard, 2011, p. 4). Revolutionary and reformist tendencies can be seen simultaneously in social movements. A social movement can aim to implement an institutional reform and abolish censorship, or fight against the power and privileges of a ruling class (Hannigan, 1985: p. 438). The sine qua non of the study of social movements has traditionally been the question of why movements form (Jenkins, 1983: p. 530). The first approach for forming of social movements generally has focused on sudden increase of grievances which emerge due to rapid social change. Grievances are an essential and constant part of social movements and their emergence can be explained with changes in power relation and structural conflict to build social institutions, gain resources, control organizations. The second approach for forming of social movements has stressed on resource mobilization and in this approach, grievances are secondary factor for social movements. In this theory, social movements are considered as extensions of institutionalized actions and it has only focused on a movement if it attempts to change elements of social structure, wealth distribution system and group organization (Jenkins, 1983). The third approach has considered incentives as the center element of social movements and according this theory there are three kind of incentives: Material, solidary, and purposive. Material incentives are the tangible rewards often related with monetary such as salary, fringe benefits, and threats of physical or economic retaliation. Solidary incentives are mostly related with social interactions and they can be positive or negative such as friendship, respect, approval, and compliment or disrespect, humiliation, and banishment. Purposive incentives are intangible rewards that arise from internalized norms and values of organization to reach the organization’s goals. Example can be including environmental and civil right activities. These concepts of solidary and purposive incentives have permitted theorists to incorporate the influences of social networks and culture and socialization (Oliver, 1993: p. 279). Beside these incentives, social movements are constituted by aggregation through the sum of attributes and components, the interactional process through communication networks and symbols. For aggregation, individuals need to have a set of attributes (common political view, perception, mind set) 502

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that are subject to social influence. As many scholars have pointed out, people engage in movements because they share certain norms and values related to a specific area of political contention (Passy, 2003: p. 23) and this creates the homophily. More precisely, homophily is the tendency of people with similar traits (including physical, cultural, and attitudinal characteristics) to interact with one another more than with people with dissimilar traits (Centola et al., 2007: p. 906). Also, Homophily directly affect how communication network’s connections construct among people and different groups, and how the meaning of symbols defines in communication process. Aggregation, network and symbolic interaction are important elements for starting and keeping up a social movement which people need to pay huge prices to contribute into a social movement even if the impact of their contribution is not noticeable. People often make large personal sacrifices for social movements for diffuse collective goods such as freedom for everyone (Marwell & Oliver, 1993: p. 6). Past social movements were linked to metasocial principles, but they opposed themselves to the domination of tradition and natural principles; new social movements are threatened by utilitarianism, but they defend the self and its creativity against interest and pleasure (Touraine, 1985: p. 779). With new social movements, the focus of movements has shifted from sociopolitical subjects to sociocultural subjects. In this manner, the line between private and public life has dimmed while the distance between civil society and State has expanded (Jenkins, 1983). Furthermore, the growth of mass media reduces the cost of mobilization, so it has facilitated to form the self-image of movements and to participate in a movement. The expansion of Internet and emergence of social networking sites form a digital public sphere that beside gets mass media attributes has become the main source for recruitment process, organize and control of new social movements. Digital social networks1 in this sphere play a mediating role by connecting prospective participants to an opportunity for mobilization and enabling them to convert their political consciousness into action (Passy, 2003: p. 24). In addition to this, digital social networks have helped to emerge of a more robust social movements with allowing a reciprocal communication among participants (Chwe, 1999). As Lawrence Grossman concludes that the Internet gives citizens “a degree of empowerment they never had before” (Hindman, 2009: p. 2). Digital social networks are the main tools to create the meaning in our modern world. This perspective prompts a reflection on the relationship between the digital social networks and the cognitive maps through which actors make sense of and categorize their social environment and locate themselves within broader webs of ties and interactions (Diani & McAdam, 2003: p. 5). Thus, digital social networks are more than only instrumental ties enabling or constraining participation in social movements or emergence of them. They create phenomenological realities that are islands of meanings which define and redefine individual identities through their interactions with other actors or groups, but also by shaping more volatile perceptions or preferences (Passy, 2003: p. 27). The effect power of digital social networks has not only come from the interaction inside the networks, it also comes the structure of digital social networks. For example, even highly influential elites can find their effectiveness plummet when the structure of the network and the interests of their followers collude to create a contrary power base (Siegel, 2009: p. 137). The content (text, picture, sound and video) within digital social networks can reach a very wide users in a very quick way. With digital social networks, the power of content to influence the behavior of individuals to create more interaction has increased. It hereby produces a “moral shock” that can mobilize people who do not know each other or the organizers (Polletta & Jasper, 2001: p. 291). For example, a photograph of a self-burned, violent, tortured or murdered protestor may cause a moral shock in society.

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In many cases, these photographs have turned into an iconographic2 to create a counter power against authority by participants of social movements. The aim of this chapter is to shed light on the usage of iconographic image as a counter power tool against authorities in new social movements that have occurred in network societies. For this purpose, this chapter is designed to focus on subjects as follows respectively: the fundamental attributes of new social movements and symbol usage in networks societies, the concept of iconography and the examples of iconographic usage in the Gezi Park protests.

NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN NETWORK SOCIETIES Social movements are the collective actions that have been seen since the earliest period of social life. They have been defined in so many different ways as like they are the central actor of conflict in society or actions that emerged by identity, solidarity and an effort to break the system. The most popular view at the moment is probably one focusing on sustained interactions between challengers and power holders (Diani & McAdam, 2003: p. 6). In the historical process, social movements have evolved as a result of changes in many elements of the social structure such as product, labor, capital, religion and power. In the 1960s, the aim and process of social movements had evolved different than the predecessors and the social formation change behind these newfangled collective actions was named in different names such as postindustrial, programmed (Touraine, 1981), information (Melucci, 1996) or network (Castells, 2009) society by new social movements theorists. Modernization is the key element in all these society forms, and it forces the people to have capability of processing the informational resources. Hence, the individual autonomy has gained power and the pressure on normative conformity also has increased. As a result, protestors have been less likely to seek a redistribution of political power than to seek to change dominant normative and cultural codes by gaining recognition for new identities (Polletta & Jasper, 2001: p. 286). This change also affected the approach of new social movements theorists and they focused on “why” of such developments rather than “how” of the development of collective action during that period (Pinard, 2011). In addition to material incentives that are related with economy or politics, these new social movements were formed by the collective incentives such as removal of the deprivations, the abolition of domination, the reestablishment of one’s control in all areas of one’s social life, and above all, as a central collective good, the construction of new individual and collective identities (Pinard, 2011: p. 23). It was therefore the new social movements theorists aimed to find answers for understanding how collective actions emerged. Grievances are one of the essential infrastructural elements of social movements. Grievances, cause a sense of injustice -which can be simply defined as belief that actions of the authorities, if unimpeded, would result in an unjust situation- is an important condition for participate a social movement (Pinard, 2011). In addition to grievance, the perception of illegitimate inequality and moral indignation also cause to feeling of injustice that is at the roots of protest. The sense of injustice creates a set of beliefs and meanings that inspire and legitimate the action of individuals in a social movement. As a result of this set, a collective identity occurs and reinforces the action as a whole. Collective identity means the sentiments of “we” that emerges with common values, goals, interest and fate among the members of group. This sentiments in turn produce feeling of solidarity, as sentiments of great interdependence between the members of the group in the pursuit of these shared components (Pinard, 2011: p. 115). 504

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Social movement affects the identities of participation and in addition to this it enhances the identity of sympathetic bystanders. Thus, a group action turns into a social movement that can get support from many different parts and layers of a society. Digital social networks have started to play an unprecedented role in emergence and expansion of social movements in digital societies. A digital social network is a set of relationships or exchanges among a group of individuals who interacts with each other. Individual networks also represent the backbone of broader social movement communities where interpersonal ties are often multiple and may involve joint participation in mobilization campaigns as well as the sharing of distinctive lifestyles or of broader cultural models (Diani & McAdam, 2003: p. 9). Connections in a digital social network may make easier the development of cognitive skills and sets of values that create the context for socialization. A digital social network can have many small interconnected groups, can grow or shrink, the network connections between individuals can be based on old or new connections (Watts, 2003). Digital social networks create a ground for social movements through circulation of information about pre-existing conditions, on-going actions, group organization, people to contact and how can participate to an action. It also forms a common public sphere where prospective participants feel social pressure to attend a social movement because of his/her connections involved in the action. On the other hand, it should neither forget that this is an open space and the opposing of action can also produce a counter-pressure for attending a social movement. The flow of information in a digital social network creates an information cascade that occurs when “individuals in a population exhibit herd-like behavior because they are making decisions based the actions of other individuals rather than relying on their own information” (Watts, 2002: p. 5766). Cascades affect the perception of individuals about new idea, fashion, technology, innovation and emerging new practice in society. The incidence of cascades depends critically on the details of social network structure and on precisely where, within such structures, new ideas or innovations originate (Ferguson, 2013: p. 275). The threshold of accepting an idea circulating within the network differs according to who the source is. If the source is someone who is known and accepted for the individual, s/he can easily adopt the idea, otherwise s/he will not transfer the idea to the next one and break the cascade. Likewise, the fact that the resource is an individual with multiple connections increases the likelihood that the idea will spread over the entire network, while it is unlikely to spread over the entire network from a low connection source. Some ideas and behaviors can be simultaneously robust and fragile within digital social network. They can spread to all network and persist for a long time that is enough for turning into a regular action. In the same time, they can spread rapidly like bubbles, reach the entire network and disappear at the same speed. The power of cascade depends on the cumulative impact of observed actions or on information received from others (Ferguson, 2013). When the number of observed actions is getting higher, the probability of adoption rate for this action from an individual in the network is also getting higher. The cascade of ideas and behaviors can reach the entire network if they get adopted by a critical mass that has capability to spread them to all network. The term critical mass means that some minimum number of people or some minimum accumulation of seed to draw in the participation and contributions of others (Marwell & Oliver: 1993, p. 1). We can also define this as the first gear movement of sufficient power needed to operate an entire gear system. In a digital social network, individuals create links (ties) within different groups and some of these ties can be based on preexisting social connections such as colleague, club membership and religious group. When these preexisting physical links transfer into a digital social network, they cause to occur the strong links which mean connections between the majority of the group members who know each 505

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other. If there are connections between the group members who know each other through a third person, it defines as the weak links. Empirical researchers have found that strong links, not weak links, correlate positively with participation (Chwe, 1999: p. 129). Each group member allocates personal ego network from his/her strong and weak connections, and s/he uses these connections to recruit the individuals for a social movement. In the process of persuading individuals to participate in a social movement, an individual in the network uses tools that can have symbolic meaning such as text, picture, image and graphic. Symbolism is inherent component of a social movement and it uses the icons to indicate protest. Symbolic protest can be seen in many different societal structures, from democratic to oppressive regimes, from developed countries to developing countries. Symbolic protest is one of the struggle tools for authority in contentious systems and it is generally not affected by the hegemony of repressive regimes. Symbolic protest is readily available and has enormous potential power (Francisco, 2010: p. 46). Protestors can use subtle gestures, images, footages and artworks as symbolic protest in a social movement. For example, the single event of Mohammad Bouazizi’s self-immolation on December 17, 2010, set off the Tunisian revolution ending with the resignation of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, 28 days later (Ferguson, 2013: p. 275).

ICONOGRAPHY IN NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Iconography is derived from the Greek words, eikon and graphein that means image and writing. Its translation literally means image writing or image description. Therefore, iconography is considered as a branch of art history that focuses on visual arts to understand meaning and content. The main objective of iconography is to determine what is depicted in an artwork and to reveal and explain the deeper meanings intended by the artist (Straten, 1994: p. 4). The first traces of the iconographic approach to visual art elements are found in the ancient Greek literature. Iconography deals not only with the identification, description, and classification of themes and subjects in art but also with assessing their significance and function within social and religious contexts, in different historical periods and different geographic areas (Vicelja, 2017). Iconography analyzes the icon, which is the symbol imbued with power, has capacity to win and hold the loyalty of believer. In religion, loyalty to the denomination or creed (think of the cross or the crescent); in politics loyalty to the party and its leader (think of the swastika); in commerce loyalty to the ‘brand’ (think of Castle or Nike) (Mason et al., 2006: p. 21). Since loyalty has such a wide place in the social structure, iconography examines a wide range of products within a wide range of concepts. Iconographic research has three levels which simultaneously represent the meaning of an artwork. The first level is related with the exact enumeration of what can be seen during the first examining of the work of art object without looking for any relationship and deeper meanings between objects in it. The second level of meaning is based on the relation between things that we can see on the work of art which creates the theme or subject. The third level of meaning is about looking for deeper meaning or content of the work of art by focusing on the intention of artist. The first and second level of meaning are related with description of the work of art, while the third level is related with the interpretation of it. In addition to the three iconographic levels of meaning, we may distinguish a fourth level or phase, which we may designate as the iconological interpretation (Straten, 1994: p. 4). This level is related with the iconology that searches and defines why the work of art was created just so. While this effort of making sense focuses purely on the work, it excludes the artist from the evaluation. 506

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The first level of meaning of the work of art is called the pre-Iconographical description and, in this level, examination is only related with rough enumeration of things in it. During this process, there isn’t an attempt to reveal the relationships between things in the work of art or interpret them. Just like the inventory creation process, only existing things carefully scrutinize and count in order. This is an essential process for every successful interpretation of the work of art. The second level is called the iconographical description and the purpose of this process is to describe the subject of the work of art. Therefore, the knowledge of themes and subjects in art, the ability of making connections between things inside and outside of the work of art and skill to follow about different representations of the work of art are a prerequisite for correct description. The third level is defined as the iconographical interpretation and the task of research in this level to look for a deeper or secondary meaning of the work of art if any. At this level, the researcher should have knowledge and ability about reading the secondary meaning of object, action, image, situation, historical period and power relations to find the potential existing meaning. The work of art can be considered as an historical record of the society or artist at that time. Therefore; social, political, philosophical and religious developments of the age and the relationships of the artist should be examined for right interpretation by researcher. The iconological interpretation process reveals the background information of the work of art and iconology can explain why an artist or patron chose a particular subject at a specific location and time and represented it in a certain way (Straten, 1994: p. 12). The difference between iconography and iconology is that the iconography reveals the deeper and symbolic meaning of the work of art explicitly intended by artist while the iconology looks for deeper and symbolic meaning of the work of art not explicitly intended by artist but nevertheless incorporated inside the work. In practice one cannot conflate iconography (“image describing”) and iconology (“image explaining”) (Straten, 1994: p. 18). Symbol and symbolic representation have power to reproduce of the reality with almost total reality. Hence, they become an important notion for iconography. A symbol is an object or a sign that has certain context or deeper meaning. Symbol provides a holistic similarity knowledge about whatever it symbolizes under normal conditions. Symbol is an element that creates common values that lead people to think of a deeper meaning and content rather than what it shows. Symbol creates the interaction between human and object producing material consequence, and this is the interest area of iconography. The role of pictures and symbols are so important that it affects the course of social movements, because protestors have wanted to create powerful striking images for those involved in the action and individuals who have the potential to participate in the action. Similar visuals that observed in social movements in the historical process have turned into symbols that will meet the idea of social movement in the minds of supporters and opponents (Kleemola, 2019). These symbols have impacted the understanding on how social movements and protestors’ actions are to be depicted right. For example, violence has been considered as an integral symbol of a social movement even though it is being able to see in different forms and densities. Through the course of history, the media have served as privileged models and metaphors for reflecting on our mental and perceptual processes—not only in art, but also in philosophy and science (Grøtta, 2015: p. 143). Especially, visual media technology had the power to shape on imaginative and cognitive process of society with using symbols, images and footages. The invention of new devices and proliferation of them around the world via technological developments allowed to emerge the new ways of seeing. Hence, the new metaphors became simultaneously available for description of imaginative and cognitive processes. As Walter Benjamin pointed out; technology impose a shock upon the subject, and this causes fragmentation of our experience thereby in this manner it affects our perception. Therefore, 507

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technology gains the ability to prepare social change with training our senses, facilitating new forms of perception, showing the new ways of process of experience so it reconfigures the senses. Media (re) shapes the memories of society through images, thoughts and experiences whenever an individual needs them. For that reason, media is considered the main field of struggle between sovereignty of information and shaping of public opinion. Mass media like radio and film have an important role to play in accelerating the transformation of the visibility of power and of the political public sphere (Kang, 2014: p. 137). Mass media plays a decisive role the formation of masses by conveying symbols and images that are extremely useful for the conceptualization of their ideas regarding the perceptual and mental processes (Grøtta, 2015: p. 166). The representation of symbols and images through mass media causes the creation of icons -that form the society by influencing meanings, politics, attitudes and distribution of power- where power relations, masses’ perceptions and social movements can be interpreted with. Hence, it has been turned into an important tool for researchers to be used in the analysis of social movements in the period following the emergence of electronic communication technology. The polysemy of icons causes a new form of social movement which is formed and organized through an aesthetic experience. The term aesthetics in here is used to define a common experience and understanding of individuals on the signifying properties of artifacts which potentially influences the public perception, interpretation of conflict and crisis. Therefore, it enables the masses to experience themselves and to enjoy their own mass movements aesthetically (Kang, 2014: p. 140). Thus, the aesthetic experience through media is an important complementary aspect of new social movements when a researcher is focusing on public perception and interpretation of icons during movements. The power and effect of icons through mass media on people who attended or potentially attend in a social movement have showed a transition towards digital social networks in network societies. Digital social networks can be considered as all media which has ability to combine different discursive conventions, cognitive modes and attributes such as text, image, sound and video. This causes that the formation of icons and the provision of aesthetic experience through them have now begun to be provided by symbols and images that can disseminate very quickly through the network, reach large masses and be displayed digitally in any device. These shorten the processes of accessibility, recognizability and readability of the icons which need normally a temporal distance to be seen or perceived by society. This has increased the effect and frequency of the icons used in social movements.

AESTHETICIZATION OF COUNTERPOWER Digital social network, which is the new media form in network societies, can be seen as one of producers of various aesthetic forms and genres. On this new channel, the art form that has the aesthetic value for other users mostly belongs to everyday life and in that sense, it builds up the perception of aesthetic environment for individuals. As Charles Baudelaire (1821–67) pointed out that photography has power on perception with the ability to reproduce reality identically. Baudelaire’s media aesthetics brings attention to the processes of mediation; it reveals that modern life must be mediated in order to be noticed and recognizes that both visibility and readability are produced (Grøtta, 2015: p. 146). According Baudelaire, 19th century media performed its visibility role through photographs and readability role through newspapers. These tasks of the 19th century media have been performed through digital social networks in network societies. Similarly, Baudelaire thought that the film medium makes 508

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the experience of shock manageable while it causes fragmentation of experience and affects perception. Thus, film reveals the radical potential of shock which also has the potential for social change. Digital social networks have ability to disseminate videos that can affect individual’s perception via creating fragmentations in experience like film and cause social change. Another element in Charles Baudelaire’s media aesthetics is the dispositive. Giorgio Agamben defined the dispositive as “literally anything that has in some way the capacity to capture, orient, determine, intercept, model, control, or secure the gestures, behaviors, opinions or discourses of living beings” (2009: p. 14). Dispositive performs as a proxy of everyday life and it can be used as a model or metaphor to understand the perceptual and mental process. Digital social network can be defined as a dispositive with their ability to control and change behaviors, opinions, perceptions of individuals who actively use network for sharing their ideas in daily life. Digital social networks have become the arena for the negotiation process between power and counter power by being the dispositive and revealing the aesthetic sense. The definition of counterpower here is used to describe the collective actions of individuals who come together as a result of their relationships over the network. The main feature of these new social movements is to force the government to make the requested changes instead of eliminating the power and taking over the government. Such new social movements have been increasingly seen in many geographies, democratic and anti-democratic governments, developing and developed societies with increasing frequency and power. During these new social movements, demonstrators use different methods to produce the counterforce to keep individuals within these movements. The aim here is to gain sympathy and to include the individuals who are likely to participate in the social movements against any possible incidents of excessive use of power by government. One of these methods is to turn the pictures that show the struggle of the demonstrators against power into icons. The justification of the struggle and its resistance against power are presented to the society by gaining an aesthetic dimension through the icons showing the struggle that is put forward. Within the scope of this study, visuals that has become iconic during the Gezi Park protests will be examined with the iconographic analysis method and its aesthetic and conceptual dimension will be discussed. A brief summary -of how the Gezi Park protests started and turned into a social movementwill make this analysis more accurate and understandable. The Gezi Park protests began in May 2013, as a small group of people protested the Turkish government’s plan to build a shopping mall removing the only green area available in downtown Istanbul (Delal, 2018; Turgut, 2017). On May 31st, in order to force out the protestors, Turkish police used tear gas and water cannons. This led a public outrage, causing larger protests in other cities across the country. The Gezi Park protests found a larger ground as people took a stance collectively. 5,532 protests were organized across all but one of Turkey’s 81 cities. Approximately 3.6 million people attended the protests (Bianet, 2013). As for the political background of the participants, nearly 80% had no affiliation with any political party or organization, and 44.4% never participated in a protest before (Konda, 2014). The scale and the frequency of protests decreased in August 2013 and eventually ended with the cancelation of the shopping mall project. These massive protests across the country were widely ignored by the mainstream media. Turkish CNN affiliate, CNN Türk ran a documentary on penguins while CNN International was broadcasting the event live on Taksim Square. At this moment, social media became the primary source for up-to-date information (Bergfeld, 2014; Kasper, 2014; Koese, 2014). The reason for mainstream media’s omission of Gezi Protests could be due to the fact that owners of these media companies also have significant investments in other industries, such as construction, energy and mining – which could be undermined 509

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by governmental regulations. This brings about a clear conflict of interest that carries the potential to hinder any criticism of the government by self-censorship (White, 2014). This showed the media did not serve anyone’s interest but their own (Tufekci, 2014). As a result of this, social media turned into an alternative source of news and public opinion formation. Some actions of protestors during the Gezi Park protests have become a symbol against the use of excessive force by police and they have turned into icons that have created the counterpower of protestors within aesthetic sense. Some of these iconic actions were taken into consideration within the scope of the study. In the process of determining and selecting actions; the power to represent the protests, the adoption by the broad masses and the criteria to ensure the creation of the counterpart by adding an aesthetic value to the demonstrations were used. As a result of this evaluation, three actions and their iconographic representations were evaluated within the scope of the study. These icons are respectively “Occupy Antarctica”, “Woman in the Red Dress” and “Dervish”.

Occupy Antarctica As mentioned before, CNN Türk which is a news channel and the affiliate of CNN International in Turkey had chosen to air a penguin documentary instead of giving a live coverage of on the unfolding struggle at Gezi Park at that moment. Contrary to this preference of CNN Türk, CNN International was extensively broadcasting the clashes between protestors and police to the whole world live. This attitude, which was put forward by CNN Türk against the protestors, was criticized the use of penguin images by protesters and individuals who supported them, and political street art immediately emerged as one of the most powerful mediums of expression for the protestors (Tulke, 2020: p. 127). Protestors elevated the penguin images to a powerful icon of resistance and these impromptu images and messages that were related with the penguin icons on wall and floors of Taksim Square had formed the aesthetics dimension of movement. Hereby rather than posting collective demands, or performing their allegiance to specific political ideologies, protestors subverted and parodied the status quo through witty messages (Tulke, 2020: p. 129). We start with the pre-iconographical description to examine the iconographic meaning of the penguin icons in the context of Gezi Park protests. In the icon; a penguin depicted as the human with a left hand in the air and a gas mask are seen. At this first level of iconographic analysis process, it is enough to enumerate roughly the things that we can see in the icon. The iconographic description of this icon; It can be explained as the criticism of the penguin document published by CNN Türk for fear of encountering political and economic pressure instead of the basic function that it should undertake and fulfill as a news channel. The mask on the face of the penguin is a critique of the negative situation caused by tear gas used by the police against demonstrators on human health. The fact that the left arm has been raised up as a sign of victory symbolizes the common solidarity and victory in the protest demonstrations. In terms of iconographic interpretation, first of all, it is the fact that penguins are one of the most important victims of global warming, which occurs as a result of uncontrolled looting of nature by humans. The Gezi Park activists also symbolize that they will be adversely affected by the construction works that are the subject of the protest through the penguin. The visualization the penguin with a gas mask states that a peaceful protest was not possible as a result of the intense pepper gas intervention used by the police. Visualization of the penguin as a demonstrator can be interpreted as there is no public sphere to

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Figure 1. The penguin documentary on CNN Türk and the Penguin Icon on a wall

eliminate the pressure caused by different factors such as the lack of not seeing protests on mainstream media at all (pretending this does not exist) and the lack of not having any legitimate platform that can have their voices heard so these individuals do not feel like they should accept all actions of government unconditionally. Thus, it is stated through this icon that individuals sitting in front of the television screen have a tendency to support the action and participate in the action. This aesthetic dimension, which was brought to the protest over the penguin icons, has named as Occupy Antarctica or Antarctica Resists.

Woman in the Red Dress The photo, in which a woman wearing a red dress was exposed a brutal tear gas attack by the police caused her to be suffocated and collapse on a bench, is another image that became an icon during the Gezi Park protests. It was later revealed that this woman was Ceyda Sungur, one of the faculty members who specialized in city planning at Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture. She is one of the concerned citizens who had thought that the city needed more green areas to breathe. The icon of women in the red dress was modelled after her photograph taken by Reuters photographer Osman Orsal. On that picture she was defiantly standing her ground despite getting sprayed with tear gas by police from an extremely short distance (Tulke, 2020: p. 130). Her image took a public criticism on excessive usage of tear gas by police. Her image was used with the following post: the more you spray (pepper gas), the greater we (protestors) get. This picture was called the Woman in the Red Dress, it became one of the icons of the aesthetics of police brutality during Gezi Park protest and resonated with a subjective sense of indignation and urgency to respond to the violent hegemony of the state (Mercea & Levy, 2020: p. 236). This icon was frequently resurfaced on different places of the Taksim Square and it became easily seen on the many walls around the city.

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Figure 2. The picture of women in the red dress and the icon

In the pre-iconographical description process of this icon, there is one police officer who has protective equipment and is spraying pepper gas towards a woman. There is also a woman who is exposed intensely a pepper spray attack. The last element of icon is a text which is literally meaning that “the more you spray (pepper gas), the greater we (protestors) get.” For the iconographical description of the icon, it is the first thing that we realize is the size of police figure is smaller than the figure of this woman. This means that although the police are the real owners of power at the beginning of protest, the behavior of the demonstrators prove that the power dynamics backfire. Images like these show that the protestors are the ones in power indeed. Despite all the pressures applied, the calm stance of the protestor and the expression on her face symbolizes the power of the protestors to be right. This is demonstrated by the larger depiction of the image of the female protestor. With the text in the icon, it is intended to mean that the application of disproportionate force with the expression “the more you spray (pepper gas), the greater we (protestors) get.” will motivate more than intimidate them and have them win the sympathy of the public. In regard to the iconographical interpretation of this icon; we can say that when woman in the red dress is just standing against the pepper gas attack, she symbolizes the power shift between both sides of the conflict. The government and dissent have the characteristics of learning and adapting each other’s tactics during a social movement which is an area where the power conflict between both sides are revealed. This cycle is disrupted if one of the parties adopts an unconventional method or a method that the other party cannot implement. This icon shows the power shift in the Gezi Park protest. The fact that excessive use of force was seen by individuals even in the face of non-violent action causing individuals to change the perspective of the social movement and the participants. The brutal behavior of authority acted as a catalyst in Woman in the Red Dress case and attracted more people to join the protest. Many people have shown their support by wearing a red colored garment, such as a scarf, hat or vest. The mottos used during these incidents indicates that individuals will not be daunted by power

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and they believed that the struggle will be won. At the same time, it also emphasizes that as a result of the disproportionate use of force, the losing party in this battle will be the oppressor, not the oppressed. The woman in the red dress represents freedom of expression and the power of the people with her protest. For the first time, people felt the trust of the power they had. They realized the power they had in them, which they believed could change everything. On social media, the aesthetics of indignation served to reproduce the atmosphere of the occupation at Gezi, broadly framed as an ‘injustice’ perpetrated against peaceful demonstrators (Mercea & Levy, 2020: p. 237). This inspired many actions that manifested as civil disobedience. One of them is the Standing Man protest action. During the protests Emre Gunduz, a performance artist, began a standing-still protest in Taksim Square for hours and hours. His purpose was to protest the excessive use of force by the police to any form of resistance during the protests. Figure 3. The Standing Man action and the demonstrators adopt this aesthetic protest method

The Whirling Dervish Another photograph of the latter became a pervasive icon of the Gezi Park protest came from Ziya Azazi, a performance artist and it quickly turned into a stencil for protests. He performed a Sufi whirling dervish dance in a gas mask, and he named his performance with “come yet again” a famous phrase of Rumi. This statement of Sufism expresses the inclusion of all kinds of different social, ethnic and religious backgrounds and the acceptance of each individual regardless of their past and future intentions. This phrase was used as a slogan to build a consolidating solidarity with participation regardless of any political affiliation into the Gezi Park protest.

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Figure 4. The whirling dervish wearing a gas mask and its icon with the Mevlana’s invitation to “come yet again”

We start with the pre-iconographical description to examine the iconographic meaning of this icon. The icon depicts a dancing male whirling dervish with his both hands open. There is a gas mask on the face of the whirling dervish. At the bottom of the whirling, there is the inscription “you come too” referring to the poem of Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi. For the iconographical description of this icon, it can be said that this poem3 of Rumi invites everyone openly, regardless of whoever is in the past. These words intentionally welcome the stranger, regardless of their imperfection. This call indicates that the protestors need the support of other individuals in the society and the desired social structure can be achieved with their participation. It is an essential element for the formation and strengthening of the sense of solidarity that is needed to reach the goal which protests aim for. As both political commodities and stage props, goggles and gas masks were embraced for their eerie theatricality, speaking volumes to the grotesque banality of living under billows of noxious gas (Gruber, 2013). In terms of iconographical interpretation, it can be said that during the whirling ceremony, the whirling dervish revolves around himself. During this turn, he moves away from his body and reaches the purest form of the bond with the creator. Similarly, this icon of the protestor means that despite all the difficulties and interventions they faced, they have the necessary motivation to achieve the desired goals. While the individual tries to get to know a stranger, even though it looks like he has the opportunity to learn about the stranger, he also has the opportunity to see and discover the unknown sides of himself. By inviting other individuals to action, the protestors have the opportunity to create a broad-based resistance and express themselves differently. This call was embodied in the Gezi Park protestors were made up of with the participation of individuals from different parts of the society. They can be defined as the opposite poles of the society such as rival team fans, members of different religions and so on.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS New social movements have been taken place on the networks hence they are exempt from the effects of temporal and spatial constraints faced by previous social movements. The absence of this limitation causes new social movements to trigger and affect each other. Therefore, it is possible to come across similar actions or elements in the process of new social movements. For example; the icon of the “Woman in the Red Dress” which was examined within the scope of this study, was also used in social movements in Brazil. In future studies, these transitions between different societies and cultures can be examined within the scope of global aesthetic perception for the protests in new social movements.

CONCLUSION In the last 60 years, worldwide protest movements have taken action against injustices and inequalities to achieve significant sociocultural, sociopolitical and socio-economic changes. In the twenty-first century, protest movements continue to be seen around the world because of people challenge governments and regimes for inequalities on income, healthcare, justice, fundamental rights and nature destruction. Social movements against these injustices and inequalities tend to start, spread, sustain and occur through social networks such as Twitter, YouTube and Facebook with the effect of digitalization on social life. Through the use of these technologies, protestors have been able to build an alternative digital space for society to engage social, political, economic and environmental issues. Public performs its existence through acting together to create resistance in this area, so it constitutes a visible structure to the government for their recognition, demand and political voice. In doing so, a collective subjectivity “the we” is formed through the aesthetic of protest. Although protest occurs in the form of demonstration or march, the occupation of public spaces is more common form of protests in new social movements and it facilitates the creation of new rights, expression of dissents voices which challenge the political legitimacy of the state or an authority (McGarry et al., 2020). The aesthetic dimensions of protest which are established through the occupation of public spaces and performances of dissents lead to emerge a form of communication which has ability to mobilize the people. It particularly mentions in here that the perception of aesthetic in protest is more than Kantian interpretation of what is beautiful or pleasing the eye. The aesthetic here is a range of actions and performances which is bound up with the visual framing or staging of protests that can create the power for social change in society. The aesthetic of protest is formed with the slogans, symbols, humors, satires, objects and gestures that comprise a material and performative culture with a high capacity to be replicated digitally and shared across social media networks, ideological terrain, state borders, and linguistic frontiers (McGarry et al., 2020, p. 18). In the Gezi Park protest, we can see these features of aesthetic dimension of protests are categorized as the new social movements. Even though the mainstream media had blocked the proliferation of protestors’ image, social media networks had worked like a new communication channel for articulating the political voice of protestor via disseminating the images of protestors. Dissents had succeeded to take more attention of society into protests by sharing symbols, objects and equivocating on this new channel so they made fun of the attitude of mainstream media which acted as if dissents and protests never existed. The penguin icons were used for this purpose during the Gezi Park protests.

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The protest aesthetic has a symbolic meaning that can change around the attitudes, behaviors, identities and meanings created by the protestors; thus, aesthetics gives the protest movements the ability to keep up with the rapid transformation in the social structure and to achieve a dynamic structure. The action of the Woman in the Red Dress in the Gezi Park protests caused a rapid change on the course of protests and many protestors carried out similar passive resistance actions such as the Standing (still) Man. This new identity, which was brought to the protest, enabled the support of actions from a wide range of society. Many people from the different parts of society expressed their dissatisfaction with the use of disproportionate force toward protestors by standing in Taksim Square and reading something. The protest of the whirling dervish symbolizes the view of Sufism, which is the transience of world life and that everything that is earthly and material is the most divisive, destructive and even the most disintegrating of human relations. The mask on his face symbolizes the excessive use of pepper spray during the protest as the destructive factor mentioned. This symbolic meaning can be evaluated as another action that causes change in the identity of the resistance. The iconographic usage of images, symbols and text, and their aesthetic dimension have created a visual activism which provides the new ways to see and be seen for protests. The icons used in the Gezi Park have provided the visuals which have influenced the perception of many communities living across diverse social spaces of the world to see and perform the protests. Thus, this visual mediation of protest which is emerged by aesthetic dimension of icons has strengthened the political visibility of protestors. This chapter has focused on how aesthetic of icons which are produced during the protest can be used by sociopolitical and sociocultural actors through the protests to transform existing structures into requested form in the society. The aesthetic of protests allows different voices to be heard, and views to be expressed by forcing them to apply various creative and radical ways.

REFERENCES Agamben, G. (2009). What is an Apparatus? And Other Essays (W. Hamacher, Ed.; D. Kishik & S. Pedatella, Trans.). Stanford University Press. Bergfeld, M. (2014). Beyond the Hashtags? Gezi and the AKP’s Media Power. ROAR Magazine. http:// roarmag.org/2014/01/occupy-gezi-social-media/ Bianet, N. D. (2013). Police Releases Gezi Resistance Report. Bianet - Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi. http:// www.bianet.org/english/crisis/151583-police-releases-gezi-resistance-report Castells, M. (2009). The Power of Identity (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. doi:10.1002/9781444318234 Centola, D., Gonzalez-Avella, J. C., Eguiluz, V. M., & San Miguel, M. (2007). Homophily, Cultural Drift, and the Co-Evolution of Cultural Groups. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 51(6), 905–929. doi:10.1177/0022002707307632 Chwe, M. S. (1999). Structure and Strategy in Collective Action. American Journal of Sociology, 105(1), 128–156. doi:10.1086/210269 Delal, Ö. (2018). Representation Practices of Social Media in Traditional Media: The Case of Arab Spring and Gezi Park Events [Unpublished Master Thesis]. Selçuk University.

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Diani, M., & McAdam, D. (Eds.). (2003). Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0199251789.001.0001 Ferguson, W. D. (2013). Collective Action and Exchange: A game-theoretic Approach to Contemporary Political Economy. Stanford University Press. doi:10.1515/9780804785563 Francisco, R. A. (2010). Collective Action Theory and Empirical Evidence. Springer. doi:10.1007/9781-4419-1476-7 Grøtta, M. (2015). Baudelaire’s media aesthetics: The Gaze of the Flâneur and 19th century Media. Bloomsbury Academic. Gruber, C. (2013, June 7). The Visual Emergence of the Occupy Gezi Movement, part one: Oh biber! [Research]. Jadaliyya. Retrieved from: https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/28971 Hannigan, J. A. (1985). Alain Touraine, Manuel Castells and Social Movement Theory a Critical Appraisal. The Sociological Quarterly, 26(4), 435–454. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1985.tb00237.x Hindman, M. S. (2009). The Myth of Digital Democracy. Princeton University Press. doi:10.1515/9781400837496 Jenkins, J. C. (1983). Resource Mobilization Theory and the Study of Social Movements. Annual Review of Sociology, 9(1), 527–553. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.09.080183.002523 Kang, J. (2014). Walter Benjamin and the Media: The Spectacle of Modernity. Polity Press. Kasper, M. (2014, January 11). To survive, the movement will have to compromise. ROAR Magazine. Retrieved from: http://roarmag.org/2014/01/media-gezi-park-protests/ Kleemola, O. (2019). The visual Narrative of Student Radicalism in Finland: The 1968 Occupation of the Old Student House in the Finnish Media. Media History, 1–20. doi:10.1080/13688804.2019.1702007 Koese, D. (2014, January 7). Revolt of dignity: Gezi and the global legitimation crisis. ROAR Magazine. Retrieved from: http://roarmag.org/2014/01/gezi-legitimation-crisis-capitalism/ Konda. (2014). Gezi report. Retrieved from: https://konda.com.tr/en/rapor/811/ Marwell, G., & Oliver, P. (1993). The Critical Mass in Collective Action: A Micro-Social Theory. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511663765 Mason, R., Morphet, T., & Prosalendis, S. (2006). Reading scientific images: The iconography of evolution. HSRC Press. McGarry, A., Erhart, I., Eslen-Ziya, H., Jenzen, O., & Korkut, U. (Eds.). (2020). The Aesthetics of Global Protest: Visual Culture and Communication. Amsterdam University Press. doi:10.1515/9789048544509 Melucci, A. (1996). Challenging Codes: Collective Action in the Information Age. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511520891 Mercea, D., & Levy, H. (2020). The activist chroniclers of occupy Gezi: Counterposing visibility to injustice. In A. McGarry, I. Erhart, H. Eslen-Ziya, O. Jenzen, & U. Korkut (Eds.), The aesthetics of global protest: Visual culture and communication (pp. 233–246). Amsterdam University Press.

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Oliver, P. (1993). Formal Models of Collective Action. Annual Review of Sociology, 19(1), 271–300. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.19.080193.001415 Passy, F. (2003). Social Networks Matter. But How? In M. Diani & D. McAdam (Eds.), Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action (pp. 21–48). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0199251789.003.0002 Pinard, M. (2011). Motivational Dimensions in Social Movements and Contentious Collective Action. McGill-Queen’s University Press. Polletta, F., & Jasper, J. M. (2001). Collective Identity and Social Movements. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 283–305. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.283 Reisman, D. A. (1990). Theories of Collective Action: Downs, Olson, and Hirsch. Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230389977 Siegel, D. A. (2009). Social Networks and Collective Action. American Journal of Political Science, 53(1), 122–138. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00361.x Touraine, A. (1981). The Voice and the Eye: An Analysis of Social Movements. Cambridge University Press. Touraine, A. (1985). An Introduction to the Study of Social Movements. Social Research, 52(4), 749–787. Tufekci, Z. (2014). Social Movements and Governments in the Digital Age: Evaluating a Complex Landscape. Journal of International Affairs, 68(1), 1. Tulke, J. (2020). Archiving dissent: (Im)material Trajectories of Political Street Art in Istanbul and Athens. In A. McGarry, I. Erhart, H. Eslen-Ziya, O. Jenzen, & U. Korkut (Eds.), The Aesthetics of Global Protest: Visual Culture and Communication (pp. 121–140). Amsterdam University Press. Turgut, H. (2017). Medyada Gerekli Şiddet Söylemi: Türkiye’deki Terör Saldırıları Üzerine Bir Inceleme. Kültür ve İletişim, 20(39), 60–90. van Straten, R. (1994). An introduction to Iconography (P. de Man, Trans (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. Vicelja, M. (2017). Religious Iconography. In C. Hourihane (Ed.), The Routledge companion to medieval iconography (pp. 221–234). Routledge. Watts, D. J. (2002). A simple model of global cascades on random networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99(9), 5766–5771. doi:10.1073/pnas.082090499 PMID:16578874 Watts, D. J. (2003). Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected Age (1st ed.). Norton. White, B. (2014, January 10). Cracking Down on the Press: Turkish Media After Gezi. ROAR Magazine. Retrieved from: http://roarmag.org/2014/01/crackdown-press-freedom-turkey/

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ADDITIONAL READING McGarry, A., Erhart, I., Eslen-Ziya, H., Jenzen, O., & Korkut, U. (Eds.). (2020). The Aesthetics of Global Protest: Visual Culture and Communication. Amsterdam University Press. doi:10.1515/9789048544509 van Straten, R. (1994). An introduction to iconography (2 Edition; P. de Man, Trans.). Taylor & Francis.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aesthetic: It is a common experience and understanding of individuals on the signifying properties of artifacts which potentially influences the public perception, interpretation of conflict and crisis. Iconography: Is a branch of art history that determine what is depicted in an artwork and to reveal and explain the deeper meanings intended by the artist. Network Society: It is a society which the structure of social, political, economic, and cultural have changed by the spread of networked, digitalization and communication systems. New Social Movement: It is a movement which is organized around the inequalities and injustice on the politics, incomes distribution, health system, environmentalism, human and animal rights.

ENDNOTES 1



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The term of “Digital social networks” is used to define social networking services such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram so on in this chapter. Personal or organizational social network have been researched by social movement theorists for a long time. The term of digital social network is used throughout the chapter to avoid a conceptual confusion. Thus, the social network structure which can reach the global dimension with digitalization and the personal network structure that has physical boundaries are separated from each other. Although, iconography means studying the religious pictures called “icon”, the usage of term in this study means description and interpretation of the content of illustration which is made up of the image. The poem is as follows: Come, Come, Whoever You Are Wanderer, worshiper, lover of leaving. It doesn’t matter. Ours is not a caravan of despair. Come, even if you have broken your vows a thousand times Come, yet again, come, come. ~ Jalaluddin Rumi

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Chapter 26

Transposition of the Public Events With Violent Visual: Case of PETA

Esra Çelebi Independent Researcher, Turkey

ABSTRACT People who are sensitive to the subject realize the seriousness of the situation and made an effort to raise awareness of the society. In order to increase the awareness, activism movements against social events have started and the organizastion of activist protests has become more visible with the use of digital platforms and spread to the large masses has accelerated. In this chapter the element of violence existing in the advertising poster works of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), activists, and artists are semantically analyzed by using the semiotic method. Indicators are a form of interpretation used to understand and explicate the truth behind what we see. The importance of image is rather important in visual semiotics. In addition, it will explain the targeted messages given to the public by using violence indicator and common sense, but contrarily, the situation projected innocent by drawing an aesthetic framework. Awareness will be raised to those messages that are shown innocently.

INTRODUCTION “I am interested in language because it wounds or seduces me” (Barthes, 1998: p. 38). People used the captions seventeen thousand years ago to communicate with each other. The visuality, the oldest and most effective way of communication is based on systems and meanings made up by a series of indicator. The necessity of scientific evaluation and analyzing of these meanings led to the birth of semiotics (Denli, 1997: p. 25). People use many items such as word, body language, facial expressions or writing to communicate with each other. They express themselves by using verbal, written or visual expressions, creating a meaningful whole and using these strings. The indicator is an element that can specify an object, fact or entity other than itself, as it has features that include different meanings In a communication direction indicators could portray a second image. Semiotics covers many disciplines and is in the scope of research due to its wide expansions. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch026

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 Transposition of the Public Events With Violent Visual

These indicators are used in advertising works. With the introduction of new media into our lives, companies, governments, non-governmental organizations, associations and even individuals use the mentioned indicators in their advertising work. Advertising works are prepared using emotional indicators and expectation of affection the attitude and behavior of the target audience in the desired direction. Human emotions, which are thought to be effective in individuals’ attitudes and behaviors, are mainly classified as happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger and disgust (Ekman, 1992: p. 167). In addition, feelings such as violence and anxiety that affect consumers’ preferences and attitudes are considered as catharsis emotions. World Health Organization defines violence as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation. Violence is a factor that we are exposed in every period of our lives directly or indirectly. In many fields such as art, cinema, series, advertising, etc., violence is being used to increase the impact of the message. While transmitting public events adjusting the violence in ordinary care transform the presented materials more aesthetic and more effective. Presenting violence aesthetically, could reduce the violence in a part of daily life in the meantime indication of the violence could increase the effect of the targeted message more clearly. Utility corporations or people or organizations considering the benefit of society; (governments, local governments, associations, non-governmental organizations, advertisers, activists, companies, etc.) benefited from the contents of violence during their awareness raising activities to stop or minimize events affecting living standards such as war, environmental pollution, poverty, animal rights, violence against women or children, migration, harassment, etc. In general, abusing and torturing animals is considered by many people unethical. Unfortunately, people’s attitude and behavior towards animals are far from considering the suffering of animals. Every day, millions of animal experiments are perished in the food industry, medicine and cosmetics, chance games, fashion, hard work, entertainment and the satisfaction of the human ego. in terrible artificial environments without sun and soil, food animals are kept in narrow spaces that they cannot move. Animals used for clinical trials are given poisons such as toxins, drugs, radiation, and even they survive, they are killed after the experiment. Furs are excoriated while the fur animals are half alive, with the methods in which they will killed slowly and with great pain for not damaging their fur. Hundreds of species are imprisoned in life-long cages for people’s fun trips; with the method of punishment, starving and using violence, animals are forced to move beyond them physical abilities. (For detailed information on animal abuse and animal rights violations, see www.peta.org) Descartes had an understanding that animals as kind of vending machines that didn’t suffer. However, in 1997, the European Union officially recognized that animals are sentient (emotional, painful) creatures. Marc Bekoff stated that there is evidence that animals are living creatures and that we have a big amount of data about it for a long time. Marc Bekoff, based on the worldwilde acceptance of Cambridge University statement of 7 July 2012 (Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness) asked for a universal calling for a declaration (Universal Declaration on Animal Sentience) (Bekoff, 2013). The Cambridge Declaration concludes with the following sentence: “Consequently, the weight of evidence indicates that humans are not unique in possessing the neurological substrates that generate consciousness. Non-human animals, including all mammals and birds, and many other creatures, including octopuses, also possess these neurological substrates” (Low, et al., 2012).

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The Universal Declaration of Animal Rights, declared by UNESCO in 1978, has an important effect on this gradual development in animal rights. With this agreement, newly adapted legislations have been become valid, new policies have been developed for many practices that violate the dignified lives of animals in the world, precautions have been taken and deterrent punishments. The main sources of traditional thinking towards the moral status of animals all over the world have been religion and philosophy, and both have interacted with science in shaping perceptions about what kinds of beings animals are (DeGrazia, 2006: p. 13). People have the same right to live in different species as they do in the world. The human race, which sees itself as the sole owner of the realm while in its life cycle, does not realize that other species interfere with their habitats. A sensitive group of non-governmental organizations are trying to raise awareness to violence and torture against the environment and animals, by raising their voices as much as they can. While taking these actions the NGO”s use arguments such as violence, fear, assault, etc. on the top-screen of their messages. For example, PETA, which is known as the world largest animal rights organization, realised an advertising campaign against the use of leather bags. The advertisement demonstrating the end of the life of an animal with every purchased bag has made a lot of noise in the period it was published. In this study, PETA will be analyzed for the disturbing advertising posters. The analyze will be done by semiotic methods for elements of violence existing in advertising posters which are disturbing people and in the meantime thought-provoking by disturbing like using tortured animal image time to time

ACTIVISM, VIOLENCE AND ADVERTISING RELATIONS According to Joachim Raschke, social action: “It is a collective movement that takes action through variable organizational forms and action forms and has a small role distribution among the members and aims to provide, prevent or reverse social change (Raschke, 1988: p. 77). As already evident from previous discussion, my use of the term “activism” is historical. The term is derived from contemporary World War I, used in Finland and Sweden where it was employed to designate radical patriotic circles known for their German-friendliness, opposition to Russia and inclination for the “active” way of doing politics (Kuldkepp, 2015: p. 253). Activism is widely used to name protest or actions opposed to the dominant ideology and political order. Moskalenko and McCauley defined activism as “being ready to participate in legal and non-violent political actions” (Moskalenko & McCauley 2009: p. 240). Activists engage in activities that disturb people and the emotions of the society in order to reach their goals. In many countries of the world, in several cities, with the participation of hundreds of people gathered in theatrical street protests pouring the red paints dye like blood into their naked bodies. Advertisers who communicate these protests or use them in their advertising campaigns, with designs that cannot be watched uncensored, interact with their target audience through emotions, thoughts and behaviors in any direction. Overly irritating ad visuals or content that have excessive irritability are more memorable than others. Bad is in mind. Advertisers who recognized and are aware of this situation serve the content that cannot be watched uncensored using the content such as fear, violence, sexuality, etc. under the banner of advertising. Today, the concept of violence encompasses a wide range of uses and differs in the definition of the concept according to cultures or societies. Bourdieu defines symbolic violence ‘exerted for the most part…through the purely symbolic channels of communication and cognition recognition or even feel522

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ing. “In Bourdieu’s conceptual world, symbolic violence is “an invisible and gentle form of violence” (Özsöz, 2014: p. 41). As a narrative form within the media structure, advertisements are products that reproduce ideology. What should be emphasized at this point is not how the advertisement is shaped according to the society, but how the value judgments and conceptualizations within the scope of the commodity used in the advertisement shape social groups and individuals (Mengü, 2004: p. 211). Now a day, advertisments have begun to attract people into a world that needs to be interpreted more and more. This world can be called a world of meaningfulness. Within the scope this way, new symbolic meanings are imposed on posters and pitch, where they are indicators, not objects, or objects that are detached from their usual place in physical life, their material environment. Trying to fuse things and signs is part of the “imaginary” function of ads, herewith that signs become things. In this way, with the coding of the material world around us, advertisements produce a universe of riddles that cannot be entered without “deciphering”, requiring a “solution”. It will be evident that in contrast to their usual abundance in advertising, the exclusion of products, people or language gives the subject the impression that he is “free” to produce meaning for himself. While explaining why this “production” is actually “consumption”, freedom maintains the understanding that advertisement is a position given to the person (Williamson, 2001: p. 73). As a persuasive form of communication, advertising strives to inform the target audience about the messages it sends, to inform them about the product and service, to influence their attitudes and perceptions, and to direct the target audience towards positive buying behavior in the direction desired by the company. It is expected to make changes on the target audience at the following main points (Elden, 2003: p. 23): • • •

Changes in the level of knowledge of the consumer Changes in buyer’s attitudes Changes in the behavior of the consumer

Advertisements are used to attract their target audience to their worlds. The fears of the target audience in their social environment and the threats that may arise in the future that await them are used as trigger for the audience”s emotional exploitation. Many negativities such as losing freedom, being exposed to violence, losing a limb or loosing beauty, exclusion from the existing social group they live in constitute individuals’ unconscious fears. With these emotional elements, advertisements reach their goals by getting to the root of the fears and dragging them after the target audience. Advertisers who are aware of people’s interest in high-dose photographs often prefer to use these types of photographs. The reason of the people who take pleasure in looking at these images is an another subject to be considered separately (Sontag 2011: p. 199). argues that people who take pleasure in looking at violent horrible photos reinforce the feeling of staying away from misfortunes and provide some relievability. According to Sontag, in the depth of this emotion lies in being ‘here’, not ‘there’. Therefore, we can say that such images have some kind of catharsis effect on the audience.

ADVERTISEMENT AND SEMIOTICS The elements in the advertising copies are encountered in linguistic, visual or both ways. To make sense of these messages have a large importance. Semiotics is one of the methods used in advertising analysis. 523

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Almost all life of human passes by grasping, interpreting and redefining the world in which he lives. While making the meanings, it classifies the network of relationships created by the surrounding entities, objects and things at different levels. It could do without realizing it. The way to understand and make sense of the world is to classify its deep and universal structure. At this point, if the person who interpret the world looks at his environment in a conscious, methodical and consistent way, rather than being aware of it, then he could be named “Homo Semioticus” Homo Semioticus; is the person who reads, interpret and makes sense. At the same time, he is the person who questions the formation of meanings, how consolidate them together and create new meanings. It is a person who not only describes the individual and social cultural indicator around him, but also restructures the process of their production. Homo Semioticus is a person who tries to grasp and re-understand the meaning or meanings of the world for human and the human for human (Rifat, 1996: pp. 10 - 11). When we see or hear a significant, what is shown or what it means, occurs in our minds. The process of understanding begins in this way. Roland Barthes semiotics, working in the field of semiotic method and advertising relationship; evaluated the relations of the elements in the texts with each other as well as the method of analyzing the relations of the elements formed by these elements with the outer world (Barthes, 1997: pp. 11 - 20). To divide the items determined as showing in advertising texts visually and linguistically is possible. Visual products; the product itself, logo, characters in the advertisement, objects, colors, graphic elements, shooting angles and scales are considered as everything seen by the reader (Timisi, 1997: p. 40). The references of these demonstrators could generally be certain images such as beauty, prestige, and high status. Demonstrators reinforce their existing and pointed meanings with linguistic expressions. Make sense of advertising messages that are sometimes linguistic, sometimes visual, or both have a great importance. (Erdoğan, 2014) Ads are accepted as a mechanism of representation and a system of indicators. We can only understand what the advertisements mean by understanding how they express them and analyzing how they work (Willamsons, 2001: p. 14).

LANGUAGE OF COMMUNICATIVE SIGNS: SEMIOTICS The word semiotics is based on semeîon Word in Greek which meaning is sign, trace, sign in and dates back to ancient times. “Semiotics”, the original equivalent of semiotics, is Greek originated and the meaning of the word is interpretation and explication of signs in the real world. Semiotics in a discipline, in the simplest sense, refers to research on the analysis of indicators or how sign systems work (Barthes, 1997: p. 88). The basis of visuality, which is the oldest and most effective way of communicating, is a series of indicators and meanings (Denli, 1997: p. 25). The necessity for these signs to form as a whole, to be interpreted scientifically, to be analyzed and to be examined caused the emergence of semiotics. Words used for communication, images, sounds, traffic lights, flowers, music, medical symptoms, etc. Many things can be the subject and field of study of semiotics (Parsa & Parsa, 2004: p. 1). According to Stuart Hall; The indicators make sense because they are organized in a specific language system or set of codes, and thus add the way they associate things together in the objective social world (Hall, 2005: p. 209). The most ideal method to analyze the meaning structure of a text is semiotic. It is the nature of the interpretation of the indicators in various codes and the intertextuality of the codes that ensure the continuity of the meaning in the societies (Hall, 2005: p. 211). Encoding is important to gain meaning for messages in the media. While semiotics reveals the integrity in the text, it allows the continuous production of meaning by making use of the contrasts in the text. Indicators on their own strongly 524

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indicate a certain meaning. But what realize the meaning in the message is the totality of the indicators. Signification is what the recipient believes that an indicator really expresses among those shown. Hall has important views in the analysis of visual texts. It is important to emphasize that there is no single or correct answer to the question “What does this image mean” or “What does this advertisement say?” Since there is no rule to guarantee that these things will only have one real meaning or that these meanings will not change over time, studies in this area have to be interpretive: not between who is ‘right’ and ‘wrong’; but equally reasonable, sometimes competing, contradictory. and a discussion between comments (Hall, 2017: p. 18). Because there is no single truth, factors such as culture, family, working environment, and friends where the recipient lives, may differ in the meaning of the message. Even the person’s current psychology can change the perception of the message. For example, a person in a positive mood will evaluate the message positive, an angry person will evaluate the same message as negative. A variable receiver changes and transforms according to usage and historical conditions and contexts. By this way it is never finally fixed. He always delays or “takes it slow” on his appointment with absolute truth. Adapting to new conditions is always discussed and discussions are articulated. It is often the subject of contention and sometimes it is fought for. There are always different semantic circuits in each culture that are also in circulation, intersecting discursive formations that we use to create meaning or express what we think (Hall, 2017: p. 19). Indicator means a situation, action or being that replaces a concept in our mind. However, ”semiotics, is the science that studies the indicator strings like languages, lines, signs, etc.` (Guiraud, 2016: p. 17). Any signs, words, images, sounds, gestures, and objects that represent something other than itself and which can replace what it represents are called signs (Chandler, 2007: p. 2). Semiotics, the simplest definition, tells the research on the analysis of the indicators or how the symptom methods work. Semiotics starts out with the indicators and gains integrity with the studies of making sense of the indicators. Images (signs) reveal different meanings attributed to the objects seen (Şimşek, 2006: p. 70). In the form of where semiotics relates, there is the concept of sign. In its most general definition the concept of indication can be used for all kinds of shapes, objects, works, etc. by symbolizing another object and filling the area of the object it symbolizes. Words, symbols, symptoms, etc. are confirmed as indicators. For example; Natural languages, which are a social system (system) and actually provide communication between people, consist of the relationships established between the units (words) called as indicators (Elden. 2009; Coşkun, 2012: p. 72). The meaning of writing becomes lighter when all kinds of semantic signs fall within the concept of “writing”. The crucial and unique invention, which opens the door of new worlds of knowledge in human consciousness, has emerged not with signs, but with a system of visual signs that the reader could extract exactly the words the author wants from the text (Ong. 2007: p. 104). When the literature is examined, the main lead of contemporary semiotics are C.S. Peirce from USA, F. De Saussure from Switzerland, R. Barthes from France. Charles Sanders Peirce: (1839-1914) American pragmatist philosopher. First he named the pragmatism movement and then outlined his method. Peirce explains his model to explain semiotics as follows (Elden et al. 2005); “An indicator is something that has the ability and capacity to replace something else. The indicator calls someone, that is, it creates an equivalent indicator, or perhaps a much more advanced one, in the mind of the person he calls. I characterize the created indicator as the interpreter of the first indicator. The sign represents something, the object it shows” (Elden, et al. 2005; Fiske, 2003: p. 64).

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Ferdınand De Saussure: (1857 – 1913) Swiss linguist who has prepared the basis for many of his remarkable development in linguistics in the 20th century. It is considered the ‘father’ of linguistics of the 20th century. According to Saussure, language is “a string of indicators that express concepts. Therefore, it is comparable with writing, manual alphabet, symbolic sacred ceremonies, behaviors that are considered signs of delicacy, the signs of soldiers, etc. (Köktürk & Eyri, 2013-II; p. 128). Saussure, one of the founders of semiotics, was interested in language and focused on the relations of indicators with other indicators. For Saussure, the legend is a physical object with meaning, and the legend is composed of a legend. It is the detected side of the indicating indicator. For example, symptoms on paper, like sounds in the air. What is shown is an intellectual element to which the signifier refers. This mental concept is all common for the members of the same culture sharing the same language (Arıkan, 2013: p. 28). Saussure approaches not as a philosopher, as a logician, but as a linguist. While Peirce determines the place of the language in these strings by removing the language-external indicator strings, Saussure envisages the establishment of a branch of science that will explore the functioning of other indicators by removing the language. “He called this branch of science, which he wants to be established in the future and will examine the life of the indicators in the society, in the term semiology. According to Saussure, semiotics will be general semiotic science, and linguistics, which studies the indigenous languagespecific indicators, will become a branch of semiotics. While Saussure connects linguistics to semiotics, semiotics also settle in social psychology, and therefore in general psychology (Saussure. 2001: p. 46). Ronald Barthes: (1915 – 1980). French structuralist working on contemporary myths. He analyzes the contemporary myths in capitalist societies and his attitude is clear: these myths function to legitimize the basic values of the capitalist system, naturalizing these values. According to Barthes, individuals may be aware of the meaning of interrelated concepts in the myth, but they are not aware of their mythical quality. Myth hides its own functioning (Dağtaş, 2003: p. 64). Barthes describe his first acquaintance with Semiotics: After reading Saussure, my eyes were dazzled with hope, as a result acquired the conviction that by treating `collective representations` as a sign-systems, one might hope to go further than the pious shows of unmasking them and account in detail for the mystification which transforms petit-bourgeois culture into a universal nature. And giving scientific explanation to this possibility. This possibility was semiotics or a detailed examination of semantic processes. Thanks to the processes of meaning, the bourgeoisie transformed its historical class culture into a universal nature. At this stage, semiotics seemed to me to be the main method of ideological criticism in terms of its future, program and efforts. (Barthes, 1997: p. 15). Mass media create myths or ideologies as secondary systems of meaning to give their messages a natural occurrence. They express the natural meaning in the flat-meaningful plane. In the semantic plane they transmit the secondary ideological meaning. Here, the secondary meaning functioning as a myth is that it naturalizes the ideological meaning to be conveyed and plays an innocent role (Dağtaş, 2003: p. 67). The medium of the demonstrators constitutes the narrative scope of the indicator, and the medium of the illustrated content. Shown is the ‘object’ understood by the user of the legend. The distinguishing feature of the demonstrator is the quality of the demonstrator’s vehicle (Barthes, 1997: p. 48). According to Barthes, the indicator consists of a signifer and a signifield. The pointers represent the plane of expression, and the plane that shows is the plane of content (Barthes, 1997: p. 47).

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Table 1. Barthes Semiotics Model (Barthes, 1991, p. 113)

The indicator functions as a sensory stimulus. The image that the indicator awakens in the minds leads to the image of another stimulus in our brain. In this process, different indicators form a whole and form the message in the communication process (Guiraud, 2016: p. 39).

SEMIOTICS, SIGNIFICATION AND THE ROLAND BARTHES MODEL Barthes places its model on two main axes. These appear as “primary level and secondary level”. Secondary level also distinguished meaning as “side meaning, myths and symbols” (Fiske, 2003: p. 115). Table 2. Roland Barthes’ two orders of signification model, based upon Saussure’s Semiotics

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The denotations relates to the first meaning of the indicator. A street photograph refers to the street itself. The artist could shoot the street differently from different angles, colored or colorless, using different light, and focus. The fact that the first photograph is taken with a sharp angle and black and white, the second taken in a colorful, soft tone will not change the denotation of the photograph is the street. In these example, semantic change will be given by connotation (Fiske, 2003: p. 116). The detonation is a mechanical reproduction of the object in which the camera is pointed. The connotation is the human dimension of this process: the choice of what to include in the frame, focus, light, camera angle, film quality and so on. The denotation is “what is photographed”; the connotation is “how” it is photographed (Yücel, 2015: p. 119). Connotation said “is a term used by Barhes to describe one of the three ways in which indicators operate at the second level of interpretation,”. All indicators have an absolute connotation and meanings vary from person to person. This could be explained by the fact that the indicators are in a psychological and emotional interaction process with the receiver. Cultural level, knowledge, personal characteristics, etc. of the recipient in this case, would be decisive. “While the connotation usually has a visual dimension even though without a reason. It is unique to a culture” (Fiske, 2003: p. 117). Barthes states that the signifiers of connotation, which he conceptualized as connotational, consist of the indicators of denotation that the string consists of indicators. According to Barthes, the units that make up the connotation system are not the same size as the units in denotation system. “The denotational large pieces of rhetoric, could be organized to form a single unit of the cannotation (for example, a narrative form of a script consisting of many words but still sending it to a single signified)” (Barthes, 1979: p. 89). The conclusion to be made after all this turmoil, connotation regardless of the extent of the inclusion of denotation could not be exhausted and finalized denotations notices. Because there is always something left from the denotation. If not, what is called discourse becomes impossible (Barthes, 1979: p. 89). “In the famous example of Barthes, there is a a black soldier saluting the French flag in magazine cover.. This photograph has a denotation such as “a black soldier saluting the French flag,”. The main purpose hidden behind this meaning is: the connotation caused by a mixture of colonial nationalism and militarism. It says - during the Algerian war of independence - colonialism must be true: there are black people who are trying to protect it to death. Connotation repose on denotation; the continuous reciprocal motion between them Show an appearance of a natural integrity between them. The myth determinated as the cannotaion would be successful when the myth referred is not entirely `mentioned”; protects a sedentary position from suspicion or attack and universalizes history by saying “this is what it should be” (Karahan, 2003: p. 19).

MYTH, SYMBOL, CODE, METAFORE AND METONYMY Myths have the function of legitimating the dominant ideology in the capitalist system. Myths are ideological because individuals even though the concepts in myths, do not know about the mythical characteristic of the concepts. A myth is a form of language that conceals its own functioning; language is class based (Barthes, 1991). If I asked a dozen photographers to photograph the street scene in which children were playing, most would produce black-and-white, hard-focused, compassionate photos. Because these cannotations are better suited to the most common myths that help us conceptualize children playing on the streets. Our dominant myth about childhood is that childhood is or should be a period of naturalness and freedom. 528

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Maturation means adapting to the demands of the society, that is, losing naturalness and freedom. Cities are normally seen as unnatural, artificial spaces that provide children with a very limited environment. There is a widespread belief in our culture that the most suitable place for childhood is rural areas. We can compare these myths with the myths of earlier periods, for example, those in Queen Elizabeth’s a child is seen as an incomplete adult; Roman emperors of August described the rural areas as wild, uncivilized - Human values ​​could be found only in civilized cities and the countryside described the wilderness; it was adapted to its urban understanding (Fiske, 2003: p. 119). With Barthes, the use of semiotics has expanded. In order for Barthes’s semiotic understanding to be understood deeply well, the concepts of myth, code, metaphor and metonymy must be understood correctly. Myths are stories that explain or interprete some aspects of reality or nature in the culture (Fiske, 2003: p. 185). For example, the idea that women are doing housework or childcare better than men is one of the most common myths. The code is the system in which the indicators are arranged, rules accepted (Fiske, 2003: p. 153). The code contains the meaning system shared by a culture. Metaphor (figure of speech) is to use a concept name as a figure of speech to describe another concept (Guiraud, 2016: p. 146). Matching the horseshoe with the concept of luck and the scale with justice can be given as an example. Metonymy in order to express the meaning of a thing or a concept refering to something closely associated with that thing or concept (Temizyürek & Ümran, 2014: p. 30). For example, in order to emphasize a nation, the flag belonging to that nation is shown (Geray, 2014: p. 168).

PETA - PEOPLE FOR THE ETHICAL TREATMENT OF ANIMALS PETA - People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals PETA is an animal rights organization. Established in Norfolk, Virginia and founded in 1980 PETA is the world largest animal rights group with about six and a half million members and supporters. focused on four subjects: factory farming, fur farming, animal tests and using animal for entertrainment. PETA also work on a variety of other issues, including the cruel killing of rodents, birds, and other animals who are often considered “pests” as well as cruelty to domesticated animals. PETA works through public education, cruelty investigations, research, animal rescue, legislation, special events, celebrity involvement, and protest campaigns (https://www.peta.org. uk/; Accessed on: April 2020). Peta promotes its associations on the website with the following words: PETA was founded in 1980 and is dedicated to establishing and defending the rights of all animals. PETA operates under the simple principle that animals are not ours to experiment on, eat, wear, use for entertainment, or abuse in any other way. PETA educates policymakers and the public about animal abuse and promotes kind treatment of animals. PETA is an international nonprofit charitable organization based in Norfolk, Virginia, with affiliates worldwide. PETA believes that animals have rights and deserve to have their best interests taken into consideration, regardless of whether they are useful to humans. Like you, they are capable of suffering and have an interest in leading their own lives. The very heart of all of PETA’s actions is the idea that it is the right of all beings—human and nonhuman alike—to be free from harm. Our world is plagued with many serious problems, all of which deserve

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our attention. Cruelty to animals is one of them. We believe that all people should try to stop animal abuse whenever and wherever they can.Since 1980, PETA has campaigned to establish a global society in which humans consider the needs of what Henry Beston, noted American writer and naturalist of the mid-20th century, so beautifully called “the other nations.” We uphold the rights of individual animals to be respected. For most, that means simply leaving them alone. PETA focuses its attention on the four areas in which the largest numbers of animals suffer the most intensely for the longest periods of time: in laboratories, on factory farms,in the clothing trade, and in the entertainment industry. In today’s world of virtually unlimited choices, animal exploitation is simply unacceptable. We can eat better, educate ourselves better, clothe ourselves better, and entertain ourselves better without torturing and killing animals. We have the power to spare animals excruciating pain by making better choices about the food we eat, the things we buy, and the activities we support (https://www.peta.org/about-peta/learn-aboutpeta/; Accessed on: June 2020). During the World Vegan Day celebrations in November 2011, Peta activists opened a banner with the slogan “Try to Relate to Who’s on your Plate - Go Vegan”. Under the banner lay peas in a large plate of chips on the floor, and the actor Sarah-Jane Honeywell, completely naked. Fork and knife stood next to the plate. To the passers-by on the street where the action took place the following messages where given ` Compassion to the billions of animals that are abused and killed every year` `don”t be a part of these sectors by eating meat, eggs, dairy products and fishing industries products`Activists distributed vegetarian / vegan starters to passersby. World Vegan Day November 2011, presenter and actor Sarah-Jane Honeywell lay virtually naked on a giant plate – complete with to-scale cutlery, chips and peas above a banner that read, “Try to Relate to Who’s on Your Plate. Go Vegan”. She encouraged passers-by to have compassion for the billions of animals who are abused and killed as part of the meat, egg, dairy and fishing industries every year and was accompanied by PETA supporters who handed out copies of PETA’s vegetarian/vegan starter kit (https://www.peta.org.uk/blog/semi-naked-tv-presenter-served-up-as-food-on-world-vegan-day/; accessed on: June 2020). In Spain, in 2016, with their horned masks on their faces, hundred of activists, red dyes poured into their naked bodies, in the appearance of a wounded bull, putted red paints in the containers with the words “Pamplona: Bloodbath For Bulls” protested the bullfights made in Spain for hours (https://www. thelocal.es/20160706/topless-peta-get-bloody-protest-pamplona-san-fermin-bull-running-ru n; Accessed on: June 2020). PETA activists also organized an action called “bloody” in August 2019. in front of Canada Goose’s store in New York, during a shareholder meeting of Canada Goose, which sells goose-feather clothes During the meeting, TV presenter and comedian Bill Maher asked a question on behalf of PETA to the executives of Canada Goose: “When will Canada Goose stop using real fur?”. Moreover blood-soaked people groveling on the groundanimated the suffering of animals (https://www.peta.org/blog/fall-winterpeta-ups-the-ante-against-canada-goose/; Accessed on: June 2020). PETA is famous for its outlier advertising composed by impressive activism action. These activism is founded awe-inspiring for a soma but very unconfortable for others.

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Semiotic Analysis of PETA PETA using images of violence, sexuality, nudity, with an aggressive humorous approach in advertising and activism studies engages in tactical behavior in these theatrical protests. If people believe that the threat is serious and they are at risk, they respond with a fear that will motivate them to react. The nature of their responses depends on how much they believe the proposed action will be effective (response effectiveness) and their beliefs in self-efficacy (self-efficacy) to perform the action (Witte & Allen, 2000: p. 591). For example, they manage to attract the attention of the society and the media by using a naked female body drenched in blood in campaign or human / animal images with various organs cut. Since people are afraid of avoiding violence, when they distinguish such violent images, they be affected by emotion, thought and will change behavior more easily. The greater the threat, the greater the motivation. Whether people respond with fear control or danger control is based on comparing the level of their perceived competence with the level of threat perceived (Witte & Allen, 2000: p. 592). Once the organization gets the attention of the society, it acts by knowing that people will support the next action they will take. All advertising and action strategies of the organization proceed on this fiction. This new process, also called the information age, has diminished the world with developing communication technologies. The earth, which began to be defined as a global village, by McLuhan put, provided great opportunities for people. The opportunity to instantly communicate with the other end of the world and reach the information they want in a very short time is reflected in PETA’s campaigns. The development of new media tools played a dominant role in the spreading speed, spreading area and spreading effect of the news, action or campaign ensured that the masses were included in the activist movement of the PETA. PETA’s one of the visual images of proactive advertising, chosen randomly was solved by the semiotics method of Roland Barthes who is one of the founders of semiotics. During the analysis, indicators were examined as signifier and signified. The advertisement component such as slogan, title, photograph, color, etc., which are considered as indicators are analyzed with the concepts of denotation, connotation, myth and metaphore which are mentioned by Roland Barthes. During this semiotic analyze metaphore and metenomy are used as signifier and signified. The creatives such as slogans, heading, photos colour etc analyzed within the framework of the concepts of arrangement, combustion and myth mentioned by Roland Barthes, and the method of semiotic decoding within the dimensions shown by metaphor and metanomy and showing. Denotation connotation myth metaphore.

Wool: The Naked Truth In this ad of PETA, Joanna Krupa appears naked, covered with blood and bruises on her skin and a fox in her hands. The poster reads: ‘Wool: The Naked Truth’ along with the statement: ‘There’s nothing warm and cuddly about wool.’ Joanna Krupa is a Polish American model, actress and animal rights activist. She took part in the advertising campaign of Peta about the use of natural fur. When the advertisement poster “Wool: The Naked Truth” is evaluated in the denotation of Barthes, it is seen that two images are used. The back of the poster is colored with a soft solid color suitable for the skin color, in the middle of it there is a naked model with blood and cut marks on her body and a lamb 531

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without skin to cover her breasts. It is seen that the model has a light hair and a blow mark on the forehead and has cuts on the nose and lips. Although she has many blood and bumps on her face and body, she looks attractive, beautiful and innocent as a woman. When the advertisement poster is examined from cannotation, many meaning are transfered and new meanings are seen. Considering the first indicator in the analysis of the indicators, the nakedness of the model shows how vulnerable they are when the skin of their animals is peeled off. It is depicted that there is no difference between a person’s violence, being forced to be taken off his clothes and staying naked and skin out an animal’s fur. In this description, it is seen that the model with bruises and cuts on her body is naked, unhappy and in desperation. Figure 1. Wool: The Naked Truth (https://www.peta.org/features/joanna-krupa-truth-behind-wool/)

Table 3. Wool The Naked

The second indicator, the signifier of a lamb that was taken in the hands of the model, was visualized and a perception was described that depicts the exhaustion of the life of a hurt animal. The element of myth that completes the message in the poster design and reaches the result is the syntactic relationship of the two signifier. The lack of lamb’s fur and the nakedness of the model suggests that using both of them in the same frame automatically overlaps two images in almost every culture, which required us to have an connotative reading. Although nudity evokes first of all eroticism and sexuality in man, on the

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other party, the furless lamb in the hand of the model makes feel the feeling of being exposed to violence and suffering in pain and despair. Being naked is a denotation for the skinned lamb in the visual but on the other part for the naked model a aconnotation and a metafor It is known that the fur of the animals is skinned with various tortures for the fur sector. However, people’s naked walking will not bring to mind the torture of animals unless they are shared in the same frame as a skinned animal. When the signifiers shown at the primary level and the connotations and myths at the secondary level are combined, it is feeled and imagined that every living creature suffers the same way when violence or torture is applied. The approach that gives importance and special to design is the slogan of the design. In the lower part of the banner, the slogan of “Wool: The Naked Truth”, which closes the genital area of Joanna Krupa, is written in red and white bold capital letters. As a subtitle, “There’s Nothing Warm and Cuddly About Wool” is used with smaller fonts. The metonomy of the slogan, “The Naked”, which is marked by using the red color, is coincided with the full genital area of the model, and that it is a pathway leading to sexual violence. When you encounter in the natural flow of life, the effect of each study on human emotions increases by using an irritating visual. If we consider the design in an emotional dimension, it is observed that the studies using human value judgments accepted by the society are more effective on the audience.

Behind the Leather In 2016, a store selling leather clothes in Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, witnessed the action of PETA activists, a fictional two-minute commercial was produced and released with the images obtained. In the commercial, the luxurious leather garments are filled with pieces of meat, muscles, blood, and organs that look just like the reality, and the consumer’s reaction is monitored. Analysis of a section selected from the mentioned film in question was made. Figure 2. Behind the leather – youtube video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qs8yqcrqo1s)

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Figure 3. Behind the leather

Table 4. Behind the leather

Peta advertising film, which aims to raise awareness about the use of animal leather in clothing and clothing accessories, starts at the entrance of a store selling leather products. In the store where products made entirely from exotic animal leather are sold, snake leather, crocodile leather bags, leather jackets, belts, wallets, gloves and shoes are presented to the buyer in the most magnificent way. When shoppers examine their favorite leather products, they encounter the most shocking image of their lives. When they open the zipper of the leather jacket is sold from the outside and look inside the jacket, their faces the bloody muscle structure of the animal killed for its leather. When wearing a shoe an artificial blood put inside contaminate the foot and when wearing a leather glove on the inside of the glove artificial blood contaminate the hand. They encounter a bloody image of organs such as muscle, lung, stomach, intestine, heart inside the leather case or wallet. Customers who do not know that they are in an advertisement film are shocked by the view they encounter. Their confusion is evident from their facial expression. With this commercial, PETA is trying to convince consumers that buying such leather goods is harmful to the planet’s aura. This section of the study is analyzed in terms of semiotics, there are consisting of three separate signifiers bag, organs and hands. The denotation is black leather bag opened by two hands to look inside and the internal organs consisting of muscles, intestine and heart emerge from the opened bag. When we examine this section as connotation, the leather bag shown, the signifier is a living animal, and the feeling of seeing the internal organs of that animal when the bag’s zipper is opened. When the bag is

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opened, the feeling of an living animal with continues heart beat is used as a metaphor. It is also seen that the hands that opened the bag to look inside it, hesitated to touch the organs when they see the bloody organs inside the bag, and hold lightly the end of the bag. The internal organs shown symbolize the pain symbolically. The way the signifiers come together is a form of expression that creates a new signifier that questions human emotions and remind us that a species has ceased to live for a leather bag. Offering an extraordinary experience to consumers, the study confronts consumers with the fact that crocodiles and snakes suffer and lose their lives in the production of luxury leather products. Here, the myth of the image of the intenstines coming out of the bag emphasizes an tortured animal in every culture. Although some emotions and behaviors vary according to cultures, the emotion to be extracted from this section is considered to be irritating, disgusting to bring the leather to the consumer as it was first skinned. The vast majority of the society does not prefer to touch the internal organs and bloody skin of a living or newly killed animal. When the entire advertising film is examined, the transmission of consumers’ hands and foot into fake blood conveys the shocking message of animal cruelty with its artistically constructed, hyper-realistic images. With this film, the organizastion aims to draw attention to animals that are brutally skinned only for their leather. According to data released by Peta, at least 440.000 python snake are caught and killed every year, in South Asia for use of their leather. Some are skinned while tehir alive. At least 4 crocodile is killed for an average size corcodile bag. Thus, it is emphasized that nature and animals are not given the right to live by using products that are not needed in the context of modern period consumption practices but can be counted in the category of luxury consumption. Thus, it is emphasized that in the context of modern period consumption practices, nature and animals are not given the right to life with the use of products that are not in need but can be counted in the luxury consumption category.

The Payback! Three advertisings, with the slogan of “payback” are designed and introduced to show the answer to the question “What life would it be if there was a feud between animals and humans?” by Peta Mexico in 2018. One of the advertising posters was selected and analyzed. Table 5. Payback

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Figure 4. Who is the real animal? (https://www.petalatino.com/campanas/te-imaginas-que-pasaria-silos-animales-tomaran-venganza/)

When considered in the dimension of connotation, it is observed that the visual creates the concept of attractiveness of the fear (a type of communication to persuade people using the element of fear). The main indicator of the ad is a cow with a bloody butcher apron is seen in a slaughterhouse. The selection of the indicator from an animal whose meat is eaten gives a special meaning to the design. Dark, scattered bloody pieces of meat give the impression of a newly chopped body. The bloody hand metonyme that appears on the meat grinder shows that the meat that has been cut into pieces belongs to a human and that the meat will be minced in the next step. When the design is analyzed in terms of semiotics, the cow that is the indicator of signifier is the metaphor of a human butcher. The cow butcher has a cool-blooded facial expression, satisfied with the work done without being disturbed by the blood and meat pieces. On the label in the upper right corner of the design, “who is the real animal?” quesition is asked and by adding “Are you still hungry?” question, the target audience was expected to find the correct answer after thinking.

Dissection Kills In 2015, PETA had prepared an advertisement poster which young American actress Noah Cyrus posing as a cadaver, to protest disection industry and atract attention to using of animals in clinic experiments. In this image, in which a high level of fear elements is used, the meaning is formed within the medical paradigm. The poster was designed on a non-reality theme to draw attention to the animals used in anotomy lessons and clinical experiments. When the poster is read in connotation, the actress Noah Cryus is lying on the dissection table with the rib cage opened and the ribs and internal organs visible. Her face and body are painted white with a dead makeup - her eyes are glassy, ​​her skin is pale. In the upper left corner of the table, books that seem to have been taught to learn the anotomy of an animal, and in the upper right corner, surgical materials are seen. Her facial expression is dull, helpless, and her eyes are fixed somewhere. As it can be understood from all the signifier, in the middle of an experiment, the idea

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is that the body will be cut and the organs will be separated from each other. It is metaphor to portray it as a medical cadaver. The actor was 15 years old when the commercials were shot. It is metonomy to choose a young actor for advertising giving the feeling of pure, clean, innocent and vulnerable to overlap actors face with the animals exposed to dissection,. At the bottom of the psoter there is the slogan “I Am Not A Classroom Experiment”. With this slogan, the player who poses on the advertising poster, in a way, replaces the animals killed in school laboratories and gives a message on their behalf. “Neither Are Cats, Frogs, Rats, Pigs, or Other Animals Killed for Dissection” is written as a subtext. In this article, it is tried to create the perception that other animals exposed to dissection severity also participate in the given message. They added the hashtag #DissectionKill to the bottom part of the design and tried to create a two-way interactive communication with their supporters. The intention of advertising is learning and persuasion. The intention of PETA’s shocking and provocative advertisements is to raise awareness of its supporters and to convince them to change behavior by teaching them the violence and torture against animals. Figure 5. Dissection kills (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wpMWxUKsWy4)

Table 6. Dissection kills

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Suggestions for future studies on semiotics analysis of advertisement visuals prepared using elements of violence in activism movements can be listed as follows: An online survey could be conducted to measure the effectiveness of the activist advertising images that are violent enough to disturb people when we encounter them in our daily lives. When advertising banners are seen, what kind of emotions are awakened in the target audience, whether the intended message is given and whether it can be persuaded to change the behavior can be measured. Also, does the message that is intended to be given in semiotic analysis of banners with violent elements (such as denotation, connotation, myth,etc) directly reach people in different culture at the same measure?

CONCLUSION Ads with social contents are used for reasons such as developing a certain form and attitude for the public interest; produce a reaction, activating or inviting supporters. “Each of us can see how exposure to a massive attack of mass media makes people tarnished in a sense of insensitiviness and nausea. An oppressive monologue from every public domain infiltrates our senses and upset our attention” (Chomsky, 1995: p.7). As an information society, we are now consuming information very fast. In order to be memorable in this complexity of information and to be followed by the masses behind you, it is necessary to mobilize the target audience by infiltrating the emotions of them. In this study, three advertisement images were selected and analyzed using the semiotics analysis method. The visual compositions includes dominant violences elements and secondary typographic factors in the designs. It has been observed that visual composition, which contains elements of violence, has effective composition constructions in which aesthetic and irritating images are used aesthetically. The general design approach is that the visual images are dominantly used in the composition and the typographic elements are left in the secondary plan. The texts of the typographic structure and the motto feature are placed in the compositions of the designs by establishing a color relation and providing integrity with the visuals. Despite the use of a vicious language in slogans, the messages were given clearly. In line with the semiotic analysis, violent elements used in the visualization process of the advertising works were evaluated. In this process, an effective and rought narrative language is used in advertisements, and thus, messages are transferred to the target audience without creating communication clutter. In advertising work, the message is usually formed with images that have metaphorical meaning. It was examined in advertising studies, by using images of death, blood, pain and violence special codes are created and the message is given not by denotations but by special sense. It was created with metaphor constructions, where animal’s right to life was taken away from humas due to their consumption ambitions. Advertisements made using violent metaphors such as a naked and bloody human with a bloody sheep to draw attention to the use of wool; fake blood and organs placed in the leather bag to avoid leathe use, and a butcher cow who cuts people to stop meat consumption, aimed to in mind the advertisement with an artistic language. As a result, you can achieve the attention of the public by using aggressive and violence containing language in advertisements. However, this is a fine line, a repulsive and disgusting feeling could be created instead of being aesthetic. It has been observed that PETA achieved this balance

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in its advertisements. A well-prepared advertisement visual, with its striking aspects, can create feelings of fear, compassion, hate, and likes, and create awareness and create the expected behavior change.

REFERENCES Arıkan, B. S. (2013). Otomobil Kültürü Ve Reklam: Otomobil Reklamlarının Göstergebilimsel Analizi (Unpublished Master Thesis). Marmara University. Barthes, R. (1979). Göstergebilim İlkeleri (B. Vardar & M. Rifat, Trans.). Turkey Ministry of Culture. Barthes, R. (1991). Myhtologies. Noonday. Barthes, R. (1997). Göstergebilimsel Serüven (M. Rifat, Trans.). YKY. Barthes, R. (1998). The Pleasure of the Text (R. Miller, Trans.). Hill and Wang. Bekoff, M. (2013). A Universal Declaration on Animal Sentience: No Pretending. Retrieved from: https:// www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/animal-emotions/201306/universal-declaration-animal-sentienceno-pretending Çağlar, B. (2012). Bir İletişim Biçimi Olarak Göstergebilim. LAU Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 3(2), 22–34. Çalı, H. H. (2006). Çevreci Toplumsal Hareket Olarak Greenpeace- Türkiye Hareketi (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Ankara University. Chandler, D. (2007). Semiotics the Basics. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203014936 Chomsky, N. (1995). Medya Denetimi (Ş. Süer, Trans.). Akyüz Yayınları. Coşkun, S. (2012). Reklam Sahnelerinde Mekan Tasarımı Açısından Göstergebilimsel Yaklaşımlar (Unpublished Master Thesis). Hacettepe University. Dağtaş, B. (2003). Reklamı Okumak. Ütopya. De Saussure, F. (2001). Genel Dilbilim Dersleri (B. Vardar, Trans.). Multilingual. Degrazia, D. (2006). Hayvan Hakları (H. Gür, Trans.). Dost Kitabevi. Denli, S. (1997). Göstergebilim Açısından Grafik Gösterge Anlamlarının İncelenmesi (Unpublished Master Thesis). Erzurum Atatürk University. Elden, M. (2003). Reklam Yazarlığı. İletişim. Elden, M. (2009). Reklam ve Reklamcılık. İletişim. Elden, M., Ulukök, Ö., & Yeygel, S. (2005). Şimdi Reklamlar. İletişim. Erdoğan, M. 2014. Turizm Reklamlarında Yaşam Tarzlarının İnşası: Göstergebilimsel Çözümleme (Unpublished Master Thesis). Baskent University. Fiske, J. (2003). İletişim Çalışmalarına Giriş (S. İrvan, Trans.). Bilim ve Sanat.

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Geray, H. (2014). İletişim Alanından Örneklerle Toplumsal Araştırmalarda Nicel ve Nitel Yöntemlere Giriş. Umuttepe. Guiraud, P. (2016). Göstergebilim (M. Yalçın, Trans.). İmge. Hall, S. (2005). Kültür, Medya Ve İdeolojik Etki (M. Küçük, Trans.). Ark Yayınevi. Hall, S. (2017). Temsil Kültürel Temsiller ve Anlamlandırma Uygulamaları (İ. Dündar, Trans.). Pinhan. Karahan, Ç. (2003). Pop-Art’ta “Nesne’nin” Bir Gösterge Olarak Kullanımı (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Dokuz Eylül University. Köktürk Ş., & Eyri, S.(2013). Dilbilim Ve Göstergebilim: Ferdınand De Saussure Ve Göstergebilimi Anlamak. SAÜ Fen Edebiyat Dergisi. Kuldkepp, M. (2015). Hegemony and Liberation in World War I: The Plans for New Mare Nostrum Balticum. Ajalooline Ajakiri (Tartu, Estonia), 3(153), 249–286. Low, P. (2012). The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness. Retrieved from: http://fcmconference. org/img/CambridgeDeclarationOnConsciousness.pdf Mengü, Ç. S. (2004). Televizyon Reklamlarında Kadına Yönelik Oluşturulan Toplumsal Kimlik. İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Yayınları. Moskalenko, S., & McCauley, C. (2009). Measuring Political Mobilization: The Distinction Between Activism and Radicalism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 21(2), 239–260. doi:10.1080/09546550902765508 Ong, J. W. (2007). Sözlü ve Yazılı Kültür (S. Postacıoğlu Banon, Trans.). Metis. Özsöz, C. (2014). Pierre Bourdieu: Simgesel Şiddet, Eğitim, İktidar. Cogito: Pierre Bourdieu, 290 – 311. Parsa, S., & Parsa, A. F. (2004). Göstergebilim Çözümlemeleri. Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi. Raschke, J. (1988). Soziale Bewegungen. Campus. Rifat, M. (1996). Homo Semiotics. YKY. Şimşek, S. (2006). Reklam ve Geleneksel İmgeler. Nüve Kültür Merkezi. Sontag, S. (2011). Fotoğraf Üzerine. O. Akınhay (trans.). Ágora. Temizyürek, F., & Ümran, A. (2014). Çizgi Filmlerdeki Subliminal Mesajların Çocuklar Üzerindeki Etkisi. Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education, 3(33), 25–39. Timisi, N. (1997). Medyada Cinsiyetçilik. Turkish Republic The Prime Minister’s General Directorate of Women Status and Problems Publishes. Williamson, J. (2001). Reklamların Dili / Reklamlarda Anlam ve Ideoloji (A. Fethi, Trans.). Ütopya. Witte, K., & Allen, M. (2000). A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns. Health Education & Behavior, 27(5), 591–615. doi:10.1177/109019810002700506 PMID:11009129

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Yücel, T. (2015). Yapısalcılık. Can Yayınları. https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/animal-emotions/201306/universal-declaration-animalsentience-no-pretending

ADDITIONAL READING Chomsky, N. (2002). Media Control, Second Edition: The Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda. Seven Stories Press. Sontag, S. (2004). Regarding the Pain of Others. Macmillan. Stocks, A. Q. (2018). PETA, Rhetorical Fracture, and the Power of Digital Activism. Public Relations Inquiry, 7(2), 149–170. doi:10.1177/2046147X18770216

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Activism: Activism defined as proceeds in five stages as tension, mobilization, conflict, negotiation, and solution. Activist: The name given to individuals who are involved in transforming these thoughts or views of life into action by legal or illegal ways, either formal or informal, legal or non-legal, approachable or unapproved ways. Advertising: All kinds of ways to promote something to the public and thereby provide its sustainability. Catharsis Emotion: Catharsis, a Greek word, means cleaning and purification. It is the view that the aggression impulses can be reduced by exposing or evacuating aggression. Connotation: A secondary meaning that participates in the denotation of a word during the use. Could not be perceived by everyone. Decoding: The system in which the signifiers are arranged. A total of the accepted rules. Denotation: The true meaning of a word, its literal objective meaning. Metaphor: To describe a concept, use another concept name as a figure of speech. Metonimi: is highlighting of something in order to express the meaning with something else that belongs to it. Myth: The folk tale of mythology, which is an allegorical narrative that traditionally spreads or changes shape with the imagination of the society. PETA: People for Ethical Treatment of Animals is an animal rights organization. The organization, which originates in Norfolk, Virginia and has about two million members and supporters, is the world’s largest animal rights group. Semiotics: Is a field of science based on meaning. In this regard, everything that gives us meaning is the field of semiotics: language, painting, poster, architecture, literature, cinema, theater, traffic signs, alphabet, sign language, deaf - blind alphabets, gestures, gestures, etc. Violence: The degree of movement, strength, intensity, toughness.

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Section 5

Perceptions and Searches for Aesthetics

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Chapter 27

Aesthetics Perceptions of Social Media Generations Aylin Tutgun Ünal Üsküdar University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This chapter aimed to investigate the online value and behavior transfer of generations who use social media with the phenomenon of aestheticization. By examining the social media generations’ preferences, usage habits, the levels of acceptance of differences and the effects of social media use on the work life in the light of researches, generations’ togetherness and differences on the online network are revealed. In social networks, generations can provide power by affecting each other’s moods, and can easily impose violence, aggression, and power factors on others by making fun. When compared to older generations, the fact that young generations prefer social media environments that are with more photo and video sharing makes for them to produce/consume many emotions that have been made usual with aestheticization, especially the information that contains violence. At the end of this chapter, some suggestions are made including family communication and trust model named “5S+1M.”

INTRODUCTION We live in an era surrounded by social media. Social media, which has transformed many ways of doing work in all areas of life, has influenced people of all ages. Today, the effects of social media are discussed along with many economic, technological and social events since social media has taken over the world with its global communication network. Social media can easily be used by individuals of all ages. Now that everyone can access the internet in an easy and inexpensive way, the spread of Web 2.0 technologies has brought interpersonal communication from the real environment to the virtual environment. Thus, people who cannot communicate comfortably in face-to-face communication can be quite social and charismatic online. The effect of communication that the person provides globally through social networks can be quite different and powerful than the real life. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch027

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 Aesthetics Perceptions of Social Media Generations

The effects of digitalization and the transformations it creates are spoken worldwide. Besides the social effects, our communication, value transfer, the ways of doing work and even our behavior have been transformed under the influence of social media when the individual is taken into consideration. Therefore, it is seen that many sociological issues addressed in real life are reconsidered by including the effects of social media in current studies. Digitalization has profoundly influenced research in all fields. One of these areas is communication. The forms of interpersonal communication and value transfer are signs of being a society. Social coexistence is important, and today, societies have taken their place in online networks as virtual societies by changing platforms. Intergenerational value transfer has also been influenced by online platforms and especially social media networks that have emerged with Web 2.0 technologies. Tarhan (2018) divides the values ​​into two as universal and cultural. Accordingly, culture-specific values ​​consist of universal values ​​mixed with various doses. For example, while one culture emphasizes love, another one emphasizes honesty and another diligence. However, in all of these cultures, the social unity of the society is created with bricks built from values. There is a dose difference between the anonymous values ​​of each society and the cultural identity of the society is shaped accordingly. There are people from many cultures in the virtual world just as in the real world. The participatory culture is generally the dominant culture in societies. In such a culture, members believe that their contributions are important and feel that they have established a certain social bond with each other. In this culture, it is very important for people to be accepted in the society and what someone else thinks. The most common example of participatory culture nowadays is social media networks. It is important for people on social media networks to be accepted by others on their networks. Therefore, people try to be accepted with edited contents in photographs, text and video formats. The thoughts, the quantity of “likes” and the comments represent being accepted by the others on the network in social media culture. On the other hand, social media includes people of all ages and this made it necessary to reconsider the concept of generation. Generation studies used to address intergenerational communication and value transfer in the real life. Nowadays, the fact that people behave differently on the online platforms caused the need to update the generation studies by taking into consideration the interactions in the virtual environment. Generations are examined around the world by grouping with certain names. Thus, generations are generally called as the Silent Generation (1927-1945), Baby Boomer (1946-1964), Generation X (1965-1979), Generation Y (1980-1999) and Generation Z (2000 and later). When the literature is examined, there are many studies conducted according to the generation perspective. In these research, by focusing on the value transfer between generations, the work life, school life and communication habits of different age groups were investigated (Akdemir et al., 2013; Alwin & Mccammon, 2007; Biggs, 2007; Ekşili & Antalyalı, 2017; Latif & Serbest, 2014; Özdemir, 2017; Yıldırım & Becerikli, 2013). In fact, in a research, multi-dimensional scales were developed with the aim of understanding generations’ work life, acceptance of differences and social media usage levels (3 scales can be used together or separately) (Deniz & Tutgun-Ünal, 2019a). In order to understand the generations, the use of social media must be investigated and its great impact should not be overlooked. When conducting a research tried to understand the generations who use social media, it is important to consider the conditions of the period as generations differ in adapting to the work life, technology and even life itself. In addition, the fact that the Generation Y being quite different from each other by attending two different types of schools, even if they are members of the same generation, revealed that the subject of the generation should be studied more individually (Ekşili & Antalyalı, 2017).

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Due to the consideration of online values ​​and behaviors in social media networks, Tutgun-Ünal and Deniz (2020a) named the generations as “social media generations” and examined them by grouping according to the worldwide accepted names, as Baby Boomer, X, Y and Z. Since social media is a means of communication which is independent of time and space on a global scale, people from different religions, ethnic groups and different cultures are able to interact with one another. Billions of people from all cultures spread information by sharing content from massive online networks. This information affects other billions of people in the network. It is possible to spread various emotions through social networks by hiding a message under a photo or video. This raises emotional transmission on social networks. Christakis and Fowler (2012) argue that there are three degrees of influence in social networks. To them, emotions spread to three degrees in social networks. Mathematical analysis of the social networks shows that the probability of a person to be happy increases by 15% when a person at one degree away is happy. The impact of happiness is 10% for people from two degrees away who can be friend of a friend, and about 6% for people from three degrees away who can be friend of a friend of a friend. At four degrees away, the effect disappears. Thus, it is seen that as the person expands the network on social media, their power of influence will increase. So much so that a person’s influence on social media will be many times greater than it is in everyday life. This situation indicates the potential of information spread over social media to bear the elements of aestheticized fear, violence and power. Social media are interactive forms of mass media and members can easily spread their feelings to others by sending messages in the social media society. As known; mass media played a preliminary and an important role in reaching the masses by aestheticizing violence. Nowadays, many moods are easily transferred via social media. People on social media have the power to influence each other by sharing. We see in many instances that people from different places, regardless of the distance, use social media networks effectively to create unity in a subject at a speed that would not be possible in daily life. In today’s new media age, social media networks need to be analyzed by dividing online users into generations. Since it is very important to know how value, behavior and aesthetic contents transfer between generations are transformed by digitalization. In this section, it is aimed to discuss the effects of generations’ associations and social media interactions on the values ​​and behaviors of the generations with the research data and aesthetic perspective.

BACKGROUND While the relationship of people with mass media such as newspapers, radio and television has been examined (Pecchioni, Wright & Nussbaum, 2005; Williams, 2001; Williams & Harwood, 2008), the relationship of different generations with computers, the internet, mobile phones and especially social media has been examined with the rapid spread of Web 2.0 technologies, (Asmafiliz & Şalvarcı Türeli, 2018; Dyke, Haynes & Ferguson, 2007; Kuyucu, 2017; Özdemir, 2017; Sağır & Eraslan, 2019; Süer, Sezgin & Oral, 2017). We are going through a period when the violence that exists in our lives spreads to the media. Violence, shaped and changed according to societies and culture, has both physical and symbolic dimension. A while ago, it was discussed as a common element of advertisements but now, it has become a common element of social media by being shaped and aestheticized. With this way, it gains a new aesthetic dimension, and normalized with the images of violence that are now seen as natural and harmless. 545

 Aesthetics Perceptions of Social Media Generations

The increasing problem of violence in the postmodern world needs to be understood how and in what content the symbolic violence is included in the media (Çevikalp, 2020). In this regard, it is important to know which generations share content on social media, and on which social media platforms. Generations have different characteristics and each generation has a tolerance threshold for different information. Understanding social media generations will be successful in finding solutions to problems since aestheticized symbolic violence also has a certain tolerance threshold in social networks. In a postmodern structure, the postmodern violence concept reflects violence as a source of entertainment. Adorno and Horkheimer draws attention to the phenomenon of violence in films in the culture industry and talks about the transformation of the pleasure taken from violence into violence against the audience (Adorno & Horkheimer, 2014: p. 185). In this context, it can be said that the violence -underlying many entertaining content on social media- penetrates especially the child users. Cinema and digital platforms resort to violence to attract attention. Not only children but users of all ages randomly click to contents that attract their attention even if it is not intended to. This increases the spread of violence to a wide audience. With aesthetics, the images of violence that are perceived as natural and more harmless are almost neutralized and normalized (Bauman, 2001). In this context, it shows that people are exposed to fear, violence, anger and power without realizing. According to Çevikalp (2020), violence activates impulses and desires within people and individuals, and sets a negative example for society by disrupting the level of consciousness; meaning that it keeps the society away from peace. Violence exponentially legitimizes its existence through the media. Furthermore, the diffusion of negative content compared to positive is much faster in social media. Since social media sharing has the potential to create unrestlessness and critical emotional impact on people, it is seen that the research is done in the direction of what types of content the generations produce and consume. Tutgun-Ünal and Deniz (2020a) obtained interesting results in a study that measured the “social media generations’ tolerance to differences” in order to understand whether the generations’ sharing affected each other. Accordingly, getting high scores at the work life scale is interpreted as being distant to conventionalism, whereas getting low scores is interpreted as being close to conventionalism in their generation research. As a result of the research, the acceptance of different religious/ethnic structures of the youngest generation who are raised with technology was found low and it was found that technology supports a conventionalist structure rather than modernizing it. When each generation is taken into consideration, the definition is centered at the differences from the generation called Silent Generation or “Conventionalists” (Figure 1). Surprisingly, the fact that the Generation Z, which is located close to the conventional generation, does not tolerate differences in global communication will also determine their online behavior. Here, innovations adapted to life with globalization and opening up to the outside world are described as “modernity”. In this way, it can be said that the online values and behaviors of the generations differ from being conventional to being modern by leading to real life transformations. When the generations that come together in social media platforms in proportion to their preferences are examined, it is seen that older generations use Facebook and spread information in line with their interests. Instagram usage rate of the younger generation is found to be high in social media research conducted in Turkey (Tutgun-Ünal & Deniz, 2020a, 2020b). According to the research, visual content, especially photos (selfies or multiple photos), Generations Y and Z who like sharing videos are found to come together in Instagram environment. YouTube and Instagram usage rate of Zs were found to be close to each other, and the YouTube usage rate is increas546

 Aesthetics Perceptions of Social Media Generations

Figure 1. Intergenerational transition

ing day by day. Considering the Ys, the YouTube usage rate is not as high as the Zs. At this point, it can be said that Ys and Zs are more together in the Instagram environment, but Zs are concentrated in the YouTube environment. Thus, it is possible to talk about the existence of online networks where generations are both concentrated in the same environment and clustered separately. When Generation X and Baby Boomer Generation are considered, it is stated that Baby Boomer Generation uses Facebook in first place. Although Facebook is the most used platform in Generation X, Instagram usage rates are close to Facebook (Tutgun-Ünal & Deniz, 2020a). Accordingly, Instagram can be considered as the intersection point of Generation X with Generation Y. In this intersection zone, Zs and Baby Boomers continue to exist even though the usage rate is low. From this point of view, it can be said that there are certain intersection areas in social media environments and all generations came together in these areas to a certain extent with the flow of information in that direction. It is observed that with the spread of information, Facebook is associated with the Baby Boomer Generation, who is dominant in determining its own natural flow, whereas Ys are more dominant in Instagram and yet creating a mosaic formation is seen with the information spread by Xs and Zs. Thus, it can be concluded that generations that show themselves predominantly in social media platforms at certain rates have a say in being exposed to information that suits for them. When considered as a virtual version of real life, it is clear that online social networks contain separate societies and cultures within themselves. Therefore, the online version of the participatory culture mentioned in real life can be called as social network culture.

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The fact that young generations prefer social media platforms where more visual content is at the forefront shows that they demand more photos and videos with symbolic violence. And the fact that older generations are on Facebook has shown that different age groups demand content on different topics on different platforms. The presence of users in different profiles on many platforms has increased the spread of symbolic violence to content of many interests. Therefore, understanding the social media generations is also necessary to understand the aesthetics of online content.

SOCIAL MEDIA GENERATIONS In previous years, it was stated in the studies of social media users that the internet was mostly used by the young population. Wright (2011) even made a reference to the new growing population, today’s Generation Z, by calling “Net Generation” at the beginning of 2000s. Nowadays, as the intensive use of users of all ages expose to social media networks, research are conducted with separated samples that are not only for young people but for all age groups based on the generation theory (Deniz & TutgunÜnal, 2019a; Tutgun-Ünal & Deniz, 2020a). Due to the consideration of online values and behaviors in social media networks, Tutgun-Ünal and Deniz (2020a) named the generations as “social media generations” which are Baby Boomer, X, Y and Z. With 516 participants, social media preferences and purposes of generations are examined in their research. As a result, it has been revealed that 70,6% of the Generation X, which covers the dates of 1965-1979, follows and likes the current news on social media. The older social media users who are the Baby Boomer Generation born between 1946 and 1964, %56,7 have stated that they liked the content related to the current news on social media. This showed that the generations who are not familiar with technology when they were born are now compatible with the social media era. Especially due to the need to follow current news, the presence of people who are connected to social media on a daily basis reveals that the need to be aware of life globally is now met from social media. Considering younger generations, it was stated in the same research that Generation Y followed a significant amount of news from social media (64.5%), that is, those born between 1980 and 1999 liked the current news. Thus, in today’s world, where social media networks play a heavy role in meeting the needs of getting news from all around the world, especially the posts of citizens who share first-hand contents are seemed to be very valuable. The rate of liking the current news content of the Generation Z, that is, those who born in 2000 and later, were found to be 21,6% and that they like different contents more. In the research, it was revealed that the generation that liked sports content the most was Generation Z which almost half of them follow sports news. Further, news tracking was seen in this generation only with a content difference. In the examinations made for the Generations Y and Z, it was revealed that in the first place, young people use the Instagram application where visual sharing is at the forefront and they like the selfie content more than the older ones. Particularly, multiple photographs are liked by the Generation Y the most, while video/music contents are mostly liked and shared by the Generation Z (84.4%). Thus, there is a connection between the most used social media application and the most liked content types. On the other hand, it is stated that the Generation X and Baby Boomers use Facebook in the first place and like current news and educational content the most. Further, the Facebook usage rate of younger generations is at 10%. The gap between these generations shows that the platforms on which the posts are shared have a specific-mass in themselves and that people of all ages are not on the same platforms 548

 Aesthetics Perceptions of Social Media Generations

Table 1. Likes of generations on social media content (Tutgun-Ünal & Deniz, 2020a) Social Media Contents

Baby Boomer n

X %

n

Y %

n

Z %

n

%

Multiple Photos

8

26,7

12

35,3

93

50,8

95

35,3

Education

14

46,7

21

61,8

116

63,4

80

29,7

Handcraft

4

13,3

11

32,4

53

29

71

26,4

Current News

17

56,7

24

70,6

118

64,5

58

21,6

Motto

7

23,3

9

26,5

43

23,5

89

33,1

Selfie

3

10

6

17,6

66

36,1

103

38,3

Video/Music

13

43,3

19

55,9

133

72,7

227

84,4

Politics

12

40

15

44,1

44

24

10

3,7

Animals

8

26,7

6

17,6

53

29

78

29

Sports

6

20

8

23,5

69

37,7

133

49,4

Recipes

7

23,3

12

35,3

58

31,7

47

17,5

Advertisements

-

-

5

14,7

33

18

10

3,7

in the same proportions. Thus it is clear that there are often links between which age group or which communities they are associated with and the types of shared content. With the increased interest in social media networks and the addition of people from different ages, regions and cultures to the networks day by day, these differences become widespread by leading to a change in social media preferences. For example, Facebook has a specific user group in itself where they share similar content on the network, and this causes another group to prefer Instagram, which is another social media application, by liking the content there. Therefore, it is seen that researchers concentrate on the users in the context of their social media preferences and online habits. On the other hand, with the emergence of new social media applications day by day, it is seen in many examples that the demand for the previous one may decrease over time. As in the example of Instagram, while young people prefer Facebook in the first place earlier, they focus on Instagram now. In fact, it is reported that the Generation Z’s usage of YouTube is becoming closer to Instagram. Besides, according to Tutgun-Ünal and Deniz (2020a), Generation Z is the generation with the most video sharing and liking. According to Çevikalp (2020), violence always appears in the arts of painting, photography and digital platforms; and today, the most important socialization tools are digital platforms. The social media buyers of the violence, which can be servable especially through aestheticized films, will likely to be the younger generations who follow the video contents more. Social media networks have users from many different cultural, religious and ethnical backgrounds that spread information around the world. In addition to social media usage habits, it is important to know the degree of acceptance of these different cultures by the generations. However, intergenerational communication will also be in question. Without tolerance to differences, it will be inevitable for violence and showing force to spread in social media networks.

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The Diffusion of Differences on Social Media With new communication networks, cultural flows take place rapidly through moving/still images and symbols. The most prominent example of this is social media networks, which are known for their popularity today, enabling different cultures to be encountered and viewed side by side. However, the consumption frenzy, considered one of the biggest concerns of today, has changed platforms with online environments such as social media by turning into a different form. It is stated that societies that attach great importance to consumption are made up of people uniting around their own interests. This triggers selfishness which is in human’s nature (Tarhan, 2018: p.23). Today, it is seen that the rapid social change caused by the effects of many factors such as technology, economy and social events also creates an intense interaction between cultures and affects all generations by spreading globally through online networks. The fact that social networks enable communication on a global scale has provided the ground for the formation of mosaic structures around the world by providing an environment to interact with people of different cultures, beliefs, physical appearances and values. Thus, it has been wondered how the mosaic structures created online will reflect on the society in the real daily life and how it will affect the communication and behavior styles in various fields. In this context, Deniz and Tutgun-Ünal (2019b) examined the acceptance levels of differences of social media generations in their study. For this purpose, the “Acceptance of Diversity Scale (ADS)” was developed and it consists of 9 items and 3 dimensions. These dimensions are; a) Accepting different religious/ethnical structures, b) Accepting different physical appearances and c) Accepting different thoughts/values (Figure 2). By applying the scale to the generations using social media, the tolerance level of the generations can be determined, and the effect of social media can be explained. Figure 2. Description of differences

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In the generation research conducted with 516 people, it was investigated whether the social media usage of generations affected tolerance to differences (Deniz & Tutgun-Ünal, 2019b). The acceptance levels of differences of Baby Boomer, X, Y and Z generations were found to be medium. In the intergenerational comparison, Generation Z is found to have the lowest tolerance to differences. Generation Z is the youngest generation and they are called “those born with technology”. Although they are intertwined with social media, which may suggest that they are closer to modernity, and yet it turns out that they appear to be conventionalists. Accordingly, they stated that they do not want different religious/ ethnic structures around themselves and they do not want to make friends or to cooperate with them in homework/projects. When the other results are examined in the generation research, Generation Y was found to have the highest acceptance level for different physical appearances. Acceptance level of different physical appearances of Baby Boomers and Generation Z was significantly lower than Generation Y. Furthermore, Generation Z has a low tolerance to physical appearances and this makes them to be similar to the oldest generation, Baby Boomers that are called “conventionalists”. Thus, it was revealed that the youngest generation evolved into the oldest generation, by becoming conventionalists. Generation Y is called the generation where differences are felt most prominently (Ekşili & Antalyalı, 2017; Kelgökmen İlic & Yalçın, 2017). When the characteristics of Generation Y are examined, it is stated that their self-value is high and have a tendency to form unity with a sense of belonging to people from different sections, thoughts or physical appearances. According to researches, if Generation Y receives support from their families, they show more self-defensive behavior with an increased self-confidence. Accordingly, the acceptance of people with different physical appearance (people who may wear piercings and have tattoos on their body) is at a high level and this result complies with other research in the literature. There was no significant difference between generations in terms of accepting different thoughts and values. Thus, it has been determined that all generations accept different views and values moderately. However, it was revealed in the examination made for gender that women showed more tolerance to differences in all dimensions compared to men. So it can be said that women accept different views and thoughts, physical appearances, religious and ethnical structures more than men. This result provides a clue about the communication between men and women and tolerance levels in both the real and online world. In the generation study, in which the effects of social media are also questioned, it was revealed that those who use more social media are more tolerant to differences. Accordingly, it was found that those who use social media for 4 hours or more per day have higher levels of acceptance for different physical appearances than those who use social media less. The use of social media affects the generations’ perception towards the differences around them. Those who use social media less than 1 hour a day do not tolerate differences, while those who use for 4 hours or more show a more normalizing attitude. In the analysis made on a yearly basis, the acceptance level of those who use social media for a long time was found to be high. Those with high social media usage time of normalize different religious/ ethnic structures, different appearances and different thoughts/values. This situation can lead to positive results in showing consideration and tolerance between generations. The fact that the generations with low social media usage time do not want to see the differences around them creates the potential to cause violence with lack of tolerance. As a result, considering that the generations who use social media provide global communication online, it can be said that they have a positive attitude towards cultural diversities worldwide and develop 551

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tolerance. Generation Z, which is said to be born with technology, should not be exempted from this result since they do not display an attitude that accepts differences yet. Generation Z both take part in social media and do not tolerate differences. This situation may cause to show an incompatible structure in their social media communications. However, this situation needs to be addressed separately.

The Threshold of Tolerance of Generation Z Understanding a society requires understanding values since it is the guiding element that forms the basis of the generations and social norms which build the society. Values and behaviors are changing with factors such as beliefs, personal characteristics, family life and socialization experiences. There are people with different attitudes and values in the social environment in which the person resides, in the school he/she studies or in the workplace where he/she works. Each individual has unique values and reacts against an event in line with these values (Tarhan 2018). First of all, the environment in which an individual is born and raised is different. When social events, economic and technological changes occur in a certain time period of individuals’ life, the individual becomes distinguished from other individuals. When we generalize this situation from the environment of the individual to the society and even to the world, it is inevitable that the value transfer is enormous and complex with the existence of online platforms such as social media which will ensure that people of different cultures live together all over the world. Today, the use of social media and the quantity of information spreading from these networks have reached to huge dimensions by influencing the entire world. In fact, research on social media addiction is highly demanded by experts from almost every field. (Andreassen, 2012; Hazar, 2011; Kuss & Griffiths, 2011; Tutgun-Ünal, 2015, 2020a, 2020b; Wilson, Fornasier & White, 2010). In social media addiction research, especially young people are reported to be at risk (Andreaseen, 2012; Hazar, 2011; Kuss & Griffiths, 2011; Tutgun-Ünal, 2015; Uzun et al., 2016). It is seen that the research are carried out especially with the university students belonging to the Generation Y and with the younger age group, Generation Z. Social media addiction is important because it causes a mental and emotional engagement with social media and hinder the educational life of children in school. The tolerance threshold of the people is important since we can communicate if we tolerate differences. In the study conducted by Deniz and Tutgun-Ünal (2019b) with 516 participants, the tolerance level of a sufficient number of social media users from all generations was determined. The lowest tolerance threshold was found at Generation Z in the study where differences were considered in three dimensions as “accepting different religious/ethnic structures”, “accepting physical appearances” and “accepting different thoughts/values”. Generation Z has a conservative attitude that is seen in conventionalist structures towards different cultures and it is important to reveal the underlying reasons of this situation especially today, where modernity comes with globalization. The “Acceptance of Differences Scale” developed by Deniz and Tutgun-Ünal (2019a) includes the acceptance of individuals with different religious/ethnical structures, different physical appearances, thoughts and life values, and their prejudices about these groups. If the person does not accept people with these differences both in real life and digital environment, it will be difficult to tolerate. In this case, the possibility of resorting to lynching, violence or power shows will increase. The fact that the communication provided in the social media environment is in a global dimension and containing diversity also increases the size of the danger.

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Generation Z which is a generation that is raised with technology, show a lot of variety in social media networks despite its conventional attitude. It will be inevitable for Zs to either remain vulnerable or overreacted to unlimited spreading information from online networks with such a huge variety. On the other hand, those who with low tolerance will be negatively affected by the messages underlying the content spread by countless users from different cultures and religions around the world. Those who tend to develop tolerance will be expected to transform their value system by stretching the conventional structure. When the Generation Z is mentioned, it is difficult to put forward the clear value system since they are still with their families and by being under their responsibility. In the years to come, it can be thought that their own value judgments will be formed with parameters such as studying, marrying or going out of the house outside the province. Therefore, researches conducted with Zs should be followed up in the following years. Despite Zs, Generation Y is defined as the “generation where differences are felt most clearly” also shows itself in online behavior. It is observed that Ys, who can easily express their thoughts thanks to social media networks which provide a comfortable platform for self-confidence, are more active in showing themselves and feel more free in spreading information compared to other generations.

Generations in Work Life We are exposed to the effects of different peoples in almost every area of ​​our lives. In areas such as family, work, and private life, we communicate with ourselves and others, and it is very important to keep communication healthy to maintain social balance. It is also observed that the studies focus on intergenerational communication in workplace environments consisting of various age groups (Berkup, 2014; Çetin Aydın & Başol, 2014; Erdal, 2018; Latif & Serbest, 2014; Macky, Gardner & Forsthy, 2008; Martin & Tulgan, 2002; Toruntay, 2011; Yiğit, 2010). In a study, it is stated that a significant part of the problems in workplaces are caused by intergenerational perception, method, application and communication differences (Latif & Serbest, 2014). Martin and Tulgan (2002) emphasize that the Generations X and Y working in the same organization may have communicative problems and that the management of the organization should help employees to overcome these problems. From this point of view, it is stated that in order for these two generations to communicate, they should engage in informal activities outside working hours. Thus, coexistence is important and necessary for the value transfer from generation to generation in order for a society to survive. Nowadays, in addition to face-to-face social communication, social media effects have been added to research in many fields since the coexistence in online networks is quite popular. It is seen that social media is integrated into research in the topic of work life, where comparisons are made between working generations. In the social media use research conducted by Tutgun-Ünal and Deniz (2020b), it was found that all generations use social media at a medium level. Therefore, it is seen that all generations use social media at an intermediate level both in work life and in other areas of life. In work life, doing business with people of all ages and different age groups, cultures and values ​​is a process that should be managed very well. Today, social media is also involved in this process and it can be said that it affects this process very strongly as a system providing global information exchange. Starting from this situation, Deniz and Tutgun-Ünal (2019a) developed a 5-point Likert-type “Work Life Scale” consisting of 8 items to understand the point of view of the generations towards work life. In 553

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Figure 3. The determinants of work life

the research, which consisted of 516 people, they applied the scale to all generations and examined the effects of social media on the work life. The Work Life Scale measures two dimensions called “Giving Importance to Work” and “Obeying the Rules”. While giving importance to work sub-scale includes the importance that the person gives into his/her the work life and job, the effort to be permanent in the workplace where he/she works and his/her dedication to the workplace where he/she works; obeying the rules sub-scale includes the orientation or preference of the working environment to be disciplined and regular. All items (1st to 5th) in the WLS’s “Giving Importance to Work” sub-scale in the Giving Importance to Work sub-scale should be scored in reverse. The high score obtained from the sub-scale shows that they are impatient to rise in work, that the work is not an important part of their life. 7th and 8th items in the Obeying the Rules sub-scale should be scored in reverse. The high score obtained from the sub-scale shows that a disciplined work with clear rules is not preferred. (Tutgun-Ünal & Deniz, 2020b). The fact that the scores obtained from the WLS are high means that the work life is moving away from the conventional values, while the low score indicates that being close to the conventionalist attitude in the work life. The closeness to conventional values ​​is explained by the adoption of working hours and rules in work life. Those who adopt this situation are expected to work for many years at the same workplace and have a high job loyalty. It is thought that those who do not have these attitudes can easily change jobs when they find a job in better conditions, and they do not like clear working hours, rules and authority. This is explained by being far from conventional values. Accordingly, the results of research conducted by applying WLS to all generations in Turkey, all generations are appear to be “close to conventional values of in the work life. When the WLS and sub-

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scale scores of the generations are examined, it is noteworthy that the average score of Generation Z is the lowest, especially in terms of obeying the rules. In this context, it has been revealed that the Generation Z, who is not yet in the work life, has a conventional attitude towards obeying the rules, that is, adopting a workplace with certain working hours and rules. This was reflected in the total of the WLS, and Generation Z is the nearest to the conventional values. Since Generation Z does not work yet, it was a matter of curiosity what will their attitude towards the work life be like. It was stated that this generation, which was born with technology, will display features like being impatient, distracted and high tendency to develop technology addiction in the work life whereas the results of this research showed the opposite when they were asked. The result of this research should be evaluated as a guess for Generation Z, who has not yet join the work life, and it should be taken into consideration that they can change when they are in the work life. More precise results will emerge in the future, when determinative studies are carried out by observing their behaviors about giving importance to work and especially obeying the rules. In the gender-based comparison, it was found that the work life values ​​of women were near to the conventional values ​​and made a significant difference compared to men in the total of WLS. It was revealed in the sub-scale of obeying the rules that women are more conventional than men and adopt the rules. There was no difference in gender in terms of giving importance to work. In giving importance to work, the scores of women and men are near to each other and it is concluded that they are neither near nor far from the conventional values, that is, they have a medium level of job loyalty. On the other hand, there are also studies that offer different perspectives about women. In a study, it is suggested that female workers place more emphasis on family life and home-related duties and roles than male workers, causing organizational careers and values to remain secondary (Varlı, 2014: p.24). In another study of managers, male managers were found to have significantly more organizational commitment than female managers (Aka, 2017). In this case, it can be thought that the responsibilities and compliance with the rules of being a manager may make a difference. However, some studies in the literature emphasize that female workers show more organizational commitment than men (Angle & Perry, 1981; Hrebiniak & Alutto, 1972). In the study of Tutgun-Ünal and Deniz (2020b), in order to question whether work values are affected by the use of social media, the daily social media usage of the generations and WLS scores were compared. Accordingly, it has been revealed that those who use social media less than 1 hour a day are near to conventional values in the work life and adopt the rules. In the research, social media use for 4 hours a day was determined as a breaking point for finding whether social media use affects the work life values or not. Thus, it was revealed that the individual, whose usage of social media is for 4 hours or more per day, moves away from conventional values in the work life. As a result of the research, it has been revealed that the work life values differ among generations and accordingly they have different behaviors and attitudes in the context of giving importance to work and obeying the rules. It was concluded that the increase in the use of social media due to the effect of digitalization also affected the work life values. It is noteworthy that the generations with low daily social media usage adopt conventional values. The difference that the Generation X makes in giving importance to the work among working generations has shown that they will make their choice in this direction when they find a job under better conditions. This situation has revealed that they are distant from conventional values, and give importance to work conditions instead of job loyalty. According to the results of this research, it has been found that those who use social media are far from conventional values in the work life. Thus, the rate of demanding digital content of the generations 555

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who are in the work life and who have high daily social media usage will likely to be high. In this case, it can be concluded that aestheticized digital contents are functional in diverging from conventional values.

YouTubers, Children and Family The youngest generations mostly prefer the YouTube platform worldwide. For example, YouTube in Sweden is the most popular website by the Generation Z between the ages of 9-18 (Swedish Media Council, 2017), and 81% of children who are 8-11 years old are reported to use this video sharing website in the UK (Ofcom, 2017). Tutgun-Ünal & Deniz (2020a) ranks the generations in their research in Turkey and the results showed that those participants who indicate using YouTube is found to be the Generation Z in the first place. According to this, while the use of Instagram is the first in the Generation Y, the ratio of those who use Instagram (45%) and YouTube (37%) applications in the first place in the Generation Z are close. In addition, according to the research conducted by Özdemir (2017) with 400 participants in Istanbul, the new media usage habits of X, Y and Z generations differ and Generation Z use the new media the most. As a video sharing platform, YouTube, which is one of the many interacting applications of the new media, has become the home of Generation Z and phenomena because it appeals to the people those who born with technology. In a study that states that children prefer watching YouTubers when they go online, Martinez and Olsson (2018) investigated how children make sense of Youtubers and their role in the daily routine. In the research conducted by group interviews and observations with Swedish children between the ages of 9-12, how the children constructed a notion about a YouTuber that they follow and their comments were examined. As a result of the research, it was found that the YouTubers played a role in identity building and the phenomenon followed was important in determining who the person was. While the use of YouTube and the effects of Youtubers on children are so nush, there is lack in number of studies in the literature. Accordingly, some research conducted with YouTubers focused on how they structure their relationships with themselves and their audience (Berryman & Kavka, 2017; Lovelock, 2017; Ramos-Serrano & Herrero-Diz, 2016). Children’s peer cultures are important areas for placing, negotiating, and making sense of mediated symbolic materials such as YouTubers, and this is also an important part of the identity building of children in their peer group (Corsaro, 2015; Thompson, 1995). YouTuber is defined as a person who has reached a certain number of followers and a moderatelyknown person in the computer (virtual) environment (Driessens, 2016). This concept has become very important with the intense demand of the YouTube platform’s younger generation and especially the children. Because, as stated in the researches, the videos prepared by YouTubers affect the identity building of children. There are many emotions in the infrastructure of videos edited by those users who share on YouTube. Exposing children to emotions such as violence, fear and narcissism that are spread with aestheticized and tailored images can pose a danger both in terms of psychological and personality development. The most obvious example of this is children who watch videos of games or game reviews and then who commit suicide. Underneath the attraction of the game, there are emotions such as violence, fear, aggression and anger and these emotions are spreading from one child to another through social media which leads to a increase in the size of the danger.

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On the other hand, it is known that emotions have the power to spread in online networks, and especially negative emotions spread more rapidly and widely (Christakis and Fowler, 2012). This situation points to the big problems caused by the videos that leave the children under the influence of the YouTube videos which contain negative emotions that are frequently used by the Generation Z. Tarhan (2020a) defines the family as the cornerstone of society and emphasizes the need for families to receive awareness training by experts since only a family with awareness will be able to emotionally nurture their children and provide them with a peaceful habitat. Moreover, according to Prof. Dr. Nevzat Tarhan, conventional families used to have the function of protecting new marriages and older family members such as aunts and grandparents were considered to be in the family as well. This was causing fewer mistakes to be made. He further states that in the nuclear family model, which has become widespread nowadays, social support is decreasing and couples find it difficult to resolve their disagreements when they quarrel and leave each other because they cannot establish a good relationship even if there is love. Considering that YouTubers have large audiences, it is obvious that the videos they will share from their channels will reach online communities consisting of many users. Thus, it can be said that the phenomena have the potential power to manage the community. Since children are vulnerable users, the importance of family control in the usage of YouTube comes into play here. By stating that the family is an institution that needs to be empowered, Prof. Nevzat Tarhan says that this is essential for empowering the society, as well. Accordingly, one of the most important causes of domestic violence is the weakening of family ties and healthy children cannot be raised in the environment where the family is dispersed. Tarhan indicates that there is an increase in the divorce rate in Turkey, according to the Turkey Statistical Institute data. In the first 5 years of marriage, the divorce rate is at 39%. in 2017. This rate varies between 50% and 60% in the world. Those who marry get divorced in the first 5 years of their marriage. After 5-10 years, this is thought to be out of control. This is a security problem and definitely needs to be emphasized as a state policy. On the other hand, the disease of modernism is stated as narcissism. Narcissism harms the marriage institution and pushes individuals into loneliness. In the conducted studies, higher loneliness has been seen among young people compared to older people. While the rate was 27% in the elderly; it was 40% in the youth and it is stated that the young people do not want to get married anymore (Tarhan, 2020a). Social media, especially YouTube videos, are watched by children to enjoy themselves. The child clicks on the video according to the visual mobility and immersiveness without knowing what the video content is and enjoys it as long as he/she watches it. YouTubers come into play right here. In this context, YouTubers are trying to gather followers and video clicks/views and prepare their videos for this purpose. It is important for them to gain viewings towards children and due to this; they deliberately edit the videos in an immersive way that will allow children to break away from the real world. Tarhan (2020c) states that pleasure, happiness and peace are separate concepts. Accordingly, pursuit of pleasure is thought to be happiness, and in order to be at peace, each work must be meaningful. At this point, YouTube videos that do not have any meaning and break the records of clicking come into play. These kinds of videos help contributing children not to search for meaning and do not have peace. Psychiatrist Prof. Dr. Nevzat Tarhan states that lack of peace causes behavioral disorders in the child and in order to ensure peace, trust, and communication, not lying, positive goals and consistency are required in the family environment where children are raised.

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SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Families have a role in providing security to children who are heavily interested in YouTube videos and phenomena and build their identity with the influence of YouTubers. For this, healthy family structures are needed. Moving from this point, as Tarhan stated, in developed countries, when there is a the problematic family, before reaching to the divorce point family members are taken to the camps at the weekends and in these programs, in which children also participate, activities are carried out on subjects such as communication, stress management and problem solving skills. Similar activities should be carried out in all countries. Also, considering that children are at school age, it may be preventive to empowering school systems to work on social media addiction and conscious use, and to include families by contributing municipalities in these studies. If the child, education system and families cooperate, it will be effective in the solution of the problem. According to Tarhan (2020b), for the development of a child, his/her emotional and social brain must develop as well as his mathematical brain. When children who spend a lot of time on YouTube are not involved in the real-life routines, their emotional and social development will be incomplete, which will cause problems. In order to be a healthy individual, the child has to go through psychosocial development stages and has the skills to be acquired at each stage. Erik Erikson, a psychologist working in developmental psychology and psychoanalysis, argues that human beings go through 8 different phases from birth to death. It is important for the child’s parents and educators to know these phases, which are important for children to make sense of their environment and their behavior. These stages, called psychosocial development stages, have goals to be completed in each period in order for people to be developed with a healthy mood. These phases are; 1) Insecurity towards basic trust (0-1.5 years), 2) Shame and suspicion (1-3 years) against independence, 3) Guilt against entrepreneurship (3-5 years old), 4) Feelings of inferiority against productivity (5-11 years), 5) Identity confusion in the face of identity acquisition (12-19 years), 6) Isolation against intimacy (20-30 years), 7) Stagnation against generativity (30-60 years), 8) Despair against self-integrity (over 60 years old). In each of these phases, it is important to successfully overcome the conflicts experienced by the individual (Erikson, 1998). In this context, it is important for both parents and teachers to know these phases and develop appropriate behaviors. In particular, parents need to know by knowing the goals that their children should achieve in the relevant period so that their forward-looking psychosocial development can be healthy. In order for the psychosocial development stages of children to take place in a healthy way, the feeling of trust should be supported by families at all ages. This can be achieved by making families aware of these stages. Controlling social media actions in children can also be achieved through emotional and social satisfaction. Because, instead of the pleasure that the child will get from social media, the child will have to choose the trust that his/her family will provide. In this context, the development of a sense of trust in children can be preventive against harmful content circulating in the virtual world. According to Tarhan (2020c), 5S+1M is needed to develop a sense of trust: Love (Sevgi), Respect (Saygı), Patience (Sabır), Loyalty (Sadakat), Intimacy (Samimiyet), Spirituality (Maneviyat). On the other hand, there is a pyramid of needs in humans. In the lower steps of this pyramid, there are eating, sheltering and breeding. The most important need that comes after these basic needs is the sense of security, and this also raises the need for attachment. In this respect, it also means that people always appear in an identity; identify themselves through these mechanisms roots from the need for commitment. (Tarhan, 2019: p.102). 558

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Figure 4. Tarhan’s Model of Trust (5S+1M)

When the need for attachment in children has not been met by their families, the child will be in a search for identity. At this point, the child will take on the role of the hero he watches and build his identity accordingly, if there are temptations such as the phenomenon, cartoon character, and YouTuber. Research investigating the effect of YouTubers on children also emphasizes identity building (Corsaro, 2015; Martinez and Olsson, 2018; Thompson, 1995). Here, it is seen that the family’s trust (love, respect, patience, loyalty) and attachment to the child are of vital importance. According to Tarhan (2018), technology is an addiction brought by civilization and modernism tries to keep them together, especially by connecting people to something. Technology addiction types such as social media addiction, technology addiction, and smartphone addiction that emerge today make individuals who spend intense time in these areas lonely and become isolated from the environment. As a result; Model of trust starts in the family and if it spreads to the environment, a stronger stance can be imposed to cope with the problems of the era. However, with a strong family foundation, the emotional and social needs of children towards YouTubers can decrease and protective measures can be taken against the negative effects of identity building.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Since the past, the subject of intergenerational conflict has been dealt with in the fields of sociology, psychology and pedagogy, by revealing intergenerational communication differences in the studies (Ayçiçek, 1994; Mannheim, 1952: p.163; Sarıtaş & Barutçu, 2016). With the generation theory that explains that the people born between 1980 and 1999, which are now called the Generation Y, are showing different characteristics than the other generations. This required specific studies to be carried out for this generation, and then with these studies, it will be possible to strengthen communication among generations by developing understanding and raising awareness. On the other hand, there is a study stating that the differences in the characteristics specified for Generation Y arise from socio-economic and cultural conditions in different countries and these differences can even be observed from school to school. Accordingly, Turkey may not even contain only one type of Generation Y. Characteristics such as cultural, economic, and level of education can make variations in the profile of Generation Y (Ekşili & Antalyalı, 2017). Supporting this view, Bayramoğlu and Şahin (2017) stated that the Turkish Generation Y, born in 1981 and later, has different expectations compared to Generation Ys in other countries. In line with this study, it is seen that the Generation Y’ birth year intervals may differ in some studies. Therefore, the need to address individual differences has emerged instead of intergenerational differences. In future researches, especially generation Y and Z needs to be examined within the scope of more specific groups.

CONCLUSION Nowadays, the position of an individual in society is coming to the agenda with his/her position in social networks. Social networks’ recognition of global communication feature has provided the ground for the formation of mosaic structures around the world by providing an environment for the interaction with people of different cultures, beliefs, physical appearances and values ​​at one end of the world. Thus, it has been wondered how the mosaic structures created online will reflect on the society in the daily real life and how it will affect the communication and behavior styles in various fields. In the study carried out by Deniz and Tutgun-Ünal (2019b) with the acceptance scale, acceptance level of differences of the generations coexisting on social media was examined. It has been investigated how users in global online networks are exposed to worldwide massive information and how transfer of value and behavior is affected. Accordingly, those with longer social media usage normalize different religious/ethnic structures, different physical appearances and different opinions/values. This can lead to positive results in showing tolerance and understanding between generations. The fact that the generations with low social media usage time do not want to see the differences around them creates the potential to cause violence by making it difficult for them to tolerate. Social media networks have users from many different cultures and religious/ethnic backgrounds that spread information around the world. In addition to social media usage habits, it is important to know the level of acceptance of these different cultures by generations. However, intergenerational communication will also be in question. Without tolerance to differences, it will be inevitable for violence and showing force to spread from social media.

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On the other hand, the fact that the usage of YouTube as a platform for sharing video content is spreading around the world and especially children demanding this content raises the problem of trust. The fact that YouTube videos that aim to break a record of clicks and are being made attractive and served for children increases the size of the danger. In addition, the fact that consciously prepared videos containing emotions such as violence, anger and fear are circulated in online networks, requires the families, educators and even management policies of administrators to come into effect. As a result, it is clear that the “Tarhan’s Model of Trust (5S+1M)” that will be created with love, respect, patience, loyalty, intimacy and spirituality in the society will play a healing role in the negative effects of social networks arising from digitalization. Firstly families, who are one of the cornerstones of the society, and then the leaders of the communities, have a great job in creating this trusting environment. Raising a healthy child and bringing it into society will only be possible in the family environment where strong communication and bonding are created. When dealing with the attractive contents which include negative emotions at the social media networks, awareness will be functional with the help of families, schools, and society at the macro level and with individuals and at the micro level.

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Hazar, M. (2011). Sosyal Medya Bağımlılığı: Bir Alan Çalışması [Social media dependency-filed survey]. Journal of Communication Theory & Research, 32, 151–175. Hrebiniak, L. G., & Alutto, J. A. (1972). Personal and Role-Related Factors in the Development of Organizational Commitment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17(4), 572–573. doi:10.2307/2393833 Kelgökmen İlic, D., & Yalçın, B. (2017). Y Jenerasyonunun Farklılaşan Iş Değerleri Ve Liderlik Algılamaları [Differentiated job values and leadership perceptions of gen Y]. Journal of Yaşar University, 12(46), 136–160. Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Addiction to Social Networks on the Internet: A Literature Review of Empirical Research. International Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 8, 3528–3552. doi:10.3390/ijerph8093528 Kuyucu, M. (2017). Y Kuşağı Ve Teknoloji: Y Kuşağının Iletişim Teknolojilerini Kullanım Alışkanlıkları [Y generation and technology: The use of communication technologies in Y generation]. Gümüşhane University E-Journal of Faculty of Communication, 5(2), 845–872. Latif, H., & Serbest, S. (2014). Türkiye’de 2000 Kuşağı ve 2000 Kuşağının Iş ve Çalışma Anlayışı [Generation 2000 in Turkey and generation 2000’s business and working concepts]. Journal of Youth Research, 2(4), 132–163. Lovelock, M. (2017). ‘Is every YouTuber going to make a coming out video eventually?’: YouTube Celebrity Video Bloggers and Lesbian and Gay Identity. Celebrity Studies, 8(1), 87–103. doi:10.1080/ 19392397.2016.1214608 Macky, K., Gardner, D., & Forsthy, S. (2008). Generational Differences at Work: Introduction and Overview. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(8), 857–861. doi:10.1108/02683940810904358 Mannheim, K. (1952). Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/essaysonsociolog00mann Martin, C. A., & Tulgan, B. (2002). Managing the Generation Mix: From Collision to Collaboration. Human Resource Development Press. Martínez, C. & Olsson, T. (2019). Making Sense of YouTubers: How Swedish Children Construct and Negotiate the YouTuber Misslisibell as a Girl Celebrity. Journal of Children and Media, 13(1), 36-52. Doi:10.1080/17482798.2018.1517656 Morsümbül, Ş. (2014). Kültürel Değerlerin Üç Kuşak Arasındaki Değişimi Üzerine Bir İnceleme: Ankara Örneği [Value change across generations: Ankara sample]. Hacettepe University Institute of Turkish Studies, 21, 137–160. Ofcom. (2017). Children and parents: Media Use and Attitudes Report. Retrieved from: https://www. ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/108182/children-parents-media-use-attitudes-2017.pdf Özdemir, Ş. (2017). Kuşaklar Teorisine Göre Türkiye’deki Gençlerin Medya Kullanım Alışkanlıkları Ve İstanbul Örneği [According to the theory of generations, media usage habits of the youngs in Turkey and İstanbul, as an example] (Master Thesis). Marmara University, Institute of Social Science, İstanbul, Turkey.

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Pecchioni, L. L., Wright, K. B., & Nussbaum, J. F. (2005). Life Span Communication. LEA. Ramos-Serrano, M., & Herrero-Diz, P. (2016). Unboxing and Brands: YouTubers Phenomenon Through the Case Study of Evantubehd. Prisma Social, 1, 91–120. Sağır, A., & Eraslan, H. (2019). Akıllı Telefonların Gençlerin Gündelik Hayatlarına Etkisi: Türkiye’de Üniversite Gençliği Örneği [The impact of smart phones on young people’s daily life: Example of University Youth in Turkey]. OPUS–International Journal of Society Research, 10(17), 48–78. doi:10.26466/ opus.515339 Sarıtaş, E., & Barutçu, S. (2016). Tüketici davranışlarının analizinde kuşaklar: Sosyal medya kullanımı üzerinde bir araştırma [Generations in analysis of costumer behaviors: A study on social media using]. Pamukkale Journal of Eurasian SocioEconomic Studies, 3(2), 1–15. Süer, S., Sezgin, K., & Oral, B. (2017). Z Kuşağındaki Öğrencilerin Internete Ilişkin Algılarının Belirlenmesi: Bir Metafor Çalışması [Generation Z students’ perceptions of internet: A metaphor study]. Electronic Journal of Education Sciences, 6(12), 190–203. Swedish Media Council. (2017). Ungar & medier 2017 [Kids & media]. Retrieved from: https://statensmedierad.se/download/18.7b0391dc15c38ffbccd9a238/1496243409783/Ungar+och+medier+2017.pdf Tarhan, N. (2018). Değerler Psikolojisi ve İnsan. Timaş Publishing. Tarhan, N. (2019). Bilinçli Aile Olmak: Ailede Fırsat Eğitimi. Timaş Publishing. Tarhan, N. (2020a). Güçlü bir toplum için aile güçlendirilmeli. Retrieved from: https://www.nevzattarhan. com/prof-dr-nevzat-tarhan-guclu-bir-toplum-icin-aileguclendi rilmeli.html Tarhan, N. (2020b). Atakan’ın Sosyal ve Duygusal Beyni De Geliştirilmeli. Değerlendirmesi. Retrieved from: https://www.nevzattarhan.com/prof-dr-nevzat-tarhanin-atakanin-sosyal-ve-duygusal-beyni-degelismeli-degerlendirmesi.html Tarhan, N. (2020c). Haz, Mutluluk ve Huzur Ayrı Kavramlar. Retrieved from: https://www.nevzattarhan. com/prof-dr-nevzat-tarhan-haz-mutluluk-ve-huzur-ayrikavra mlar.html Thompson, J. B. (1995). The Media and Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media. Stanford University Press. Toruntay, H. (2011). Takım Rolleri Çalışması: X Ve Y Kuşağı Üzerinde Karşılaştırmalı Bir Araştırma (Unpublished Master Thesis). İstanbul University, İstanbul, Turkey. Tutgun-Ünal, A. (2015). Sosyal Medya Bağımlılığı: Üniversite Öğrencileri Üzerine Bir Araştırma [Social media addiction: A study on university students] (Doctoral Thesis). Marmara University, İstanbul, Turkey. Tutgun-Ünal, A. (2020a). Sosyal Medya: Etkileri-Bağımlılığı-Ölçülmesi [Social media: Effect-addictionmeasurement]. Der Yayınları. Tutgun-Ünal, A. (2020b). Social Media Addiction of New Media and Journalism Students. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 19(2), 1–12.

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Tutgun-Ünal, A., & Deniz, L. (2020a). Sosyal Medya Kuşaklarının Sosyal Medya Kullanım Seviyeleri ve Tercihleri. [Social media usage levels and preferences of social media generations]. OPUS–International Journal of Society Research, 15(22), 125–144. doi:10.26466/opus.626283 Tutgun-Ünal, A., & Deniz, L. (2020b). The Comparison of Work Values of Social Media Generations in Terms of Giving Importance to Work and Obeying the Rules in Turkey. Azerbaijan Journal of Educational Studies, 690(1), 199–215. doi:10.29228/edu.102 Uzun, Ö., Yıldırım, V., & Uzun, E. (2016). Habit of Using Social Media and Correlation of Social Media Addiction, Self-Esteem, Perceived Social Support in Adolescent with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. TJFM&PC, 10(3), 142–147. Williams, A. (2001). Intergenerational Communication Across the Lifespan. LEA. Williams, A., & Harwood, J. (2008). Intergenerational Communication: Intergroup, Accomodation, and Family Perspectives. In J. F. Nussbaum (Ed.), Handbook of Communication and Aging Research (pp. 115–137). LEA. Wilson, K., Fornasier, S., & White, K. M. (2010). Psychological Predictors of Young Adults’ Use of Social Networking Sites. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 13(2), 173–177. doi:10.1089/ cyber.2009.0094 PMID:20528274 Wright, C. (2001). Children and Technology: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities. Childhood Education, 78(1), 37–41. doi:10.1080/00094056.2001.10521686 Yiğit, Z. (2010). X ve Y Kuşaklarının Örgütsel Tutumlar Açısından Incelenmesi ve Bir Örnek Olay [A research on generation X and Y in terms of organizational attitudes and a case study] (Unpublished Master Thesis). Bahçeşehir University, İstanbul, Turkey. Yıldırım Becerikli, S. (2013). Kuşaklararası Iletişim Farklılığı: Bilim Teknoloji ve Yenilik Haberleri Üzerinden Bir Odak Grup Çalışması [Communication differences between generations: A focus group study through science, technology and innovation news]. Journal of Selçuk Communication, 8(1), 5–18.

ADDITIONAL READING Baudrillard, J. (1993). Symbolic Exchange and Death. Sage Publications. Bauman, Z. (2001). The Individualized Society. Polity Publications. Castells, M. (1996). The Rise of the Network Society. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Blackwell Publications. Feldman, T. (1997). Introduction to Digital Media. Routledge. Gane, N., & Beer, D. (2008). New Media: The Key Concepts. Berg. Gerbaudo, P. (2013). Tweets and Streets: Social Media and Contemporary Activism. PlutoPress.

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Hayles, N. K. (1999). How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Lliterature, and Informatics. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226321394.001.0001 Kittler, F., & Virilio, P. (2001). The Information Bomb: A Conversation. In J. Armitage (Ed.), Virilio Live (pp. 81–90). Sage Publications. Manovich, L. (2001). The Language of New Media. MIT Press. Tutgun-Ünal, A. (2020). Social Media Journalism. In G. E. Atalay (Ed.), New Media and Alternative Journalism (pp. 43–90). Hiperyayın.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Baby Boomer: A term used to describe people born between the years of 1946-1964. It means a huge increase in annual birth rate especially in the USA, starting at the end of the World War II and continuing until the beginnings of 1960. Generation: A community of people who share common habits, culture, and time zone. Social Media Generation: Social media users grouped according to the globally accepted Generation Theory based on specific birth dates. Social Network: Web-based environments that support the interpersonal interaction and increase the sharing of individuals with common interests by giving everyone the chance to create their own personal profile and the list of friends that they want to communicate with. Social Networking: Communicating by using social networking sites. Tarhan’s Model of Trust: A guiding model for providing interpersonal (especially within the family) trust, which is developed by Psychiatry Professor, Nevzat Tarhan in Turkey, also known as “5S+1M” Model. Violence: Human behaviors that manifest themselves in the forms of breaking the law, harming others, insulting, dishonoring, hindering peace, violating someone’s rights, hurting, mistreating, using force to injuring, showing extreme destructive behaviors and excessive anger. YouTuber: A person who has reached a certain number of followers and a moderately-known person in the computer (virtual) environment.

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Chapter 28

Homo Aestheticus’ Search for Violence:

An Examination on the Aestheticization and Reception of Violence in Digital Games Neslihan Yayla https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2541-9823 Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Homo-Aestheticus is a term that describes human art aesthetics and evolution under its effect. When we look at the artworks that came to our date million years ago, the similarities we encounter are the signs that our aesthetic preferences, understanding of beauty, and our tastes are a legacy from our ancestors. Aesthetic is not only an understanding adopted by our cultures; it has been with us for centuries. Similarly, violence appears as a concept that has been part of humanity for ages. It is an interdisciplinary concept that is center of attention of scientific fields particularly social sciences, art, sociology, psychology. As a result of digital developments, virtual reality, anonymous identities and together with the fantasy of the virtual world emerging with uncontrolled digital media eases presentation of the violence in digital medias. In video games, violence is presented to the player in an aesthetic way. This study aims to reveal how the aesthetics of violence in video game are received by the players and fill the gap in the literature.

INTRODUCTION With today’s scientific knowledge, it is possible to see that the formation of the world is based on violence. Millions of years ago, a celestial body hitting the earth had caused all living existence to reform itself. The survival of all living species arises from the great destructions we see today as disasters. The human species was born out of the consequences of these destructions. When even the formation of our existence is caused by violent destructions, it is not surprising that the concept we call violence exists in human life. Human history has been shaped by thousands of devastating wars. It seems that DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch028

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 Homo Aestheticus’ Search for Violence

the path of all known cultures of the human species somehow intersects with violence. Violence is not only an action performed by humans against one another but also is performed against other species as well. The bullfights that are still continuing today are among the most known examples of the violence against other species. Therefore, leave aside being the species that practices the violence, the need to investigate the causes of this situation has arisen. That is why, the issue of violence has been the focus of fields like psychology, sociology and communication for years. On the other hand, Huizinga (2006: p. 127) says that violence and play are immanent. The concepts of play and violence are accepted to be realities of the human species. Because, Huizinga states that play exists in every living creature, and he defines the person who is a player as Homo Ludens, and many researchers such as Freud, McDougall and Lorenz argue that violence has a motivational need (Freedman, Sears and Carlsmith, 1989: p. 194). Another reality for humans is aesthetic perception. It is understood that the common or personal tastes and preferences of people go back for centuries. Our aesthetic concerns, our tendency towards art, the things we call beautiful and their appeal have been with us for centuries. In this context, Ellen Dissanayake (1995) and Denis Duttton (2009) define human species as “Homo Aestheticus”. The understanding of art, beauty, and aesthetic is a legacy left to Homo Aestheticus from its distant ancestors and our aesthetic tastes are linked to our evolutionary past and development. This study focuses on the aesthetic presentation and reception of violence. Considering the transformation of the 21st century into the digital, this research has been conducted concentrating on digital games. The purpose of this study is to reveal how digital players receive aestheticized violence elements in digital game contents. In the first part of the study, information related to the concept of aesthetics and the nomenclature of Homo-Aestheticus are presented. In the second part, the digital generation is touched on in order to understand what their pursuits are. In the third part, information is given about the studies and classifications on violence and aggression, and then the presentation of violence in digital games is mentioned. Lastly, a focus group discussion centered on the reception practices of the players who face with aestheticized violence elements in digital games is given a place.

ON AESTHETICS AND HOMO-AESTHETICUS The word aesthetic, which comes from the Greek word “aisthesis”, can be defined as “the philosophical branch that examines beauty and the nature of the fine arts”. Aesthetics as a research area was developed for the first time by Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. According to Baumgarten, aesthetics is the science of sensational knowledge. But aesthetic is also the essence of everything related to experience. It deals with the basic components of meaning, understanding, reasoning, and values of the human. For this reason, it is at the heart of having a meaningful experience and the ability to think wisely about it. The concept of beauty, which is within the field of aesthetics, was discussed for the first time by Plato and Aristotle. From ancient Greece to the Renaissance, beauty is thought to be an objective, physical feature, and that beauty is inherent in the object. However, over time, the idea that aesthetics is a subjective concept and that beauty is in the eyes of the viewer has become prominent (Tekel, 2015: p.150; Keskin, 2018, p. 16; Marc, 2018, pp. 200-201; Web_6, Access Date:14.12.2019; Web_3, Access Date: 03.12.2019). Although it is Baumgarten who added its current meaning to aesthetics, Immanuel Kant, who combined philosophical knowledge with aesthetics, should not be forgotten. According to Kant, 568

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aesthetics is subjective and corresponds to the mind which we can call the aesthetic mind whose object is beauty. The aesthetic mind gives judgments on beauty, and it is the judicial power placed between the power of understanding and the mind. (Heimsoeth, 2012: p.66). Why is beauty a permanent search for the human? For thousands of years, thinkers sought the answer to this question and tried to explain beauty. With the discovery of the divine number known as the golden ratio by Leonardo Da Vinci in the Renaissance, some of the questions related to beauty and aesthetics have been answered, but the answer to “Why does man search for aesthetics?” had not been found yet. Then, the similarities that emerged as animals were considered, began to draw attention. Especially the visual beauty of birds was considered important. Bowerbird and its fluttering feathers, peacock and its magnificent tail... When Darwin tried to explain evolution, he was not able to understand why the peacocks’ tails evolved getting so much bigger. Because the big tail was of a weight that would prevent the bird from surviving, and this was all about pleasure. Pleasure was the driving force in the animal’s decisions. This was what beauty meant in the human brain too: Pleasure (Hess, 2018). Our sight consists of visual cortex and reward systems activated together, and it evaluates our response to beauty as a biological sign. It is more difficult to explain the pleasure that man takes from beauty. People disagree on the perception of beauty. Aesthetic preferences are based on psychological development, exposure and individual innovations. The twentieth century modernist school of thought describes aesthetics as a “hedonic value” (Hess, 2018; Tekel, 2015: p.150). Even if aesthetic preferences and pleasure levels change subjectively, aesthetic pleasure exists always and for everyone. Pleasure feeds aesthetic understanding. “What is beauty? Why we find the things around us aesthetical? What is aesthetics? What is art for?”; questions such as these have led researchers to reflect on the hereditary / impulsive dimension of art production. Ellen Dissanayake and Denis Dutton are among the prominent names in this matter. These two names have questioned the function of art in human life. In her work on primitive cultures, Dissanayake has made inquiries regarding the origin and reason of art. In addition to primitive cultures, she has also conducted research about animals. She has worked on the genetic and instinctive origins of art. She has published her works under the titles “Homo Aestheticus” and “What is Art For” (Tosun, 2015: p. 39). Dissanayake has set out with the question: “What is art for?” and thought that art is not for nothing, and that art is for itself, for its own existence. When we look at the rituals, ceremonies and traditions of societies, it is seen that they take place in the form of multimedia. The existence of art is clearly seen in ceremonies such as weddings and mourning, which are important values for a society. Attendants at a wedding are dressed in a special way, there are special music, special walks, speeches, and dances. These are the content of art. (Web_4: Access Date: 09.12.2019). Dissanayake argues that art has evolved biologically in the human nature. For this reason, art is natural and necessary. Homo Aestheticus is a book that investigates how people naturally become aesthetical and artistic creatures (Dissanayake, 1995: p.ix). Art is universal, found all over human life. The universality of art and art making shows that people have a great appetite and need for art. Some behavioral scientists and anthropologists who have done biological research have tried to explain this tendency in humans. However, when we look at the studies other than these, it seems that they are almost unaware of the birth of art, and think that culture is completely a product. Why was Homo-Aestheticus never mentioned when the person driving a vehicle was named Homo-Faber, the person walking upright Homo-Erectus, the player man Homo-Ludens, and the wise man Homo-Saphiens? Evolutionists’ failure to recognize Homo-Aestheticus means that they cannot explain why and how art is a universal value. According to 569

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Dissanayake, the reason why this explanation is not made is that art is not generally seen as an indicator of human intelligence. Art is not seen as a biological or noticeable difference (Dissanayake, 1995: p. xiii; Dissanayake, 1995: p. 53). However, art, making art, expertise in art, even the universality of expressing oneself with art reveal that art is human-based. Art emerged in the early stages of the human species and was necessary for our evolution as well as improving our individual life (Dissanayake, 1995: p. 56). That is why, the existence of Homo Aestheticus must be acknowledged. Homo Aestheticus needs beauty, aesthetics and art (Dissanayake, 1995: p.3). The human species must recognize itself as HomoAestheticus (Dissanayake, 1995: p. 193). Denis Dutton created the theory of evolutionary aesthetics in the philosophy of art, referring to Dissanayake’s work and Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. He developed his works by questioning the aesthetical values of handmade ordinary objects that have become part of Homo-Aestheticus’ daily life, and based his studies on the physical characteristics of living species by questioning the origin of their behavior (Tosun, 2015: p. 39). According to Dutton, it is difficult to try to explain beauty. Because what we can describe as beautiful can include many things like natural beauty, works of art and skilled human actions. Dutton explains beauty and aesthetics with the theory of evolution (Web_5, Access Date: 12.12.2019). For Dutton, many people think they know the most appropriate answer to the question, “What is beauty?”. There are answers such as “beauty changes according to the viewer, is a personal experience, and is culturally conditioned.” People agree that paintings, movies or music are beautiful because their culture creates a common aesthetical taste. The taste of natural beauty or art can be easily navigated between cultures. There are of course differences between arts, but at the same time, intercultural aesthetical pleasures are universal. Denis Dutton thinks this universality lies in the evolutionary Darwinian history. It is necessary to make use of prehistoric records in order to explain how these universal artistic tastes are engraved in the minds of people (Web_5, Access Date: 12.12.2019). Charles Darwin is not the first thinker to suggest that living organisms have evolved over time. However, Darwin’s theory of evolution triumphed as he proposed a physical mechanism to make evolution both understandable and possible: that is, with the development of species after natural selection with random mutation and selective retention process (Dutton, 2009: p. 56). As it is known, evolution works with two basic mechanisms. The first is the natural selection that describes the evolution of our organs, along with our basic anatomy and physiology. Natural selection also explains simple sudden changes in our emotions such as fear and excitement. In addition, natural selection explains the pleasures such as sexual pleasure and our inclination towards dessert, fat and proteins. Another principle of evolution is sexual selection. As in the example of the peacock’s tail mentioned above ... The peacock’s tail is the result of the mating choices of the female peacock, not of the survival war. Getting chosen sexually by the partner is a major driving force in the development of animal physiology and psychology. Looking deeply, it is not difficult to arrive at the same result for the human species (Web_5, Access Date:12.12.2019; Dutton, 2009: p.85). It can be said that the experience of beauty is one of the invigorating, stimulating, even obsessive and attractive force of evolution that encourages us to make appropriate decisions for our survival and reproduction. In other words, beauty is nature intervening from afar. For example, we cannot expect a view to be useful by itself. It is in our hands to make the view useful. The connection of evolution with aesthetics lies exactly here. Evolution makes these landscapes beautiful, make them attract us, and all left for us to do is just look at them and enjoy them. It has been observed that people from many different cultures from all over the world tend to like a landscape similar to the plains that our evolution has 570

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taken place in Pleistocene. This landscape today can be seen all over the world on calendars, postcards, parks, and hanging on the walls of our homes (Web_5, Access Date:12.12.2019).1 Looking at the pictures, it is seen that the trees are shaped in a way that would allow humans to climb if they happen to be in a difficult situation. The presence of water and greenery is shown in the landscape. There are signs of animal life. A path or a road, a river or a beach appears as if we were asked to follow it. This form of landscape is described as “beautiful” even by people who live in places that do not have it. This ideal landscape is one of the clearest examples of how the human species finds beauty everywhere with similar visual experience. The most surprising and oldest tools among the prehistoric remains found are the simple cutting stones found in East Africa. These stones are thought to have existed 2.5 million years ago. These rough tools were in use for thousands of centuries until 1.4 million years ago when Homo Erectus gave leaf-and-drop-like shape to stones with sometimes round, oval but often remarkable symmetry. Thousands of Acheulian hand axes were found spread across Asia, Europe and Africa. Their location was almost everywhere that Homo-Erectus and Homo-Ergaster wandered. The number of these hand axes shows that they are not made just for slaughtering animals. Although it is not clear for what purpose they are made or used, the best answer is; they are the oldest known works of art. Their symmetry, attractive materials and meticulous processing make them look beautiful to the human eye even today (Dutton, 2009: p.92; Web_5, Access Date:12.12.2019). The reason for this much elaboration of prehistoric works of art is that the mentioned hand axes point to an evolutionary progress in the history of Homo Aestheticus. These invented tools are processed consciously and wisely. The competent hand axes are an indication of Homo Erectus and Homo Ergaster’s desires, personal characteristics, intelligence, good motor controls, and they show that they had planning skills. These skills improved the conditions of those who possessed them, and provided an advantage in reproducing compared to those who were less skilled. The hand ax tradition is the longest artistic tradition in human and proto-human history. At the end of the hand ax era, the human species was now called “Homo-Sapiens”. It is not only because of our culture that we find the drop-shaped stones used jewelry beautiful. Therefore, beauty does not change according to the beholder. Aesthetical understanding is in the things we have inherited from our distant ancestors in the depths of our minds. From our strong reaction to paintings to the expression of emotion in art, to the beauty of music, this heritage will be with Homo-Aestheticus as it continues to exist. (Dutton, 2009: p.57; Web_5, Access Date:12.12.2019).

DIGITAL NATIVES AS A HOMO-AESTHETICUS TYPE Even though Homo-Aestheticus’s understanding of beauty has been going on for centuries in a similar fashion, the transformation of societies and cultures over time also influences our preferences. Adapting to the changing environment in order to survive is imperative for every species, as well as for the humans. People create the changes that they need to adapt, but sometimes they even have difficulties in understanding the changes they have created and coping with the speed of change. Global changes have led to the emergence of different characteristics between old generations and new ones. Although there are no major differences in terms of years between any two generations living today, there are many differences in culture, life and understanding. According to Alvin Toffler (2008), there are 3 waves that have affected the way people live in the history of the world. The first wave is the agricultural society. Agricultural society is the society that replaced hunter-gatherer societies. The second wave indicates the Industrial Revolution societies. It covers 571

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the period from the late 1600s to the mid-1900s. With the second wave societies, “a transition has been made from the production-based society structure for use to the production-based society structure for shopping” (Toffler, 2008: p.337). The third wave refers to and covers the period that has begun after the industrial society and has reached today. The most crucial point of this wave is the fact that together with the advanced developments in technology, information has become the most important concept. The fact that information is available everywhere at the same time and that it can be shared and accessed without facing the obstacle of the time-space boundary creates changes in the way people live. The fact that the distance between the manufacturer and the consumer has almost disappeared with the internet technology has made it compulsory to meet the consumer expectations in terms of the services offered in any field. The main changes during these transitions are the lives of people living in different periods that keep pace with the ever-changing world, and therefore the society in which they live. At this point, differences of generations emerge. Since the way people live in all these waves are different, it can be seen that they have differences from period to period in matters like perception and learning styles, business principles, and sense of entertainment. It is possible to divide the human species to six generations on the basis of the last century: “Silent Generation (1925-1945), Baby Boomers (1945-1965), X Generation (1965-1980), Y Generation (1980-2000), Z Generation (2000-2010), Alfa/Screener Generation (2010-)”.2

Digital Natives Within the scope of the above classification, Z and Alfa Generation are the first generations to grow up with new technology. Apart from this, different denominations are encountered in the literature. Millennials, Net Generation, The Gamer Generation, Digital Generation, Technological Generation, Cyber Kids, Homo Zappiens, Grasshopper Mind are some of these (Bayne&Ross, 2007: p.1; from Şahin, 2009; Erdem, 2014: p. 85). The distinction of “Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants”, which has the same name as the work of Marc Prensky (2001), is important to explain the differences in generations. Prensky (2001: pp. 1-2) names the digital born generation as Digital Natives. This generation spends all their lives surrounded by all the means of the digital age. The digital language of computers, video games, and the internet is like their mother tongue. Their habits and perspectives are dissimilar from previous generations. They think and process information differently than previous generations. It is even argued that the brains of this generation have physically changed. Although this argument has not been proven, it can be said that the thinking patterns of digital natives have changed. Digital Immigrants, on the other hand, is a generation that was not born into the digital world but later became acquainted with, was interested in, embraced and complied with the new technologies. Immigrants found themselves in innovations articulated to the current lifestyle. These innovations offered them new areas for socialization, conveniences they will adapt to, a new lifestyle they should get used to, and a new language they should understand (Prensky, 2001: p. 3; Erdem, 2014: p. 85). The preferences of digital immigrants to access information are linear, logical and in order. Consistency and loyalty in business life is more important than personal satisfaction. They have delayed dreams instead of instant pleasure and reward. In digital natives, speed, visual quality and entertainment are important for accessing information (Karabulut, 2015: p. 17). Digital natives choose instant pleasure and rewards, they can easily make alternative and changes related to focus between work-game-social networks, enjoy their online lives and attach importance to their personal satisfaction.

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Besides, digital natives are a generation of players. Digitality, which is part of their lives, causes their gaming habits to turn almost entirely to digital. At this point, it is beneficial to define the player generation by mentioning the concept of play.

The Player Generation There are many definitions in the literature about play. According to Kelley (2014: p. 40), play is a leisure activity consisting of a set of rules, which marks an object to be attained and the possible ways that can be used to reach the object. Salen & Zimmerman (2004: p. 69) describes play as a system of social interaction between two players or a system that abstractly simulates war. On the other hand, Caillois (2001: p. 4) states that play is a completely free activity that stands very consciously outside of daily life, is not serious, but also absorbs the player intensely. For Huizinga; Play is a voluntary activity or occupation executed within certain fixed limits of time and place, according to rules freely accepted but absolutely binding, having its aim in itself and accompanied by a feeling of tension, joy and the consciousness that it is ‘different’ from ‘ordinary life. (Huizinga, 2017: p. 53). Huizinga (2017: p. 18) argues that play is more than just a physiological phenomenon or a psychic response. There is an independent element during play that transcends the direct needs of life and adds meaning to the action. Play often involves cheating, it can be brutal and bloody (Huizinga, 2017: p. 275). There are many examples of this situation in history. Every thinking entity has the intelligence to play games and create play reality. For this reason, the existence of play cannot be denied (Huizinga, 2017: p. 21). The tendency of all living creatures to play games can be observed. From infancy, animals and humans perform imitation and play activities within their lives. While animals are playing, they do this not only with a reaction or instinct but with meaning and function. In the definition of culture, human society must be found. Animals, on the other hand, do not need humans to teach them to play. In this case, humans did not add an important or authentic feature to the concept of play. However, there are things that play adds to people. At this point, Huizinga created a shift in the Homo-Faber / Homo-Sapiens duality. In the face of the priority of operants such as work, ritual, and religion, he helped to change the view that play is an insignificant practice that comes after those three. According to Huizinga, play comes before culture. It is not the result of coming out of a variety of cultures or a coincidence, but rather a factor in itself in the birth of various forms of culture (And, 2012: p. 27). Since ancient times, it can be seen that skill, strength and endurance competitions have an important place in every civilization. Each of these is plays passed down from generation to generation throughout the ages (Huizinga, 2017: p. 259). Likewise, similarly, many elements such as history, politics, religion, and social phenomena in culture can be transferred to the next generation by ways of art, literature, individual, or media. Every element that provides this transfer is seen as a means. Digital games have become immanent in modern culture (Baerg, 2009: p. 115). While play is regarded as one of the basic means of expression in communication, which is influenced by the relevant cultural environment, digital games have become a natural means of expression, where communication is increasingly mediating to information technologies (Dodig-Crnkovic & Larsson, 2005: p. 19). Therefore, digital games can be evaluated within these means.

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Digital games are among the most important of today’s consumption phenomena (Bayraktutan & Binark, 2011: p. 311). It has become a popular means of entertainment used by digital natives to have fun and spend time (Bozkurt, 2014: p. 1). It is also widely played by digital immigrants. It is very easy to use and reach them. It can of course be said that the developments in digital technology are effective in this matter. At this point, however, the important thing to be considered is the player generation itself. It is necessary to consider by accepting the fact that the lives of digital natives are almost completely digital, digital environments are shaped according to consumer needs. It can be said that the demands of digital natives and the content offered by digital media are two factors affecting each other. In this context, again, the relationship between play and culture comes to mind. When digital games are approached from Toffler’s perspective, they can be considered as a product of the culture industry, produced for consumption. It is an accepted fact that play is somehow connected with culture, but the more important point is the interaction of play with other cultural elements. Differentiated, developed, changed shape in the historical process, but has always been found in human life (Erdem, 2019: p. 121). At this point, the concept of violence should be mentioned. There is a similar process in the concept of violence. Erdem (2019) explains the relationship between violence and play as follows: There is such a link and interaction - which can still be characterized culturally- in violence too. Violence is related to play, although it acts in a completely opposite character both conceptually and factually. As stated earlier, today, these two are mentioned together rather within the framework of digital games in many studies carried out in the context of play and violence. However, when humanity is traced back to the past, it is possible to confirm that violence, just like plays, is culturally shaped, and also sometimes the two becomes immanent. (Erdem, 2019: p. 119). It is not surprising that this relationship between play and violence takes place through digital games in the digital world. Today, it is possible to encounter all kinds of violence in all areas of life. However, the point to be considered within the scope of the study is the clear existence of violent elements in the digital universe. For this reason, it is useful to mention the concept of violence and to address the relationship between the viewer and violence.

ABOUT VIOLENCE AND AGGRESSION The equivalent of the word violence in Latin, “violentina”, is derived from the word “violare”. “Violare” corresponds to acting harshly and against rules (Yengin, 2012: p. 57). In the Oxford Dictionary “violence” is defined as “Behavior involving physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone or something; the unlawful exercise of physical force or intimidation by the exhibition of such force; strength of emotion or a destructive natural force” (Web_2 Access Date: 24.11.2019). According to Heraclitus, there are constant conflicts in the universe. Fighting is common for all, and justice is a conflict. Even justice can only be achieved by fighting. In other words, violence is the nature itself and human is a product of nature’s violence. The fact that violence has been in the interest of many different scientific fields for many years is also seen as evidence for the existence of violence (Eren, 2005: p. 30; Erdem, 2019: p. 116).

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Research conducted within the framework of violence shows that violence is too complex to be approached from a single dimension. For this reason, it should be examined in a multidimensional way with biological, psychological, and socio-cultural perspectives (Eren, 2005: p. 8). In this regard, in the past, there have been various approaches and theories related to the subject in the studies conducted to explain the causes of violence. It is not possible to talk about a certain truth regarding these approaches (Erdem, 2020: pp. 1203-1205).3

The Role of Violence and the Audience in Communication Studies According to Whitaker, violence is seen as sensational. People encounter portraits of violence almost every day and everywhere. It is possible to run across violent elements in television, newspapers, magazines, billboards, most of the best-selling books and the rhythm of popular music (Whitaker, 2000: p.55). So why? Factors such as pressures of economic and political powers, legal regulations, and ideological orientation of the media companies play a role in determining media companies’ broadcast policies. However, media organizations’ financial concerns shape the content presented. That is why, the content presented in the media must attract the attention of the viewer.4 Only in this way companies can win the favor of the audience and continue to produce content. Accordingly, it is preferred to include certain elements in the contents. It is generally seen that magazinish, humorous, sexual and violent elements are used (Erdem, 2019: p. 120). This situation should not be judged only in terms of media organizations. In her work titled Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, Laura Mulvey (1997: p. 4) defines the viewers’ position in the cinema as “repression of their exhibitionism and projection of the repressed desire on the performer”. In another study, she focuses the relationship between the screen and the audience on “the pleasure of looking” (Mulvey, 2000: p. 27). Therefore, we encounter the fact that the content presented is displayed in accordance with the impulses and desires of the audience. In cinema, art, architecture... Violence is everywhere. When the theories and approaches regarding violence and aggression are assessed, the same point is encountered in terms of mediums that provide visual or audial content. The content presented in the media is shaped in accordance with the pleasures and needs of the people. While the first mass communication theories focused on examining the relationship between audience and media content generally denied the influence of the audience, by the 1960s, there was a tendency towards studies that showed how the audience could be effective in shaping the media content. Thus, it can be said that reception studies were born. Looking at the mass communication theories that examine the audience’s influence, the most prominent one is Usage and Gratification Approach. Usage and Gratification Approach focuses on the fact that the audience is productive and creative (Özçetin, 2010: p. 12). Contrary to impact studies, the supported argument is that the audience is the one who uses and impacts the media, not vice versa. It is accepted that the audience has various social and psychological needs. People use the media for different reasons, to meet different needs, to gain different satisfactions. In order to satisfy these needs, the audience chooses what they want from the different kinds of media and content types that appeal to them. If selected kinds of media meet the audiences social and psychological needs, this results in the satisfaction of the audience (Erdoğan & Alemdar, 2005: p. 163; Laughey, 2010: p. 58; Ozer, 2017: p. 40). With Usage and Gratification Approach, the ending of the idea that the media has a dominance over the audience has started to become widespread (Ayhan & Çavuş, 2014: p. 38). Of course, there are 575

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times when the media is insufficient to meet the expectations and requirements. However, the important point according to the theory is the claim that media content is shaped towards the needs of the audience. In 2000s, a revival is observed in the studies on theory. With the development of the new media, the changes in the way people are exposed to the media and the differentiation of their media usage, there emerged a necessity to adopt a consumer-oriented approach. The new information characteristic of the internet has caused a permanent change in terms of audience studies (Ruggiero 2000 quoted in Ayhan & Çavuş, 2014: p. 41). According to DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach’s model, which is called Media Dependency Theory, also called Media System Dependency, audiences are highly dependent on mass media as an information source. Medium messages provide an understanding of when and why the audience’s beliefs, emotions, and behavior change. In contemporary society, dependence on medium information happens everywhere, at the same time. The target audience uses the media to better understand its environment. Individuals who shape their lives around mass media get more addicted to the media contents. As dependency becomes stronger, the probability of the information provided to change the perception, emotion and behavior patterns of the audience increases (Ayhan & Çavuş, 2014: p. 45; Erdoğan & Alemdar, 2005: p. 169). Another approach is the Cultural Indicators Project realized by Gerbner, which is not audience-centered and is under the title of impact studies, on the causes and prevention of violence. Planting Analysis is one of the analyzes carried out within this project. The Cultivation Thesis, is among the series of analysis carried out within this project. The point to be considered in terms of the study is the works in the cultivation analysis on the phenomenon of violence (Shanahan & Morgan, 1999: p. 57). To Gerbner, the violence seen on the screen should not be evaluated only physically. Violence presented on television, as a narrative element of a medium that tells stories, regulates the social roles and the functioning fear mechanism in the society. Gerbner calls the violence seen on the screen as “happy violence”. According to Gerbner, there has never been a culture more adorned with violent and colorful images like ours. Happy violence is cool, swift and painless; always has a happy ending (Web_2, Access date: 02.12.2019). It can be seen in any content such as cartoons, reality shows, and action movies. In every content with happy violence, problems are solved through violence. Using violence to solve problems does not lead to any serious negative consequences; on the contrary, a happy ending is achieved at the end of the films. Violence in television consists of a complex social scenario based upon the relationship between power and victimization. What is important in the presentation is not the reality of the act of violence, but who is doing what, and what the message of violence is. It should not be thought that the violence content in cartoons is different from the violence in action movies. The curiosity for naked elements that show painful bodies is almost as violent as the curiosity full of desire for naked bodies. Although there is a painful part in looking at a violent image without being startled, but at the same time, the startle involves pleasure too. An action movie can harm a little child more than a cartoon. However, according to Gerbner, the phenomenon of missing physical damage in cartoons disguises the existence of violence and gives a message of violence (Sontag, 2004, p.40; Web_2, Access date: 02.12.2019, Çığ, 2011: p.47). Gerbner states that television programming supports violence by its nature. Programs with violent content have high circulation in the global market. Producers of high-budget productions should sell their productions abroad in order to profit. However, overseas sales need a guaranteed formula. Regardless of what culture is, this formula uses two things that mean the same for everyone in the world: violence and sexuality (Çığ, 2011: pp. 57-58).

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Dominance of Violence in Digital Games In ancient Greek, the word pharmakon has two meanings: poison and antidote. According to Rene Girard (2003: p. 416), violence is a pharmakon. Girard’s discourse refers to the use of violence to combat violence that already exists in the community. This aspect of violence can be encountered in almost every areas of culture. Considering the relationship of play with culture, it is inevitable to see violence in games. Girard says that this happened in the Greek Tragedies which he labeled as plays (Girard, 2003: p.12; Erdem, 2019: p. 120). At the same time, Huizinga (2017: p.127) states that play and violence are immanent. Homo Ludens is no stranger to violence. As it is known, today, violence appears in digital media as well as in physical environments, media contents, and social life. With the means of communication developed in parallel with technological advances, the elements of violence are with us in every tool in our lives. Yengin (2012: p. 133) calls violence in digital society as the “new violence” and the transformation of old violence into new violence is called “digital transformation of violence”. Yengin (2012) explains the new violence concept as follows: New violence is interactive activities performed by using behaviors such as toughness, vulgar behavior, and physical strength together with the components of new communication media (Yengin, 2012: p. 131). Digital games are one of the places where the new violence is introduced. Nowadays, violence is more visible than ever before, more explicit than ever before and it is almost impossible to control. While the visibility of violence and elements of violence can be partially prevented and kept under control in traditional media, this is unlikely in a digital environment. The necessity and application forms of this censorship is an issue that needs to be discussed. This issue can also be discussed under Davison (1983)’s third person theory.5 However, due to the limitations of the study, a discussion in this direction will not be held here. It is possible to say that there are elements of violence in the media and the aesthetic presentation of these elements is shaped in line with the expectations, desires and appetites of Homo-Aestheticus. The audience is demanding to see violence. In addition, discussions still continue about whether the media shapes the audience and culture, or whether the audience shapes the media content. As a result of the reception analysis to be conducted in this study, we may be able to arrive at a conclusion on how effective the player’s requests can be in digital game contents. Da Vinci emphasizes that the artist’s point of view should be absolutely pitiless. The image should shake the person from head to toe. In order for a bloody image to be beautiful, the beautiful one must be presented tragically, shocking and aesthetically (Sontag, 2004: pp. 75-76). Because the more unusual, tragic and shocking the events presented to the audience in the media contents, the more they attract attention. The aesthetic appeal of the different one attracts the audience’s attention. Andre Breton’s statement, “Beauty will be convulsive or will not be at all” can make us think about the strikingness of the understandings of beauty and aesthetics. Something can be both tragic, frightening and beautiful, or striking things can be aesthetic to people (Sontag, 2004: pp. 22-23). The aesthetic importance of the tragedy lies in the reality of life, which art reflects as purified and intensified (Lukacs, 1988, p.26). Juliette Brioche (2001) says, “When we learn that tragedy is a treasure in disguise, then we begin to understand life” (Web_7, Access Date: 21.12.2019).

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Violence is not an act that can be easily applied for healthy individuals because of the fear of being punished and facing its consequences. On the other hand, it is one of the most basic motives. The individual tries to satisfy the feeling of violence and aggression in some way. Accordingly, it is the most probable, most risk-free way for the individual to choose a process of witnessing dating back to gladiator fights. Sontag (2004: pp. 96-98) states that images involving injury, fragmentation or distortion of a body are to some extent pornographic. The human has an appetite for scenes such as mutilation, abuse and humiliation. Seeing is not an action that requires effort; can be interrupted at any time (Sontag, 2004: p. 118). However, when they see images of brutality, the majority of people continue to watch those images. So, watching brutal images is a preferred decision. Man prefers to continue watching images of intrinsic or intent violence. The fact that executions were watched by other people during the execution of death sentences in the recent past can be presented as an indicator of human appetite for violence. While witnessing violence has manifested itself in different forms and events in the past, today we can find it easily in the media thanks to the developments in communication technologies. Because, like many other items presented in media content, violence in media content is fictional. Violence in the media content is presented by aesthetics. The deformation caused by the painful bodies or the physical force applied to these bodies are shown to the audience (Erdem, 2019: p. 123). Because, like many other elements presented in the media content, violence in the media content is fictional and it is presented as aestheticized. The deformation caused by the suffering bodies or the physical force used against these bodies are shown to the audience as appealing (Erdem, 2019: p.123). Games with high quality effects can host thousands of players at the same time at its service providers, and with its interactive feature, it allows the player to shape the story in his own way. Therefore, the rates and forms of exposure to the content between the viewer who only takes what is given by the traditional media, and the player who has the chance to interact with the media content one-on-one, will also be different (Erdem, 2019: p. 125). At the same time, the fact that the player adapts himself almost completely to the game while playing, matches the expectations of the players to find what they want in the game. Just like how the audience in traditional media prefers to watch the programs they like, in digital games too, the more the player can find what he wants in the game, the longer he will continue to play the game. The rapid development of technology, its cheapness, and the development of the internet have been effective in the growth of the digital game industry. The digital game industry has made significant progress over the past 60 years. In the period of progress that is still continuing, seventh generation consoles such as Xbox 360, PS3, Wii have been developed. These consoles not only improve the gaming experience, but also turn the game into a multimedia entertainment and communication tool (GüvenliWeb, 2019: p. 6). With the increasing growth rate of the gaming industry, different types of digital games have emerged which are quickly consumed and have their new versions released. There are many games shaped according to the player preferences (Yalçın Irmak & Erdoğan, 2016: p. 129). Digital games have users of almost all ages and especially young people show great interest. The time spent by the digital generation in digital games is gradually increasing (Gentile, 2009: p. 594). Most video games involve violence. Recently, content analyses on video games indicate that 89% of the games contain violence (from Gentile; Aydoğdu Karaaslan, 2015: p. 807). It is seen that digital games with the highest rate of plays are generally games containing violence (Erdem, 2019: p. 124). It was stated that 47% of the participants, in the study carried out by Allahverdipour and his collogues (2010: pp. 5-7), played one or more violent games, and the prevalence of violent video games has been increasing. According to Dill and his friends. (2005: pp. 118-126), the most sold games are violent ones. 578

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According to Baudrillard (2011: p. 186), game is a system without contradiction and internal negation. Therefore, no one can affirm that the game is insignificant. Its entire configuration is based on imitation. And, a rule resembles a simulacrum of law based on imitation. Game provides two different pleasures: one is pure seduction and the other one is imitation. In a simulated world that is emoted with unshakable ways of reciprocity; game, working as pure seduction, annihilates time and space. It imitates reality in the formal augmentation environment that comes with the pressures of law. For the players, actions within the game are safer than the real world. Games ensure the players a protected space in which there are physical consequences for their actions (Bogost, 2006: p. 136; Erdem, 2019: p.137). In this respect, it can be said that digital games that provide escape from the real world also satisfy the expectations and demands of the real world. The digital universe that includes games is a universe that carries out the act of simulation (Baudrillard, 2017: p. 8). In the created universe of the simulation, the player experiences a sense of simulated fulfilment in which he no longer abstains from practicing his desires and no longer has to face the possible consequences of the practicing of desires that would be there when performed in real life. The gaming experience is very close to the aesthetic experience. In digital games, the real aesthetic perspective is shaped by the identity created by the player during the game. Elements such as avatar, and nickname chosen by the player are created with high aesthetic concern (Erdem, 2019: p.137). Aesthetics and dynamics of the game are intertwined. This is the technique of aligning itself with a “higher” or “magical” self-imagined personality, especially in role-playing games (Frissen, 2015: p. 86). Considering the fact that game is immanent to violence in the traditional context, the violence found in digital games is the reflection of everyday life to the phantasmagoric media. The individual must cope with the instinct of violence and aggression. The way to do this is generally through witnessing the violence. Therefore, the individual is looking for a way to satisfy this motive in phantasmagoric settings. Digital games are considered as phantasmagoric settings due to their fiction, visual quality and sense of virtual reality. It is also stated that digital games are effective in the alienation of the individual from society, his own human characteristics, and from weaknesses arising from them. They become so effective that the individuals take pleasure even from this alienation. Perhaps this is why a very important part of digital games are violent. The individual is independent of all human weaknesses and limitations in the hyper realistic environment that the digital game offers him. Because it is not easy to use violence in real life and to face its consequences. It will probably not be easy in the game world too where these pure violence images will take place. Therefore, the elements of violence presented as aestheticized in media content are also presented like that in digital games (Erdem, 2019: pp. 137-138).

HOMO-AESTHETICUS’ SEARCH FOR VIOLENCE According to Huizinga (2017), beauty is not an immanent quality of play; however, play tends to merge with all the beauty elements. Enthusiasm and grace have been linked to the most primitive forms of play from the beginning. Play is filled with rhythm and harmony, which are the elements of the most advanced form of our talent of aesthetic perception endowed to us. There are strong links between play and beauty and therefore aesthetics (Huizinga, 2017: p. 25). If play produces beauty, it gains cultural value (Huizinga, 2017: p. 77). It seems that the words we use to describe the elements of play, such as tension, harmony, balance, are aesthetic terms in which we describe the effects of beauty (Web_8, Access Date: 24.12.2019). At this point, the tension element has a different meaning. Tension is shown 579

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as one of the general characteristics of play. As play gets harder, tension increases and as the tension increases, pleasure from play and watching it increases (Huizinga, 2017: pp. 76-77). This is depicted in Stefan Zweig’s book, Chess. As the game between two players gets harder in the book, the tension of the game increases, and as the tension increases, the number of viewers of the game increases too. The game becomes beautiful for the audience, for the players. Huizinga says similar things about the game of chess.6 However, the important point here is that the player always plays the game to relieve tension. Similarly, it is not difficult to understand that man is looking for the elements of harmony and rhythm in all visual, written, and vocal works of art. Homo-Aestheticus’ search for aesthetics has been going on all over his life since the first weapons his ancestors used. As mentioned in the first part, the similarities of Homo-Aestheticus’s aesthetic perception thousands of years ago with today is part of the human evolution. From the same point of view, it is seen that the act of play exists in human life as Homo-Ludens. Man’s tendency towards violence, and sometimes shy, but always present pleasure from seeing the elements of violence have been the starting points of this study. Considering all of these before moving on to the method part of the study, it is beneficial to understand how the players receive the aestheticized violent content presented to them. It is beneficial to evaluate the perspectives of both Homo Ludens and Homo Aestheticus, as well as the players. Within the framework of issues mentioned above, the digital game named League of Legends was selected as a sample with a monographic sampling technique. As the research method, focus group discussion was used, and the point of view of the participants about the violence and aesthetic elements in the game was questioned.

On Players’ Reception Practices of Violence in Digital Games There are different types of digital games. While Jull (2003) classifies digital games as “abstract, iconic, coherent, incoherent, progressive”, Herz (1997) classifies digital games as “action, fighting, sports, puzzle, adventure, role-playing, simulation, strategy”. On the other hand, Poole (2000) distinguishes it as “hitting, race, winning, sports, puzzle, platform, role-playing, god games, real-time strategy games” (Kerr, quoted in 2006: p. 40). Developed by Riot Games, League of Legends is a multiplayer, online, team-focused, war and strategy game released in 2009. Its popularity grew soon after its publication. It tops the list of the most played games in the world for the first six months of 2018 and 2019.7 For this reason, this game was chosen for analysis. The players in the game aim to knock down the opponents’ centers together with their teammates. Summoner’s Rift, Twisted Treeline, and Howling Abyss are the places of the game.8 There are 6 types of characters: Tanks, Mages, Assassins, Fighters, Snipers, Supports. The selected character is called “champion”. Champions need to fight and destroy other characters to level up and win prizes. The aesthetic creation in the game can be understood even from the name of “champion” given to the selected characters. It is possible to see the aesthetic content in the armors, weapons, special powers used in the costumes of the champions. Besides, it is seen that the places where the game takes place are mystical and scary environments. It is seen that the images of blood shown during the wars are aesthetically conveyed to the player.9 During the focus group discussion, the players’ reception practices of aesthetically presented basic elements, including the game characters, costumes10, places, and sound effects, are examined. Focus group discussion questions were prepared accordingly and a discussion involving all participants was held.

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The Focus Group Study Focus group discussion (or interview) is a data collection technique used in market research, health management research, sociology, and communication research; also, in evaluations conducted in applied areas and educational research (Çokluk et al., 2011: p. 96). Focus group discussions give the interviewer a limited role and influence, and an opportunity for free expression to the interviewees (Kümbetoğlu 2005 quoted in Binark et al. 2009: p. 195). It is a collective activity that brings together a group of people to discuss or focus on a particular research topic(s) using open-ended questions (Bowling, 2014: p. 410). Focus group interviews are carried out within the framework of pre-established rules and they can be defined as a qualitative technique that prioritizes the individual ideas of the interviewed people, gives freedom to its respondents, focuses on the participants’ discourses, and collects the data. At the same time, focus group interviews are defined as the method aiming to get information on the consciously, semi-consciously or unconsciously exhibited behaviors of groups, and subgroups; to learn about their psychological and sociocultural characteristics, and to learn the reasons behind their behaviors (Taken from. Çokluk et al., 2011, pp.97 -98). In this context, using the focus group interview in this study is considered an appropriate method. Because, in this study, the players’ conscious/unconscious reception practices of the aestheticized elements of violence while playing the games were examined. In the study, a group meeting was held with the students of the Faculty of Communication in Ondokuz Mayıs University, who had similar socioeconomic backgrounds. The interview group consists of 6 people, 2 of which are women and 4 are men. The ages of the participants vary between 20-25 and they have been playing League of Legends for more than 1 year. During the interview, 1 moderator and 1 assistant researcher were there. Interview questions were shaped under 5 main topics: “Defining the concept of aesthetics, Defining the concept of violence, General view on digital games, View on League of Legends, Violence in League of Legends”. The sub-topics were given according to the flow of the discussion.

Findings The ways in which participants define the concept of aesthetics have close similarities. In the part titled “Defining the concept of aesthetics”, which is the first topic of the interview questions, they were asked to answer these questions: “What is Aesthetics? What is it evoking in you?”. The answers given were: “An eye-pleasing, gentle, polite, plain, subjective, visual show”, “I do not only judge with the outer appearance, it should activate and respond to my senses”. At this point, it is seen that people’s answers to Denis Dutton’s question “What is beauty?” are the same or similar. In that case, it can be said that Homo Aesteticus’ ways of defining aesthetics are similar. The answer given as “If any visual element meets my expectations, I will perceive it as aesthetic” stands out. According to Sontag (2011: pp. 100-101), the level of violence is increasing in cinema, television, comic books and games presented within the mass culture. Things that were looked at with disgust about 50 years ago turned into images that children watch without even blinking. The participants are players who enjoy playing League of Legends and they acknowledge that there is violence in the game. Then, it can be concluded that the players enjoy watching violent content. These elements, produced in modern culture, have an entertaining effect on many people instead of shocking. Violence in digital games and other games, is one of these entertaining elements.

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To the question, “What do you find aesthetic in media content?” answers like these were given: “Magazine, intervention to the natural, contents that correspond to feelings/ give pleasure, the voice tone of the announcers, the channel’s logo, the studio decorations, the colors used, the advertisement jingles”. Also, the participants expressed opinions such as, “There is a conscious aestheticization of visual and auditory materials from the media.”, and “In media content, incidents that cause discomfort such as theft and murder are softened.” In this context, it is understood that the participants find the visual and audio elements aesthetic, and that they accept that the violence in the media is aestheticized. In the second topic of the interview, the participants were asked to define the concept of violence. All of the participants defined the concept as “Everything that is physically violent or psychologically discomforting, and threatening performed against a person”. To the question, “What does violence evokes in you?” these answers were given: “Blood, violence against women, precaution, gun, violence with bare hands”. In addition, someone said, “Violence can be rated. Any violence that is experienced after crossing a certain line is perceived as chaos. In other words, violence that turns into physical is perceived as chaos”. When they were asked, “How do you think violence is defined in the media?” they gave answers such as, “Provocative elements are reflected”,“ Although every person says they do not like violence, they have a hunger for violence”, “ Violence needs to be reflected. People used to gather in arenas before, now they are gathering before the TV to watch a fictional violence.” When these answers are evaluated, it is understood that television is the first media that comes to mind when it comes to media violence. It can be said that they did not consider the violence they faced in the digital media as violence until this stage of the interview. Do you enjoy watching content that contains violent elements? The question was answered as “People like to see violence”. Here, participants can be evaluated by Davison’s third-person theory. When the matter is violence, it is seen that the question is answered as a third person, not as a subject. To the question “Do you feel uncomfortable watching content that contains violent elements? What elements disturb you?” they gave answers like,“I see violence in action films as art (aesthetics), not violence. Even in some movies (eg deadpool) violence is conveyed in a fun way ”, “I like feeling the tension”, “I want the good ones to win at the end of the movie, I find it uncomfortable if the good ones don’t win”, “The good people are forced to commit violence. A kind of defense”,“ Responding to a violent act is a struggle, not violence. If I see an unresponsive character, I feel uncomfortable”, “I do not feel uncomfortable when an evil character in a movie is exposed to violence”, “The parties must have the same power for violence to be aesthetic.” At this point, Gerbner’s concept of “happy violence” comes to mind. Violence performed by the good does not disturb the participants. Only the violence of the evil is bad. Violence by the good offers a distinguished heroism and ends with a happy ending. The good ones do not disturb because they resort to violence to solve the problem (Web_2, Access date: 02.12.2019). In other words, in the eyes of the participants, it is not important that the message is violence but who performs the violence is important. Huizinga (2017: p. 31) defines those who oppose the rules and do not comply with them as a spoilsport. Spoil-sport disrupts the magical world, he is treacherous, he must be thrown out of the play. The characters that the participants describe as “evil”, can be defined as a kind of spoil-sport. Evil characters or characters who do not hesitate to apply force to the less powerful person, disrupt the fictional order, and they should be removed from the game. In the context of the movie scenes, which are considered as part of the examples given by the participants, the removal of the spoil-sport is again achieved with violence. It is noteworthy that the participants do not feel uncomfortable with the violence of those who have the same power, and find it aesthetic. Here, it can be seen that the pleasure taken from the violent 582

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demonstrations dating back to ancient Rome has found its equivalent in today’s media content. The bloody fights that people gathered around and watched in ancient times come to life in movie scenes today. To the question “Does it bother you to see blood?”, 1 person answered with “It does”, 3 people answered with “It does not”, and 2 people answered with “On the contrary, it interests me.” At this point, the participants compared the “Saw” and “Spartacus” films, and commented on them as follows, “Saw is more uncomfortable, there is torture but it attracts attention.” “Spartacus does not disturb. The fighting styles look aesthetic”. The attractiveness of power comes to the fore here. Fighting of the equal forces rather than torture is received as aesthetic by the participants. Thus, it can be said that the presentation style of the image affects the way it is received as violence. The question, “Do you think the way sexual violence is shown in the media is aesthetic?” was answered as “It’s not aesthetic, I don’t like it”, “I think it is published for awareness”, “Human body is aesthetic, not the action”, “I would like to find pleasure in watching an aesthetic image, but I feel uncomfortable with this, I get angry”. According to the answers, it is seen that the participants evaluate sexual violence in the context of traditional media. Seeing elements of sexual violence in traditional media content disturbs the participants. Within the context of “General look on digital games” which was the third topic under the interview questions, the questions such as, “Why are you playing digital games?”, “What are the things you find attractive in the digital games you play?” were posed. The answers given were: “I see it as a race”, “I have fun, I play to get rid of the stress of my daily life, my thoughts”, “The concept of time disappears”, “There is an ambition to win”. As in the definition of play of Huizinga (2017), the participants see digital games as a phantasmagoric environment where they compete, and get away from the stress of daily life. ” I swear, I relax. I can’t swear like that in real life” this statement illustrates how the anonymity offered by the digital media expand players’ realm of freedom and how they can express themselves the way they want regardless of rules. The answers given by the participants to the question mentioned above, “I feel identified with the characters”, “It is nice to be able to take control, and have control over the character”, “I replace the character in front of me with a person I am angry at, I get happy when I kill him”, clearly confirm the point emphasized since the beginning of the study. People tend to suppress, with various ways, the impulses of violence that they are afraid of performing in real life, and that they know they will face sanctions when they do so. One of these ways is to play digital games. Digital games are extraordinary environments for the players to identify with the character, to adapt to the game in such a way that they do not notice the external effects, and to feel the pleasure they will receive from the impulses they suppress. In addition to the feeling of reality created by the game, the excitement it gives and the aestheticization of the visual and audio contents presented attract the players. “Team play”, “I care about the spirit of togetherness”, “I am not an ambitious person in my daily life, this changes when playing games. I feel like someone different from the character in my daily life. It’s like I partially complete a deficiency”, “I am relieved when I win”, “The human can do certain things in real life, he has a limited environment. He is able to do digitally, what he can’t do and longs in real life”, “I like to change”. “The strategy is important. I enjoy it”. The answers are an indication of how the phantasmagoric environment that the players find themselves in when they play games, is really effective. In fantasia, people can fulfill their needs such as personal satisfaction, self-proofing, and winning approval by fully incorporating their personal tastes into the game and doing what they cannot do in their daily lives (Yengin, 2012: p. 127).

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In the fourth topic, to understand the point of view of the participants regarding the game, the participants were first asked to define the game with five concepts, and they were asked why they played the game. The participants described the game with these concepts: “fun, friendship, struggle, ambition, talent, intelligence, team play, leadership, winning, coordinating, victory, voice over, establishing superiority, stress, disappearance of the time factor, role play, strategy/ counter strategy, competition.” According to Huizinga (2017: p. 76), most of the games played in groups, offers a conflicting character. In this context, it can be said that the fact that the game is a team play affects the competition and ambition in a group. At the same time, it can be said that the pleasure of situations such as victory while playing the game is effective in playing the game. When the participants were asked “Is there any violence in League of Legends?” they answered as, “Definitely, both verbally and visually”. “Do the elements of violence you encounter in the game disturb you? If yes, at what points?” During this question, the participants defined the foul language of the players as violence. A common answer was given, “The swearing between the players is disturbing, not the elements of the game.” So, it can be said that the players are not disturbed by the visual violence despite accepting the existence of visual and verbal violence in the game. Although they have a virtual identity during the game, it can be said that the players assume that the swearwords are for their own selves, and not for their characters. However, the fact that the visual elements in the game do not cause any disturbance despite being accepted as violence can be associated with the aesthetic presentation of the violence. To the question, “What do you think about the forms of violence of female/male characters? There are characters who use violence through weapons, cast spells, and characters who use their own body as weapons. What are the visual elements that you like or dislike about these?”, this answer was given by a participant, “The costumes of some female characters makes me uncomfortable. There is no nudity in the costumes of male characters. However, the costumes of the female characters are assuredly revealing.” When they were asked if they found the female or male characters more attractive, and why, except one male participant, the others answered with “female”. According to Baudrillard (2011: pp. 36-37), the feminine has a strong irony in seduction. Masculinity is fragile, uncertain. In the face of the fragility of the masculine, there is the unwary self-presentation of the feminine. In fact, the unwary representation of the feminine is essential for the continuation of the masculine power. Accordingly, the feminine is made vague and left ambiguous. The ambiguity brings the ascendancy of the feminine as a subject and the ascendancy as an object too, that is, brings together a generalized pornography. It is seen that the element of sexuality (Çığ, 2011: pp. 57-58), one of the two guaranteed formulas to attract users, is used in League of Legends. In the game, in the aesthetic presentation of male and female characters, sexuality is benefited from especially visually. While the male characters draw attention with tour de force and charismatic attitudes, female characters stand out especially with their cleavages and hips. There are no continuous visual and attractive elements in the male characters. This situation is presented mostly in show of strength. Every kind of masculine power is the power that comes from production, and everything that produces itself is registered in the masculine power. The only and irresistible power of femininity is seduction (Baudrillard, 2011: p. 25). In the League of Legends, the masculine characters assert themselves on and off - regardless of the costumes - with the power element, while the feminine shows continuity - constantly adhering to the costumes. This is a sexual infinity pornography that turns into a phantasm dimension (Baudrillard, 2011: p. 37). The question, “Is the nudity in the characters disturbing you or do you find it aesthetic?”, found its answer as, “Aesthetic. However, after a point, visuality is not related to the characters in the game. The 584

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costumes of the characters etc are only important at the beginning of the game, as the game progresses, they do not attract much attention as the game turns to things like war, map tracking. We focus on war.” For this reason, it can be said that sexual indicators are interesting at first step for the players, but the competition factor becomes more important as they play the game. But this does not eliminate the fact that sexual contents are presented as aesthetic in the game. When the participants were asked, “What are the elements you find visually aesthetic in the game?” one of the answers was, “Champions’ abilities, ways of using weapons,” and one of the participants added, “Some characters do not seem aesthetic at all, they are not pleasant in appearance, their playing style is annoying. Some find it strategic. But their voiceovers are sympathetic.” In the game, besides the visual elements, the audial elements also have an impact on the player. Because, when they were asked, “What do you find aurally appealing in the game?” they answered with “Each of them has different ways of speaking. Some characters’ laughter is charismatic”, “I like their speech. The rhetoric they use is attractive”, “The voiceover gets me going.” When the participants were asked about their thoughts on the music in the game, they replied with “We listen but we don’t even realize that we listen.” “Are visual elements or audio elements more aesthetic in the game?” All participants responded to the question with “visual elements”. Therefore, it can be said that the audio elements are effective but the effects of the visual elements are more intense. The two participants stated that they find some characters having ambition for revenge caused by their hostility towards each other, aesthetic. Jesper Jull says that the game is not out of the narrative regardless of its type or form (Jull, 2005: p. 219). In this direction, it can be said that whether the player finds the character’s story impressive or not is effective in finding the character aesthetic. The players find more aesthetic the characters that have effective stories and those which reflect the players. “Is power aesthetic specific to the game?” All participants responded to the question “It is aesthetic” and said that the presentation of power elements in the game is clearly reflected aesthetically. “Is the aesthetic presentation of the elements of power, and thus of violence, one of the factors that attracts you to the game?” The question had a common answer, “Yes, they add excitement to the game.” It can be said that the aesthetically presented violence content are actually received by the players as aesthetic and they think that it adds excitement to the game. For Baudelaire; It is impossible to see the most dreadful traces of human deviance. Any newspaper, from the first line to the last, is nothing but a web of horrors. Wars, crimes committed, thefts, sexual perversions, tortures, evils of princes, nations and individuals; a truly universal orgy of violence. And it is with these disgusting appetizers that civilized man accompanies his every morning meal. (Baudelaire quoted in Sontag, 2004: p.107). This criticism by Baudelaire is similar to the cultural criticism made today. As people continue to watch indifferently, the bombardment of new technologies that constantly showcases the images of brutality and disaster will undoubtedly continue (Sontag, 2004: p. 108). In the end, if the homogenous media wants to transform the person who is temporarily receptive into an aesthetic-receptive in real terms; and into the person who postpones his other concrete efforts and gives himself completely to the influence of the work, it has to enter the person’s spiritual life (Lukacs, 1988: p. 16). With a Freudian view, violence is an impulse and man has a tendency to suppress this impulse. Individuals may want to commit violence in real life, but are generally afraid of their consequences. 585

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Because it is not easy to face the results. In real life, these results do not have compensations. For this reason, they may prefer to experience this in a phantasmagoric environment. The items of violence offered to the players to fulfill the desire for violence are presented as aestheticized to increase pleasure. It is possible to say this for League of Legends and many digital games. Of course, it is not right to make a holistic deduction for all digital games by examining a single game. However, similar elements are encountered in many popular games.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS As a result of the development and effects of digital and the differences it creates on generation groups, it is seen that recent communication studies focus on digital media. It is inevitable that this trend will continue in the coming years. Digital game studies are among the digital studies that are becoming more and more widespread. It is thought that research on the reception of digital games by different age groups will contribute to the literature. At the same time, it is thought that the studies to be conducted with wider range of working groups-regardless of age group- on the reception of the aestheticized contents of violence in digital games will open the way for future studies in the fields of communication, psychology and sociology. In this context, a study can be proposed about whether the players’ violent tendencies in digital games like League of Legends are connected in any way with their real-life tendencies. Such a study will contribute to the literature in that it will help to understand how the hyperreality created by the digital corresponds to reality.

CONCLUSION Considering that the real thing may not be scary enough, the impression may need to be reinforced and reconstructed more convincingly (Sontag, 2004: p. 64). In this respect, it should not be surprising that the content of violence in the media is presented to the audience as aestheticized. A drawing is considered fake when it does not belong to the artist attributed to it; because that is deceptive. A photograph, a movie that can be found on TV or the internet is considered fake when it cannot give the audience truly what it claims to offer. Again, there is a deception (Sontag, 2004: p. 45). However, a digital game is played by people who know that it is fake (or artificial) and some even play it because it is fake. In the fantasia that they offer, games can give realistic ambitions and emotions to the players, and the player can satisfy his appetite for pleasure with the digital game. The pleasure here does not only mean the pleasure Homo Ludens gets from the game, the pleasure Homo Aestheticus gets from violence is also included in this pleasure. In the same context, when it comes to digital natives’ tendencies to experience violent elements digitally, it is necessary to consider the fact that digital natives prefer instant pleasure and rewards, love online experiences and prefer almost completely a digital world. Therefore, it is not surprising that digital natives tend to live their experiences of violence in digital. Media content, from the traditional to the digital, that is basically shaped according to its audience; today is shaped according to the desires, needs and demands of the digital natives who are consumers in the digital world. Therefore, the content offered in digital games is shaped accordingly too. The pleasure of digital Homo Aestheticus from the elements of violence is a kind of evolution of the pleasure of Primitive Homo Aestheticus. 586

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Jull, J. (2003). The game, the player, the world: Looking for a heart of gameness. In M. Copier & J. Raessens (Ed.), Level Up: Digital Games Research Conference Proceedings (pp. 30-45). Utrecht University. Jull, J. (2005). Games telling stories. In J. Raessens & J. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of Computer Games Studies (pp. 219–226). The MIT Press. Karabulut, B. (2015). Bilgi toplumu çağında dijital yerliler, göçmenler ve melezler. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (21), 11-23. Kelley, D. (2014). The art of reasoning: An introduction to logic and critical thinking. WW Norton & Company. Kerr, A. (2006). The business and culture of digital games: Gamework and gameplay. Sage Publication. Keskin, G. (2018). Baumgarten felsefesinde estetik ve mantık. Felsefe Arkivi, (49), 13-22. Laughey, D. (2010). Medya çalışmaları: Teoriler ve yaklaşımlar (A. Toprak, Trans.). İstanbul Kalkedon. Lukacs, G. (1988). Estetik III (A. Cemal, Trans.). Payel Yayınları. Maigret, É. (2012). Medya ve iletişim sosyolojisi (H. Yücel, Trans.). İletişim Yayınları. Marc, J. (2018). The aesthetics of meaning and thought: The bodily roots of philosophy, science, morality, and art. University of Chicago Press. Mulvey, L. (1997). Görsel haz ve anlatı sineması. Kare, (21), 38-46. Mulvey, L. (2000). Yurttaş Kane (A. Taşçıoğlu & D. Vura, Trans.). Om Yayınevi. Özçetin, B. (2010). Kullanımlar ve doyumlardan izlerkitle sosyolojisine: Türkiye’de izlerkitle çalışmaları. İletişim Araştırmaları, 8(2), 9-37. Özer, Ö. (2017). Kullanımlar ve doyumlar kuramı çerçevesinde Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi IIBF öğrencilerinin twitter kullanımı üzerine bir analiz. Intermedia. International Journal (Toronto, Ont.), 4(6), 40–58. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants part 1. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. doi:10.1108/10748120110424816 Raessens, J. (2005). Computer games as participatory media culture. In J. Raessens & J. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of Computer Game Studies. The MIT Press. Salen, K. S., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. MIT Press. Shanahan, J., James, S., & Morgan, M. (1999). Television and its viewers: Cultivation theory and research. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511488924 Sontag, S. (2004). Başkalarının acısına bakmak. Altıkırkbeş. Tekel, A. (2015). Estetik yargı ve estetik yargıyı etkileyen faktörler. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, (16), 149-157. Toffler, A. (2008). Üçüncü dalga: bir fütürist ekonomi analizi klasiği. Koridor Yayıncılık.

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Tosun, Ö. (2015). İlkel benliğin yakın dönem sanatında bıraktığı izlere bir örnek: Basquıat. İdil Sanat ve Dil Dergisi, 4(17), 31-46. Ünsal, A. (1996). Genişletilmiş bir şiddet tipolojisi. Cogito, Aylık Düşünce Dergisi, (6-7), 29-36. Web_1. (n.d.). https://sozluk.gov.tr/ Web_2. (n.d.). https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1997/05/the-man-who-counts-the-killings/376850/ Web_3. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JoZYrZ14c0s Web_4. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tVJeGd7AIMA Web_5. (n.d.). https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=47&v=PktUzdnBqWI&feature=e mb_title Web_6. (n.d.). https://sozluk.gov.tr/?kelime= Web_7. (n.d.). https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2001/feb/15/artsfeatures.awardsandprizes Web_8. (n.d.). https://www.martidergisi.com/oyuncu-insan-homo-ludens/ Whitaker, L. C. (2000). Understanding and preventing violence: The psychology of human destructiveness. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781439832608 Yalçın Irmak, A., & Erdoğan, S. (2016). Ergen ve genç erişkinlerde dijital oyun bağımlılığı: Güncel bir bakış. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 27(2), 128–137. PMID:27370064 Yengin, D. (2012). Dijital oyunlarda şiddet. Beta Basım Yayın.

ADDITIONAL READING Arendt, H. (1970). On violence. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Chan, S. M., & Meskin, A. (2007). Aesthetics a comprehensive anthology. Willey Blackwell. Cooper, D. E. (2019). Aesthetics: The classic readings. Willey Blackwell. Dissanayake, E. (2000). Art and intimacy: How the arts began. University of Washington Press. Hegel, G. W. F. (1998). Aesthetics: Lectures on fine art. Oxford University Press. Hofstadter, A., & Kuhns, R. (1964). Philosophies of art and beauty: Selected readings in aesthetics from plato to heidegger. The University of Chicago Press. Sontag, S. (2002). Styles of radical will. New YorkPicador Press. Zizek, S. (2008). Violence. Picador Press.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Digital Games: They are games that can be played through any device that is technological. Homo Aestheticus: Homo Aestheticus is a concept that expresses that the human species evolved with art, aesthetic, and their influence. Reception Analysis: These are the in-depth studies of how the visual or audio elements of a work has interpreted by the present people and what affects they created. Violence: A behaviour that contain force that designed for harm to a person or anything that is physical or not.

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For releated image: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=47&v=PktUzdnBqWI&fea ture=emb_title (Access Date:12.12.2019). The years in the generation rankings mentioned above may vary according to criteria such as the arrival time of technological developments in the region where the classification is made, and the country. Said approaches and theories can be listed as “Instictive Approach, Impulse Theories, Intergeneretşonal Transition Theory, Rational Emotional Theory, Social-Cognitive Learn,ng Theory, Behavioral Approach, Biological Theory, Social and Feminist Theory.” For detailed information: (Erdem, 2020: pp. 1203-1205). With the word “viewers”, in addition to the viewers, readers, listeners, users are also meant. Briefly the theory is argue that people tend to estimate that mass communication has more impact on others’ attitudes and behaviour then their own impact. More spesifically, individuals who are members of a mass who are subjected to persuasive communication expect communication to have more impact on others than themselves. And this may cause them to take some actions, whether individuals are among the visible followers of the message, the effect they expect this communication to have on others. Therefore any effect the communication achieves is not from the reaction of the apparent audience. It may be due to the behavior of those who guess or perceive the reaction of others (Davison, 1983: p. 3). According to Huizinga; “Chess exhilarates the viewers although lacks any visible beauty and culturally inefficient” (Huizinga, 2017: p. 77). https://www.overwolf.com/ ve https://newzoo.com/ information about games such as that and information from sites that support game development are reflected. For place images: https://www.rexgaming.net/threads/oyun-modlar%C4%B1-lol.3/ (Access Date:27.12.2019). For blood images: http://ava7.com/w/games/league-of-legends/league-of-legends-game-lol-vladimirevil-blood-red.jpg ; https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcShizF9Og2lQR3b 8KlC1sq-uEsGlRMd7OlHPELPZp8LRD_YS9rozQ&s (Access Date: 24.02.2020). For character and their costume: https://tr.leagueoflegends.com/tr-tr/champions/ (Access date: 24.02.2020)

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Reality Augmented Nightmares or Experiences of Fear Munevver Elif Gurses Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Sena Sahin Ondokuz Mayis University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Virtual reality- and augmented reality-supported games can be used to appeal to all tastes and audiences, especially for people who seek adventure, adrenaline, and fear and who want to take a break from their daily life with action. The element of fear, which has been used frequently in every branch of art, has been indispensable in the field of entertainment and art, although it is far from the functioning of this feeling. When we look at the purpose of fear, it is an unconscious sensation that allows the person to take action against a situation that threatens or endangers the life of the person. The person is afraid of danger and develops a reaction to the situation. Fear within the boundaries of entertainment and art, although parallel to this situation, is a controlled and safe form of true fear. Fear of man in the face of art or game area creates emotional satisfaction because it will not cause a life threat. For this reason, films and games created, especially in the genre of fear, are indispensable for the masses.

INTRODUCTION In today’s world where technological developments have reached the points, we could not imagine in the past, the experiences we have through technology surprise us no longer. Through virtual reality and augmented reality technologies, the limitations imposed by the material body on the human are being eliminated, and in this way, the human being can access anywhere any time and even the reality s/he wishes for. These new technologies used for many purposes from social responsibility to tourism, education to entertainment have been one of the biggest helpers of people who are overwhelmed by monotony in destroying the walls of mundaneness. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4655-0.ch029

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 Reality Augmented Nightmares or Experiences of Fear

Games, which have been one of the most basic activities of the human ever since his/her existence have never lost their importance, though their methods and objectives have changed. The game has now become a more precious task in the lives of today’s people who are depressed by the monotony of everyday life. Games, which the postmodern human sees as the doors opening to other universes in the voids of his/her ordinary life, as Huizinga states, are unusual experiences that the human being can dive into under his control. In this way, individuals can have the experience they want through the identities of their choice and return to their daily lives thereafter. During these experiences, a person can die, resurrect and even determine his/her destiny, which grants him/her the ability of “being godlike”, which s/ he has always dreamed of. Games supported with virtual reality and augmented reality that appeal to all tastes and audiences are almost cut out for people who are after especially adventure, adrenaline and horror and want to take a break filled with action from their daily lives. The element of horror, which has been used frequently in every branch of art since the past, has been indispensable especially in the field of entertainment and art, although they are far from the functioning of this emotion. Looking at the purpose of its existence, fear is an unconscious feeling that develops in a creature for him/her to take precautions against a situation that threatens or endangers his/her life. The creature feels afraid in the face of danger and develops a reaction against the situation. Fear that the human being experiences in front of a work of art or inside the environment of a game creates emotional satisfaction, as it would not lead to life-threatening danger. That is why movies and games created especially in the horror genre are indispensable for the masses. Horror games, supported by virtual reality and augmented reality technologies, go one step beyond the old horror games, immersing the player in meticulously created narratives filled with horror and removing the boundary between the game and the real world. In this context, it is not unexpected that these new-generation games, which directly transform the space itself into a controllable nightmare, have become popular among players quickly. Therefore, especially game producers continue along this axis by taking the support provided by new technologies behind them. The advanced graphics being detached from the ordinary strings and aestheticized further increases the interest in the genre and promises players even higher levels of pleasure. However, the use of the Gothic in games, which is one of the sub-types of horror, adds aesthetic richness to the virtual reality experience. The connection of the Gothic genre with many art branches and the past leads to the support of aesthetic experience by using aesthetic means. The widespread virtual reality games and the increasing possibilities of technology have opened the doors to a new world for game producers. The capability of manipulating not only the player’s mental perceptions but also his/her physical perceptions has blurred the boundaries between the created game universe and the real world. Besides, both involving a genre such as horror with a huge fan base in virtual reality technology and bringing the experience closer to reality whet the game producers’ appetite. Virtual reality technology entering the game universe and promising a future in the context of transmedia storytelling means that this technology will be mentioned a lot in the future as well.

BACKGROUND In this study, Kobold Short Film, Kobold VR Game and its mythological background will be discussed through the aesthetics of reception theory. Aesthetics of Reception theory argues that the reader fills the gaps left in the literary texts on purpose or unknowingly with a subjective perspective. Therefore, every reading assumes a unique quality. Transmedial products that different formal and textual features 593

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are interconnected through their stories. Transmedia moves the reader/audience/listener from a passive position to an active position. However, when one of the rings of the transmedial chain is game, the idea that the gamer has always been active becomes predominant. Therefore, applying aesthetics of reception theory to games can cause hesitation. However, narrative and interactive games also contain as many gaps as films or literary texts. Therefore, the same game being played by different people creates unique experiences and meanings. In this context, the Kobold narrative created in the triangle of mythological, cinematic and game universe will be considered based on the views of different viewers and game players, and the uniqueness of both subjective interpretations and the varying interpretations between transmedial products will be revealed.

THE AURA OF SIMULATION OR THE UNIQUENESS OF EXPERIENCE Virtual reality experience begins with the transfer of perceptions into the virtual universe. The closure of the eyes and ears to the outside world through the virtual reality headset and the feedback of body movements coming from the virtual universe cause the “moment” experience to be felt in the virtual environment. The transfer of some of the perceptions and body activity lets the person experience the illusion of being “both there and here”. At the same time, drawing attention to the virtual environment through stories enables the experience of “being inside”. What is desired to be done here is to block the perceptions against the outside world and to transfer the existence into the virtual. The body and the perceptions it mediates enable the information coming from the outside world to be conveyed to the human. What virtual reality technology does is to transfer the information it gives to the human as if it was “coming from the outside world”. In light of the information received, human movements’ finding an equivalent in the virtual environment supports the experience of “being inside”. The virtual reality experience consists of four components, which are the virtual world, immersing, sensory feedback and interaction (Sherman and Graig, 2003). The virtual world is an environment where physical reality is reproduced thanks to technology. Virtual worlds, in which reality changes shape through networks, promise the experience of imagination by removing the restriction of the body’s being here and now. “A virtual world is the content of a given medium. It may exist solely in the mind of its originator or be broadcast in such a way that it can be shared with others” (Sherman and Graig, 2003:6). As well as creating his/her alternative reality by creating his/her virtual world, the human being can find the opportunity to experience the reality created by someone else and to communicate with other people through virtual worlds. The reason why the virtual world is so “attractive is that it is a remote, untouchable and fictional place. It is seen as an alternative world in which our desires and dreams will find more comfort” (Robins, 2013: 40). The use of the term world can lead to some illusions; what is meant here is not an act of leaving the real world completely and moving to another world. It refers to a space created by the physical and virtual worlds through computer technologies (Jakobsson, 2006). The participant can explore the virtual world over networks without leaving the physical world and can experience both the physical world and the virtual world without interruption, depending on the interaction of his/her action. Virtual worlds can blur the boundaries of the physical world and uniquely contribute to the participant’s experience, thanks to the possibility of real-time interaction. “A virtual world is a synchronous, multi-user system that offers a persistent spatial environment for iconically represented participants” (Jakobsson, 2006: 27). Virtual worlds set the framework for the virtual reality experience. It is now possible to create an infinite number of experiences and an infinite number of virtual world 594

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designs that one can think of. The virtual world that clarifies the space of the virtual covers its meanings and elements. Immersion is an essential component for creating an absorbing virtual reality experience. Immersion means being immersed (inside). It can be realized physically (sensory) and mentally. When a person manages to enter the virtual world physically or mentally, the experience that emerges can become personal and unique. “Physical immersion is accomplished by presenting a virtual world to users based on their location and orientation and providing synthetic stimuli to one or more of their senses in response to their position and actions” (Sherman and Graig, 2003:328). For the user to explore the virtual world as s/he wishes, the visual and auditory senses can also change form according to the actions of the user, and they can be increased and decreased. Just like when we take action with objects in the physical world, the user can hold objects in the virtual world, hear voices, and see the direction s/he looks when s/he changes his/her vantage point. The level of physical immersion/involvement enhances the sense of being in the perception of the virtual world, allowing the user to focus sensually. However, the actions of holding and touching in the virtual world are created with the individual’s senses of seeing and hearing. When connected with the virtual world, the human’s senses of touch, smell and taste are open to the stimuli of the real world. “Mental immersion state of being deeply engaged; suspension of disbelief; involvement” (Sherman and Graig, 2003:9). The level of mental immersion/involvement takes shape according to the outcomes of the experience. In the virtual world, the user can internalize his/her experience to the degree that s/he knows how much s/he exists there and mentally focuses and acts by feeling belonging there. The main purpose of the immersion is to perceive physical existence in a virtual world that cannot physically exist. The concept of existence and the sense of existence are hidden in virtual reality. The more the feeling of being involved in the virtual world is experienced with focusing and sensory processes similar to the physical reality, the more valuable virtual reality experience becomes. Sensory feedback is the ability of the participant to receive feedback based on the location and status of the actions taken by the participant in the virtual world. To provide sensory feedback, virtual reality can follow the presence and movements of the participant in the physical world, perceive the reactions of the participant and shape the virtual world according to the actions and reactions of the participant. When the participant leans to the ground in the physical world and acts to hold the object, it senses the movement in the virtual world and gives feedback to the participant regarding the action of holding. The fact that the participant can get feedback simultaneously with the location s/he is in and action provides virtual reality with the opportunity to offer an experience different from other technologies. “Unlike more traditional media, VR allows participants to select their vantage point by positioning their body and to affect events in the virtual world. These features help to make the reality more compelling than a media experience without these options” (Sherman and Graig, 2003: 10). The interaction reinforces the feeling of the user being in the virtual world. The user has the power to influence and direct events and situations by interacting with objects and characters in the virtual world. The person who is likely to pay the price when s/he tries to change the reality he has in the physical world finds the opportunity to manipulate the reality in the virtual reality universes any way s/he wants. “Manipulating a virtual world one of the major benefits of being in an interactive virtual space is the ability to interact with, or manipulate, the objects in that space” (Sherman and Graig, 2003: 286). Experiencing reality in the physical world can lead to dangers. Thanks to the virtual world, the human can experience and interact with an infinite number of scenarios that may come to mind without any threat and direct the events

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with his/her actions and behaviors. Thanks to the interaction component, the experience becomes close to physical reality. In virtual worlds, interaction occurs not only with the objects, but also between users in virtual reality applications that support multiple users. In virtual worlds that can support multi-user structure, the user can use the virtual world as a common area with other users, build his/her reality as well as discovering the reality of others, or perceive and interact with other users. In this way, the user can experience both his/her reality and the reality of other users. The degrees that virtual worlds allow the user to interact may differ. While some of the created virtual worlds offer limited interaction to the user, some virtual worlds have an infinite number of interaction algorithms. When we look at virtual reality games, interaction in some games is limited in line with the goal and purpose of the game. In some other games, by interacting with every object, place and character in the virtual world, the user can turn user interaction into the main goal of the game by including them in the event flow of the game. In these games, the experience of the user becomes unique, since the story in which the user is involved through interaction becomes personalized. In this context, increased interaction opportunity in virtual reality games makes the gaming experience “unique” for every user and during every replay. The variability of the choices made during the game guides the player to different ways.

TRANSMEDIA STORYTELLING IN ALTERNATIVE REALITY UNIVERSES Attaining a new form of reality through virtual reality and augmented reality technologies, the human being can build his/her alternative reality universes or discover the story of the universes that someone else has built. “Transmedia storytelling is an umbrella term that encompasses many types of projects from pervasive games and alternate reality games (ARG) to interactive web series and movie-book franchises” (Pratten, 2015:13). Henry Jenkins discusses the transmedia storytelling in the Brave New Media book as follows; A transmedia story emerges on various media platforms with new texts, each of which makes a different and valuable contribution to the whole. In the ideal form of transmedia storytelling, each media tool does what it does best; so, a story is introduced in a movie, expanded by television, novels and comic books; its world can be explored by playing games or it is experienced as an amusement park attraction (Jenkins, 2018:144) The most important point that makes transmedia storytelling different is that the story is shaped by the language, features and structure of the medium in different channels without changing the main theme of the story. It gives the viewer the chance to experience the same main story in different media through different narrative angles. Transmedia storytelling, which divides the whole into pieces and distributes the clues among the media invites the participant, who wants to solve the mystery of the story, on a cross-media journey to bring together clues. The story is divided into narrative pieces according to the media it is presented in. Each medium can process each cue in its own specific way and present the story with a unique experience. Since the story in different media can create its own narrative universe without detaching from the main theme, the viewer who wants so can also prefer the narrative universe in the medium in which it is presented instead of reaching the entire narrative universe. When the nar-

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rative universes in different media are brought together, the whole story emerges. In his book, Robert Pratten explains the fragmented structure of transmedia storytelling as follows; Telling a story across multiple platforms, preferably allowing audience participation, such that each successive platform heightens the audience’s enjoyment. To do this successfully, the embodiment of the story in each medium needs to be satisfying in its own right while enjoyment from all the media should be greater than the sum of the parts (Pratten, 2015: 2). When the audience reaches the delight of exploring the narrative universes in different media, they become eager to experience the narrative universes in all the media where the story exists to solve the mystery of the whole story. In transmedia storytelling, the viewer is not only in the position of seeing the story; transmedia storytelling invites to the viewer to be included in the story universe. In this way, the audience can participate in the narrative universe by contributing to the story by way of accessing narrative universes through the media and turn the story into a personal experience. Transmedia storytelling consists of four layers: Experience, Narrative, Presentation and Interaction (Pratten, 2015). The experience layer provides the opportunity for the viewer to be involved in the fictional universe created by the story by following the story in different media with different narrative angles and to experience the story by personalizing it. Experience in transmedia storytelling has a spiral structure. Each medium that the viewer follows allows him/her to discover the same story with multiple experiences through different narrative angles. The narrative layer describes the universe on which the story is based, its characters and the relationships between the characters. The most important point that distinguishes transmedia storytelling from classical storytelling is that it has a strong, versatile and interaction-enabling narrative structure that can be spread across media. In transmedia storytelling, it is necessary to divide the story into narrative parts, but not independent of the whole, and each separated part must contain a different narrative from the other. The versatility of the narrative layer reinforces the audience’s desire to be involved in the narrative and encourages them to interact. The presentation layer covers the media and media platforms where the transmedia story is created. Multimedia platforms in which the story takes place in the transmedia story should be created in a planned way to ensure the flow of the story and attract the attention of the target audience. The selected media platforms should be such that the user can easily follow the story, create content and be involved in the story. The interaction layer defines the created universe of the story, allowing the viewer to participate in the universe as a participant. Another feature that distinguishes transmedia storytelling from the classical narrative is that the created story universe has interactive content. The interaction layer is the intersection set of where all the other layers merge. In transmedia storytelling, the narrative, experience and presentation layers aim the audience to be in a participatory and interactive narrative universe. Virtual reality and augmented reality video games constitute a suitable platform for transmedia storytelling, as virtual reality and augmented reality technologies can provide a basis for real-time interaction, blurring the boundaries between virtual and reality through an alternative reality universe. Transmedia storytelling can enable the participant to interact with a story universe in which s/he can be included in the story, and thanks to virtual reality technologies, to direct the story with his/her real-time actions and be part of the narrative. As the interactive story created in the alternative reality universes is based on the actions of the participants, it is the participant who decides how and in which direction the story will proceed. Since the story will be shaped according to the action, it should have a strong and versatile narrative structure that the participant may want to be in. Since the story does not have a specific end, 597

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the story turns into a process and gains a changeable quality with the experience of the participant. By personalizing the story s/he is involved in this process, the participant personalizes the pleasure and experience s/he gets at the same time. Transmedia storytelling complements the aesthetic aspect of building alternative reality universes. Video games can offer only a limited story to the participant for the created universe. The participant passes to analyzing the event part of the narrative directly by having superficial information on the character, space and time, which are parts of the narrative. However, when the created universes have a transmedia storytelling aspect, the participant can get the opportunity to experience by exploring the created universe by having a deep knowledge about other parts of the narrative through other platforms.

THE APPEAL OF FEAR Fear is an emotion that is among the basic emotions of living things and surfaces in the face of danger. Unlike happiness, sadness and other emotions, fear is important for the creature to survive. This is because in the event of danger or risk that the creature is faced with, fear is felt, and measures can be taken. Fear works in a sense as a defense mechanism that the creature develops instinctively. The reaction after the feeling of fear is important in terms of the survival of the creature. But why do people willingly experience an emotion that triggers such a mechanism, and why do they get pleasure as a result? The answer to this question arises from the distance of the factor that triggers fear to the human. People want to feel the fear, which is embedded in their genetic codes, as well as other emotions. This is important in terms of breaking the monotonous chain of life. But life-threatening or risk situation destroys the pleasure that comes as a result of fear. Instead, people experience fear by facing up to the dangers and risks at a safe distance. Throughout history, art has met the aforementioned need of people. However, today this situation is not only limited to art, but also finds itself a place in the fields of entertainment and sports. Looking at risk and danger from a safe distance through extreme sports, horror games, amusement parks and of course horror movies and series fascinates postmodern people. These activities, which are carried out to interrupt the monotonous flow of daily life are in a very valuable position in today’s postmodern world, where life safety and health facilities are improving. At the same time, the fact that the factors which trigger fear cannot be encountered in the flow of everyday life increases the pleasure that follows fear many times over. Speaking of the strong link between fear and the Supreme, Edmond Burke refers to fear as the basic principle of the Supreme. According to him, fear gives pleasure when it is at a certain distance. In parallel with this view, Oscar Wilde establishes a connection between art and fear. He connects the feeling of fear that art provides and the pleasure that comes with this feeling to the safe limits of art. To him, art scares us but cannot touch us. Therefore, it is normal for us to run to the safe arms of art instead of feeling fear in the face of danger (Svendsen, 2017). Similarly, Thomas Fahy talks about why fear gives pleasure within the boundaries of art and entertainment with these words: Just as audiences crave the fear it elicits; they also take pleasure in its predictability. It is this safety net of predictability — of closing a book, of leaving the theater when the lights go back on, or of knowing that a professional skydiver will pull the cord to your parachute — that enables us to enjoy the thrilling, horrifying journey. It is this safety net that makes horror so much fun (Fahy, 2010: 12).

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“Safety net” in Fahy’s perspective corresponds to the “distance” of Wilde and Burke. Factors such as looking at fear from a safe distance and controlling getting away from the source of fear are among the reasons for the fictional fear to be fun. Noel Carrol, on the other hand, looks at the issue of fear and pleasure from another perspective. The key to Carroll’s argument is “the monster” (Carroll, 1990: 189). According to him, the art of horror turns people’s current fears into a monster, and people know that these monsters do not exist in real life, and that they are the products of the fictional creation. Facing fear in the artistic field and its incarnation make these fears destructible. Fear experienced especially in narrative art products turns into a pleasure element when the “monster” is defeated at the end of the narrative or only after the narrative ends. At this point, what is achieved in horror films is similar to the narratives in mythologies, religions and fairy tales from past to present. Clarifying, embodiment and contrasting the boundaries between good and evil show parallelism with the works that humanity has listened to/read since childhood. In any product created in the horror genre, whether the villain is a human, a monster, a paranormal entity or an object, it is comforting for the audience/listener/reader to know that they do not exist in the real world. But it does not seem likely to give an exact answer to the question of “why does fear entertain?”, which has long been discussed in the fields of psychoanalysis, art and philosophy. One of the main reasons for this is that fear is not so much fun for everyone. While some people have fun with horror movies, some cannot even look at the screen or get out of its influence after watching the movie. However, it is a fact that compared to other genres, horror can show its effect with physical symptoms such as increased heart rate, shuddering hair, yelling or hiding. In this context, the fear that one feels unconsciously in the face of danger is powerful enough to impede “moments”, even through art. As mentioned before, extreme sports, horror games, movies, TV series and many more for the sake of the feeling of fear are an escape route to break the monotonous functioning of today’s postmodern world. The possibility to experience things that will not happen to the human in the flow of daily life connects him/her to the “moment” by removing him/her from the flow. In the postmodern process, which is already focused on the future, for the postmodern person trying to stay in the “moment”, this situation is of jewel quality. Leaving aside responsibility and seriousness and even forgetting about them promise him/her the experience s/he desires.

‘’ EMPATHY ‘’ FOR THE DEVIL Horror and suspense are the genres that are frequently used in all media products. These genres, which have been preferred for a long time especially in movies, series and video games, have caused the question of “how can negative emotions be entertaining” to be discussed a lot. At this point, Zillmann’s (1978) explanation shows parallelism with Aristotle’s famous “mimesis” and “katharsis” equation. Aristotle presents mimesis and katharsis in his Poetica as an equation to describe the relief experienced through art. In Poetica, mimesis, which means imitation, and the purification, relief, and catharsis that come as a result of watching or hearing this mimesis are mentioned in tragedy. While the audience/listener experiences the work of art, s/he experiences a similar sadness and distress by putting himself/herself in the shoes of the protagonists. At the end of the work of art, with the problem being solved and the disappearance of the element of sorrow, the audience/listener gets relaxed and relieved of trouble. This relaxation is a pleasure experienced through art. Similarly, Zillmann argues that in horror films during the scenes loaded with horror and suspense, dysphoric and negative emotions dominate the viewer. However, 599

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when the problem is resolved at the end of the movie, it turns the negative emotions experienced by the audience into positive and leaves its place to relaxation and entertainment. In this context, “empathy” plays an important role. The viewer’s empathizing with the character in the movie is shown as the key point for entertainment to be experienced. However, the body, story, decisions and many other features of the character presented to the audience in the movies can open the distance between the audience and the character. Therefore, when viewed from the perspective of experience, there are unfortunate events or bad situations “happening to someone else” created in the movies. However, video games and VR games distinguish from the movies at this point and offer the player an experience of “being inside”. A new generation of interactive games that position the player in the body of the game character creates a sense of domination in the player and in this way supports the experience of “being inside” (Rouse, 2009: 20). Thus, in an immersive horror game, the player experiences “self-protection”. Of course, it is not possible to say that the concept of empathy does not apply to video games or VR games. This is because although the character in the game seems to be controlled by the player, the story, purpose and many other features of the mentioned character are predetermined. The purpose of the character may be to save the world or fight the evil as well as committing assassination or theft. In this context, the player, to win or finish the game, must fulfill the tasks that the game universe and the character s/he controls want him/her to do. French sociologist Roger Caillois (2001) considers games in two genres. These genres, which he calls “ludus” and “paidia”, differ in terms of their goals. Paidia games are intended to create a story with toys or “pretend”. In Paidia games, there is no target, winning or losing situation. Instead, goals such as experiencing the created situation and swaying in imaginary scenarios stand out. In such games, empathy is more important. This is because integration with the created character will increase the player’s motivation to experience and navigate the game universe itself. At the same time, aesthetic pleasure is higher in paidia games than in ludus games. This is because the goal in paidia games is not to win or lose, but the game universe itself. In Ludus games, in contrast to the paidia type, the goal is to advance to the target, win or fulfill the tasks. Although the game universe supports motivation, the important thing is to reach the goal. In Ludus games, it is more important to sympathize with the situation and purpose of the game universe than to empathize with the character. Thus, the player will have more motivation for the tasks or goals s/he will fulfill. Therefore, it does not matter whether the goal is good or bad in ludus games; the important thing is that the player achieves the necessary motivation to win the game. In parallel with Caillois, Marie-Laure Ryan treats the genres of ludus and paidia as “playable stories” and “narrative games” in the context of video games. In his article titled From Narrative Games to Playable Stories, Ryan explains the logic of narrative games and playable stories with the following words: While narrativity is a type of meaning, interactivity, when put in the service of entertainment, is a type of play. The combination of narrativity and interactivity oscillates between two forms: the narrative game, in which narrative meaning is subordinated to the player’s actions, and the playable story, in which the player’s actions are subordinated to narrative meaning. Or, to put it differently, in a narrative game, story is meant to enhance gameplay, while in a playable story, gameplay is meant to produce a story (Ryan, 2009: 45). From the perspective offered by Ryan, playable stories correspond to the genre of paidia of video games. The playable stories, the most important point of which is the experience of the game universe, include modern role-playing games such as “The Sims”, interactive dramas and simulations. Ryan’s 600

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narrative games, on the other hand, correspond to Caillois’s ludus games. What is important in this kind of games, as in ludus, is to achieve the goal, to complete the task and win.

UNCANNINESS OF THE LUDIC-GOTHIC Horror is a genre that created much controversy, especially from the perspective of movies. The reason for this is that horror has different sub-genres. At the same time, horror, by its nature, can be combined with other genres besides its sub-genres and yield hybrid products. According to Brigid Cherry, although this problem manifests itself in each of the genres, it is much more complicated, especially in terms of the horror genre. This is because according to him, the horror genre includes many different sub-genres that combine within the framework of its “scary feature”. Cherry lists the genres he speaks of from a cinematic perspective as follows: ‘’ Gothic ‘’, ‘’ Supernatural, Occult and Ghost Movies’’, ‘’Psychological Horror’’, ‘’Monster Movies’’, ‘’ Slasher ‘’, ‘’ Body Horror, Splatter and Gore (blood) Movies’’ and ‘’ Abuse Cinema, Ugly Videos or Other Extreme Violence Movies ‘’ (Cherry, 2014: 19-20). To him, the reason why the problematic of the horror genre is more complex than other genres is that the sub-genres of horror mentioned can also form hybrid genres with other genres. Besides, in his book titled Horror, Cherry, who also touches on the cinematic features that increase the element of fear, talks about the effect of the camera angle. In an uncanny or scary scene, the camera angle positioned to the vantage point of the film character allows the viewer to experience the scene through the eyes of the character. In this context, the audience can become more immersed in the reality of the created environment, thus feeling more afraid (Cherry, 2014). This feature is in parallel with the “view” that was mentioned earlier, which supports the experience of “being inside” of virtual reality. The positioning of the body in the virtual environment through the eyes of the character helps to support the reality that is tried to be created in the mind of the viewer/player. Cherry points out that the creation of the uncanny effect in the cinematic universe occurs not only in the content of the work but also in the context of the device; ” Prawer (1990) and Abbott (2004) state that fear is cut out for cinema because it has a double-sided face that resembles a ghost.’’ (Cherry, 2014: 126). The technique of cinema that plays with time, space and reality becomes more uncanny when it comes to virtual reality games. Because virtual reality blocks some of the perceptions, responds to body movements, and the device is positioned in the eye, it is perceived as if there is no device in between, which blurs the boundaries between reality and the media. This situation provides an “uncanny” experience, since the environment and activity that are familiar to people take place in the unknown world. According to Cherry, the concept of psychoanalytic “uncanny” can be directly linked to the effects shaped by cinematic horror images (Cherry, 2014: 106). The concept of “uncanny” that Freud (1919) discussed in his famous article was evaluated not only as beauty, but also as “emotional qualities” and aesthetics in the context of works of art. The word “unheimlich” in Freud’s essay is a German word and is the antonym for the word “heimlich” in the same language. These words are reflected in English as “uncanny” and “canny”, respectively. Looking at the origin of the German word, “heim” means “home”. Freud uses “heimlich” to mean “like home”, “familiar”, “known”, and treats “unheimlich” as “not from home”, “unknown” (Freud, 2019). But his “uncanny” is not literally “unfamiliar”. According to Freud, the uncanny is strangely familiar; it is what was once known but forgotten. For example, likening the object seen in the darkness to a human silhouette creates an uncanny effect. Uncanny effect is both a perception and a state of excitement (Cherry, 2014: 106). 601

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In his essay, Freud explains the concept of uncanny in the context of psychoanalysis and aesthetics. Freud, who examines the uncanny over the horror story of E.T.A. Hoffmann’s famous “Sandman/Der Sandmann”, establishes a relationship between the artwork and the uncanny effect. The insecure and uneasy effect that the feeling of the uncanny created with the possibilities of artistic editing on the viewer/ reader/listener makes the subject feel causes arousal of curiosity rather than detachment from the work of art. In this context, the concern that the uncanny situation experienced in the flow of daily life may create can be an aesthetic pleasure tool when it is experienced in the framework of art. Edmund Burke’s artistic equation between fear and the Supreme is also explanatory when it comes to the uncanny. According to him, if there is a distance between us and fear and if it will not harm us, it leads to pleasure. The fear experienced through art also entirely falls under Burke’s category of harmless fear. Although experiencing the uncanny through a work of art creates an instant inhibition on the viewer/ reader/listener, the comfort of being within safe limits enables pleasure. The connection of the Supreme, which is at the center of the uncanny effect, with the supernatural and the unknown brings it closer to the Gothic genre as well. In her book titled Screening the Gothic, Lisa Hopkins establishes a tactical link between the Gothic and the uncanny. Hopkins says that Gothic literature and Gothic movies generally use the tactic which she calls “Gothicizing”. To her; In the first place, Gothic tends to create polarities: extreme good is opposed to extreme evil, extreme innocence to extreme power, and very often extreme youth to extreme age… And yet at the same time, there is an uncanny sense that the polarizations so beloved of the Gothic are not in fact as absolute as they seem - that things which appear to be opposite can be frighteningly, uncannily similar (Hopkins, 2005: xii). Based on Freud’s essay, Masschelein (2011) places the “uncanny” in the “other” position. According to him, the uncanny is the opposite of the normal in both the cultural field and the subject’s position. That is, the abnormal against the normal… However, this contrast is, as Hopkins puts it “uncannily similar.” For example, according to Freud, the contrast between living and inanimate can be clearly identified. But if what we call inanimate is a toy that is very similar to human, this can create an uncanny effect on the subject. The blurring of the difference between living and inanimate can make it uncanny. A painting that makes people feel uncanny does not have to be scary. The distance of the painting from the natural or being too close to the natural can leave an uncanny effect. Freud argues that the fictional universe of works of art is cut out for the “uncanny” effect. Experiencing the uncanny effect in real life does not happen very often, but due to the nature of the fictional universe, its imagination and creative structure make things that cannot happen in real life possible. The close relationship of the Gothic genre with the uncanny is not just limited to what Hopkins spoke of. At the point where horror and Gothic genres diverge, the paths of the uncanny and the Gothic converge. According to Laurie N. Taylor (2009), fear transcends the boundaries in an order. While the Gothic is defined by the experience of transcending borders that can produce fear, fear is the crossing of the borders to experience fear (Taylor, 2009: 50). Cherry, on the other hand, defines the Gothic genre as follows: ‘’ Movies based on classic horror stories often borrowed from novels and mythology and the adaptation of existing horror monsters or spooky creatures ‘’ (Cherry, 2014: 19). From the perspective of Taylor and Cherry, the Gothic is closer to dread rather than horror. Horror can be defined as the suspense that occurs as a result of the acquired fears. For example, fear of dentists does not mean being afraid of dentists. It is being afraid of the pain resulting from the dentist’s procedures. Similarly, fear of 602

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a barking dog does not mean fear of the dog itself. The fear here is to fear the pain that the dog can cause (Hanich, 2010: 157). The feeling of horror is the fear of the possibilities attributed to something, without any incident. In this context, the use of known horror monsters, which is one of the characteristics of the Gothic genre and maintaining the uncanny effect throughout the process reveal its closeness to horror. The Gothic genre has occupied a certain place in different art branches throughout the ages and has reached today with its accumulation, which has given it a comprehensive and original quality. The Gothic, which inspired various art branches from the architecture to painting, sculpture to literature, and from movies to drama has also kept pace with the ages. For this reason, the Gothic, in whatever type it manifests itself, creates unique effects in the space, time, narrative, characters, story and style of the fiction. Splendid and dark places, haunted houses, melancholy and uncanny ambiance, creatures that leap from mythology and old literary works, dark stories, secrets, depressive thoughts and past fears are the favorite elements of the Gothic genre. For this reason, the aim of any product inspired by the Gothic genre is to create suspense in the audience/listener/reader that climbs through the finely crafted product rather than intimidating. In her work on the Gothic genre, Dani Cavallaro mentions three components of the Gothic narrative. These are ‘’dark places’’, ‘’dark times’’, and ‘’dark psyche’’ (Cavallaro, 2002). Spaces such as abandoned places, dilapidated castles, haunted houses, hidden dungeons, which are frequently used by the Gothic narrative, are included in Cavallaro’s dark places. The dark times are days, nights, seasons or years. However, in the Gothic narrative, these times become intricate such as day in the night and summer in the winter. Blurring the boundaries between dark and light, both spatially and temporally, paves the way for the dark psyche that Cavallaro speaks of. The Gothic mood varies with neurotic, psychotic, and paranoid tendencies (Cavallaro, 2002: 21). This results from the blurring of said boundaries. The contrast of darkness and light, often used by religions and mythologies, determines the boundary between good and evil. Transcending the boundaries of this contrast that humanity is used to is the mainstay of the dark mood. Along with the changing time, the Gothic genre also kept pace with age. The Gothic, which connects with the present without escaping from the past (Cavallaro, 2002: 9) still maintains its existence today. The Gothic genre, the traces of which can be found in fashion, cinema, plays, literature and many other fields, has also adapted to the age we live in. Digitalization and transforming media frequently use the Gothic genre, which is very popular. These products, which promise “dark and uncanny” experiences to their target audiences in films and literature, invite the masses directly into the experiences thanks to technological possibilities. Particularly video games, virtual reality and augmented reality games supported by ready-made narratives offer their target audience interactivity and the experience of “being inside”. In this way, while the players who can exist in the Gothic universe can experience the aesthetic richness of the genre, they can also approach closer to the source of fear. While approaching the source of fear supports the reality of the experience, it creates both aesthetic and psychological pleasure. The concept of “ludic-gothic”, put forward by Laurie Taylor in the context of the combination of ludus games and the Gothic genre, is used to describe escape-themed Gothic-horror games (Taylor, 2009). For games utilizing the procedural rhetoric of subversion taken from the Gothic, along with aesthetic and thematic concerns from the Gothic and horror, ludic-gothic becomes a more analytically productive classification (Taylor, 2009: 50).

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Besides the processing of the Gothic genre with its aesthetic elements and narrative style, the main feature of these games is that they have the qualities of ludus games such as goal, winning or completing the task. When the rich aesthetic experience that ludic-gothic video games promise players is combined with the experience of “being inside” of virtual reality technology, it enables perceptions and pleasure to approach the game universe. According to Taylor, new genres like ludic-gothic help to understand the relationship between elements such as aesthetics, narrative, game and play environment with other basic forms and to determine the relationships with other cultural elements that games interact with (Taylor, 2009: 58).

METHOD Per the study, Kobold short film and Kobold VR game released by Another World VR, which is a VR production and game development organization, in November 2018 will be examined. The organization has prepared a short film to strengthen the background of the game they have prepared and produced a transmedial production by strengthening the experience with the game. The prepared movie tells the story of the game dating back to 40 years and offers the viewer gaps to be explored in the game. At the same time, “Kobold”, who is the demonic character of both the game and the movie, being an entity that has survived from German mythology and pre-Christian pagan narratives also pushes the viewer/ player to do research. In this context, the viewer/player performs his/her producer-consumer role not only in a future-oriented way by playing the game, but also retrospectively by researching the underlying folkloric story. The movie and the game discussed in this context will be analyzed with the aesthetics of reception method. Aesthetics of reception is a theory proposed by Hans Robert Jauss in 1967. To him, In the triangle of author, work, and public the last is no passive part, no chain of mere reactions, but rather itself an energy formative of history. The historical life of a literary work is unthinkable without the active participation of its addressees. For it is only through the process of its mediation that the work enters into the changing horizon-of-experience of a continuity in which the perpetual inversion occurs from simple reception to critical understanding, from passive to active reception, from recognized aesthetic norms to a new production that surpasses them (Jauss, 1982: 19). Jauss argues that no work can be considered separately from the reader’s accumulation. The works are interpreted by blending with the reader’s past experiences, knowledge and even characteristic features. According to Wolfgang Iser, the works consist of two poles as artistic and aesthetic. The artistic pole is the work created by the artist, while the aesthetic pole represents the concretizations of the viewer/listener/reader. Thus, the viewer/listener/reader moves from a passive position to an active one (Iser, 1978). The concepts of “horizon of experience” and “horizon of expectations” that Jauss frequently uses are two important components of aesthetics of reception. The reader’s previous life experiences, readings, beliefs and lifestyle constitute experience horizon (Jauss, 1982). The process of interpretation of the gaps by the reader takes place under the influence of all these elements. The other concept, which is the horizon of expectations is related to the reader’s view of life, his/her unique characteristics and living conditions. In the light of these features, the reader gets into an expectation while making sense of the text. Thus, each different reader can produce different meanings in the same text. At the same time, 604

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Jauss addresses the concept of expectation horizon with two different structures. These are “intellectual expectation” and “aesthetic expectation”. The intellectual expectation expresses the link that the reader establishes between the narrative presented in the text and his/her life and experiences. In this context, intellectual expectation is used to describe the empathetic process that the reader develops towards the text. Situations such as happiness or disappointment experienced at the end of the empathetic process are included in the horizon of expectations. The aesthetic expectation includes the effects that such elements as the way the fiction, the story or subject is handled, and characters, etc. leave on the reader (Jauss, 1982: 168). According to Iser, the author leaves “macro gaps” and “micro gaps” in the text. In this way, the reader is included in the process of interpretation. While the micro gaps mentioned refer to the gaps that can be made sense of through the context of the text, paragraph or sentence, macro gaps mean gaps that the reader can fill through previous life experiences or readings (Iser, 1978). Of course, when one of the rings of the transmedial chain addressed is the game, the fact that the goal is to fill the gaps already left can lead to contradictions in the method. However, that the gaps left regarding the historical and cultural background of the game under consideration are not eliminated even during the game, and the need for the player to make sense makes it possible to apply the aesthetics of reception method. Since the early ages till today, people have always conveyed their experiences through narratives. Narrative analysis is a method that reveals the personal experience of the reader/viewer and helps to interpret not only literary storytelling but also text and content suitable for the subject studied in all areas of social sciences. The data analyzed as narrative in the narrative analysis expresses the participant’s experience about the event and situation. “Narratives can be collected through tape and video recordings or interviews. If narratives are obtained through interviews, this process usually includes situations where open-ended and comprehensive questions are asked and the interviewee is allowed to tell his/her story as uninterrupted as possible” (Glesne, 2015: 257). The narrative analysis can evaluate the narrative from the participant’s perspective by dealing with the content of the narrative and the participant’s narrative style rather than dividing the narrative into pieces. Narrative analysts have argued that traditional qualitative analysis tends to dissect stories during the analysis process, thereby using data out of context and suppressing the narrative. In contrast, narrative analysis is concerned with how the story is told, what is told, what is omitted and what is emphasized. Thus, the key analytical question for narrative researchers is: ‘why did that respondent tell their story in that way? (Bloor and Wood, 2006: 120). Each narrative created contains a certain consistency and order in itself. Even when there are cases where narratives are created randomly and instantaneously, this order remains valid and the narrative is shaped around a specific purpose. The narrative analysis enables the narrative to be analyzed by focusing on the participant’s personal experience. In the light of this information, “Kobold short film” and “Kobold VR game” selected for the analysis section of the study will be examined with the aesthetics of reception method, and concrete and abstract infrastructures will be tried to be revealed. The texts of the interviews held with the participants will be evaluated by citation analysis method. In the research, six questions for the Kobold short film, eight questions for the Kobold VR game and one question for general thinking and experience for both the short film and the game were prepared. These questions were asked to the participants per the semi-structured interview technique. The questions 605

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were aimed at revealing the “interpretation” differences between the viewers and the players, transmedial narratives and each participant. In this context, it was aimed to focus on the differences in reception that occur between transmedial products and participants. Participants were chosen among people who owned a VR game headset by snowball sampling method. A total of seven participants were included in the study, three of whom were male and four were female. Although the personal information of the participants was not included, male participants were coded as E1, E2, E3, and female participants were coded as K1, K2, K3, K4.

AUGMENTED NIGHTMARES: KOBOLD SHORT FILM AND KOBOLD VR GAME Kobold Short Film The 15-minute Kobold short film by Another World VR company is offered to players for the game and used as a tool to describe the event that the game is handling. Although the story of the movie contains the details of the event that the player will investigate in the game, thanks to its detailed structure and successful production, it is a short film with high cinematic quality. The subject of the movie is as follows: Kaspar, a small child, has recently lost his mother (Elisabeth Hutter) and lives with his father (Friedrich Hutter) in their home in the forest. His strong ties with her mother and her mother’s belief in paranormal things have a major influence on Kaspar. His father does not have such beliefs. Listening to the last tape left by his mother in the attic, Kaspar believes in her mother’s suggestions and advice to the fullest. In this tape, her mother tells him that he must be strong, help his father, believe in his imaginary friend Pixi and its magical world. She also says that she did not die, but went on a long journey, and is waiting for Kaspar under the big “tree of life”. According to the words of his mother, Pixi will show the way to bring Kaspar to her. Although Kaspar can see Pixi, he can’t convince his father about it. Pixi sometimes helps Kaspar in things he can’t do but scares him, especially at night, because of its playful attitude. His father, on the other hand, has taken on a depressed mood after his wife’s demise. Therefore, he explains that he has decided to move to the city. However, Kaspar believes that he will meet his mother one day. Kaspar often hears his mother talking to him. His mother repeatedly advises him that he should trust Pixi and follow it. One night, the father listens to the tape Kaspar has found in the attic, and they argue. The father holds mystical beliefs responsible for the death of the mother and says that the mother killed herself because of these beliefs. Kaspar, who is completely against this idea, gets very angry with his father and secretly gets the keys to the locked attic. Seeing that there is a hidden room in the attic, Kaspar enters and crawls forward. Meanwhile, when the father notices Kaspar’s absence and looks into his room, he finds a baby made of branch pieces in his bed. Kaspar continues to advance in the room he enters, but the room is not normal. There are tree branches all over the room and it is dark. After a while he thinks he has seen his mother, but what he sees is Kobold. The child gets scared and begins to run away. As soon as he leaves the room, he finds himself at the entrance of his own house. He quickly goes up to his room, and as he looks at the garden through the window, he sees his father getting into the car with a child that looks like him. Although Kaspar shouts, he cannot make his voice heard to his father, but the child next to his father is aware of the situation. While the boy is getting away from the house with Kaspar’s father, he gives Kaspar a demonic look and the movie ends here.

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This movie takes place in the late 1970s. What makes the movie special is the delicately used details of cultural, mythological and folk legends. With these details, the film fully includes the Gothic components that Cavallaro (2002) mentioned. Dark space, dark time and dark mood elements are provided in the film through an old and uncanny house, the time when the Wall of Berlin did not fall yet, the mysterious death of the mother, and the paranormal events and mythological creatures. The film is finely crafted with many details. Especially the tree of life1 image often appears in the film and forms the context of the story. The necklace with the tree motif left by the mother to Kaspar, the tombstone of the mother under the tree in the garden, the tree figure drawn on the board in Kaspar’s room, the baby made of tree branches in Kaspar’s bed and the inside of the secret room in the attic being covered with tree branches makes the viewer think again and again about the tree of life. At the same time, many gaps are left in the film to encourage the viewer to play the game. Questions such as what happened to the mother, what happened to Kaspar, no information given about Pixi and Kobold, who or what the child with the father remained unanswered. The gaps mentioned at this point will either be filled in during the game or they will find answers with the subjective thoughts of the audience.

Kobold VR Game Kobold VR game developed by Another World VR company is at least as detailed and uncanny as in the movie. With this game, the company was granted many awards such as “the best virtual reality experience” at the 2018 Venice International Film Festival and “the best interactive narrative VR experience” at the Raindance Film Festival. The game takes place 40 years after the story told in the movie. As it is understood from the clue given at the beginning of the game, the player is an “urban legend reporter” and explores the urban legends. The mysterious story of Kaspar Hutter brought the player to the house in the west of Germany. The player aims to solve the mystery based on the clues inside the house. The game starts in a room where the explorer collects information. There is a video on the computer screen. This video consists of the footage of an interview with the professor with whom Elisabeth Hutter is in contact. In the video, the professor tells about his communication with Elisabeth. Elisabeth is a young “mystic” interested in paganism and paranormal events. She communicates with the professor through her studies at the university. However, in the period when the Berlin Wall divided Germany, Elisabeth was in West Germany while the professor was in East Germany. Therefore, they communicate through letters. According to the professor’s report, Elisabeth’s research caused him trouble, and then the young woman disappeared. Then, her husband took Kaspar and moved to the city, but later the child disappeared too. The rumor has it that his father burned Kaspar to death, but the child’s body was never to be found. Then, the player enters the house. The house is very worn out, and constant rush and child voices are coming from the upper floors. These effects greatly increase the uncanny ambiance of the house. Many clues await the player in different rooms of the house. These clues include Elisabeth’s letters to the professor, the professor’s video and audiotapes, the key to the attic and photos. Also, in the game, the letters ‘’ rune”2 are frequently used. The clues about the professor contain information about the letters of rune and Kobold. Many scary images, sounds and details are waiting for the player on the way to the attic. The most important clues of the game are Elisabeth’s letters. These letters greatly illuminate the events conveyed in the movie. In the first letters of the young woman, it is written that they have just moved to the house, have a beautiful life and she continues her research in this house. There are also details such as Kaspar and his invisible friend Pixi getting along well, Pixi bringing them gifts, and Kaspar leaving 607

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milk for Pixi. Neighbors are friendly at first, but Kaspar has no friends to play with. That’s why Pixi’s presence makes the mother happy. However, as can be understood from the letters later, things start to get worse. Elisabeth feels the presence of spirits in the house. Especially in the locked room in the attic, the young woman believes that there is great energy, and tries to open the door. When the player finds the key and goes up to the attic, a room in which rituals are held awaits him. Elisabeth’s last letters are in this room decorated with the letters rune and pagan symbols. In these letters, the young woman mentions that neighbors accuse her of witchcraft, as she cannot trust anyone, including her husband. The most important detail is the change in her thoughts about Pixi. Elisabeth mentions that Pixi is not what she is thinking, is an evil creature, and that Kaspar is in danger. According to her, the only way to protect Kaspar from this creature is to keep it in the room in the attic. Then the player draws ‘thurisaz’3, which is one of the letters of rune, on the door of the locked room and the door opens. The room is covered with tree branches in the same way as in the film. The end of the road leads to a dark forest. There are scary creatures in this forest. When the player progresses a bit, he encounters Kaspar, and Kobold appears immediately afterward. The game ends here. This game is presented as “Kobold: Chapter One”. Although no information about the second part of the game has been given, a second part will ensue, as can be understood from the way the story ends. Although the game offers clues, many open-ended questions remain. The elements left unanswered lead the player to both research the mythological and legendary background and make subjective comments.

About Kobold and Pixi Usually in German belief, Kobold is referred to as a kind of “household spirit.” Kobold, known as “soul, dwarf” before the 12th century, gained its reputation after the 13th century and was defined as “the one who rules over the room” (Lecouteux, 2000: 119). At the same time, the widespread belief that Kobold lives in mines is the origin of the name of the mineral known as “cobalt”. These souls referred to by different names in different cultures can have both good and bad character. The good ones can bring happiness and prosperity to the household and help with housework. But the bad ones can make people’s lives difficult as much as they can. Kobold’s presence in German culture comes from ancient pagan beliefs. This soul, which has preserved its effectiveness even after Christianity, unlike its examples in other cultures, has a character that makes people more anxious. The reason for this is that Kobold has a structure that can easily get angry and display hostile attitudes. According to folk culture and narratives, Kobolds with a good temper can be helpful and useful for the household let alone harm them. However, Kobold needs to be rewarded. These souls, who are very sensitive about their services, can easily become hostile to the household when they are not rewarded. Besides, Kobolds with bad temper make it a task for themselves to turn the life in the household into hell. Games such as relocating things, making noise, not letting the household sleep are the acts of revenge of these souls. Therefore, in most sources, Kobold is defined as “mischievous” and “ill-hearted”. And even the sayings used by the Germans in their daily speeches such as “laughing like Kobolds” are remarkable (Lecouteux, 2000: 139). Kobold specifically dwells in a room or a part of the house. This is its private area, and if it is disturbed, it can get angry. While Kobold usually stays in its private area during the day, it can wander around the house at night. A hostile Kobold is the fearful dream of the household. According to some sources, people in Germany until 1924 and for a longer period in other European countries reported

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that their children were abducted by evil spirits and replaced by their offspring (Ashliman, 2006: 25). In some beliefs, Kobold is thought to be the ghost of a person killed in the house. People have developed many ways to protect against Kobold for centuries. Rewarding them is one of these methods. Leaving milk, bread, beer or leftovers for Kobold at the same time every day keeps him calm. For Kobold not to leave his field, dolls made of tree branches should be hung on the threshold of the place where it stays. Thus, Kobold will dawdle with this baby and will not haunt the household. The point to be noted here is that the mentioned babies should never be replaced because these babies are sacred for Kobold. Another protection method is to seal Kobold’s room with magic. This seal should never be spoiled, and the soul should not be released free. Another “home spirit” of the short film and game to be examined under the research is Pixi. Pixi, also known as Pixie or Will-o’-the-Wisp; is a good-tempered spirit. Pixies often help with housework in exchange for small rewards. These spirits are also known as guiding and protective. Although they may be naughty like Kobold, they are generally described as good. Pixies, known in many European countries, especially in England, are believed to be the souls of the children who died before being baptized (Ashliman, 2006: 127). The saying “laughing like Kobold” used by the Germans has an equivalent in England as “laughing like Pixies” (Lecouteux, 2000: 139).

OVERVIEW The Kobold short film and Kobold VR game covered in this study have been built in a transmedial structure, including mythological story, film and game. From the perspective of Pratten (2015), transmedia storytelling, which is discussed in layers, consists of layers of experience, narrative, presentation and interaction as mentioned before. It is also possible to examine the transmedial Kobold narrative per these layers. From the perspective of experience layer, Kobold, firstly based on the film, encourages the viewer to explore the mythological background and play the game. This is because during the film, references are made to the mythological narrative and the unfilled gaps are left. When the viewer watches the movie, which is the starting ring of the transmedial chain, to find the answers to the questions that appear in his/her mind, s/he must refer to the other links of the chain. These are questions such as what Kobold is, what Pixi is, what happens to the mother, what the meaning of frequently repeating images like the tree of life is. At the same time, the fact that the ring following the movie is an interactive product like the game encourages the audience to participate in the narrative. Besides, the attractiveness of fear, which is an indispensable fact, and the use of Gothic aesthetic elements throughout the narrative are also effective in terms of experience. From the perspective of the narrative layer, the fiction of the transmedial Kobold narrative based on European mythology and German folk legends brings both depth and richness to the constructed narrative. The uncanny and Gothic ambiance used to raise the level of horror and suspense makes the other rings of the transmedia chain attractive, as well. In the game, the use of many details of both the movie and the traditional story necessitates the player to dawdle mentally, and continuously in the transmedial chain. In terms of the presentation layer, it is possible to say that the Kobold narrative, which is constructed as a film and a game, directs the viewer/player to more than two media. The gaps left even after the game make it necessary to research the traditional story. Finally, considering the interaction layer perspective, the transmedial Kobold narrative succeeds in attracting the viewer/player into the fictional universe created through all other narrative layers. In this universe, where literary and cinematic materials are processed delicately, elements such as presenting the consumer 609

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with a story to empathize with, making use of the aesthetic possibilities of the Gothic genre, supporting the narrative with ancient beliefs and stories, utilizing today’s technology and including the consumer in the construction process of the narrative through interaction reveal how successfully Another World VR has used the opportunities of transmedia storytelling.

AESTHETICS OF RECEPTION ANALYSIS ON KOBOLD SHORT FILM AND KOBOLD VR GAME For the research, a total of fifteen questions were asked to the participants regarding their interpretation of the gaps left in the film and the game. The first six of these questions were answered after watching the movie, while the remaining nine were answered after playing the game. The questions prepared regarding the interpretation of the Kobold short film are as follows: • • • • • •

What do you think Pixi is? Is it good or bad? What do you think Kobold is? Is it good or bad? What do you think the image of “tree of life” in the film means? What do you think happened to Elisabeth Hutter (the mother)? What do you think happened to Kaspar (the child)? Where does the passage in the attic lead to? The questions prepared regarding the interpretation of the Kobold VR game are as follows:

• • • • • • • •

What do you think the goal of the player is? How do you think it was understood that Kaspar (the child) was missing? What do you think Pixi is? Is it good or bad? What do you think Kobold is? Is it good or bad? What do you think happened to Elisabeth Hutter (the mother)? What do you think happened to Kaspar (the child)? Where does the passage in the attic lead to? What do you think Friedrich Hutter (the father) has to do with what happened? To reveal general opinions about the Kobold short film and Kobold VR game, the question,

•

When you look at the film and the game in general, what are your general views on the handling of the subject, story, visual graphics and level of fear?

was asked. Five of these questions consist of the same questions to be answered both after the film and the game. The reason for this is to focus on the interpretation processes of the viewers that change after the game experience. Besides, as Iser (1978), one of the theorists of aesthetics of reception, states, there are two types of gaps in the text. According to him, “micro gaps” refer to gaps that can be interpreted through the context of the text and narrative, “macro gaps” mean gaps that the reader can make sense of through previous life experiences and readings. In this context, the questions directed to the participants such as 610

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• • •

What do you think the goal of the player is? What do you think Pixi is? Is it good or bad? What do you think Kobold is? Is it good or bad?

are prepared for interpreting micro gaps. Besides; • • • • •

What do you think happened to Elisabeth Hutter (the mother)? What do you think happened to Kaspar (the child)? Where does the passage in the attic lead to? What do you think Friedrich Hutter (the father) has to do with what happened? What do you think the image of “tree of life” in the film means?

are intended to make sense of macro gaps. Table 1.­ What do you think Pixi is? Is it good or bad? Participant

Kobold Short Film

Kobold VR Game

E1

Kaspar’s imaginary bad friend.

Pixi is always in the house, guiding, bad.

E2

Pixi is the magic performed by Elisabeth Hutter (the mother) to protect her son. It can be a talisman or a protective spirit.

Pixi and Kobold are the same characters. Its good and bad behaviors depend on the behavior of family members towards it.

E3

Bad.

Bad.

K1

Pixi is an imaginary character created by the child’s mother. Good and fearless.

Pixi wasn’t good. Something like the little devil. Bad.

K2

Pixi is Kaspar’s dream playmate, it is sort of trying to help him.

Pixi helps Kobold who wants to reach Kaspar, he may be a good person, but Kobold may have deceived him into doing evil.

K3

Bad.

Protective, good.

K4

I think Pixi is good, it can help Kaspar.

Pixi or what is thought to be Pixi is bad, fooling the kid.

The first of the research questions, “What do you think Pixi is? Is it good or bad?” points to one of the micro gaps in the texts, although it is intended to determine the horizon of expectations of the participants. Although there are clues about the answer in the mythological story, film and game chain, changing horizons of expectations of the participants reveal themselves in the answers. As seen in Table 1, some of the participants think Pixi is good, while some others argue that it is bad. Besides, the opinions of the participants coded K1 and K4 about Pixi changed in the transition from the film to the game. The question, “What do you think Kobold is? Is it good or bad?” is one of the questions directed at micro gaps in the texts. Although this question is intended to determine the expectations horizons of the participants, as in the answers to the previous question, it differs both among participants and in the transition from the film to the game. In Table 2, the response of the participant coded E3 changed from “bad” after the film to “good” after the game. Besides, the response of the participant coded K3 differed from “good” after the film to “bad, capturing the soul” after the game. What’s more, the presence of varying opinions among other participants points to the difference of horizons of expectations among the viewers / players.

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Table 2.­ What do you think Kobold is? Is it good or bad? Participant

Kobold Short Film

Kobold VR Game

E1

A supernatural evil creature.

The genie at the roots (portal) of the tree of life.

E2

A kind of extraterrestrial being.

A kind of deforming entity. Its being good and evil changes depending on the behaviors of the family or people hosting them towards them. Kobold responds according to attitude the family members show when a favor is done.

E3

Bad.

Good.

K1

Kobold is something like a leprechaun Kaspar encounters in the forest. A bad character.

Are Pixi and Kobold the same characters? After playing the game, I felt undecided.

K2

Kobold is a soul settled in the house, we cannot say anything certain whether good or bad.

Kobold is an evil spirit who has taken over the house.

K3

Good.

Bad, capturing the soul.

K4

I couldn’t understand exactly what it is, but it is bad if it is like in the legends.

Kobold is also bad, as the head of evil spirits.

Table 3.­ What do you think happened to Elisabeth Hutter (the mother)? Participant

Kobold Short Film

Kobold VR Game

E1

She was the first to encounter Pixi and followed it.

She is the first to meet Pixi. Pixi guided her into the portal using the spell. When she entered, her spirit was captured by Kobold.

E2

As it turns out from the short film, a woman dealing with witchcraft, perhaps a real witch. She may have died or been killed by a bad spell. She may also have been taken over by an unknown entity and haunted the home.

She may also have been stuck or killed in a dimension we do not know because of the portal she has opened. She may also have been reported by her husband or neighbors due to rites and rituals she performed under East Germany conditions and caught by Stasi officers.

E3

Her spouse killed her.

She was played by her husband and disappeared behind that door.

K1

She may have gone crazy and killed herself.

She was killed by her husband.

Elisabeth mysteriously disappeared, but her husband may have built a grave, claiming that she was dead because he could not make sense of her disappearance.

Because Elisabeth is interested in supernatural events, by doing a wrong spell or something she shouldn’t have done, bad things may have happened because she opened the cross-universe gateway.

K3

She died.

She went to the other world, to be protected.

K4

I think she disappeared behind the gateway.

Behind the gateway and lost.

K2

The question “What happened to Elisabeth Hutter (mother)?” directed at the participants was asked to make sense of one of the macro gaps that were not answered in a certain way in the film and game texts. As with other common questions, this question was also aimed at determining the horizon of expectations. As seen in Table 3, some participants thought that Elisabeth died, was killed or lost after watching the film, after playing the game, they thought that she disappeared behind the gateway. The reason for the variability of the answers given to this question and the detail of the comments is that the answer is largely based on the opinion of the viewer/reader.

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Table 4.­ What do you think happened to Kaspar (the child)? Participant

Kobold Short Film

Kobold VR Game

E1

He was imprisoned in the house just like his mother.

Like his mother, Kaspar followed Pixi, entered the portal and met Kobold.

E2

He became a victim of his curiosity. His body was captured while his soul was trapped at home, or another being replaced him.

He was captured by Kobold and replaced by a shapeshifter. Caspar can still be alive somehow and be inside the passage that opened at home.

E3

His body was captured.

The creature in his soul tried to ask for help from Kaspar. Kaspar, who thought it was his mother, followed the voices and then died.

K1

Kobold captured Kaspar’s body. Kaspar’s soul was trapped in the house.

His father also sacrificed him for Kobold.

K2

He may be trapped in a parallel universe because he passed through the passage in the attic.

While Kaspar was trying to find his mother, he may have been trapped in Kobold’s universe and taken hostage by Kobold.

K3

He disappeared in uncertainty.

His mother took him.

He went to find his mother.

He followed her to find her mother, and he also disappeared.

K4

The question “What do you think happened to Kaspar (child)?” directed at the participants was aimed at macro gaps in the film and game texts, as well as determining the horizon of expectations of the viewer/ player. As in the previous question, which was aimed at macro gaps, it is seen that the participants’ responses largely consisted of comments in this question. In Table 4, the question of what happened to Kaspar was answered with different views such as he was disappeared, he was with his mother, he was captured, or murdered by his father and taken hostage. Table 5.­ Where does the passage in the attic lead to? Participant

Kobold Short Film

Kobold VR Game

E1

To Pixi’s universe.

To a portal opening with magic, that is, to the roots of the tree of life.

E2

Perhaps a passage opened due to a spell by the mother, perhaps a curse already existing at home. The mother kept them away with the talismans and spells she performed while she was alive.

To a different dimension or universe that we do not know yet.

E3

To the past.

Spirit gateway.

K1

The form of the same house in Kobold universe.

Where the leprechauns lived.

K2

The passage in the attic can serve as a gateway for a cross-universe journey. It opens up to Kobold’s universe.

The passage in the attic opens to a dark universe.

K3

To where the tree of life is.

Into the other world.

K4

To the underworld.

To a universe where evil spirits live.

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In Table 5, the question, “Where does the passage in the attic lead to?” is one of the common questions presented to the participants to be answered both after the film and after the game. This question was aimed at determining the horizons of expectations of the participants and it also points to one of the macro gaps. Although the passage in the attic is visually presented to the viewer/player in the film and the game, it is not defined, and no information about the space is given. Therefore, as can be seen in Table 5, as in the other questions aimed at macro gaps, participants relied on their expectations and interpretations while answering this question. Table 6.­ What do you think the image of “tree of life” in the film means? E1

The place where Elisabeth Hutter’s grave is and where she waits for Kaspar.

E2

The phenomenon of life after death. Life cycle.

E3

Resurrection.

K1

That there is a different life in the same house.

K2

The image of the tree of life may refer to immortality and protection of life, and his mother may have left the tree of life pendant to protect Kaspar from evil. The tree of life can guide Kaspar so that he can find his mother.

K3

The other world.

K4

What connects the real world and the underground world.

Another question aimed at macro gaps within the scope of the research is, “What do you think the image of the ‘tree of life’ in the film means?” ” The tree of life”, which is one of the frequently repeating indicators, especially in the film, is left to the interpretation of the viewer/player. In this context, the image of the tree of life in many beliefs and stories were interpreted by blending the previous opinions of the participants with the Kobold narrative in question. In Table 7, the question “What do you think the player’s goal is?” points to micro gaps in the game. Although it is one of the questions clearly answered in the clues within the game, there were different answers from the participants regarding the goal of the player. This situation shows the effectiveness of the consumer in terms of making sense of the texts. Table 7.­ What do you think the goal of the player is?

614

E1

To investigate the mysterious case of the missing Kaspar.

E2

To solve the mystery of the mysterious events that happened to the Hutter family.

E3

To solve a mystery, like a detective.

K1

To find out what happened to Elizabeth.

K2

The player’s goal is to try to find the clues that will solve the mystery of Kaspar’s disappearance in the house, to solve what happened to Kaspar.

K3

To solve what happened to the mother and the child.

K4

To find Kaspar, like a journalist.

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The question in Table 8, “How do you think it was understood that Kaspar (the child) was missing?” is one of the questions aimed at both the horizon of expectations and the macro gaps. The question, which is a big mystery in the film and game narrative, was answered in line with the interpretations of the participants. Therefore, the responses given vary. According to the participant coded E2, his father burned Kaspar, but it was understood that he was missing because no evidence was found. Besides, according to the participant coded K3, the absence of the pendant made people notice that the child was missing. According to the participant coded E1, the appearance of Pixi caused the situation to be understood. Table 8.­ How do you think it was understood that Kaspar (the child) was missing? E1

With the appearance of Pixi.

E2

As far as I understand while playing, it was understood that he was lost only after the Wall of Berlin collapsed. The father was caught as a murder suspect for killing his own son, but no corpse or valid evidence was found.

E3

The father must have become suspicious.

K1

From his father’s talks.

K2

Taking the shape of Kaspar by changing its shape, Kobold may have returned to its original shape and returned home when the father arrived in the city. With Kobold’s change of shape, the father may have noticed Kaspar’s absence and could not find him.

K3

The father gets suspicious when he sees that the creature in Kaspar’s soul does not have the pendant on his neck.

K4

He is thought to have been killed by his father but is also thought to be missing because his body was not found.

Another question posed to the participants about determining the horizon of expectations is “What do you think Friedrich Hutter (father) has to do with what happened?” This question points to macro gaps that remain unclear during the movie and the game. As can be seen in Table 9, the reason why the responses are comment-oriented is that this question remains unanswered even at the end of the game. Therefore, the participant coded E1 coded states that the father was a professor, some of the participants blame the father, while others consider him to be the murderer. Table 9.­ What do you think Friedrich Hutter (the father) has to do with what happened? E1

In the game, the man who teaches the magic that appears on the tapes is the father.

E2

His refusal to accept the extraordinary events around him probably caused his wife to disappear. Perhaps by reporting his wife, he caused the events to get out of control. Thinking that his son was taken over or freaked out, he wanted to kill him and murdered him. Or was it Kobold that he killed?

E3

Events develop because the father does not share what he knows.

K1

It looks as if he sacrificed his wife and child to evil characters.

K2

The father understood that something bad happened to the mother, who was dealing with supernatural events, but because no one would believe him, he might be covering up the events, pretending to be uninterested and trying to lead a normal life by getting away from the house.

K3

He knows everything but hides it.

K4

The father never believed in the mother but realized that her child was taken over and destroyed him.

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Table 10.­ When you look at the film and the game in general, what are your general views on the handling of the subject, story, visual graphics and level of fear? E1

The handling of the subject was fine despite minor mistakes, the mystery of the story is quite successful, the visual graphics are not very good compared to today’s VR game graphics and the level of fear could be a little higher, there is suspense, but there is no horror.

E2

The short film was very successful. If I didn’t know it was related to a game, I would want to watch it as a feature horror movie. Although it is difficult to stay away from stereotypes in horror productions, it has been an intriguing narrative. A high-quality production. Congratulations for not choosing English as the language of the narrative and character. Besides, I’m not exactly a fan of VR technology. I believe that with the developing technology, not enough reality and realism phenomenon can be created. Considering the games produced in today’s technologies and published on different platforms, it can be said that this game is weak in terms of visual graphics. Contact and actions with the images and objects have been relatively successful, but I would have expected that more objects can be contacted within the game as the game is based on solving mystery. Like opening the windows, taking the objects we find around us whether they are useful or not. There is a gradually increasing level of horror and it was a very good decision.

E3

The handling of the subject is very good, you get immersed in the story, like watching TV series... The graphics are good, the level of horror is too much for me.

K1

The film was more suspenseful. You’re told a story and you’re waiting for more, but the game isn’t so. Every moment is full of surprises. On a road you do not know, you are trying to find something entirely under your control. I did not find the graphics very successful either. Maybe fear and participation rates would increase if there were some better effects.

K2

The story has been handled quite nicely. The movie allows us to get into the story of the game before starting the game. I felt like I was walking around in a truly abandoned house while playing, the level of horror is progressing with ups and downs along with sound and visual effects and it was scary. If I played it directly as a game, I could not fully understand the story, I could feel like an escape game, but since I watched the film and then played the game, I tried to examine everything that could be a clue by feeling like a detective.

K3

The level of horror is sufficient, the graphics and the handling of the subject are also successful, but my favorite was the ambiance.

K4

The subject is interesting and has a different story, but it is very difficult to watch only the film and understand it. You have to play the game for answers. Visual graphics are good but especially, sound effects and ambiance are very effective. The level of horror is also good, but many questions remain unanswered even after the game.

In the context of this research, the participants were asked a single question regarding the aesthetic expectation, which is one of the elements of the horizon of expectations. The question “When you look at the movie and game in general, what are your general views on the handling of the subject, the story, the visual graphics and the level of horror?” proves that the success of the text and the potential pleasure it will create are consumer-centered.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS In this study, the Kobold narrative was discussed within the integrity of the mythological story, short film and VR game, and the narrative was viewed from the perspective of the consumer through the aesthetics of reception method. The aesthetics of reception method helps to make sense of the products handled in abstract terms. However, intertextuality, which is a feature of transmedial products that cannot be ignored, and the need to interpret these products tangibly reveal the necessity of using aesthetics of reception and intertextuality methods together in future studies. Such a study to be conducted will be able to reveal the interpretation as a whole and enable the products to be viewed simultaneously from both the producer’s and the consumer’s perspective.

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CONCLUSION In today’s world, constantly developing technology and consequent new possibilities lead to major transformations in the fields of especially communication, media, entertainment and arts. In this context, both the boundaries of imagination are blurred, and hybrid experiences produced with inspiration from different fields meet with consumers. In the postmodern era we are in, games attract the attention of adults like never before. Therefore, games produced especially for adults are being released to the market one after another and large investments are made in the sector. The transmedia storytelling, which has been around since ancient times, has developed and become popular today by being also supported by technological developments. Interaction, one of the leading factors of transmedia storytelling, has increased the consumer to a much more active role with transmedial chain games. Particularly with virtual reality technology frequently referenced by game manufacturers in recent years, the gaming experience is near reality; and it has presented consumers the opportunity to dive into the narrative universe. Kobold short film and VR game selected for review as part of the research are some of the successful examples of transmedia storytelling. The transmedial Kobold narrative undertaking the creative of Another World VR; promises consumers a rich universe with its mythological background, inspiring both filmplay and narrative. Prepared by the gothic species, this universe contains many of the gothic aesthetics and art elements. The gaming experience that virtual reality technology brings to reality, the aesthetic features of both gothic and fear elements, where transmedia storytelling is combined with the possibility of interaction, makes the consumer closer to the producer’s position at the point of understanding. Besides, in the face of texts, from the perspective of the reception aesthetics theorists who claim that the consumer always plays an active role; whether transmedial or not, the consumer is at the heart of making sense. The consumer has become the focus of the study prepared in this context since each of the elements of transmedia storytelling, game experience, interaction, virtual reality, and art refers to the consumer. The curiosity concerning the role of consumers on the level of meaning and differences in the transmittal narrative chain played a significant role in choosing the aesthetics of reception as the method of the study. The Kobold short film and VR game were chosen for their rich mythological background and for being a successful example of transmedia storytelling. The Transmedial Kobold narrative was investigated for the horizons of experience, one of the subtitles of reception aesthetics theory. Ten questions were determined to be directed to the participants selected by the snowball sampling method. Nine of these questions are aimed at determining the horizon of expectation; the remaining one is prepared to reveal the participants’ aesthetic expectations. This question asked to define the general views on the Transmedial Kobold narrative indicates the aesthetic experience, pleasure, and expectations of the participants about the movie and the game. The answers to the nine questions concerning the horizon of expectation indicated that in the transition among mythological story, short film, and game, the expectations of the participants have altered. Besides, not only in the transition between transmedia narratives; but at the same time, among each participant, different opinions were observed. The research results reveal that the participants can make various interpretations, even in the spaces that are not left in the movie and the game. What’s more, there are big and small gaps in the movie and the game, for the subjective interpretation of the audience/ actor. As can be seen in the participants’ responses to the questions regarding the mentioned gaps, while those given to small gaps consist of shorter answers and fewer comments, those given to larger spaces 617

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include longer answers and more feedback. Yet, based on fewer interpretations, the differences in the responses to small gaps are negligible. In this context, the aesthetic procurement method applied in the research demonstrates that no matter how clear the narrative is in the text, each participant can possess distinct views. This situation reveals the significant role the consumer plays in the meaning of the work. The concluding question asked regarding the aesthetic experience and expectations of the participants is prepared to determine the aesthetic expectation step of the method. According to the responses given, the overall assessments of each participant’s film and game varied. The many awarded Kobold moviegame reduplication prepared by Another World VR was considered successful by some participants, while others declared that it could be better. Likewise, assessments of the fear level also differed among participants. Thus, responses given to all the questions asked show that the participants have a dominant role in the level of expectation and differences and the interpretation of the texts. These results, which confirm the reception aesthetic theorists, proved once more by the research conducted.

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ADDITIONAL READING Bucher, J. (2017). Storytelling for Virtual Reality: Methods and Principles for Crafting Immersive Narratives. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. doi:10.4324/9781315210308 Carroll, N. (1990). The Philosophy of Horror. Routledge. Hanich, J. (2010). Cinematic Emotion in Horror Films and Thrillers: The Aesthetic Paradox of Pleasurable Fear. Routledge. Hogle, J. E. (2002). Gothic Fiction. Cambridge University Press. McErlean, K. (2018). Interactive Narratives and Transmedia Storytelling: Creating Immersive Stories Across New Media Platforms. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315637570 Perron, B. (2009). Horror Video Games: Essays on the Fusion of Fear and Play. McFarland & Company, Inc. Sherman, W. R., & Craig, A. B. (2003). Understanding Virtual Reality. Usa. Elsevier Science.

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Suits, B. (2005). The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia. Broadview Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Avatar: In Indian mythology, they are the bodies that gods impersonate when they come down to earth. It is also the physical representation of the player in the game universe. Cobalt: A metal element that is named after “Kobold.” Empathy: To internalize someone else’s emotions, circumstances, and motivations to understand the situation in which he or she is. Household Spirit: The soul that belongs to a house and helps and keeps an eye on the members of the house. Mystic: An event, fact, or behavior that is incomprehensible with reason and logic. Paganism: General name of beliefs and religions based on ancient natural religions. Paranormal: Events and abilities that cannot be resolved by the rules of physics or chemistry.

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Tree of Life: It is an essential image in many religions and beliefs. It generally has meanings like the tree that connects the bond between the community, the integrity of the universe, rebirth, eternity, fertility, the underworld, and heaven. Rune: Rune is a system of letters unique to Northern Europe. There are many types of runes with the meaning of “whispering” and “secret language”. These letters, dating back to the 4th century, were frequently used in the pre-Christian period, but are still rarely used today. Runes used for purposes such as divination, message, ritual, or talisman has an essential place in pagan belief. Each letter of rune has its meaning, energy, and story, too. These letters can possess good or bad results, depending on their use. Besides, the discovery of rune letters is based on a mythological story. The story is as follows: Odin, the master of inspiration, oracle, secret communication, and wisdom, seeks the Mimir Well, which feeds the roots of the Tree of Life (Yggdrasil) to achieve the knowledge of all worlds. This well is the pool of energies that form the basis of collective consciousness, knowledge, and destiny. After discovering the well, Odin sacrifices his one eye and hangs himself upside down from the tree branches. After spending nine painful days and nights, hanging half-drowned, Odin eventually reaches the knowledge of the runes in the depths of the well. The sharp structure of rune symbols drives from the similarity to the branches of the Tree of Life. (Mountfort, 2012). Thurisaz: It is one of the 24 symbols of the Old Futhark alphabet, one of the different rune types. This symbol is known as “misfortune” and “giant,” representing a threatening or painful defect. “Most of the time, thurisaz indicates that you are hindered by one or more people who work against you, or a hostile environment, usually at home or at work” (Mountfort, 2012).

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About the Contributors

M. Nur Erdem, Ph.D., was born in 1976. She has been working as an Assistant Professor at Ondokuz Mayis University, Faculty of Communication, Department of New Media and Communication Technologies since 2015. Dr. Erdem studies on digitalization of media and advertising. She has published papers in several journals, conference proceedings, chapters in edited books about digital media and advertising. Nihal Kocabay Şener is an associate professor in Department of Public Relations and Advertising at İstanbul Commerce University. She has an interest in communication sociology and surveillance technology on digital media, visual culture. *** Enes Abanoz is an assistant professor in School for Communication at Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey where he has been faculty member since 2018. He has been worked as an assistant professor at Woosong University, South Korea in the 2018-2019 academic year. Enes Abanoz completed his Ph.D. at the Marmara University and his undergraduate studies at Istanbul Commerce University. During his Ph.D. education, he had been as a visiting researcher in Digital Media, Networks & Political Communication (DiMeNet) at University of Pennsylvania and Social Media & Political Participation (SMaPP) at New York University. His research interests lie in the area of Graph Theory, Computational Communication and Social Media, ranging from theory to implementations. Pelin Agocuk was born in İstanbul, 13th of March 1982. She completed her primary and secondary education in İstanbul. She began to her undergraduation at Near East University Faculty of Communication Radio Tv and Cinema Department in 2004 and graduated in 2008. She continued to her education with registering to NEU Media and Communication Studies Postgraduation Programme. In same year, she started to work as research assistant in NEU. She completed her postgraduation programme (2012) with a thesis name called “Melodrama in Turkish Cinema: A Research on 1960-75 Periods”. Also she completed her PhD in 2016 with a thesis name called “Representation of Politician in Turkish Cinema (1960-2015)”. From 2006 Agocuk worked at NEU TV as a cameraman, editing operator, news coordinator and director. Also she gave classes to undergraduate students about camera, editing and practices of TV studios. She participated to several national and international activities of university. Between 20102012, Agocuk worked at NEU Hospital press department as a news cameraman and news coordinator. In 2009, her short film “Awaking” won the first prize at YÖDAK’s Inter-universities Social Responsibility Project Competition. Agocuk continues to her task as a Radio and TV Technologies Upper Secondary 

About the Contributors

Education Department Coordinator. She participated to several conferences and published articles. In the years between 2013 - 2020 she gave lectures at NEU Faculty of Communication. Her research fields are; cinema, Turkish cinema, cinema and politics, melodrama. She has been working at the American University of Cyprus. Eda Arısoy, working on her PhD thesis, in the field of cinema at Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University, Faculty of Communication. She started photography, which was her childhood passion, in 1995 and cinema in 2003. She was the chairman of AFSAD (Association of Ankara Art Photographers) board of directors between 2015-2017. She took part in various photography projects and exhibitions in the field of documentary, stage photography and portrait photography (9 mixed, 1 personal exhibition). She started producing short films in 2003 and performed as the general art director of the short films shot at the courses and workshops conducted between 2009-2015 within AFSAD. She worked as a director and cinematographer in many promotional films, educational films, photography projects and short films. She started working on independent Video Art projects in 2016 which aims to bring together photography and video in a common narration. In 2017, her first contemporary art project “Mirror Man” met the audience both at the exhibition on site and on internet. In 2018, she prepared a personal photography and video installation exhibition called “As If..”. She also have works in the fields of video (promotion, advertisement, education) and short films. Between 2008 and 2017, she conducted cinema workshops and courses. She has been working as a part-time lecturer in the field of cinema and photography since 2010 at the University and she has book chapters and articles published. She produces cinema, media and photography projects with university students within the scope of her courses. She is also assistant editor in SineFilozofi journal (Cinema and Philosophy Academical Journal) since 2018. Nursel Bolat was born in Kahramanmaraş Turkey. In 2006, he received his undergraduate degree from Kocaeli University Radio, TV and Cinema Department. She received her master’s degree from the same university and department, and her doctorate degree from Istanbul University, Department of Radio, TV and Cinema. Dr. Bolat works as an Associate Professor at Ondokuz Mayıs University. Her research interests include visual techniques in TV, cinema, communication and advertising. Ömer Çakın was born in 1983. In 2007 he received his master’s degree from Kyrgyzstan Manas University Journalism Department and in 2009 he received his master’s degree from the same university’s communication sciences program. In 2013, he received his doctorate degree in the field of Communication Sciences by defending his doctoral thesis titled “Kyrgyzstan Localization of International Advertisement”. Since 2014, he has been working at the Radio Television and Cinema Department of Ondokuz Mayıs University as an assistant professor. Merve Çay completed her undergraduate study in the Department of Architecture in Istanbul Technical University. Then continued her postgraduate studies in Cultural Studies program at Istanbul Bilgi University. Her research interests are Japanese popular culture such as anime, manga, and cosplay. Ahmet Faruk Çeçen has earned his master degree in 2014 and PhD in 2019 from Istanbul University Faculty of Communications. He has studied foreign news in American Media in his master thesis “Evaluating American Media in The Context of Media Politics Relation in Foreign News: An Analysis of 2013 Egypt Military Intervention in New York Times Sample.” In his dissertation, titled “The Analysis 686

About the Contributors

of Discourse of the Political Parties and Ideological Media in the Context of the Clash of Civilization in New Media,” he focused on East-West Dichotomy. Esra Çelebi was born in 1977 in Istanbul and completed her primary education in İstanbul. She graduated from Faculty of Business Administration at Anadolu University and completed her master’s degree in Public Relations and Publicity at Istanbul University. She is working in the field of Corporate Communication and Public Relations since 1998. Her areas of interest includes communication sociology, new media, political communication, environmental activism tests and animal rights. Ezgi Gül Ceyhan was born in 1991. Graduated from Anadolu University Vocational School of Justice (2011-2013). Received bachelor’s degree from Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University Department of Public Administration (2009-2014), and the department of public administration master degree completed ‘’A Conceptual Research on Relation to Emotion-Policy’’ (2015-2017). At the same university, as a Ph.D. student “Violence and Aesthetics: Understanding Post-Sapiens” (2018 - ) is working on it. Academic fields: political psychology, “emotions, violence, power, consent, obedience, aesthetics, policy”. In addition, she is a psycho-drama instructor. Dilan Ciftci was graduated from Middle East Technical University Political Science and International Relations Department with high honor degree in 2010. In 2011 she was awarded an EU Scholarships for the Turkish Cypriot Community and spent a year at the Graduate School of Communication at the University of Amsterdam. She completed her MSc degree on Communication Sciences: Political Communication. Her thesis on Peace Journalism and News Coverage on the Annan Plan Referendum: The Role of Framing the Conflict Issues and Negotiation Process was earned with honor degree. In 2013 she was awarded a PhD scholarship from Dr. Suat Gunsel Foundation and completed her PhD on Media and Communication Studies at the Near East University in 2017. Her PhD thesis was on the Collective Memory and Media: The Case of Missing Persons Issues in Cyprus. Since 2018, Ciftci has promoted to Assistant Professor on Media and Communication Studies. Tuğba Demir, was born in 1984. She graduated from Kocaeli University at Communication Faculty, Department of Public Relations and Publicity in 2005. She finished her Master’s Degree in International Management Business at İstanbul Commerce University Graduate School of Social Sciences in 2009. She is currently continuing her Ph.D studies Public Relations and Advertising at Istanbul Commerge University. Ms. Demir is currently working at İzmir Kavram Vocational School in Marketing and Advertising Department in Public Relations and Publicity Program as a lecturer. She gives various lectures on Communication, Management, Marketing, Consumer Behavior, Public Relations, Customer Relationship. Also, deals with visual communication and visual culture. Filiz Erdogan Tugran has been working as a Professor Assistant at Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Communication, Radio, Cinema and Television Department since 2013 February. Dr. Erdogan Tugran has studies on Fantastic Cinema, Sociology and Digital Animation. Recently she has published papers in several journals about ‘Multiple Idedntity on Siber-Space’, ‘Technologic Changes in Cinema’, ‘New Turkish Cinema’. She is a director of a short claymation film named ‘Friendsheep’. She has given courses Contemporary Cinema, Introduction to Sociology, Social Psychology and Art, Culture and Society.

687

About the Contributors

Esma Gökmen, graduated from Ankara Gazi University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio, TV and Cinema in 2006. She completed her master’s degree at Gazi University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio, TV and Cinema between 2006-2008. Since 2016, She is a PhD candidate at Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio, TV and Cinema. She worked as a lecturer at Giresun University between 2010-2012. Since 2012, she has been working as a lecturer at Ondokuz Mayıs University Samsun Vocational School. She studied Radio, TV and Cinema in high school, undergraduate, graduate and doctorate. For this reason, she has been working in this field since 1996. Her doctoral thesis is on everyday life and the construction of everyday life in local TV series. She also has a book chapter and published articles about cinema. At Samsun Vocational School, she teach many courses related to the field of communication and media. Photography was also included in her classes and she held exhibitions as part of this course. She continues her work related to cinema, television and media in general. İlknur Gümüş completed the Public Relations undergraduate program of Istanbul Bilgi University under the chairmanship of Betül Mardin. After graduating from Istanbul University Public Relations Department master program, she writes her thesis in Istanbul Commerce University Advertising and Public Relations PHD Program. She works in intercultural and interdisciplinary fields and conducts research on public relations theories, the links of public relations with sociology, psychology, art and politics. She specializes in digital diplomacy, perception management, and cultural diplomacy. Mehmet Akif Gunay, in 2006, got undergraduate degree on Public Relations and Advertising at Kyrgyzstan-Turkey Manas University Faculty of Communication. In 2009, he got his master’s degree on communication at the Institute of Social Sciences at the same university. From 2007 to 2010, he worked in the private sector on the field of foreign trade. In 2011, he started his doctorate on the Department of Communication at Kocaeli University Institute of Social Sciences and completed his doctoral education in 2019. Günay started to work as a lecturer in the Public Relations and Publicity Department of Gümüşhane University in 2014 and still working at the same university as Assistant Professor. The author works on visual culture, brand, interpersonal communication and image. Munevver Elif Gurses, was born in Istanbul. She graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Communication in 2015. During her undergraduate education, she worked in the directors team at Kala Film Production and Spark Film Collective, in the social media and customer relations teams at the Youth Republic Advertising Agency and TBWA / Istanbul Advertising Agency. In 2018, she started her master’s degree in Ondokuz Mayıs University Institute of Social Sciences, Media and Communication Sciences program and continues her education. Aslı Güneş Gölbey is an Assoc. Prof in Landscape Architecture Dept. on İzmir Demokrasi University Architecture Faculty and General Manager of the Izmir Demokrasi University Vocational Training School. Work areas: Landscape Reclamations, Artificial Wetlands, Landscape Design and Ecological Planning. Married with two children. Matthew Hodge is an Assistant Professor of Musical Theatre and Theatre at William Peace University. He earned an MFA from Vermont College of Fine Arts and an MA and BA from Campbellsville University. His research interests include exploring the performing arts’ impact in such fields as pop 688

About the Contributors

culture media, expressive therapies, commercial tourism, and religious subcultures. His research has been published in scholarly books and journals (including multiple upcoming publications) and presented at several international conferences. Additionally, he has served on the board of two non-profit arts education organizations. His professional credits include award-winning films, international television, professional theatre, and servicing hundreds of freelance arts clients in over 30 countries spanning six continents. Visit www.matthodge.com for more information. Bahadir Kapir was born in 1987 in İstanbul. He graduated from Aydın Doğan Anatolian Communication Vocational High-School, Radio-Television Department. After graduating from İstanbul University, Radio-TV Department he completed his Master’s degree at Marmara University, Institute of Social Science, Radio and Television Department. He is currently a doctorate student in Marmara University, Communication Science field. He attended visual design training for 6 months in 2015 in Los Angeles. In addition to his academic studies, he worked as a cinematographer for various television shows. His short-length films were awarded in national and international movie festivals. He continues his business life on the TRT channel. Ayşenur Kaylı was born on September 13, 1997 in İzmir. She completed her high school education in İzmir Private MEV College School of Science and Private Oğuzhan Özkaya High School. She started at Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture in 2015 and graduated in 2019. In the same year, she began pursuing master’s degree in İzmir Demokrasi University Institute of Science, Landscape Architecture Department. H. Burcu Onder Memis, in 2003, graduated from the Public Relations Faculty of Marmara University and Publicity Department. In 2005, she started her doctorate at Istanbul University Social Sciences Institute Public Relations Promotion. In 2008 after graduating from Marmara University Institute of Social Sciences Department of Public Relations. She received a doctoral degree in 2014 with a doctoral dissertation titled “The Impact of Strategic Public Relations on the Accession of Governments to the International Target Kits”. As of 2010 she has been giving lectures on public relations and advertising, interpersonal communication in Arel University. Sena Şahin, was born in Samsun. She graduated from Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Public Relations and Publicity in 2018. In the same year, she started her graduate education in the Media and Communication Sciences program of Ondokuz Mayıs University Social Sciences Institute and continues her education. Tugce Sanli is an assistant professor in Department of City and Regional Planning of School of Architecture at Ondokuz Mayıs University since 2018. She did her undergraduate and master’s degree at Gazi University Department of City and Regional Planning, and gained an expertise in Urban Planning respectively. After working in different urban planning firms as a junior planner for five years focusing on national and international (Northern Iraq) master plans, amendment plans and implementation plans including urban design, rewarded with a state scholarship for a PhD degree in UK. During her PhD period in Newcastle University at School of Architecture Planning and Landscape, she also completed EMSDP programme in KU Leuven in Belgium. After completing PhD in 2016 focusing on power relations, public space and changing perception over built environment, she started working as an assistant 689

About the Contributors

Professor and the deputy dean in Bitlis Eren Unversity Faculty of Arts and simultaneously started a post-doc research regarding the relations and integration process of migration and urban space in Ankara University Department of Real Estate Development and Management. Esennur Sirer was born in Bursa in 1969. She graduated from Bursa Girls’ High School in 1986. In 1990, he graduated from Istanbul University Journalism Faculty of Radio and Television. In 2010, she received her master’s degree on Radio-TV Cinema from Istanbul University Institute of Social Sciences with her thesis titled ’The Evolving and Changing Formal Structure of Television Journalism” With her thesis titled “Football as a Popular Culture Product: Image Arrangement from the Viewpoint of the Elements of Construction in Publicity”, she was awarded the title of Doctor in Radio-TV at Istanbul University Institute of Social Sciences. From 1992 to 2018, she worked as director in TRT News and Sports Publications Department in Istanbul. In addition to directing, she has been conducting her academic studies since 2007 as a faculty member in the Department of Radio, Television, Cinema and Cinema, Uskudar University, since October 2018. Erol Subasi graduated from the Department of Public Administration (French), Marmara University in 2008. He later received his master’s degree in 2011 and PhD in 2018 from the Department of Political Science at Galatasaray University. He currently works as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Political Science and Public Administration at Recep Tayyip Erdogan University. His research interests include political sociology, state theory, Turkish political life, political science methodology, political economy and political philosophy. Selda Tunç Subasi graduated from the Department of Sociology, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University in 2007. She later received her master’s degree in 2011 from the Department of Radio, Television and Cinema at Marmara University, and her PhD in 2018 from the Department of Radio, Television and Cinema at Ankara University. Her research interests include communication studies, sociology of communication, communication researches, and gender studies. She currently works as an independent researcher. Hasan Turgut was born in 1986 in Aydın / Kuşadası. In 2008, he graduated from Uludağ University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Public Administration. In 2011, he completed his graduate program at Kadir Has University Institute of Social Sciences, International Relations and Globalization. In 2016, he completed his doctorate in Ege University Social Sciences Institute General Journalism Department. He has been working as a lecturer at Ondokuz Mayıs University Faculty of Communication since 2012. The author has studies on political philosophy, social movements, new media and political communication. Aylin Tutgun Ünal was born in İstanbul, in 1983. After her primary and high School education in Sakarya she started to Computer and Instructional Technology Teaching Education in Faculty of Education at Marmara University in İstanbul. She completed her Bachelor’s degree as top third student. She graduated from Computer and Instructional Technology Education at Marmara University with Master’s Degree in 2009. She completed her PhD in Informatics at the department of Journalism at Marmara University in 2015. She worked at many universities as a lecturer in İstanbul. Now she is working as an assistant professor of Journalism in Communication Faculty at Üsküdar University. She is working 690

About the Contributors

on new media, social media, social media addiction, social media journalism, loneliness, generations, youth, and family. Deniz Yaman, was born in 1993 in Sinop. In 2016, he successfully graduated from Anadolu University, Faculty of Communication Sciences, Department of Cinema and Television. After following his graduation, he worked as a video editor in the private sector for two years. In 2018, he began to sudy for a master’s degree at Ondokuz Mayıs University, in Media and Communication Sciences. He worked in the topics of digital communication technologies, virtual and augmented reality; and still continues his research on the contribution and impact of digitalization on communication sciences. Yakup Variş, having received his Bachelor of Arts with honours in music teacher education in 1998 from Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University (BAIBU) he continued his academic studies in music education. After being awarded a PhD in music in 2007 from Music Education Department in Educational Sciences Institute at Gazi University, Dr. Yakup Alper VARIŞ became Associate Professor in the Department of Music Education at Ondokuz Mayıs University in 2013. At the moment he is offering some undergraduate and graduade courses on Orchestra/Chamber Music, Viola, Music Pedagogy, Scientific Research Methods in music education at Ondokuz Mayıs University. Neslihan Yayla was born in Giresun in 1988. She completed her undergraduate education in Ondokuz Mayıs University, Public Relations and Publicity Department in 2017. She continues her graduate education in 2018 at Ondokuz Mayıs University Institute of Social Sciences Media and Communication Sciences Program. She writes her thesis entitled “Digital Transformation of Critical Discourse: The Example of Molleindustria”. Ferhat Zengin was born in 1984 in İstanbul. He completed his secondary school and high-school education in İstanbul and university education in Near East University, The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, Faculty of Communication, Radio, TV and Cinema Department. Zengin completed his Master’s degree in 2012 in Marmara University, Institute of Social Science in Cinema Department and earned Dr. title in 2016 with the “Transformation of Digitalisation in Turkish Cinema: Production, Distribution and Screening” doctorate dissertation under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Nilüfer Timisi from İstanbul University, Institute of Social Science, Radio, TV and Cinema Department. Currently, he is working as Dr. Instructor in İstanbul Gelişim University, Television News and Programming Department. Zengin is the author of “Digital Transformation in Turkish Cinema” and co-editor of “From Theory to Technique in Digital Cinema”. Additionally, Zengin has various articles and book chapters on media and cinema. Ferhat Zengin is the director and producer of the documentary, animation and short-length films awarded in national and international movie festivals; he is married and has two children.

691

692

Index

A Activism 1, 7, 49, 359, 395, 413, 441, 446, 449, 454455, 516, 520, 522, 530-531, 538, 540-541, 565 Activist 45, 49, 298, 405, 440-441, 447, 452-453, 458, 490, 517, 520, 531, 538, 541 Activist Art 440-441, 447, 452-453, 458 Actualisation 483 Advertising 130, 175, 189, 191, 222, 243-244, 329-330, 333-334, 357, 420, 442, 444, 520-524, 530-531, 534-535, 537-538, 541 Aesthetic Perception 30, 126, 135, 137, 194, 222, 515, 568, 579-580 Aestheticization of Being 460, 476, 479 Aestheticization of Power 137, 351, 460 Aestheticization of Resistance 460 Aestheticization of Violence 20, 98, 187, 215-217, 222, 224, 227, 316, 394-395, 491, 494 Aesthetics of Reception 592-594, 604-605, 610, 616-617 Aesthetics of Surveillance 440-441, 443-445, 447, 453, 456, 458 Aesthetics of Violence 36-37, 41, 43, 45-46, 49, 216, 222, 231, 280, 567 Aesthetics of violonce 98 Anatolian Legends 156-157, 162, 165, 167-170 Androcentrism 261, 275, 279 Animal Rights 519-522, 529, 531, 541 Anime 259, 262, 276-279 Anthropocentrism 259, 261, 275-277, 279 Anti-hero 280, 288-289, 300, 396, 403, 407-408, 411 Anxiety 1-2, 5-8, 10-12, 14, 31, 42, 49, 82, 96, 102, 109, 136, 158-160, 165, 225, 228, 235-237, 239, 243-244, 290, 369, 372, 374, 379, 384, 448, 521 Ars Memoriae 156, 160-162, 164, 167-168, 171 Art 1-5, 7-18, 20-22, 24-25, 27, 29-32, 35-49, 51-52, 60-61, 64, 66, 73-77, 79, 82-83, 86-99, 101, 103-106, 109-110, 112, 114, 116, 119-127, 129, 131-132, 136-140, 157-158, 160-162, 164, 168,  

171, 191-192, 194-195, 201, 205, 216, 218-219, 227, 232, 241, 257, 261, 264, 274, 276-278, 281-287, 293, 301, 326-330, 333-334, 345, 347348, 351, 364, 370, 373, 376, 383-387, 389, 408, 440-442, 444-450, 452-458, 460-461, 464-466, 471-472, 474-480, 482, 485-486, 488, 492-493, 495-496, 500, 506-508, 510, 518-519, 521, 567571, 573, 575, 577, 580, 582, 588-593, 598-599, 601-603, 617 Artifical Intelligence 234 Artistic Communication Model 36-37, 40, 46, 49 Artwork 21, 37, 40-41, 46-47, 49, 73, 83, 87, 90-92, 96-97, 127, 194, 329, 445, 447-448, 453, 472, 506, 519, 602 Augmented Reality (AR) 257, 421 Avatar 421, 579, 620

B Baby Boomer 544-545, 547-548, 551, 566 Behzat Ç: An Ankara Detective Story 394-395, 403, 412, 416 Body-Subject 81, 93, 96 Broadway 40, 50-51, 60, 62, 67, 69-70, 72

C Camera Angle 19, 27-28, 35, 211, 528, 601 Catharsis 36-37, 41-42, 47, 49, 112-113, 174, 177178, 181-182, 184, 215, 219, 231, 491, 521, 523, 541, 599 Catharsis Emotion 541 CCTV 440-441, 449-454, 456-458 Cinema 19-31, 35, 42, 73, 80, 102, 120, 122, 192-195, 201-205, 213-214, 243, 251, 262, 280-281, 283, 285-288, 300, 374, 376, 415, 440, 446, 453-454, 456-458, 485-487, 491, 493-496, 500, 521, 541, 546, 575, 581, 601, 603 Cinematic Place 214

Index

Cinematography 19-20, 25, 30, 195, 205, 211, 214, 287, 497 Cobalt 608, 620 Collective Assemblage of Enunciation 477, 483 Collectivization 324-325, 346 Commodity Culture 367 Constitution of 1982 392 Consumerism 269-270, 274-275, 279 Counterpower 501, 508-510 Cultural Memory 156-157, 159-164, 167-168, 171

D Decoding 328, 468, 470, 479, 531, 541 Deleuze 2, 7, 16, 195, 204, 210, 213-214, 283, 300, 421, 455, 460-462, 464-483 Dennis Dutton 567 Denotation 126, 131, 133-134, 305, 335-336, 339, 528, 531, 533-534, 538, 541 Detective Drama 416 Dichotomy 144, 151, 265, 267, 279, 303, 308, 396397, 460, 483 Digital Cinema 500 Digital Games 221, 228, 420-422, 438, 567-568, 573574, 577-581, 583, 586, 589, 591 Digitalization 80, 120, 132, 181, 440, 453, 484, 500, 515, 519, 544-545, 555, 561, 603 Director 19-20, 22, 24, 27-31, 49-52, 59-63, 70, 192196, 201-204, 206, 208-212, 214, 259, 262-263, 265, 286-287, 296, 406, 450, 454 Discourse Community 303, 309, 311-312, 315, 318, 322 Discriminative Sub-Discourse 303, 309, 313, 322 Dispositif 417-418, 460-462, 475-476, 478 Dispositive 470, 475, 479, 483, 509 Dogtooth 192, 195-196, 205-209, 211-212 Domination 74, 79, 86, 96, 112, 194, 196-197, 199, 206-207, 209-212, 214, 219, 306, 324, 333, 350, 355, 362, 377, 385-386, 388, 398, 400-401, 411, 415, 418-419, 430, 433, 461-462, 478, 483, 491, 503-504, 600 Dystopia 234, 257, 493

E Ecocriticism 259-261, 274, 276-279 Ecological Cities 147-148, 154 Editing 20, 27, 29-31, 35, 62, 203, 214, 229, 261, 602 Education of Gaze 367 Eidetic Image 2, 7, 18 Ellen Dissanayake 567-569 Empathy 6, 67, 125, 203, 272, 437, 599-600, 620

Entrepreneurial Self 417, 419, 438 Environmental Pollution 154, 275, 521 Episteme 313-315, 318, 322, 470 Experience Economy 358, 365, 367 Exploration 36, 43, 49, 67, 226, 250

F Fairy Tales 50-51, 53-55, 65, 68-70, 156-158, 160, 163-164, 167-168, 175, 599 Fantasy 1, 5, 15, 57, 64, 66, 109, 270, 276, 291, 294, 401, 567 Fear 2, 7, 9, 11, 14, 19-20, 22-31, 35, 44, 74, 82-83, 103, 108, 120-121, 128-129, 131-137, 140, 157-160, 163-169, 219-225, 227, 234-244, 249, 251-252, 254, 256, 258, 268, 284, 286, 293, 299, 306, 324-326, 331-332, 336-337, 341, 346-347, 353-354, 356, 368-376, 379-381, 383-385, 387, 389, 484-485, 490-497, 510, 521-522, 531, 536, 539-540, 545-546, 556, 561, 570, 576, 578, 592593, 598-599, 601-603, 609-610, 617-619 Fear and Securitisation 347 Fetish 1-2, 4, 9-10, 14, 446 Fetishism 9, 11, 15, 18, 310, 333, 436 Flux 36, 49 Folk Tales 156-157, 167, 171 Football 174-176, 178-191, 312, 396, 401-402, 408, 410 Freud 4, 10, 16-17, 73-74, 82-85, 90, 92-94, 97, 177, 224, 232-233, 235-237, 254, 382, 389, 467, 499, 568, 601-602, 618 futball 174

G Generations 146, 149, 154-157, 159, 169, 271, 371, 543-556, 560-565, 571-572 Gezi Park Protest 501, 511-513, 515 Glocal 361, 367 Gotham City 280, 287, 289-290, 293, 298-299 Green Infrastructure 146, 148, 152-154

H Hayao Miyazaki 259, 262, 274, 276-278 Hegemonic Masculinity 394-395, 400-402, 407-408, 410-413, 416 Hermann Nitsch 11, 36-37, 39, 44-45 Homo Aestheticus 567-571, 580, 586, 588, 591 Horizon of Expectation 592, 617 Household Spirit 608, 620 Human - Nature Relationship 259 693

Index

I Iconography 342, 501, 504, 506-507, 517-519 Ideology 7, 12, 131, 179-180, 184, 192, 197, 201, 312, 314-315, 321-322, 325, 331-335, 346, 348, 351-352, 365, 372-373, 375, 391, 398-399, 404, 482, 486, 493, 499, 501, 522-523, 528 Illustration 63, 86, 119-121, 125-135, 137-140, 519 Image 2, 5, 7-8, 10-11, 18-20, 22-29, 31-32, 35, 42, 49, 73-74, 77-84, 92, 95, 119-123, 125-127, 130-137, 140, 159, 194-195, 200, 202-204, 209-210, 214, 232, 244, 258, 265, 271, 283, 296, 325, 329-330, 332, 337-338, 354-355, 357, 401, 422, 424, 427429, 431-434, 444, 450, 455, 459, 468, 486, 490, 494, 501, 504, 506-508, 511-512, 515, 519-520, 522, 525, 527, 534-536, 576-577, 583, 591, 607, 610-611, 614, 620 Immanuel Kant 280-281, 326, 568 Industrialization 147, 175, 179, 264, 266-269, 274, 279

J Joker 280, 287-289, 296, 298-301

K Kobold 592-594, 604-611, 614, 616-618, 620

L Landscape Architecture 141, 143, 154 Legends 156-160, 162-171, 188, 228, 289, 580-581, 584, 586, 588, 607, 609 Lighting 19-20, 23-27, 30-31, 34-35, 51, 62-64, 87, 308, 442, 451 line aesthetics 119 linear narrative 119, 127 Linear Violence 119-120, 140

401, 461, 476, 488, 494, 509, 529, 531, 535-538, 541, 564 Metonimi 541 Military Coup 369-370, 384, 392, 406 Mobile Games 417-421, 435-436 modern world problems 120, 128 Myths 101, 156-160, 163-165, 167-170, 172, 183, 242, 246, 275-276, 335, 526-529, 533

N Narrative 19-22, 24-31, 35, 42, 53, 63, 73, 83, 89, 103, 125, 127, 131, 157-159, 164, 167, 170, 183, 189, 194-196, 202-204, 209-211, 214-215, 217, 224-225, 227, 230, 259, 283, 285, 288, 293, 298, 329-330, 374-375, 396, 418, 420-421, 433, 447, 457, 484-485, 488-491, 494-497, 499, 517, 523, 526, 528, 538, 541, 575-576, 585, 592, 594, 596-599, 601, 603-605, 607, 609-610, 614-619 Narrative Cinema 214, 457, 575 nature 3, 8, 10, 13, 20, 23, 39-40, 42, 60, 66-67, 89, 92, 95, 97-98, 103, 109, 112, 123-124, 129-130, 136, 141-143, 145-149, 153-154, 157, 159, 168, 174, 185, 193, 202, 232, 242, 246-247, 259-279, 282, 304, 312-314, 316, 324, 326-328, 348-350, 354-355, 360, 362, 365, 415, 447, 475, 478, 510, 515, 524, 526, 529, 531, 535, 550, 568-570, 574, 576, 601-602 Network Society 139, 501, 519, 565 New Social Movement 501, 519

O Objectivation 1, 18 Ontology 198, 467, 472, 476 Opera 98, 100-106, 113-116, 118, 493 Ottomentality 417, 422-424, 435-436, 438 Ottomentality Subjectivity 417

M

P

Marina Abramovic 36, 39, 42-43, 49, 229, 231 Martin McDonagh 50, 59, 63, 67-72 Masculine Performances 394-396, 400-403, 407, 410-412, 416 Masculinity 73, 275, 394-396, 399-403, 407-408, 410-416, 584 Materialism 269-270, 274-275, 279 Memory Space 156, 172 Metal Music 107-110, 113, 117-118 Metaphor 49, 130, 206, 227, 261, 283, 335, 338-339,

Paganism 607, 620 Passion 6, 9, 12, 103-104, 158, 200, 264, 267, 286 Penny Dreadful 215, 217, 223-225 Perception 1, 3-8, 12-13, 17-18, 30, 41, 53, 74, 91, 96, 120-121, 123-124, 126, 133-137, 140, 160161, 172, 194-197, 203-205, 207, 212, 222, 232, 238-239, 243, 249, 257, 259, 261, 264, 288, 303, 307, 310, 317-318, 325, 329, 331, 333-334, 346, 351-353, 357, 366-367, 375-377, 380, 386, 432, 459, 465, 471, 502, 504-505, 507-509, 515-516,

694

Index

519, 525, 532, 537, 551, 553, 561, 568-569, 572, 576, 579-580, 595, 601 Performance 9-12, 21, 36-52, 62-64, 70, 72, 88-90, 92-93, 124, 177, 207, 231-232, 285, 293, 407, 410, 415, 419, 445-446, 448-450, 455, 457, 459, 490, 513 Performative 89, 93, 96, 316, 457, 515 peri-urban 144, 147-148, 150-153 PETA 520-522, 529-538, 541 Pharmakon 215, 219, 231, 577 Playability 418-420, 424, 426, 435-436, 438 Playwright 50-51, 53-54, 62, 67, 72, 102 pollution 107, 141, 147, 149, 154, 246, 261, 263, 266, 270, 272-273, 275, 278, 521 Pornography of Violence 215-217, 231 Posthumanism 234-235, 259-261, 274, 276-277 Power Relations 273, 303, 306, 315, 317, 333, 350, 354-355, 359, 365, 377, 397, 400, 404, 411, 418, 420-421, 436, 447, 460-462, 466, 469-471, 473, 479, 483, 507-508 Primitive Emotions 10, 18 Projection 5, 61, 118, 149, 575 Proletariat 324-325, 334, 338, 340, 346 Propaganda 18, 130, 221, 240, 243, 310, 324-325, 332334, 336, 340-343, 345-346, 373, 376, 378-379, 385-386, 389-390, 491-494, 499, 541 Psychoanalytic 82-85, 91-92, 94, 96, 230, 601 Psychoanalytical 73, 396 Public Relations 45-46, 49, 243, 332, 369-370, 374378, 381-387, 392, 541, 562 Public Space 347-349, 352-356, 358-368, 448, 450 Publicness 347-349, 355, 362, 367

R Rap 98, 106, 109-111, 113-116, 118 Reception Analysis 577, 591, 610 Reception Study 567 reconciliation 141, 146 Reflections of aesthetics 98 Reflections of violonce 98 Regression 7, 14-15, 18 Representational Power 347 Resistance 99, 102, 106, 142, 193-197, 199, 206, 214, 306, 405, 418, 441-442, 446, 448, 452, 456, 460, 462, 464-465, 469, 471-472, 479-480, 483, 490, 493, 509-510, 513-516 Ritual 2, 8-9, 11, 44, 81, 83, 161, 221-222, 379, 382, 403, 408, 573, 620 Romantism 280 rural area 141, 144

S Sacred Time 303, 320 Sanctity 1-3, 6, 8-9, 11-15, 158, 276 Semiotics 129, 131, 224, 324, 326, 335-336, 479, 486, 500, 520, 523-527, 529, 531, 534, 536, 538-541 Sensation 1, 4, 6, 9, 13, 195, 202-205, 210, 278, 325, 351, 477, 592 Sexuality 1, 4, 10-11, 15, 18, 39, 183, 200, 221-223, 236, 363-364, 415, 455, 464, 466, 474, 481, 522, 531-532, 576, 584 Shinto 264, 267-268, 275, 279 Skin-Ego 85, 96 Social Media 74, 78, 80, 86, 108, 111-112, 132, 134, 186, 308-310, 321, 332, 396, 435, 445, 496, 509510, 513, 515-516, 543-566 Social Media Generations 543, 545-546, 548, 550, 562, 565 Social Network 505, 508-509, 519, 543, 547, 566 Social Networking 444, 503, 519, 565-566 Spatialized Power 349, 351, 367 spore 174-175 Sports 33, 105, 145-146, 174-187, 191, 317, 319, 402, 548, 580, 598-599 Staging 37, 44, 50, 64-65, 67, 69, 71-72, 286, 295, 515 State Violence 394-396, 400, 403, 407, 411 Stories 19, 28, 42, 50-57, 59-65, 67, 72, 100-101, 103, 156-158, 162-164, 166-169, 171, 175, 202, 204205, 207, 228, 242, 264, 280, 284-285, 287, 330, 350, 370, 373, 385-387, 404, 480, 487, 492, 496, 499, 529, 541, 576, 585, 589, 594, 600, 602-603, 605, 610, 614, 619 Structural Violence 303, 305, 308-310, 312, 314, 317-318, 322 Supermodernity 350, 355, 362, 367-368 Surveillance 354, 356, 369, 440-459, 491 Surveillance Art 440-441, 446-450, 452-454, 456-458 Surveillance Society 446, 448-450, 454, 457-458, 491 Surveillance Technologies 441, 445-448, 452-453, 458 Susan Sontag 284, 567

T Tarhan’s Model of Trust 559, 561, 566 Tattoo 73-81, 83-89, 91-96 Technology of Self 417, 438 Television 19-20, 24, 27, 33, 73, 80, 122, 174, 176, 180-187, 190-191, 205, 217, 222, 225, 230-232, 243, 262, 305, 315, 322, 331, 340, 342, 373-375, 381, 385, 395, 411, 413, 420, 441, 444, 450, 456, 478, 485-487, 489-492, 494, 496, 498, 500, 511, 695

Index

545, 575-576, 581-582, 589, 596 Temporal Time 303 The Non-Human 259, 261, 265, 267, 272, 274-276 Theatre 44, 49-52, 59-60, 62-63, 65-72, 100-105, 118, 219, 448, 455, 490, 496 Totalitarian Regimes 484-485, 495 Tragedy 49, 100-102, 104, 106, 112, 179, 184, 219, 280, 284-285, 292-295, 298-299, 577, 599 Transformation 2, 4, 14-15, 18, 42, 80-81, 83, 88, 92, 110, 119-120, 128, 135, 144, 155, 158, 161, 195-198, 206-207, 209, 211, 214, 226, 229, 235, 264, 325, 332, 334, 349, 353, 356, 359-360, 362, 364, 422-424, 463, 469-472, 476, 483, 485, 490, 499-500, 502, 508, 516, 546, 568, 571, 577 Transhumanism 234-235, 247, 255-256 Transmedia 189, 484-488, 490-491, 496-500, 592-594, 596-598, 609-610, 617, 619 Transmedia Storytelling 189, 484-488, 496, 498-500, 593, 596-598, 609-610, 617, 619 True Folk Culture 423, 438 Turkish Tv Series 412 TV Serials 215, 223, 225

U Uncanny Effect 82, 96, 601-603 Unconscious 1, 4-5, 12-13, 15, 17, 22, 43, 221, 237, 304, 314, 322, 397, 467, 523, 581, 592-593 urban greenspace 141, 151 Urban Politics 347, 349, 352, 362 Urban Public Space 348-349, 352, 359, 361, 364, 366-367

696

Urbanization 78, 141-148, 151-155, 200, 213, 264, 358-359, 364, 367

V V for Vendetta 102, 484-485, 488-498, 500 Virtual Reality (VR) 234, 236, 248-252, 258, 567, 579, 592-597, 601, 603-604, 607, 617, 619 Visual Communication 78, 93, 119-123, 125-127, 129-130, 135-136, 140 Visual Culture 119-127, 130, 137-138, 140, 278, 517-519

W West End 50, 67, 69-70, 72

Y YouTube 47, 49, 68-70, 114, 117, 121, 139, 228, 230, 232, 316, 318, 337-340, 345, 459, 481, 501, 515, 533, 537, 546-547, 549, 556-558, 561, 563, 590-591 YouTuber 556, 559, 563, 566

Z Z Generation 543, 572