Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology [4 ed.] 9781000373042, 1000373045, 9781003093640, 1003093647

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Editor
List of Contributors
Abbreviations
Section I Soil–plant–water–nutrients–microorganisms Physiological Relations
1 Evaluating the Recruitment of Soilborne Microbes to Seeds and Their Effects On Seed Germination...
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Case Study
1.2.1 Field Deployment
1.2.2 Soil Chemistry
1.2.3 Seed Processing
1.2.4 Molecular Analysis
1.2.5 Data Analysis
1.2.6 Results of the Case Study
1.3 Perspectives
1.4 Conclusions
References
2 Regulation of Phosphate Starvation in Higher Plants and Role of Mycorrhizae
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Growth Responses and Physiological and Metabolic Adaptations of Phosphate-Starved Plants
2.3 Phosphate Starvation regulators
2.3.1 Phosphate Transport
2.3.2 Transcriptional Regulation of the Phosphate Starvation Response
2.3.3 Posttranscriptional Regulation of the Phosphate Starvation Response
2.3.4 Posttranslational Regulation of the Phosphate Starvation Response
2.4 Mycorrhiza-Induced Transcriptional Reprogramming of Plant Root Cortical Cells
2.5 Phosphate Regulation of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis
2.6 Integration of Phosphate Starvation Response and Mycorrhizal Signaling Pathways
2.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
3 Effect of Potassium On Growth and Physiology of Alfalfa
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Principles Underlying the Growth of Alfalfa
3.3 Role of Potassium in Physiological Mechanisms for Growth and Development of Alfalfa
3.4 Dynamics of Alfalfa’s Response to Potassium
3.4.1 Forms of Potassium in the Soil
3.4.2 Potassium Availability and Uptake
3.4.3 Factors Affecting Potassium Availability and Uptake By Alfalfa
3.4.3.1 Soil Factors
3.4.3.2 Plant Factors
3.4.3.3 Factors Related to Fertilizer management
3.5 Potassium Management for the Optimal Growth of Alfalfa
3.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
4 Evaluating and Managing Water Requirement of Crops: Theoretical Methods and Remote Sensing Technology
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Evapotranspiration
4.3 Theoretical Methods for Calculating Et
4.3.1 Crop Coefficient (kc)
4.3.2 Calculating Growing Degree days (gdd)
4.3.3 Irrigation Interval
4.3.4 Perennial Crops
4.3.5 Alternative Method for Calculating Et Without Gdd
4.3.6 Calculating Kc and Et for Partial Canopy/young Orchards
4.3.7 Remote Sensing
4.3.8 Simplified Pan Evaporation Method
References
Section II Physiology of Plant/crop Growth and Development Stages
5 Seed Dormancy and Germination in Medicinal Plants: Inhibitors and Promoters
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Seed Dormancy
5.3 Plant Growth Regulators and Dormancy: Facilitators and Inhibitors
5.3.1 Gibberellins
5.3.1.1 Biosynthesis and Regulation
5.3.1.2 Ga and Dormancy
5.3.1.3 Interactions of Ga and Aba
5.3.2 Auxin, a Brand New Player
5.3.3 Ethylene
5.4 The Role of N-Containing Compounds
5.5 Nitric Oxide and Dormancy Breaking
5.6 Scarification, An Ancient and Efficient Tool
5.7 Stratification, a Pattern From Nature
5.8 Conclusions
References
6 Plant Aging and Developmental Stages: Reproductive and the Beginning of Flowering Stage
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Plant Age and Flower Initiation
6.2.1 Juvenile Phase
6.2.2 The Role of Leaf in Flowering
6.2.3 Floral Meristem Development
6.2.4 Role of Mirna in Flowering
6.3 Light
6.3.1 Photoperiodism in Plants
6.3.2 Plant Response to Light
6.3.3 How Does Phytochrome Detect Light?
6.4 The Role of Cold Stress in Vernalization and Flowering
6.5 Conclusions
References
7 Longan Fruit Tree Physiology and Its Flowering Induction
7.1 Botany of the Longan Tree
7.1.1 Longan Trees and Its Fruits
7.1.2 Botanical Management of the Longan Tree
7.2 Longan Tree’s Irregular Flowering Habit and Its Influencing Factors
7.2.1 Longan Tree’s Inherent Issue: Irregular Flowering
7.2.2 Factors Affecting Longan Tree Flowering
7.2.2.1 Winter Seasonal Temperatures
7.2.2.2 Auxin and Gibberellins
7.2.2.3 Florigen
7.2.2.4 Potassium Chlorate
7.2.2.5 Potassium
7.2.2.6 Chlorine
7.2.2.7 Phosphorus
7.3 Longan Tree Physiological Responses to Flowering Induction
7.3.1 Case Study: Longan Tree Flowering Induction in Tropical Coastal Areas
7.3.1.1 Flowering Induction Materials
7.3.1.2 Technical Steps of Kclo3-Ga3-Kh2po4-Based Longan Flowering Induction
7.3.1.3 Tree and Soil Measurements and Growing Degree-Days for Longan
7.3.2 Auxin, Gibberellins, Photosynthesis, and Potassium Patterns in Flowering Induction
7.3.2.1 Temporal Changes of Auxin and Gibberellins Between Leaves and shoot Tips
7.3.2.2 Longan Tree Flowering and Photosynthesis Relationships
7.3.2.3 Longan Leaf K, P, and Cl Holding and Fruit Yield Differences
7.3.2.4 Discussion
Acknowledgments
References
8 Senescence: The Final Phase of Plant Life
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Senescence, Abscission, and Programmed Cell Death
8.3 Leaf Senescence
8.4 Senescence of Flowers and Reproductive Organs
8.5 Senescence Dependent On Plant Hormones
8.5.1 Ethylene and Senescence
8.5.1.1 Ethylene Biosynthesis and Signal Transduction Pathway
8.5.2 Abscisic Acid
8.5.3 Cytokinin
8.5.4 Auxin
8.5.5 Jasmonic Acid
8.5.6 Salicylic Acid
8.5.7 Dark-Induced Leaf Senescence
8.5.8 Fatty Acids, Amino Acids, and Proteins During Senescence
8.5.9 Role of Sugars During the Senescence Process
8.6 Senescence-Related Genes
8.7 Conclusions
References
Section III Cellular and Molecular Aspects of plant/crop Physiology
9 Carbon Assimilation and Partitioning in Crop Plants: A Biochemical and Physiological View
9.1 Oxygenic Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
9.1.1 Carbon Assimilation
9.1.2 Intra- and Intercellular Photosynthate Partitioning
9.2 Carbon Metabolism in Source Tissues
9.3 Different Photosynthetic Products
9.3.1 Starch
9.3.2 Sucrose
9.3.3 Raffinose Family of Oligosaccharides
9.3.4 Sugar Alcohols
9.3.5 Oils
9.3.6 Proteins and Amino Acids
9.4 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
10 Epitranscriptomics in Plant Physiology: M6a Modifications
10.1 More Than Genetics
10.2 Epitranscriptome
10.2.1 Trna Epitranscriptional Modifications
10.2.2 Rrna Epitranscriptional Modifications
10.2.3 Mrna Epitranscriptional Modifications
10.3 N6-Methyladenosine (m6a)
10.4 Mrna M6a Writer
10.5 Biological Roles of Mrna M6a Writer
10.6 M6a Eraser for Mrna
10.7 Biological Roles of Mrna M6a Eraser
10.8 Mrna M6a Reader
10.9 Biological Roles of Mrna M6a Reader
10.10 Mapping, Quantitative, and Qualitative Analysis of M6a
10.11 Conclusions
References
11 Characteristics of Grain Quality in Rice: Physiological and Molecular Aspects
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Features and Structure of Rice Grains
11.3 Rice Grain Quality
11.3.1 Appearance Quality
11.3.2 Milling Quality
11.3.3 Cooking Quality
11.4 Effect of Environmental Factors On the Rice Grain Quality
11.5 Effect of Temperature On the Rice Grain Quality
11.6 Effect of Soil Factors On the Rice Grain Quality
11.7 Effect of Genetic Factors on the Rice Grain Quality
11.8 Effect of Genetic Factors On Amylopectin
11.9 Effect of Genetic Factors On the Amylose Content (ac)
11.10 Rice Fragrance
11.10.1 Chemical Structure of Badh
11.10.2 Badh-Specific Substrate
11.10.3 Betaine Aldehyde Dehydrogenase (badh) and Rice Fragrance
11.11 Factors Affecting the Extent of Rice Aroma
11.11.1 Genetic Background
11.11.2 Rice Growing Related Factors
References
12 Role of Melatonin in Improving the Tolerance of Plants to Salinity Stress
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Soil Salinity
12.3 Response of Plants to Salinity Stress
12.3.1 Seed Germination
12.3.2 Seedling Emergence
12.3.3 Plant Growth and Development
12.3.4 Photosynthetic Pigments and Photosystems
12.3.5 Antioxidant Systems
12.3.6 Plant Nutrient Balance
12.3.7 Crop Yield
12.4 Role of Melatonin in Alleviating Salinity Stress
12.4.1 Role of Melatonin in Improving Plant Growth and Development Under Salinity
12.4.2 Role of Melatonin in Improving Plant Antioxidant Systems Under Salinity
12.4.3 Role of Melatonin in Improving Plant Photosynthesis Under Salinity Stress
12.4.4 Role of Melatonin in Improving Plant Ion Regulation
12.5 Conclusions and Future Challenges
Acknowledgments
References
13 Phytohormones and Abiotic Stresses: Roles of Phytohormones...
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Types of Plant Stresses
13.3 Plant Responses to Stress
13.3.1 Escape
13.3.2 Avoidance
13.3.3 Tolerance
13.4 Phytohormones and Stresses
13.5 Management of Stresses By Hormones
13.5.1 Breeding and Transgenic Strategies
13.5.2 Exogenous Application Strategy
13.6 Auxin
13.6.1 Location of Auxin Production and Its Action Site
13.6.2 Role of Auxin in the Plant System
13.6.3 Changes in Auxin Under Stress Conditions
13.6.4 Auxin Effects On Crops Under Environmental Stress
13.7 Gibberellins
13.7.1 Location of Gibberellin Production and Its Action Site
13.7.2 Role of Gibberellins in the Plant System
13.7.3 Changes in Gibberellins Under Stress Conditions
13.7.4 Gibberellin’s Effects On Crops Under Environmental Stress
13.8 Cytokinins (cks)
13.8.1 Location of Ck Production and Its Action Site
13.8.2 Role of Cks in the Plant System
13.8.3 Ck’s Effects On Crops Under Environmental Stress
13.9 Abscisic Acid (aba)
13.9.1 Location of Aba Production and Its Action Site
13.9.2 Role of Aba in the Plant System
13.9.3 Effect of Aba On Crops Under Environmental Stress
13.10 Ethylene
13.10.1 Location of Ethylene Production and Its Action Site
13.10.2 Role of Ethylene in the Plant System
13.10.3 Changes in Ethylene Under Stress Conditions
13.10.4 Effect of Ethylene On Crops Under Environmental Stress
13.11 Conclusions
References
14 Physiological Roles of Plant Nutrients, Ions, and Phytometabolites Homeostasis in Activating Antioxidative Defense Systems and Conferring Tolerance to Osmotic Stress
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Plant Nutrition and Assimilates partitioning Under Osmotic stress
14.2.1 Calcium
14.2.2 Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Carbon Metabolism
14.2.3 Potassium, Sodium, and Chloride
14.2.4 Other Nutrient Elements
14.3 Plant Responses to Oxidative Stress Caused By Osmotic Stress
14.3.1 Redox Homeostasis By Reactive oxygen Species/reactive Nitrogen species Balance
14.3.2 Polyamines
14.3.3 Nitric Oxide
14.3.4 Alternative Oxidase
14.3.5 Aldehydes
14.4 Protective Roles of Pigments Against Osmotic Stress
14.4.1 Flavonoids, Anthocyanin, and phenolic Biosynthesis
14.4.2 Carotenoids
14.5 Protective Roles of Plant Stress-Responsive Proteins Against Osmotic Stress
14.5.1 Late Embryogenesis Abundant Proteins
14.5.2 Heat-Shock Proteins
14.5.3 Metallothionein
14.5.4 Protease and Proteolytic Activity
14.6 Conclusions
References
Section IV Plant/crop Physiology and Physiological Aspects of Plant/crop Production Processes
15 Physiology of Grain Development in Cereals
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Flowering Initiation and Development
15.3 Flowering Time and Adaptation of Plants to Marginal Environments
15.4 Gametophyte Development and Anthesis
15.5 Pollination, Fertilization, and Grain Initiation
15.6 Grain Development
15.6.1 Endosperm Development
15.6.2 Starch Synthesis
15.6.3 Synthesis of Grain Storage Proteins
15.6.4 Seed Coat Development
15.7 Conclusion
References
16 Plant Nutrition: Rates of Transport and Metabolism
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Rates of Absorption of Essential Nutrients By Plants
16.2.1 Algae
16.2.2 Vascular Plants
16.2.2.1 Roots
16.2.2.2 Leaves
16.3 Factors Affecting Rates of Movement of Essential Nutrients Within Plants
16.3.1 Saturation Kinetics
16.3.2 External Or Internal Concentration of the Nutrient Itself
16.3.3 Competing Or Noncompeting Ions, Including H+ (ph)
16.3.4 Salinity, Nacl
16.3.5 Moisture Stress Or Drought
16.3.6 Temperature and Radiant Energy
16.3.7 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
16.3.8 Hormones, Enzymes, and Genes
16.3.9 Nanoparticles
16.3.10 Mycorrhizal Fungi
16.3.11 Rates of Transport of Essential Plant Nutrients in the Vascular System
16.3.11.1 Xylem
16.3.11.2 Phloem
16.3.12 Reproductive Organs (e.g., Flowers, Fruit, Seeds) and Storage Organs (e.g., Tubers)
16.4 Multi-Compartment Models of Plants
16.4.1 Compartments and Concepts of Influx, Efflux, and Net Flux In and Among Plants
16.4.2 Flux Rates in Multi-Compartment models of Plants
16.5 Rates of Transport of Elements Other Than Essential Plant Nutrients
References
17 Plant Nutrition: Interactions of Mineral and Organic Substances
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Properties of the Essential Plant Nutrients
17.3 Properties of Soil Organic Matter
17.4 Interaction of Mineral Nutrients and Organic Substances Near and at the soil–root Interface
17.4.1 Root Exudates
17.4.2 Interactions of Iron and Organic Substances
17.4.3 Aggregates of Minerals, Mineral Nutrients, and Organic Substances
17.5 Interaction of Mineral Nutrients and Organic Substances at the Leaf
17.6 Some Aspects of Transport of Mineral Nutrients in the Plant
References
18 Roles and Implications of Arbuscular Mycorrhizas in Plant Nutrition
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Endophytic Fungi
18.3 Molecular Dialogue and Symbiotic Interaction Between Plant and Fungi
18.3.1 Carbon Flow From Host Plants to Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (am) Fungi
18.3.1.1 Sucrose Transport and Metabolism in Mycorrhizal Roots
18.3.1.2 Lipid Transfer From Host Plants to Am Fungi
18.3.2 Mineral Nutrient Flow From Fungi to Host Plants
18.3.2.1 Nitrogen
18.3.2.2 Phosphorus
18.3.2.3 Potassium
18.3.2.4 Calcium
18.4 Conclusions
References
19 Turfgrass Nitrogen Management: A Review
19.1 Introduction
19.2 A Brief Overall Review of Plant Nitrogen
19.3 Turfgrass Nitrogen Requirement and Uptake
19.3.1 N Forms Available to Turfgrasses
19.3.2 Turfgrass N Requirement
19.3.3 Turfgrass N Use Efficiency
19.3.4 Nitrate Uptake
19.3.5 Ammonium Uptake
19.3.6 Urea Uptake
19.3.7 Amino Acid Uptake
19.3.8 Uptake of Other N Forms
19.4 Nitrogen Metabolism
19.4.1 N Assimilation
19.4.2 N Transportation
19.4.3 N Metabolism Associated With Carbon Metabolism of Photosynthesis and Photorespiration
19.4.4 N Interactions With Other Nutrients and Elements
19.5 Nitrogen Interactions With Abiotic and Biotic Factors
19.5.1 Abiotic Stresses
19.5.1.1 Water Deficit and Waterlogging
19.5.1.2 Temperature Extremes
19.5.1.3 Light
19.5.1.4 Traffic
19.5.1.5 Salinity
19.5.1.6 Heavy Metals
19.5.1.7 Acidic Soil and Aluminum Toxicity
19.5.1.8 Excessive Root-Zone Organic Matter
19.5.1.9 Nutrient Imbalances
19.5.2 Biotic Stresses
19.5.2.1 Weeds
19.5.2.2 Diseases
19.5.2.3 Insect-Mite Pests
19.5.2.4 Nematodes
19.5.2.5 Earthworms
19.5.2.6 Other Living Forms
19.6 Nitrogen Cycles and N Loss From Turf–soil–atmosphere Systems
19.6.1 Mowing and Clipping Recycle
19.6.2 Natural N Input and Cycling in Turf–soil–atmosphere Systems
19.6.2.1 Natural N Input
19.6.2.2 Nitrification
19.6.2.3 Mineralization
19.6.2.4 Immobilization
19.6.2.5 N and Carbon Cycles
19.6.3 N Losses
19.6.3.1 N Leaching
19.6.3.2 N Volatilization
19.6.3.3 Ammonium Fixation
19.6.3.4 Denitrification
19.6.3.5 N2o Emission
19.6.3.6 Runoff and Erosion
19.7 Turfgrass Nitrogen Management
19.7.1 N Fertilizers and Advancements
19.7.1.1 Balance Nh4+, No3-, Urea, Amino Acids, and Other Types of Fertilizers
19.7.1.2 Use of Controlled-Release Fertilizers
19.7.1.3 Balanced Foliar and Granular N Fertilizers
19.7.1.4 Integrating N Application With Plant Growth Regulators (pgr) and Bio-Stimulants
19.7.2 Symbiosis
19.7.3 N Osmic Management
19.7.4 N Digital Management
19.7.5 Integrated Turfgrass N Management
19.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Section V Plant Growth Regulators: The Natural Hormones (growth Promoters and Inhibitors)
20 Plant Growth Regulators and Secondary Metabolites, Downregulation and Upregulation
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Auxin, An Extremely Potent Regulator
20.3 Gibberellins: Accumulation and Interactions
20.4 Abscisic Acid (aba), a Classical Plant Hormone
20.5 Cytokinins, the Well-Known Stimulators
20.6 Ethylene, the First Identified Regulator
20.7 Brassinosteroids
20.8 Jasmonate Biosynthesis and Signaling
20.9 Salicylic Acid (sa), a Multifaceted Plant Hormone
20.10 Conclusions
References
Section VI Physiological Responses of Plants/crops Under Stressful...
Chapter 21 Physiological Basis of Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Physiological Basis of Salinity Tolerance in Plants
21.2.1 Ion Homeostasis
21.2.1.1 Regulation of Ion Uptake
21.2.1.2 Ion Exclusion
21.2.1.3 Ion Compartmentation
21.2.2 Maintenance of Potassium Under Salt Stress
21.2.3 Tissue Tolerance in Plants
21.2.4 Production and Accumulation of Compatible Solutes
21.2.5 Regulation of Antioxidant Enzymes
21.2.6 Production of Polyamines
21.2.7 Regulation of Plant Hormones
21.2.8 Regulation of Ion Fluxes in Roots
21.3 Physiological Basis of Drought Tolerance
21.3.1 Chlorophyll Fluorescence
21.3.2 Photosynthesis, Stomatal Conductance, and Transpiration Rate
21.3.3 Chlorophyll Content
21.3.4 Accumulation of Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidants
21.3.5 Maintenance of K+ in Leaf Tissues
21.3.6 Production of Plant Growth Regulators
21.3.7 Regulation of Electrolyte Leakage
21.3.8 Dynamics of Leaf Relative Water content
21.3.9 Compatible Solutes and Osmotic Adjustment
21.3.10 Accumulation of Proline
21.4 Physiological Basis of Waterlogging Tolerance In Plants
21.4.1 Formation of Aerenchyma
21.4.2 Diffusion of Oxygen in Roots
21.4.3 Control of Radial Oxygen Loss in Roots
21.4.4 Production and Accumulation of Ethylene
21.4.5 Ethylene and Formation of Aerenchyma Cells
21.4.6 Ethylene and Formation of Adventitious Roots
21.5 Conclusions
References
22 Physiological Adaptations in temperate Crops to Environmental...
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Plant Physiological Mechanisms Involved in Response to Environmental Stresses
22.3 Crop Adaptations to Environmental Stress Factors in the Temperate Climate
22.3.1 Plant Adaptations to Winter Season-Related Stresses
22.3.1.1 Plant Adaptation to Low Temperatures: Cold Acclimation
22.3.1.2 Plant Developmental Adaptation to Winter Season: A Phenomenon of Vernalization
22.3.1.3 Low Temperatures in the Spring
22.3.1.4 Plant Adaptations to Winter Stresses Related to Water Regime
22.3.2 Plant Adaptations to Flooding and Waterlogging
22.3.3 Plant Adaptations to Drought
22.3.3.1 Overview of Plant Adaptations to Drought During Different Stages of the Growing Season
22.3.3.2 Summary of Plant Adaptations to Drought
22.3.4 Plant Adaptations to Salinity
22.4 Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Crop Adaptation to Environmental Stresses During the Growing Season
22.5 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgment
References
23 Osmotic Stress: An Outcome of Drought and Salinity
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Osmolytes
23.3 Organic Acids, Sugars, Sugar Alcohols, Polyols, and Phenylpropanoids
23.4 Proline
23.5 Amino Acids: Protein and Non-Protein Amino Acids: Glycinebetaine (gb), Expansins, Non-Protein-Defensinsβ-Aminobutyric Acid (baba), Non-Protein-Defensinsβ-Aminobutyric-Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid...
23.6 Conclusions
References
24 Drought Stress Sensing-Signaling in Plants
24.1 Introduction
24.2 How Drought Stress Generates Signals? How Plants Sense Drought Stress Signals?
24.3 How Plants Pprs Mediate Drought-Induced Signal Drought-Induced-Perception-Transduction?...
24.4 How Ca2+ Sensors Perceive and Transduce Ca2+ Signature? How Interplay Between Ca2+, Redox, and Ph Signals Control...
24.5 Regulation of Ca2+ Signature: how [ca2+]i Signals Are Regulated Across...
24.6 Aba-Dependent and Aba-Dependent--Independent Signaling Pathways Confer Drought Tolerance Through...
24.7 Conclusions
Authors’ Contributions
References
25 Plant Morphological and Physiological Responses to Drought Stress
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Effects of Drought Stress at Whole Plant Level in Connection With Circadian Rhythms
25.2.1 Protection Mechanisms Against Drought Stress
25.2.2 How Internal and External Factors Induce Oscillations of Root Hydraulic Conductance and What Are the Consequences?
25.3 Water Relations and Effects On Plant Growth: Root and Cell Hydraulic Conductance, Root Architecture...
25.3.1 Regulation of Cell Division and Expansion Under Drought Stress
25.3.2 Regulation of Water Uptake and Transport Under Drought Stress
25.3.2.1 Root System Architecture: Genetic and Phenotypic Traits and Imaging Techniques
25.3.2.2 Regulatory Roles of Aquaporin (aqp) in Modulating Hydraulic Conductivity Under Drought Stress
25.3.3 Effects of Drought Stress On Shoot and Leaves Growth and Physiological Responses in Relation With Gas Exchange and Photosynthesis
25.4 Transpiration and Evaporation Processes Through Plant Cuticle
25.5 Role of Effective Use of Water (euw) and Water Use Efficiency (wue), and Energy Use Efficiency (eue) in Crop Improvement
25.6 Variations of Crop Yield and Qualitative Traits Under Drought Stress
25.7 Alterations in Composition and Structure-Conformation of Biomembranes: Lipid Peroxidation and Role...
25.8 Effects of Drought Stress On Photosynthesis and Photorespiration
25.9 Conclusions
References
26 Morphological, Physiological, and Biochemical Responses of Plants to Drought and Oxidative Stresses
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Common Effects of Drought Stress On Plants
26.3 Plant Responses to Water deficit
26.3.1 Drought Escape
26.3.2 Drought Avoidance
26.3.3 Drought Tolerance
26.3.4 Drought Recovery
26.4 Mechanisms of Plants’ Tolerance to Drought
26.4.1 Morphological Responses to Water Deficit
26.4.1.1 Germination and Plant Establishment
26.4.1.2 Number and Size of the Leaves
26.4.1.3 Root Changes
26.4.2 Physiological Responses to water Deficit
26.4.2.1 Plant Water Relations
26.4.2.2 Cell Membrane Stability
26.4.2.3 Photosynthesis
26.4.2.4 Photosynthetic Pigments
26.4.2.5 Chlorophyll a Fluorescence
26.4.2.6 Osmotic Adjustment
26.4.2.7 Plant Growth Regulators (phytohormones)
26.4.2.8 Mineral Nutrition Relations
26.4.2.9 Changes in the Secondary Metabolite Content
26.4.3 Drought-Induced Oxidative Stress and Biochemical Responses of the Plant
26.4.3.1 Reactive Oxygen Species (ros)
26.4.3.2 Enzymatic and Nonenzymatic Components of the Antioxidative Defense System
26.5 Some Agronomical Methods for Enhancing Plants’ Tolerance to Water Deficit
26.5.1 Seed Pretreatment (seed Priming)
26.5.2 Application of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (pgpr)
26.5.3 Application of Silicon
26.5.4 Application of Hydrogels
26.5.5 Application of Chitosan
26.5.6 Plant Anti-Stress Biostimulants
26.5.7 Foliar Application of Other Plant Growth Regulators
26.6 Conclusions
References
27 Effects of Salinity Stress On morpho-Physiology, Biochemistry, and Proteomic Responses of Plants
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Salinity
27.2.1 Primary Salinity
27.2.2 Secondary Salinity
27.2.3 How Are Plants Responding to Soil Salinity?
27.2.4 Effects of Salinity On Plants
27.2.4.1 Salinity Effects On Physiological and Biochemical Processes and Morphological Characteristics of Plants
27.2.4.2 Leaf Chlorophyll Content Under Salt Stress Conditions
27.2.4.3 Disturbances in Photosynthesis under Salt Stress Conditions
27.2.4.4 Compatible Osmotic and Solute Accumulation in Plants Under salt Stress Conditions
27.2.4.5 Role of Antioxidants in Plants’ tolerance to Salinity Stress
27.2.4.6 Changes in Plant Enzymatic Antioxidant (cat, Pox, Apx) Activity Under salt Stress Conditions
27.2.4.7 Role of Polyamine in Plants’ Salinity Tolerance
27.2.4.8 Changes in Plant’s Potassium (k) and Sodium (na) Ratio Under Salt Stress Conditions
27.2.4.9 Hormone Regulation of Salinity tolerance in Plants
27.2.4.10 Effects of Salinity On Plant/crop growth and Yield
27.2.4.11 Approaches for Reducing Soil salinity’s Detrimental Effects On plant/crop Growth
27.2.4.12 Strategies for Salt Tolerance in Plants
27.2.4.13 Proteomic Responses of Plants to Salinity Stress
27.3 Conclusions
References
28 Metabolic Regulation of Cytokinins for Conferring Heat...
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Metabolic Changes Associated With Ck Regulation of Heat Tolerance
28.2.1 Sugars and Sugar Alcohols
28.2.2 Organic Acids and Amino Acids
28.2.3 Antioxidants and Secondary metabolites
28.2.4 Hormone Interaction
28.3 Metabolic Changes Associated With Ck Regulation of Drought Tolerance
28.3.1 Sugar Metabolism
28.3.2 Amino Acids and Polyamines
28.3.3 Antioxidant Metabolism
28.3.4 Hormone Interaction
28.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
29 Drought Physiology of Forage Crops
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Physiological Impacts of Drought On Forage Crops
29.3 Mechanisms of Plant Response to Drought
29.3.1 Drought Escape
29.3.2 Dehydration Postponement
29.3.2.1 Reduction of Water Loss
29.3.2.2 Maintenance Or Increase Water Uptake
29.3.2.3 Osmotic Adjustment
29.3.3 Dehydration Tolerance
29.4 Management Considerations in Drought
29.5 Summary and Conclusions
References
30 Physiological Mechanisms of Nitrogen Absorption and Assimilation in Plants Under Stressful Conditions
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Nitrogen Sources, Their Uptake, and Assimilation
30.2.1 Sources of Nitrogen
30.2.2 Absorption and Assimilation of nitrogen
30.2.2.1 Nitrate Transport Systems
30.2.2.2 Nitrate Transporters
30.2.2.3 Reduction of Nitrate
30.3 Nitrogen Absorption and Assimilation Under Different Stresses
30.3.1 Salinity
30.3.2 Water Stress
30.3.3 Light
30.3.4 Heat
30.3.5 Chilling
30.3.6 Metal Toxicity
30.3.7 Ultraviolet B Radiation
30.4 Concluding Remarks
References
31 Reactive Oxygen Species Generation, Hazards, and Defense Mechanisms in Plants Under...
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Reactive Oxygen Species: Sites of Production and Their Effects
31.2.1 Types of Ros
31.2.2 Sites of Production of Ros
31.2.2.1 Chloroplasts
31.2.2.2 Mitochondria
31.2.2.3 Endoplasmic Reticula
31.2.2.4 Peroxisomes
31.2.2.5 Plasma Membranes
31.2.2.6 Cell Walls
31.2.2.7 Apoplasts
31.2.3 Role of Ros As Messengers
31.2.4 Ros and Oxidative Damage to Biomolecules
31.2.4.1 Lipids
31.2.4.2 Proteins
31.2.4.3 Dna
31.3 Antioxidative Defense System in Plants
31.3.1 Nonenzymatic Components of Antioxidative Defense System
31.3.1.1 Ascorbate
31.3.1.2 Glutathione
31.3.1.3 Tocopherols
31.3.1.4 Carotenoids
31.3.1.5 Phenolic Compounds
31.3.2 Enzymatic Components
31.3.2.1 Superoxide Dismutase
31.3.2.2 Catalase
31.3.2.3 Guaiacol Peroxidase
31.3.2.4 Enzymes of Ascorbate–glutathione cycle
31.4 Ros Production, Oxidative Damage and Antioxidants Status Under Stressful Conditions
31.4.1 Drought
31.4.2 Salinity
31.4.3 Chilling
31.4.4 Metal Toxicity
31.4.5 Uv-B Radiations
31.4.6 Pathogens
31.5 Concluding Remarks
References
32 Oxidative Stress: Repercussions for Crop Productivity
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Diversity and Metabolism of Ros in Plants
32.2.1 Superoxide Anion
32.2.2 Hydrogen Peroxide
32.2.3 Hydroxyl Radicle
32.2.4 Singlet Oxygen
32.3 Ros-Mediated Plant Growth and Development
32.4 Oxidative Stress and Plant Productivity
32.5 Conclusions
References
33 Physiological and Biophysical Responses of Plants Under Low and Ultralow Temperatures
33.1 Heat and Temperature
33.1.1 Heat Transfer
33.1.2 Temperature and Heat Capacity
33.1.3 Energy of Phase Transition
33.2 Low Temperatures
33.2.1 Frost Stress
33.2.1.1 Plant Response to Frost
33.2.1.2 Coping With Frost
33.2.1.3 Plant Protection Against Frost
33.2.2 Freezing Stress
33.2.2.1 Freezing of Water
33.2.2.2 Ice Nucleation
33.2.2.3 Ice Crystal Growth
33.2.2.4 Crystal Size Distribution
33.2.2.5 Coping With Freezing Stress
33.2.3 Plant Adaptations to Freezing Stress
33.2.3.1 Cold Hardening
33.2.3.2 Osmotic Adjustment
33.2.3.3 Ice Growth Inhibitors
33.2.3.4 Antifreezers
33.2.3.5 Barriers to Ice Propagation
33.2.3.6 Adaptation of Herbs and Trees to Low Temperatures
33.3 Ultralow Temperatures
33.3.1 Glass Transition
33.3.2 Water and Glass Formation
33.3.3 Cryoprotectants
33.3.4 Plant Long-Term Storage at Ultralow Temperatures
Acknowledgment
References
34 Physiological Responses of Cotton (gossypium Hirsutum L.) to Salt Stress
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Responses of Cotton to Salt Stress
34.2.1 Dry-Matter Production of Cotton Plants Under Salt Stress
34.2.2 Nitrogen Absorption By Cotton Plants Under Salt Stress
34.2.2.1 Nitrogen (15n) Absorption and Concentration in Plant Tissues
34.2.2.2 Total N Uptake By Plants
34.2.3 Nitrogen Metabolism and Assimilation in Cotton Plants Under Salt Stress
34.2.3.1 Protein-N Content of Plants
34.2.3.2 Total Soluble-N Content of Plants
34.2.3.3 Ammonium Plus Amide-N Content of Plants
34.2.3.4 Free Amino-N Content of Plants
34.2.4 Total Water Uptake By Plants Under Salt Stress
34.3 Summary and Conclusions
34.4 Future Perspectives
References
35 Growth and Physiological Responses of Turfgrasses Under Stressful Conditions
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Growth and Physiological Responses of Turfgrasses Under Stressful Conditions
35.2.1 Turfgrass Stress and Turf Quality
35.2.2 Examples of Complex Combinations of Stressors
35.2.2.1 Summer Decline
35.2.2.2 Winter Injuries and Kills
35.2.2.3 Root Dysfunction Associated With Combinations of Other Stressors
35.2.3 Turfgrass Responses to Stresses
35.2.3.1 Oxidative Stresses and Antioxidants
35.2.3.2 Signal Transduction Responses to Stresses and Approaches
35.2.3.3 Morphological, Physiological, and Metabolic Responses
35.2.3.4 Genomic Responses and Approaches
35.2.3.5 Symbiotic Eco-Evolutions
35.2.4 Turfgrass Responses to Mowing and Cultivation
35.2.5 Turfgrass Responses to Overseeding
35.2.6 Turfgrass Stress Tolerance Variability
35.2.7 Turfgrass Stress Acclimation and Adaptation
35.2.8 Turfgrass Stress Management
35.3 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
35.4 Acknowledgments
References
36 Urban Landscape: Trees’ Physiological and Environmental Stresses, Challenges, and Solutions
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Effect of Drought Stress on the Urban Landscape
36.3 Effect of Salt Stress in the urban Landscape
36.4 Effect of Heavy Metals On the Urban Landscape Trees
36.5 The Urban Tree and Air Pollution
36.6 Potential Effects of Global Warming On Woody Plants
36.7 Urban Densification
36.8 Effect of Pests and Pathogens On Urban Trees
36.9 Outlook
References
37 Consequences of Water Stress and Salinity On Plants/crops: Physiobiochemical and Molecular Mitigation Approaches
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Water Stress
37.2.1 Flooding Stress
37.2.1.1 Flooding Stress and Its Importance
37.2.1.2 Flooding Stress and Morphological Traits of Crop Plants
37.2.1.3 Flooding Stress and Crop Yield
37.2.1.4 Flooding Stress and Nutrient Uptake
37.2.1.5 Flooding Stress and Physiological Traits of Plants
37.2.1.6 Molecular Advances for Flooding Stress Tolerance
37.2.2 Drought Stress
37.2.2.1 Drought Resistance
37.2.2.2 Effect of Drought Stress On Plant Growth Characteristics
37.2.2.3 Relationship Between Drought, Photosynthesis, and Nutrient Uptake
37.2.2.4 Relationship Between Carbohydrates, Active Ingredients Production, and Drought Stress (osmotic Regulation)
37.2.2.5 Relationship Between Drought Stress and Oxidative Stress
37.2.2.6 Crop Varieties and Drought Tolerance
37.2.2.7 Gene Expression and Drought Stress (osmotic Adjustment)
37.2.2.8 Drought Stress and the Use of External Chemical Compounds
37.3 Salinity Stress
37.3.1 Saline Soils: Definition, Characteristics, and Classification
37.3.1.1 Sources and Causes of Soil Salinity
37.3.2 Mechanism of Salinity Effect
37.3.3 How Do Plants Respond to Salinity Stress?
37.3.3.1 Mechanisms of Plant Salinity Tolerance
37.4 Conclusions
References
Section VII Physiological Responses of Plants/crops to Heavy Metal Concentrations and Agrichemicals
38 Heavy Metals and Phytoremediation in Plants
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Heavy Metals
38.2.1 Lead (pb)
38.2.2 Cadmium (cd)
38.2.3 Copper (cu)
38.2.4 Nickel (ni)
38.2.5 Zinc (zn)
38.3 Effect of Heavy Metals On Humans
38.4 Effect of Heavy Metals on Plants
38.5 Plant’s Defense Mechanism Against Heavy Metals
38.6 Complications Due to Accumulation of Heavy Metals in the Soil
38.7 Methods of Soils Remediation Contaminated With Heavy Metals
38.8 Phytoremediation
38.8.1 History of the Phytoremediation
38.8.2 Phytoremediation Methods
38.8.2.1 Rhizofiltration
38.8.2.2 Phytostabilization
38.8.2.3 Phytoextraction
38.8.2.4 Phytovolatilization
38.8.2.5 Phytodegradation
38.8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Phytoremediation
38.8.4 How Are Phytoremediators Consumed?
38.8.5 Which Plant Species Can Be Used As Phytoremediators?
38.8.6 Concerns Related to Phytoremediation
38.9 Conclusions
References
39 Arsenic Toxicity and Tolerance Mechanisms in Crop Plants
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Arsenic As Toxic Metalloid
39.2.1 Toxic Species of Arsenic
39.2.2 Sources of Arsenic to the Soil
39.2.3 Uptake of Arsenic By Plants
39.2.3.1 Uptake of Arsenite
39.2.3.2 Uptake of Arsenate
39.2.3.3 Uptake of Methylated Arsenic Species
39.2.4 Symptoms of Arsenic Toxicity
39.3 Metabolic Alterations in Arsenic-Stressed Plants
39.4 Oxidative Stress and Antioxidative Defense Under Arsenic Toxicity
39.4.1 Nonenzymatic Antioxidants
39.4.2 Enzymatic Antioxidants
39.5 Arsenic Tolerance Mechanisms in Plants
39.5.1 Suppression of High-Affinity Phosphate/arsenate Transport
39.5.2 Reduction of Arsenate to Arsenite
39.5.3 Increased Synthesis of Glutathione and Phytochelatins
39.5.4 Arsenic Sequestration in the Vacuoles
39.5.5 Arsenic Efflux
39.5.6 Methylation and Volatilization
39.6 Strategies for Developing Arsenic Tolerance in Plants
39.7 Phytoremediation of Arsenic-Polluted Soil
39.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
40 Interactions of Nanomaterials and Plants in Remediation of the Heavy Metal Contaminated Soils
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Nanotechnology and Its Application in Remediation of Contaminated Soils
40.3 Important Parameters in Studying the Effects of Nanomaterials On Plants
40.4 Mechanism of Effects of Nanomaterials On Plants
40.5 Pragmatic Repercussions of Nanomaterials On Phytoremediation
40.6 Toxicity of Nanomaterials On Plants
40.7 Rapport Nanomaterials and Plants to Eradicate Heavy metals From the Contaminated Soils
40.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Section VIII Physiological Responses of Lower Plants (algae) and...
41 Impact of Metal Nanoparticles On Marine and Freshwater Algae
41.1 Introduction
41.2 Fabrication of Metal Nanoparticles Using Algal Species
41.3 Biosorption, Uptake, and Accumulation of Metal Nanoparticles in Algae
41.4 Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species By Metal Nanoparticles
41.5 Inhibition of the Photosynthetic Electron Transport in Algal Photosystem Ii By Metal Ions and Metal Nanoparticles
41.6 Impacts and Mechanisms of Action of Individual Metal Nanoparticles On Marine and Freshwater Algae
41.6.1 Silver Nanoparticles
41.6.2 Gold Nanoparticles
41.6.3 Copper-Based Nanoparticles
41.6.4 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
41.6.5 Nickel Oxide Nanoparticles
41.6.6 Iron-Based Nanoparticles
41.6.7 Aluminum Oxide Nanoparticles
41.6.8 Cerium Dioxide Nanoparticles
41.6.9 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
41.6.10 Other Metal-Based Nanoparticles
41.7 Conclusions
41.8 Acknowledgments
References
42 Risks and Benefits of Metal-Based Nanoparticles for Vascular Plants
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Green Synthesis of Metal-Based Nanoparticles
42.3 Methods for Monitoring of the Formation and Characterization of Metal-Based Nanoparticles
42.4 Uptake, Transport, and Accumulation of Metal-Based Nanoparticles in Vascular Plants
42.5 Beneficial and Adverse Effects of Metal-Based Nanoparticles On Photosynthetic Processes in Vascular Plants
42.6 Negative Effects of Oxidative Stress Induced By Metal-Based Nanoparticles On the Growth of Vascular Plants
42.7 Genotoxic Effects of Metal-Based Nanoparticles On Vascular Plants
42.8 Beneficial Effects of Metal-Based Nanoparticles On the Growth of Vascular Plants
42.9 Mitigation of Abiotic Stresses in Vascular Plants By Metal-Based Nanoparticles
42.10 Improved Production of Healing Plant Secondary Metabolites By Metal-Based Nanoparticles
42.11 Conclusions
42.12 Acknowledgments
References
Section IX Physiology of Plant/crop Genetics and Development
43 Genotyping, Phenotyping, Genetic Engineering, and Screening Techniques...
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Biotechnological Techniques for Generation of Drought-Tolerant Plants
43.2.1 Efficacy of Conventional Breeding and Genetic Engineering Techniques
43.2.2 Genotyping and Gene Expression Analysis
43.2.3 Quantitative Trait Locus Analysis and Linking Genotyping to Phenotyping Data
43.2.4 Genetic Mapping By Using Sequencing Methods
43.2.5 Gene Editing By Using Crispr/cas9 and Talen
43.3 Prospects for Genetic Engineering for Generation of Drought-Tolerant Plants
43.3.1 Introduction of Green Revolution Genes Or Key Genes
43.3.2 Gene Silencing
43.3.3 Roles of Biotechnology in Improving Plant Performance Indirectly Through Microbiome Breeding and Optimizing Symbiotic Performance
43.4 Targeting Metabolic and Signaling Pathways to Improve Drought Tolerance
43.5 Roles of Candidate Transcription Factors and Genes in Improving Tolerance to Water Stress
43.6 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
44 Genetic Diversity in Leaf Photosynthesis...
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Leaf Photosynthesis in Crop Plants Under Field Conditions
44.3 Genetic Diversity in Leaf Photosynthesis Among Soybeans
44.4 Physiological Mechanisms Underlying the Genetic Diversity in Leaf Photosynthesis
44.4.1 Gas Diffusional Process As the Determinant of Leaf Photosynthesis
44.4.2 Biochemical Processes As the determinant of Leaf Photosynthesis
44.5 Genetic Mechanisms Underlying the Genotypic Variation in Leaf Photosynthesis
44.6 Future Challenges for the Genetic Improvement in Leaf Photosynthesis
44.7 Conclusions
References
Section X Plants/crops Growth Responses to Climate Change and Environmental Factors
45 Climate Change and Secondary Metabolite Production: An Ecophysiological Perspective
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Co2 Elevation and Plant carbon Metabolism
45.3 Secondary Metabolites Under Elevated Co2: Responses and Complexities
45.4 Ozone (o3): Greenhouse Gas with Paradoxical Roles
45.5 Rising Temperature: Is It the Decisive Parameter?
45.6 Conclusions
References
46 Regulation of Growth Factors in Plants By Artificial and Supplementary Led Light...
46.1 Introduction
46.2 Photoreceptors
46.2.1 Phytochromes
46.2.2 Cryptochromes
46.3 Plants’ Reactions to Light Quality (blue and Red Spectra)
46.3.1 Growth and Morphology
46.3.2 Photosynthesis and Physiology
46.4 Conclusions
References
Section XI Future Promises: Plants and Crops Adaptation, and Biotechnological Aspects...
47 Management of Plant Stress Physiology to Improve Crop Production and Quality
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Biological-Origin Stress Factors
47.2.1 Antibacterial Activity
47.2.2 Antifungal Activity: The Case of Cyclic Lipopeptides
47.2.3 Antiviral Activity
47.3 Chemical (nonbiological) stress Factors
47.4 Physical Stress Factors
47.5 Ultraviolet Light As Stress Factor to Increase Plant Production and Quality
47.6 Controlled Elicitation Used to Enhance Bioactive Metabolites Production
47.7 Conclusions
References
48 Cam Plants As Crops: Metabolically Flexible, Hardy Plants for a Changing World
48.1 The Cam Pathway of Carbon Fixation
48.1.1 Introduction
48.1.2 The Core Processes of Photosynthetic Carbon Fixation: C3 and C4 Plants
48.1.3 Cam Plants: General Description
48.2 Biochemistry of Cam
48.2.1 Night Period Reactions
48.2.2 Daytime Reactions
48.3 Regulation
48.3.1 Transcriptional Regulation
48.3.2 Posttranscriptional and Translational Regulation
48.3.3 Tonoplast
48.4 Evolution and Taxonomic Distribution
48.5 Productivity and Use of Cam Plants As Crops
48.6 Ecophysiology
48.7 Conclusions and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
49 Digging Deeper to Define the Physiological Responses to Environmental...
49.1 Introduction
49.2 Major Abiotic Constraints for Crop and Forage Production in the Tropics
49.2.1 Edaphic Constraints
49.2.2 Climatic Constraints
49.3 Adaptation of Common Bean to Abiotic Constraints
49.3.1 Low Phosphorus Availability in Soil
49.3.2 Soil Acidity and Aluminum Toxicity
49.3.3 Drought
49.3.4 High Temperature
49.3.5 Multiple Stress Resistance
49.4 Adaptation of Brachiaria Forage Grasses to Abiotic Constraints
49.4.1 Soil Acidity and Aluminum Toxicity
49.4.2 Low Phosphorus Availability in Soil
49.4.3 Drought
49.4.4 Waterlogging
49.4.5 Multiple Stress Resistance
49.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
50 New Approaches for Improving Turfgrass Nutrition: Usage of Humic Substances and Mycorrhizal Inoculation
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Humic Substances
50.3 Mycorrhizal Inoculation
50.4 Mode of Action of Humic Substances and Mycorrhizal Inoculation
50.4.1 Nutrient Uptake
50.4.2 Plant Growth and Root Development and Architecture
50.4.3 Plant Quality
50.4.4 Stress Alleviation
50.4.5 Other Beneficial and Physiological Effects
50.5 Conclusions
References
Index