Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 9: Physical Anthropology 9781477306734

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HANDBOOK OF MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS, VOLUME 9 Physical Anthropology

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HANDBOOK OF MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS EDITED AT MIDDLE A M E R I C A N RESEARCH INSTITUTE, TULANE UNIVERSITY, BY

General Editor A. L. HARRISON, Associate Editor INIS PICKETT and GYPSIE E . STEARNS, Administrative ARDEN E . ANDERSON, JR., Art Editor

ROBERT WAUCHOPE, MARGARET

Assistants

JAMES C . GIFFORD and CAROL A. GIFFORD, Indexers

ASSEMBLED WITH THE AID OF A GRANT FROM THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION, AND UNDER THE SPONSORSHIP OF THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL C O M M I T T E E ON LATIN A M E R I C A N ANTHROPOLOGY

Editorial Advisory Board IGNACIO BERNAL, HOWARD F . CLINE, GORDON F . E K H O L M , N O R M A N A. M C Q U O W N , M A N N I N G NASH, T. DALE STEWART, EVON Z. VOGT, ROBERT C. W E S T , GORDON R. W I L L E Y

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HANDBOOK OF MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS R O B E R T W A U C H O P E , General Editor VOLUME

NINE

1 hysical Anthropology τ . DALE STEWART, Volume Editor

UNIVERSITY

OF

TEXAS

PRESS

AUSTIN

Copyright © 1970 by the University of Texas Press First paperback printing 2015 All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America The preparation and publication of The Handbook of Middle American Indians has been assisted by grants from the National Science Foundation. Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to:  Permissions   University of Texas Press   P.O. Box 7819   Austin, TX 78713-7819  http://utpress.utexas.edu/index.php/rp-form

Library of Congress Catalog Number 64-10316 isbn 978-1-4773-0672-7, paperback isbn 978-1-4773-0673-4, library e-book isbn 978-1-4773-0674-1, individual e-book

C O N T E N T S

1. History of Physical Anthropology in Middle America Juan Comas

3

2. Preceramic Human Remains Arturo Romano

22

3. Anthropometry of Late Prehistoric Human Remains Santiago Genovés Τ,

35

4. Dental Mutilation, Trephination, and Cranial Deformation Javier Romero

. . . .

50

5. Pre-Hispanic Osteopathology Eusebio Dávalos Hurtado

68

6. Anthropometry of Living Indians Johanna Faulhaber

82

7. Distribution of Blood Groups G. Albin Matson

105

8. Physiological Studies D. F. Roberts and Marshall T, Newman

148

9. Skin, Hair, and Eyes

164

A. Introduction T. D. Stewart B. Dermatoglyphics Marshall T. Newman

164

C. Microscopic Study of Hair Mildred Trotter and Oliver H. Duggins

179

D. Color of Eyes and Skin T, D. Stewart

184

10. Physical Plasticity and Adaptation T. D. Stewart

192

11. Pathology of Living Indians as Seen in Guatemala Nevin S. Scrimshaw and Carlos Tejada

203

12. Psychobiometry of Mexican Indians Javier Romero

226

167

References

235

Index

273 vii

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HANDBOOK OF MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS, VOLUME 9 Physical Anthropology

GENERAL EDITOR'S

NOTE

The manuscripts for the following articles were submitted at various dates over a period of several years. Because of revisions and minor updatings made from time to time, it is difficult to assign a date to each article. In some cases, an indication of when an article was completed can be had by noting the latest dates in the list of references at the end of each contribution.

1. History of Physical Anthropology in Middle America

JUAN

F

OR THIS BRIEF SYNTHESIS of the development of the research and teaching aspects of physical anthropology in Middle America, the year 1940 has been fixed as the upper time limit because the contemporary period, which can be considered to begin with that year, will receive detailed coverage in the following articles in this volume. Furthermore, at approximately that date (actually 1937), two important periodical publications—the Handbook of Latin American Studies and the Boletín Bibliográfico de Antropología Americana (B.B.A.A.)—were initiated, offering extensive information on activities in the field of physical anthropology in Middle America.1 The principal antecedents of this article are to be found in the works of Hrdlicka (1918), León (1901b, 1919, 1922b), Comas (1943, 1950), and Comas and Genovés (1960, 1964). 1 The Handbook, prepared in the Hispanic Foundation of the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., reached volume 29 in 1967; the Boletín, prepared by the Comisión de Historia del Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, Mexico City, reached volume 25 in 1965.

COMAS

For the southern boundary of Middle America, I have in general followed the limits set by Kirchhoff (1943). Within the northern limit, for practical reasons I include works referring to Indian groups which presently are of Mexican nationality, but which would be excluded if I had adopted strictly ethnographic criteria, for the groups do not possess the cultural characteristics attributed to Middle America. Most of the contributions in the field of Middle American physical anthropology under this geographic definition and within the designated time limit originated in Mexico and, aside from fieldwork, nothing can be reported from elsewhere in the area. SPECIAL CASES OF CURIOSITY

Since the beginning of the 16th century data and descriptions of an archaeological, ethnographic, and linguistic nature have received special attention from chroniclers, priests, and conquerors. However, although as a consequence the sources of information are numerous, it does not follow that they are very useful as regards the somatic and biological differences generally observable among the aboriginal groups inhabiting the 3

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

region originally known as New Spain. Of course, Sahagún, Bemal Díaz, Las Casas, López de Gomara, and several other authors of the period in the course of describing the country, its peoples, and its customs, alluded from time to time to some somatic or even psychological characteristic which particularly attracted their attention, but writings of this sort cannot be considered the beginnings of an anthropological science; the lack of appropriate methods and techniques render impossible any advance in this sense. This situation should not be considered as exceptional in America, since also in the Old World, as I have pointed out elsewhere (Comas, 1960, pp. 3-27; 1966c, pp. 19-40), physical anthropology had a slow rhythm of development in comparison with other sciences. Here are some examples of curiosity about supposedly anomalous or pathological cases: (a) Artificial cranial deformation is referred to by the chroniclers (Francisco Hernández, 1926, folios 46, 47, 48; Las Casas, 1967, 1: 153, 177, 179; López de Gomara, 1943, 2: 246) and, beginning with the second third of the 19th century, is described especially by Berthold (1842), Gosse (1855, 1861), Gratiolet (1860a,b, 1861), Carrillo Ancona (1886), and Rubin de la Borbolla (1930). (b) The supposed Aztec microcephalics, Máximo and Bartola, who were exhibited in various European capitals in the 19th century, spurred a copious literature beginning in 1851 (see especially: Warren, 1851; Leconte, 1852; Guérin, 1853; Saussure, 1853; Cull, 1856; Baillarger, 1855; Serres, 1855; Peisse, 1855; Anonymous, 1855; Leubuscher, 1856; Owen, 1856; Cams, 1856; Humboldt, 1856; Bertillon, 1875; Hamy, 1875; Topinard, 1874-75; R. Virchow, 1891, 1901; Birkner, 1897, 1898; and Andree, 1902). (c) Anomalies of the dental system, such as mutilations of an artificial character, were also from an early date the object of special attention on the part of doctors and 4

anthropologists (see, for example: Hamy, 1882a, 1883; Falero, 1886; León, 1890, 1892, 1901a; Nadaillac, 1899; A. H. Thompson, 1904a-c, 1906; Mena, 1911; Saville, 1913; Engerrand, 1917; van Rippen, 1917, 1918; Siliceo Pauer, 1925b; Wissler, 1931; J. E. S. Thompson, 1932; Steggerda and Hill, 1936; and Rubin de la Borbolla, 1940). ( d ) The same can be said with respect to cranial trephination, as is demonstrated by the works of Lumholtz (1897), Lumholtz and Hrdlicka (1897), Hamy (1899), Retzius (1901), Gamio (1910), and Carreño (1912). (e) The study of dwarfs and giants motivated publications like those of Ortega (1873), Rodriguez (1875), Starr (1896), and Blanchard (1909). (f) The study of the location of the Mongolian spot among Mexicans was pioneered by Starr (1903, 1908), ten Kate (1905), and Gracieux (1918). (g) The mummies discovered in various caves within Mexican territory were also written about, especially by Mason (1881), Riley (1881), Batres (1889a), Hamy (1897a), and Palazuelos (1937). INSTRUCTIONS FOR INVESTIGATIONS PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY (1862)

IN

The first formal source manifesting knowledge of some somatic characteristics of the aboriginal Mexican population is found in an article entitled "Instructions ethnologiques pour le Mexique" intended for the use of travelers and published in the third volume (1862) of the Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d' Anthropologic de Paris by Auburtin, Le Bret, and Gosse. The parts of special interest here read: Some authors, in speaking of the Indians who now inhabit the various provinces of the Mexican Republic, recognize in them a certain family similarity, the principal characteristics of which would be: color rather more brown than coppery; prominent cheek bones; eyes generally dark, very full, and with the lids rising upwards imperceptibly towards the temples; a

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

generally well-developed and adjusted nose, rather more broad than sharp towards the tip; angular head; large ears; black, straight hair, growing quite low on the forehead; rather sparse beard; a broad but not flat face; and a very inclined facial angle. They find also that the frontal bone and the bones of the nose are more depressed backwards than in the Mongols, although less than in Negroes; that the occiput is less salient than in the Mongols: that the external occipital protuberance is less marked, the cheek bones more rounded, the orbital cavities more sunken, and the ascending rami of the lower jaw less separated. But other authors, while recognizing a certain resemblance in the combinations of their features (which they attribute to mixture of the various races of the Mexican highlands), believe that it is still possible to distinguish the differences in origin of certain tribes that have remained isolated for centuries without crossing with the others. In this fashion, for example, we might have near the southern border the Mixtecs and Mazateos with exceptionally large heads; the Lipan of the Apache tribe with blond hair; the Yabipai or Yabipi, with long beards, etc. 2 It would be interesting to establish these remarkable facts, basing them on numerous comparative observations for the various more or less isolated tribes, and thus making manifest the differences that can occur. 2 Swanton (1952, pp. 322-23) indicates that the Lipan were not Mexican. He says that they "formerly ranged from the Rio Grande in New Mexico over the eastern part of the latter State and western Texas southeastward as far as the Gulf of Mexico, . . . In 1839 the Lipan sided with the Texans against the Comanche but suffered severely from the Whites between 1845 and 1856, when most of them were driven into Coahuila, Mexico. They remained in Coahuila until October 1903, when the 19 survivors were taken to northwest Chihuahua, and remained there until 1905. In that year they were brought to the United States and placed on the Mescalero Reservation, N. Mex., where they now live." As for the Yabipai, they could be the Lipan, since Francisco Garcés in 1776 named the former the Yabipai Lipan {ibid., p. 322). It is possible also that the name refers to the Havasupai to which the same Garcés gave the name of Yabipai Jabesua (ibid., p. 351). The Havasupai likewise are not Mexican, because Swanton (p. 351) places them in "Cataract Canyon of the Colorado River, northwestern Arizona."

In this aspect we point first of all to the study of the Tlaxcaltec, descendants of the famous allies of Hernán Cortés, a race that, in all probability, is quite distinct from that of the Aztecs and doubtless much earlier than the latter in the Mexican area. The oldest races that history mentions in the territory of Tlaxcala are the Olmec, who appear to have established themselves in that region before or very near the beginning of the Christian era. It is believed that the Otomi, who between the 8th and 9th centuries inhabited this territory as well as that beyond the Valley of Mexico towards the west and north, are of the same race. [pp. 212-14.] Among the racial characteristics which ought to be studied it is superfluous doubtless to mention skin color. Nevertheless, we recommend to our correspondents that they ascertain this character with the greatest precision possible, not limiting themselves to simple notes or comparisons with the color of certain objects, but by fixing the color as far as possible on paper by means of watercolor plates of some square centimeters. This is much better than any description, particularly when it is a matter of capturing shades which are sometimes poorly definable. Everyone is in agreement in recognizing that the color of the Indians of Mexico presents rather numerous and broad differences. But we still do not know whether such differences are due solely to race or whether they are up to a certain point a consequence of the environment. It appears that certain inhabitants of the mountains have a darker color than the inhabitants of the plains. It is important to establish this fact, and, should it prove correct, to attempt to determine whether it is really due to altitude. [p. 216.] T h e "Instructions" go on ( p p . 222-30) to devote considerable space to deformed crania, their collection and classification. T h e problems such as race mixture, consanguineous marriage, a n d the acclimatization of Europeans to the intertropical zones of America a n d especially Mexico are also covered ( p p . 231-37). W e have obtained no information about the carrying out of field investigations in

5

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

which the above partially transcribed norms were applied (Comas, 1962). COMMISSION SCIENTIFIQUE DU MEXIQUE

(1864) Taking advantage of the opportunity of the French military expedition to Mexico, the so-called Commission Scientifique du Mexique was established two years after the above-mentioned "Instructions" appeared in print. At the beginning of February, 1864, the French Minister of Public Instruction, V. Duruy, proposed to Emperor Napoleon III that a commission be created to assure the success of the projected scientific expedition to Mexico and bordering countries. This was established by decree on the 27th. On March 2 the Minister of Public Instruction, in implementing the decree, stated that the Mexican scientific expedition should investigate the distinct aspects of the region, including specifically "the study of the various races'* which inhabit it. He charged the commission with preparing instructions on which the explorers and investigators would rely while in the field. On the 10th of the same month the commission set itself up with four committees. A. Milne-Edwards and A. de Quatrefages figured in the Committee on Natural and Medical Sciences. Further members of the commission were named: Dr. Léon Coindet, a French medical man residing in Mexico; Lucien Biart, a naturalist residing in Orizaba (Order of 10-8-1864); a Mr. Lami, sculptor and traveler with the scientific expedition to Mexico, "for anthropology" (Order of 7-10-1864). Other members of the commission, such as Manuel Orozco ν Berra and Joaquín García Icazbalceta (Order 3-11-1864), had no connection with the activities and investigation in physical anthropology. It fell to the lot of the Committee on Natural and Medical Sciences to draw up the instructions governing the investigators and explorers. Quatrefages was in charge of the part dealing with physical anthropology, 6

which was subsequently approved by the whole commission. The text of the "Instructions for carrying out the works in physical anthropology" (Archives de la Commission Scientifique du Mexique, vol. 1, 1865), which follows, I consider to be of interest in view of the period of its publication: The study of the physical characters is not, as some believe, all of anthropology, but constitutes one of the most important branches, and by putting it thusly, the basis itself of that science. These instructions comprise two types of questions: those that apply in the study of any race; and others that correspond to each particular race. The examination of a certain number of facts permits the formation of special collections. 1. General questions. As a first aim should be mentioned the description of the external characters; these have to be not only exact and precise, but also thorough. Each region of the body should be examined separately, comparing it with the others, with a view of obtaining as clear an idea of its true characteristics as of its proportions in the whole. The head in particular has to be studied with utmost care, examining independently face and vault, comparing them one with the other with a view of establishing their harmony or disharmony; each special feature ought to be indicated, etc. To this external study is to be added, when possible, the anatomical examination. The comparative anatomy of the races is to be initiated; in this respect, the medical officers of the military and civilian hospitals can provide great help. Among the features that should attract your attention especially we point out: the color, form, volume and weight of the brain; the more or less great distribution and abundance of the convolutions; the relative proportions of the distinct encephalic regions, etc. The comparison of the large abdominal organs also would provide, without doubt, interesting results, etc. The physiology of the races enters naturally into this study. The more or less ease with which the various functions are performed at different ages and in both sexes should be looked into. Comparative pathology is likewise included in the type of investigation to which we refer.

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

The existence of peculiar diseases, the relative frequency or gravity of certain illnesses, the modification that a particular disease presents in one or another race, etc., constitute other very important characters to investigate. To this much we limit the suggestions applicable to all the races in the studies covered. To us these notes seem sufficient for the welleducated and intelligent men to whom they are inscribed. In case of necessity they should be able to be completed as we indicate above. 2. Special questions. The population divides itself naturally into three large groups: (a) the indigenous races; (b) the foreign races; (c) the crosses between the two. (a) Indigenous races. They are very mixed. History demonstrates that all of the people that have ruled in Mexico come from more or less distant places. The Otomi, surely one of the most ancient groups, still retain the vague memory of their ancient migrations. It is clear that each one of these races ought to be the subject of as complete an examination as possible along the lines of the preceding indications. It is necessary above all to separate the groups or individuals that still conserve most fully their primitive characters from the altered population resulting from long-continuing admixture; a study of this sort is delicate and requires as much perseverance as wisdom. It will be necessary to compile all the local and historical records; this will have to be directed in the first instance to the isolated groups in their habitat. From this point of view special attention should be given to the people living in the mountains; and likewise to the island tribes. Such studies will have to be extended, with time, to all the populations included in the area of investigation dealt with; but for the time being and without going out of the Valley of Mexico and the cordillera that surrounds it, there are very important facts to verify. In the Valley itself are found most of the conquered Mexican races that, since the most remote times, appear to have regarded this rich valley as the goal of their migrations. In the mountainous zone are still encountered in a state of purity the ancient race of the Otomi, totally distant from the foregoing in their traditions, speech, beliefs, etc. A welldone monograph on this race would be invested

with great interest. No less important would be a similar work with respect to the Totonac. There probably existed, prior to the Otomi proper, a race that perhaps was quite distinct. It would be wise to investigate carefully the possibility of its existence. Cave exploration, which in Europe, and especially in France, has produced such valuable information, perhaps would be of equal importance in the Mexican setting. The same applies to the exploration in the lakes. To find in Mexico the parallel of the European lake dwellers would be a fact of maximum importance. But in this type of investigations one has to proceed with caution, because the very recent peoples, the Aztecs for example, also have constructed habitations, probably very similar to those which we are discussing, in the middle of their lakes and swamps. It is probable that the exploration of the caves in this part of the world will permit the clarification of a problem the solution of which divides into two bands both the geologists and the anthropologists of Europe: Did man live in a geological period before the present? Already in Brazil Dr. Lund has thought it probable to find human remains associated with the remains of extinct animal species. To continue these investigations in the Mexican caves would be of immense interest. We point out at the same time that the presence in such regions of flaked stone implements, of worked bones, etc., together with osseous remains pertaining to extinct species, would be equivalent, for the solution of the problem, to finding the actual human remains. Also at the same time it is unnecessary to insist on the need for precautions in proceeding in this class of endeavors, in order not to confuse disturbed soils with in situ geological strata. Most of the races that have intermixed in the high plateau, or better perhaps in the Valley of Mexico, are more or less pigmented. Naturally one will have to try to find out whether characteristic diflFerences in this respect exist among them. But one must also find out whether the coloration is truly congenital, or whether it is observed only at certain years, months, days or hours after birth. The white child born in Europe has to be the basis of comparison that is adopted.

7

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

(b) Foreign races. The white (Spanish) race largely dominates among the mixed-bloods. However, families of other distinct origins exist; one should look carefully to see if they are equal or whether there are differences between them. Whatever may be the race to which originally the Europeans resident in Mexico pertain, they ought to be studied above all from two points of view: of acclimatization and of the modifications that the original type may have undergone. (i) Acclimatization. The great problem of acclimatization has to be studied in the individual and in the generations. Is the foreigner condemned to come to Mexico to suffer the dangerous crisis that annihilates such a great number of immigrants? Is this crisis the only phenomenon which acclimatization presents? Is it the same for all Europeans, regardless of the race to which they pertain? Are the Jews accused of being more or less of an exception to this general rule? Are the African and Asiatic races, etc., subject to paying the same tribute as the white Europeans? Has the individual who has withstood the tests of acclimatization transmitted to his offspring the benefit of this species of initiation? Are his offspring of the first generation as apt to live in Mexico as the descendants of the third and fourth generations? (ii) Modification of the original type. In different parts of America the presence of external modifications of the human type has been determined: in Frenchmen along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico or in Canada, just as in the Anglo-Saxons of the United States. Has the Spanish type in Mexico undergone analogous modifications? If such modifications exist, are they the same on both coasts and in the high plateaus? Are the two sexes equally indicted? The physiological and pathological characters evidently are modified in the admixed population. In what do such modifications consist? (c) The mixed-breeds. In Mexico the intermixture took place in all proportions and in every sense. An attentive study of such mixed races would have great importance. By means of a careful comparison the characters of direct white-Indian intermixture should be established, and from this to the white up to the moment in which one of the two types erases definitely the other. It will have to be determined wheth-

8

er the same number of direct crossings, and in the same sense, is necessary in order to transform the white into Indian and the Indian into white. "Inverse" intermixture also should be carefully studied. The crossing of distinct classes of mixedbreeds among themselves (lateral intermixture) has to be the object of analogous investigations, etc. Does the crossing, even in lowest grade, with Indian blood afford the descendants protection from certain pernicious influences, etc.? Are the mixed-breeds more or less fertile than the individuals of pure races, etc.? 2. Collections. The objects relating to the physical study of man which should be collected are quite varied; we mention above all the following: (i) Skeletons, or at least the skulls. Every really authentic skull coming from a country still so little explored from this point of view, has a real interest; (ii) The hair. Microscopic study of the hair produces some of the major distinctive characters of the races; the most complete series of these possible should be formed, including all the indigenous races, creoles, mixed-breeds, etc.; (iii) Modelled and naturally colored busts; (iv) Photographs. When possible the front and profile of each individual should be obtained. And do not forget that in order to be useful the photograph should always be taken very exactly in front, or very exactly in profile; all ¾-view photographs lack scientific value. We insist especially on the importance of skeletons and skulls coming from ancient tombs —those before the period of the conquest by Europeans. The small osseous remains recovered in caves under the stalagmitic cap, and more or less mixed with fossils, should be preserved religiously. [pp. 21-27.] T h e "Instructions" p r e p a r e d b y the same committee with reference t o medicine also have interesting suggestions about physical anthropology. H e r e are some examples: Anthropology will help to determine the influences of the races on certain pathological predispositions, offering a basis of comparison between Indians, European creoles, mixedbreeds, Negroes and foreigners. For example, while Europeans suffer the disastrous effects of

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

the tropical climate in Veracruz, the Negroes are totally immune to it; etc. Physiology can provide observers with new data on the action of the climate. It is owing to this that the respiratory phenomena already studied—in the different altitudes of Mexico— by the illustrious Humboldt and later by Dr. Jourdanet, have been the object recently of a full investigation, both in its entirety and in detail, by Léon Coindet, one of the principal medical men of the expeditionary body. Certain diseases, perhaps derived from syphilis, seem to be peculiar to the Indians of Mexico. Such study has not been carried out yet from the medical point of view, and would be an innovation. The practice of childbirth could also reveal interesting peculiarities about which we lack precise information; to know whether natural childbirth among the Indians is made easier in general by the small cranial volume of the fetus in proportion to the size of the female pelvis; if in difficult childbirth females only intervene, and if unnatural childbirth requires the intervention of a surgeon; what are the most frequent accidents and the means of remedying them, in accord with the customs of Mexican practice. To determine the nature and selection of the native foods, as also their degree of adaptation and assimilation to the diet of the Europeans. [pp. 49, 53, 58, 59.] Both the traveling members of the commission and the medical men of the French expeditionary army carried out measurements on the Indians, creoles and mixedbreeds; they also recovered osseous remains which increased the collection of the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris. The Gazette Médicale de Mexico (Gaceta Médica de México), founded by the medical section of the scientific commission, published its first number September 15, 1864. It was planned as a fortnightly review, in fascicles of 16 pages. Here appeared various works by L. Coindet and D. Jourdanet referring to somatometric observations. The anthropological materials assembled by these two investigators, together

with those by Chamay, G. Jacob, Liberman, Fuzier and others, were partially compiled, elaborated, and published by E. T. Hamy (1884). Not to be forgotten, however, is the three-volume work published earlier (1868) by L. Coindet. Complementing the Commission Scientifique du Mexique established in Paris was a Comisión Científica Franco-Mexicana with 10 sections, created in Mexico in 1864 on the initiative of Colonel M. L. Doutrelaine and by order of General Bazain. The medical section, which began its work April 19, 1864, included surgery, hygiene, veterinary medicine, medical statistics, materia medica, and anthropology. Many years later it became the National Academy of Medicine, in which a section of anthropology existed for some time but was eventually abolished, possibly because there was no one with sufficient interest and training to direct it (León, 1922b, p. 100). One of the questions which most interested the medical men working under the auspices of the Commission Scientifique du Mexique, especially L. Coindet and D. Jourdanet, was the possible influence of living conditions in the high Mexican plateau in modifying certain anatomical and physiological characters such as amplitude of the thorax, respiratory movements, stature, blood composition. The men were interested especially in comparing such observations made on the local Indians with those made on more or less recent European immigrants. Fragmentary reports on investigations of this sort were published in the Gazette hebdomadaire de Medicine et Chirurgie. Bulletin de TAcademie de Medicine, and Gaceta Médica de México. However, the basic study of Jourdanet (1861) was made before, that of Coindet (1868) after, the creation of the commission. N. León eventually recognized that, "Notwithstanding the scarcely favorable auspices for successfully carrying out studies of this kind, good observations were made and 9

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

important examples recovered," except that the internal disturbances in Mexico impeded "the seed deposited by the French scholars from developing, spreading and coming to fruit" (León, 1901b, p. 63). Many years later the subject was tackled afresh by other Mexican physiologists: Vergara Lope (1890, 1893, 1895, 1896), Herrera and Vergara Lope (1899), Cabrera (1920), Izquierdo (1922, 1928), Ocaranza (1923).

Brinton (1887), Herrera (1893), Ramírez (1897), Sánchez (1897, 1899), ViUada (1903), Hrdlicka (1907), León (1922a), Palacios (1939). New finds and the publications after 1940 have placed the problem in very distinct circumstances that will be explained in Article 2. The bibliography of MaldonadoKoerdell (1947-49) is of great value for this topic. STUDIES OF PELVIMETRY

INFORMATION IN GENERAL WORKS

Many anthropological publications of continental or universal character contain descriptive, somatometric, and osteometric data referring to human groups of Middle America. Among them, in chronological order, are: Blumenbach (1790), Morton (1839, 1842a), Gosse (1855), Meigs (1857, 1866), D. Wilson (1857, 1863), Davis (1867), Verneau (1875, 1890), Broesike (1877), Ecker (1877), Spengel (1877), Flower (1879), Otis (1880), Quatrefages and Hamy (1882), Merejkowsky (1882), ten Kate (1884b), Topinard (1885), Welcker (1886), Manouvrier (1888), A. de Quatrefages (1889), Matthews (1891), G. Sergi (1891, 1911), Rudinger (1892), Virchow (1892), Hrdlicka (1899b, 1906,1907,1912a), Putnam (1899), Russell (1900), Retzius (1901), Wilder (1904), Paul-Boncour (1912), Sullivan (1917, 1920, 1922), Dixon (1923), Deniker (1926), R. Martin (1928), Hooton (1930), Wissler (1931, 1938), and Pericot (1936). FINDS OF PREHISTORIC MAN

The discovery of the remains of the so-called Peñon Man in 1844 initiated investigations about the possible antiquity of Mexican aborigines. This is not the place to evaluate the results of these first studies, but I record the most important, in chronological order: Hamy (1878), Bastian (1881), Bárcena and del Castillo (1885a,b), Bárcena (1886a-c, 1897), Newberry (1886), 10

Obstetricians indirectly cooperate in anthropometric studies through studying the female pelvis in relation to the more or less ease of pregnancy and parturition. León tells us that Drs. Julio Climent and Juan Maria Rodriguez initiated their investigations on the Mexican female pelvis in 1869. Besides their contributions, the following works should be noted: Verneau (1875), Pérez Salazar (1881), Flores (1881), FranCO (1885), Gonzales y Olivares (1887), Zárraga (1890), Sánchez Gómez (1891), Gutiérrez Zavala (1895), Duque de Estrada (1902, 1910, 1911, 1916), Aragón (1904, 1906), Alcocer (1905), Quintana (1906), Abogado (1911), Emmons (1913). León (1922b, p. 101) observes that all these studies lack "one of the most necessary conditions for usefulness, and this comes about through the failure to use a uniform technique and appropriate instruments as set forth in the classic Instructions' of Broca and their excellent continuations." At the same time Dr. León announced that, in order to correct this deficiency, he had formulated some "Instructions" for the purpose of standardizing the technique of measuring normal female pelves. RACIAL INTERMIXTURE

The racial composition of the population of Mexico and the analysis of the distinct elements that had intervened in its intermixture instigated certain studies, for example:

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Périer (1860-68), Roujou (1873), ViUada (1903), Blanchard (1908, 1910), Engerrand (1908, 1910, 1912), Anonymous 1912), Camavitto (1937), Toro (1922), Ν. León (1924b), and G. D. Williams (1931). SEROLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Although the techniques of serological investigation are relatively modem, since the second decade of this century investigators have been preoccupied with the determination of the blood groups and their respective frequencies among the Mexicans, working with the latter in search of relationships that would yield some conclusions, especially on the possible origin of the aborigines of Middle America and their connections with other American and Old World peoples. We cite: Ocaranza (1923), Snyder (1926), Moss and Kennedy (1929), Goodner (1930) Rife (1932), Abarca Alarcón (1934), Η. Gómez (1934), Mazzotti (1934), Suárez Islas (1935), Martínez (1937), and M. Basauri (1938). CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY

The possible existence of an anthropological type deserving the label "criminal" and the determination of its characteristics was also the object in Mexico of separate investigations and publications. They were begun in 1891 in the Penitentiary of Puebla, by Drs. Martinez Baca and Manuel Vergara, comparing the crania of dead criminals with those of 540 nondelinquents (or those who had not been certified as such). They took anthropometric measurements on the living, at the same time observing anatomical details, sensorial perceptivity, muscular strength and resistance, respiratory capacity, etc. The anthropometric service of the Penitentiary of Puebla ended in 1912. In Mexico City, about 1890, Dr. Ignacio Fernández Ortigosa became concerned with criminal anthropology, trying to establish

in the General Prison the anthropometric identification of the delinquents. In 1899 Dr. Fernández Ortigosa visited the United States and some European countries, consulting in Paris with Dr. A. Bertillon in his method of criminal identification (bertillonage). Thanks to this background the anthropometric system of Bertillon was put into practice in the Belem prison of Mexico City (1903-04), but instead of being placed under the competent direction of Fernández Ortigosa, a specialist in such techniques, it was entrusted to Dr. Ignacio Ocampo "who was totally unfamiliar with the problem" (León, 1922b, p. 108). It follows then that the results were not very satisfactory; the service was shut down and the archives disappeared in the riot of 1913. The regulations of the Penitentiary of Mexico directed that every inmate who died there was to be autopsied and the cranium saved. This encouraged the formation of an interesting collection of crania of delinquents which was deposited in the Department of Physical Anthropology of the Museo Nacional de Antropología e Historia. Other efforts to create anthropometric services of criminal identification were carried out in the Penitentiary of Guadalajara, Jalisco (1899), and in the House of Correction for female minors of Coyoacan, D.F. (August 10, 1908); but in 1914 such anthropometric services for delinquents were suspended, and soon also the collection of the crania of criminals who died in the Penitentiary was given up. I should point out, in agreement with N. León, that the data of criminal anthropometry accumulated in this manner have scarcely any value for comparative purposes because of the lack of training of the personnel appointed to such services. Among the works on criminal anthropology up to 1940 are: Martinez Baca and Vergara (1892), Verdugo (1896), Maldonado (1899), Basurto (1900), Vergara (1904), 11

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Morán (1914), Gómez Robleda (1930), and Romero (1939). STUDENT ANTHROPOMETRY AND CHILD GROWTH

Some anthropometric measurements were initiated in 1902 in the Escuela Normal de Profesores de México as part of the medical examination of the students. Although it lasted scarcely a year, in July 1906 the Gen­ eral Administration of Primary Instruction created a section of Hygiene and Student Anthropometry. Dr. Máximo Silva started the "individual anthropometric examina­ tions" to be given to students of various ed­ ucational centers of the city. In a study on the educational problem in Mexico, Engerrand and Urbina (1908b, pp. 216-17) in­ clude a chapter concerning the need for an anthropometric examination of the stu­ dents, proposing the series of measurements and somatoscopic characters which ought to be taken: weight, stature, arm spread, chest circumference, nasal index, cephalic index, muscular strength, vital capacity, col­ or of eyes and hair, outline of the foot and hand, and photograph. It is not known whether this proposal produced practical results. In April, 1908, the Ministry of Public In­ struction and Fine Arts directed that "the personnel of the section of experimental physiology of the National Medical Insti­ tute devote themselves seriously to the in­ vestigation of the anatomical and functional norms of Mexican boys from birth to 14 years." In December they began to measure the boys of an orphanage, Dr. Vergara Lope being in charge of this anthropometric serv­ ice, which did not take into account the technique generally used at this period. On August 1, 1909, the office involved was or­ dered to leave the Medical Institute and to join the Student Hygienic Service under the name of "Student Anthropometric Service." Despite the change of name, they contin­ ued to measure the isolated boys of the 12

orphanage and not those of the public schools. In September, 1912, Dr. Nicolás León re­ placed Dr. Vergara Lope as director of the anthropometric service. This of itself led to a change in the measuring technique; name­ ly, the utilization of the proposal of P. Godin (1903) permitting comparisons with series from other countries. Troubles developed in the application of the Godin scheme. Dr. León sought the counsel of Hrdlicka, who supplied instructions and clarifications per­ mitting him to prepare a new anthropomet­ ric scheme more adapted to reality and capable of yielding practical results.3 At the request of Dr. León, the Ministry of Public Instruction, on February 6, 1913, decreed the autonomy of the Anthropomet­ ric Service (by means of which differences of opinion and delays in the work were avoided) and its inclusion in the Depart­ ment of Physical Anthropology of the Na­ tional Museum, of which Dr. León was already in charge. Even without special technical training, the medical inspectors of the primary schools of the Federal District, aided by the teachers, took data on weight and stature. Dr. León tells us that during the years 191012 measurements were obtained on 59,627 students (28,002 boys and 31,625 girls). The results were elaborated and published by W. G. Gómez (1913). On the suggestion of Dr. Manuel Uribe Troncoso the Student Anthropometric Serv­ ice was abolished in 1914. The most relevant studies on biological growth and child an­ thropometry in Middle America before 1940 are the following: Barragán (1883), Maldonado (1895), Carrillo (1902), Silva (1907), Vergara Lope (1910d), Landa (1910,1912), 3 With great objectivity and justice León ac­ knowledges to Hrdlička his debt for suggestions for improving his work technique. The new anthropo­ metric scheme that León used until 1912 was based in great part on the teachings of Hrdlička. See in this respect the interesting letter from Hrdlicka to León, November 23, 1911 (León, 1922b, p. 111). See also León, 1912a, 1913, 1914.

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Uribe Troncoso (1911, 1912, 1917), León (1912b), W. G. Gómez (1913), Paschal and Sullivan (1925), Santamarina (1931), Fragoso (1934), Manuel (1934), C. Basauri and Argoytia (1937), and Gómez Robleda et al. (1937). MUSEO NACIONAL AND

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY (1887)

The Museo Nacional de México—the name underwent a number of changes after 1900 —was created by Presidential Agreement on March 18, 1825, and ratified by law on November 21, 1831. But more than half a century passed before a section of physical anthropology was established, in 1887, in this institution. In charge was Dr. Francisco Martinez Calleja, who was, nominally, the first official professor of this subject. The section lasted only a few months, being abolished on the retirement of the museum director, Dr. Jesús Sánchez, and merged with the Department of Zoology. The participation of Mexico in the historical exposition organized in Madrid in 1892 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America was the reason for collecting osteological material in the Tarahumara region (by P. Aquiles Gerste), in Guadalcazar, San Luis Potosi (by Manuel M. Villada) and in Santiago Tlatelolco (by Manuel Tic ó). This collection was increased in 1895, thanks to the meeting in Mexico of the Eleventh International Congress of Americanists. At the same time the old Department of Anthropology was re-established in the Museo Nacional under the care of Professors Alfonso L. Herrera and Ricardo Cicero. As a result of these developments new excavations were carried out in the enclosure of the ancient customhouse of Santiago Tlatelolco, yielding osseous remains that augmented the museum collection. In 1900 Dr. Nicolás León was named assistant naturalist of the museum and given charge of the anthropological collection. Dr. León, being an authoritative Mexican

polygraphist, merits special consideration as an initiator and promoter of physical anthropology. Moreover, to him are owed the first history and the first bibliography of this science on a national level (León, 1901b, 1919, 1922b). He was the first director of the Michoacan Museum, created in 1886, devoting special attention to the physical anthropology of the Tarascans and publishing his results in the Anales del Museo Michoacano, At the same time he started the collection of brains obtained while he was doctor of the Civil Hospital of Morelia. In 1892 he relinquished the directorship of this museum and in 1900 assumed direction of the Department of Physical Anthropology of the Museo Nacional. In 1903 the chair of anthropology and ethnology was established with Dr. León in charge. In reality he was the first professor, for although in 1887 Dr. Martinez Calleja took this title, "he was not in reality more than the Conservator of this section" (León, 1922b, p. 104). Between 1904 and 1907, with his students, León made field trips to various Indian groups. One of the results was the study by C. Macias and A. Rodriguez Gil (1910) on the Tuxpanec Indians of Jalisco. Dr. León left the museum in 1907 but returned to it in 1911 when the former professorship of anthropology and ethnology was divided into two sections, one of them being that of physical anthropology and anthropometry, with León in charge. During his four-year absence "over 50% of the osteological collections were rendered useless and the rest was in such a bad state that it could hardly be considered serviceable" (León, 1922b, p. 104). In 1913 three competitive fellowships for studies in physical anthropology were awarded to the medical students Angel C. Castellanos, Emilio Martínez, and Elíseo Ramírez. "The classes . . . imparted for the first time in an oflBcial manner in Mexico the theoretical teaching of anthropology and the practice of anthropometry and os13

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

teology in all their applications" (León, 1922b, p. 112). The Department of Physical Anthropology of the Museo Nacional almost went out of existence following the death of Dr. León (February 29, 1929) for lack of specialists in the subject and did not resume its activities until mid-1931 under the direction of Daniel F. Rubin de la Borbolla and Javier Romero. Exploration in the ruins of Monte Alban, Oaxaca, in 1931-32 and in other archaeological zones yielded osteological material, later augmented. The scant interest and importance accorded physical anthropology in this period in official circles and among investigators become evident in the Anales del Museo Nacional de México. During the first three epochs (1877-1913) 17 volumes were published, with a total of 8,500 pages, yet only nine articles related to physical anthropology. Six of them were original—Carrillo Ancona (1886), Herrera (1897), León (1904), Macias and Rodríguez Gil (1910), Gamio (1910), and Macias (1912); the remaining three were translations of articles by foreigners—Berthold (1886), ten Kate (see 1884a), and Hrdlicka (1903a). In its fourth epoch (1922-33) the Anales comprised eight volumes, with a total of 184 articles and 4,133 pages, of which only eight are monographs in physical anthropology, with a total of 197 pages. Volumes 1 and 2 (1934-35) of the fifth epoch of the Anales included 39 articles with a total of 1,133 pages of which only four monographs of 50 pages concern our science. The third and last volume of the fifth epoch of the Anales, corresponding to the years 1936-38, has not been included here because it was published in 1945 and therefore after the period covered by this review. ESCUELA DE ALTOS ESTUDIOS

(1910)

The Escuela de Altos Estudios, created April 7, 1910, and inaugurated in September of the same year, engaged Franz Boas 14

as professor of anthropology, although he taught principally ethnology. In December of that year Boas gave a series of lectures on "Statistics in its Application to Anthropometry," to which came especially the medical men of the Student Hygiene Service. In March of 1912 Boas resumed his course on the theme "General Biometry and Anthropometry of Individual Growth," but "persons who attended these lectures say that no anthropometric work was performed." It is recognized that most of the enthusiastic persons who devoted themselves to anthropometry in Mexico in this period lacked "the necessary special theoretical preparation and practical laboratory teaching" (León, 1919, p. 244). Among the advertised courses for the academic year of 1923 was one to be given by Nicolás León on "Anthropology and Ethnology, especially of Mexico." {Jour, Soc. Amer. Paris, n.s., 1923,15:340). INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY

The statutes of this organization, established in Mexico City in 1910,4 state in Article 2: "The International School of American Archaeology and Ethnology has for its objective the advancement of the study of American archaeology, ethnology and anthropology, particularly of Mexico, and its relations to countries which adjoin Mexico." Although "anthropology" was here used to mean physical anthropology, the investigations and courses were really almost exclusively in archaeology, ethnology, and linguistics. * Signed in Mexico City on September 14, 1910, "in the year and month of the first centenary of the independence of Mexico by: E. Seler, Delegate of the Minister of Public Instruction of Prussia; L. Capitan, Delegate of the Minister of Public Instruction of France; G. B. Gordon, Delegate of the University of Pennsylvania; Franz Boas, Delegate of Columbia University; Ezequiel A. Chávez, Delegate of the Secretary of Public Instruction and Fine Arts of Mexico; and Roland B. Dixon, Delegate of Harvard University." The inauguration took place on January 20, 1911.

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY LA DIRECCIÓN DE ANTROPOLOGÍA

(1917-24)

In 1917 the old "Inspection and Conserva­ tion of Archaeological Monuments" as­ signed to the Ministry of Public Instruction, passed to the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Development and changed its name to ''Department of Archaeological and Eth­ nological Studies," and later to "Depart­ ment of Anthropology," with Dr. Manuel Gamio in charge. There, starting November 8, 1917, a course in physical anthropology and anthropometry was established under the direction of Dr. Miguel Lazo de la Vega. Development of the course was great­ ly hindered, however, by lack of instru­ ments and collections, and the professorship was abolished in June of 1918. THE REVIEW "ETHNOS"

(1920-25)

The review Ethnos was initiated in Mexico City in 1920 under the direction of Manuel Gamio. Its life lasted for three epochs: dur­ ing the first (April, 1920, to March, 1921) Gamio published a volume of 274 pages; in the second (November, 1922, to April, 1923) a volume of 182 pages; in the third (January to May, 1925) a volume of 144 pages. Part of the studies of P. Siliceo Pauer, A. Toro, Manuel Gamio and others on physical anthropology found outlet in the pages of this review that had to suspend publication in spite of its great prestige. INTERNATIONAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF MIDDLE AMERICA

Earlier I mentioned the investigations of the members of the Commission Scientifique du Mexique (1864) and its antecedents (1862), also French. Now we come to later collab­ orations with foreign institutions and to independent foreign investigators. Herman ten Kate saw the American con­ tinent—Baja California, Sonora, southwestem United States—for the first time in 1883. In 1887-88 he formed part of the Hemenway Expedition. His publications deal not

only with indigenous Mexican groups but with the Pima and Papago, who at that time were located not in Mexico but in the United States (ten Kate, 1917, p. 371). The latter are mentioned here because a political frontier does not necessarily delimit so­ matic heterogeneity. Carl Lumholtz, in 1892-93, directed, un­ der sponsorship of the American Museum of Natural History of New York, an expedition to Mexico, which traveled over the northern and western parts of the country and ob­ tained numerous somatic data that were subsequently published (1897, 1898, 1902). Lumholtz led other expeditions to Mexico in 1894-98, in the last of which Hrdlicka accompanied him (Hrdlička and Lumholtz, 1898). W J McGee explored Tiburon island off the coast of Sonora, under the auspices of the Bureau of American Ethnology of Wash­ ington in 1894. He gathered somatic infor­ mation about the Seri Indians (Hrdlicka, 1898; McGee, 1898), to which Kroeber (1931) added somatic measurements of 13 Seri. Frederick Starr was one of the first anthro­ pologists to organize and carry out a sys­ tematic somatometric investigation among indigenous groups of central, southeastern, and southern Mexico. During five field trips between 1897 and 1901 he obtained data on 23 adult series, the details of which are given in Articles 6 and 9D. Ales Hrdlicka was the foreign anthropol­ ogist most influential in advancing physical anthropology in Mexico during the first third of the present century. T. D. Stewart (1940) has published an excellent and full bio-bibliography of this scientist, so that here I shall record only briefly Hrdlicka's activities and investigations in Mexico. He made four visits to the country: the first in 1898 (to which I have already referred), accompanying Lumholtz, of three months' duration; the second in 1902 of seven months; the third in September-December, 1903; and the fourth and last in 1910 to 15

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

assist the XVII International Congress of Americanists. The 15 aboriginal groups studied by him were not represented in all cases by numerically uniform series and in general by less than 50 individuals. (Details of these groups are given in Article 6.) Hrdlicka is not very explicit as to the exact locality where he carried out the measurements and physiological observations of each series; it appears that, among the Papago and Pima, the groups measured were in Arizona, even though the places called Torres and Ures in Sonora are mentioned as the location of part of them (Hrdlicka, 1908, pp. 6-7, 10; see also Article 6). Hrdlicka refers many times to Indians jointly of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, which seems to confirm what I have said already with reference to H. ten Kate: that the political frontier between the two nations is no basis for assuming a priori that somatic differences exist between the individuals of the same indigenous group living on either side of the boundary. Hrdlicka collaborated with Nicolás León in working out an anthropometric scheme which was applicable and efficient and made comparison possible, but "this scientist with uncommon altruism offered to perfect and increase my knowledge of anthropometry and osteometry, giving me for some weeks lessons and practical teaching" (León, 1922b, p. 103). He cooperated also in the organization of the osteological collections and craniometric studies of the Museo Nacional. His many bibliographic entries on Mexico are ample proof of his scientific interest in the country. After the passage of three decades, his data and reports are still in large part serviceable. The International Congresses of Americanists held in Mexico—session XI (1895), session XVII (1910), and session XXVII (1939)—did not make a great contribution to the physical anthropology of Middle 16

America, as the following analysis shows; (a) The Proceedings (576 pages) of the XI Congress, published in 1897, contain three articles in physical anthropology: by M. Bárcena, F. Martinez Baca, and José Ramírez. (b) The Proceedings (511 pages) of the XVII Congress, published in 1912, contain three articles; by Alberto M. Carreño, G. Engerrand, and A. Hrdlicka. (c) The two volumes (664 and 639 pages, respectively) from the XXVII Congress contain three articles, totaling 26 pages. Because Volume I, in which these papers appear, was not published until 1942 (Comas, 1954) and is therefore outside the time of this article, I have not named their authors. The Middle American Research Institute, established at Tulane University, New Orleans, in 1924, under the name of Department of Middle American Research, has promoted investigations and publications on the somatology, with special emphasis on fingerprints and palmar dermatoglyphics, of the Tarahumara, Tarascans, Nahua, Mixtec, Zapotec, Chamula, and Maya. The monographs include; Cummins (1930,1932, 1936), Leche (1933, 1936a-d), Cummins and Steggerda (1936), and I. D. Steggerda, M. Steggerda, and Lane (1936). The Instituto Panamericano de Geografia e Historia was created in 1929, with headquarters in Mexico City, as a specialized institution of the Organization of American States (OAS). It includes a History Commission, which in 1937 founded the Boletín Bibliográfico de Antropología Americana, a most important source of information on activities and publications in Middle American physical anthropology. The institute has also published separate works in this field, of which there are two by Ada d'Aloja (1939a, b) for our period and others after 1940. The Carnegie Institution of Washington, through its Division of Historical Research, conducted many explorations and investigations of the Maya area in Mexico, Gua-

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

temala, and Honduras. Their reports in the field of physical anthropology include Ricketson (1925, 1931, 1932, 1937), Shattuck (1933, 1938), Shattuck and Benedict (1931), Steggerda (1931a,b, 1932, 1936a), and Steggerda and Benedict (1932). Other research in the Maya region, under the auspices of the Bureau of International Research of Harvard University, is reported by Williams (1931) and also by Williams and Benedict (1928). There is also a brief article on the skeletons of the Cenote of Chichen Itza (Hooton, 1940). The Italo-Mexican Mission, under the auspices of the Comitato Italiano per lo Studio dei Problemi della Popolazione and headed by Corrado Gini, was organized during the second semester of 1933 for the study of the Indian population of Mexico. Prior to the initiation of the program several meetings were held in Ixmiquilpan, Hidalgo, in which Prof. Genua explained a series of practical norms of anthropometry, Dr. Mazzotti talked about medical types of observations, and Prof. Gini examined demographic questions. The members of the mission were grouped into four teams: (a) C. Gini, C. Basauri, L. Mazzotti, and Juan D. Bojórquez studied 113 Aztec of Tuxpan, Jalisco, and 144 Seri of Tiburon island. Sonora; (b) Μ. Basauri, Rondero, and Zamudio collected information on 112 Tarascans of the island of Janitzio, Michoacan, on 138 Cora and on 161 Huichol of the moun­ tains of Nayarit and of Colotan, Jalisco; (c) G. Gena, Rojas, and Mendoza studied 595 individuals of the state of Oaxaca: 220 Chinantec of Yolox, 230 Zapotec in Atepec, and 145 Mixe in Oaxaca proper; and (d) Dino Camavitto, Trens, and E. Reh ex­ amined 159 Tlapanec of Tlacuapa and Huehuetepec, Guerrero, and 80 Zambo of the coast of Guerrero. The series, comprising adults of both sexes, were extensive. Recorded for each in­ dividual were some 30 descriptive charac­ ters, 50 metrical characters, colorimetry of

the eyes, skin and hair, blood group, hemo­ globin, muscular strength, photographs of the head in three positions, and prints of the hand and foot. Recovered skeletal material comprises three Aztec crania, a Huichol cranium, and 15 complete Seri skeletons (Genua, 1934; Gini, 1934-35). In 1943 Genua published the results of his osteometric study on the 15 Seri Indian skeletons. These data are compared in Article 3. The other skeletal remains have not been described and no publication has yet appeared on the data collected from the living (see Genua, 1943, p. 36, note 3). The French Biometric Mission was organ­ ized in 1936 by Prof. Henri Laugier of Paris to carry out an extensive biometric study on the Otomi Indians in the region of Ixmiquilpan in the Mezquital valley. The essential objective was to study the numer­ ous variables that act upon a set of indi­ viduals, with a view to trying to establish the relationships existing between these variables and the physical and mental char­ acters of the group studied. The investiga­ tion in an Indian series (in this case the Otomi) would take a first sounding in this field, to be continued under "other skies" to vary the conditions (climate, race, food, social structure, cultural level, etc.). E. Schreider was charged with the man­ agement of the anthropological work; direc­ tion in the field was assumed by R. Bonnardel. Several Mexican scientists, such as Drs. R. Soils Quiroga and C. Nájera, collaborated. Circumstances beyond the control of the investigators delayed publication of the results of such a full study, comprising 109 adult males, for many years, except the hematological part (Martinez, 1937). For the data obtained and their interpretation the reader is referred to Article 6. Since 1940 studies from this investigation have been published by Bonnardel and Solís Quiroga (1948) and by Schreider (195317

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

55, 1955). In the first of these is a summary history of the mission. The mission of Guy and Jacques StresserPéan was conducted under the patronage of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. These two men undertook their first anthropological expedition to Mexico to make as complete a study as possible of the Huastec Indians who inhabit part of the states of San Luis Potosi and Veracruz. The expedition arrived in Mexico City December 5, 1936, was installed in the Potosian Huastec region by January 16, 1937, and returned to Paris November 18, 1938. This investigation, continued in later years, was of large scope. In relation to physical anthropology, it was stated: "A hundred men have been measured, all Huastec, except some Nahuatl; it has been possible to make some measurements also on a dozen Huastec females. Each subject has been photographed front and profile (Jour, Soc. Amer, Paris, n.s., 1940,3: 282). OTHER ANTHROPOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Certain monographic studies not heretofore mentioned relate to different aboriginal groups: Thomas F. W. Gann (1918, 1939) —the Maya of Yucatan and British Honduras; P. Siliceo Pauer (1920-25)—the Indians of the central highlands, especially the population of the Teotihuacan valley; Carlos Basauri (1929, 1931)—the Tarahumara and Tojolabal-Tzeltzal-Maya; J. Soustelle (1933, 1937a,b)—the Lacandon and Otomi-Pam; C. C. Seltzer (1936)—the Yaqui; and J. Gómez Robleda and others (1943)— the Tarascans. The three-volume synthesis by C. Basauri (1940) covers 48 aboriginal Mexican groups and offers for each group a résumé of its principal somatic and physiological characteristics, as well as a summary bibliography for further reading. It is the only work of this type that I can cite. The References listed at the end of this article include, besides those singled out for special comment, numerous short articles on 18

somatology, craniology and craniometry which, because of their restricted nature, do not warrant particular notice here. LA SOCIEDAD MEXICANA DE ANTROPOLOGÍA

(1937) This society, founded in Mexico City October 18, 1937, undertook as one of its objectives the publication of volume 3 (1939) of the Revista Mexicana de Estudios Antropológicos. The title represents a continuation, under a new name, of the Revista Mexicana de Estudios Históricos, which had been discontinued after the first two volumes (1927-28). The limited importance granted to physical anthropology in this first period of publication is demonstrated by the fact that in the two volumes (3 and 4) published before 1940, which comprise 36 articles with a total of 510 pages, there are only three articles (63 pages) on this specialty. T H E TEACHING OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

The sporadic and somewhat disjointed efforts toward the establishment and adequate functioning of professorships of physical anthropology, starting with the course by Dr. F. Martinez Calleja in 1887 and passing through those of Dr. N. León, did not come to fruition until 1937, when a systematic teaching of physical anthropology was made possible in the Department of Anthropology of the National School of Biological Sciences of the National Polytechnic Institute. The Ministry of Public Education approved a curriculum of studies for obtaining in four years (eight semesters) the title of "Anthropologist" in some one of its four subdivisions: archaeology, ethnology, linguistics, and physical anthropology. In 1942, as a result of the creation of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia by the law of February 3, 1939, the above-mentioned Department of Anthropology became a part of the new Institute and changed its name to Escuela Nacional de Antropología. The new Institute also re-

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

established the old dependencies: General Inspection of Archaeological Monuments, General Inspection of Artistic Monuments, Department of Prehispanic and Colonial Monuments, and National Museum. The Institute's first director was Alfonso Caso, promoter and greatest stimulator of contemporary Mexican anthropology. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Studies in the physical anthropology of Mexico conducted and published before 1922 are few and are the work mostly of foreign investigators. Moreover, "their scientific value is very unequal, even among the foreign ones; and almost all of the national ones are due to amateurs with more good intentions than knowledge and experience in the subject." To this León (1922b, p. 116) adds: "The principal obstacles which physical anthropology has encountered in Mexico have been three, and these are: (i) the erroneous concept of the subject, (ii) the lack of information media (books, well-endowed and conveniently in-

stalled collections), (iii) no stimulus or promise of future benefit for utilizing the acquired knowledge." This objective appraisal made in 1922 is quite correct, but I believe that it could apply equally to the period until at least 1937. From 1940 to 1968 the deficiencies that León pointed out have persisted, although slowly research and teaching in physical anthropology have appreciably improved. I call attention to the steadfastness with which Nicolás León (1922b, p. 117), anticipating by many years the possibilities of his time, realized the need "to found an anthropological institute endowed with a good anthropometric laboratory. In this way the teaching of the National Museum will bear fruit, this scientific specialty will become established in Mexico, measurements will be made under a single plan and with the same method . . . and at the end of a few years a collection will be had which will do honor to the national culture and will extend the services which today national ethnology and archaeology lack."

REFERENCES Abarca Alarcón, 1934 Abogado, 1911 Abrego, n.d. Alcocer, 1905 Alien, H., 1890, 1896 Aloja, 1939a, 1939b Andree, 1902 Anonymous, 1855, 1912, 1928 Aragón, 1904, 1906 Arpee, 1935 Askinasy, 1938, 1939 Auburtin, Le Bret, and Gosse, 1862 Baillarger, 1855 Baker, 1887 Bárcena, 1886a, 1886b, 1897 and Castillo, 1885a, 1885b, 1886 Barragán, 1883 Basauri, C, 1926, 1929, 1931, 1940 and Argoytia, 1937 Basauri, M:, 1938 Bastían, 1881

Basurto, 1900 Batres, 1887, 1889a, 1889b, 1889c, 1900 Bennett and Zingg, 1935 Berthold, 1842, 1886 Bertillon, 1875 Birkner, 1897, 1898 Blanchard, 1908, 1909, 1910 Bloch, 1906 Blom, Grosjean, and Cummins, 1933 Blumenbach, 1790-1828 Boas, 1890, 1895a Bonnardel and Solís Quiroga, 1948 Bonté, 1864 Brinton, 1887 Broesike, 1877 Buxton, 1925 Cabrera, L. G., 1920 Camavitto, 1937 Campos, 1873 Cárdenas, 1892 Carreño, 1912

19

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Carrillo, 1902 Carrillo Ancona, 1886 Cams, 1856 Cave, 1939 Chamay, 1884 Chávez, 1922 Climent, 1869 Coindet, 1868 Comas, 1943b, 1950, 1954, 1960a, 1960b, 1962, 1966c, 1968, 1969a, 1969b, 1969c and Genovés, 1960, 1964 Cull, 1856 Cummins, 1930, 1932, 1936 and Steggerda, 1936b Davis, 1867 De la Fuente, 1905 Deniker, 1895, 1926 Diguet, 1899 Dixon, 1923 Duque de Estrada, 1902, 1910, 1911, 1916 Ecker, 1877 Emmons, 1913 Engerrand, 1908-10, 1910, 1912, 1917 and Urbina, 1908a, 1908b Falero, 1886 Flores, F., 1881, 1886 Flower, 1879 Fragoso, 1934 Franco, 1885

Gaillard, 1895 Gamio, 1910 Gann, 1918, 1939 Garcia, 1899-1901 Genna, 1934, 1943 Gini, 1934-35 Goddard, 1920 Godin, 1903 Gómez, Η., 1934 Gómez, W. G., 1913 Gómez Robleda, 1930, 1940 and Argoytia, 1940 et al, 1937, 1943 Gómez Tagle, 1904 González and Olivares, 1887 Goodner, 1930 Gosse, 1855, 1861 Gracieux, 1918 Gratiolet, 1860a, 1860b, 1861 Grimaux, 1900 Guérin, 1853 Guillemin-Tarayre, 1869 Gutiérrez Zavala, 1895 Hambly, 1937 Hamy, 1875, 1878, 1882, 1883, 1884, 1886, 1891, 1897a, 1897b, 1899 Heger, 1913 Hepner, 1904, 1906

20

Hernández, Fortunato, 1902a, 1902b Hernández, Francisco, 1926 Herrera, 1893, 1896, 1897

— and Cicero, 1895 — and Vergara Lope, 1899 Hooton, 1930, 1940 Hrdlicka, 1898, 1899a, 1899b, 1901, 1902a, 1902b, 1902c, 1903a, 1903b, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909, 1912a, 1912b, 1918, 1935a and Lumholtz, 1898 Humboldt, 1856 Izquierdo, 1922, 1922-28 Jourdanet, 1861 Kirchhoff, 1943 Krause, 1855 Kroeber, 1931 Landa, 1910, 1912 Las Casas, 1967 Lazo de la Vega, 1908 Leche, 1933, 1936a, 1936b, 1936c, 1936d Leconte, 1852 León, N., 1890, 1892, 1901a, 1901b, 1902, 1904, 1911, 1912a, 1912b, 1913, 1914, 1915, 1919, 1922a, 1922b, 1922c, 1924a, 1924b, 1928, 1934 Leubuscher, 1856 Llergo, 1927

Longyear, 1940 López de Gomara, 1943 Lumholtz, 1897, 1898a, 1898b, 1902, 1904 and Hrdlička, 1897 McGee, 1898 Macias, 1912 and Rodríguez Gil, 1910 Maldonado, 1895, 1899 Maldonado-Koerdell, 1947-49 Manouvrier, 1888 Manuel, 1934 Martin, 1928 Martínez, 1937 Martínez Baca, 1897 and Vergara, 1892 Mason, 1881 Matthews, 1891 Mazzotti, 1934 Meigs, 1866 Mejía, 1876 Mena, 1911 Merejkowsky, 1882 Moran, 1914 Morton, S. G., 1839, 1841, 1842a, 1842b Moss and Kennedy, 1929 Muller, 1903 Nadaillac, 1899, 1901 Newberry, 1887 Noguera, 1935 Nott and Gliddon, 1857 Ocaranza, 1923

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Orozco y Berra, 1880 Ortega, 1873 Otis, 1880 Owen, 1856 Palacios, 1917, 1939 Palazuelos, 1937 and Romero, 1933 Palmer, 1882 Paschal and Sullivan, 1925 Paul-Boncour, 1912 Peisse, 1855 Peñafiel, 1900 Peón Contreras, 1872 Pérez Salazar, 1881 Pericot, 1936 Périer, 1860-68 Putnam, 1872a, 1872b, 1884, 1892, 1899 Quatrefages, 1889 and Hamy, 1882 Quevedo y Zubieta, 1894 Quintana, 1906 Ramírez, 1897 Rehm, 1914 Retzius, 1901 Ricketson, 1925, 1929, 1932, 1937 Rife, D. W., 1932 Riley, 1881 Ríos Vargas, 1936 van Rippen, 1917, 1917-18 Rivet, 1908, 1909, 1910, 1911 Rodriguez, J. M., 1869, 1875, 1885 Romero, 1934, 1935a, 1937, 1939 Roujou, 1873 Rubin de la Borbolla, 1930, 1933a 1933b, 1933c, 1939, 1940 Rudinger, 1892 Ruiz, 1925 Russell, 1900, 1908 Sánchez, 1897, 1898-99, 1899 Sánchez Gómez, 1891 Santamarina, 1931 Santoyo, 1908 Saussure, 1853 SaviUe, 1899, 1913 Schenk, 1910 Schreider, 1938, 1953-55, 1955 Schuller, 1925 Seltzer, 1936 Sentenach Cabañas, 1898 Sergi, 1891, 1911

Serres, 1855 Shattuck, 1933, 1938 and Benedict, 1931 Silíceo Pauer, 1920, 1920-21, 1922, 1922-23, 1925a, 1925b, 1925c Silva, 1907 Snyder, 1926 Soustelle, 1933, 1937a, 1937b Spengel, 1877 Starr, 1896, 1898, 1899, 1902b, 1903, 1908b Steggerda, I. D., M. Steggerda, and Lane, 1936 Steggerda, M., 1931a, 1931b, 1932, 1936 and Benedict, 1932 and Hill, 1936 and Macomber, 1939 and Millar, 1936 Stewart, 1940 Studley, 1884 Suárez Islas, 1935 Sullivan, 1917, 1920, 1922 Swanton, 1952 ten Kate, 1883a, 1883b, 1883c, 1883d, 1884a, 1884b, 1892, 1905, 1911a, 1911b, 1917 Terres, 1893 Thompson, A. H., 1904a, 1904b, 1904c, 1906 Thompson, J. E. S., 1932 Topinard, 1874-75, 1885 Toro, 1922 Uribe y Troncoso, 1911, 1912a, 1912b, 1917 Velázquez Andrade, 1912 Verdugo, 1896 Vergara, 1904 Vergara Lope, 1890, 1893, 1895, 1896, 1910a, 1910b, 1910c, 1910d Verneau, 1875, 1890 Villada, 1870, 1903 Virchow, H., 1927 Virchow, R., 1887, 1891, 1892, 1897, 1901 Warren, 1851 Welcker, 1886 Wilder, 1904 Williams, 1931 and Benedict, 1928 Wilson, D., 1857, 1863 Wilson, T., 1901 Wissler, 1931, 1938 Wright, 1935 Zaborowski, 1901 Zallio, 1935 Zárraga, 1890

21

2. Preceramic Human Remains

ARTURO ROMANO

E

ARLY MAN OF AMERICA, although not

indigenous to this hemisphere, has left traces of his existence from Alaska to Patagonia, dating back to the end of the Upper Pleistocene. The multiple and varied evidence of his presence in the New World consists mainly of cultural remains, for very few skeletal remains have been found. In Mexico the first finds of human osseous remains of supposed antiquity date from the late 1840's. Since most were discovered accidentally, they received superficial investigation. In the rest of Middle America no human skeletons have been found under conditions suggesting great age. The several finds that fall into this category will be described in detail in the chronological order of their discovery. Except as noted, all specimens are preserved in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City. PEÑON MAN 1

Peñon de los Baños, near the present civil airport of Mexico City, is the site of a find going back to 1884. The remains originally recovered are part of the skeleton of an 22

adult individual and were included in a variety of limestone (travertine). The first descriptions of these remains maintained that they are of great antiquity on account of the type of rock in which they were encountered. Moreover, osseous elements of extinct fauna had been found in very similar rock and close by the site where the human bones had been found (Bárcena and del Castillo, 1887). The same year in which Bárcena and del Castillo reported this find, Newberry (1887) published a contrary opinion. Hrdlicka (1907) also refused to grant any antiquity to the remains. Much later, Arellano (1946) and Maldonado-Koerdell (1947-49), although not asserting the supposed antiquity, did insinuate it, inasmuch as the later investigator suggested that the employment of new techniques and methods, applied rigorously, would lead to incontestable conclusions. It should be mentioned here, although the details will be given further on, that in 1959 there was discovered at Peñon de los Baños, also accidentally, the nearly complete skeleton of an individual whose antiquity, according to the chronology of vol-

PBECERAMIC HUMAN REMAINS

canic ash deposits ("tefrochronology"), is Pleistocene, but slightly more recent than Tepexpan Man (Mosser and González Rul, 1961). Since in recent times more human remains have been discovered at Peñon de los Baños, and since one of them (Peñon Man 3) is indeed ancient as has been indicated, it is well especially not to forget the find of 1884 in the hope that new techniques will permit its clear placement as preceramic or more recent. THE XICO MANDIBLE

This bone was found in 1893 at Xico, a small elevation near the town of Chalco, state of Mexico. The mandible seems to represent an 8-year-old male. Herrera (1893) points out that it was found very near the skull of a fossil horse (Equus excelsus Leidy). The most important part of Herrera's study (ibid., p. 34) lies not in the metricomorphological description of the bone, but in the multiple chemical analyses disclosing the fluorine content of both human and equine bones. The fluorine figures, 1.34 for the equid and 1.94 for the child's mandible, tend to confirm their antiquity. Herrera made a series of measurements {ibid., pp. 22-23), which he compared with those of 34 mandibles from all parts of the world. His measurements on the mandible of Xico are: Bicondylar length Bigonial diameter Distance between mental foramina Symphyseal height Height of horizontal ramus Gonion-symphysis chord Condyle-coronoid chord Length of the ascending ramus Minimum breadth of the ascending ramus Bigonial chord Departure of the chin from the vertical Mandibular angle Index of the ascending ramus

102 mm. 83 43 26 20 71 27 49 31 160 9 120° 63.2

Although these measurements indicate noth-

ing in favor of the antiquity of the bone, the fluorine content does; and greater validity could have been given the latter figure if there had been detailed study of the geology of the site. The interest which the find excited, however, permits the surmise that the human bone was associated with the cranium of the fossil horse. The present location of the mandible and the cranium is unknown. TEPEXPAN MAN

The finding of the fossil Tepexpan Man, February 22, 1947, culminated the geologico-anthropological investigations begun by Helmut De Terra in 1945 (figs. 1-3). In the plains near the village of Tepexpan, state of Mexico, De Terra and his collaborators had previously found man-made lithic remains in more or less direct association with fossil proboscidians, and recovered other lithic elements from the nearby lakeshores. This combination of remains induced De Terra to apply the geophysical method of equipotential electrical currents, of Dr. Lundberg of Canada, to the subsoil of the Tepexpan plains in search of more positive elements that would certify the presence of prehistoric man (De Terra, Romero, and Stewart, 1949, pp. 33-36). On the basis of this system, three sites were designated, in the second of which the skeletal remains of Tepexpan Man were found at a depth of 1.07 m., included in the lacustrine limes, where the fossil megafauna had also been found (ibid., p. 91, fig. 16). To these limes C14 has attributed an antiquity of ll,003±500 years, placing them in the Upper Pleistocene (Libby, 1955, p. 129; Wauchope, 1961, p. 28; De Terra, 1951b, pp. 379-83). The quantities of fluorine and nitrogen in the osseous remains are 1.54 and 0.06 respectively (Heizer and Cook, 1959, p. 39). These figures, plus the data derived from C14, the geological stratum where the human remains were found, the presence of the fossil fauna in tbe Same geological layer, and the high degree of mineralization of 23

FIG. 1—TEPEXPAN MAN, NORMA FRONTAL. Scale ½. (From De Terra, Romero, and Stewart, 1949.)

the human bones, corroborate the antiquity of the impressive find which rekindled interest in the existence of primitive man in Mexican territory. Although incomplete, the flexed skeleton lay face down, from northeast to southwest (ibid,, p. 92, fig. 17). The skeleton lacked the vertebrae (except some fragments), both scapulae, nearly all the ribs, and all the pelvic girdle but two fragments. The knees lay to the right and the elbows to the left of the median line. The palm of the right hand was downward and that of the left upward, both quite close to the mandible (ibid., p. 91). This position of the skeleton suggested to some an interment, and therefore intrusive

24

FIG 2—TEPEXPAN MAN, NORMA SUPERIOR. Scale ½. (From De Terra, Romero, and Stewart, 1949.)

into the geological stratum (Black, 1949). But this opinion did not take into account the absence of the bones noted above, showing without doubt that the cadaver had been exposed for some time to atmospheric elements and to birds and mammals. The remains were cleaned, reconstructed, and studied first in the laboratories of the Department of Physical Anthropology of the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City, and second in the Division of Physical Anthropology of the U.S. National Museum in Washington. The detailed study showed that the specimen was an adult between 55 and 65 years old (ibid., p. 98), of male sex (ibid., pp. 95,124, 125), and 1.70 m. in stature (ibid., pp. 102-17).

FIG. 3—TEPEXPAN MAN, NORMA LATERAL, LEFT Scale ½. (From De Terra, Romero, and Stewart, 1949.) Recently, as will appear later, these determinations have been questioned. Extensive cranio-morpho-metric investigation (ibid., pp. 107-08; Tables 7, 8) disclosed the following data: Diameter anteroposterior maximum Diameter transverse maximum Basion-bregma height Cranial module Auricular height (a) to bregma (b) to vertex (c) to the apex Thickness of the left parietal Diameter frontal minimum Diameter bizygomatic Basion-nasion diameter Nasal height

179 mm. 143 136 152.6 119 126 122 4 99 140 94 49

Nasal breadth Orbital height, left Orbital breadth, left Orbital height, right Interorbital breadth Horizontal circumference Nasion-opisthion arc Nasion-bregma arc Bregma-lambda arc Lambda-opisthion arc Transverse arc Nasion-opisthion chord Nasion-bregma chord Bregma-lambda chord Lambda-opisthion chord Length of the foramen magnum Height of the symphysis Minimum breadth of the ascending ramus, left

25 mm. 34 40 35 24 516 380 129 122 129 313 131 115 108 109 37 104 36

25

FIG. 4 — A S T A H U A C A N CRANIUM 2, NORMA FRONTAL. Scale ½. (Photo by Arturo Romano.)

FIG. 5—ASTAHUACAN CRANIUM 2, NORMA SUPERIOR. Scale ½. (Photo by Arturo Romano.)

Mandibular angle Cranial capacity Cranial index Length-height index Breadth-height index Frontoparietal index Auricular height-length index (a) to bregma (b) to vertex (c) to the apex Nasal index Orbital index, left Frontogonial index

and mesoconchic. Seen in the norma superior, the cranium is ovoid and of medium breadth; it presents supraorbital borders enlarged in the median portions and of medium size, a mastoid process of medium size, a moderately prominent occiput, a medium occipital torus, a delicate tympanic plate, an external auditory meatus of elliptical form and without exostosis, orbits of oblong form, narrow nasal bones, slight facial prognathism, square chin, medium alveolar prognathism, mediumly everted gonial angles, pronounced linea mylohyoid (ibid., p. 115). The dentition {ibid., pp. 127-29), even with the antemortem loss of various teeth, showed marked attrition and periapical abscesses. Neither dental caries nor pyorrhea

105° 1,540 cc. 79.89 75.98 95.10 69.23 66.48 70.39 68.16 51.02 85.00 95.19

According to the classifications of the indices the cranium is in the upper range of mesocrany (i.e., near brachycrany); hypsicranic and metriocranic; in the lower range of platyrrhiny (i.e., just above mesorrhiny); 26

FIG. 6—ASTAHUACAN CRANIUM 2, NORMA LATERAL, LEFT Scale ½. (Photo by Arturo Romano.)

was observed. Radiographic study showed what was thought to be a supernumerary tooth in the superior dental arcade at prosthion. As a pathological finding the presence of osteoarthritis in the first two vertebrae was noted (ibid., pp. 95,125). Subsequent articles have given corrections for the supernumerary tooth and age (Moss, 1960), and for age, stature, and sex (Genovés, 1960). Moss believes that, "There is no supernumerary tooth in the maxilla. On the contrary, this is most probably the root of an extremely abraded right central incisor tooth" (p. 71). Both he and Genovés agree that the specimen was over-aged on the basis of suture closure, and they judge from other evidence that the age was more

likely between 25 and 30 years. In addition, Genovés thinks that the sex is female and, on this account, that the reconstructed stature should be less—approximately 1.60 m. SANTA MARIA ASTAHUACAN

In 1953 George C. O'Neill, a student at Columbia University, who was pursuing archaeological studies in Mexico, reported to Pablo Martinez del Río that during one of his many excursions in search of surface potsherds, he had accidentally found some osseous remains, probably human, in the wall of a spring at the settlement of Santa Maria Astahuacan, D.F., southeast of Mexico City (figs. 4-6). The bones attracted O'Neill's attention because of their characteristic dark color and high degree of mineralization. 27

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

The exploration initiated as a result of this report was assigned to investigators in the Department of Prehistory of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia and placed under my charge (Romano, 1955). Two sites were located on the south border of the spring, the second 1.75 m. west of the first. In the first site the incomplete skeletons of two young adults were lying on their right sides, oriented in general from west to east and with the uppermost bones at a depth of 1.30 m. Although the remains were very fragmentary and lacked the lower extremities and pelvic girdles, it was possible to see that both individuals probably had been interred directly and simultaneously. No. 1 is female, no. 2 is male. The second site contained the incomplete remains of a single individual, greatly fragmented and lacking any true anatomical relationship, suggesting a direct but secondary interment. This individual is probably adult, but the sex is uncertain. All the remains from the two sites were in the same geological stratum (layer IV), at the same depth of 1.30 m., and at some 23 cm. above layer VII, of clear green color and unknown depth, which could be called the "Becerra" layer, representing the final phase of the Upper Pleistocene {ibid., p. 67). The precise geologico-stratigraphic position of this find still has not been resolved, since the geologists who were consulted did not reach agreement, owing to the very peculiar geological conditions of the place. However, Heizer and Cook (1959, p. 38) have reported that, "De Terra, who has studied the site recently, tells us that the soil layers in which the skeletons lay clearly lie on top of the El Risco sands which is a lacustrine beach deposit roughly of the same age as the Becerra formation." The estimate of the fluorine in these remains is 1.988, the highest figure obtained thus far on bones analyzed. Nitrogen content was 0.08. Moreover, a fragment of obsidian, one of many associated with the find, 28

was sent to the Division of Archaeology of the U.S. National Museum in Washington for study of the degree of hydration. Donovan Clark (personal communication, December 7,1961) reported that the hydration zone amounted to 6.7 microns as compared with 6.5 microns for that in the obsidian associated with the mammoth of San Bartolo Atepehuacan, D.F., where C14 gave an age of 9,640±400 years (Crane and Griflin, 1960). Could it be that the remains from Astahuacan have an antiquity of approximately 9000 years? It is well known that the figures obtained for fluorine, nitrogen, and obsidian are in no way absolute, but only relative indicators of antiquity, especially when all three point in the same direction. In addition, the geological observation lends support to the conclusion that the human remains of Santa Maria Astahuacan appear to be quite old. The cranium that could be best reconstructed is no. 2 from site 1. It is from a middle-aged male, mesocranic, in the upper range of orthocrany (i.e., near hypsicrany), in the upper range of metriocrany (i.e., near tapeinocrany), hypsiconchic, and euencephalic in cranial capacity. My measurements of male cranium no. 2 are: Diameter anteroposterior maximum Diameter transverse maximum Auricular height (a) to bregma (b) to vertex Thickness of the left parietal Diameter frontal minimum Diameter bizygomatic Nasal height Nasal breadth Orbital height, left Orbital breadth, left Orbital height, right Orbital breadth, right Interorbital breadth Maximum circumference Nasion-opisthion arc Nasion-bregma arc Bregma-lambda arc

182 mm 141 113 118 7 103 144 52 26 37 41 38 42 28.5 520 354 110 120

PRECERAMIC HUMAN REMAINS

Lambda-opisthion arc 124 Transverse arc through bregma 313 Nasion-prosthion chord 74 Nasion-opisthion chord 142 Nasion-bregma chord 102 Bregma-lambda chord 107 Lambda-opisthion chord 106 Height of the symphysis 31 Bigonial breadth 104 Minimum breadth of the ascending ramus, left 35 Cranial capacity (a) Lee's formula 1,394.09 cc, (b) Pearson's modification of Lee's formula 1,417.77 cc, Cranial index 77.47 73.05 Frontoparietal index Nasal index 50.00 90.24 Orbital index, left Frontogonial index 99.04 In general the cranium does not show true primitiveness, even if one could speculate about some characteristics (Romano, 1955, p. 74). It is solely an example with robust and massive structures. Seen in norma superior, the vault assumes slightly the sphenoid form and the face extends beyond the outline (phenozygous). In norma posterior the outline is pentagonal. The supraorbital ridges show marked development in all their extension and in their medial portions. The frontal shows strongly developed lateral ridges which present serrations indicating a large insertion here of the temporal muscle. The mastoid processes are large and the base is full, with well-marked sculpturing. The palate is elliptical and deep. The chin is square and the mandible somewhat robust; the sigmoid notches are not deep; the coronoid processes are lacelike in form and strong; the gonial angles are everted. The teeth show great occlusal attrition, so that the enamel appears as a white border encircling nearly black dentin. This pronounced attrition makes it difficult to tell whether the central incisors were shovel-

shaped. The right upper canine presents an anomaly of growth because it appeared above the roots of the first premolar, the crown and part of the root remaining uncovered. In the frontal, on the left side and upward from the supraorbital ridge, there is a clear fingertip-like depression that, in the opinion of Arturo Eroza Barbachano (parasitologist of the Secretaría de Salubriadad y Asistencia de México) and Reinhard Hoeppli (of the American Foundation for Tropical Medicine, New York), could be the remaining trace of an onchocercosis cyst. SAN VICENTE CHICOLOAPAN

The exploration of this site was initiated in July, 1958, by the Department of Prehistory of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia while I was serving as the departmental director (figs. 7-9). I had the aid of Helmut De Terra, who contributed his invaluable knowledge in the geological interpretation of the site (Romano, 1963, pp. 245-59). The settlement of San Vicente Chicoloapan de Juarez, state of Mexico, is at the Kilometer 29 marker on the right side of the highway to the city of Texcoco (via the ancient road to Puebla). The investigations in this locality were undertaken (1) because numerous bones of fossil fauna had been obtained in the local sandpits, and (2) because in 1955 there had been found in the osteological collections of the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City a very mineralized human calotte coming from San Vicente Chicoloapan. This specimen had been delivered about a year before by Sr. don Jesús Galindo. It was not from the above-mentioned pits, but from the cultivated fields of the San Martin family in the barrio Huixtoco of this settlement. The landowners found the calotte and other human remains in the course of digging a well for water. According to the account of the discoverers, the entire find was encountered at a depth of 3.41 m. and 29

FIG. 7—CALOTTE OF CHICOLOAPAN, NORMA FRONTAL. Scale V2. (Photo by Arturo Romano. )

FIG. 8—CALOTTE OF CHICOLOAPAN, NORMA SUPERIOR. Scale ½. Photo by Arturo Romano. )

covered with a footless metate, suggesting interment. The foregoing was confirmed by finds, at the same level, of cultural elements corresponding to a phase where ceramics are unknown. From the stratigraphic and geologic characteristics De Terra (1959, pp. 563-64; Romano, 1963, p. 252) observed that the antiquity of the remains could well be 6000-8000 years before the present. Later this dating was confirmed by the degree of hydration of the obsidian, which was judged to correspond to 7000 years before the present (Friedman and Smith, 1960; Evans and Meggers, 1960). Furthermore, tests for fluorine and for nitrogen (Heizer and Cook, 1959) gave for the halogen the important figure of 1.150, but for nitrogen 2.14, a quantity greater than that usually found in less ancient remains. Surely the latter finding is owing to the type of bone

tissue tested or to recent contamination (Romano, 1963, p. 252). Despite the poor state of preservation of the calotte, it was possible to obtain the measurements and the indices that follow (Romano, 1963, p. 253). A star after the measurement means that it was obtained by doubling that of the existing half.

30

Diameter anteroposterior maximum Diameter transverse maximum Auricular height Thickness of the parietal, left Biporionic diameter (left half 61 mm.) Diameter frontal minimum (right half 48 mm.) Bimastoid diameter (left half 65 mm.) Bregma-porion chord, left Nasion-opisthion chord Nasion-bregma chord

183 mm. 133 114 4 122* 96* 130* 129 139 115

FIG. 9—CALOTTE OF CHICOLOAPAN, NORMA LATERAL, LEFT Scale ½. (Photo by Arturo Romano.)

Bregma-lambda chord 115 Lambda-opisthion chord 95 Nasion-opisthion arc 363 Nasion-bregma arc 127 Bregma-lambda arc 124 Lambda-opisthion arc 112 Maximum circumference (right half 252 mm.) 504* Transverse arc (left half 157 mm.) 314* Cranial capacity (Pearson's modification of Lee's formula) 1,371.98 cc. Cranial index 72.68 Length-height index 62.30 Breadth-height index 85.71 The indices show that the specimen is dolichocranic, in the upper range of orthocrany (i.e., near hypsicrany), and in the upper range of metriocrany (i.e., near acrocrany). The individual was judged to be a young adult male.

PEÑON MAN 2

In June, 1957, while excavating a trench for extending a drainage pipe at the crossing of Nayarit and Morolos streets in "colonia" El Peñon de los Baños, workers encountered human skeletal remains at a depth of approximately 3 m. in the rock. These, together with fragments of the cerebral cranium, were turned over to investigators of the Museo Nacional de Antropología in March, 1959, by Sr. Salomón Valencia Rosales. At first sight the cranial fragments claimed attention because of their notable thickness, slightly dark color, and high degree of mineralization. I mention this find because another, Peñon Man 3 (see below), was discovered later (also accidentally) in the same locality, but was verified by technicians of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e His31

FIG. 10—PEÑON MAN 3 CRANIUM, NORMA FRONTAL. Scale ½. (Photo by Arturo Romano.)

FIG. 11—PEÑON MAN 3 CRANIUM, NORMA SUPERIOR. Scale ½. (Photo by Arturo Romano.)

toria. Its Pleistocene antiquity was unquestionable.

slightly dark coffee color of the cranium, as well as an advanced state of mineralization. The antiquity of this find was based on studies of volcanic ash ("tefrochronology"), proving that the individual had lived in the Upper Pleistocene (Mooser and González Rul, 1961, p. 141). I took the following cranial measurements and indices:

PEÑON MAN 3

In mid-1959 Sr. don Tereso Hernández reported to the investigators of the Department of Prehistory of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia that in the course of digging a well at his home, situated in Emiliano Zapato y Bolívar, Manzana 78, lot 2, "colonia" El Peñon de los Baños, he had exhumed, much to his surprise, the human cranium he was showing them (figs. 10-12). Immediately the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia undertook further exploration, confirming that beneath the 2-m.-thick limestone there were still human bones corresponding to the postcranial skeleton, showing the same 32

Diameter anteroposterior maximum Diameter transverse maximum Basion-bregma height Cranial module Thickness of the left parietal Diameter frontal minimum Diameter frontal maximum Basion-nasion diameter Length of the foramen magnum Breadth of the foramen magnum

187 mm. 132 128 149 5 89 110 94 39 29

FIG. 12—PEÑON MAN 3 CRANIUM, NORMA LATERAL, LEFT Scale ½. (Photo by Arturo Romano.)

Maximum circumference Transverse arc Nasion-opisthion arc Nasion-bregma arc Bregma-Iambda arc Lambda-opisthion arc Nasion-opisthion chord Nasion-bregma chord Bregma-Iambda chord Lambda-opisthion chord Basion-prosthion diameter Diameter bizygomatic Nasion-gnathion diameter Nasion-prosthion diameter Nasal height Nasal breadth Interorbital breadth Orbital breadth, right Orbital breadth, left Orbital height, right

504 mm. 291 373 127 132 114 132 116 118 90 96 132 118 67 47 24 26 37 37.5 35.5

Orbital height, left Palatal length Palatal breadth Bicondylar breadth Bigonial breadth Length of the ascending ramus, right Length of the ascending ramus, left Minimum breadth of the ascending ramus, right Minimum breadth of the ascending ramus, left Height of the symphysis Height of the horizontal ramus, right Height of the horizontal ramus, left Angle of the mandible (medium) Cranial capacity Cranial index Mean height index Length-height index Breadth-height index

35 mm. 46 42 117 91 64 64 37 39 33 29 29 107° 1,340 cc. 70.59 80.25 68.45 96.47 33

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Frontoparietal index 67.42 cc. Frontal index 80.91 Index of frontal curvature 91.34 Index of parietal curvature 89.39 Index of occipital curvature 78.95 Index of frontosagittal curvature 34.05 Index of parietosagittal curvature 35.39 Index of occipitosagittal curvature 30.56 Total facial index 89.39 Superior facial index 50.76 Nasal index 51.06 Orbital index, right 95.94 Orbital index, left 93.33 Palatal index 91.30 Jugomandibular index 68.94 Gnathic index of Flower 102.13 Jugofrontal index 67.42 Mandibular breadth index 77.78 The indices show the cranium to be dolichocranic, chamaecranic, metriocranic, me-

triometopic, mesognathous, mesoprosopic, mesene, platyrrhine, hypsiconchic, brachyestaphylinic, and aristencephalic. The individual is an adult female. HUMAN TOOTH FROM TEPEXPAN

In 1961, during exploration of the skeleton of a mammoth 400 m. east of the Museum of Prehistory of the Valley of Mexico, in Tepexpan, state of Mexico, a human tooth identified as the left superior canine was found at a depth of 2.13 m. among the lumbar vertebrae of the pachyderm. It shows almost total attrition of the crown with corresponding periapical reduction. The skeleton of the mammoth, identified as Archidiskodon imperator Leidy, was included, as usual, in the green lime of the Upper Pleistocene, the human tooth being of the same antiquity.

REFERENCES Arellano, 1946 Bárcena and del Castillo, 1886 Black, 1949 Crane and Griffin, 1960 De Terra, 1946a, 1946b, 1947, 1951a, 1951b, 1959 , Romero, and Stewart, 1949 Evans and Meggers, 1960 Friedman and Smith, 1960 Genovés, 1960 Heizer and Cook, 1959 Herrera, 1893 Hrdlicka, 1907 34

Krieger, 1950 Libby, 1955 MacGowan and Hester, 1962 Maldonado-Koerdell, 1947-49 Martinez del Rlo, 1947 Mooser and González Rul, 1961 Moss, 1960 Newberry, 1887 Romano, 1955, 1963 Stewart, 1952c Wauchope, 1954 Wormington, 1957

3. Anthropometry of Late Prehistoric Human Remains

SANTIAGO GENOVÊS T.

B

ECAUSE OF THE heterogeneous criteria with which anthropometric measurements have been taken, the lack of detailed specification as to how the measuring was carried out, the rapid or erroneous determinations of age and sex, the lack of data on the postcranial elements—in a word, the virtual absence of osteometric studies accompanied with well-specified criteria and on adequately sampled populations—we can hardly go beyond mere description in this summary. Most of the remains of the pre-Hispanic populations to be reported here received special attention because of some anthropometric abnormality. Crania with deformations, pathological traits, etc., have been favored in such studies; teeth on which we have reports are principally those with mutilations; long bones, principally those with some anomaly. Osteometric data of this kind are not very useful when one tries to establish relationships of affinity, association, or divergence of normal populations, or arrive at conclusions about the physical variability and relationships of the Indians

who peopled Middle America. Furthermore, extensive anthropometric studies on modern populations are almost totally lacking.1 Consequently, this article is limited almost exclusively to pre-Hispanic remains. When I report data on "indigenes," it should be understood that neither I nor the authors cited have any assurance that the groups in question are racially pure. Some of these studies are of very recent populations.2 A relatively recent series of investigations 1 With the exception of the work of Goldstein (1943b) in Guanajuato and Saltillo, where cranial deformity was encountered in 25% and 13.3%, respectively, only specific aspects of the physical anthropology of modern remains have been studied (Comas, 1959, on the cnemic index; Genovés, 1959, on sexual differentiation; Genovés and Messmacher, 1959, on obliteration of the cranial sutures; Marino Flores, 1945, on criminology; Romero and others, 1955, on cranial geometry). Apart from each focus, none of them contribute to the anthropometric characterization of a modem population. 2 Such as the work of Hulse (1945), in which most of the crania appear to be deformed, even though among them are a male cranium of Caucasoid racial affinity, and a female cranium with a bullet hole in the frontal.

35

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

(Kaplan, 1954) has shown the important effects of cultural practices on physical traits, these mainly in the cranium, the part that has been most measured. I have adopted as the general southern limit of the present study the southern boundary that Kirchhoff (1943) designated for Mesoamerica, although I include some data that go beyond it. My northern limit goes beyond his and corresponds to the political boundary between Mexico and the United States. Kirchhoff based his boundaries on cultural data, but physical anthropology may possibly contribute new data that will change the limits he proposed. The osteometric data are too scanty for a chronological analysis, so I have limited my report here to a north-to-south geographical presentation, subdividing the area into three large zones; north, center, and south.^^ The assignment of data from intervening areas has had to be somewhat arbitrary. I have not included dental characteristics (see Article 4 for dental mutilations). Although I have included in the tables the data of Siliceo Pauer (1920) on remains of the Yaqui, of Studley (1884) and Hooton (1930) on remains from Coahuila, of Hulse (1945) on remains from Culiacan, of McGee (1898) on remains of the Seri, and of Ekholm (1942) on remains from Guasave, I have not used them in my analyses, for the reasons given in the notes accompanying the tables. I limit myself to pointing out general trends without going into details about exceptions or abnormalities, for which there is as yet inadequate material. CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS (Tables 1, 2)

I will consider only the most essential cranial measurements, omitting particular reference to those that: ( a ) have fallen into disuse, such as the cranial circumference (replaced by the cranial module which is the arithmetical mean of the values for 3 These divisions also correspond to cultural distributions, both archaeological and ethnological.

36

length, breadth and height of the cranium), the sagittal arc, transverse arc, the diameter frontal maximum, and the indices derived from these measures; ( b ) utilize a very deficient technique, as do most of those related to the mandible; and (c) are represented generally by scanty recorded observations; for example, palatal measurements. (For more complete data on measuring techniques see Buxton and Morant (1933), Howells (1937), Trevor (1950), Stewart (1952a,b), Comas (1960a), and Olivier (1960). Diameter Anteroposterior Maximum. According to some, this measure is taken from the landmark glabella to the most distant point of the occipital bone that lies in the sagittal plane; according to others, it is taken to the most distant point wherever this is found. Ophryon (the point in the median sagittal plane on an arc joining the superior temporal lines at their closest approximation) may also be used as the anterior point. Notwithstanding these variations in technique, the length of the cranium is one of the easiest measures to take, and generally even the results of different techniques are comparable. Intentional cranial deformation affects practically all the cranial measurements, depending on the type and degree of the deformation. Unfortunately for our purposes, the measurement that suffers major modification in such cases is the maximum length of the cranium. In the most representative male series the difference in the maximum cranial length between the northern group and the remaining two is marked; the difference between center and south is slight. Generally, the maximum length decreases from north to south. The same tendency is observed in the female series, except that the difference between north and center is not so marked, but is more so between center and south. Maximum Transverse Breadth. The maximum breadth of the cranium is taken in a horizontal plane (perpendicular to the sagittal) over the parietals by some, at the

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LATE PREHISTORIC REMAINS

summit of the posterior zygomatic root by others, and over the temporal lines by still others. The most frequent technique takes the maximum breadth wherever it may be found. What has been said in general about the anteroposterior measure can be applied to the transverse. Generally, and in males as well as in females, the diameter transverse maximum diminishes from north to south. Differences between the south zone and the other two are very clear, whereas they scarcely exist between center and north. Cranial Height. This is the distance from the lowest point of the anterior rim of the foramen magnum (basion) to bregma. Some authors take as a lower point the internal border of the anterior rim of the foramen. Occasionally, instead of measuring to bregma, a perpendicular from basion is taken. The various techniques permit comparisons, nevertheless, for they result in essentially similar measurements. Nothing concerning this measure in general can be observed from the available series. Without taking into account the zones into which the series have been divided, the series neither confirm nor deny the belief (see Hulse, 1945) that the low crania belong to the most ancient groups in the New World. In Middle America more data are needed to clarify this point. Horizontal Cranial Index, Formula: diameter transverse maximum X 100 / diameter anteroposterior maximum. Classification: Dolichocrany Mesocrany Brachycrany

74.9 and under 75.0 - 79.9 80.0 and over

The accuracy of the index depends on that of the component measurements. In some series the index has been determined from means of the measurements, a statistically incorrect procedure. From the types of deformations most frequently found in Middle America, especially in the southern portion, the indices tend to give values superior to the real ones.

Differences are very noticeable between the three zones: in the north dolichocrany predominates, in the center mesocrany, in the south brachycrany. A clear distinction should be made, nevertheless, between the very dolichoid Pericu and Cochimi in the north, the less dolichoid Seri and Coahuila cave remains, and the rest of the north. The differences are clear in both male and female series. Lengthen eight Index. Formula: basionbregma height X 100 / diameter anteroposterior maximum. Classification: Chamaecrany Orthocrany Hypsicrany

69.9 and under 70.0 - 74.9 75.0 and over

The data on this index are highly influenced by deformation. Those for the north and south zones are too scanty for reaching even broad generalizations. Breadth-Height Index. Formula: basionbregma height X 100 / diameter transverse maximum. Classification: Tapeinocrany Metriocrany Acrocrany

91.9 and under 92.0 - 97.9 98.0 and over

This index is also greatly influenced by deformation. The values, especially for the north and south zones, are very scanty. The only available data for the south (Hooton, 1940) suggest smaller values for this zone, but I think these are not dependable and that possibly deformation has influenced the figures given. On the other hand, the high crania (acrocranics) of La Candelaria, Coahuila, would not accord with Hulse's (1945) idea, which has been mentioned regarding the cranial height (basion-bregma) in early populations. Parietal Thickness. This measurement is taken on the left parietal 1 cm. above the highest part of the temporoparietal (squamosal) suture. Nothing can be gathered from the values appearing in the tables. Diameter Frontal Minimum. This is the minimum distance between the superior temporal lines. Perhaps the north zone dif37

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

fers from the other two by having very slightly lower values in males as well as in females. MorphoJogical or Total Facial Height, This is the distance from nasion to subsymphyseal (or gnathion). From the fact that the mandible must be in position, that the teeth must be in normal occlusion, and that the relative attrition of the teeth is variable, this measurement merits little credit. Because of this, and because the data in the tables are scanty, this measurement does not warrant major comment. Upper Facial Height, For the majority of authors this means nasion-prosthion, but for a few it means nasion-upper alveolar point —a minor difference. The data are very scanty, but point out, provisionally, that in females more than in males an apparent diminution of the upper facial height exists from north to south. Diameter Bizygomatic Maximum. Definition: the greatest distance between the two zygomatic processes. No generalization is possible except, perhaps, that a diflFerence exists between the Seri and the other series of the north zone, since the Seri have a greater facial breadth. Upper Facial Index. Formula: upper facial height X 100 / diameter bizygomatic maximum. Classification: Euryeny Meseny Lepteny

49.9 and under 50.0 - 54,9 55.0 and over

Nothing can be pointed out regarding this index, because although Matthews' (1891) findings in the north confirm what we know about the Maya, the data are everywhere insufficient. Nor can we consider the total facial index, although it appears in the tables. In general, facial measurements are lower than those of North American Indians. Nasal Height. Definition: Nasion-subnasale or nasion-nasospinale. Provisionally, one can point out slightly lower values in 38

the central zone as compared with the other two. Breadth of Nasal Aperture. Definition: maximum distance between the lateral borders of the said aperture. The data in the tables show no significant trend. Nasal Index. Formula: breadth of the nasal aperture X 100 / height of the nasal aperture. Classification: Leptorrhiny Mesorrhiny Platyrrhiny

46.9 and below 47.0 - 50.9 51.0 and over

Broadly speaking, a generalized platyrrhiny is observed in all the zones, perhaps accented from north to south. Data from other zones of America indicate that, among American Indians, platyrrhiny is encountered in only the most primitive groups. Orbital Height. Definition: maximum distance between the superior and inferior borders, excluding any irregularity; alternately, the maximum distance perpendicular to the breadth. The data show nothing significant. The orbital index appears in the tables but does not deserve comment. Length of Foramen Magnum. Definition: basion-opisthion. A greater length seems to appear in the north zone. Perhaps this bears a relation to a total cranial length which is also greater here, in both males and females. Breadth of Foramen Magnum. Definition: maximum internal breadth perpendicular to the length. The data in the tables show nothing significant. Nasion-basion Diameter.4 Definition: the distance between the two specified points. Frequently the endobasion serves as the second point, but this does not appreciably affect the values. The generalization of a greater nasionbasion distance could be advanced for males in the north in contrast to the other two groups, but not for females. For an analysis of the differences in technique and definition of this and other cranial measurements, see Stewart (1942).

ANTHROPOMETTEIY OF LATE PREHISTORIC REMAINS

Cranial Capacity, The volume in cubic centimeters of the endocranium is taken directly by means of vegetable seed (such as turnip or mustard) or lead shot; it can be obtained indirectly by formulae involving certain cranial diameters. (See Stewart, 1952a, pp. 147-51; Comas, 1960a, pp. 41012; Tildesley and Datta-Majumder, 1944; Breitinger, 1953.) In general the cranial capacity corresponds to the volume of the brain. Although we have more data for this than for other measurements, no generalization should be undertaken without detailed statistical analysis, taking into account whether the standard deviations and the errors (probable or standard), when provided, are very high. In any case, no trend appears in the values presented or in their simple means. Other Cranial Measurements. Some authors provide data on diameter frontal maximum, the index of the foramen magnum, biporion-bregma diameter, and cranial module (see tables). MEASUREMENTS OF THE POSTCRANIAL SKELETON (Tables 3, 4)

Variations in measuring technique, especially in long bones, yield measurements that are not comparable, particularly when it is not specified whether the maximum or the physiological length has been taken, and what technique has been followed. I omit the degree of torsion because, although of interest, it has been measured with very different and badly defined techniques; I omit also many measurements, especially scapular, pelvic, and tarsal. Length of Humerus. Definition: the maximum length is the greatest distance between the two extremities; the physiological length is the maximum length of the bone at a right angle to the plane of the condylar surface of the distal extremity. In the male series a notable length of the humerus appears only in the Seri (north). This is con-

firmed in the females, in spite of meager data, and in addition shows marked differentiation between center and south, with greater lengths in central zone. The differences between the three zones are clear insofar as they refer to females, although the series are too short for one to venture definite conclusions. Length of Radius. Definition: the maximum length is between the most distant points of both extremities, including the styloid process; the physiological length is between the center of the superior articular surface and the nearest point in the concavity of the inferior articular surface. The same tendency appears here as in the length of the humerus, and again this is certain, on the basis of the available series, only for the females of the center and south zones. Length of Ulna. Definition: the distance between the most distant points of both extremities, including the olecranon and the styloid process, represents the maximum length. The physiological length does not concern us here. What has been said for the humerus and radius applies to the ulna. Length of Femur. Definition: the maximum length is generally the distance between the most widely separated points of the femoral head and the inferior medial condyle; the physiological length is the perpendicular distance between two parallel lines, one connecting the most distant points on the two inferior condyles and the other through the most distant point on the head. Seri femora are longer than all the others. A difference between center and south zones is not clear. Length of Tibia. Definition: the total length is the greatest distance between the extremities, including the spine, and the internal maleolus; a commonly taken length is the distance from the superior articular surface to the tip of the maleolus with the spine excluded. An oval opening is usually provided in one of the upright portions of the osteometric board so that the spine can 39

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

be avoided in taking the second length. On the basis of the available very imperfect series, lengths diminish from north, through center, to south. Length of Fibula, Definition: the maximum length is the greatest distance between the two extremities, and thus includes the maleolus. The physiological length does not concern us here. Comments on the tibia apply to the fibula. Length of Scapula. Definition: total length (or height), the only measurement of the scapula that concerns us here, is taken between the superior and inferior angles. The data are insufficient for comment. Hrdlicka (1916), referring to "various Mexican Indians," points out that the scapula is smaller in them than in Whites, except in females where the bone, although shorter, is slightly broader, leading to a prevalence among the Indians of a type of superior border which he calls "low." Length of Clavicle. Definition: maximum length, our only concern here, is taken between the sternal and acromial extremities. The very scanty data indicate much shorter clavicles toward the south. On the basis of other data supplied by Genna (1943), the clavicle in the Seri is relatively long, which indicates a great development of the superior thoracic segment. This is true also of the remains from Coahuila studied by Studley (1884). Shape of Sacrum. Formula: maximum breadth X lOO/maximum height (or length); where maximum breadth is taken between the extremities of the two lateral masses and maximum height is taken from the center of the promontory to the center of the anteroinferior border of the last sacral vertebra. Classification: Dolichohiery Subplatyhiery Platyhiery

99.9 and below 100.0 - 105.9 106.0 and over

The scanty data show that the sacra from the north zone in general seem larger than those of the central zone (there is nothing 40

for the south), the former being clearly platyhieric and the latter distinctly dolichohieric, and especially after the elimination of the series of Silíceo Pauer (1925a), which show such high indices that they are questionable. On the degree of sacral basality (i.e., on the relationship of the superior surface of the lateral masses to the plane of the superior articular surface of the first sacral vertebra ) I have not been able to find a single datum. Neither does there seem to be value in Hrdlicka's (1916) notations on the place of beginning sacral curvature, which are combined in a single series of Indians from very diverse regions. Height of Innominate. Definition: the maximum distance from the ischiatic tuberosity to the iliac crest. This measure is equivalent to the height of the pelvis. Innominate height possibly diminishes as we move away from the north. Furthermore, to judge from my data on the Coixtlahuaca remains (1958) and on my indirect data (1966a, b, c; 1967), the height of the innominate bone is greater, both in existing non-Mestizoized Middle American populations and in pre-Hispanic Middle American populations, than in populations with other racial afiinities. The scanty data on the other few indices and measurements appear in the tables. STATURE (Tables 3, 4)

Disregarding the studies on the Seri by Genna (1943), which give excessively great stature for a Middle American population, the rest of the series in the north zone have a stature higher than that in the central zone, and this in turn is higher than in the south. This observation is valid for both males and females (Tables 3, 4). Statures have been calculated from osseous remains on the basis of the relationship with long bones (Manouvrier, 1893; Pearson, 1899; Breitinger, 1938; Telkka, 1950; Dupertuis and Hadden, 1951; Trotter

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LATE PREHISTORIC REMAINS

and Gleser, 1952,1958). In these studies the calculations are based on the proportions of the long bones of recent populations. However, Trotter and Gleser (1958, p. 122) point out that in North American Whites and Negroes "stature and its relationship to long bone length are in a state of flux, since some individuals over 21 years of age with given bone length are taller today than were individuals six to ten years ago with the same bone lengths." This is associated, possibly, with the prolongation of growth up to 21-23 years or more instead of ending at 18. Certainly constant changes in body proportions, and therefore in stature, are being experienced. (For changes in stature see Morant, 1949; Trotter and Gleser, 1952; Keen, 1953; Newman, 1953; Wells, 1959; Allbrook, 1961; Genovés, 1966b, c.) Wells (1959, p. 27) says, "Present-day formulae may introduce a systematic bias in estimates of stature of individuals of past generations." If to this we join the fact that, for the calculations of statures assembled in the tables, formulae have been used which are based on populations possessing no clear racial affinities with those being studied, it is understandable that the results obtained can differ, in a certain degree, from reality. Steggerda (1932, p. 95) in his somatic study of the modem Maya says: "From the appendage measurements shown, we can verify the known fact that Negroes have a longer lower arm in relation to the total arm than the Whites, but in addition we can say that the Indian has a still longer lower arm, whereas in Negroes it is about 31.5 per cent and in Whites 30.5 per cent." From a study of pre-Hispanic remains in the state of Oaxaca, I reached the conclusion (1958, p. 479) that "the leg-thigh proportion was different, relative to those existing in Whites and Negroes, on account of a longer leg, or perhaps a shorter thigh, which is not surprising." And I observed that statures calculated from the tibia, using the tables of Trotter and Gleser (1952), were much greater than those obtained from the femur,

in the case of males the difference amounting to 11 cm. From this study and a subsequent one (Genovés, 1960), I concluded that, at least in the diverse North American prehistoric remains studied, ulna and radius and tibia and fibula are relatively longer in relation to humerus and femur, respectively, than in Whites at least, because the statures obtained with formulae for Whites in which the bones of the forearm or leg were taken into consideration would be greater than the actual. Likewise hip height is proportionately greater relative to stature. The different results that can be arrived at with separate bones have also been shown (Genovés, 1958, Table IV). My recent studies (1964; 1966a, b, c; 1967) have provided new tables and formulae for reconstructing the statures of central Mesoamerican native populations. Although the tables are based on long bones derived from cadavers of recently deceased Indians, they have been applied successfully to the following pre-Hispanic populations: Tlatilco (Faulhaber, 1965, p. 19), La Ventilla Teotihuacan (Laguna, personal communication, 1966), and certain ones from Arizona and New Mexico (Bennett, personal communication, 1966). There is need for further confirmation, but it can be stated tentatively that a homogeneous proportionality seems to exist between long bones in Mesoamerica and perhaps farther north. Genua (1943), following Manouvrier's method (1893), obtained the following statures for the Seri from bones of the right side: Bone Humerus Radius Ulna Femur Tibia Fibula

Male

Female

171,5 cm. 180.3 178.9 170.1 174.3 174.6

156.6 cm. 164.1 164.4 156.0 161.7 162.2

Here the differences between the statures 41

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

TABLE 5 — C N E M I C INDEX BY SEX AND SIDE IN MEXICAN GROUPS* MALE

GROUP

Right

FEMALE

Left

Right

i

V

.

Culiacan, Sinaloa Serf Tepexpan Man Indians of the Valley of Mexico Pre-Columbian Modern Coixtlahuaca, Oaxaca (15th century) Pre-Columbian Huastec

AUTHOR

Left

64.94±.82(16) 64.2 (5) 65.6 (5) 60.0(1) 65.8(1)

67.70±.91 (20) 63.6(5) 68.7(5)

Hulse, 1945 Genna, 1943 Romero, 1949

65.4(22) 68.0(18) 63.7(1)

64.0(21) 66.8(23) 57.9(1)

67.6(26) 68.7(22) 75.5(9)

67.6(24) 64.8(15) 71.3(9)

Comas, 1959 Ihid, Genovés, 1958

54.1(1)

55.5(1)

55.5(1)

65.0(1)

Faulhaber, 1948-49

* All from Comas, 1959, except Hulse, 1945.

for males calculated from the femur and radius amount to 10.2 cm. In male and female remains from Middle American places far apart in time and space —modern Maya (Steggerda, Cummins, et al.); pre-Hispanic remains from Coixtlahuaca, state of Oaxaca (Genovés); recent remains from various localities preserved in the Laboratorio de Antropología del Museo Nacional, Mexico (Genovés, 1960); the Seri (Genna); and prehistoric remains from Coahuila (Studley)—the characteristic proportions of the long bones mentioned above are maintained, producing distinct statures in north, center, and south zones, with exceptions corroborated by archaeological data. Remains in Zaculeu, Guatemala (Stewart, 1953a), Xochicalco, Mexico (Stewart, 1956), and Tlatilco, Mexico (Faulhaber, 1965), in addition to others already cited, evidence higher stature than in peoples living today in these zones. Some measurements have been reached by techniques of stature reconstruction, whereas others have been taken directly in life. Comas (1952a, b ) , however, who compared pre-Hispanic and modem populations of the Valley of Mexico wholly on the basis of osseous remains, decided that the modern are of greater stature than the pre-Hispanic. We can only conclude that the secular decline in stature proposed by Newman (1953) and 42

by Stewart (noted above) can not be exact and is largely accounted for by deficient stature reconstruction. (See Article 10 and Genovés, 1966b, c.) CNEMIC INDEX

The term platycnemic designates the peculiar flattening of certain tibia in the upper third of the shaft, or diaphysis, where, instead of a transverse section in the form of an equilateral triangle with vertex anterior, the section is more or less fusiform. These tibiae are also known as "saber blade tibiae." Formula: transverse diameter at the nutrient foramen X 100 / anteroposterior diameter at the nutrient foramen. Classification: Platycnemia Mesocnemia Eurycnemia

62.9 and under 63.0 - 69.9 70.0 and over

The cnemic index has been obtained in such diverse ways (see Vallois, 1938) that the scanty data have not been included in the main tables. However, Table 5 presents some figures mainly from the work of Comas (1959, Table VIII) referring to Mexico. According to Comas, the pre-Hispanic and modem Mexicans have percentages of platycnemia of 44.0 and 34.6, respectively. From worldwide series, he confirmed that platycnemia is greater among males than

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LATE PREHISTORIC REMAINS

TABLE 6—FREQUENCY OF FOSSA PHARYNGEA* Group Tarascan Mexico City Papago Tepecano Guatemala Indians Otomi Cora California Indians (Hrdlička) Huichol Tlanepantla, Mexico San Simon, Mexico Tarahumara La Candelaria, Mexico Male Female

Number of Skulls 130 17 1 4 6 11 21 42 32 23 49 48 42 38

7 1 1 1 1 1

Number with Fossa

Percentage with Fossa

5 7 5 2 4 3

5.4 4.0 100.0 25.0 16.6 9.0 23.8 16.6 15.5 8.6 8.2 6.2

8 4

19.05 10.53

* All from Sullivan, 1920b, except La Candelaria (Romano, unpublished).

among females, verified in 14 out of 16 American series except for Seri female right tibiae and the left female tibiae of modern Mexicans. Although not significant, the find­ ing is interesting, for Manouvrier (1888, p. 488) stated that "difiFerences in the form of the tibia should be considered as individual variations related to anatomico-physiologic conditions after infancy capable of acting on any individual, without distinction as to race, sex, or stature, but more frequently observed in certain population groups." Comas (1959, p. 41) subscribed to this opinion. Wauchope (1934, pp. 145, 147) recorded one hyperplatycnemic (54.6) and one mesocnemic (63.2) tibia from Late Classic period burials at Uaxactun, El Peten, Cuatemala; both were males. SELECTED MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Fossa Pharyngea, This is the preferred name for a small oval depression on the ventral surface of the basilar portion of the occipi­ tal bone. It is also called fovea bursae and medial basal fossa. In 48 groups from nearly the entire Amer­ icas among which the fossa pharyngea has

not been found (Sullivan, 1920) are the Yaqui, the remains from Casas Grandes (Mexico) and from Zacatenco (Mexico). Absences are noted also in remains from New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado. Data pertinent to Middle America have been extracted from three of Sullivan's ta­ bles and are presented here in Table 6. Of a total of 2,517 American crania ex­ amined by Sullivan, 88 or 3.5% exhibited the fossa, the highest frequencies occurring in the southern part of the United States and in Mexico, with the exceptions noted above. Collins' (1927) extension of this study does not substantially change the pic­ ture. Sullivan maintains that a close rela­ tionship exists between the distribution of the trait and that of the linguistic groups combined tentatively as Uto-Aztec. More­ over, a greater frequency is found in dolichoid crania, a conclusion confirmed by the high percentage of occurrences observed by Romano (personal communication) in the crania from La Candelaria. Le Double (1903, p. 87) gives a fre­ quency of 1A% for Whites based on several thousand crania. In America the trait has a higher frequency in males than in females 43

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

TABLE 7—FREQUENCY OF INTERPARIETAL BONE IN MEXICAN GROUPS Group Modem Mexicans Ancient Mexicans La Candelaria Male Female Uaxactun Chichen Itza Mexicans

?

Four combined Mexican series

Number of Skulls

Number with Bone

Percentage with Bone

430 409

12 4

2.79 0.97

Comas, 1942a Comas, 1942a

40 36 20 39 52 267 1,197

1 2 1 2 2 15 33

2.5 5.55 5.0 5.1 3.6 5.6 2.75

Romano, unpublished Ibid. Ricketson, 1937 Hooton, 1940 Martin, 1928 Sullivan, 1922 Comas, 1942a

and, in general, is quite high in Middle America. High percentages seem to characterize Negro groups. Interparietal (Epactal or Inca) Bone. It is interesting that Comas (1942) found this bone in 1.9% of 839 crania from various parts of Mexico. This and similar findings of other authors for the rest of America disallow the belief that the interparietal bone is unique to the racial groups of the Bolivia-Peru region (hence the term "Inca bone"). Data relating to Middle America are presented in Table 7.

Author

No relationship appears to exist between crania with the interparietal bone and the horizontal cranial index, the length-height index, the cranial capacity, cranial deformation, or the region of origin. Frequency of interparietal bones is higher in American groups than in Old World groups (see Comas, 1942c, p. 488). Glenoid Fossae, Variations of the glenoid fossae of the temporal bone have been studied by Sullivan (1917) mainly in American Indians. Asymmetries among the Zuñi and in groups from New Mexico (among

TABLE 8--OCCURRENCE OF FOUR TYPES OF GLENOID FOSSAE* NUMBER C L A S S E D A S

REGION

Utah, Gran Gulch Arizona Colorado New Mexico, Zuñi Mexico, Valley of Mexico City Mexico, Valley of Mexico City (trepanned) Mexico, Chihuahua Mexico, Cora Huichol Tarasco Peru (mountains) Bolivia, Huata (deformed) Bolivia, Silasica (deformed) Patagonia All from Sullivan, 1917.

44

NUMBER OF C A S E S

Deep Short

Medium Short

Elongated

Flat Elongated

86 4 8 10 91 12

16 1 1 2 22 2

32 1 2 1 22 6

28 1 4 0 18 3

10 1 1 2 29 1

19 17 56 92 54 150 268 11

6 3 5 17 0 42 91 0

6 3 15 41 26 38 37 0

6 7 15 19 17 50 86 10

1 4 21 15 11 20 54 1

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LATE PREHISTORIC REMAINS

TABLE 9—FREQUENCY OF EAR EXOSTOSIS IN MEXICAN GROUPS (sexes combined, except as noted) Group Indians, general Indians, Mexican Coahuila caves Zaculeu Coixtlahuaca Tlatilco Coahuila La Candelaria Male Female

Side Both Both Both Right Left Left Both? Both? Both Right Left Both Right Left

Number of Cases

Number with Exostosis

Percentage with Exostosis

104 4 7 11 16 1 — — 32 1 2 32 3 0

7.6 8.5 13.4 19.6 29.6 8.3 20.19 36.0 78.05 2.44 4.88 84.21 7.89 0.00

1,369 47 22 — 12 104 — 41 — — 38 — —

Others) he attributed to functional modifi­ cations of the feature, the variations indi­ cating the presence of individual habits of mastication that influence the form of the articular surface. Sulhvan's table (here pre­ sented as Table 8) includes various Middle American series. Ear Exostosis. Hrdlicka (1935b) devoted an extensive monograph to this subject, to which subsequent authors have added data. The pertinent information is combined in Table 9. High percentages occur in two of the three series from the north: La Can­ delaria (Romano) and Coahuila (Studley, 1884). Traumatism in the meatus could, in some instances, excite the development of osseous excrescences in the auditory canal. There is an association with cranial deformation (Hrdlicka, 1935b), not genetically but in a capacity to augment a universal tendency, although undoubtedly heredity is one of the principal factors. Synostosis of Internasal Suture. Romano (personal communication) noted internasal sutures that were synostosed completely or partially in 67.50% (27) of the male crania from La Candelaria, Coahuila, and in 31.58%

Author Hrdička, 1935b Hrdlička, 1935b Studley, 1884 Stewart, 1953a Genovés, 1958 Faulhaber, unpublished Studley, 1884 Romano, unpublished Romano, unpublished Romano, unpublished Romano, unpublished Romano, unpublished Romano, unpublished

(12) of the female crania. Such high per­ centages are found elsewhere only among Negro groups (Hooton, 1946, p. 745; Topinard, 1884, p. 63; Testut, 1932, p. 214). No data exist for other Middle American groups. Form of Palate. Romano (personal com­ munication) obtained a combined percent­ age of ellipsoid and U-shaped palates in 31.58% male and 37.83% female crania from La Candelaria, Coahuila. He points out that high frequencies of this sort occur among Negro groups. Persistence of Metopic Suture. General percentages for this trait are given in Table 10. By comparison Comas (1943a) observed that 4.1% (18) of 430 modern Mexicans have the metopic suture present, 1.2% (5) of 409 pre-Hispanic "Mexicans." He found no rela­ tionship with sex, racial group, or cranial deformation, but judged that the presence of the metopic suture bears a direct rela­ tionship with orbital height in the same group or series examined. Sacralization of 5th Lumbar Vertebra. Thieme (1951) gives 5% as the usual fre­ quency of this trait in adult populations, the figure increasing with the age of the indi45

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

TABLE 10—FREQUENCY OF METOPIC SUTURE BY RACIAL STOCKS*

NumberStock

of Skulls

European 54,486 Asiatic and Indonesian 7,732 American Indian 10,329 Oceanean 2,854 African 3,398

Number Percentage with with Suture Suture 4,201 410 323 58 67

7.7 5.3 3.1 2.0 2.0

TABLE 11—FREQUENCY OF SEPTAL APERTURES OF HUMERUS IN MIDDLE AMERICAN GROUPS (sides arid sexes combined) Group Indians, general Indians, Mexican Mexicans, ancient Zaculeu, Guatemala Coixtlahuaca, Mexico

Percentage with Aperture

Author

29.6 38.7 52.4 29.3 57.14

Hrdlička, 1924 Ibid. Martin, 1928 Stewart, 1953a Genovés, 1958

* From Comas, 1943a.

vidual. I found (1958) lumbosacralization in 6 of 13 pre-Hispanic examples from Coix­ tlahuaca, Oaxaca, in 4 among the 11 fe­ males and in the only 2 males. Romano (personal communication) found it in 2 of 21 examples examined from La Candelaria, Coahuila. However, the number of exam­ ples Romano and I examined is very limited and certainly unsatisfactory for comparing the frequency in Middle America with that reported by Thieme. Septal Aperture of Humerus. The fre­ quencies of perforation of the bony plate that separates the coronoid and olecranon fossae at the lower end of the humerus are listed in Table 11. Stewart and I agree that in the series we examined the percentages are much higher than the figures which Trotter (1934) gives for North American Whites (4.3%) and Negroes (12.6%). In all groups the perforation occurs more often in female remains. CONCLUSIONS

Given the disparity and heterogeneity of the data, the chronological divergences be­ tween the remains, and the relative arbi­ trariness of the three geographical divisions created for the presentation of the findings, it would be erroneous to characterize the physical type for each zone. Nevertheless, a brief comment is possible. North The material from Culiacan, Sinaloa, stud46

ied by Hulse (1945) could be placed ra­ cially as intermediate between populations typical of central Mexico and those of the southwestern United States. Hulse suggests that the marked platyrrhiny and low cranial height 5 indicate, perhaps, remnant associa­ tion with a more ancient population related by interbreeding with the Basket Makers, since Holden et al. (1936) found platyr­ rhiny in the living Yaqui, Uto-Aztecans of the west coast of Sonora and therefore near Culiacan. Earlier Hooton (1930), without definitely affirming it, was inclined in the same direction, for he compared and point­ ed out similarities between the osseous re­ mains from the Coahuila caves and those of Basket Makers. Of great value toward a solution of these relationships would be the anthropometric study of the remains re­ covered by Ekholm (1942) in Guasave, Sinaloa, consisting of 19 male and 13 female examples for which the only data available refer to imperfectly estimated stature, al­ though the stature appears great and the crania brachycranic. By contrast, the re­ mains from La Candelaria in Coahuila con­ stitute the most numerous dolichocranic series in Mexican territory,6 being also rela­ tively high headed (acrocranic) 7 and at the 5 On the other hand, in Culiacan indications of alveolar prognathism are scarcely encountered. 6 73.8% of the males and 63.64% of the females are dolichocranic; the rest are mesocranic. 7 Although Romano (personal communication) does not define his criteria, he indicates that in

ANTEROPOMETRY OF LATE PREHISTORIC REMAINS

same time meso- to platyrrhinic. However, from the studies of Romano, La Candelaria presents metricomorphologic aflSnities with remains from the state of Texas,8 and with the Pericue of Lower California. From the cultural point of view Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda, Maldonado-Koerdell, and Martinez del Roí (1956) have also plainly shown these relationships. The remains from La Candelaria, the zone most fully studied, present in general a close association (3.81±0.45) 9 with the Iroquois of New York studied by Hrdlicka (1927). They present a great divergence (45.04±:1.45) from the Eskimos of Greenland (Hrdlicka, 1924). The relationship with the primitive South American groups from Rio Negro (Argentina) is doubtful (ll.36dz0.27); with the Onas of Tierra del Fuego (Stewart and Newman, 1950) very divergent (35.06±0.40). Remains from the state of Jalisco (Gavan, 1949) have been classed in the central zone. From the series of 20 individuals (10 adult males, 7 adult females, and 3 children), only 2 male crania were complete and nearly all the long bones were quite fragmented, providing only poor data in the tables. From his morphological study Cavan concluded that the forward and lateral projection of the malars, a constant characteristic of American Indians, was not appreciable. From other analyzed characters he determined that in southern Jalisco existed, on the one hand, physical types similar to the ancient Basket Makers of the North Amerinorma posterior the males are almost exclusively pentagonoid, whereas a third of the females are spheroid. 8 This collection has been studied by Marcus S. Goldstein but his findings are not yet available. 9 This and the following associations are obtained by Pearson's Coefficient of Typological Divergence, which has inconveniences and limitations because it measures the statistical significance of differences but not the degree or quantity of differences between races (see Seltzer, 1937). 10 Following three cultural sequences, Gavan divides the material into Tuxcacuesco, Coralillo, and Toliman.

can Southwest and, on the other hand, features (in another individual) that come close to the physical type of the Pueblos of Puye.10 Sexual dimorphism is not marked in this material. Center Special importance attaches to Faulhaber's unpublished demographic and cultural data on Tlatilco, because it is the largest group and the best analyzed. She says: The data at our disposal—232 individuals— allow observations of a demographic sort to be made. In the first place it is noted that among the 36 children whose age could be determined as less than 12 years, 66.67% died between 4 and 6 years of age. It is difficult to explain this fact solely on the basis of the bad hygienic conditions that may have existed, since this is the age following that of weaning, and the latter is precisely the age of greatest infant mortality. Thus the possibility cannot be ruled out that a factor of cultural nature, such as sacrifice with ceremonial ends, may have intervened here. In fact, 11 of the 15 multiple interments include infant remains, possibly in the form of offering, and all of the things that permit a detailed determination of their age indicate early childhood (4 to 6 years). Xochicalco has been placed in the central zone notwithstanding Noguera's (1945, 1951) finding that the site has greater relationships with archaeological zones of southern Mexico—the Maya area—than with those of the center. On the other hand, I believe that the Otomi are not so brachycranic as Hamy (1884) described them; there are many erroneous references to this characteristic in the unspecialized literature. Goldstein (1943b) indicates that the series from Saltillo, which appears in the tables of the south zone, and from Guanajuato, which I have placed in the center, are rather similar, suggesting close ethnic relationships. The fact is of interest since it concerns the only two recent populations available for inclusion here. Although this is not the place to discuss 47

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

whether sexual dimorphism is greater or less in populations of certain antiquity than in the more recent, it is pertinent to point out that Gavan (1949) noted in Tuxcacuesco, Jalisco,11 a limited dimorphism, and Faulhaber (personal communication) says in relation to Tlatilco: "As regards the sexual characteristics there is a surprisingly large number of cases in which the female skeletons present an exceedingly robust aspect, approaching in this character the males, although there is no question that the pelvic characteristics are those of females." This is true, notwithstanding the marked difference observed in the diaphyseal circumference of the humerus, solely in male remains and always on the right side. Data from the eastern part of the central zone, comparing the Olmec studied by Comas (1945) and the Huastec studied by Faulhaber (1948-49), show that the Olmec type is a little more brachycranic and somewhat more high headed (basion-bregma height relative to the anteroposterior and maximum transverse diameters) than the Huastec.12 I do not believe, however, that there is good foundation for the hypothesis (see Faulhaber, 1948-49, pp. 88-89) that the contemporary populations of these re11 Included in the central zone, although it seems to have affinities with the Pueblos and the Basket Makers. 12 The crania studied by both authors are somewhat deformed. 13The four exceptions are: the single individual from Tollman, Jalisco, referred to in discussion of the north zone; the Otomi studied by Merejkowsky; the uncertain data of Espejo from Tlatelolco; and (this is certainly important) the series also from Tlatelolco studied by Borbolla. 14 Howells' definition (quoted by Goldstein, 1943b, p. 88): "the standard deviation (sigma) of a character divided by the average of a number of standard deviations for the same character taken from the literature and pertaining to adult male series of crania numbering 40 or more." 15 Compared with 98.8 for Early Christian Irish and 96.0 for American Indians in general. 16 Howells (1936, p. 595) says, "There is general agreement that hybrid groups do not necessarily exhibit an increased variability in their measurable characteristics over the parent groups involved. . . ." 48

gions (Huastec, Tepehua, Totonac) are smaller in stature than the ancient Olmec and Huastec studied by Comas and Faulhaber, respectively. There may be differences, but they are not notable. Stature was calculated in one case from osseous remains, whereas the contemporary Huastec, Tepehua, and Totonac were measured in life by Starr (1902b). The horizontal cranial index is classified in 19 of the 23 male series from the center as mesocranic with notable uniformity.13 Among the females the indices attain values slightly higher than the general tendency of female crania in nearly all human groups. Making use of the sigma ratio of Howells (1936), 14 Goldstein found mean sigma ratios of 98.9 and 101.915 for Guanajuato and Saltillo, respectively, suggesting that these populations are rather homogeneous, owing to the inclusion of recent interments.16 South Humidity here has destroyed more osseous remains than in the other zones; those that exist are friable and imperfect. Many crania, of the few preserved, are deformed, a fact escaping attention on more than one occasion when measurements were taken. Data in the tables—both descriptive from authors (especially Ricketson, 1929, 1937; Hooton, 1940) as well as personal observations—show that, in general, the south zone is characterized by individuals of lesser stature than those in the north and center. They are also markedly brachycranic and have a relatively large cranial capacity in relation to their stature; the face is long— relatively shorter in females; the nasal index is variable, ranging from leptorrhine to platyrrhine; alveolar prognathism is constant, sometimes marked and other times slight; facial prognathism is considerable in many individuals; the upper extremity is relatively long; and there is a very high frequency of osteoporosis that contrasts with the good state of the dentition.

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LATE PREHISTORIC REMAINS

REFERENCES Allbrook, 1961 Allen, H., 1896 Anonymous, 1928 Anton, 1892 Aragón, 1904 Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda, Maldonado-Koerdell, and Martínez del Río, 1956 Batres, 1887 Berthold, 1886 Blom, Grosjean, and Cummins, 1933 Breitinger, 1938, 1953 Broesike, 1877 von Bulow, 1922 Burg, n.d. Buxton, 1925 and Morant, 1933 Cabrera, L. C , 1945 Cave, 1939 Chard, 1958 Collins, 1927 Comas, 1942a, 1942b, 1942c, 1943a, 1943b, 1945, 1950, 1952a, 1952b, 1959, 1960b and Genovés, 1960 Deniker, 1895 Dupertuis and Hadden, 1951 Ekholm, 1942 Emmons, 1913 Espejo, 1945 Ewing, 1950 Faulhaber, 1948-49, 1953c, 1953d, 1959, 1965 Fernández Ortigosa, 1909 Field, 1954 Gann and Gann, 1939 Garcia, 1899-1901 Cavan, 1949 Genna, 1943 Genovés, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1964, 1966a, 1966b, 1966c, 1967 and Comas, 1964 and Messmacher, 1959 Goldstein, 1943b Gratiolet, 1860b, 1861 Hambly, 1937 Hamy, 1884 Holden et al., 1936 Hooton, 1930, 1940, 1946 Howells, 1936, 1937 Hrdlicka, 1898, 1902c, 1912a, 1912b, 1916, 1924, 1927, 1932, 1935b Hulse, 1945 Jennings and Neumann, 1940 Kaplan, 1954 Keen, 1953 Kirchhoff, 1943 Le Double, 1903

León, Ν., 1904, 1928 Longyear, 1940 Macdonnel, 1904 McGee, 1898 Manouvrier, 1888, 1893 Marino Flores, 1945 Martin, 1928 Martinez Baca, 1897 Matthews, 1891 Merejkowsky, 1882 Morant, 1949 Newman, 1949, 1953 Noguera, 1935, 1945, 1951 Oetteking, 1923 Olivier, 1960 Otis, 1880 Palazuelos, 1937 and Romero, 1933 Pearson, 1899 Pericot, 1936 Putnam, 1899 Quatrefages and Hamy, 1882 Ricketson, 1925, 1929, 1932, 1937 Rivet, 1908, 1910 Romano, 1953, 1956 Romero, 1934, 1935a, 1937, 1939, 1949, 1951a, 1951b and Valenzuela, 1945 et al., 1955 Rubin de la Borbolla, 1930, 1933a, 1933c, 1939 Russell, 1900, 1908 Seltzer, 1937 Sentenach Cabañas, 1898 SÜiceo Pauer, 1920, 1922-23, 1925a, 1925c Starr, 1902b Steggerda, 1932 Stevenson, 1929 Stewart, 1936, 1942, 1943, 1952a, 1952b, 1953, 1956

and Newman, 1950 Studley, 1884 Sullivan, 1917, 1920, 1922 Telkka, 1950 ten Kate, 1884a, 1884b Testut, 1932 Thieme, 1951 Tildesley, 1927 and Datta-Majumder, 1944 Topinard, 1884 Trevor, 1950 Trotter, 1934 and Gleser, 1951, 1952, 1958 Vallois, 1938 Villada, 1870 Virchow, 1927 Wauchope, 1934 Wells, 1959

49

4. Dental Mutilation, Trephination, and Cranial Deformation

JAVIER ROMERO

F

EW CULTURAL TRAITS are best documented by the evidence found in the skeletons of the bearers of the cultiure. The three traits which form the subject of this article fall into this small category. None seems to have survived many years after the Spanish conquest. DENTAL MUTILATION

Although something was known of this pre-Hispanic custom, and the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City had a few loose mutilated teeth and others still in the jaws of skulls, I found new examples in 1934 during my exploration of the burials in the archaeological zone of Monte Alban, Oaxaca. The first burial I examined was associated with a red earthenware effigy urn, some 30 cm. high, depicting a human being with dental mutilation. Since that time finds of dental mutilation have been relatively frequent in Mexico, demonstrating this strange custom in considerable detail. It seems likely that the custom appeared, developed, and disappeared in Middle Amer50

ica independently of the course of its counterpart in the Old World. In previous studies (Romero, 1958; 1960b; 1965a) I assembled data on dental mutilation from the whole of the Americas, based on the collection of mutilated teeth in the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia of Mexico, totaling 1212 catalogued teeth, undoubtedly the largest number in one place in America. In general, the mutilation consists of three fundamental modes: (1) alteration of the contour of the dental crown, (2) alteration of the labial surface of the crown, and (3) alteration of both the contour of the crown and the labial surface. Since each mode has distinctive aspects, a classification chart (fig. 1) shows seven types: the first fundamental mode comprises types A-C; the second, types D and E; and the third, types F and G. This arrangement represents our knowledge of the subject up to 1965, including the previous studies by Rubin de la Borbolla (1940), Fastlicht and Romero (1951), and Romero (1952a).

FIG. 1—TYPES OF DENTAL MUΉLATION IN THE AMERICAS Includes discoveries up to 1965. For description, see text.

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

FIG.

2—DISTRIBUTION

OF

PRE-HISPANIC

DENTAL MUTILATION IN THE AMERICAS. Middle America stands out in the abundance of these localities. Other areas; 1, Arizona. 2, Illinois. 3, Ecuador. 4, Chile. 5, Bolivia. 6,7, Argentina.

In type A alterations of the occlusal edge alone are included; in Β one of the angles of the crown is mutilated; in C both angles are symmetrically mutilated. Type D con­ sists of all those cases in which straight filed lines appear on the labial surface of the crown. Type Ε is characterized by the pres­ ence of incrustations of pyrite, jadeite, tur­ quoise or gold, or by beveling of nearly the whole labial surface (type E-5). Type F consists of forms in which both the occlusal edge and the angles of the crown, or both the occlusal edge and the labial face of the crown, are altered, mostly in asymmetrical form. Type G takes in all those cases in which there are incrustations, combined with alteration of the occlusal edge or of the 52

angles, in either symmetrical or asymmetri­ cal form. Of the total 59 forms of dental mutilation, types A-5, D-7, and F-5 have appeared only in North America; types E-4 and F-6 have appeared only in South America. The re­ maining 54 types belong to Middle America. Analysis of the archaeological epochs of the finds indicates that Middle America may have seen the birth of the custom in the Valley of Mexico near the beginning of the Preclassic period, about 1400 B.C. (Ro­ mero, 1958, Table 12), although a rather early example from Uaxactun, Guatemala, prevents a categorical affirmation of single origin. From Middle America dental muti­ lation spread both north and south (fig. 2 ) . There is no doubt today that the ancient Indians mutilated their teeth in life. Be­ sides the confirming statements of the chroniclers Fray Bernardino de Sahagún and Fray Diego de Landa (Romero, 1958, pp. 67-68), eyewitness accounts record the present existence of the custom, of recent African origin, in Panama and Venezuela. The magnificent illustrated study by Almeida (1957) on dental mutilation as practiced presently in Angola, Africa, suggests a way in which the mutilation may have been done in America. Before we look at the details of technique, it is desirable to consider the order of development of the two main kinds of mutilation: filing and incrustation. According to the chronological distribution of the finds, filing appears to be the original technique, beginning in the Early Preclassic (14001000 B.C.) and continuing into the Middle Preclassic (900-600 B.C. ), when incrustation began to be used. Both Fastlicht and I consider it likely that the oldest types of mutilation, because of their simplicity, may have been made by "self-filing," by the subject operating on himself. In a social organization such as that which the archaeological finds of Tlatilco, state of Mexico, demonstrate, however, it is possible that in the Middle Preclassic still the same types of

DENTAL MUTILATION, TREPHINATION, CRANIAL DEFORMATION

dental mutilation may have been produced by specialists, in a manner similar to that observed today in Angola by Almeida (1957, p. 18): "The Balubas use only files to produce their mutilations. The position of the candidate is essentially the same as that for the Quiocos, according to what we are told. There are, however, 'operators' who prefer the client seated, in order to carry out the mutilations more comfortably."1 During the Preclassic mutilation appears to have been effected only by filing in the upper teeth, although in Uaxactun, Guatemala, incrustation was used for both the upper and lower teeth. More or less simultaneously incrustation appeared in Monte Negro, Oaxaca, but only in the upper teeth. At the beginning of the Early Classic period (100 B.c.-A.D. 300) the technique of incrustation in the upper teeth began to predominate; but in the Late Classic (A.D. 700-900) filing and incrustation reached their maximum elaboration, yielding the most complicated combinations, with incrustation occurring in both the upper and lower teeth. The technique of filing again predominated in the Postclassic ( A.D. 10001500), the lower teeth being involved more than before. On the basis of his odontological experience, Fastlicht believes that filing was performed readily with any stone, since the enamel and the dentine of the living teeth offer little resistance and the medium of the mouth favors the operation. On the other hand, he suggests that a method used for the perforation of jade and rock crystal— materials much appreciated for the making of jewelry—could have been used for drilling the cavities for the inlays. This could have been accomplished by rotating a fine tube of quartz or other very resistant stone 1 "Os Balubas usam sòmente limas para executar as suas mutilações. Α posição do candidato é sensivelmente a mesma referida para os Quicos, segundo nos afirmam. Há, porém, 'operadores* que preferem o cliente sentado, para mais còmodamente practicarem as mutilações."

against the surface of the enamel with the addition of water and some abrasive powder, such as fine sand (Fastlicht and Romero, 1951, pp. 70-71). The archaeologist José Luis Lorenzo has advised me that a small bird bone, if fire hardened, could also be used for this purpose. Considering that the technique of making circular cavities for inlays or incrustations is similar to that employed in some forms of jewelry, and considering that the same materials were used in both instances, as well as in the mosaics which cover masks and ritual discs, the performers of the dental mutilation may have been the jewelers themselves. By acquiring some knowledge of dental anatomy, these authentic artists could have achieved the results which we see today in the archaeological collections of mutilated teeth. The technique of incrustation must have required performers whose apprenticeship expanded until it was transformed into true mastery during the great Classic period, particularly in the Maya area (Fastlicht, 1960). In Middle America three materials are known to have been used in circular in crustation: pyrite, jadeite, and turquoise. By now the pyrite has oxidized and has a dark coffee color, but when originally placed in the teeth it was unoxidized and had a gilt color, resembling polished brass or gold. The most ancient Mexican examples of incrustation—those from Monte Negro, Oaxaca, of Middle Preclassic age (900-600 B.C.)—are of pyrite. Use of this material continued until the first part of the Postclassic. Jadeite appeared in the Middle Classic period (A.D. 400-600) and was used most commonly by the Maya. An example from Campeche, Mexico, of circular incrustation with turquoise is preserved in the Musée de 1'Hommein Paris (Romero, 1958, p. 84-85), and others, also from Campeche, are in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City. In general, the incrustations are perfectly 53

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

FIG. 3—PRECLASSIC DENTAL MUTILATION. a, Male, Tlatilco, Mexico. b, Male, Xaloztoc, Mexico. For description, see Romero, 1958, pp. 127-28, 130.

fitted to their respective cavities, a fact which would seem to account for their retention in situ until the present. Yet Fastlicht once believed (1951) that, in addition to the fit, a special cement, the composition which can only be conjectured, may have been used. More recently (1960) he has indicated that in certain cases the fine fit may have been achieved by filling the cavities with a paste made of powdered pyrite. In this way the procedure may have been simplified, since it is always easier to fill a cavi54

ty perfectly with a paste than to make the dimensions of a cavity coincide with those of a small circular plaque destined to fill it. Incrustations disappeared in the great Postclassic period and only the technique of filing persisted until the time of the conquest, when all vestige of dental mutilation disappeared in Middle America. Since the process of dental mutilation must have been painful, and must have left the operated teeth sensitive for some time, it has been assumed that anesthetic substances were employed (Fastlight, 1950, pp. 16-17; Whitlesey, 1935, pp. 989-90). Analysis of the coexistence of more than one type of mutilation in a single dentition has emphasized what are called "patterns" of dental mutilation (figs. 3, 4). I have described 128 such patterns: 98 in 1958, 18 in 1960 and 12 more in 1965. These patterns have been classified according to archaeological period in order to discover whether they had a regular chronological development. One also asks whether they are correlated with sex and age of the individual. The most complicated patterns occur in the Late Classic period (A.D. 700-900), especially in the Maya area. Here the tendency was to decorate the teeth with one, two, or three very carefully executed incrustations, not always of the same material, in a single tooth, and with the contour of the crown filed in diverse manners. Most of the surviving examples are from male skulls, suggesting that men were more inclined at this time to exhibit dental mutilation, particularly incrustations. Later, in the Early Postclassic, dental mutilation by the technique of filing appears to have been more frequent among females. Much of Middle America where dental mutilation was practiced is far from ideal for skeletal preservation over so many centimes. For this reason many specimens in the collection consist of jaws or teeth alone. It is rarely possible, therefore, to estimate closely the age at death. Even when other skeletal parts are preserved, variations in

DENTAL MUTILATION, TREPHINATION, CRANIAL DEFORMATION

the ageing process limit the estimation of age to only broad categories. With this reservation it appears that dental mutilation was practiced mainly by young adults ( 2 1 35 years) and only rarely by pre-adults (18-20 years), although a single instance of still earlier age has been observed (Fastlicht, 1947). We would like to be able to judge age better; for example, that of the old man, a great personage found in the monolithic sarcophagus of the secret chamber of Palenque, Chiapas, with his young guards foumd outside the majestic mortuary room. All that can be said is that nearly all the remains showing dental mutilation pertain to young adults (21-35 years). The association of dental mutilation with alveolar abscesses in certain other cases demonstrates that in these instances the mutilation damaged the pulp chamber of the teeth, doubtless causing pain and making mastication difficult. The wide distribution of the practice in Middle America is attested by the fact that, besides about 80 localities in Mexico that have yielded finds, there are 3 in Belice (British Honduras), 8 in Guatemala, and 4 in Honduras (Romero, 1958, Table 7). From Middle America the custom spread extensively, reaching in late times distant parts of the hemisphere (see fig. 2). In Ecuador, particularly, there were notable modes, including both circular and quadrangular incrustations of gold (Saville, 1913; Romero, 1958, pp. 45-46). Sometimes in Middle America skulls with dental mutilation also show head deformation. The oldest examples with these combined practices are males. This cultural association is not surprising since in the preHispanic epoch intentional head deformation was a much more frequent practice than dental mutilation. The latter is abundantly manifested in archaeological ceramics, in some pre-Cortés codices, and in works of gold and silver from the end of the Postclassic (Romero, 1958, pp. 177-97). Another custom mentioned by the chron-

FIG. 4—CLASSIC AND POSTCLASSIC DENTAL MUTILATION. a, Male, Jaina, Campeche; Late Classic period. b, Male, Lidchi-Bigu, Juchitan, Oaxaca; Late Postclassic period. For description, see Romero, 1958, p. 141; 1960b.

iclers—blackening of the teeth—does not appear to have been associated with dental mutilation. Few examples of this last practice are known (Fastlicht and Romero, 1951, pl. 3; Romero, 1958, p. 71). Certain dental mutilation patterns also appear in ceramics and raise the question as to the significance of the mutilation custom. For example, the great Zapotec funeral urns, representing male and female gods with all of their supernatural attributes, frequently exhibit distinctive patterns of dental mutilation, either in the effigies of the gods themselves (fig. 5) or in the great masks that form part of their sumptuous attire (Caso and Bernal, 1952). This association 55

FIG. 5—URN REPRESENTING AN OLD GOD WITH DENTAL MUTILATION. Tomb 1, Loma Larga, Oaxaca.

suggests a religious basis for the psychological motivation which induced some people to develop this peculiar custom. There is also the connection which has been traced between the religious importance of the tiger and dental mutilation (Romero, 1958, pp. 188-91). Whether or not religion was a factor from the beginning of the custom is not known; but certainly everything ap56

pears to indicate that at the end of the pre-Hispanic epoch any connection with religion, if indeed it ever existed, had been lost, and simple adornment had become the sole purpose. Naturally, in view of what has been said, it has been suspected sometimes that the existence of dental mutilations in osseous human remains is indicative of the high

FIG. 6—"ATTENDANT" URN SHOWING DENTAL MUTILATION. Tomb 32, Monte Alban, Oaxaca.

social position of such individuals. Some of the allusions to the sacerdotal character of certain burials are due largely to this sort of evidence. However, not all eflSgies of gods exhibit dental mutilation, and the characteristics of the burials in Mexico which provided mutilated teeth do not reveal a clear picture of a priestly group. Attention is called to the fact that the conditions of some burials with dental mutilation show lack of wealth and hence sug-

gest a low social position for the individual in life. Other burials, without dental mutilations, give manifest evidence through their funerary trappings of wealth and probably high social position. Cholula and Tamuin, archaeological zones in Puebla and San Luis Potosi, respectively, have yielded both common burials and those in elaborate mausoleums, and yet exactly the same varieties of dental mutilation have been recovered from both. Again, the simple funerary urns called 57

PHYSICAL ANTEmOPOLOGY

"attendants'* (fig. 6)—the small effigies generally accompanying the large urns representing richly adorned deities—show the same patterns of mutilation as the latter. On the other hand, the great personage in the amazing secret chamber of Palenque had a very simple dental mutilation, but his guards, the young men found at the entrance, had dental incrustations. In Monte Negro, Oaxaca, the human remains from the large tombs in the center of the high platforms show no dental mutilation, but instead, one of the poorest burials of the zone, which is considered to represent a brief occupation, yielded perhaps the most ancient example of dental incrustation with pyrite from all America (around 700-600 B.C.). Thus the existing data do not support the idea that dental mutilation is indicative of social status (Fastlicht and Romero, 1951, pp. 45-50; Romero, 1958, pp. 215-20). The collection of mutilated teeth in the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia of Mexico was started at the beginning of the present century, when Nicolás León was the sole investigator in Mexico interested in such material. He had previously noted the existence of the custom among the human remains at Michoacan (León, 1890). The present collection comprises 1212 teeth, but there are recently excavated examples not yet catalogued. This continual accretion offers the hope of finding out much more in the future about the origins, evolution, and significance of pre-Hispanic dental mutilation. Finally, what, if any, connection existed in this custom between the Old and New Worlds? This question cannot yet be answered. Only in America do we know the chronological development of the custom; in the Old World, especially in Africa and in the eastern part of Asia, work along this line has barely started. The restricted American zones in which the custom persists nowadays are inhabited by direct descendants of the African slaves imported during the colonial epoch. Discoveries of mutilated 58

teeth in Japan, both in the Ainu areas (Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938, p. 163) and in the shell deposits of Ikawazu (Suzuki, 1940, pp. 489-96), are suggestive from the standpoint of American antecedents and represent a challenge for investigation. Although the literature on dental mutilations is vast, only the sources mentioned here have been included in the reference at the end of this article. A fuller bibliography appears in one of my earlier publications (1958, pp. 247-51). TREPHINATION

In 1897 Muñiz and McGee published the first extensive work on trephination in ancient Peru.2 Their illustrations show how, when patients survived the operation, the process of bone regeneration took place, and leave no doubt that a true surgical custom is represented. Since that time much more evidence has come to light in Peru and Bolivia, and the success of the operation in terms of survival and ultimate complete bone healing at this early cultural stage continues to produce amazement. The first evidence of anything resembling the Peruvian custom in Mexico was provided by Lumholtz (1902, 1: 328-29) and described in detail by Lumholtz and Hrdlička (1897, pp. 389-96). In a small cave in the Sierra Tarahumara in southern Chi­ huahua, Lumholtz found three skeletons which, from the accompanying cultural ob2 Ed. note: The term "trephination" is entrenched in the anthropological literature of Middle America and for this reason is used here. However, the re­ covered specimens so diagnosed (all from Mexico) are few and individually far less convincing as ex­ amples of deliberate surgery than most of the very numerous finds of this nature from Peru. Essential­ ly, the problem is to distinguish between true skull surgery and skull perforations produced in a variety of other ways: penetrating wounds that have healed, comminuted fractures from which the bone fragments have been expelled, and perhaps local­ ized infections; also, deliberate incisions by man made after death, and holes gnawed by rodents in the skulls while still somewhat fresh (see Stewart, 1958). The reader should not let himself be misled into thinking that the use here of a judgment term means that the problem is settled in all instances.

DENTAL MUTILATION, TREPHINATION, CRANIAL DEFORMATION

jects, he judged to be of pre-Columbian age. In one of the skulls, that of a female more than 60 years of age, he noted a perforation near the antero-superior angle of the right parietal. The opening is circular, 2 cm. in diameter, and has healed borders perpendicular to the surface. The evidence of healing is the basis for judging that an operation had been performed some years before the death of the individual. The photographs accompanying the study confirm that the perforation is healed. The same authors describe another example recovered by Lumholtz, this one from a burial cave near the town of Nararachic, Chihuahua, also in the Tarahumara region. The skull again is female, but around 50 years of age. The trephination was discovered by Hrdlicka during the examination of the Lumholtz collection; it is situated in nearly the same position observed in the first example, but instead of being circular is ovoid, with the narrow end directed forward and with the borders inclined or beveled. In this case also a long survival from an operation is deduced—much longer than in the first. Nothing is said about accompanying cultural objects in this instance, but to judge from the latest explorations in the caves of northern Mexico, both of Lumholtz's finds may correspond to the end of the Postclassic. Burial IV-40 No further find of this kind occurred in Middle America until the fourth season (1934-35) of archaeological explorations at Monte Alban, Oaxaca, when two examples were encountered (Romero, 1935b). The first pertains to burial IV-40, lying immediately beneath and parallel to the corridor north of Tomb 58 and over Tomb 61. This burial lacked cultural objects, and thus cannot be dated with exactness, but because it was found below the mentioned structure, corresponding to Monte Alban IIIB-IV, it most probably belongs to the same cultural level (A.D. 900-1000). The skeleton was

FIG. 7 — C R A N I A L PERFORATION, BURIAL IV-

40, MONTE ALBAN, OAXACA. For description, see text.

primary, probably female, and a young adult (21-35 years); it was found lying face down and oriented west-east. The skull of this burial showed a circular perforation, 18.5 mm. in diameter, in the left midfrontal, 13 mm. above the left superior orbital border. The edge of the perforation is cylindrical and completely smooth (fig. 7). The region between the orbital border and the perforation is thinned by a depression of extended elliptical shape, the larger diameter of which is parallel to the orbital border and measures 13.5 mm., the smaller (more or less vertical) 5.5 mm., and the median depth 2 mm. Because of recent fracture, the circular perforation lacks a sixth part of its contour; on its circumference can be seen a kind of irregular incision which involves only the outer table of the bone. This "incision" may be a postmortem fracture, be59

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

stone object. Perhaps this resulted in acute osteoperiostitis and beginning necrosis caused by traumatic destruction of the blood vessels, as Muñiz and McGee maintained in some of their cases. The object of an operation could have been the extraction of a sequestrium and could have been accomplished by the use of a drill, as in Burial III-19 to be described. The borders of the perforation are completely smooth, and the individual does not seem to have survived the operation. Burial IV-49

FIG. 8—CRANIAL PERFORATION, BURIAL IV49, MONTE ALEAN, OAXACA. For description, see text.

cause the skull was found on its side under a stone that had weighed it down for centuries, resulting in a partial flattening of the left side, involving the zygomatic arch, the malar of the same side, the left mid-frontal and its respective orbital process, as also the left maxilla and the palate. Because of the pressure, the vault is open along the sagittal suture and the norma superior of the skull is rather asymmetrical. Also, there is a marked depression in the obelionic region, of approximately elliptical form, with the major axis in the sagittal direction. The presence of the depression in the supraorbital region, contiguous to the perforation, could indicate an old injury, produced perhaps by some blunt-edged 60

The other skull excavated during the same season at Monte Alban belongs to Burial IV-49, encountered in Pit 1 of the mound of Tomb 75. This burial consisted of a skull alone, sitting in a gray pottery plate with another plate placed vertically so that the concavity covered the left side of the skull. Since neither the mandible nor any other bones were present, the burial must be considered secondary; if a whole head had been buried, necessarily the mandible and the first few cervical vertebrae would have been present. To judge from the associated plates, the burial belongs to the same archaeological epoch as the previous skull, that is, to Monte Alban IIIB-IV. The skull is male, middle-aged adult (36-55 years), and presents a more or less elliptical perforation, the larger diameter of which (15 mm.) runs obliquely front to back and from right to left, practically at the junction of the middle and posterior thirds of the sagittal suture (fig. 8.) The edges are beveled inward. My original notes state that in the anterior part of the perforation which touches the sagittal suture there are marks of thinning of the bone and that the surface here shows a regenerative tendency. Today I think that these evaluations ought to be subjected to further examination, since they do not seem as certain as originally. However, it is indubitable that we are not dealing with a recent perforation nor much less a fracture produced during excavation.

DENTAL MUTILATION, TREPHINATION, CRANIAL DEFORMATION

Burial V-3 In the fifth season at Monte Alban Burial V-3 yielded a cranial fragment of great interest by reason of showing an elliptical perforation near the anterosuperior angle of the left parietal (fig. 9). The greater axis of the perforation is 21 mm. long and directed from front to back. Also, part of another similar perforation, oriented in the transverse direction, occupies part of the right half of the frontal and part of the right parietal in the region of the coronal suture. Although Caso (1938, p. 37) has said that this specimen belongs to Tomb 80, the burial actually was located in front of Tomb 82, beneath the plaster floor of the patio and near the cornice of the entrance. The burial was primary, perhaps female, a young adult (21-35 years), oriented from south to north, and lying on its back. Tomb 82 relates to Monte Alban IIIB-IV. Caso (1938) also indicated that the specimen shows these two perforations, but further examination has revealed a third one in the right parietal, nearly symmetrical in shape and orientation with that of the left side. Furthermore, there is a depression along the anterior third of the sagittal suture, extending over onto the left parietal; it has the same form as the third perforation, with the greater axis anteroposterior, and a depth of approximately 3 mm. Figure 9 shows that the borders of the perforation are beveled. All these alterations may have been made by scraping, but since clear traces of this technique are not present, it is possible that the individual survived the operation a short time. The cranial fragment also presents traces of tabular erect deformation. Burial VIII-1 In the eighth season in Oaxaca it fell to my lot to excavate Burial VIII-1 in the archaeological zone of Monte Negro, in the neighborhood of the village of Tilantongo in Mixteca Alta. The burial, lacking a formal tomb but accompanied by 18 objects,

FIG. 9—CRANIAL PERFORATION, BURIAL V-3, MONTE ALBAN, OAXACA. Two other perforations do not show in this photograph. For description, see text.

FIG. 1O—CRANIAL PERFORATION, BURIAL VIII-1, MONTE NEGRO, TILANTONGO, OAXACA. What remains of the perforation is 23 mm. long. For description, see text.

was found under the niche south of Temple Sur of the zone and relates to Monte Alban I, which dates from various centuries B.C. Only a fragment of the skull of this burial was recovered, but therein exists a portion of a perforation in the right parietal near the center of the sagittal suture (fig. 10). As reported briefly in another study (Ro61

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

FIG. 11—CRANIAL PERFORATION, BURIAL IX-11, MONTE ALBAN, OAXACA. For description, see text.

FIG. 13—CRANIAL PERFORATION, BURIAL II-143,CERRO DE LOS TEPALCATES, TLATILCO, MEXICO

FIG. 12—CRANIAL DOUBLE PERFORATION, BURIAL III-19, MONTE ALBAN, OAXACA. Diameter of complete perforation, 19 mm.; of the incomplete one, 16 mm. At the right is a wide scraped zone. For description, see text.

mero, 1951a, p. 328 and fig. 5), the subject is male and a young adult. The importance of the find lies in the fact that the perforation shows a slightly sloping border, with the part corresponding to the endocranial table rather sharp, indicating beginning bone regeneration. The exposed part of the diploe shows the same. Burial IX-11 In the ninth season at Monte Alban, Al62

fonso Caso, who explored patio no. 3, found Burial IX-11 which yielded a perforated skull (fig. 11). This burial lacked a formal tomb and did not include cultural objects, but because of its relation with Burial IX-10 could date from Monte Alban IIIB-IV. The subject was female, a young adult, arranged in the fetal position, and oriented from north to south, but with the face turned down and to the west. The perforation was studied in some detail by Dávalos (in Romero, 1952a, pp. 192-93; and in Romero, 1958, pp. 143-44), and it was his opinion that it represents a periosteotomy or scraping and was done on account of an infectious process produced by a wound. Burial 111-19 In a reviewing of the bone material from Monte Alban a cranial fragment from Burial III-19 was discovered to have perforations that, up to now, are probably the most important for establishing the existence of trephinations in Middle America. The bur-

DENTAL MUTILATION, TREPHINATION, CRANIAL DEFORMATION

TABLE 1—PERFORATED CRANIA FROM MEXICO Burial

L-1 L-2 IV-40 IV-49 V-3 IX-11 III-19 Π-143 VIII-1

Provenience Pino Gordo, Chihuahua Nararachic, Chihuahua Monte Alban, Oaxaca Monte Alban, Oaxaca Monte Alban, Oaxaca Monte Alban, Oaxaca Monte Alban, Oaxaca Cerro de los Tepalcates, Tlatilco, Mexico Monte Negro, Tilantongo, Oaxaca

Archaeological Epoch Postclassic

Mode of Burial Primary

Sex Female

?

Female

Late Classic

Primary

Female?

Late Classic

Secondary

Male

Late Classic

Primary

Female?

Late Classic

Primary

Female

Late Classic

Primary

Female?

Late Preclassic

Primary

Female

Middle Pre­ classic

Primary

Male

Postclassic

ial, found in the third season of explorations, was situated over Tomb 53 in a superficial grave that, with others, formed an irregular assemblage; it belongs to Monte Alban IIIB-IV. The skeleton was primary, lying on its back and oriented from north to south; it appears to be female and a young adult. The cranial fragment presents one finished perforation and another perhaps interrupted by the death of the individual (fig. 12). The finished perforation appears perfectly circular, but because of breakage we cannot be absolutely sure of this; it is situated practically at bregma, involving the frontal and parietals. The incomplete perforation, which best reveals the tech­ nique used, is in the anterosuperior angle of the right parietal. Both perforations were probably performed with a tubular drill. This is the technique used, in my judgment, in operating on the skull of Bur­ ial IV-40. The characteristics of the lesions in the skull of Burial III-19 are similar to those of IX-11 (fig. 11) in that there is a wide zone in which scraping was applied, but another zone, contained in the first, in

Age Mature adult Middle-aged adult Young adult Middle-aged adult Young aduh Young adult Young adult Young adult Young adult

which the operation was accomplished, with the drill in III-19 and by scraping in IX-11. Both examples belong to the same archaeological level and both give evidence of an infectious process caused by a wound. Burial II-143 This burial from the Late Preclassic was encountered in the Cerro de las Tepalcates at Tlatilco, state of Mexico, during the sec­ ond season of work there. It was a direct interment, primary but somewhat disturbed, lying on its back, and oriented from south­ east to northwest. It is female and a young adult (closer to 35 than to 21 years). An irregularly ovoid perforation is present over the left temporal (fig. 13); it measures 28 mm. in the greater diameter and 18.5 mm. in the lesser, the measurements being taken to the edge of the endocranial table. The beveled edges of the perforation, which are perfectly clear in the posterior two-thirds, show striations indicating that an operation was done by scraping. However, similar striations are observed above the longitudi­ nal root of the zygoma and also more to the 63

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

TABLE 2--DATA SUMMARIZING THE OPERATIONS Burial

L-1

Characteristics of the Edges of the Perforation Perpendicular to the surface Beveled

Instrument Used

Estimated Survival Time Several years Many years Succumbed

Drill

None

Scraper

None

Drill

Present

IV-49

Perpendicular to the surface Beveled

Scraper

None

Briefly

V-3

Beveled

Scraper

Present

IX-ll

Beveled

Scraper

Present

Several years Succumbed

III-19

Drill

None

Succumbed

11-143

Perpendicular to the surface Beveled

Scraper

Present

Succumbed

VIII-1

Beveled

Scraper

?

L-2 IV-40

rear, adjacent to the temporoparietal suture and 2 cm. from the left asterion. These traces of scraping show either that an operation was performed postmortem or that the subject died during the operation. Moreover, in the region of the left pterion are two small zones of abnormal bone that, in the opinion of Dávalos (personal communication), could be traces of a suppurative process. As additional information, Hulse's interpretation of a case from western Mexico should be mentioned (see Kelly, 1945, p. 198). In referring to the bone remains found by Kelly in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Hulse speaks of Burial 69, a female, as having "a bullet hole (?) in the forehead," and infers from this diagnosis the presence of the Spanish in this place, although this is at variance with the persistence there of ancient customs such as urn burials, as can be observed in plate 10a on page 219 of the Kelly publication. Because Hulse leaves the matter in doubt, it will be important for someone to elucidate this case, clearing up whether or not Culiacan is another place where trephination really was practiced. 64

Signs of Trauma

Briefly

In Tables 1 and 2, which summarize the foregoing data on cranial perforation, the examples encountered by Lumholtz at the end of the last century are listed as numbers L-1 and L-2, although they represent the northern limit of Middle America. The tables are arranged in the order of the archaeological periods from the most recent at the top to the earliest below and provide a needed supplement to Stewart's excellent study (1958) of trephination in past times. This tabular summary supports the following conclusions: Trephination in Middle America was practiced since the Middle Preclassic (Monte Alban I) and continued until the conquest. A long individual survival time from the operation does not seem proved beyond that indicated in skull No. L-2 found by Lumholtz. The techniques of drilling and scraping were used for the operation, the oldest being scraping (since 900 B.C.); drilling dates back only to A.D. 700-900.3 With the appearance of the drill 3 Since the above was written Faulhaber (1965) has described three other skulls with circular perforation. They are from Tlatilco, state of Mexico (Burials 106, 165, and 191) and belong to the Mid-

DENTAL MUTILATION, TREPHINATION, CRANIAL DEFORMATION

the technique of scraping did not disappear, both being used thereafter, as in the most recent examples (those from the Sierra Tarahumara of Chihuahua) where the application of the drill in L-1 and of the scraper in L-2 is undoubted. The reasons why trephination was practiced are not altogether clear, although the fact that four of the nine known cases show traces of cranial trauma supports the idea that therapy was one of them. I have not encountered references in the literature to cases of similar cranial perforation in other parts of Middle America. CRANIAL DEFORMATION

To judge from the finds of deformed skulls in Middle America, the pre-Hispanic custom of deforming the head was much more common than that of mutilating the teeth. Like dental mutilation and trephination, head deformation had a very wide distribution in this area and dates from very remote times. Many authors have occupied themselves with the description and classification of the deformed head-shapes, but it seems to me that Imbelloni has produced the clearest system. The classification and nomenclature of this Argentine investigator have been adopted in Mexico, and for this reason, as well as because of their simplicity and clarity, will receive primary attention here. He distinguishes two large groups of deformations: tabular and annular, each of which has subgroups known as oblique and erect, depending on the direction of the deforming pressure (Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938, p. 255). The fundamental distinction depends on the class of deforming apparatus used, knowledge of which comes from archaeological sources and from ethnological observations (see Stewart, 1950, p. 44; Dávalos, 1951, reproducing illustrations of Wavrin, 1937; Comas, 1958, p. 112; Rodle Preclassic (900-600 E.G.). These finds make the drilling technique as ancient as scraping.

FIG. 14—TABULAR ERECT SKULL DEFORMATION. Female, Burial 1, Isla del ídolo, Veracruz; Late Postclassic period.

mano, 1965). Some tabular deformations have been produced by applying free tablets (boards) to the head in the transverse direction, and pressing them together by means of ropes tied around their ends. Other tabular deformations have been produced with one free and one fixed tablet— in this case the cradle—with the former tied to the latter. For the annular type a band was wrapped around the head. An attempt has been made by Santiana (1956, pp. 117-18) to reconcile the nomenclature used by Imbelloni with that formerly in use, particularly in North America. This comparison has helped to clear up some of the confusion in the literature. The diversity of the deforming apparatuses has been the object of detailed study (Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938, pp. 290-303; Imbelloni, 1950, pp. 53-55), and likewise that of the period of life and the duration during which the deformation was effected. 65

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

FIG. 15—TABULAR OBLIQUE SKULL DEFORMATION. Male, Burial 10, Isla del ídolo, Veracruz; Late Postclassic period.

These variables, not yet fully understood, have been assumed to be the source of the multiple variants of the deformations observed in craniological collections. Naturally, the pathological and psychological effects of the deformations are matters of great importance that for a long time have interested investigators. It cannot be ruled out completely that the sensorial receptivity could have been affected, but the cerebral mass shows a surprising capacity for adaptation and for compensation when faced with alterations in development (Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938, pp. 314-23). Nevertheless, the cases of extreme deformation, such as are observed in the collections of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e 66

Historia of Mexico, raise doubts about whether or not such individuals completely escaped alterations of behavior. According to the evidence presently available, tabular erect deformation (fig. 14) is the most ancient in Middle America, having appeared in the cultural level corresponding to the Early Preclassic (1400-1000 B.C.) in the Valley of Mexico; tabular oblique deformation (fig. 15) was present also in the Valley of Mexico since the Late Preclassic (500-200 B.C.). In these two cultural levels both sexes exhibited deformation. There is from each level also a case of a male in which head deformation is associated with dental mutilation (Romero, 1958, pp. 126, 130). Although the problem is not definitely resolved, it appears that the earliest examples in Middle America of annular oblique deformation in both sexes come from Monte Negro, Tilantongo, Oaxaca, an archaeological zone belonging to Monte Alban I, approximately equivalent to the Middle Preclassic (Romero, 1951a, pp. 324-25). For some time it was considered that Monte Negro was the only site in Middle America where the annular deformation had appeared. Now, however, it seems that this deformity has been identified also in other zones of Mexico representing later cultural levels. In any case, the predominant head deformation in Middle America was the tabular form in its two types, erect and oblique. Although both types are well represented throughout the whole pre-Spanish epoch, there is no doubt that the tabular oblique was much more frequent during the Late Classic period, especially within the Maya area. Some of the varieties, grades, and forms that have been studied so carefully in Argentina (Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938, pp. 267-87) can also be distinguished in Middle American collections. For example, Stewart (1948a, 1948b) has studied the records pertaining to a deformed skull from Isla de

DENTAL MUTILATION, TREPHINATION, CRANIAL DEFORMATION

Sacrificios, off the port of Veracruz, Mexico, described by Gosse (1855) under the name "tête trilobée," and concluded that the deformity is not so much artificial as the result of premature suture closure. The true type from this place, he feels, is nearer Imbelloni's plano-lambdoid form and is known also from many other parts of Middle America. One of the sites where this type is well represented is Tlatelolco, Mexico City (Dávalos, 1945, 1951). Another example, the occurrence of an extreme grade of tabular erect deformation, sometimes referred to as "cuneiform," is on record as being present in a single skull from Ghovel (or Jovel), Chiapas, Mexico (Comas, 1960b). In dis-

cussing the foregoing specimen, Comas has called attention also to the record of yet another isolated skull, this from Mitla, Oaxaca, with an extreme but not clearly identified type of deformity. Typical examples of the tabular erect deformation have been recovered at Tajumulco and Zaculeu, Guatemala (Stewart, 1943, 1953) and at Xochicalco, Morelos, Mexico (Stewart, 1956). Some of the other Guatemalan varieties reported by Stewart from Zaculeu and San Agustin Acasaguastlan (1949) can be included, in my opinion, within the concept of the central types of Imbelloni.

REFERENCES Almeida, 1957 Caso, 1938 and Bernal, 1952 Comas, 1958, 1960b Dávalos Hurtado, 1945, 1951 Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938 Button and Hobbs, 1943 Fastlicht, 1947, 1950, 1951, 1960 and Romero, 1951 Faulhaber, 1965 Gosse, 1855 Hulse, 1945 Imbelloni, 1950 Kelly, 1945 León, Ν., 1890

Lumholtz, 1902, 1904 and HrdHcka, 1897 Muñiz and McGee, 1897 Romano, 1965 Romero, 1935b, 1951a, 1952a, 1958, 1960b, 1965a Rubin de la Borbolla, 1940 Santiana, 1956 Saville, 1913 Stewart, 1943, 1948a, 1948b, 1949, 1950, 1953, 1956, 1958 Suzuki, 1940 Wavrin, 1937 Whitlesey, 1935 Woodbury and Trik, 1953

67

5. Pre-Híspanic Osteopathology EUSEBIO DÁVALOS

B

ONE MATERIAL obtained in explorations in Middle America is not sufficiently abundant to yield reliable figures for deducing the incidence of pathological conditions by populations. If one wished to study the pathology of the Middle American Indian in dififerent periods or to obtain the proportions in which particular suffering affected the subjects, and according to age or sex, more bone material would be required than is presently available (Todd, 1927). This commentary is pertinent because mere description of lesions is now considered less important than the statistical data referring to how a particular human group was aflFected by illness in a given period (Roney, 1959). The lack of bony material is the result of three main factors. First, the condition of the ground in many explored sites is not favorable for bone preservation. Second, certain native groups practiced cremation of their corpses. Third, there is still much to be explored. Consequently, aside from a few isolated cases, this article will present with commentary what I judge to be inter68

HURTADO

esting examples of pre-Hispanic bone pathology found in Mesoamerica and northern Mexico. My own data come from the remains of 100 individuals, some of them represented by only a single piece of bone. Besides these, I shall also refer to specimens which have been examined by other anthropologists, for their conclusions help to clarify pre-Hispanic Middle American pathology. To give a more adequate vista of the theme and to arrive intuitively at certain conclusions, it would be desirable to present the cases studied in chronological order, but again scarcity of materials does not permit valid deductions, and we must content ourselves with a classification taken from treatises of pathology. The nosological diagnosis in use is based on lesions left in the bones by diverse etiological agents. Some of the stated lesions have been corroborated by X-rays,1 but in 1 The photographs and X-rays which illustrate this article were taken in the laboratories of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia of Mexico by Professor Arturo Romano, while Director

PRE-HISPANIC OSTEOPATHOLOGY

no case have microscopic techniques been employed. All are structural modifications appreciable macroscopically. Stricto sensu, lesions produced by mechanical agents should not be considered as part of pathology. I include them because it appears to me that they manifest a degree of progress in surgical therapy and because they allow us to deduce something about concepts of magic. Further data on matters summarized here can be obtained from the protocols relating to the skeletal collections, which are preserved in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City. TRAUMATIC LESIONS

Descriptions of lesions of this sort figure in the works of the majority of anthropologists who have treated the subject, for example, Stewart (1956), Pales (1930), and Hooton (1930). They can be divided into two categories according to cause: accidental and intentional. Fractures, treated or not, come first and among these we have the cases found by Faulhaber (unpublished information) in the collection of Tlatilco: a clavicle of a male (Burial 39), another of a female (Burial 112), a femur of a male in the form of a mended splinter (Burial 117), and similarly a phalanx of another male (Burial 128). Stewart (1956) mentions other cases in skeletons from Xochicalco, Morelos. We shall refer here to those in the La Candelaria, Coahuila, collection in male crania 5, 9, 19, 27, 41, and in female crania 2, 13, 25, 32. Similarly in the humeri 2, 4. The first of these humeri showed a malunion with overlapping of the fragments (a bayonet deformity) with consequent shortening, and probably represents an exposed and infected fracture, since it presents a fistula behind and out of the distal third. Perhaps of the Department of Physical Anthropology, and by his assistant, Miss Teresa Jaén. To both of them I express my thanks for their valuable help in this respect, as well as in selecting the material studied.

FIG. 1—FRACTURED HUMERUS, XOCHICALCO

the subject died of septicemia, since the bone is found in the stage of osteomyelitic reaction. On the other hand, other bones were certainly treated, because they mended under optimum conditions, leaving scarcely any sign of the lesion, as in the humeri from La Candelaria (skeleton 4) and from Xochicalco (skeleton Db-1-11) (fig. 1). Among the osseous material from Teotihuacan are two instances (Db-15-24, a male right femur, and Db-17-16, a male right tibia) which present signs of an infected traumatic lesion, probably produced by a pointed cutting weapon. Both bones pertain to subjects who died in the full process of inflammatory reaction. The foregoing cases are considered accidental, being probably wounds of war, of hunting, or of work. An intentional lesion is the ulna of La Candelaria (skeleton 6), which was amputated in the distal third. The strangest case is Db-1-3, an adult male from Tula, Hidalgo (Toltec period). The cranium presents a series of anomalies and lesions. The occipital condyles, situated rather far back, have a rhomboid form with the major axis oblique, and are quite salient and inclined downward. The left mastoid 69

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

FIG. 2 — A D U L T MALE CRANIUM WITH ANOMALIES, TULA, HIDALGO. For description, see text. See also fig. 3.

FIG. 4 — A D U L T MALE CRANIAL FRAGMENT, COIXTLAHUACA, OAXACA. Specimen Db-1-7. Note voluminous mastoid apophysis and styloids 46 mm. long.

apophysis appears to be resorbed, and its vertex is inclined toward the medial line. The left glenoid cavity is modified (enlarged). The anterior root of the zygomatic apophysis appears affected by a destructive process (fig. 2). The zone comprised between the base of the zygoma and the medial part of the ear on the left side is depressed 70

FIG. 3 — A D U L T MALE MANDIBLE WITH ANOMALIES, TULA, HIDALGO. This is from the same skull as the cranium in fig. 2. For description, see text.

FIG. 5 — A D U L T MALE OSSIFIED THYROID CARTILAGE, COIXTLAHUACA, OAXACA. Specimen Db-1-7 (see also fig. 4).

and even perforated in a small portion. It seems to have been the object of a surgical or degenerative process which has left a zone of scarring (trepanation, cauterization?). The mandible is asymmetrical and more robust on the right side. The sigmoid notch is deeper on the left (fig. 3). The condylar neck on the left is very slender

PRE-fflSPANIC OSTEOPATHOLOGY

FIG. 6 — A D U L T MALE STERNUM AND RIB CARTILAGES, COIXTLAHUACA, OAXACA. Specimen Db-1-7 (see also figs. 4, 5). For description, see text.

and the condyle either was affected by a degenerative process, causing it to disappear, or was surgically amputated, leaving a small stump in its place. Cranium 3, Group IV, Burial II, from Palenque, Chiapas, belongs to an adult male. It is fragmentary and incomplete, but the reconstruction shows it was artificially deformed in the manner known in Spanish as "annular erect" (see Article 4). It presents a lesion in the midline 9 mm. behind bregma, which has left a deep kidney-shaped depression diagonally directed from front to left. This may have been due to cauterization (therapeutic?). Endocranially, two areas can be found, one to the right and the other to the left of the sagittal groove and 40 mm. behind lambda, which were affected by destructive lesions of the internal table and of the diploe. TRUE PATHOLOGICAL LESIONS

The observable anomalies in the osseous material from pre-Hispanic burials consist in modifications of the form, structure, or

density of this material. The modification of form and structure may affect only a small and isolated part of the bone, or may well be more extensive and complicated. Density may be increased or diminished, depending on pathological factors producing hypo- or hypercalcemia (Luck, 1950, pp. 29-30). It will be convenient to bear in mind that it is also influenced by the conditions of the ground in which the remains rest, since acid soils can either dissolve the calcareous salts or precipitate such minerals as augment bone density. Since it is not always possible to know whether a bone was decalcified under pathological conditions or through dissolution of its salts owing to the type of soil, we are not taking this trait into account when it is presented in isolation; but when a bone has suffered modifications in form or structure and at the same time shows signs of having been affected by hypocalcemia, we have to note it since the ailments producing hypocalcemia are known to be more frequent than those producing hypercalcemia. 71

FIG. 7—PATHOLOGICAL TIBIA AND HUMERI, COIXTLAHUACA, OAXACA. Top, Tibia with tumor, specimen Db-1-10, adult female. Middle, Humerus with tumor, same specimen. Bottom, Fractured humerus, specimen Db-1-9.

FIG. 8 — H U M E R I SHOWING SINUOSITIES, XICO, MEXICO. Specimens Db-10-7 (above) and Db-10-8 (below), probably from the same skeleton.

72

PRE-HISPANIC OSTEOPATHOLOGY

FIG. 9 — A D U L T MALE SKULL WITH FACE LESIONS, TULA, HIDALGO Skeleton Db-1-2.

The most notable case is that presented by skeleton Db-1-7, an adult male, discovered in Coixtlahuaca, Oaxaca. This is a primary individual burial in a left fetal position. Multiple hyperostosis and decalcification attract attention. Among the cranial fragments can be observed the voluminous mastoid apophysis and styloids 46 mm. long (fig. 4). The thyroid cartilage is ossified (fig. 5). The sternum is enlarged and asymmetrical, with the articular surfaces for the rib cartilages very voluminous and markedly excavated (fig. 6). The vertebral bodies are affected in general by osteophytosis around their borders. The third and fourth cervicals are fused. Almost all the other bones, but especially those of the pelvic girdle, are altered by the same kind of disorder. The porosity and lightness of the bones, the ossification of the thyroid, the bony excrescences, all suggest that we are dealing here with a case of hyperparathyroidism or von Recklinghausen's disease. Also from Coixtlahuaca comes skeleton Db-1-10, an adult female, encountered in Tomb 31 during the second season of explorations. It was found in a seated fetal position. Exostoses are present in various bones. The glenoid cavities of the atlas are

very concave, with the posterior arch thinned to the state of separation and with oblong perforations in the base of the lateral masses. The right humerus has the diaphysial portion invaded by hypertrophic osseous tissue, forming a spindle-shaped mass which leaves a series of longitudinal stripes on the external face (fig. 7). The coccyx bones, right tibia, astragalus, and scaphoid of the same side present exostoses. The left calcaneus shows an enlargement of the superior border of the surface for articulation with the cuboid. The head of left third metatarsal for articulation with the first phalanx presents a cavity, and the surface for articulation with the fourth metatarsal is surrounded by a series of small cavities. The first phalanx of the left foot shows a loss of substance in the internal border posterior to the facet for the terminal phalanx. The radiological characteristics suggest the presence in the right humerus of an osteogenic sacoma with possible metastases in other bones, such as the tibiae and the bones of the feet. Among the osseous material in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City are cranium Da-2-159, humeri Db-10-7 and Db-10-8 (fig. 8), and tibiae Db-17-12 and Db-17-13. The five bones, which come from 73

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

FIG. 10—ADULT MALE VERTEBRAE WITH LESIONS, TULA, HIDALGO. Skeleton Db-1-2.

Xico, state of Mexico, appear to belong to the same subject. The cranium presents maxillary prognathism, marked frontal sinuses, and a sella turcica which radiologically suggests that the subject was acromegalic. Both tibiae are longitudinally cracked and present marked osteoporosis of the proximal epiphysis. The left one especially has this in accentuated form medially in the zone of the insertion of the "goose foot" (la pata de ganso), whereas the remainder of the bone is compact and in the distal epiphysis the roughness of the zones of muscular insertion is very marked. The two humeri present a marked robustness which is manifested in a series of sinuosities produced by the hyperostosis of the zones of muscular insertion. The most notable roughenings are those of the deltoids and of the group latissimus dorsi, teres major, and pectoralis major. These roughenings hide the natural slenderness of the bones and make the shafts appear disproportionately heavy in relation to the articular head. Cranium Db-2-51, obtained from Burial 7 of Coixtlahuaca, Oaxaca, is judged to be an adolescent female. The skull appears to me

FIG. 11—ADULT MALE COXO-FEMORAL JOINT WITH LESIONS, TULA, HIDALGO. Skeleton Db-1-2.

74

PRE-mSPANIC OSTEOPATHOLOGY

FIG. 12—ADULT MALE PHALANX WITH LESIONS, TULA, HIDALGO. Skeleton Db-1-2.

FIG. 13—RIGHT FEMUR WITH ANKYLOSIS OF KNEE IN FLEXION, CUEVA DE LA CECILIA, SONORA

to represent a case of macrocephaly. On the one hand, being adolescent, it presents a small face, infantile forehead, incompletely ossified occipital condyles, and open basilar suture; but on the other hand, it presents synostosis of the interparietal suture, plagiocephalia with depression on the right, and a cranial volume which not only does not correspond to the assigned age, but actually surpasses that of the adults of the ethnic group to which it should belong. Genovés (1958) has obtained from the female crania of Coixtlahuaca maximum lengths ranging from 152.5 to 174.03 mm. The length of cranium Db-2-51 is 188 mm. The maximum widths obtained by Genovés range from 138.9 to 146.2 mm. The width of Db-2-51 is 143 mm. The basion-bregma diameter in females from Coixtlahuaca is between 121 mm. and 134, and in the case under consideration it is 135 mm. The cranial capacity of Db-2-51, as determined by Pearson's Formula 13, is 1378 cc. On the other hand, the face is small (nasion-prosthion: 61 mm.; range in adults according to Genovés is

62.4-74.0 mm.). The same is true of the bizygomatic diameter (approximately 113 mm., vs. a range in adults of 123.8-144.7 mm.). The cranium is light in weight, poorly calcified, and presents a series of small holes in the zygomatic and pterygoid fossae. The nasal bones are synostosed. There is marked dental and maxillary prognathism. The upper incisors appear very large in proportion to the size of the face. Almost all the teeth show few signs of use, but those of the left side are covered with tartar in such form as to suggest that they had not been used for some time and that the subject had been fed with pap or liquids. Besides these cases which have largely escaped the attention of anthropologists dedicated to osteopathology, we can point out the appearance of various cases of osteitis and osteomyelitis caused by tuberculosis and syphilis. Among the former are: (1) skeleton Db-1-2 from Tula, Hidalgo, an adult male with marked lesions in the face, vertebrae, sternum, coxo-femoral joint, and phalanges (figs. 9-12); (2) the right femur 75

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

FIG. 14—CRANIUM WITH NECROSING OSTE ITIS, TLALTELOLCO

FIG. 15—CRANIUM WITH NECROSING OSTEITIS, TLALTELOLCO

of a subject recovered from Cueva de la Cecilia, Sonora, with ankylosis of the knee in flexion (fig. 13). Among the latter are: (1) crania Db-2-3 (fig. 14) and Db-2-8 (fig. 15) from Tlaltelolco with necrosing osteitis of the frontal; (2) females 11 and 12 and male 11 from the cave of La Candelaria, Coahuila, with enormous lesions of the same type. Especially frequent are the cases of osteoarthritis, among which perhaps the most typical is Db-1-5 from Tula, Hidalgo, a female of advanced age (figs. 16-17). Johanna Faulhaber says that "the disease which most often affected the inhabitants of Tlatilco, Mexico, appears to have been arthritis," and mentions cases which went on to ankylosis (unpublished information ). In Tlatilco, according to her, exostosis of the external auditory meatus is also frequent, being found in some 20.19 per cent 76

of the 104 cases examined. This figure is larger than that mentioned by Stewart (1953) for Mexico, although it is smaller than what he found among the remains from Zaculeu, Guatemala. The osseous material from the cave of La Candelaria (fig. 18) presents a high frequency of subjects with pathological signs (Martinez del Río, 1953a, b). Of 42 male crania, 29 have various lesions; of 38 female crania, 21 are pathological. The lesions run all the way from osseous necrosis to more or less notable signs in the dental alveoli. Pathological cases are abundant equally in the bone collections from Tlatelolco in the Federal District (Dávalos, 1951) and in those from Coixtlahuaca (fig. 19). Genovés (1958) makes reference to them, tabulating some of the lesions observed. For example, Db-1-6, an adult male, is notable for having multiple lesions almost throughout the skeleton. It presents dental abscesses,

FIG. 16—OSTEOARTHRITIS, TULA, HIDALGO. Skeleton Db-l-5.

FIG. 17—OSTEOARTHRITIS, TULA, HIDALGO. Skeleton Db-1-5.

FIG. 1 8 — P A T H O L O G I C A L TIBIAE, CAVE OF LA CANDELARIA, COAHUILA

FIG. 19—PATHOLOGICAL BONES, COIXTLAHUACA. OAXACA. Skeleton Db-1-6.

FIG. 20—PELVIC ANKYLOSIS, COIXTLAHUACA, OAXACA Skeleton Db-1-8.

FIG. 21—SKULL SHOWING SENILE OSTEITIS, T L A T E L O L C O , D . F . Skeleton Db-2-13.

FIG. 22—FRONTAL LESIONS, ADULT MALE, CUEVA DE LA CECILIA, SONORA. Cranium A. See alsofig.23.

FIG. 23—CRIBRA O R B I T A L I A , ADULT MALE,

CUEVA DE LA CECILIA, SONORA. Cranium Α. See alsofig.22.

FIG. 24—CRANIAL FRAGMENT, MONTE ALBAN, OAXACA. For description, see text.

TOMB 7,

PRE-HISPANIC OSTEOPATHOLOGY

caries, bony calluses due to fractures, and signs of infections even in the bones of the foot. Another case, Db-1-8, an adult male, with artificial deformation of the tabular erect type combined with obelionic depression, has multiple lesions and characteristic pathologies. Space does not permit the detailed description of these cases, and only the following are mentioned: a marked platycnemia of the tibiae (index: right, 64.5; left, 61.3), multiple exostoses, and pelvic ankylosis (fig. 20). Among the various cases of rarefying senile osteitis, I single out Db-2-13, a female from Tlatelolco (fig. 21). The data which have been accumulated on cribra cranii also indicate high frequen-

cy, although it is not possible to give percentage figtires (Henschen, 1956). Cranium A from Cueva de la Cecilia, an adult male, presents marked frontal lesions (fig. 22) and also cribra orbitalia (fig. 23). Finally I mention a cranial fragment found in Tomb 7 at Monte Alban, Oaxaca, by Alfonso Caso, who submitted it for studies to Drs. Isaac Costero and Tomás G. Perrín (unpublished information). Dr. Costero concluded that it was a case of deforming osteitis (Paget's disease). Dr. Perrín was inclined to consider it a focus of osteitis (fig. 24), an isolate of tubercular caries of meningal origin, and I believe that he was correct in his diagnosis.

REFERENCES Anderson, J. E., 1965 Comas, 1965 Cook, 1946 Dávalos Hurtado, 1951, 1953, 1955 and Vargas y Vargas, 1956 Genovés Τ., 1958 Goff, 1953 Goldstein, 1957 Henschen, 1956

Hooton, 1930 Luck, 1950 Martinez del Río, 1953a, 1953b Pales, 1930 Romano, 1953 Roney, 1959 Stewart, 1949, 1953, 1956 Todd, 1927

81

6. Anthropometry of Living Indians

JOHANNA

r

OR THE PURPOSE of this anthropometric summary, the southern boundary of Middle America has been taken as the region inhabited by the Mangue and Pipil, which extends along the Pacific coast from northwest Costa Rica, through Nicaragua, to southern Honduras. In this last country the boundary extends eastward, including the zone occupied by the Lenca, Jicaque, and Paya. Tribes dealt with by Steggerda (1950, pp. 57-69) in his study on South American Indians, such as the Misquito, Sumo, and Choco, have not been considered. The northern boundary of Middle America is the political one between the United States of America and Mexico. Indigenous groups, such as the Papago and Pima, which inhabited areas on both sides of this boundary during pre-Hispanic times, have been included in the present study, even though the observations on them were carried out in southwestern United States. II

Sources of Information Although there exist in Middle America today Indians who still maintain their ab82

FAULHABER

original customs and beliefs, and speak their own languages, the only available data regarding their physical types are the approximate evaluations of height or the casual descriptions of some other characteristics which, owing to their subjective nature, help very little in defining the population in the aggregate. This situation is especially true of the southernmost part of Middle America, the only exceptions being the few anthropometric data collected by Aloja on the Paya in Honduras, the Nahua-Pipil in El Salvador, and the Mangue-speaking Diriano in Nicaragua. A greater number of anthropometric studies are available from Guatemala, inhabited almost exclusively by Mayan people; they are based, however, in the main on relatively few individuals.1 Although the stated investigations leave much to be desired, they do represent the only available metric data for the entire southern part of Middle America and therefore the means 1 The anthropometric data collected by Stewart (1947a; see also Article 9, this volume) in Guatemala have been only partially published (Newman, 1960a).

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LIVING INDIANS

derived from them have been included in the comparative tables, along with the num­ bers of persons observed. Only in the Re­ public of Mexico have studies been carried out based on sufficiently large numbers of individuals to insure that the means are representative of the observed populations. Such data as are available make it neces­ sary to take into consideration a series of factors affecting the validity of any interpre­ tations based on them. From the chronological and methodologi­ cal points of view, the investigations may be divided into two groups. The first in­ cludes those made toward the end of the last century and early in this one: on the Pima and Papago of Arizona by ten Kate in 1887, 1888, 1893, on the Yaqui (ten Kate, 1892, 1917), on the Pima of Arizona (Boas, 1895b), on the Mixtec, Yucatec, and Chol (Hamy, 1884), on the dozen Indian groups of northern and central Mexico and of the southwestern United States (Hrdlička, 1908, 1909, 1935a), and on 23 groups living in the Mexican territory bounded by the state of Michoacan in the west and the state of Chiapas and the Yucatan Peninsula in the southeast (Starr, 1902b). Both Hrdlicka and Starr started their fieldwork before the be­ ginning of the present century (1898), but did not publish their results until much later. In this first group of studies, as well as in some made by Mexican investigators dur­ ing the second decade of this century on the Aztec (Siliceo Pauer, 1922-23), Tarahumara and Tojolabal (C, Basauri, 1929, 1931), the analysis of the measurements and indices is limited to statements of the numbers of individuals observed, the arith­ metical means, and, as an expression of the variability of each characteristic, the maxi­ mum and minimum observations. Therefore, the absence of the computation of the stand­ ard deviation prevents the utilization of these series in a comparison based on cur­ rent statistical methods. The second group of investigations are

those carried out by Williams, Steggerda, Byers, Leche, Seltzer, Schreider, and others2 beginning in 1930, and those by Mexican anthropologists after the foundation of the Escuela Nacional de Antropología e His­ toria in 1937. Here the variability is ex­ pressed by the standard deviation and the coefficient of variation. These chronological considerations em­ phasize the fact that, among some indige­ nous groups, anthropometric studies have been made by different investigators sep­ arated by an interval of time amounting to one or two generations; for other groups, only one investigation was made at a given point in time within the past 60 years. For this reason, one has to take into considera­ tion differences in the metric technique employed and differences due to increasing race mixture in various generations of a given indigenous population. Race mixture has certainly increased with the expansion in communications in Middle America dur­ ing recent decades. However, although sub­ stitution of modern for indigenous dress and the adoption of the Spanish language have proceeded with relative rapidity, as long as young Indian men have remained members of their groups they have seldom looked outside for wives. Thus, the number of Mestizos has increased slowly in those re­ gions considered as indigenous, which are precisely where anthropologists go for the purpose of making their observations. On the other hand, it is usually the individuals who emigrate to urban centers in search of greater economic opportunities who are as­ similated by the populations of these centers and who increase the race crossing. The 2 The elaboration of the somatometric data ob­ tained in 1933 by the Italian Commission under the leadership of Professor G. Genna (1934) is not yet available. The series studied consist of 362 Otomi; 113 Aztec of Tuxpan, Jalisco; 144 Seri of the island of Tiburon, Sonora; 112 Tarascans of Janitzio, Michoacan; 138 Cora and 161 Huichol of Nayarit and Jalisco; 159 Tlapanec of Tlacuapa and Huehuetepec, Guerrero; and 595 persons of Oaxaca.

83

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

descendants rarely return to settle again in their parents' town of origin. The foregoing considerations have influenced the decision regarding the series most useful for the somatological comparison of the indigenous population of Middle America. It was considered of little use to include in the comparative tables the data provided by the isolated studies, particularly those of ten Kate, Boas, and Hamy, which were carried out prior to the present century, for more recent observations, made by a more clearly defined technique, are available for the same groups. An exception has been made for the series obtained at the beginning of this century by Hrdlicka and Starr for two reasons. First, no one else has matched these men in the numbers of indigenous groups studied. However, unlike Hrdlicka, who specifies his metric technique in a precise manner (1920), Starr, as well as some later investigators, states nothing about his technique. Second, Hrdlicka and Starr carried out anthropometric studies on a whole series of groups which have not since been investigated. Although in many cases sufficiently large series are available to give statistical significance to the data presented, there are others which do not fulfill this requirement. Nevertheless, it was thought useful to include the means of the latter in the comparative tables because they offer, for the Seri and Lacandon in Mexico and for the greater part of the series obtained in Central America, the only available data.3 In this respect, the present summary differs from the one published by Comas in 1943. He compiled, in tabular form, the 3 The data obtained by Aloja in Central America were arranged by Comas (1966b) according to three major linguistic groups—Quiche, Mame, and Cakchiquel—thus obtaining new statistical values for each. 4 Stature, sitting height, skelique index, arm span, span-stature index, cephalic index, nasal index, morphological facial index, and physiognomic facial index.

84

metric means based on not less than 25 individuals and published prior to 1942. He also provided maps showing for each sex the geographical distribution of nine anthropometric characters4 in the Mexican indigenous populations, together with a full bibliography. This work (Comas, 1943b) was later extended by a bibliography of the studies which appeared after 1942 (Comas and Genovés, 1960). For the present article it was decided to exclude the averages of certain determinations lacking in comparability among themselves owing to the use of different metric techniques. This is the situation with the scanty data existing for the diameters and the perimeter of the thorax, measured at diflFerent heights, as well as for the upper facial height, which in some studies is taken from prosthion and in others from stomion. In the last measurement there is no possibility of reaching any conclusion on the basis of the relatively small number of means available. Also omitted are the numerous data for the physiognomic facial height, because it is impossible to know to what extent the differences presented are the expression of reality and to what extent they are due to the error caused by failure to properly locate the landmark crinion. There is also a lack of uniformity in the computation of the physiognomic facial index, since sometimes the facial height has been entered in the numerator, thus yielding indices greater than 100, and at other times, it has been entered in the denominator, yielding indices less than 100. Another measure not taken into account here is arm span, because it is a composite dimension which tells us little. In the majority of the studies the subjects were clothed during anthropometric observations. This means that body weight lacks exactness; some authors deduct the weight of the clothing, whereas others tell us nothing in this regard, but possibly introduce a considerable error due to seasonal variations in the weight of the clothes and the diflFerent

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LIVING INDIANS

climatic regions in Middle America. Because of the likelihood of large error from these sources, body weight is not included in the comparative tables. An attempt was made to assemble the data regarding the age of the subjects comprising the reported anthropometric series, since certain measurements vary with age. However, most of the original publications are of little help on this score, from the fact that indigenous persons rarely know their ages. It must be taken for granted, therefore, that the cited studies deal with series consisting of adults only. Arrangement of Anthropometric

Data

In the comparative tables the groups have been ordered according to their geographical locality, from north to south. Those who speak, or spoke, a particular indigenous language are given the same numbers in all the tables. Thus, the Papago and Pima, from the extreme northwest, are always indicated by numbers 1 and 2, respectively; the Nahua, who inhabit primarily the center of Mexico, by number 16; and the Mangue of Nicaragua, in the extreme south, by number 52. In order to differentiate between the various anthropometric series within a linguistic group, letters have been added to the number designating the group. For example, since the Nahua-speaking population carries the number 16, the various anthropometric series that pertain to it appear in alphabetical order in north-south direction, from 16a (Nahua from Jalisco) to 16q (Pipil from El Salvador). For further identification, in some instances the number of a series is followed by a parenthetical abbreviation of the name originally used by the author of the cited study. The omission of one or more anthropometric means from the comparative tables—that is, let us say, a skip from number 12a to 12c or from 24 to 27—shows that the data in question are not available in these instances. This type of arrangement has been preferred over that of the increasing or decreas-

ing order of the anthropometric means. The latter arrangement makes it extremely difficult to find, in the aggregated table, a given group and its component series. To facilitate locating the groups geographically, three maps (figs. 1-3) are provided for use in connection with Table 1, in which the groups are listed alphabetically. Table 1 also gives the localities where each study was made and the year in which the author carried out the fieldwork. Occasionally an author has published different anthropometric means for a single indigenous group at different times as the field study progressed.5 In such instances, if it has been possible to ascertain from the places where the field studies were made that the published series are one and the same, the comparative tables include only those means presented in the most complete study. An exception in this regard has been made in the case of the two published papers by Steggerda (1932, 1941) on the Maya, the reason being that the second one, based on a greater number of individuals, does not contain the data referring to the variability of the characters. Pre-Hispanic

Migrations

At the time of the Spanish conquest a large part of Middle America was inhabited by a combine of peoples who had attained a high cultural level. Kirchhoff (1943) sketched some of the ethnic characteristics of this Mesoamerican culture and thus established its geographical limits. Although his southern frontier coincides, with the exception of the Jicaque and Paya, with the one adopted in this article, the northern frontier, "which goes more or less from the Panuco river to the Sinaloa [river] by way of the Lerma [river]" (Kirchhoff, 1943, p. 5

See Hrdlicka, 1903b, 1904, 1908, 1909, 1935a; Faulhaber, 1953a, 1953b, 1955. Montemayor based his 1956 study on Faulhaber's 1955 data. The two studies by Silíceo Pauer (1920-21; 1922), on the other hand, represent different field studies carried out in the settlement of Teotihuacan, Mexico.

85

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

98), is set to the south of the geographic limit (Rio Bravo or Rio Grande) established for Middle America. Kirchhoff considers the Macro-Maya or Zoque-Maya linguistic group as the most important formative element of Mesoamerican culture, owing to its exclusively Mesoamerican distribution. The peoples who speak these languages occupied a continuous territory which embraced the south and southeast of Mexico, almost the entire territory of Guatemala, and a small part of Honduras. Only the Huastec and Totonac occupied a territory along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico isolated from this combine, possibly through migrations, so that they extended to the northern boundary of Mesoamerica. Another combine of peoples whose languages constitute the Macro-Mixtec linguistic group also shows an almost exclusively Mesoamerican distribution. To this group belong the Otopam (Otomi, Pam, Mazahua) of the center of the Mexican Republic, and the Chinatec, Huave, and a group of languages called by Swadesh (1960, p. 20) the Oaxaqueño, which comprises among others the Chocho, Mazatec, Mixtec, Cuicatec, and Zapotec, occupying a continuous territory farther south, in the present state of Oaxaca and adjacent regions. The Chorotega-Mangue of Central America was also included originally within this group, but Swadesh (ibid., p. 20) now relates them rather with the Macro-Maya. In contraposition to this latter group, KirchhoflF (1943, p. 96) believes that the Macro-Mixtec probably "entered into the orbit of Mesoamerica after it already existed as a cultural unit." He bases this statement on the correspondence between the geographical distributions of the Macro-Mixtec and Nahua, on the recurring mention in the historical sources of joint migrations of Nahua groups and some of the Macro-Mixtec, as well as on the fact that the Pame and Jonaz, immediate neighbors of the Otomi, remain culturally outside the Mesoamerican combine. Pre-Hispanic codices and maps and the 86

reports gathered by the Spanish chroniclers tell of various groups with a primitive culture and Nahuatl speech, linguistically akin to other Uto-Aztec of northwestern Mexico and of eastern United States, who raided the northern frontier of the region of high Mesoamerican cultiure, appropriating this culture and later surpassing it in some aspects. Owing to these invasions, before but especially after the fall (A.D. 1116) of the great cultural center of Tula, near the northem border of Mesoamerica, in what today is the state of Hidalgo, a whole series of migrations was initiated which took the Nahua up to Morelos, Guerrero, and the Mixtec, from whence they influenced or "Nahuatized" regions corresponding now to southern Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, and Yucatan. Other Nahua, possibly earlier, crossed the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and, by continuing along the Pacific coast, settled in isolated regions throughout the whole of Central America. Once the Triple Alliance between the cities of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan (under the leadership of the first) was established in 1434 in the Valley of Mexico, the Aztec empire gained dominance over a vast region which embraced almost the whole of the territory of what is today the states of Veracruz, Puebla, Hidalgo, Mexico (including the Federal District), Morelos, Guerrero (in large part), Oaxaca (in major part), Chiapas (center and south), and Colima. Only the Tarascan region of Michoacan, some Mixtec dominions, Tlaxcala, and small zones in northern Veracruz were able to maintain their independence. However, the influence exercised by the Triple Alliance in the conquered regions cannot be compared with the prior migrations, because it was almost exclusively limited to military domination, reinforced by the establishment of small Aztec groups in garrisons which assured the payment of tributes. These historical facts are mentioned be-

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LIVING INDIANS

cause they afford the only possible explanation of why certain groups, such as the Nahua of Chiconamel in the north of the state of Veracruz, are physically Huastec, and of why the Nahua of Zongolica somatically show more resemblance to the neighboring Macro-Mixtec linguistic groups of the state of Oaxaca to the east, rather than to the rest of the Nahua from central and southern Veracruz. In these cases it is apparently a matter of "Nahuatized" populations which continue being, to a large extent, bearers of the genetic endowment of their distant ancestors who adopted the Nahua language. STATURE

(Table 2)

Before comparing the means for this dimension between the different indigenous groups, we shall see how the means vary between the series within each group from the standpoint of (1) the different times when they were measured, and (2) the different places where they were located within the group territory. Within-group Comparisons The first set of series to be examined chronologically, all males, relates to the northern part of Mexico: Papago (la, b), Yaqui (5a, b), and Tarahumara (7a, b). In each of these the height recorded in the most recent investigations is less than that arrived at by Hrdlicka at the beginning of the century, the differences being 2.1, 2.9 and 1.2 cm., respectively. In a second set of series, consisting of the Tepehua (19a, b), Chol (33a, b), and Trique (26a, b), height is presently greater than that recorded a half-century ago by Starr. The differences for males are 1.7, 2.7 and 1.3 cm., respectively. For the Tepehua females the difference is 2.7 cm. In a third, more numerous, set of series the heights recorded approximately a halfcentury ago approach nearer those obtained more recently. The first of these series is for the Otomi (14a-e). The height for this

FIG. 1—MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF NUMBERED

GROUPS IN TABLE 1

group recorded earlier by Hrdlicka in the Valley of Mezquital is somewhat greater than the recent determinations in the same region by Schreider and Romero (males, 159.3 cm. vs. 157.6 and 158.0 cm., respectively). Hrdlicka got a stature of 147.3 cm. for the females. The figures obtained by Starr at the beginning of the century for the Otomi of Puebla (males, 158.0 cm.; females, 145.6 cm.) are quite consistent with those of Schreider and Romero, but somewhat greater than those obtained by Faulhaber for the Otomi of Veracruz (males, 157.0 cm.; females, 144.5 cm.). The latter are more like their neighbors in this respect. The situation is much the same for the Mixtec (25a-c). Starr's earlier determined 87

FIG. 2—MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF NUMBERED GROUPS IN TABLE 1

FIG. 3—MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF NUMBERED GROUPS IN TABLE 1

TABLE 1—ANTHROPOMETRIC STUDIES REFERRED TO, WITH LOCALITIES AND TIME OF FIELDWORK ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY ACCORDING TO NAME OF GROUP. Number and Name of Group

Number of Individuals Male Female

Localities Studied

23a 23b 24 33a 33b 30 50 37 9

Chinantec Chinantec Chocho Chol Chol Chontal Chorti Chuj Cora

44 100 100 100 100 80 30 6 53

— 25 20 6 10

Aguacatan San Raimundo, San Juan Sacatepequez, San Pedro Yampuc . . . San Antonio Aguas Calientes, Santa Ma­ ria de Jesus, San Bartolome, Milpas Altas . . . San Martin Jilotepeque, Patzicia, Patzun, Tecpan Guatemala . . . Santa Catarina Palapo, San Antonio Palapo . . . Chiltepec, Ojitlan San Juan Zautla, San Pedro Zoochiapa Coixtlahuaca Hidalgo, El Triumfo Tumbala Texquixistlan Various localities in mountainous region Santa Eulalia, San Juan Ixcoy lauchke o Nayar

22 17 31 18a 18b 10

Cuicatec Cuidatec Huave Huastec Huastec Huichol

100 116 100 100 100 30

25 105 25 100 20 19

Papalo, Cuicatlan San Miguel Totolapan San Mateo del Mar Silosuchitl Tancoco Santa Catarina, San Andres, San Sebas­

43 40a 40b 40c 39a 39b 44a

Ixil Jacaltec Jacaltec Jacaltec Lacandon Lacandon Mame

22 37 11 7 5 4 23

11

41 47

44b

Aguacatec Cakchiquel

Mame

8 59

61

3 38

60 25 25 25

— — — — — 11

—

tian Nebaj, Chajul, Cotzal Jacaltenango Concepcion Concepcion Jetja River Lake Pelja San Sebastian Huehuetenango, San Juan Atitlan, Todos Santos . . . San Martin Chile Verde, Concepcion Chiquirichapa . . . Huehuetenango

State or Department

Country

Year of Fieldwork

Huehuetenango

Guatemala

1938

Aloja, 1939a, p. 24

Guatemala

1938

Aloja, 1939a, pp. 15, 17, 18, 20

Huehuetenango Nayarit

Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Guatemala Guatemala Mexico

1941 1899 1900 1901 1936 1899 1943-? 1938 1902

Oaxaca Guerrero Oaxaca Veracruz Veracruz Jalisco

Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico

1899 1945 1899 1951 1901 1898

El Quiche Huehuetenango Huehuetenango Huehuetenango Chiapas Chiapas

Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Mexico Mexico

1938 1927 1927 1938 1934 1933

Aloja, 1943, p. 14 Starr, 1902b, p. 69 Starr, 1902b, p. 72 Starr, 1908a, pp. 381, 389 Gould, 1946, p. 1 Starr, 1899, p. 30 Girard, 1949, p. 57 Aloja, 1939a, p. 24 Hrdlička, 1902b, p. 3; 1908a, p. 12 Starr, 1908a, pp. 183, 185 Faulhaber, 1947, p. 15 Starr, 1899, p. 29 Faulhaber, 1955, p. 5 Starr, 1908a, pp. 284, 285 Hrdlicka, 1908a, p. 11; 1902a, p. 3 Aloja, 1939a, p. 22 Byers, 1931, p. 337 Byers, 1931, p. 337 Aloja, 1939a, p. 24 Soustelle, 1937a, p. 2 Soustelle, 1933, p. 172

Guatemala

1938

Aloja, 1939a, pp. 24-25

Guatemala

1947

Goff, 1948, p. 429

Reference

Guatemala Sacatepequez Chimaltenango Solola Oaxaca Oaxaca Oaxaca Chiapas Chiapas Oaxaca

Huehuetenango Quetzaltenango Huehuetenango

(Table 1, continued) Number and Name of Group

Number of Individuals Male Female

10

10

Maya

128

94

38b 38c

Maya Maya (Yucatec)

77 880

56 694

38d 6

Maya Mayo

100 53

25 30

15 21 28

Mazahua Mazatec Mixe

41 100 100

—

25a 25b 25c

Mixtec Mixtec Mixtec

100 155 78

16a 16b

Nahua Nahua

50 50

—

16c 16d 16e 16f 16g 16h 16i 16j

Nahua Nahua (Tlaxcaltec) Nahua (Aztec) Nahua (Aztec) Nahua Nahua Nahua Nahua

50 100 100 54 164 36

—

l6k

52

Mangue (Dirían)

38a

25 25

25

Localities Studied Masaya . . . San Marcos, Dinamba Piste, Chan Kom, Xocenpich, Pencuyut, Dzitas, Tinum, Tecia Xocenpich, Piste, Chan Kom, Tinum Chichen Itza, Piste, Xochenpich, Dzitas, Dziuche, Sacapuc, Canicab, Cacao, Yaxcopoil Tekax, San Juan Navajao, Cuirimpo, Echojoa, Huatabampo, Bacabachi, Camoa, Tecia Ixtlahuaca Huahutla Ajutla, Juquila, Coatlan, Oaxaca

State or Department

Country

Year of Fieldwork

Masaya Carazo

Nicaragua

1938

Aloja, 1939a, pp. 28-29

Yucatan Yucatan

Mexico Mexico

1931-38 1931

Steggerda, 1941, pp. ίν,ν Steggerda, 1932, p. 2

Yucatan Yucatan

Mexico Mexico

1927 1900

Williams, 1931, p. xiü Starr, 1908a, pp. 304, 310

Sonora Mexico Oaxaca Oaxaca

Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico

1902 1902 1899 1899

Oaxaca Oaxaca

Mexico Mexico

1898 1943

Hrdlička, 1904, p. 59 Hrdlička, 1908, p. 12 Starr, 1899, p. 1; 1902b, p. 75 Starr, 1908, pp. 142, 149, 152, 157 Starr, 1908a, pp. 112, 122 Romero, 1946, p. 183*

Oaxaca Jalisco

Mexico Mexico

1933 1902

Leche, 1936b, p. 230 Hrdlièka, 1902b, p. 70

Mexico Mexico Tlaxcala Puebla Morelos Morelos Morelos Morelos Guerrero

Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico

1918 1917 1898 1898 1902 1946 1946 1943 1945

Siliceo Pauer, 1922, p. 153 Siliceo Pauer, 1920-21, p. 186 Starr, 1908a, p. 88 Starr, 1902b, p. 71; 1899, p. 17 Hrdlièka, 1908, p. 13 Field, 1954, p. 5 Field, 1954, p. 5 Faulhaber, n.d. Students ENAH fin Faulhaber, 1952, p. 223 Students ENAH in Faulhaber, 1952, p. 223 Romero in Faulhaber, 1952, p. 223 Faulhaber, 1955, p. 5 Faulhaber, 1955, p. 5 Faulhaber, 1955, p. 5

—

106

78

—

Tilantongo Tilantongo Oaxaca (mountain people measured at market) Tuxpan San Juan Teotihuacan, Atlantongo, San Francisco, Puxtla, San Lorenzo, San Juan Evangelista, San Martin, San Sebastian, Santa Maria Villages around San Juan Teotihuacan Tlaxcala, San Estevan Cuahtlantzingo Cuautepec, Tetelcingo Tepoztlan Gabriel Mariaca Tepoztlan Acapetlahuaya

Nahua

66

—

Chapa

Guerrero

Mexico

1945

161

Nahua

121

—

Tianquisolco

Guerrero

Mexico

1945

16m 16n 16o

Nahua Nahua Nahua

100 100 100

100 100 100

Chiconamel Huatusco Zongolica

Veracruz Veracruz Veracruz

Mexico Mexico Mexico

1951 1952 1952

— — 50

25 25 30

— —

Reference

16p 16q 3 14a 14b 14c 14d 14e 13 la lb 51 2

Nahua Nahua (Pipil) Opata Otomi Otomi Otomi Otomi Otomi Pame Papago Papago Paya Pima (altos) t

49 27 46

4

100 15 30 62 112 112 100 100 100 50 219 18 53

100 15 20 25

Pokoman

6

4

Popoluca Quiche

103 45

100 33

Seri

4 1 3 50 23 50

— —

100 28

— 30

— 16 30

4

— 3 30 10 30

Pajapan Nahuizalco Tuape, Opodepe Alfajayucan, Ixmiquilpan, Actopan, Tula Ixmiquilpan 22 localities in the Mezquital Valley El Zapote Huixquilucan Santa Maria Acapulco

?

Various localities Culmi

? Chinautla, Palin Soteapan Nahuala . . . Chichicastenango, Joyabaj, Zacualpa, Sacapulas, Cunen . . . Zunil San Sebastian Tiburon Island Hermosillo Soloma Norogachic Guajochi, Norogachic Tarequato

Veracruz Sonsonate Sonora Hidalgo Hidalgo Hidalgo Veracruz Mexico San Luis Potosi Arizona Arizona Colon Arizona

Mexico El Salvador Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico U.S.A, U.S.A. Honduras U.S.A.

1952 1938 1902 1902 1936 1950 1952 1897

Guatemala Escuintla Veracruz Solola

Guatemala

1938

Faulhaber, 1955, p. 5 Aloja, 1939a, p. 38 Hrdlička, 1904, p. 72 Hrdlicka, 1908, p. 12 Schreider, 1953-55, p. 456 Romero, n.d.* Faulhaber, 1955, p. 5 Starr, 1908a, p. 56 Maza, 1953 Hrdlièka, 1902b, p. 3 Gabel, 1949, pp. 7, 11 Aloja, 1939a, p. 35 Hrdlička, 1902b, p. 3; Stewart, 1940, p. 12 Aloja, 1939b, pp. 15, 26

Mexico

1952

Faulhaber, 1955, p. 5

El Quiche Quetzaltenango Retalhuleu Sonora Sonora Huehuetenango Chihuahua Chihuahua Michoacan

Guatemala

1938

Aloja, 1939a, pp. 20, 22, 25, 26

Mexico Mexico Guatemala Mexico Mexico Mexico

1930 1902 1938 1925-26 1898 1902

Kroeber, 1931, p. 3 Hrdlièka, 1904, p. 89 Aloja, 1939a, p. 24 C. Basauri, 1929, pp. 5, 17 Hrdlièka, 1902b, p. 3 Hrdlièka, 1902b, p. 3; 1908, p. 12 Starr, 1908a, pp. 68-69 Gómez Robleda, et al., 1943 pp. xvii, xxii Gómez Robleda, et al., 1943, pp. xvii, xxii Hrdlièka, 1903b, p. 411 Faulhaber, 1955, p. 5

?

1902 1938 1938 1902,1905

42 7a 7b 12a

Solomec Tarahumara Tarahumara Tarasco

12b 12c

Tarasco Tarasco (fishermen)

100 116

—

25

Santa Fe de la Laguna Janitzio

Michoacan Michoacan

Mexico Mexico

1897 1939

12cl

Tarasco (peasants)

47

—

Paracho

Michoacan

Mexico

1939

11 19a

Tepecano Tepehua

25 100

— 100

Asquelta Pisaflores

Jalisco Veracruz

Mexico Mexico

1898,1902 1952

* I wish to express my appreciation to Professor J. Romero for having made available his unpublished data on the Mixtee and Otomi. Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia. Comas (1943b, p. 12), in accordance with the localization made by J. Romero, points to Ures as the place where Hrdlièka studied the Pima and to Torres as the place where he studied the Papago. The published record is not specific in this regard. In reporting on his fourth expedition (1902b, p. 70), Hrdlièka

cites the Pima and Papago among the peoples studied in Ari­ zona, mentioning only the Opata, Yaqui, Mayo, and Seri as those observed in Sonora. He mentions Torres among other towns in connection with the Papago, and Ures as a Pima place only when speaking (1908, p. 10) of the general habitat of the groups which he visited. On publishing all his observations of a cultural nature on the Sonora Indians (1904, p. 84), he says that the Papago and Pima "were both studied principally in Arizona."

(Table 1, continued) Number and Name of Group

Number of Individuals Male Female

19b 8

Tepehua Tepehuano

100 40

25 15

36 20a 20b 26a 26b 34a

Tojolabal Totonac Totonac Trique Trique Tzeltal

100 100 100 99 101 100

25 100 25 25

34b

Tzeltal

50

34c

Tzeltal

35a

Localities Studied

State or Department

Country

Year of Fieldwork

Reference

Huehuetla Santa Mari Ocotlan

Hidalgo Durango

Mexico Mexico

1900 1902

Chiapas Veracruz Puebla Oaxaca Oaxaca Chiapas

Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico

1928 1952 1900 1898 1940-41 1901

—

Independencia El Tajin, El Cedro Pantepec Chicahuaxtla San Andres Chicahuaxtla Tenejapa (the men were measured in San Cristobal) Amatenango

Chiapas

Mexico

1935

47

—

Tecoja (fincas)

Chiapas

Mexico

1935

Tzotzil

50

—

Huistan

Chiapas

Mexico

1935

35b 35c 35d

Tzotzil Tzotzil Tzotzil

100 100 25

— —

Chamula Chamula (measured in San Cristobal) Zinacantan

Chiapas Chiapas Chiapas

Mexico Mexico Mexico

1934 1901 1935

48 45 5a

Tzutuhil Uspantec Yaqui

7 6 50

8 4 33

San Lucas Tollman, Santiago Atitlan San Miguel Uspantan Torin, Vicam, Potam, Cocorit

Solola El Quiche Sonora

Guatemala Guatemala Mexico

1938 1938 1902

100

—

Barrio Pascua Vicam, Torin, Potam, Consica

Arizona Sonora

U.S.A. Mexico

1934

Seltzer, 1936, p. 92

Mitla Guelatao, Ixtlan, Mitla, Dias Ordaz, Tlacolula, Teotitlan del Valle, Tlacochahuaya, Macuilxochitl, Etla, Ejutla, Ocotlan, San Bartolome Coyotepec

Oaxaca

Mexico

1899

Starr, 1908a, pp. 142, 148

Oaxaca

Mexico

1941

Oaxaca Oaxaca

Mexico Mexico

1899 1933

Gómez Robleda, Quiroz Quarón, et al., 1949, pp. 267-68 Starr, 1908a, pp. 162, 164 Leche, 1936b, p. 229

Chiapas

Mexico

1901

Starr, 1908a, p. 351

5b 29a 29b

Yaqui Zapotec Zapotec

29c 29d

Zapotec ÍZapotec

32

Zoque

100 236

— 25

25

25

99 50

—

100

25

25

Tehuantepec, San Blas Oaxaca (mountain people measured at market) Tuxtla Gutierrez

§ For a more complete analysis of all the measurements taken and their comparison with those of other Mexican groups see Comas and Faulhaber, 1965.

Starr, 1908a, pp. 239, 263 Hrdlička, 1902b, p. 3; 1908, p. 11 C. Basauri, 1931, pp. 10, 23 Faulhaber, 1955, p. 5 Starr, 1908a, pp. 239, 267 Starr, 1908a, pp. 112, 135 Comas, 1944, p. 159§ Starr, 1908a, pp. 365, 372 Leche, Gould, & Tharp, 1944, p. 21 Leche, Gould, & Tharp, 1944, p. 21 Leche, Gculd, & Tharp, 1944, p. 21 Leche, 1936c, p. 289 Starr, 1908a, pp. 365, 369 Leche, Gould & Tharp, 1944, p. 21 Aloja, 1939a, p. 20 Aloja, 1939a, p. 22 Hrdlička, 1902b, p. 3; 1904, p. 63

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LIVING INDIANS

height of males is 156.1 cm., which compares well with the more recent determination of 155.7 by Romero. Both figures are slightly greater than the mean obtained by Leche (154.2 cm.). Another series is available for the Maya of Yucatan (38a-d). Here a great similarity exists between the height arrived at by Starr earlier and by Steggerda later (males, 155.2 cm. and 155.4 cm.; females, 141.5 cm. and 141.8 cm., respectively). Williams' higher figures (males, 156.4 cm.; females, 143.9 cm.) may be due to the inclusion of a greater number of Mestizos. The earlier and later figures for height in yet another series differ mainly in the females. The series are: Huastec (18a, b ) , Totonac (20a, b), and Chinantec (23a, b ) . As compared with Starr's earlier findings on the Huastec females, Faulhaber's findings show them to be shorter now by 2.4 cm. On the other hand, Faulhaber found the Totonac females to be 3.3 cm. taller and Aloja found the Chinantec females to be 6.1 cm. taller than Starr reported earlier. The evidence for internal or local stature differences being greater than the differences resulting from the study of various generations will be considered next. The four series for the Tarascans (12a-d) give the heights recorded by Hrdlicka and Starr at the beginning of the century, on the one hand, and, on the other, those of the present population obtained by Gómez Robleda in two separate recent studies on the fishermen of Janitzio and the farmers of Paracho. The town of Santa Fe de la Laguna where Starr got his series is on the banks of Lake Patzcuaro, but is made up of an essentially agricultural population. These farmers yielded a height (males, 160.0 cm.; females, 148.2 cm.) identical to that of the fishermen of Janitzio (males, 159.9 cm.) and slightly less than that of the farmers of Paracho (males, 161.4 cm.). In a study by Lasker (1952b, pp. 265, 276), undertaken for different purposes on a selected sedentary population in Paracho, the height given

for males (161.8 cm.) agrees quite well with that obtained by Gómez Robleda. The Tarascans of Tarecuaro measured by Hrdlicka are of greater stature (males, 163.1 cm.; females, 150.8 cm.) and in this respect come closer to the old Nahua population of Jalisco. Travelers almost always comment on the greater height of the inhabitants of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec as compared with those of the nearby valley and mountainous region of Oaxaca. This well-known internal difference is represented in the Zapotec series (29a-d). Starr obtained heights (males, 160.5 cm.; females, 150.9. cm.) on an isthmian population at the beginning of the century, but the work has not been repeated. The heights (males, 158.6 cm.; females, 147.5 cm.) which he obtained at the same time in Mitla are representative of the mountainous region. As for the recent series, the origins of the individuals measured by Leche in 1933 in the market of the city of Oaxaca are unknown, so it is difficult to interpret their lower mean (males, 155.4 cm.). However, the other recent series by Gómez Robleda includes individuals from both the mountains and the valley of Oaxaca and yields a mean height (males, 156.0 cm.) quite similar to that recorded by Leche. Farther south in Chiapas there are series for the neighboring and linguistically related Tzeltal (34a-c) and Tzotzil (35a-d). The Tzeltal males of Tenejapa measured by Starr in San Cristobal a half-century ago had a stature (155.7 cm.) similar to that (155.6 cm.) recorded by Leche in 1936 for the Tzeltal farmers near Tecoja. Yet both of these means are less by 2.6 cm. than the mean for Leche's other recent Tzeltal series from Amatenango (males, 158.2 cm.). Also, Leche's Tzeltal of Amatenango are of almost equal height to her Tzotzil of Zinacantan (males, 158.4 cm.). The Tzotzil in Chamula, on the other hand, measured in the past by Starr and recently by Leche, not only show no change in height (males, 93

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

155.9 cm. and 155.7 cm., respectively), but close similarity in this dimension to that given above for the Tzeltal of Tenejapa and for the Tzeltal from the farms of Tecoja. Only the Tzotzil of Huistan, also studied by Leche, are considerably smaller in height (males, 153.6 cm.). Thus, the internal differences which exist today between these two groups are greater than those attributable to change through time. Finally, the maximum diflFerences in height within any indigenous group are found among the 17 series of the Nahua (16a-q). Here mean stature varies in males from 154.8 cm. (ZongoUca) to 164.3 cm. (Jalisco), and in females from 143.5 cm. (Zongolica) to 148.9 cm. (Coatepec). This situation is not surprising in view of the series of historico-cultural facts referred to at the beginning of this article. A summary of the diflFerences in stature within repeatedly measured indigenous groups shows that: (1) The means recorded by Hrdlicka for stature among the Indians of northern and central Mexico at the beginning of this century are somewhat greater than, or constitute the maximum values in comparison with, those for the more recent series of the same groups. The mean statures given by Starr for the groups of central and southern Mexico agree in the majority of cases with those obtained more recently. (2) Regional diflFerences in stature are greater today in groups such as the Tarascans, Zapotec, Tzotzil, Tzeltal, and Nahua, than the diflFerences resulting from a comparison between diflFerent generations. (3) In the majority of groups the mean stature reported at the beginning of the century is very similar to that reported more recently. Only in a few groups can one speak of an increase or decrease in this dimension on the basis of the existing data. Between-group

Comparisons

On inspecting the means of height of the indigenous groups of Middle America assembled in Table 2, the greater stature of 94

the groups of northern Mexico becomes immediately conspicuous. In fact, the maximum values (males, 171.8 cm.; females, 157.4 cm.) are found in the Pima ( 2 ) , one of the groups whose pre-Hispanic habitat went beyond the set northern border. These values follow closely those obtained by Hrdlicka among the Papago ( l a ) and Yaqui (5a). Southward from this region of rather elevated height a gradual decrease in stature can be traced through central and southern Mexico into Guatemala, where the lowest statures in all of Middle America are found among some Maya groups. The Quiche (46) have the most representative minimum (males, 152.9 cm.; females, 141.6 cm.), 6 because the number of individuals measured is highest. The few data for the indigenous populations south of Guatemala seem to indicate a slight increase in height, at least for the Nahua-Pipil (16q) from El Salvador and the Paya (51) from Honduras, but a decided increase for the Mangue (52), the group farthest south (161.3 cm. and 150.3 cm. for only 10 males and 10 females, respectively). A closer examination of stature distribution in southern Middle America reveals two centers of low stature. The first has as its nucleus the region just mentioned in connection with the lowest recorded values; that is, the mountainous zone of Guatemala, inhabited by the Maya-speaking Quiche (46), Ixil (43), Chuj (37), Uspantec (45), and Aguacatec (41), whose means range between 153 and 154 cm. for males and between 140.2 and 141.7 cm. for females. The height of the Tzotzil of Huistan (35a), in southern Chiapas, also falls within this range. This nucleus is surrounded by a series of people, also Maya-speaking, such as the Tzutuhil (48), Cakchiquel (47),"7 Poco6 The mean stature of 63 males obtained by Stewart in Santa Clara La Laguna (Newman, 1960a) is slightly higher, being 154.2 cm. 7 Stewart obtained for 72 male Cakchiquel from Patzun and 82 males from Solola 155.3 and 154.8 cm. respectively (Newman, 1960b), whereas Méndez and Behorst (1963) give a stature of 156.8

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LIVING INDIANS

man (49), and Chorti (50) in the mountains of southeastern Guatemala, the Mam (44a, b), Jacaltec (40a, b), Tzeltal (34a, c), Tzotzil (35a-c), and one of the Chol series (33a) from the mountains to the northeast, as well as the Maya (38a-d) and possibly also the Lacadon (39a, b) from the lowlands of Yucatan and Chiapas. The stature in this surrounding area ranges between 154.5 and 157 cm. in males and between 141.5 and 145.4 cm. in females. The second center of low stature, northern Oaxaca and the adjacent region of Veracruz, shows values similar to those of the zone surrounding the minimal height nucleus in Guatemala. Included are some northern Zapotec (29b, d), the Trique (26a, b). Mixtec (25a-c), Chocho (24), Cuicatec (22), Mazatec (21), and Nahua of Zongolica (16o) whose heights range between 154 and 156.5 cm. in males and between 142.5 and 146.8 cm. in females. These two low-stature centers are separated by a region of somewhat taller people, which extends from southern Veracruz to southeastern Oaxaca, including the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, wherein predominates a height ranging from 160 to 162 cm. in males and from 146 to 148 cm. in females. Among these taller people are the Nahua of Pajapan (16p) and the Popoluca (27) of Veracruz, the Zoque (32) of northeastern Chiapas, the Zapotec of Tehuantepec (29c), the Huave (31) and Chontal of Oaxaca (30).8 Perhaps the somewhat greater stature (males, 158 cm.) of the Tojolabal (36), Tzotzil of Zinacantan (35d), and Tzeltal of cm. (s=4.7) for 42 male Cakchiquel in the departments of Chimaltenango and Sacatepequez. 8 Linguistically the Huave and Chontal, along with the Seri, are isolated representatives of the Macro-Yuma group, whose principal distribution lies north of Middle America. 9 Although the two male series have identical stature, the two female series show a difference of 6 cm. 10 Gómez Robleda et al. (1961) give a stature of 158.09±.22 (s=5.28) for 284 Otomi from Ixmiquilpan, Hidalgo.

Amatenango (34b) is a reflection of a former migration of taller people toward the region of Soconusco, since one also observes an increase in height among some other populations which border on the zone of greater stature. These include the Chinantec (23a, b) near the border of Oaxaca and Veracruz,9 the Mixe (28), and the Zapotec of Mitla (29a) in central Oaxaca (males, 157.4 to 158.6 cm.; females, 146 to 147.5 cm.). Intermediate height exists also in a quite clearly defined zone which comprises central and northern Veracruz, as well as the state of Hidalgo. Here predominate values between 157 and 158 cm. for males and between 143 and 147 cm. for females. The inhabitants include the Nahua of Huatusco (16n), the Tepehua (19a, b ) , Totonac (20a, b), Huastec (18a-b), Nahua of Chiconamel (16m) and Otomi (14a-c). 10 In prehistoric times the political center of the Triple Alliance was in a predominantly Nahua region to the southeast of the last zone and in the center of the Mexican Republic; it extended throughout the states of Mexico, Tlaxcala, Puebla, and Morelos. The height of the population here (males, 159 to 163.5 cm.; females, 146 to 151 cm.) is greater than that of the last zone. Among the non-Nahua people included are the Mazahua (15), the Tarascans (12a-d) farther east, and isolated groups—the Tepecano (11) and a Tarahumara series (7a)— enclaved in regions of still greater height. Among the Nahua population in the state of Guerrero (16j-l), adjacent to the zone of low stature of northern and eastern Oaxaca, height diminishes from 160 cm. in Chapa to 157.3 cm. in Tianguisolco, in spite of the fact that the original Cuitlatec (17) group of the region is of greater height (males, 161 cm.; females, 148 cm.) and more like that of the central Nahua and the Tarascans to the north. Northward from the Nahua of Jalisco (16a), who, along with the Huichol (10), Cora (9), and a second series of Tara95

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

humara (7b), show a height approximating 164 cm., stature increases rapidly among the Tepehuano (8), Mayo (6), Yaqui (5a, b), Opata (3), Papago (la, b), and Pima (2), becoming, as already mentioned, the highest in the entire region under consideration. ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE SITTING HEIGHT

(Table 2) Within-group Comparisons Somewhat fewer records exist for sitting height than for stature. Nevertheless, in several instances this dimension has been obtained at different points in time for more than one series within a group. Comparisons between these series are more meaningful when the dimension is expressed in relation to stature in what is known as the skelique index; sitting height X 100 / stature. At the northern limit of Middle America, it is apparent that Hrdlicka's earlier observations for the Papago ( l a ) and Tarahumara (7b) show absolutely and relatively greater sitting height as compared with recent series (lb, 7a) from the same groups. The skelique index for the two male series of Papago differs by 1.1 units and that of the two male and female Tarahumara series differs by 1.8 and 2.3 units, respectively. Considering the rather small standard deviation of this index, these series differences are important in spite of their relatively small magnitude. Among the Tarascans (12a,b) sitting height has been observed only by Starr and Hrdlicka. The proportions which they reported at the beginning of the century agree quite well. In the case of the Otomi, there is, in addition to the two closely agreeing series by Starr and Hrdlicka from the beginning of the century (14a,e), only Faulhaber's recent series from Veracruz (14d). Her figures for the skelique index are higher than those of Starr (difference: males, 1.6; females, 0.6). From what was said earlier about the history of the Nahua-speaking populations, 96

it is not surprising that in the series comprising this group (16a-q) the variation in both absolute and relative sitting height should be high, although slightly less so in the females. Among the Huastec (18a,b), Totonac (20a,b), Chinantec (23a,b), Mixtec (25a-c), Chol (33a,b), Tzotzil (35a-d), and Tzeltal (34a-c) differences in the skelique index between early and recent series are less than one unit and only in the Huastec females and the Tepehua (19a,b) and Trique (26a,b) of both sexes is this level of difference reached or slightly surpassed. In all cases, except the Chinantec, sitting height is proportionally greater in the recent studies. However, in the two recent male series of the Tzeltal (34b,c) the means of the skelique index differ by 1.1 units. In spite of great similarity in stature of the Maya series (38a-d), there exists a marked difference in sitting height between the data of Starr and Williams on the one hand, and those of Steggerda on the other. The skelique index reported by Steggerda is greater by 1.3 units, a fact which he explains (1932, p. 37) as being due to a difference in the techniques employed; he had his subjects sit more erect during the measuring. It is rather difficult to get an individual to sit completely straight, and possibly this accounts for the relatively lower sitting heights recorded by advanced anthropology students during their first independent field study among the Nahua of Guerrero (16j,k), since Romero obtained greater values in a nearby Nahua series (161). In summary, it can be said that Hrdlicka and Starr recorded similar values for sitting height for the series which they studied at the beginning of the century. Probably they both used approximately the same technique. The recent studies on the same groups show about the same or slightly higher means. Between-group Comparisons If we take into consideration the possible

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LIVING INDIANS

differences in the technique employed in measuring sitting height and the fact that south of Mexico this measure is available only for the Jacaltec (40a-c) and Chorti (50). 11 some generalizations can be made from the data in Table 2. However, they will be based principally on the male series, since the less numerous female series do not show any clear tendencies. In the first place, an elevated relative sitting height—that is, somewhat shorter lower extremities—is conspicuous throughout the main low-statiure region in southern Mexico: among the Maya (38a,b), Tzeltal (34a,b, but not 34c), and Tzotzil (35a-d). In addition, the Tojolabal (36) resemble these groups in this respect, but have a greater absolute sitting height. In this region the skelique index varies from 53.0 to 53.4. With the exception of the Trique observed by Comas (26b), and the Nahua from Zongolica (16o), a somewhat lower skelique, or a relatively greater length of the legs, predominates in the second center of lower stature in northern and eastern Oaxaca. The same thing is true of central and northern Veracruz, where the Mazatec (21), Cuicatec (22), Chocho (24), Mixtec (25a-c), Trique (26a), Mixe (28), and some of the Zapotec (29a) show a skelique index ranging from 52.1 to 52.7. A similar index range appears in the northeast part of the zone of greater stature which separates the two preceding lowstature zones, with the Popoluca (27) and Nahua of Pajapan (16p), as well as the Zoque (32) and Chol (33a,b), having a skelique index ranging from 52.1 to 52.6. On the other hand, the groups southwest of this zone of greater stature, such as the Z a p o t e cofTehuantepec (29c), the Chontal (30), and the Huave (31), while having the same stature as the preceding groups, have a skelique index ranging from 51.6 to 51.8, and hence relatively longer legs. In the state of Veracruz, north of the area represented by the Popoluca (27) and Na-

hua of Pajapan (16p), values predominate for the skelique index (males, 53.2 to 54.3; females, 53.4 to 54.7) which characterize the Chinantec (23a,b), Nahua of Zongolica (16o) and of Huatusco (16n), Totonac (20a,b), Tepehua (19a,b), Huastec (18a), Nahua of Chiconamel (16m), and Otomi (14d) as those having the shortest legs in Mexico. To the west, among the Otomi of Hidalgo (14a) and of the state of Mexico (14e), the Nahua of Tlaxcala (16d), Morelos (16f-i), and Puebla (16e), and the Tarascans of Michoacan (12a-d), the skelique index is less (51.8 to 52.7). The dearth of data for the most northerly peoples and the variability of the data available prevent the detection of a trend here. Actually, the skelique index varies between a minimum of 49.7 in the Yaqui (5b) and a maximum of 53.0 in the Tarahumara

(7b).

ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE WIDTH

OF THE SHOULDERS (Table 3)

The relevant anthropometric data are less in a number of groups because some observers, among them Hrdlicka, did not take biacromial diameter. There seemed to be a marked difference in the observers' ability to get the subjects to "square" their shoulders while the measurement was being taken. Also, there may have been errors in locating the measuring points when the subjects were clothed when measured. Factors of this sort may explain the low means obtained by Starr, which contrast with the greater diameter relative to stature recorded in the more recent investigations. The only other thing which can be pointed out, and necessarily with reservations, is that the few male groups from northern Mexico for which this datum is available seem to have rather wide shoulders relative to stature. The ratio is slightly less in the 11 The sitting height given by Méndez and Behrhorst (1963) for 42 male Cakchiquel is 85.1 cm. (s=2.7).

97

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

central part of the republic, but increases again toward the south and along the Gulf of Mexico, especially among the male Maya of Yucatan.12 CEPHALIC INDEX, HEAD LENGTH AND HEAD BREADTH (Table 4)

Within-group Comparisons The assembled means for these characters from Middle America are matched in bulk only by those for stature. On comparing the series obtained for the same group, one has to take into consideration a difference in the technique used in measuring the anteroposterior diameter of the head. Hrdlicka (1920, p. 87), on the basis of the Monaco Convention, viewed this measurement as maximum; that is, as the distance between glabella and the point farthest away from it on the occiput, irrespective of whether or not the latter point is located in the midline. His technique was followed by Leche (1936b, p. 241), and by Gould (1946, p. 94); whereas Aloja, Comas, Romero, and Faulhaber followed the technique outlined by Martin (1928, 1: 180), which specifies that the point farthest from glabella is to be in the midline of the occiput. It is not possible to discern clearly which of these two techniques was used by other investigators, among them Starr, who is responsible for many of the unique series from the indigenous groups of southern Mexico. Yet it seems likely that Starr's technique was similar to Hrdlicka's. The magnitude of the difference resulting from these two ways of measuring heads depends on the shape of the occiput. It is more likely that the posterior point of maximum length will be off the midline of the occiput in populations with rounded heads and gradually curving occiputs than in pop12

Biacromial width given by Méndez and Behrhorst (1963) for 42 male Cakchiquel is 37.6 cm. (s=1.6) and in relation to stature 24.0 (s=0.8). Gómez Robleda et al. (1961, p. 140) obtained for 284 Otomi from Ixmiquilpan, Hidalgo, a shoulder width of 37.16±.09 cm. (s=1.66).

98

ulations with elongated heads and sharply curving occiputs. Thus disagreements between series within a group should be greatest as regards this diameter where round-headedness or brachycephaly is pronounced. In all instances in which there are observations made on a group both at the beginning of the century and later, the means of the cephalic index are greater (more brachycephalic) in the more recent studies. It is assumed that this consistent difference reflects the change in technique. Between-group

Comparisons

The predominance of an intermediate cephalic index (mesocephaly) in northern Mexico and a higher index (brachycephaly) in the region of the Gulf of Mexico and to the southeast of the Gulf is well known. Between these extremes is a zone with populations having an intermediate head shape (high mesocephaly to low brachycephaly). Also, attention is called to a small nucleus of very low mesocephaly among the Tzeltal (34a) and Tzotzil (35c) in the state of Chiapas. The continued existence of groups with low mesocephaly in Chiapas is doubtful, since Leche and her collaborators in the most recent investigations obtained a greater cephalic index among various Tzotzil and Tzeltal populations, owing to a smaller length of the head rather than to an increment in head width. As regards the more detailed distribution of the cephalic index in this area, a band of peoples extends from southern Chiapas to western Guatemala wherein the males (there are few data for females) show an index ranging between 78.4 and 78.9. The populations involved are the Tzeltal of Amatenango (34b), the Tzotzil of Chamula (35b) and Zinacantan (35a), the Mam (44a,b), and possibly also the Jacaltec of Concepcion (40c), the Aguatec (41), and the Tzutuhil (48). In the interior—^that is

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LIVING INDIANS

to say, in the direction of the region of brachycephaly along the Gulf coast—the index, although still mainly in the mesocephalic range, increases to between 79.3 and 80.8 among the Zoque (32), Chol (33a,b), and Tzotzil of Huistan (35a) in the north, as well as among the Jacaltec of Jacaltenango (40a), Ixil (43), Quiche (46), and Cakchiquel (47), a fact which seems to be confirmed also by the scanty data on the Chuj (37), Solomec (42), and Uspantec (45), Among the mesocephals of Chiapas are two groups, the most eastern Tzeltal from Tecoja (34c) and the Tojolabal (36) to the south, which have a more rounded head (cephalic index 82.96 and 82.4, respectively). From the southern border of Middle America up to the southern part of Guatemala brachycephaly (cephalic index: males, 82.5-86.7) is evident among the Mangue (52), Paya (51), and Chorti (50), as well as among the few Pokoman (49) observed. The Nahua-Pipil (16q), on the other hand, have a slightly more elongated head (cephalic index: male, 80.5), resembling in this respect their linguistic kin of central Mexico. The Maya of Yucatan (38a-d) and the Lacandon (39a,b), which together with the groups from Chiapas and Guatemala cited above are Maya-speakers and are of small stature, differ from them in their more marked brachycephaly (cephalic index: males, 85; females, 85-87). This is due not so much to a shortening of the anteroposterior diameter of the head as to an increment in the maximum width of the head. The latter reaches values ranging from 153.7 to 155.6 mm. among Maya males, in contrast to values ranging from 143.0 to 147.7 mm. among males from Chiapas and Guatemala. Besides occurring in the Maya region, brachycephaly seems to predominate in the indigenous populations along the Gulf of Mexico; that is, among the taller-statured Popoluca (27) and the Nahua of Pajapan (16p), among the shorter-statured Chinan-

tec (23a,b) and Mazatec (21) on the border of the state of Veracruz and in the state of Oaxaca, as well as among the Tepehua (19a,b), Totonac (20a,b), Huastec (18a,b), Nahua of Chiconamel (16m), and the Otomi of Veracruz (14d). Among these peoples the cephalic index ranges from 83.7 to 88.2 in males and from 82.7 to 88.7 in females. In addition to the Popoluca and Nahua of Pajapan, already mentioned in connection with a center of brachycephaly in the Gulf of Mexico region, there are two other centers in which a stature of 160-161 cm. is combined with marked brachycephaly. The first (cephalic index: males, 83.2 to 84.5; females, 82.0 to 86.0) is in southeastern Oaxaca, inhabited by Chontal (30) and Huave (31). The influence of these groups possibly can be recognized both in the tallness and in the brachycephaly (cephalic index: male and female, 82) of the Tojolabal (36) of Chiapas, on the one hand, and in the brachycephaly (cephalic index, male, 84.6) of one of the Zapotec series (29b) of low stature, on the other. The second center of brachycephaly (cephalic index: males and females, 86.2) is located in the Cuitlatec (17) region of Guerrero. Again there possibly are reflections of this in the elevated cephalic index (males, 83.9) of the Nahua of Acapetlahuaya (16j) and perhaps also in the somewhat elevated means of this index (males, 81-82; females, 82.6) in the Nahua of Tepoztlan (16g-l), state of Morelos. In the region bounding the centers of brachycephaly in southeastern Oaxaca and in the coastal zone of the Gulf of Mexico live various groups, such as the Zapotec (29a,c,d), Mixe (28), Mixtec (25a-c), Cuicatec (22), and Nahua of Zongolica (16o), who, although brachycephalic, show a smaller index (males, 81.0-82.0; females, 80.1-82.5). To the northeast of these last populations exists a continuous zone occupied by the 99

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Trique of Oaxaca (26a,b), the Nahua of Tianguisolco (16l) and of Chapa (16k) in southern Guerrero, of Cuautepec (16f) in Morelos, of Cuahtlantzingo (16e) in Puebla, of Huatusco (16n) in Veracruz, of Tlaxcala (16d) and of the state of Mexico (16b,c), as well as by some Otomi (14b,c) of the state of Hidalgo.13 The cephalic index varies in this zone from 78.9 to 80.8 in males and from 79.2 to 80.9 in females. Some Tarascans (12b,d) and the Nahua of Jalisco (16a) have indices which fall in this range. In the central part of the Mexican Republic the cephalic index is more predominantly in the mesocephalic range. (males, 77.178.7; females, 77.9-79.2). The peoples here are the Mazahua (15) and Otomi (14e) of the state of Mexico, as well as some of the Otomi in Hidalgo (14a), the Pam (13), and two Tarascan series (12a,c). The existing data for the northern part of the Mexican Republic are too scanty to permit the detection of clear patterns. However, slight brachycephaly (males, 81.082.8; females, in small series, 81.4-82.0) occurs among the Tepecano (11), Huichol (10), and Cora (9) on the border of the states of Jalisco and Nayarit. On the other hand, great variability with often high mesocephaly (males, 75.9-80.5; females, 77.5-81.8) occurs among the Tepehuano (8) of Durango, as well as among the Tarahumara (7a,b), Mayo (6), Yaqui (5a,b), and Opata (3) in the extreme northwest of Mexico, and among the Papago (la,b) and Pima (2), whose habitat extended into Arizona. The variability is due in part to the fact that the more recent means exceed those from the beginning of the century. Seltzer (1936, p. 98) attributes the slight brachycephaly (81.3) of Yaqui (5b) males to an artificial deformation of the head of only minimal grade; for undeformed individuals he got a value of 80.65, which re13 Gómez Robleda et al. (1961) give an index of 80.12±.19 (s=3.54) for 285 Otomi from Ixmiquilpan, Hidalgo.

100

sembles that of the Mayo (6), their neighbors to the south. HEAD HEIGHT; LENGTH-HEIGHT AND BREADTH-HEIGHT INDICES

(Table 5)

Without doubt the means of head height reflect great variations resulting from the use of different measuring techniques. The latter involve different landmarks, different types of instruments, and different ways of manipulating the instruments. Some of the investigators cited measured head height directly from the auricular point, obtaining it either by the combined use of spreading and sliding calipers (Stewart, 1947b, p. 89; Gould, 1946, p. 94) or with a special instrument known as the head spanner, but of variable design (Aloja, 1939a, pp. 4-5; Steggerda, 1932, pp. 84-86; see the latter also for Williams). In these cases, the superior landmark was the bregma or the neighboring region (Martin and Sailer, 1957, p. 318). Only Schreider (195355, p. 458) measured the direct distance between the auricular point and vertex. On the instrumentation and technique employed he gives no details. Other investigators cited in Table 5 used tragion as the inferior point of head height. Leche (1936b, p. 24) obtained her head height figure by measuring directly the distance between tragion and bregma, whereas Comas (1944, p. 7), Romero (n.d.), Faulhaber (1955, p. 64), and students from the Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia recorded the indirect distance between tragion and vertex; that is, they took the difference between total stature and the distance of tragion above the floor. The remaining authors (Seltzer, 1936; Girard, 1949; Maza, 1953) give no clear indication of their procedure. These variations in technique probably account for the differences in the listed means, both of the absolute measure and of the indices based on them. Under the circumstances group comparisons would be fruitless and perhaps misleading.

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LIVING INDIANS

MINIMUM FRONTAL AND BIGONIAL DIAME-

BIzYGOMATIc DIAMETER AND FACE HEIGHT;

TERS; FRONTOPARIETAL INDEX (Table 6)

MORPHOLOGICAL FACIAL INDEX (Table 7)

The means obtained for the minimum frontal diameter and its percentile relation to the maximum breadth of the head, for the different groups of Middle American Indians, constitutes the major part of Table 6. The same table contains the available means for the bigonial diameter. This measure has not been taken on southern Middle American groups. Starr did not take either the minimum frontal diameter or the bigonial diameter on the populations studied by him in central and southern Mexico, and neither did some of the more recent investigators. Because of the resulting relative scarcity of data, it is difficult to obtain a general picture of the distribution of these characteristics in Middle America. Moreover, the two diameters under consideration appear to be affected by differences in technique. This is probably the explanation for the very low values obtained by Leche for the minimum frontal diameter, not only in the series, of the Tzeltal (34b,c) and Tzotzil (35a,b,d) of Chiapas, but also among the Mixtec (25c), because in a more numerous series of the last group (25b) Romero recorded a mean greater by 9 mm. for the same diameter. On the other hand, the two Nahua series measured by Field in the state of Morelos (16g,h) show a breadth of forehead greater by 7 and 8 mm. than the maximum observed for all other series of this group. This is the reason also why these two series are so different as regards the frontoparietal and zygomaticofrontal indices (see Table 8). What has been said about the minimum frontal diameter applies also to the bigonial diameter, although the means obtained by Leche do not differ so greatly, whereas Field's Nahua series differ still more widely. Because of this fact, Field's series also show means for the zygomaticomandibular index which fall completely outside those for the other series (see Table 8 ) .

Direct proof exists of a difference in means of the bizygomatic diameter obtained through observation of the same individuals, but using a slightly different technique. In their study on the Tzeltal (34b,c) and the Tzotzil (35a), Leche, Gould, and Tharp (1944, p. 24) state that "in the course of the work it was suggested by Gould that the senior author [Leche] was measuring bizygomatic breadth more anteriorly than is the usual practice. In order to preserve uniformity with the preceding groups of this series, the senior author's original technique for bizygomatic breadth was continued, and is here reported as bizygomatic breadth (a). But a supplementary measurement, bizygomatic breadth ( b ) , is added, obtained by taking the measurement on the zygomatic arches beginning just anterior to the external auditory meatus and working forward." Both of Leche's measures are reported in Table 7 and show that the two techniques yielded means which differ by 6.1 and 8.6 mm. This probably explains also the small figures that Leche obtained earlier among the Mixtec (25c), Zapotec (29d), and Chamula (35b). The last of these groups was also measured by Starr, who got a mean for the bizygomatic diameter 11.6 mm. higher than that reported by Leche. Aside from the groups studied by Leche, all those which have been subjected to repeated study show relatively small differences between the reported means for the bizygomatic diameter, the maximum difference being 3 and 3.7 mm. for the Trique (26a,b) and Totonac (20a,b), respectively. Starr was responsible for the larger means in each of these two instances. A review of the data on morphological facial height (nasion-menton) in Table 7 shows a clear tendency for the means to be greater in the majority of the investigations carried out recently as compared with those carried out at the beginning of the cen101

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

tury. Repeated observations on the Chinantec (23a,b), Mixtec (25a-c), Trique (26a,b), and Zapotec (29a-d) do not differ by more than 3.4 mm., but those on the Papago (la,b) and Yaqui (5a,b) show that Hrdlička obtained means approximately 7 and 10 mm. less than those of Seltzer and Gabel, respectively. Among the Huastec (18a,b), Tepehua (19a,b), Totonac (20a,b), and Maya (38a-d) the facial height obtained by Starr is from 6 to 7 mm. less in the males and from 7 to 9 mm. less in the females as compared to Faulhaber's figures. For the Maya, Starr's mean differs by 9 to 11 mm. in the male series and by 10 to 15 mm. in the female series as compared with the means arrived at by Williams and Steggerda. Among the Otomi (14a-e), in contrast to the foregoing groups, the smallest report­ ed mean height of the face is that for the series most recently measured by Schreider, a progressive increase being represented by the figures of Starr, Hrdlicka, Romero, and Faulhaber, in this order. The total differ­ ence between the figures of Schreider and Faulhaber amounts to 7 mm. There are two possible explanations for the almost constant tendency toward a face of greater absolute height in the most re­ cent studies: (1) change in the genetic patrimony between the different genera­ tions, due mainly to racial admixture; and (2) difficulty in locating the nasion measur­ ing point in an indigenous population char­ acterized by small depth and curvature of the nasal root. There is no reason to believe that failure to obtain complete occlusion of the teeth during measurement influenced the results to more than a minimal extent. The variation in the means of the last two measurements, which have been attributed mainly to differences in technique, naturally are reflected also in the morphological facial index, with the result that most of the groups measured at the beginning of the century, especially by Starr, show a rela­ tively lower and broader face than the re­ cent ones. 102

Since for the southern part of Middle America there is an almost total lack of the data under consideration, any attempt to in­ terpret the figures assembled in Table 7, making due allowance for biases in tech­ nique, must be limited to Mexico. In this region a slightly lower and proader face seems to predominate among the indige­ nous populations of the state of Guerrero and among some groups from the center of the Republic, whereas a slightly higher face relative to its breadth characterizes groups from the northwest, as well as those mhabiting the Gulf region from northern Veracruz to Yucatan. RELATIVE BREADTHS OF THE HEAD AND FACE

(Table 8)

Some comments on these three indices— frontoparietal, zygomaticofrontal, and zygomaticomandibular—are included in the pre­ ceding sections dealing with the measure­ ments from which they are derived. Since the data are so scanty, they will not be dis­ cussed further. HEIGHT AND BREADTH OF THE NOSE;

NASAL INDEX (Table 9)

When the data on nose height in Table 9 are compared with those on menton-nasion height in Table 7 it is seen that in the older series a smaller figure for one of these di­ mensions often coincides with a smaller fig­ ure for the other. Thus, of Starr's 23 groups, 16 were later remeasured, and in the major­ ity of the resulting comparisons Starr's fig­ ures are lower for both nose height and face height. From a comparison of the nasal index along with the measurements for its com­ putation in the series observed repeatedly at different times, it appears that the index is greater in the early series and that where the indiciai differences exceed 5.5 units— Papago (la,b), Huastec (18a,b), Tepehua (19a,b), Totonac (20a,b), Mixtec (25a-c), Chol (33a,b), Tzotzil of Chamula (35b,c), and Maya (38a-d)—there is a positive dif-

ANTHROPOMETRY OF LIVING INDIANS

ference in nasal height ranging from 4.4 to 13 mm. in all except the Mixtec and Chamula. In the two exceptional groups the high nasal index is due rather to a positive difference in nasal breadth amounting to 1.5 mm. or more. Only among the Chol (33a,b) and some Maya (38a,d) is a large positive difference in the height of the nose in the recent series combined with a positive difference of 1.5 to 2 mm. in the width. The fact that in the above-mentioned groups the internal differences between the highest and lowest means for nasal height are twice those for nasal breadth reinforces the suspicion already expressed that the different investigators have varied in their ability to locate the nasion measuring point. This suspicion is supported by the observation that the figures for nasal breadth are more constant, owing apparently to the nature of the involved somatometric points, rendering this dimension less difficult to measure. In summary, the shape of the nose in the indigenous populations of Middle America

can be characterized on the basis of the nasal index as having mostly intermediate proportions (mesorrhine). As regards regional differences, only with some reservations can it be stated that among the Maya of Yucatan, as well as in the few groups from Guatemala for which the datum is available, there are somewhat higher and narrower noses. It seems, too, that ratios indicating only a slightly wider nose exist among some neighboring groups of the Maya in Chiapas, as well as among the Huave and Chontal of Oaxaca. In the latter state a tendency toward a wider and lower nose appears among the Trique, who are thus distinguished from the surrounding populations. In other cases with similarly elevated indices recorded in earlier studies there is a marked discrepancy with the data from more recent investigations. In central and northwestern Mexico, aside from continuing the indication of mesorrhiny, the available data do not permit the discernment of further distributional details.

REFERENCES Aloja, 1939a, 1939b, 1943 Basauri, C, 1929, 1931, 1940 Boas, 1895b Byers, 1931 Chamay, 1884 Comas, 1943b, 1944, 1966a, 1966b and Faulhaber, 1965 and Genovés Τ., 1960 Cummins et al., 1936 Faulhaber, n.d., 1947, 1952, 1953a, 1953b, 1955 Field, 1954 Gabel, 1949 Gamio, 1922 Genua, 1934 Girard, 1949 Goff, 1948 Gómez Robleda, Quiroz Quarón, Argoytía, and Mercado, 1949

et al., 1943, 1961 Gould, 1946 Hamy, 1884 Holden et al., 1936 Hrdlička, 1902b, 1903b, 1904, 1908, 1909, 1920, 1935a Kirchhoff, 1943 Kroeber, 1931 Lasker, 1952b Leche, 1936b, 1936c , Gould, and Tharp, 1944 Martin, 1928 and Sailer, 1957 Maza, 1953 Méndez and Behrhorst, 1963 Montemayor, 1950-56 Newman, 1960a Romero, n.d., a-c, 1946, 1952b

103

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Schreider, 1953-55 Seltzer, 1936 Silíceo Pauer, 1920, 1920-21, 1922, 1922-23 Soustelle, 1933, 1937a, 1937b Starr, 1899, 1902a, 1902b, 1908a Steggerda, M., 1932, 1941, 1950

104

Stewart, 1940, 1947a, 1947b Swadesh, 1960 ten Kate, 1892, 1917 Williams, 1931 Woodbury and Trik, 1932

7. Distribution of Blood Groups

G. ALBÍN MATSON

C

UMULATIVE INFORMATION on the distribution of blood groups among Indian populations in Middle America is not abundant.1 Available data for each blood group system, reported for Amerinds within each country, are presented in this article with the aid of tables and maps. The linguistic map of Indians in Mexico and Central America prepared in color by Frederick Johnson (1940) hás been used as an underlay on which the blood-group distributions are illustrated. By superimposing multiform black and white shadings on Johnson's colored map to show variations in blood-group gene frequencies for different populations, and by using a separate copy of the map to depict each blood group, the distribution of the blood-group genes with relation to linguistic aggregates can be observed for the whole sweep of Middle America.- The tables point out more precisely the variations in each blood-group system. Data in the A-B-O system are presented first. THE A - B - O SYSTEM

The results of various studies for the distribution of the A-B-O blood groups of Indians in Middle America including Mexico

are shown on Map 1 and Tables 1 and 2. (All tables and maps follow p. 114.) Those listed on Table 1 are studies in which subgroups of A were not determined. The distribution of the A-B-O blood groups in which the subgroups of A were determined is shown in Table 2. Tables 1 and 2 show that the O gene frequencies are highest among the more isolated and purest Indians, for example, the Lacandon of Chiapas, Mexico. Those peoples that have had freer access to Caucasians and Negroes show the presence of genes A and/or B. The presence of these genes suggests admixture, since they are absent among putatively pure Amerinds, excepting, of course, the Blackfeet and related tribes which are predominately group A1 (Matson and Schrader, 1933; Matson, 1938). Among the Winnebago Indians of Nebraska there is also a very high incidence (41.87%) of group A1 (Matson, 1941). This extraordinary presence of high A1 in these 1 The preparation of this material has been supported in part by the National Science Foundation grant G.B. 2535 and the University of Utah Research Fund. 2 Ed. note: Dr. Matson, unlike the other authors in this volume, interprets Middle America as comprising Mexico and all of Central America.

105

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Indians suggests the possibility of contact with the Blackfeet or related tribes earlier in their history. Before these Winnebago migrated to Green Bay and Lake Winne­ bago in Wisconsin and from there to Ne­ braska, they came from somewhere north of the Great Lakes. Indirect historical evi­ dence suggests that the Blackfeet occupied that same general territory prior to their migration to the forests near Lesser Slave Lake and from there to southern Alberta and Montana. Other putatively pure American Indian populations that have an appreciable amount of group A are: western Alaskan tribes, 36.34% (Pauls, Victors, and Dodson, 1953); students at Haskell Institute, Law­ rence, Kansas, 27.21% (Nigg, 1926), 35.00% (Downs, Jones, and Koerber, 1929), 33.87% (Landsteiner and Levine, 1929); Beaver, 47.50% (Boileau Grant, 1936); Kwakiutl, 32.26% (Hulse, 1955); Makah-Klallam, 36.36% (Hulse, 1955); Navajo, 26.91% (Nigg, 1926), 30.6% (Allen and Korberr in Boyd, 1939), 23%, 27% (Boyd and Boyd, 1949); Pueblo, 20.71% (Allen and Larsen in Boyd, 1939); Sarcee, 48.42% (Chown & Lewis, 1955); Stoney, 29.63% (Chown & Lewis, 1955); Yakima, 25.26% (Hulse, 1957). Group A in these populations may be ac­ counted for largely by foreign miscegena­ tion, which is supported by the presence of genes Β and A2 in tribes where tests have been done for the A subgroups, and the fact that some individuals professing to be pure Indian betray Caucasoid admixture. Genes Β and/or A2 are absent in other tribes exhibiting A1, however (see Tables 1 and 3 in Mourant, et al., 1958), and al­ though genealogical inquiries have not been made in individual families of such populations, the possibility of the intrinsic presence of gene A1 in some predominantly group O Indian tribes is suggested by avail­ able data. A very rough estimate of the percentage of foreign genes can be achieved by using the formula of Bernstein (1931; see also Ot106

tensooser, 1944; Stevens, 1950) and by as­ suming that a pure Indian population would be 100% group O. Glass and Li (1953) and Newman (1960b) have emphasized that the most reliable calculations of the amount of racial intermixture will be obtained when the base populations differ most widely in the frequencies of a given gene and when the gene frequencies are based on an ade­ quate number of random samples of the population being studied. Most of the separate population samples presented in the tables are small; in some instances, individuals are interrelated. Moreover, the A2 and/or Β gene frequencies are often disproportionately large. There­ fore, these genes do not lend themselves readily as markers to determine degree of miscegenation. However, since full bloods are 100% group O, the higher the frequency of genes A1, A2, and/or Β in the population, the lower would be the frequency of gene O and the greater the external addition into the hybrid gene pool. This inverse relation­ ship makes it possible to use the reduction in percentage of the frequency of gene O rather than the presence of genes A1, A2, or Β directly as indices of miscegenation among Indians in Middle America. Bern­ stein's (1931) formula, mentioned above, is expressed as: qx-Q X100 q -Q Where Q and q are the gene frequencies for a particular gene in the base popula­ tions, the qxT is the frequency in the hybrid population. Since the population mixing with Indians in Middle America was largely Spanish the cumulative results of seven studies of Span­ iards in Spain involving 2,197 individuals (Mourant et al., 1958) were taken as the base for the European stock. Of the 2,197 persons tested 868 or 39.51% belonged to group O. This presents a calculated gene frequency of 62.86% for gene O in Spain. Assuming the gene frequency for gene O in pure Indians to be 100%, we see that the

DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD GROUPS

spread between the Indian and the Euro­ pean sample is 37.14%. The percentages of genotypic divergence from the A-B-O pro­ file in full-blood Indians, arrived at by using the above figures as a basis for cal­ culation, are shown in the last column of Tables 1 and 2. In Guatemala, where the Indians are all Maya, the values for Caucasoid genes intro­ duced are generally less than in Mexico, ranging around 10% in all tribes tested. In Honduras the Jicaque show 54.13% admix­ ture, but much of this is of Negro origin as will be shown later when the distribution of the V(ce s ) antigen is considered. The Len­ ca and Paya Indians also exhibit exotic blood-group genes. In Nicaragua the results found in the Sumo reveal no evidence of Caucasoid mis­ cegenation, but results in the Chorotega, Miskito, Rama, and Subtiaba display the presence of foreign genes. The Indians in British Honduras are not all group O, but in Costa Rica all tribes tested except the Boruca are 100% group O, offering therefore no indication of misce­ genation. However, the number of samples tested is not large. The 708 samples of blood from Indians in Panama (Guaymi, San Blas Cuna, and Choco) are all group O. Specific data are shown in Tables 1 and 2, and the relationships are seen to better ad­ vantage on Map 1. THE M-N-S-S SYSTEM

The distribution of the Μ and Ν and the associated S and s blood factors as reported for Indians in Middle America by various workers is shown in Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6. See also Maps 2 and 3 for frequency distri­ bution of genes Μ and S. The M-N phenotypes and gene frequency percentages are shown in Table 3. In conformity with the distribution of Μ and Ν in Indians generally, the frequency of gene Μ is high and Ν is low in putatively pure Indians in Middle America (SalazarMallén and Arteaga, 1951; Aguirre et al.,

1953; for others, see Table 3). Two notable exceptions occur: (1) the Lacandon at Naja and Lacanja, Chiapas, in which there is a high frequency for the gene Ν (.484)—the 34 Lacandon tested at Lacanja present the highest frequency observed for gene Ν among putatively pure Amerinds, .5441 (Matson and Swanson, 1961); and (2) the Rama at Rama Cay, near Bluefields, Nica­ ragua, in which there appears a gene fre­ quency of .500 each for Μ and Ν (Matson and Swanson, 1963d). It is noteworthy that 80.58% of 103 Sumo in Nicaragua and 91.94% of 62 Cabecar in Costa Rica are type Μ (homozygous MM) and when the MN type is included, 99.01% of the former population and 100% of the latter have the Μ factor. Gene frequencies for Μ in these populations are 89.81% and 95.97%, respectively. These values for the frequency of gene Μ in the Sumo and Cabecar, as also the 100% frequency for gene O in these tribes (see Table 2), suggest a high degree of racial purity, owing in all probability to their com­ paratively isolated locations. It may point also to inbreeding and genetic drift in these small populations (Stone, 1949, 1962). The incidence of phenotypes S and s and their corresponding gene frequencies are shown in Tables 4 and 5. The incidence of 98.06% phenotype S is unusually high in the Sumo. The signifi­ cance of this observation is not clear. The distribution of the S, Ss, and s pheno­ types in relation to the three phenotypes M, MN, and Ν and the corresponding fre­ quencies for the four gene complexes MS, Ms, NS, and Ns are shown in Table 6. Table 6 shows that the Lacandon Indians have a high frequency for Ns compared to other Middle American Indians that have been tested. There is complete disparity of NS in these two Lacandon Indian popula­ tions. This situation obtains as well in the 150 Miskito Indians in Nicaragua in which gene Ν is genetically associated with s, though the Miskito do not have as high a 107

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

frequency for Ns as do the two groups of Lacandon. The NS gene complex frequency is lower for the Paya (.049) than for most Indians listed in Table 6, with the exception of the Cabecar in Costa Rica (.014) and the Kekchi in Guatemala (.036). The Lacandon and Miskito tested lack NS entirely. The Cabecar show a low frequency also for Ns (.026) as well as NS. Complete absence of the NS gene complex has been reported also for 58 Diegueño Indians in California (Pantin and Kallsen, 1953). A point of further interest among the Sumo is that the MS frequency is appreciably higher (.741) and the Ns frequency lower (.008) than in any other Indians tested. Occasional absence of the homozygous NN genotype and/or the homozygous SS genotype is not surprising in putatively pure American Indians (Matson and Swanson, 1965) since frequencies of both genes Ν and S are low among them. T H E HENSHAW ANTIGEN

The Henshaw (He) antigen is closely, if not absolutely, linked with genes M, N, S, and s (Nijenhuis, 1953; Shapiro, 1956; Zoutendyk, 1955) and is typically a Negro character (Chalmers et al., 1953; Ikin and Mourant, 1951). Only 246 Maya and non-Maya Indians in Mexico have been tested for the presence of the Henshaw (He) antigen (Matson and Swanson, 1959): 67 Itza Maya in Yuca­ tan; 37 Tzeltal and 62 Tzotzil at San Cristo­ bal de las Casas, Chiapas; 45 Totonac at Papantla, Veracruz; 20 Zapotec at Mitla, Oaxaca; and 15 Mestizos at San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas. None was found among these Indians, but its absence does not necessarily rule out the presence of Negro miscegenation. THE MILTENBERGER ( M I a ) VERWEYST ( V W ) ANTIGENS

The gene or genes responsible for pheno108

types M i ( a + ) V w + , M i ( a + ) Vw —, and Mi(a— ) V w + are linked with genes MNSs (Hart et al., 1954; Wallace et al., 1957). It has been observed also that usually the gene or genes responsible for the M i ( a + ) V w + reaction are accompanied by Ν and s, whereas those responsible for the Mi(a+ ) Vw— reaction are accompanied by Μ and S. No Mia or Vw antigens were found among 565 Indians in Mexico in one study (Matson and Swanson, 1959) or in 311 tested later (Matson and Swanson, 1960). Repre­ sented in these studies are 15 Chol, 67 Itza Maya, 94 Lacandon, 111 Tzeltal, 171 Tzotzil, 81 Chiapanec, 45 Chinantec, 54 Mixe, 19 Mixtec, 45 Totonac, 143 Zapotec, and 31 Zoque. The Miltenberger (Mi a ) was absent also in 664 Maya Indians in Guatemala tested by Matson and Swanson (1959, 1961). The Verweyst (Vw) antigen was found in one of the 162 samples from the Kekchi at Coban. This finding of Mi(a—) V w + in the specimen of Kekchi blood was confirmed by Mohn, who has found the only other known Mi(a—) V w + phenotype (personal communication ). No Miltenberger (Mi a ) or Verweyst (Vw) antigen was found in 399 Indians tested in Honduras, 397 in Nicaragua, 367 Maya and Kekchi in British Honduras, 208 in Costa Rica, and 708 in Panama (Matson and Swanson, 1963c-d, 1964, 1965a, 1965b). So far the M i ( a + ) antigen has been found among Indians in only four Quechua of Calderon, Ecuador (Matson et al., 1966); with the one exception among the Kekchi noted above (Matson and Swanson, 1961), no Vw has been found. The genes control­ ling these antigens must be extremely rare or altogether absent among pure American Indians. These antigens are rare also in Caucasoids, Mia being present in about one in 500, one half of which are coupled with Vw+ and one half with Vw— (Hart et al., 1954).

DISTIOBUTION OF BLOOD GROUPS THE P SYSTEM

Recent work on the Ρ system by Sanger (1955) and by Matson et al., (1958, 1959) has made some revolutionary changes in the concept of this system. The new nota­ tions P1 and P2 are used here where P1 is the antigen previously called P, and where P2 is the one formerly called p. Earlier data shown in Table 7 have been converted to these newer notations. Frequencies for gene P1 vary from .367 among 45 Totonac to .873 among 62 Cabecar. Values are spotty, but with few ex­ ceptions are somewhat lower than those reported for Indians in North America; for example, .613 for Blood Indians (Chown and Lewis, 1953) and .606 for Chippewa (Matson, Koch, and Levine, 1954). How­ ever, these values are higher than the .233 frequency reported for Brazilian Indians (Pantin and Junqueira, 1952). A detailed ethnological world pattern of the distribu­ tion of gene P1 does not appear, but in gen­ eral gene P1 is consistently very high in all Negroid African populations and consider­ ably lower in (Asiatic) Mongoloids than in Caucasoids (Mourant, 1954). THE RH-HR SYSTEM

Some of the earlier observations on the dis­ tribution of the Rh-Hr blood groups among Indians were done with anti-Rho (anti-D) 3 serum only. Thus Salazar-Mallén and Martinez (1947) reported 212 Mestizos to be 95.5% Rho positive; 50 Nahoa,100%Rho positive; and 40 Otomi, 100% Rho positive. Since 1952 some samples have been tested with three, some with four, and others with five antiserums: anti-rh' (anti-C), anti-Rho (anti-D), anti-rh" (anti-E), anti-hr' (anti-c) and anti-hr" (anti-e). The results of these studies are shown in Tables 8, 9, and 10. The calculated gene frequencies are shown on Table 11. Maps 4, 5, 6, and 7 show the 3

The existence of a dual nomenclature in this system makes it expedient to follow the Rh-Hr notations with the CDE equivalents in parentheses.

locations of the frequencies of some of the Rh-Hr genes. The relative higher frequencies of Ro (cDe) and/or r (cde) genes in some tribes suggest extensive admixture, for instance in the Jicaque, Miskito, and Subtiaba Indians. The Lenca of Honduras and one Maya group reported by Aguirre et al., (1953) in Guatemala stand out as the only Indian populations in which have been found gene r' (Cde) (see Table 11). The significance of this observation is unknown. Some isolated populations such as the Lacandon and the Tzotzil from San Pablo Chalchihuitan, Chiapas, as well as the Bribri and Guatuso of Costa Rica, show unusually high frequencies of gene R2 (cDE). A high degree of racial purity is suggested by these high values. The 240 Guaymi and 388 San Blas (Cuna) Indians of Panama and the 103 Sumo of Nicaragua have the highest incidence of Rh1Rh1 (CCDee) phenotype (see Table 10) and correspondingly the highest R1 (CDe) gene frequencies (see Table 11) of any tested Amerind populations of Middle America. This, too, suggests a high degree of racial purity, since a high frequency of either R1 (CDe) or R2 (cDE) or of both combined and an absence or low frequency of other Rh genes constitutes the evidence, though R2 (cDE) carries more weight than R1 (CDe). In general the Indians in Middle America present a distribution of Rh-Hr similar to that observed among other Amerinds (Matson, Koch, and Levine, 1954); Matson and Piper, 1947; Matson and Swanson, 1959, 1961, 1963b, 1963c, 1964, 1965a, 1965b Chown and Lewis, 1953; Brown et al., 1958 Landsteiner, Wiener, and Matson, 1942; Wiener et al., 1945) and they differ from Whites in the same respects; that is, Indians but not Whites have a high frequency of R2 (cDE), extremely low frequency or absence of R° (cDe) and r (cde), and an appreciable presence of Rz (CDE) genes. 109

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY THE V ANTIGEN (CE S )

(HRV)

Related to the Rh-Hr system is the predominantly Negro antigen variously designated as V (DeNatale et al., 1955), ces (Sanger et al., 1960; Tippett et al., 1961), and hrv (Shapiro, 1964). Its gene complex is termed r v (dce s ) or Rov (Dce s ). Since the newer notations are not generally employed, however, the commonly used V designation is resorted to here. Only a few studies have been reported for the incidence of the V antigen in the blood of Indians in Middle America (Matson and Swanson, 1959, 1961, 1963b, 1963c, 1963d, 1964, 1965a, 1965b). The results of these reports are shown in Table 12. Presented also for comparison are the results of two other studies, which show the incidence of the V antigen in Negroes, Whites, Orientals, and North American Indians. Map 8 shows the distribution of the gene frequencies in Middle America. The V antigen appears in only a few tribes in Middle America and in these the incidence is low (see Table 12.) The antigen should hardly be expected since the gene or genes which control it occur on certain Rh chromosomes in Negroes which normally are absent in pure American Indians—rn ( e s ) , Ro (cDe), and r (cde)— but seldom, if ever, on R1 (CDe) and R2 (cDE). The presence of the V antigen in American Indian populations is strong evidence, therefore, of Negro-Indian miscegenation. By use of the V gene frequencies to calculate by Bernstein's formula (1931) the extent to which Negro-Indian amalgamation has progressed, where V gene frequency in the Indian population is zero and in West African Negroes .225 (DeNatale et al., 1955), the following percentage values for Negro-Indian miscegenation were obtained: Totonac 4.97, Kekchi at Coban in Guatemala 2.80, Jicaque 35.71, Lenca 0.49, Paya 8.78, Miskito 16.59, Subtiaba 15.57, and Maya in British Honduras 0.89. The results 110

can be considered only as the roughest estimate since bias is introduced by the small size of population samples, particularly in the Totonac, Paya, and Subtiaba. T H E LUTHERAN SYSTEM

The only known reports of the incidence of Lutheran factors among Indians in Middle America are those by Matson and Swanson (1959, 1961, 1963a, 1963b, 1963c, 1963d, 1964, 1965a, 1965b), who found no L u ( a + ) phenotype in 592 Maya and non-Maya in Mexico, 664 Maya in Guatemala, 399 Indians in Honduras, 397 Indians in Nicaragua, 367 Maya in British Honduras, or 208 Indians in Costa Rica. Of 708 samples of blood tested from Indians in Panama, only one, a San Blas, was shown to have the L u ( a + ) antigen. This is a phenotype incidence of 0.26% among the 388 San Blas tested and a gene frequency of .0005, which is small indeed, suggesting perhaps external introduction of gene Lwa. For the most part, however, Indian tribes in Middle America lack gene Lua, being presumably homozygous Lub. This agrees with the findings or Chown and Lewis (1953), who found no L u ( a + ) in 97 Blood Indians in Alberta. Pantin and Kallsen (1953), however, reported 3.45% incidence of Lu(a+)—.017 gene frequency—in 58 Diegueño Indians in California; Pantin and Junqueira (1952) reported a phenotype incidence of 6.44% Lu( a 4-) — .086 Lua gene frequency—among 73 Brazilian Indians. Gene Lua is rare or nonexistent in Asian peoples that have been studied: South Indian (Lehmann and Cutbush, 1952), Malaya and Borneo (Polunin and Sneath, 1953). Peoples of Europe have a higher incidence of L u ( a + ) , Callender and Race (1946) reporting an incidence of 7.90% L u ( a + ) for 585 English. THE KELL-CELLANO SYSTEM

The results of the only existing reports on the incidence of Kell and Cellano phenotypes and gene frequencies among Indians

DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD GROUPS

in Middle America are shown on Table 13 (see also Map 9). Nearly all Indians tested are Kell negative (homozygous Cellano positive). No ho­ mozygous Κ has been found among Ameri­ can Indians. Of the 10 heterozygous Kk found among 874 Indians of Mexico, two were brothers (Tzeltal). The only others showing Kk were in the Jicaque Indians of Honduras. Of 194 Jicaque, 7 (3.61%) were heterozygous Kell positive (Kk). Gene Κ is extremely rare among Indians and, when found, is almost surely indicative of European admixture. The findings in Middle American Indians are in general agreement with results of tests reported elsewhere (Chown and Lewis, 1953, 1957; Matson, Koch, and Levine, 1954). How­ ever, Pantin and Junqueira (1952) report a frequency value of .124 for gene Κ among Brazilian Indians. By use of the frequencies for the nonIndian Κ gene as a marker for European miscegenation among those Indians where the phenotype appears, and using the value of .0394 frequency for gene Κ in the English (Mourant, 1954, Table 35), the following percentages of genotypic divergence from the Kell profile for pure Indians are ob­ tained by the formula of Bernstein (1931): Itza Maya 19.04%, Tzeltal 23.10%, Chiapanec 31.22%, Chinantec 56.35%, Zapotec 27.16%, Zoque 41.12% in Mexico, and for the Jicaque in Honduras 48.22%. THE SUTTER ( J S ) ANTIGEN

In 1958 Giblett discovered the Jsa bloodgroup antigen in Negroes. Walker et al. (1963a,b) found anti-Jsb in the serum of a Negress in Memphis who had been sensi­ tized by pregnancy and/or transfusion. The discovery of this antithetical Sutter antibody had been expected. It appears now, however, that the Sutter antigens, Jsa and Jsb, do not constitute an independent system but belong to the Kell system. Stroup et al. (1965) found that those rare blood cells which failed to react

with anti-K, k, Kp a , and Kpb were also Jsa and Jsb" negative and that the predominantly Negro antigen Jsa is inherited in all in­ stances studied, along with k; never with K. Meanwhile, Morton et al. (1965) have stud­ ied several families and confirmed the fact that the Js and Κ loci must be very closely linked. Because of the scarcity of antiserum, only 1483 specimens of blood from Indians in Middle America were tested for the Sutter (Js a ) antigen. These included: in Mexico 45 Chinantec, 54 Mixe, 61 Lacandon, 40 Chia­ panec, 80 Tzotzil, and 29 Zoque (Matson and Swanson, 1959, 1960); in Guatemala 150 Cakchiquel, 122 Kekchi, and 116 Mam (Matson and Swanson, 1963b); in Hon­ duras 129 Jicaque, 38 Lenca, and 45 Paya (Matson and Swanson, 1963c); in British Honduras 247 Maya and 119 Kekchi (Matson and Swanson, 1964); and in Costa Rica 56 Boruca, 50 Bribri, 62 Cabecar, and 40 Terraba (Matson and Swanson, 1965a). All these specimens tested negative with the ex­ ception of the Jicaque, in which group were found four presumably nonrelated persons who reacted to the anti-Jsa serum. This is 3.10% incidence of the Js(a + ) phenotype in the Jicaque or a gene frequency of .016. Since the Sutter (Js*) antigen is predomi­ nantly a Negro character (Giblett, 1958), its presence among the Jicaque indicates Negro-Jicaque miscegenation. By application of the formula of Bern­ stein (1931) to these Js* data in the Jicaque in order to calculate the extent of NegroJicaque amalgamation, the value of 14.77% is obtained. It will be recalled that gene V also indicated a high degree of Negro mis­ cegenation in the Jicaque. THE LEWIS SYSTEM

The reported incidence of phenotypes in the Lewis system among Indians in Middle America is shown in Table 14. The appearance of gene Lea among those Indians of Middle America whose blood has been tested with both anti-Le a and anti-Le a 111

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

serums does not follow any discernible pattern with relation to European or Negro admixture as determined by other blood-group genes: A, B, K, V, Ro (cDe), or r (cde). The highest concentration of the phenotype Le (a + b — ) was encountered among the Choco of Darien (22.50%). It was present in smaller amounts among the Sumo, Subtiaba, Miskito, and Chorotega of Nicaragua; the Jicaque and Lenca in Honduras; the Cakchiquel, Mam, and Quiche of Guatemala; and the Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Chiapanec, and Zapotec of Mexico; but it was completely absent in all the other Indians tested with both anti-Lea and anti-Leb serums. Using only anti-Lea serum, Salazar-Mallén (1949) observed an incidence of 11.56% L e ( a + ) in 199 Mexicans and 9.807% among 81 Otomi Indians in Mexico, D.F. Again in 1951 he and Arteaga found 12.06% L e ( a + ) in 141 Mexicans. Chown and Lewis (1953) could find no Lea antigen among 39 Blackfeet and 241 Blood Indians. No tests were done on saliva to determine the incidence of the secretor property in Indians of Middle America, but since all persons having Le(a+b— ) should be nonsecretors, and since nearly all American Indians previously tested have been ABH secretors, it would be expected that the vast majority of Indians of Middle America, lacking the Lea antigen, would be secretors also. Studies among other populations in which both anti-Lea and anti-Leb were used in testing reveal that American Indians usually differ from other peoples in that the Le (a + b —) phenotype is generally absent or of low incidence in them whereas it is usually higher elsewhere. The presence of gene Lea in an Indian population may suggest, therefore, racial admixture. For comparison of various world populations for the Lewis phenotypes, see Table 15 taken from Mourant (1954). THE DUFFY SYSTEM

With the exception of 296 tests on blood of 112

Indians in Mexico and Guatemala (SalazarMallén, 1949; Salazar-Mallén and Arteaga, 1951), all the tests for the presence of antigens in the Duffy system were done with anti-Fya serum only. Tables 16 and 17 show the distribution of the Duffy blood groups. In agreement with other reports on frequencies of gene Fya in Amerinds—.747 for 235 Blood Indians (Chown and Lewis, 1953); .864 for 161 Chippewa (Matson, Koch, and Levine, 1954); .678 for 58 Diegueño (Pantin and Kallsen, 1953)—the results of tests among Middle American Indians are high. Conversely, Pantin and Junqueira (1952) have reported a complete lack of gene Fya in 73 Carajas Indians in Brazil. This absence of Fya, if confirmed and established with the rare anti-Fyb· serum, may be very important. Until such tests have been done, there will remain the question whether or not there is present in these Indians the third Duffy gene, Fy, found in African Negroes (Sanger, Race, and Jack, 1955), which controls a factor Fy reacting with neither anti-Fya nor anti-Fyb serums. Of the Middle American Indians tested, the Fya gene frequency appears to be lowest in the Miskito of Nicaragua (.452), with the exception of the Chinantec in Mexico (.442). This is pointed out only as an observation, the significance of which is not known. Generally, however, the Fya gene frequencies for Indians in Middle America are unusually high both as compared with Indians elsewhere and with European peoples, for example, .407 reported for 205 English (Cutbush and Mollison, 1950) and .434 for 300 Minnesota Whites (Matson, Koch, and Levine, 1954). THEKIDDSYSTEM

Ten studies have been reported for the distribution of the Kidd phenotypes and genotypes in Indian populations of Middle America (Matson and Swanson, 1959, 1961, 1963b, 1963c, 1963d, 1964, 1965a, 1965b; Tejada et al., 1959, 1961). The results of

DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD GROUPS

the tests are shown on Tables 18 and 19. Table 18 shows the results when only antiJka serum was used, Table 19 the results when both anti-Jka and anti-Jkb were used. Tests done on blood from Indians of Middle America—except Mixe, Mam, Lenca, Paya, Bribri, Terraba, and Guaymi—^have a gene Jka frequency ranging from .373 to .656. In the exceptions noted (see Table 18) the Jka gene frequencies are lower (as low as .236 among the Guaymi). The same general results are shown in Table 19. The incidence of Jk(a+ ) phenotype and the corresponding gene Jkn frequencies among Indians in Middle America are not very different from those reported by Chown and Lewis (1953) for the Blackfeet ( J k ( a + ) , phenotype incidence 87.18%, gene frequency Jka .642) and Blood Indians ( J k ( a + ) , phenotype incidence 92.27%, gene frequency Jka .722); or by Race and others (1951) for the English ( J k ( a + ) , phenotype incidence 76.62%, gene frequency Jka .517); or by Allen, Diamond, and Niedziela (1951) and Rosenfield et al. (1953) for American Whites (Jk (a + ), phenotype incidences and Jka gene frequencies 77.25% and 76.72% and .523 and .518, respectively). Chinese in New York, on the other hand, are reported (Rosenfield et al., 1953) to have a low percentage incidence for the J k ( a + ) phenotype (52.43%). In American Indians, however, the Jka gene frequencies are of varying and irregular distribution, presenting no orderly arrangement that can be ethnologically applied. THE DIEGO ( D I A ) ANTIGEN

The results of thirteen reports on tests for the Diego (Di a ) antigen among Indians in Middle America are shown in Table 20. Appreciable variation in the incidences of the Dia antigen and the frequency of the corresponding gene is observed among the Indians tested. The gene frequencies range from .000 for the Rama in Nicaragua and the Bribri, Cabecar, and Terraba in Costa Rica to .184 for 33 Lacandon. The 33 La-

candon were isolated in two groups—one of which, a group of 10 residing at San Quintin on the Rio Jatate, was inbred, some living in brother-sister marriage relationship, which would permit random genetic drift and selection to operate freely. The finding of Dia antigen is not unusual among American Indians. Studies on the distribution of the Dia antigen have shown that blood samples from American Indians (Junqueira et al, 1956; Layrisse and Arends, 1956b), Chinese, Japanese (Layrisse and Arends, 1956b), and Koreans (Won et al., 1960) exhibit the Dia antigen in varying distribution, whereas specimens from Polynesians, Australian aborigines, Papuans, New Britain natives (Simmons, 1957), Eskimos (Lewis, Chown, and Kaita, 1956) and Caucasians (Levine et al., 1956) do not show it. The distribution of antigens of the Diego system both in South American Indians and in other world populations has been fully discussed by Layrisse and Wilbert (1960). It is conceivable that the wide variations in frequency of Dia found among Amerind tribes may have an important bearing on their origins, though in some cases recent genetic drift may be a factor. THE WRIGHT ( W R a ) , AND BERRENS ( B E a ) ANTIGENS

Blood samples from the Indians tested for the Diego (Di a ) factor by Matson and Swanson, and included in Table 20, were also tested for the Wright (Wr a ) antigen. Of these 3335 specimens none, except samples from four related donors among 138 Lenca, was found to manifest the Wright (Wr a ) antigen. The finding of Wra in American Indians is unusual; this observation in the Lenca is the only instance in which the antigen has been found in Indians. The gene must be rare, if present at all among pure American Indians. It is also rare in Caucasians (Holman, 1953). As an example, the antigen has been found in only 0.3 per cent of 5000 Dutchmen (Loghem et al., 1955). 113

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY a

Tests for the rare Berrens (Be ) factor among 2777 blood specimens examined by Matson and Swanson (1961, 1963b, 1963c, 1963d, 1964, 1965a, 1965b) showed no Bea This antigen is rare also among Caucasians (Davidsohn et al., 1953). Indeed, no Be ( a + ) phenotype has been found in a ran­ dom study of any population. SUMMARY

Blood-group studies performed to date among Indians in Middle America and dis­ cussed in the preceding text offer the fol­ lowing principal facts and tentative conclu­ sions: 1. Putatively pure Indians of Middle America belong almost exclusively to group O. 2. In conformity with the distribution in American Indians generally, the frequency of gene Μ is high and gene Ν low. 3. In two groups of Lacandon in Chiapas as well as in 150 Miskito Indians in Nicara­ gua gene Ν is associated with s, there be­ ing no NS chromosome among them. This can be explained probably on the basis of genetic drift and inbreeding in these small populations. 4. No Henshaw (He) antigen has been found among 246 Indians tested in Mexico. 5. No Miltenberger (Mi a ) or Verweyst (Vw) antigens have been found in Indians of Middle America except in one Kekchi in Coban in whom Vw was present. Mi(a— ) Vw+ is an extremely rare phenotype in all peoples examined. 6. Values reported for P1 antigen are spotty in Indians of Middle America, but with few exceptions are somewhat lower than those reported for Indians in North America. 7. In the Rh-Hr system R1 (CDe) shows a moderate frequency, about equal to that of R2 ( c D E ) , whereas R0 (cDe) and r (cde) chromosomes are almost completely lacking. The V antigen has been found among the Totonac, Kekchi, Jicaque, Lenca, Paya, Miskito, Subtiaba, and Maya (in Brit­ 114

ish Honduras), suggesting the presence of some Negro admixture among these In­ dians. 8. With the exception of one person among 388 San Blas, the Indians tested in Middle America all lack gene Lwa, being presumably homozygous Lu b . 9. Gene Κ is extremely rare among Amer­ ican Indians, and its presence almost surely indicates external introduction. It is present among the Itza Maya, Tzeltal, Chiapanec, Chinantec, Zapotec, and Zoque in Mexico and the Jicaque in Honduras. Values for its gene frequencies were used to calculate the degree of European miscegenation among these populations. The related Sutter (Js a ) antigen has not been found among Indians in Middle America except in four of 129 Jicaque of Honduras (presumably nonrelated). 10. The incidence of the Le(a + b—) phenotype is generally absent or low among Middle American Indians. 11. The Fta gene frequencies for Indians of Middle America are unusually high. 12. The genes of the Kidd system Jka and b Jk do not set the Middle American Indians apart from other Amerinds or American Whites. 13. The frequency of gene Dia among Indians in Middle America varies appre­ ciably and ranges from zero for the Rama in Nicaragua and the Bribri, Cabecar, and Terraba in Costa Rica to 18.35% for 33 La­ candon in Chiapas. 14. Of 3335 Indians of Middle America tested for the Wright (Wr a ) antigen, four of the 138 Lenca were found to possess it. 15. No Berrens (Be a ) antigen has been found among 2777 blood samples tested in Middle American Indians. 16. By use of Bernstein's formula (1931), the extent of European amalgamation was calculated for those tribes showing the pres­ ence of A, B, or Kell antigens; and the de­ gree of Negro miscegenation was calculated for those tribes in which V or Jsa antigens were found.

TABLE 1—DISTRIBUTION OF A-B-O BLOOD GROUPS IN INDIANS OF MIDDLE AMERICA (SUBGROUPS OF GROUP A NOT SHOWN)

Population

Location

Investigator

Total Number Tested

Number a nd Percentage of B]lood Groups A

Gene Frequencies

ÃB

Ā

(Calculated ]Percentage Admixture ^ ^

No.

O %

No.

206

196

95.15

10

4.85

0

0.00

0 0.00

.025

.000

.975

6.60

Salazar & Arteaga, 1951

52

52

100.00

0

0.00

0

0.00

0 0.00

.000

.000

1.000

0.00

San Juan Chamula, Chiapas

Salazar & Arteaga, 1951

63

63

100.00

0

0.00

0

0.00

0 0.00

.000

.000

1.000

0.00

Yucatan

Moss & Kennedy, 1929

738

565

76.56

123

16.67

40

5.42

1.35

.095

.034

.871

34.65

218

97.76

3

1.34

1

0.45

1 0.45

.009

.005

.986

3.64

MEXICO Chinantec

Oaxaca

Genna, 1953

Huastec

Tancanhuitz

Maya Chamula Maya-Itza

No.

No.

10

%

V

9

Maya-Itza (pure)

Yucatan

Goodner, 1930

223

Maya-Itza

Yucatan

D. W. Rife, 1932

126

124

98.14

2

1.59

0

0.00

0 0.00

.008

.000

.992

2.15

Nahua

Mexico

Salazar & Martinez, 1947

50

49

98.00

1

2.00

0

0.00

0 0.00

.010

.000

.990

2.69

Otomi (pure)

Mexico

Salazar & Hernández, 1944

40

37

92.50

1

2.50

2

5.00

0 0.00

.013

.025

.962

10.31

Otomi (pure)

Hidalgo

Salazar & Arteaga, 1951

81

76

93.83

5

6.17

0

0.00

0

0.00

.031

.000

.969

9.15

Otomi

Hidalgo

Genna, 1953

81

70

86.42

8

9.88

3

3.70

0

0.00

Sen

Sonora

Mazzotti (in Genna, 1953)

128

128

100.00

0

0.00

0

0.00

0 0.00

.000

.000

1.000

0.00

Tarascan

Patzcuaro, Michoacan

Rodriguez H. et al., 1962

124

97

78.23

19

15.32

7

5.64

1 0.81

.084

.031

.886

Mixtec

Tlaxiaco & Jamiltepec, Oaxaca

Rodriguez H. et al., 1962

129

119

92.25

6

4.65

4

3.10

0

0.00

.024

.016

.960

Nahoa

San Juan Tepulco, Rodriguez H. et al., 1962 Santa Ursula Xiconquia, Huixcolatla & Teopantlan, Puebla

172

149

86.63

14

8.14

7

4.07

2

1.16

.043

.022

.935

Tarahumara

Chihuahua

Echeverría, 1956

113

105

92.92

5

4.42

3

2.66

0

0.00

.023

.013

.964

9.96

Tarascan

Paracho, Janitzio

Salazar & Arteaga, 1951

111

95

85.59

12

10.81

3

2.70

1 0.90

0.59

.016

.925

20.17

(Continued on next page)

(Table 1, continued)

Population

Location

Investigator

Total Number Tested

Number and Percentage of Blood Groups O

Β

No.

%

150

142

94.67

Totonac

Papantla, Veracruz

Salazar & Arteaga, 1951

Zapotec

Oaxaca

Genua, 1953

201

179

89.05

Mestizo

Mexico City

Salazar & Hernández, 1944

212

144

Mestizo

Mexico City

Salazar & Arteaga, 1951

199

Mestizo (Maya-Spanish)

Yucatan

Goodner, 1930

Mestizo (Maya-Spanish)

Texczintla & Huizquilotla

Mestizo (Maya-Spanish) Mexican (for comparison)

No.

%

No.

Gene Frequencies

AB % No.

Calculated Percentage Admixture

%

3

2.00

0 0.00 .017 .010

9.73

7.24

22 10.95

0

0.00

0

0.00

.056

.000

.944

15.16

67.92

61 28.77

6

2.83

1 0.47

.159

.017

.824

47.28

116

58.29

57 28.64

21 10.55

5

2.51

.170

.068

.762

64.03

202

172

85.15

20

9.90

10

4.95

0 0.00

.051

.025

.924 20.44

Salazar & Arteaga, 1951

107

89

91.59

5

4.67

4

3.74

0 0.00

.024

.019

.957

11.44

Tepoztlan

Field, 1954

155

119

76.77

26

16.77

6

3.87

4 2.58

.101

.033

.866

36.08

Texas (prisol

Moss & Kennedy, 1929

338

200

59.17

95 28.11

40 11.83

3 0.89

.158

.066

.776

60.34

GUATEMALA Guatemalan

Guatemala

M. A. Cabrera, 1950

1600

1057

Indian

Guatemala

Sánchez (in M. A. Cabrera, 1950) 152

133

Indian

Guatemala

Aguirre et al., 1953

237

Indian

Guatemala

Tejada et al., 1959

40

40

100.00

Chol

Various

Tejada et al., 1961

24

21

Pocomam

Various

Tejada et al., 1961

132

Quiche

Various

Tejada et al., 1961

Mam

Various

Tejada et al., 1961

Alajuela, San Carlos

Fuentes L., 1961

Alajuela, San Carlos

Fuentes L., 1961

COSTA RICA Guatuso (pure) Guatuso (mixed)

3.33

66.06 360 22.50 154

9.63 29 1.81

87.50

6.58

9

5.92

10

O 0.00 .030 .010

O

.960 10.77

0.00

O

0.00

O 0.00 .000 .000 1.000 0.00

87.50

3 12.50

O

0.00

O 0.00 .065 .000 .935

121

91.67

7

5.30

4

3.03

O 0.00 .027 .015 .958

129

127

98.44

1

0.78

1

0.78

O 0.00 .004 .004 .992

70

65

92.85

3

4.29

2

2.86

O 0.00 .022 .014 .964

65

65

100.00

O

0.00

O

0.00

O 0.00 .000 .000 1.000 0.00

6

75.00

1

12.50

1 12.50

O 0.00 .069 .069

.862

37.16

TABLE 2—DISTRIBUTION OF A-B-O BLOOD GROUPS IN INDIANS OF MIDDLE AMERICA (SUBGROUPS OF GROUP A SHOWN)

Population MEXICO: Maya Chol Itza Maya Lacandon Lacandon Tzeltal Tzotzil Tzotzil

Mixtec Mixe

O

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Al Β A2 A1B No. % No. % No. % No. %

A2B No. %

Gene Frequencies P2 q

Calculated Percentage Admixture

Investigator

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959

15

13

86.67

0

0.00 2 13.33

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00

.000 .069 .000

.931

18.61

Yucatan

Matson & Swanson, 1959

67

58

86.57

4

5.97 2

2.99

0

0.00 2 2.98

1 1.49

.045 .024 .022

.909

24.58

San Quintín & Mt. Libano, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959

33

32

96.97

1

3.03 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00

.000 .015 .000

.985

4.12

Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1961

61

61 100.00

0

0.00 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00

.000 .000 .000 1.000

0.00

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959

111

110

99.10

1

0.90 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00

.004 .000 .000

.996

1.18

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959

91

89

97.80

0

0.00 0

0.00

2

2.20 0 0.00 0 0.00 .000 .000 .011

.989

2.99

San Pablo Chalchihuitan

Matson & Swanson, 1961

80

79

98.75

1

1.25 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00

.006 .000 .000

.994

1.70

Matson & Swanson, 1959, 1960

81

54

66.67 19 23.46 1

1.23

7

8.64 0 0.00 0 0.00 .126 .007 .044

.828

47.75

Matson & Swanson, 1959,1960

45

45 100.00

0

0.00 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 .000 .000 .000 1.000

0.00

Matson & Swanson, 1959

19

16

84.21

0

0.00 0

0.00

2 10.53 0 0.00

Matson & Swanson, 1960

54

54 100.00

0

0.00 0

0.00

0

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Suchiapa, Chiapas Chinantec

Total Number Tested

Location

Oaxaca Oaxaca Oaxaca

No.

%

1 5.26

P1

.000 .026 .081

r

.893

28.97

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00

.000 .000 .000 1.000

0.00

Toltec

Tuxpan, Jalisco

Wiener et al., 1945

98

89

90.80

6

6.10 0

0.00

3

3.10 0 0.00 0 0.00

.031 .000 .015

.954

12.35

Totonac

Papanda, Veracruz

Matson & Swanson, 1959

45

41

91.11

3

6.67 0

0.00

1

2.22 0 0.00 0 0.00 .034 .000 .011

.955

12.25

Oaxaca

Matson & Swanson, 1959

143

109

76.22 18 12.50 3

2.10

12

8.39 1 0.70 0 0.00

.873

34.11

Zapotec

.069 .011 .047

(Continued on next page)

(Table 2, continued)

Population

Zoque GUATEMALA Cakchiquel

Location

Investigator

San Fernando, Chiapas Matson & Swanson, 1960

Total Number Tested

O No.

%

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes A1 A2 Β A1B No. % No. % No. % No. %

Gene Frequencies

A2B

No. %

P1

P2

q

r

Calcidated Percentage Admixture

31

29

93.55

1

3.23 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 1 3.23 .016 .008 .008

.967

9.12

Solola, Patzicia, & Chimaltenango

Matson & Swanson, 1961,1963b

159

151

94.97

4

2.52 0

0.00

4

2.52 0 0.00 0 0.00 .013 .000 .013

.974

9.31

Kekchi

Coban

Matson & Swanson, 1961,1963b

162

154

95.06

4

2.47 1

0.62

2

1.23 1 0.62 0 0.00 .016 .006 .012

.966

9.18

Mam

Huehuetenango, San Juan Ostuncalco, San Martin Sacatepequez

Matson & Swanson, 1959,1961,1963b

140

134

95.71

5

3.57 1

0.72

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 .016 .006 .000

.978

9.42

Chichicastenango Quiche, Totonicapan & Quezaltenango

Matson & Swanson, 1959 203

188. 92.61 13

6.40 0

0.00

2

0.99 0 0.00 0 0.00 .033 .000 .005

.962

10.12

Jacon, Yoro

Matson & Swanson, 1963c

194

126

64.95 30 15.46 5

2.58 26 13.40 4 2.06 3 1.55 .091 .023 .089

.797

54.13

Matson & Swanson, 1963c

152

138

90.79

2

1.32 8

5.26

4

2.63 0 0.00 0 0.00 .007 .027 .013

.953

12.57

Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963c

53

50

94.34

1

1.89 2

3.77

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 .010 .019 .000

.971

7.73

Santa Isabel

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

77

71

92.21

4

5.19 1

1.30

1

1.30 0 0.00 0 0.00 .026 .007 .007

.960

10.64

Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

150

135

90.00 12

8.00 1

0.67

2

1.33 0 0.00 0 0.00 .041 .003 .007

.949

13.73

Rama Cay

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

38

37

97.37

0

0.00 1

2.63

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 .000 .013 .000

.987

3.55

Caurudrusban, Umbra

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

103

103 100.00

0

0.00 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 .000 .000 .000 1.000

0.00

Leon

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

29

2

6.90 0

0.00

2

6.90 0 0.00 0 0.00 .035 .000 .035

Quiche

HONDURAS Jicaque Lenca Paya NICARAGUA Chorotega Miskto Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Intibuca

25

86.21

.930

18.90

BRITISH HONDURAS Maya San Antonio, Toledo District

Matson & Swanson, 1964

248

230

92.74

2

0.81 2

0.81 14

5.64 0 0.00 0 0.00 .004 .004 .029

.963

9.96

Crique Sarco, Toledo District

Matson & Swanson, 1964

119

117

98.32

2

1.68 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 .009 .000 .000

.991

2.29

COSTA RICA Bribri

Salitre

Matson & Swanson, 1965a

50

50 100.00

0

0.00 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 .000 .000 .000 1.000

0.00

Cabecar

Ujarras

Matson & Swanson, 1965a

62

62 100.00

0

0.00 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 .000 .000 .000 1.000

0.00

Matson & Swanson, 1965a

56

53

94.64

1

1.79 0

0.00

2

3.57 0 0.00 0 0.00 .009 .000 .018

.973

7.32

Matson & Swanson, 1965a

40

40 100.00

0

0.00 0

0.00

0

0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 .000 .000 .000 1.000

0.00

Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b

240

240 100.00

O 0.00 O 0.00

O 0.00 O 0.00 O 0.00 .000 .000 .000 1.000

0.00

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands

Matson & Swanson, 1965b

388

388 100.00

O 0.00 O 0.00

O 0.00 O 0.00 O 0.00 .000 .000 .000 1.000

0.00

Darien

Matson & Swanson, 1965b

80

80 100.00

O 0.00 O 0.00

O 0.00 O 0.00 O 0.00 .000 .000 .000 1.000

0.00

Kekchi

Bonica

Curres

Terraba

Terrabas

PANAMA Guaymi San Blas Choco

TABLE 3—MN PHENOTYPES AND GENE FREQUENCIES AMONG INDIANS IN MIDDLE AMERICA Population

Location

Investigator

Total Number Tested

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Μ MN Ν No. % No. % No.

%

Gene Frequencies Μ Ν

MEXICO Toltec

Tuxpan, Jalisco

Wiener et al., 1945

98

60

61.22

35

35.71

3

3.06

.791

.209

Chamula

San Juan, Chamula

Salazar-Mallén & Arteaga, 1951

63

40

63.49

21

33.33

2

3.18

.802

.198

Huastec

Tancanhuitz

Salazar-Mallén & Arteaga, 1951

49

43

87.75

4

8.16

2

4.08

.918

.082

Mexican

Mexico City

Salazar-Mallén & Arteaga, 1951

107

62

57.94

42

39.25

3

2.80

.776

.224

Mexican

Mexico City

Salazar-Mallén & Arteaga, 1951

196

102

52.04

75

38.27

19

9.69

.712

.288

(Continued on next page)

(Table 3, continued) Location

Population

Investigator

Total Number Tested

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Μ MN Ν No. % No. % No. %

Gene Frequeiacies Ν Μ

Otomi

Remedios, Hidalgo

Salazar-Mallén & Arteaga, 1951

81

60

74.07

20

24.69

1

1.24

.864

.136

Totonac

Papantla, Veracruz

Salazar-Mallén & Arteaga, 1951

71

45

63.38

21

29.57

5

7.04

.782

.218

Tarahumara

Chihuahua

Echeverria, 1956

.720

.280

Tarascan

Paracho, Janitzio

Arteaga et al., 1952

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959

Itza Maya

Yucatan

Matson & Swanson, 1959

Lacandon

San Qmntin & Mt. Libano, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959

Lacandon

Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1961

Tzeltal

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959

Tzotzil

San Pablo Chalchihuitan

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec

75

57

76.00

13

17.33

5

6.66

.847

.153

15

11

73.33

4

26.67

0

0.00

.867

.133

67

34

50.75

25

37.31

8

11.94

.694

.306

33

23

69.70

8

24.24

2

6.06

.818

.182

61

19

31.15

25

40.98

17

27.87

.516

.484

111

69

62.16

39

35.14

3

2.70

.797

.203

91

53

58.24

30

32.97

8

8.79

.747

.253

Matson & Swanson, 1961

80

28

35.00

35

43.75

17

21.25

.369

.431

Suchiapa, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959,1960

81

36

44.44

31

38.27

14

17.28

.636

.364

Chinantec

Oaxaca

Matson & Swanson, 1960

45

11

24.45

22

48.88

12

26.67

.489

.511

Mixtee

Oaxaca

Matson & Swanson, 1959

19

10

52.63

6

31.58

3

15.79

.684

.316

Mixe

Oaxaca

Matson & Swanson, 1960

54

19

35.18

33

61.12

2

3.70

.657

.343

Totonac

Papantla, Veracruz

Matson & Swanson, 1959

45

35

77.78

8

17.78

2

4.44

.867

.133

Zapotee

Oaxaca

Matson & Swanson, 1959

143

77

53.85

49

34.26

17

11.89

.710

.290

Zoque

San Femando, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1960

31

5

16.13

19

61.29

7

22.58

.468

.532

Tarascan

Patzcuaro, Michoacan

Rodríguez H. et al., 1962

124

Μ and MN 115 91.00%

11

9.00

.700

.300

Mixtee

Tlaxiaco& Jamiltepec, Oaxaca

Rodríguez H. et al., 1962

129

119

10

7.75

.722

.278

MEXICO: Maya Chol

Tzotzil

92.25%

San Juan Tepulco, Santa Ursula Xiconquia, Huixcolatla & Teopantlan, Puebla

Rodríguez H. et al, 1962

Various

Aguirre et al., 1953

Solola, Chimaltenango, Patzicia

Matson & Swanson, 1959, 1960, 1961,1963b

159

65

40.88

82

51.57

12

Kekchi

Coban

Matson & Swanson, 1961,1963b

162

72

44.45

75

46.29

Mam

Huehuetenango, San Juan Ostuncalco, San Martin Sacatepequez

Matson & Swanson, 1961,1963b

140

63

45.00

62

203

112

55.17

Nahoa

GUATEMALA Indian Cakchiquel

Quiche

172

Chichicastenango, Quiche, Totonicapan & Quezaltenango Matson & Swanson, 1959

HONDURAS

90.70%»

156

16

.695

.305

.780

.220

7.55

.667

.333

15

9.26

.676

.324

44.29

15

10.71

.673

.327

74

36,46

17

8.37

.734

.266

9,30

86

Jicaque

Jacon, Yoro

Matson & Swanson, 1963c

194

84

43.29

86

44.32

24

12.37

.655

.345

Lenca

Intibuca

Matson & Swanson, 1963c

152

88

57.90

56

36.84

8

5.27

.763

.237

Paya NICARAGUA Chorotega

Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963c

53

28

52.83

22

41.50

3

5.66

.736

.264

Santa Isabel

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

77

41

53.25

32

41.56

4

5.20

.740

.260

Miskito

Saupuka, Bilwas Ulwas

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

150

87

58.00

57

38.00

6

4.00

.770

.230

Rama

Rama Cay

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

37

11

29.74

15

40.54

11

29.73

.500

.500

Sumo

Caurudrusban, Umbra

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

103

83

80.58

19

18.43

1

0.99

.898

.102

Subtiaba

Leon

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

29

19

65.51

7

24.14

3

10.35

.776

.224

BRITISH HONDURAS Maya San Antonio, Toledo

Matson & Swanson, 1964

248

126

50.81

95

38.31

27

10.89

.700

.300

Kekchi

Crique Sarco, Toledo

Matson & Swanson, 1964

119

63

52.94

45

37.82

11

9.24

.718

.282

COSTA RICA Guatuso

Alajuela, San Carlos

Fuentes L., 1961

65

20

30.77

29

44.62

16

24.61

.563

.437

Bribri

Salitre

Matson & Swanson, 1965

50

21

42.00

25

50.00

4

8.00

.670

.330

Cabecar

Ujarras

Matson & Swanson, 1965

62

57

91.94

5

8.06

0

0.00

.960

.040

(Continued on next page)

(Table 3, continued) Population

Location

Investigator

Total Number Tested

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Μ MN Ν No. % No. % No.

%

Gene Frequencies Μ Ν

51.79

4

7.14

.670

.330

15

37.50

4

10.00

.713

.287

50.77

163

42.01

28

7.22

.718

.282

33

41.25

35

43.75

12

15.00

.631

.369

116

48.33

103

42.92

21

8.75

.698

.302

Boruca

Curres

Matson & Swanspn, 1965a

56

23

41.07

29

Terraba

Terrabas

Matson & Swanson, 1965a

40

21

52.50

PANAMA San Blas

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands

Matson & Swanson, 1965b

388

197

Choco

Darien

Matson & Swanson, 1965b

80

Guaymi

Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b

240

TABLE 4—INCIDENCE OF S-s PHENOTYPES IN INDIANS OF MIDDLE AMERICA (USING ANTI-S SERUM ONLY)

Population

Total Number Tested

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes SS & Ss s No. % Ño %

Gene Frequencies

Location

Investigator

Itza Maya

Yucatan

Matson & Swanson, 1959

62

39

62.90

23

37.10

.391

.609

Tzeltal

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959

22

16

72.73

6

27.27

.478

.522

Tzotzil San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas MEXICO: Non-Maya Mixtec Oaxaca

Matson & Swanson, 1959

25

15

60.00

10

40.00

.367

.633

Matson & Swanson, 1959

15

12

80.00

3

20.00

.553

.447

Totonac

Papantla, Veracruz

Matson & Swanson, 1959

45

22

48.89

23

51.11

.285

.715

Mexican

Mexico, D.F.

Salazar-Mallén & Arteaga, 1951

100

51

51.00

49

49.00

.300

.700

Tarascan

Paracho & Janitzio

Salazar-Mallen & Arteaga, 1951

94

41

43.62

53

56.38

.249

.751

Otomi

Remedios, Hidalgo

Salazar-Mallén & Arteaga, 1951

69

29

42.03

40

59.97

.241

.759

S

s

MEXICO: Maya

TABLE 5—INCIDENCE OF S-s PHENOTYPES AND GENE FREQUENCIES IN AMONG INDIANS IN MIDDLE AMERICA

(USING ANTI-s AND ANTI-s SERUMS)

Population

Location

Investigator

Total Number Tested

Number a nd Per centage of Phenoltypes SS Ss ss No. No. No. % % %

Ge ne Freque ncies S s

MEXICO: Maya Lacandon

Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1961

61

0

0.00

10

16.39

51

84.61

.082

.818

Tzotzil

San Pablo Chalchihuitan

Matson & Swanson, 1961

80

11

13.75

30

37.50

39

48.75

.325

.675

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec

Suchiapa, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1960

40

6

15.00

12

30.00

22

55.00

.300

.700

Chinantec

Oaxaca

Matson & Swanson, 1960

45

5

11.10

21

46.66

19

42.22

.344

.656

Mixe

Oaxaca

Matson & Swanson, 1960

54

11

20.37

25

46.30

18

33.33

.435

.565

Zoque

San Fernando, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1960

31

5

16.14

11

35.48

15

48.38

.339

.661

GUATEMALA Cakchiquel

Patzicia, Chimaltenango

Matson & Swanson, 1961, 1963a, b

150

27

18.00

52

34.66

71

47.34

.353

.647

Kekchi

Coban

Matson & Swanson, 1961, 1963a, b

162

15

9.26

64

39.50

83

51.24

.290

.710

Mam

San Juan, San Martin

Matson & Swanson, 1961, 1963a, b

116

11

9.48

44

37.93

61

52.59

.284

.716

HONDURAS Jicaque

Jacon, Yoro

Matson & Swanson, 1963c

194

28

14.43

86

44.32

80

41.23

.366

.634

Lenca

Intibuca

Matson & Swanson, 1963c

152

36

23.03

73

48.03

44

28.95

.462

.538

Paya

Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963c

53

5

9.43

25

47.17

23

43.39

.330

.670

NICARAGUA Chorotega

Santa Isabel

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

77

11

14.29

34

44.16

32

41.56

.364

.636

Miskito

Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

150

28

18.67

91

60.67

31

20.66

.490

.510

Rama

Rama Cay

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

37

6

16.22

15

40.54

16

43.25

.365

.635

Sumo

Caurudnisban, Umbra

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

103

71

68.95

30

29.11

2

1.94

.835

.165

Subtiaba

Leon

Matson & Swanson, 1963d

29

5

17.24

15

51.72

9

31.04

.431

.569

(Continued on next page)

(Table 5, continued)

Population

Total Number Tested

Investigator

Location

Gene Freque]ncies S s

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes ss SS Ss No. No. No. % % %

BRITIΉS HONDURAS San Antonio, Toledo Maya

Matson & Swanson, 1964

248

31

12.50

120

48.39

97

39.11

.367

.633

Kekchi

Crique Sarco, Toledo

Matson & Swanson, 1964

119

7

5.88

58

48.74

54

45.38

.303

.697

COSTA RICA Bribri

Salitre

Matson & Swanson, 1965a

50

8

16.00

20

40.00

22

44.00

.360

.640

Cabecar

Ujarras

Matson & Swanson, 1965a

62

10

16.13

37

59.68

15

24.19

.460

.540

Boruca

Curres

Matson & Swanson, 1965a

56

6

10.71

26

46.43

24

42.86

.339

.661

Terraba

Terrabas

Matson & Swanson, 1965a

40

3

7.50

13

32.50

24

60.00

.237

.763

PANAMA San Blas

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands

Matson & Swanson, 1965b

388

54

13.92

148

38.14

186

47.94

.330

.670

Choco

Darien

Matson & Swanson, 1965b

80

11

13.75

29

36.25

40

50.00

.319

.681

Cuaymi

Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b

240

25

10.42

102

42.50

113

47.08

.317

.683

TABLE 6—INCIDENCE OF PHENOTYPES AND CHROMOSOME FREQUENCIES IN THE MN-Ss SYSTEM IN INDIANS OF MIDDLE AMERICA

Population

Total NumberSS Tested No. %

Μ Ss No. %

MEXICO: Maya Lacandon Tzotzil

61 80

0 7

0.00 8.75

3 10

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixe Zoque

40 45 54 31

3 1 2 1

7.50 2.22 3.70 3.23

3 6 9 2

No.

%

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes MN SS Ss SS No. % No. % No. No.

Chromosome Frequencies

Ν Ss No.

%

No.

%

MS

Ms

NS

Ns

16 26.23 11 13.75

0 2

0.00 2.50

7 14

11.48 17.50

18 29.51 19 23.75

0 2

0.00 2.50

0 6

0.00 7.50

17 27.86 9 11.25

.082 .214

.434 .355

.000 .111

.484 .320

7.50 11 27.50 13.33 4 8.89 16.67 8 14.81 6.45 2 6.45

3 2 9 3

7.50 4.44 16.67 9.68

7 11 15 7

17.50 24.44 27.78 22.58

6 15.00 9 20.00 9 16.67 9 29.03

0 2 0 1

0.00 4.44 0.00 3.23

2 4 1 2

5.00 8.89 1.85 6.45

5 12.50 6 13.33 1 1.85 4 12.90

.227 .176 .315 .317

.398 .313 .342 .381

.073 .168 .120 .452

.302 .343 .223 .380

4.92 12.50

GUATEMALA Cakchiquel Kekchi Mam

150 162 116

9 8 3

Various* Chol Pocomam* Quiche* Mam*

120 30 80 80 70

40 2 24 22 6

6.00 20 13.33 4.94 33 20.37 2.59 20 17.24 S and Ss 33.30% 16.67% 30.00% 27.50% 8.57%

HONDURAS Jicaque Lenca Paya

194 152 53

15 15 3

7.73 9.87 5.66

NICARAGUA Chorotega Miskito Rama Sumo Subtíaba

77 150 37 103 29

3 3.90 21 28 18.67 51 2 5.41 6 66 64.08 17 3 10.34 10

BRITISH HONDURAS Maya Kekchi

248 119

15 1

COSTA RICA Bribri Cabecar Boruca Terraba PANAMA San Blas Choco Guaymi

50 62 56 40 388 80 240

6.05 0.84

33 22.00 31 19.14 27 23.28 20 18 19 21 26

14 7 7

16.60 60.00 23.75 26.25 37.14

37 19.07 32 16.49 44 28.95 29 19.08 13 24.53 12 22.64

27 2 11 18 9 10 19 2

17 22.08 8 5.33 3 8.11 0 0.00 6 20.69

8 0 3 4 1

63 25.40 48 19.35 33 27.73 29 24.37

15 6

27.27 34.00 16.22 16.50 34.48

2 4.00 11 22.00 10 16.13 32 51.61 2 3.57 10 17.86 7 17.50 1 2.50

8 16.00 15 24.19 11 19.64 13 32.50

34 8.76 80 20.62 83 21.39 10 12.50 11 13.75 12 15.00 19 7.92 54 22.50 43 17.92

9.33 26 17.33 4.32 28 17.28 6.03 16 13.79 S and Ss 22.5% 6.67% 13.75% 22.50% 12.85%

37 24.67 40 24.69 28 24.14

4 0 1

24 6 19 14 22

20.00 20.00 23.75 17.50 31.43

5.15 39 20.10 37 12.50 23 15.13 14 3.77 11 20.75 9

1 12 6

0.67 7.41 5.17

.175 .495 .254 .422 .169 .482

.179 .036 .115

5 1 3 2 4

2.67 6 4.00 0.00 3 1.85 0.86 8 6.90 S and Ss 4.10% 3.33% 3.75% 2.50% 5.71%

4 1 4 3 3

3.30 3.33 5.00 3.75 4.28

.031 .769 .221 .504 .242 .495 .044 .635

.057 .143 .055 .220 .069 .194 .103 .218

19.07 9.21 16.98

3 1 0

1.55 0.66 0.00

10 6 1

5.15 3.95 1.89

11 1 2

5.67 0.66 3.77

.254 .344 .281

.401 .419 .455

.112 .233 .127 .110 .049 .215

13 17 7 2 2

16.88 11.33 18.92 1.94 6.90

0 0 1 1 1

0.00 0.00 2.70 0.99 3.45

2 0 4 0 1

2.60 0.00 10.81 0.00 3.45

2 6 6 0 1

2.60 4.00 16.22 0.00 3.45

.287 .453 .490 .280 .228 .272 .741 .157 .321 .455

.077 .183 .000 .230 .137 .363 .094 .008 .110 .114

18.95 33 15.13 21

13.31 17.65

1 0

0.40 0.00

10 7

4.03 5.88

16 4

6.45 3.36

.292 .264

.408 .455

.075 .225 .103 .178

12 24.00 0 0.00 11 19.64 10 25.00

0 0 0 1

0.00 0.00 0.00 2.50

2 0 2 2

4.00 0.00 3.57 5.00

2 0 2 1

4.00 0.00 3.57 2.50

.241 .429 .150 .180 .326 .634 .014 .026 .165 .505 .072 .258 .169 .543 .069 .219

3.87 66 17.01 82 21.13 0.00 13 16.35 22 27.50 2.50 44 18.33 53 22.08

5 1 0

1.29 1.25 0.00

2 5 4

0.52 6.25 1.67

21 6 17

5.41 7.50 7.08

.235 .201 .221

10.39 11 14.29 0.00 40 26.67 5 13.51 8.11 3.88 13 12.61 3.45 4 13.79 6.05 5.04

6 12.00 0 0.00 4 7.14 1 2.50 15 0 6

* Tejada et al., 1959; all others, Matson and Swanson, 1959, 1960, 1961.

47 18

7 14.00 8.06 5 14 25.00 4 10.00

.151 .288 .233

.483 .092 .190 .430 .118 .251 .477 .096 .206

TABLE 7—INCIDENCE OF ANTIGENS AND GENE FREQUENCIES IN THE Ρ SYSTEM AMONG INDIANS IN MIDDLE AMERICA

Population MEXICO: Maya Chol Itza Maya Lacandon Lacandon Tzeltal Tzotzil Tzotzil

Location

Investigator

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes

Total P1+ Number Tested No. %

P1 —

No.

%

Gene Frequencies

P1

p2

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas Yucatan San Quintín & Mt. Libano, Chiapas Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Pablo Chalchihuitan, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961

15 67 33 61 101 75 80

9 45 24 47 68 54 67

60.00 67.16 72.73 77.05 67.33 72.00 83.75

6 22 9 14 33 21 13

40.00 32.84 27.27 22.95 32.67 28.00 16.25

.367 .633 .427 .573 .478 .522 .521 .479 .428 .572 .471 .529 .597 .403

Suchiapa, Chiapas Oaxaca Oaxaca Oaxaca Tuxpan Papantla, Veracruz Oaxaca San Fernando, Chiapas Patzcuaro, Michoacan Tlaxiaco & Jamiltepec, Oaxaca San Juan Tepulco, Santa Ursula Xiconquia, Huixcolatla & Teopantlan, Puebla

Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Wiener et al., 1945 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Rodriguez H. et al, 1962 Rodriguez H. et al, 1962 Rodriguez H. et al., 1962

40 45 16 54 95 45 43 30 124 129 172

35 41 12 38 75 27 28 22 85 78 96

87.50 91.11 75.00 70.37 78.90 60.00 65.12 73.33 68.55 60.47 55.81

5 4 4 16 20 18 15 8 39 51 76

12.50 8.89 25.00 29.63 21.10 40.00 34.88 26.67 31.45 39.53 44.19

.646 .702 .500 .456 .541 .367 .409 .484 .439 .371 .335

.354 .298 .500 .544 .459 .633 .591 .516 .561 .629 .665

GUATEMALA Various Chol Pocomam Quiche Mam Cakchiquel Kelcchi Mam

Various places Various places Various places Various places Various places Chimaltenango, Patzicia Coban San Juan Ostuncalco, San Martín Sacatepequez

Tejada et al., 1959 Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b

120 30 80 80 70 150 162 116

85 23 59 55 38 116 137 89

70.80 76.67 78.75 68.75 54.29 77.33 84.57 76.72

35 7 21 25 32 34 25 27

29.10 23.33 26.25 31.25 45.71 22.67 15.43 23.28

.461 .571 .488 .441 .324 .524 .607 .518

.539 .483 .512 .559 .676 .476 .393 .482

HONDURAS Jieaque Lenca Paya

Jacon, Yoro Intíbuca Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963e Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c

194 152 53

154 128 36

79.38 84.21 67.92

40 24 17

20.62 15.79 32.08

.546 .693 .434

.454 .397 .566

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixtec Mixe Toltec Totonac Zapotec Zoque Tarasean Mixtee Nahoa

NICARAGUA Chorotega Miskito Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Santa Isabel Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas Rama Cay Caunidnisban, Umbra Leon

Matson & Matson & Matson & Matson & Matson &

BRITISH HONDURAS Maya Kekchi

San Antonio, Toledo Crique Sarco, Toledo

Matson & Swanson, 1964 Matson & Swanson, 1964

COSTA RICA Bribri Cabecar Boruca Terraba

Salitre Ujarras Curres Terrabas

Matson & Matson & Matson & Matson &

PANAMA San Blas Choco Guaymi

Swanson, Swanson, Swanson, Swanson, Swanson,

1963d I963d 1963d 1963d 1963d

77 150 37 103 29

58 128 31 64 21

75.32 85.33 83.78 62.14 72.41

19 22 6 39 8

24.68 14.67 16.22 37.86 27.59

.503 .617 .597 .385 .475

.497 .383 .403 .615 .525

247 119

198 106

80.16 89.08

49 13

19.84 10.92

.555 .669

.445 .331

1965a 1965a 1965a 1965a

50 62 56 40

42 61 51 38

84.00 98.39 91.07 95.00

8 1 5 2

16.00 1.61 8.93 5.00

.600 .873 .705 .776

.400 .127 .295 .224

Aligandi and Ustupo Islands Darien Cerro Iglesia and Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b

388 80 240

328 63 197

84.54 78.75 82.08

60 17 43

15.46 21.25 17.92

.607 .539 .577

.393 .461 .423

OTHER INDIANS Chippewa Blood

Minnesota Alberta

Matson, Koch & Levine, 1954 Chown & Lewis, 1953

84.50

25

15.50

.606

.394

Caraja Diegueño

Brazil California

Pantin & Junqueira, 1952 Pantin & Kallsen, 1953

136 161 400 (approx.) 73 30 33 58

85.00 41.10 57.00

43 25

15.00 58.90 43.00

.613 .233 .444

.387 .767 .556

Swanson, Swanson, Swanson, Swanson,

TABLE 8—DISTRIBUTION OF Rh BLOOD GROUPS AND CHROMOSOME FREQUENCIES IN INDIANS OF MEXICO SAMPLES TESTED WITH ANTI-rh' (ANTI-C), ANTI-Rho (ANTI-D) AND ANTI-rh" (ANTI-E)

Population MEXICO Toltec

Location

Tuxpan, Jalisco

Investigator

Wiener et al., 1945

Percentage of Phenotypes Total Rh Rh2 Rh rhy rh' Rh 2 Rho rh" rh 1 1 Number Tested CDE CDee CddE Cddee ccDE ccDee ccddE ccddee 98

41.8

48.0

0.00

0.00

9.20

1.00

0.00

0.00

Chromosome Frequencies r" Ro R2 r'

R' CDe

Cde

cDE

cdE

cDe

r cde

.681

.000

.300

.000

.019

.000

TABLE 9—DISTRIBUTION OF Rh-Hr BLOOD GROUPS OF INDIANS IN MEXICO SAMPLES TESTED WITH ANTI-rh' (ANTI-C), ANTI-Rho (ANTI-D), ANTI-rh" (ANTI-E) and ANTI-hr' (ANTI-c)

Population MEXICO Mexican Tarascan Chamula

Location

Investigator

Mexico, D.F. Arteaga et al., Paracho, Janitzio Arteaga et al., San Juan Chamula, Chiapas Arteaga et a l , Hidalgo Arteaga et a l , Arteaga et a l , Tancanhuitz Arteaga et al., Papantla, Veracruz Arteaga et a l ,

Otomi Mexican Huastec Totonac

Total Number RhzRh1 Tested ' CCDE

Rh 1 Rh 1 CCDee

Percentage of ]Phenotypes Rh1rh" rhyrh' rh'rh' Rh1rh Rh1Rh2 rh'rh CcDee CcDeE Ccddee CCddEe CCddee CcdDE

Rh2rh ccDE

Rho ccDee

rh"rh ccddE

rh ccddee

1952* 1952

619 111

7.92 40.54

24.88 32.43

0.32 1.80

0.32 1.80

24.39 18.02

16.92 5.41

0.97 0.00

0.49 0.00

13,09 0.00

3.39 0.00

0.81 0.00

6.46 0.00

1952 1952 1952 1952 1952

57 79 99 50 150

12.28 10.13 4.04 6.00 8.67

33.33 29.11 27.27 24.00 25.33

1.75 1.26 0.00 2.00 0.00

7.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

3.51 30.38 33.33 46.00 55.33

1.75 6.33 6.06 2.00 4.66

0.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 1.01 0.00 0.00

40.35 21.52 21.21 18.00 6.00

0.00 1.27 6.06 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 1.01 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

* As noted by the authors, the Rh chromosome frequencies could be calculated from the data for only 619 Mexicans in Mexico, D.F. The following percentage values have been taken from Mourant's tables (1954) for Rh chromosome frequencies of this population: RZ (CDE)—6.30%, R1 (CDe)—45.68%, ry (CdE)—1.97%, r' (Cde) —0.89%, R2 (cDE)—17.56%, r' (cdE)—1.71%, Ro (cDe)—4.92%, and r (cde)—20.96%.

TABLE 10—DISTRIBUTION OF Rh-Hr BLOOD GROUPS IN INDIANS OF MIDDLE AMERICA SAMPLES TESTED WITH ANTI-rh' (ANTI-C), ANTI-Rho (ANTI-D), ANTI-rh" (ANTI-E), ANTI-hr' (ANTI-c), and ANTI-hr" (ANTI-e)·

Population

Location

Investigator

Tntal Rh z Rh z RhzRh1 Number CCDEE CCDEe

Tested MEXICO: Maya Chol Itza Maya Lacandon

San Cristobal de Matson & Swanson, las Casas, Chiapas 1959 Yucatan Matson & Swanson, 1959 San Quintin & Mt. Matson & Swanson, Líbano, Chiapas 1959

No./% No./%

Rh 1 Rh 1 CCDee

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Rh z Rh 2 Rh 1 Rh 2 Rh1rh rh'rh Rh 2 Rh 2 CcDEE CcDEe CcDee Ccddee ccDEE

Rh2rh ccDEe

Rho ccDee

No./%

No./%

No./%

No./%

No./%

No./%

No./%

No./% No./%

rh ccddee

15

0/0.00

1/6.67

3/20.00

0/0.00

5/33.33

1/6.67

0/0.00

4/26.66

1/6.67

0/0.00 0/0.00

67

0/0.00

0/0.00

16/23.88

0/0.00

32/47.76

5/7.46

0/0.00

5/7.46

9/13.44

0/0.00 0/0.00

33

0/0.00

0/0.00

4/12.12

1/3.03

14/42.42

0/0.00

0/0.00

13/39.39

3/3.03

0/0.00 0/0.00

•None of the following phenotypes were observed: rhyrhy (CCddEE), rhyrh' (CCddEe), rh'rh' (CCddee), rhyrh" (CcddEE), rh'rh" (CcddEe), rh"rh" (ccddEE), rh"rh (ceddEe).

Lacandon Tzeltal Tzotzil Tzotzil MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixtec Mixe Totonac Zapotee Zoque Tarascan Mixtee Nahoa

Naja & Lacanja, Matson & Swanson, 60 Chiapas 1961 San Cristobal de Matson & Swanson, las Casas, Chiapas 1959 111 San Cristobal de Matson & Swanson, las Casas, Chiapas 1959 91 San Pablo Matson & Swanson, Chalchihuitan 1961 80

Matson & Swanson, 1959-60 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, Oaxaca 1959 Matson & Swanson, Oaxaca 1960 Matson & Swanson, Papantla, Veracruz 1959 Oaxaca Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, San Femando 1960 Patzcuaro, Rodríguez H. Michoacan et al, 1962 Rodríguez H. Tlaxiaco & Jamiltepec, Oaxaca et al., 1962 San Juan Tepulco, Rodríguez H. Santa Ursula et al., 1962 Xiconquia, Huixcolatla & Teopantlan, Puebla Suchiapa, Chiapas Oaxaca

GUATEMALA Cakchiquel Chimaltenango, Patzicia Kekchi Coban Mam

San Juan, San Martin

Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b

0/0.00

2/3.33

17/28.33

1/1.67

25/41.67

0/0.00

0/0.00

12/20.00

3/5.00

0/0.00 0/0.00

0/0.00

0/0.00

30/27.03

0/0.00

47/42.34

7/6.30

0/0.00

21/18.92

6/5.41

0/0.00 0/0.00

0/0.00

5/5.49

22/24.18

1/1.09

45/49.45

3/3.30

0/0,00

12/13.19

3/3.30

0/0.00 0/0.00

0/0.00

1/1.25

15/18.75

0/0.00

36/45.00

3/3.75

0/0.00

22/27.50

2/2.50

1/1.25 0/0.00

81

0/0.00

2/2.47

21/25.93

1/1.24

27/33.33

9/11.11 0/0.00

6/7.41

12/14,81

1/1.23 2/2.47

45

0/0.00 10/22.22

9/20.00

2/4.44

16/35.56

0/0.00

0/0.00

7/15.56

1/2.22

0/0.00 0/0.00

19

0/0.00

0/0.00

7/36.84

0/0.00

8/42.11

1/5.26

0/0.00

2/10.53

1/5.26

0/0.00 0/0.00

54

1/1.85

1/1.85

13/24.07

1/1.85

24/44.44

0/0.00

0/0.00

14/25.93

0/0.00

0/0.00 0/0.00

45

0/0.00

2/4.44

12/26.67

0/0.00

16/35.55

4/8.89

0/0.00

8/17.78

3/6.67

0/0.00 0/0.00

142

0/0.00

1/0.70

26/18.31

0/0.00

62/43.66 23/16.20 0/0.00

21/14.79

9/6.34

0/0.00 0/0.00

30

0/0.00

0/0.00

5/16.67

0/0.00

16/53.33

0/0.00

6/20.00

2/6.67

0/0.00 0/0.00

124

2/1.64

4/3.28

38/30.33

4/3.28

35/27.87 23/18.85 0/0.00

9/7.38

7/5.74

2/1.64 0/0.00

129

3/0.00

5/3.88

46/35.65

3/2.33

50/38.76

9/6.98

0/0.00

9/6.98

6/4.65

1/0.77 0/0.00

172

0/0.00 14/8.09

68/39.71

0/0.00

56/32.35 10/5.88

0/0.00

13/7.35

9/5.15

1/0.74 1/0.74

150

0/0.00

8/5.33

40/26.67

4/2.67

65/43.33

5/3.33

0/0.00

24/16.00

4/2.67

0/0.00 0/0.00

162

0/0.00

4/2.47

46/28.40

5/3.09

67/41.36

4/2.47

0/0.00

28/17.28

7/4.32

1/0.62 0/0.00

116

0/0.00

6/5.17

43/37.07

2/1.72

48/41.38

2/1.72

0/0.00

14/12.07

0/0.00

0/0.00 1/0.86

1/3.33

(Continued on next page)

(Table 10, continued) Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Population Quiche

Various

Location

Chichicastenango, Matson & Swanson, 1959 Quiche, TotoniTejada et al., 1959 capan & Quezaltenango Various

HONDURAS Jicaque Jacon, Yoro Lenca

Intibuca

Paya

Dulce Nombre de Culmi

NICARAGUA Chorotega Santa Isabel Miskito Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas Rama Cay Caurudrusban, Umbra Leon

BRITISH HONDURAS Maya San Antonio, Toledo Kekchi Crique Sarco, Toledo COSTA RICA Bribri

Investigator

Salitre

Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963d M&tson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d

Matson & Swanson, 1964 Matson & Swanson, 1964

Matson & Swanson, 1965a

rh ccddee

Total Rh z Rh z RhzRh1 Number CCDEE CCDEe

Rh 1 Rh 1 CCDee

Rh z Rh 2 CcDEE

Rh 1 Rh 2 CcDEe

Rh1rh CcDee

rh'rh Ccddee

Rh 2 Rh 2 ccDEE

Rh2rh ccDEe

Rho ccDee

Tested

No./% No./%

No./%

No./%

No./%

No./%

No./%

No./%

No./%

No./% No./%

203

0/0.00

4/1.97

67/33.00

3/1.48

87/42.86

5/2.46

0/0.00

31/15.27

6/2.96

0/0.00 0/0.00

40

4/10.0

1/2.5

17/42.5

0/0.00

8/20.00

2/5.0

0/0.00

7/17.5

194

1/0.52

5/2.58

37/19.07

8/4.12

37/19.07 46/23.71 0/0.00

13/6.70

152

0/0.00

2/1.32

29/19.08

2/1.32

63/41.45

5/3.29

1/0.66

40/26.32

8/5.26

1/0.66 1/0.66

53

0/0.00

1/1.89

18/33.96

1/1.89

14/26.42

8/15.09 0/0.00

8/15.09

3/5.66

0/0.00 0/0.00

77

0/0.00

7/9.09

26/33.77

1/1.30

26/33.77 10/12.99 0/0.00

5/6.49

2/2.60

0/0.00 0/0.00

150

0/0.00

3/2.00

39/26.00

0/0.00

40/26.67 43/28.67 0/0.00

12/8.00

10/6.67

3/2.00 0/0.00

38

0/0.00

0/0.00

16/42.11

0/0.00

15/39.47

5/13.16

1/2.63

0/0.00 0/0.00

103

0/0.00

4/3.88

61/59.22

0/0.00

20/19.42 15/14.56 0/0.00

1/0.97

0/0.00

2/1.94 0/0.00

29

0/0.00

3/10.34

11/37.93

0/0.00

2/6.90

5/17.24

0/0.00 0/0.00

248

0/0.00

1/0.40

84/33.87

0/0.00 100/40.32

3/1.21

0/0.00

52/20.97

8/3.23

0/0.00 0/0.00

119

0/0.00

1/0.84

37/31.09

1/0.84

62/52.11

2/1.68

0/0.00

14/11.76

2/1.68

0/0.00 0/0.00

50

0/0.00

0/0.00

12/24.00 0/0.00

20/40.00

0/0.00

0/0.00

11/22.00

7/14.00

0/0.00 0/0.00

3/10.34

1/2.63

0/0.00

5/17.24 0/0.00

1/2.5

0/0.00 0/0.00

25/12.89 19/9.79 3/1.55

Cabecar

Ujarras

Boruca

Curres

Terraba

Torrabas

Guatuso

Alajuela, San Carlos

PANAMA San Blas Choco Guaymi

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands Darien Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Fuentes L., 1961

Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b

62

0/0.00

0/0.00

17/27.42

0/0.00

25/40.32

9/14.52 0/0.00

6/9.68

5/8.06

0/0.00 0/0.00

56

0/0.00

0/0.00

15/26.78

0/0.00

28/50.00

2/3.57

0/0.00

9/16.07

1/1.79

0/0.00 1/1.79

40

0/0.00

0/0.00

5/12.50

0/0.00

15/37.50

5/12.50 0/0.00

5/12.50

9/22.50

1/2.50 0/0.00

65

1/2.00

2/3.00

10/15.00

5/8.00

0/0.00

20/30.00 0/0.00

19/29.00

7/11.00

1/2.00 0/0.00

0/0.00 10/2.58

203/52.32

388

1/0.26 128/32.99

8/2.06

0/0.00

34/8.76

4/1.03

0/0.00 0/0.00

80

0/0.00

1/1.25

33/41.25

1/1.25

32/40.00

2/2.50

0/0.00

2/2.50

8/10.00

1/1.25 0/0.00

240

0/0.00

4/1.67

179/74.58

0/0.00

45/18.75

9/3.75

0/0.00

3/1.25

0/0.00

0/0.00 0/0.00

TABLE 11—PERCENTAGE OF CHROMOSOME FREQUENCIES FOR Rh-Hr BLOOD GROUPS CALCULATED FROM DATA IN TABLE 10

Population

Location

Investigator

Total Number Rz Tested CDE

Percentage of Chromosome Frequencies R1 Ry r' R2 7' Ro and/or r CDe CdE Cde cDE cdE cDe and/or cde

MEXICO: Maya Chol Itza Maya Lacandon Lacandon Tzeltal Tzotzil Tzotzil

San Cristobal de la Casas, Chiapas Yucatan San Quintin & Mt. Libano, Chiapas Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Pablo Chalchihuitan

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961

15 67 33 60 111 91 80

.075 .000 .000 .031 .000 .056 .015

.392 .515 .348 .502 .513 .510 .429

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.292 .381 .652 .436 .428 .378 .504

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.241 .104 .000 .031 .059 .056 .052

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixtec Mixe Totonac Zapotec

Suchiapa, Chiapas Oaxaca Oaxaca Oaxaca Papantla, Veracruz Oaxaca

Matson & Swanson, 1959,1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959

81 45 19 54 45 142

.024 .248 .000 .136 .043 .082

.488 .374 .605 .373 .490 .471

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.316 .252 .342 .392 .368 .351

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.172 .126 .053 .099 .099 .096

(Continued on next page)

(Table 11, continued)

Population Zoque Tarascan Mixtec Nahoa

GUATEMALA Cakchiquel Kekchi Mam Quiche

Location

Investigator

Total Number Rz Tested CDE

R1 CDe

Percentage ; of Chromosome Frequencies R2 Ry r' 7' Ro and/or cdE cDe and/or CdE cDE Cde .500 .277 .297

.000

.050 .121 .067

San Fernando, Chiapas Patzcuaro, Michoacan Tlaxiaco & Jamiltepec, Oaxaca San Juan Tepulco, Santa Ursula Xiconquia, Huixcolatla & Teopantlan, Puebla

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Rodríguez H. et al., 1962 Rodríguez H. et al., 1962

30 124 129

.000 .030 .032

.450 .537 .603

Rodríguez H. et al., 1962

172

.064

.605

Chimaltenango, Patzicia Coban San Juan, San Martin Chichicastenango, Quiche, Totonicapan & Quezaltenango

Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b

150 162 116

.052 .023 .043

.515 .520 .604

.000 .000 .000

.000 .000 .000

.392 .421 .328

.000 .000 .000

.041 .036 .025

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Aguirre et al., 1953

203 235

.017 .070

.567 .480

.000 .000

.000 .050

.389 .280

.000 .000

.027 .120

Maya

.000

.000

.093

.237

HONDURAS Jicaque Lenca Paya

Jacon, Yoro Intibuca Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c

194 152 53

.030 .015 .016

.427 .382 .559

.000 .000 .000

.000 .041 .000

.256 .501 .324

.000 .000 .000

.287 .061 .101

NICARAGUA Chorotega Miskito Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Santa Isabel Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas Rama Cay Caurudrusban, Umbra Leon

Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson,

77 150 38 103 29

.078 .020 .000 .025 .084

.604 .537 .632 .776 .537

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.227 .237 .342 .101 .175

.000 .000 .000 .000 ,000

.091 .206 .026 .098 .204

BRITISH HONDURAS Maya Kekchi

San Antonio, Toledo District Crique Sarco, Toledo District

Matson & Swanson, 1964 Matson & Swanson, 1964

248 119

.003 .007

.547 .585

.000 .000

.000 .000

.426 .325

.000 .000

.024 .083

COSTA RICA Guatuso Bribri Cabecar Boruca Terraba

San Carlos Salitre Ujarras Curres Terrabas

Fuentes L., 1961 Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson,

1965a 1965a 1965a 1965a

65 50 62 56 40

.035 .000 .000 .000 .000

.355 .440 .548 .536 .375

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.575 .490 .339 .419 .425

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000

.035 .070 .113 .045 .200

PANAMA San Blas Choco Guaymi

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands Darien Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b

388 80 240

.004 .009 .010

.722 .635 .865

.000 .000 .000

.000 .000 .000

.268 .285 .105

.000 .000 .000

.006 .071 .020

1963d 1963d 1963d 1963d 1963d

r cde

TABLE 12—INCIDENCE OF THE V (ces) (hrv) ANTIGEN IN THE BLOOD IN INDIANS OF MIDDLE AMERICA (OTHER POPULATIONS SHOWN FOR COMPARISON)

Population

Location

Investigator

Total Number Tested No.

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes VV+ No. %

%

Gene Frequencies V V

MEXICO: Maya Chol Itza Maya Lacandon Lacandon Tzeltal Tzotzil Tzotzil

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas Yucatan San Quintín & Mt. Libano, Chiapas Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Pablo Chalchihuitan, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961

15 67 33 60 111 91 80

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

15 67 33 60 111 91 80

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixtec Mixe Totonac Zapotec Zoque

Suchiapa, Chiapas Oaxaca Oaxaca Oaxaca Papantla, Veracruz Oaxaca San Fernando, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960

16 45 19 54 45 142 31

0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.22 0.00 0.00

16 45 19 54 44 142 31

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 97.78 100.00 100.00

.000 .000 .000 .000 .011 .000 .000

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 .989 1.000 1.000

Chimaltenango, Patzicia Coban San Juan, San Martin Chichicastenango, Quiche, Totonicapan & Quezaltenango

Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b

150 160 116

0 2 0

0.00 1.25 0.00

150 158 116

100.00 98.75 100.00

.000 .006 .000

1.000 .994 1.000

Matson & Swanson, 1959

203

0

0.00

203

100.00

.000

1.000

HONDURAS Jicaque Lenca Paya

Jacon, Yoro Intibuca Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c

194 151 51

30 1 2

15.46 0.66 3.92

164 150 49

84.54 99.34 96.08

.080 .003 .020

.920 .997 .980

NICARAGUA Chorotega Miskito Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Santa Isabel Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas Rama Cay Caurudrusban, Umbra Leon

Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d

77 150 37 103 29

0 11 0 0 2

0.00 7.33 0.00 0.00 6.90

77 139 37 103 27

100.00 92.67 100.00 100.00 93.10

.000 .037 .000 .000 .035

1.000 .963 1.000 1.000 .965

GUATEMALA Cakchíquel Kekchi Mam Quiche

(Continued on next page)

(Table 12, continued)

Population

Location

Total Number Tested

Investigator

BRITISH HONDURAS San Antonio, Toledo Maya Crique Sarco, Toledo Kekchi

Matson & Swanson, 1964 Matson & Swanson, 1964

COSTA RICA Bribri Cabecar Boruca Terraba

Salitre Ujarras Curres Terrabas

Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson,

PANAMA San Blas Choco Guaymi OTHERS Negro Negro Negro White White Oriental North American Indian

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes No.

ν

%

No.

ν

Gene Frequencies

%

V

v

248 119

1 0

0.40 0.00

247 0

99.60 0.00

.002 .000

.998 .000

1965a 1965a 1965a 1965a

50 62 56 40

0 0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0 0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

.000 .000 .000 .000

.000 .000 .000 .000

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands Darien Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b

388 80 240

0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00

0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00

.000 .000 .000

.000 .000 .000

West Africa New York, New York Seattle, Washington London, England Seattle, Washington

DeNatale et al., 1955 DeNatale et al., 1955 Giblett et al., 1957 DeNatale et al., 1955 Giblett et al., 1957 Giblett et al., 1957

150 168 327 407 514 272

40.00 26.79 28.75 0.49 0.19 0.37

60.00 73.21 71.25 99.51 99.81 99.63

.225 .144 .156 .002 .001 .002

.775 .856 .844 .998 .999 .998

Giblett etal., 1957

174

1.15

98.85

.006

.994

TABLE 13—INCIDENCE OF GENOTYPES IN THE KELL SYSTEM AMONG INDIANS OF MIDDLE AMERICA Investigator

Location

Population

Number and Percentage of Genotypes Total Kk k k Number Tested No. No. % % No %

MEXICO: Maya Chol Itza Maya Lacandon Lacandon Tzeltal Tzotzil Tzotzil

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas Yucatan San Quintin & Mt. Líbano,Chiapas Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas,. Chiapas San Pablo Chalchihuitan

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961

15 67 33 61 111 91 80

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec

Suchiapa, Chiapas

Chinantec Mixtec Mixe Totonac Zapotec Zoque

Oaxaca Oaxaca Oaxaca Papantla, Veracruz Oaxaca San Femando, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960

81 45 19 54 45 141 31

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Tarascan Mixtec Nahoa

Patzcuaro, Michoacan Tlaxiaco and Jamiltepec, Oaxaca San Juan Tepulco, Santa Ursula Xiconquia, Huixcolatla and Teopantlan, Puebla

Rodriguez H. et al., 1962 Rodriguez H. et al., 1962 Rodriguez H. et al., 1962

Various Various

Tejada et al., 1959 Tejada et al., 1961

Various Various Various Solola, Patzicia and Chimaltenango

Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1959-1963b

GUATEMALA Various Chol Pocomam Quiche Mam Cakchíquel

* These two Tzeltal Indians having genotype Kk are brothers.

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0 1 0 0 2* 0 0

124 129

1 0.00 2 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0.00 0.00 3 0.00 1 K and Kk 9 7.26% 11 8.53%

172

10

120 30

0

80 80 70 159

0

0.00 1.49 0.00 0.00 1.80 0.00 0.00

15 66 33 61 109 91 80

100.00 98.51 100.00 100.00 98.20 100.00 100.00

.000 .007 .000 .000 .009 .000 .000

1.000 .993 1.000 1.000 .991 1.000 1.000

1.23 4.44 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.13 3.23

80 43 19 54 45 138 30

98.77 95.56 100.00 100.00 100.00 97.87 96.77

.006 .022 .000 .000 .000 .011 .016

.994 .978 1.000 1.000 1.000 .989 .984

115 118

92.74 91.47

.037 .044

.963 .956

162

94.19

.035

.965

120

100.00

.000

1.000

29 80 80 70

96.67 100.00 100.00 100.00

.017 .000 .000 .000

.983 1.000 1.000 1.000

159

100.00

.000

1.000

5.81%

0.00 0 Κ and Kk 1 3.33% 0 0.00% 0 0.00% 0 0.00%

0.00

0

0.00

0.00

Gene Frequencies k K

(Continued on next page)

(Table 13, continued)

Population Kekchi Mam

Coban Huehuetenango, San Juan Ostuncalco, San Martin Sacatepequez

Total Number Tested

Investigator

Location

Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1959-1963b

Number and Percentage of Genotypes K Kk k No. No. % % No. %

Gene Frequencies

K

k

162

0

0.00

0

0.00

162

100.00

.000

1.000

140

0

0.00

0

0.00

140

100.00

.000

1.000

Matson & Swanson, 1959

203

0

0.00

0

0.00

203

100.00

.000

1.000

Paya

Jacon, Yoro Intibuca Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c

194 152 53

0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00

7 0 0

3.61 0.00 0.00

187 152 53

96.39 100.00 100.00

.018 .000 .000

.982 1.000 1.000

NICARAGUA Chorotega Miskito Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Santa Isabel Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas Rama Cay Caurudrusban, Umbra Leon

Matson Matson Matson Matson Matson

77 150 37 103 29

0 0 0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0 0 0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

77 150 37 103 29

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

BRITISH HONDURAS Maya Kekchi

San Antonio, Toledo Crique Sarco, Toledo

Matson & Swanson, 1964 Matson & Swanson, 1964

240 119

0 0

0.00 0.00

0 0

0.00 0.00

240 119

100.00 100.00

.000 .000

1.000 1.000

COSTA RICA Guatuso Bribri Cabecar Boruca Terraba

Alajuela, San Carlos Salitre Ujarras Curres Terrabas

Fuentes L., 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a

65 50 62 56 40

0 0 0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0 0 0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

65 50 62 56 40

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000

1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

PANAMA San Blas Choco Guaymi

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands Darien Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b

388 80 240

0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00

0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00

388 80 240

100.00 100.00 100.00

.000 .000 .000

1.000 1.000 1.000

Quiche HONDURAS Jicaque Lenca

& & & & &

Swanson, Swanson, Swanson, Swanson, Swanson,

1963d 1963d 1963d 1963d 1963d

TABLE 14—INCIDENCE OF PHENOTYPES OF LEWIS SYSTEM IN INDIANS OF MIDDLE AMERICA SAMPLES TESTED WITH ANTI-Lea AND ANTI-Leb SERUMS

Population

Location

Investigator

Total Number Tested

No.

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Le(a--b+) Le(a- - b - ) No. Ño. % % %

Le(a + b - )

MEXICO: Maya Chol Itza Maya Lacandon Lacandon Tzeltal Tzotzil Tzotzil

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas Yueatan San Quintín & Mt. Libano, Chiapas Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Pablo Chalehihuitan

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960

15 67 33 61 111 91 80

0 0 0 0 1 2 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.90 2.20 0.00

12 54 23 52 84 73 67

80.00 80.60 69.70 85.25 75.68 80.22 83.75

3 13 10 9 26 16 13

20.00 19.40 30.30 14.75 23.42 17.58 16.25

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixtec Mixe Totonac Zapotec Zoque

Suehiapa, Chiapas Oaxaca Oaxaca Oaxaea Papantla, Veraeruz Oaxaea San Fernando, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959,1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960

81 45 19 54 45 140 29

1 0 0 0 0 5 0

1.23 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.57 0.00

56 34 15 45 37 92 25

69.14 75.56 78.95 83.33 82.22 65.72 86.21

24 11 4 9 8 43 4

29.63 24.44 21.05 16.67 17.78 30.71 13.79

Matson & Swanson, 1959-1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b

159 162

1 0

0.63 0.00

127 130

79.87 80.25

31 32

19.50 19.75

Matson & Swanson, 1959-1963b

140

1

0.71

100

71.43

39

27.86

Matson & Swanson, 1959

203

2

0.98

159

78.33

42

20.69

GUATEMALA Cakchiquel Kekchi Mam Quiehe

Solola, Patzieia Chimaltenango Coban Huehuetenango, San Juan Ostuncalco, San Martin Sacatepequez Chiehicastenango, Quiehe Totonieapan & Quezaltenango

HONDURAS Jieaque Lenca Paya

Jaeon, Yoro Intibuea Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963e Matson & Swanson, 1963e Matson & Swanson, 1963e

191 152 53

11 1 0

5.76 0.66 0.00

121 108 31

63,35 71.05 58.49

59 43 22

30.89 28.29 41.51

NICARAGUA Chorotega Miskito Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Santa Isabel Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas Rama Cay Caurudrusban, Umbra Leon

Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d

77 150 37 103 29

2 8 0 13 1

2.60 5.33 0.00 12.62 3.45

58 83 16 53 24

75.32 55.34 43.24 51.46 83.76

17 59 21 37 4

22.08 39.33 56.76 35.92 13.79

(Continued on next page)

(Table 14, continued)

Location

Population ΒRΙTIΉ Maya Kekchi

Investigator

Total Number Tested

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Leía- - b - ) Le (a b + ) Le(a+b-) No. No. No. % % %

HONDURAS San Antonio, Toledo Dist. Crique Sarco

Matson & Swanson, 1964 Matson & Swanson, 1964

247 119

0 0

0.00 0.00

161 28

65.18 23.53

86 91

34.82 76.47

COSTA RICA Bribri Cabecar Boruca Terraba

Salitre Ujarras Curres Terrabas

Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a

50 62 56 39

0 0 0 0

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

34 42 45 23

68.00 67.74 80.36 58.97

16 20 11 16

32.00 32.26 19.64 41.03

PANAMA San Blas Choco Guaymi

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands Darien Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b

388 80 240

0 18 0

0.00 22.50 0.00

215 35 117

55.41 43.75 48.75

173 27 123

44.59 33.75 51.25

TABLE 15—INCIDENCE OF PHENOTYPES OF LEWIS SYSTEM IN SOME PEOPLES OF THE WORLD SAMPLES TESTED WITH ANTI-Lea AND ANTI-Leb (Lewis groups)* Population English Norwegian Lapp Swedish Danish Greek (Athens) West African Negro Chinese (New York) Maori Australian White American Negro American White * From Mourant, 1954.

Investigator Ikin et al. (in Mourant, 1954) Allison et al., 1952 Grubb, 1951 Andresen, 1948 Dunsford (in Mourant, 1954) Bamicot and Lawler, 1953 Milleret al., 1951 Simmons et al., 1951 Simmons and Jakobowicz, 1951 Miller et al., 1951 Miller etal., 1951

Total Number Tested

Le(a+b-)

1166 90 1000 238 34 105 85 71 500 200 460

21.10 8.89 18.70 19.33 11.76 17.14 23.53 21.13 26.40 23.00 22.83

Percentage of Phenotypes Le(a+b) Le(a-b+) 71.61 81.11 52.60 74.79 55.88 43.31 69.41 60.56 69.80 60.00 71.52

7.29 10.00 28.70 5.88 32.35 39.05 5.88 7.04 3.60 16.00 5.65

Le(a+b+) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.18 11.27 0.20 1.00 0.00

TABLE 16—INCIDENCE OF PHENOTYPES AND GENE FREQUENCIES OF THE DUFFY SYSTEM AMONG INDIANS IN MIDDLE AMERICA SAMPLES TESTED WITH ANTI-Fya SERUM ONLY

Population MEXICO: Maya Chol Itza Maya Lacandon Lacandon Tzeltal Tzotzil Tzotzil MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixtec Mixe Totonac Zapotec Zoque Tarascan Mixtec Nahoa

GUATEMALA Chol Pocomam Quiche Mam Various Cakchiquel Kekchi

Location

Investigator

Total Number Tested

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Fy(a+) Fy(a-) No. No. %

Gene Frequencies Fyb Fya

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas Yucatan San Quintín & Mt. Líbano,Chiapas Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Pablo Chalchihuitan

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961

15 67 33 60 111 91 80

11 59 32 57 94 83 76

73.33 88.06 96,97 95.00 84.68 91.21 95.00

4 8 1 3 17 8 4

26.67 11.94 3.03 5.00 15.32 8.79 5.00

.484 .654 .826 .776 .609 .703 .776

.516 .346 .174 .224 .391 .297 .224

Suchiapa, Chiapas Oaxaca Oaxaca Oaxaca Papantla, Veracruz Oaxaca San Fernando, Chiapas Patzcuaro, Michoacan Tlaxiaco and Jamiltepec, Oaxaca San Juan Tepulco, Santa Ursula Xiconquia, Huixcolatla and Teopantlan, Puebla

Matson & Swanson, 1959,1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Rodriguez H. et al, 1962 Rodriguez H. et al., 1962

81 45 19 54 45 141 31 124 129

74 31 18 47 43 126 28 115 124

91.56 68.89 94.74 87.04 95.56 89.36 90.32 92.74 96.12

7 14 1 7 2 15 3 9 5

8.64 31.11 5.26 12.96 4.44 10.64 9.68 7.26 3.87

.706 .442 .771 .640 .789 .674 .689 .731 .803

.294 .558 .229 .360 .211 .326 .311 .269 .197

Rodriguez H. et al, 1962

172

160

93.02

12

6.98

.736

.264

Various Various Various Various Various Solola, Patzicia Chimaltenango Coban

Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959-1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b

30 80 80 70 120 159 162

26 63 65 52 98 144 138

86.67 78.75 81.25 74.29 81.6 90.57 85.19

4 17 15 18 22 15 24

13.33 21.25 18.75 25.71 18.3 9.43 14.81

.635 .539 .567 .493 .572 .693 .615

.365 .461 .433 .507 .428 .307 .385

(Continued on next page)

(Table 16, continued)

Population Mam Quiche

Location Huehuetenango, San Juan Ostuncalco, San Martin Sacatepequez Chichicastenango, Quiche Totonicapan & Quezaltenango

Investigator

Total _ Number _ Tested

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Fy(a-) Fy(a+) No. No. % %

Gene Frequencies Fya Fya

Matson & Swanson, 1963b

140

134

95.71

6

4.29

.773

..207

Matson & Swanson, 1959

203

183

90.15

20

9.85

.686

.314

HONDURAS Jicaque Lenca Paya

Jacon, Yoro Intibuca Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c

194 152 53

148 144 44

76.29 94.74 83.02

46 8 9

23.71 5.26 16.98

.513 .771 .588

.487 .229 .412

NICARAGUA Chorotega Miskito Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Santa Isabel Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas Rama Cay Caurudrusban, Umbra Leon

Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d

77 150 37 103 29

74 105 33 98 28

96.10 70.00 89.19 95.15 96.55

3 45 4 5 1

3.90 30.00 10.81 4.85 3.45

.803 .452 .671 .780 .814

.197 .548 .329 .220 .186

BRITISH HONDURAS San Antonio, Toledo Maya Kekchi Crique Sarco, Toledo

Matson & Swanson, 1964 Matson & Swanson, 1964

248 119

229 112

92.34 94.12

19 7

7.66 5.88

.723 .758

.277 .242

COSTA RICA Guatuso Bribri Cabecar Boruca Terraba

Alajuela, San Carlos Salitre Ujarras Curres Terrabas

Fuentes L., 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a

65 50 62 56 40

29 45 56 44 37

44.62 90.00 90.32 78.57 92.50

36 5 6 12 3

55.38 10.00 9.68 21.43 7.50

.256 .776 .689 .537 .726

.744 .224 .311 .463 .274

PANAMA San Blas Choco Guaymi

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands Darien Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b

388 80 240

343 71 183

88.40 88.75 76.25

45 9 57

11.60 11.25 23.75

.659 .665 .513

.341 .335 .487

TABLE 19—INCIDENCE OF PHENOTYPE AND GENE FREQUENaES OF THE DUFFY SYSTEM AMONG INDIANS IN MIDDLE AMERICA SAMPLES TESTED WITH ANTI-Fya AND ΑΝTI-Fyb SERUMS

Population

Investigator

Location

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Total Number F y ( a + b - ) Fy(a+b+) Fy(a-- b + ) No. Tested No. % No. % %

Gene Frequencies Fy a Fyb

MEXICO: Maya Lacandon Tzotzil

Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas San Pablo Chalchihuitan

Matson & Swanson, 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1961

60 80

34 53

56.67 66.25

23 23

38.33 28.75

3 4

5.00 5.00

.758 .806

.242 .194

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixe Zoque

Suchiapa, Chiapas Oaxaca Oaxaca San Fernando, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960

38 45 54 26

21 21 24 19

55.26 46.67 44.44 73.08

14 10 23 4

36.84 22.22 42.59 15.38

3 14 7 3

7.90 31.11 12.96 11.54

.737 .578 .657 .808

.263 .422 .343 .192

GUATEMALA Cakchiquel Kekchi Mam

Chimaltenango, Patzicia Coban San Juan, San Martin

Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960

75 44 54

46 30 43

61.33 68.18 79.63

18 7 7

24.00 15.91 12.96

11 7 4

14.67 15.91 7.41

.733 .761 .861

.267 .239 .139

TABLE 18—INCIDENCE OF PHENOTYPES AND GENE FREQUENCIES IN THE KIDD SYSTEM AMONG INDIANS IN MIDDLE AMERICA SAMPLES TESTED WITH ANTI-Jka ONLY

Population

Location

Investigator

MEXICO: Maya Chol Itza Maya Lacandon Lacandon Tzeltal Tzotzil Tzotzil

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas Yucatan San Quintín & Mt. Libano, Chiapas Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Pablo Chalchihuitan

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixtec Mixe

Suchiapa, Chiapas Oaxaca Oaxaca Oaxaca

Matson & Swanson,1959,1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960

Total Number Tested

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Jk(a-) Jk(a+) No. No. % %

Gene Frequencies Jkb Jka

15 66 33 61 111 91 80

11 43 21 37 84 69 57

73.33 65.15 63.64 60.66 75.68 75.82 71.25

4 23 12 24 27 22 23

26.67 34.85 36.36 39.34 24.32 24.18 28.75

.484 .410 ,397 .373 .507 .508 .464

.516 .590 .603 .627 .493 .492 .536

76 45 19 54

58 35 12 26

76.32 77.78 63.16 48.15

18 10 7 28

23.68 22.22 36.84 51.85

.513 .529 .393 .280

.487 .471 .607 .720

(Continued on next page)

(Table 18, continued)

Location

Population Totonac Zapotec Zoque

Investigator

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Total Number Jk(a-) Jk(a+) Tested No, No. % %

(2ene Freejuencies

Jka

Jkb

.471

Papantla, Veracruz Oaxaca San Fernando, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960

45 132 31

35~ 101 23

77.78 76.62 74.19

10 31 8

22.22 23.48 25.81

.529 .515 .492

.485 .508

Various Various Various Various Various Solola, Chimaltenango, Patzicia Coban Huehuetenango, San Juan Ostuncalco, San Martín Sacatepequez Chichicastenango, Quiche Totonicapan, Quezaltenango

Tejada el al., 1961 Tejada el al., 1961 Tejada el al., 1961 Tejada el al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959-1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b

30 40 80 70 80 159 162

19 25 48 23 56 111 101

63.33 62.50 60.00 32.86 70.00 69.81 62.35

11 15 32 47 24 48 61

36.67 37.50 40.00 67.14 30.00 30.19 37.65

.395 .388 .367 .181 .453 .451 .386

.605 .612 .633 .819 .547 ,549 .614

Matson & Swanson, 1959-1963b

140

73

52.14

67

47.86

.308

.692

Matson & Swanson, 1959

203

179

88.18

24

11.82

.656

.344

HONDURAS Jicaque Lenca Paya

Jacon, Yoro Intibuca Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c

194 152 53

147 86 29

75.77 56.58 54.72

47 66 24

24.23 43.42 45.28

.508 .341 .327

.492 .659 .673

NICARAGUA Chorotega Miskito Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Santa Isabel Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas Rama Cay Caurudrusban, Umbra Leon

Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d

77 150 37 103 29

56 91 29 77 19

72.73 60.67 78.38 74.76 65.52

21 59 8 26 10

27.27 39.33 21.62 25.24 34.48

.478 .373 .535 .498 .413

.522 .627 .465 .502 .587

BRITISH HONDURAS San Antonio, Toledo Maya Crique Sarco, Toledo Kekchi

Matson & Swanson, 1964 Matson & Swanson, 1964

248 119

166 73

66.94 61.34

82 46

33.06 38.66

.425 .378

.575 .622

COSTA RICA Bribri Cabecar Boruca Terraba

Salitre Ujarras Curres Terrabas

Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a

50 62 56 40

26 45 45 18

52.00 72.58 80.36 45.00

24 17 11 22

48.00 27.42 19.64 55.00

.307 .476 .557 .258

.693 .524 .443 .742

PANAMA San Blas Choco Guaymi

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands Darien Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b

388 80 240

256 53 61

65.98 66.25 25.42

132 27 179

34.02 33.75 74.58

.417 .419 .236

.583 .581 .764

GUATEMALA Chol Pocomam Quiche Mam Various Cakchiquel Kekchi Mam Quiche

TABLE 19—INCIDENCE OF ΑΝΉΟΕΝ8 IN THE KIDD SYSTEM AMONG INDIANS IN MIDDLE AMERICA SAMPLES TESTED WITH ANTI-Jka AND ΑΝΉ-Jkb Location

Investigator

Total Number Tested

MEXICO: Maya Lacandon Tzotzil

Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas San Pablo Chalchihuitan

Matson & Swanson, 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1961

MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixe Zoque

Suchiapa, Chiapas Oaxaca Oaxaca San Femando, Chiapas

Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson, Matson & Swanson,

GUATEMALA Cakchiquel Kekchi Mam

Chimaltenango, Patzicia Coban San Juan, San Martín

HONDURAS Jicaque Lenca Paya NICARAGUA Chorotega Mískito Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Population

Number and Percentage of .Phenotypes

Jkb

Jk(a+b+) No. %

61 79

4 13

6.56 16.46

33 43

54.10 54.43

24 23

39.34 29.11

.336 .437

.664 .563

27 45 54 29

2 11 4 2

7.41 24.44 7.41 6.90

17 24 22 19

62.96 53.33 40.74 65.52

8 10 28 8

29.63 22.22 51.85 27.59

.389 .511 .278 .397

.611 .489 .722 .603

Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b

141 154 112

23 24 17

16.31 15.58 15.18

71 73 33

50.35 47.40 29.46

47 57 62

33.33 37.01 55.36

.415 .393 .299

.585 .607 .701

Jacon, Yoro Intíbuca Dulce Nombre de Cuhni

Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c

125 138 50

34 19 6

27.20 13.77 12.00

59 57 23

47.20 41.30 46.00

32 62 21

25.60 44.93 42.00

.508 .344 .350

.492 .656 .650

Santa Isabel Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas Rama Cay Caurudrusban, Umbra Leon

Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d

71 135 36 103 25

9 11 4 22 5

12.68 8.15 11.11 21.36 20.00

42 66 24 55 10

59.15 48.89 66.67 53.40 40.00

20 58 8 26 10

28.17 42.96 22.22 25.24 40.00

.423 .326 .444 .481 .400

.577 .674 .556 .519 .600

1960 1960 1960 1960

Jk(a -b+) No. %

Gene Frequencies a

Jk(a+b-) No. %

Jk

TABLE 20—PHENOTYPE INCIDENCE AND GENE FREQUENCIES OF THE DIEGO ANTIGEN IN INDIANS OF MIDDLE AMERICA

Population MEXICO: Maya Chol Itza Maya Lacandon Lacandon Tzeltal Tzotzil Tzotzil MEXICO: Non-Maya Chiapanec Chinantec Mixtec Mixe Tlaxcaltican Totonac Zapotee Zoque Tarascan Mixtee Nahoa

GUATEMALA Various Chol Poeomam Quiehe Mam Cakchiquel Kekchi Mam Quiche

Location

Investigator

Number and Percentage of Phenotypes Total Di(a+) Number Di(a- - ) No. Tested ' No, % %

Gene Frequencies Dib Dia

San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas Yucatan San Quintín & Mt. Libano, Chiapas Naja & Lacanja, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas San Pablo Chalchihuitan

Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1961

15 67 33 61 111 86 80

4 17 11 10 11 13 15

26.67 25.37 33.33 16.67 9.91 15.12 18.75

11 50 22 51 100 73 65

73.33 74.63 66.67 83.33 90.09 84.88 81.25

.144 .136 .184 .087 .051 .079 .099

.856 .864 .816 .913 .949 .921 .901

Suchiapa, Chiapas Oaxaca Oaxaca Oaxaca Mexico Papantla, Veracruz Oaxaca San Femando, Chiapas Patzcuaro, Michoacan Tlaxiaco and Jamiltepec, Oaxaca San Juan Tepulco, Santa Ursula Xiconquia, Huixcolada& Teopantlan, Puebla

Matson & Swanson, 1959,1960 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Salazar-Mallén & Arias, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1959 Matson & Swanson, 1960 Rodriguez H. et al., 1962 Rodriguez H. et al., 1962

81 45 19 54 152 43 141 31 124 129

6 5 4 12 31 9 21 7 22 25

7.41 11.11 21.05 22.22 20.39 20.93 14.89 22.58 17.74 19.37

75 40 15 42 121 34 120 24 102 104

92.59 88.89 78.95 77.78 79.61 79.07 85.11 77.42 82.26 80.63

.038 .057 .112 .118 .108 .111 .077 .120 .093 .102

.962 .943 .888 .882 .892 .889 .923 .880 .907 .898

Rodríguez Η. et al., 1962

172

23

13.37

149

86.63

.069

.931

Various Various Various Various Various Solola, Chimaltenango, Patzicia Coban San Juan, San Martin Chichicastenango, Quiche Totonicapan, Quezaltenango

Tejada et al., 1959 Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Tejada et al., 1961 Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b Matson & Swanson, 1963b

120 30 80 80 70 155 122 116

36 15 17 25 23 13 7 12

30.00 50.00 21.25 31.25 32.86 8.39 5.74 10.34

84 15 73 55 47 142 115 104

70.00 50.00 78.75 68.75 67.14 91.61 94.26 89.66

.163 .293 .113 .171 .181 .043 .029 .053

.837 .707 .887 .829 .819 .957 .971 .947

Matson & Swanson, 1959

46

8

17.39

38

82.61

.091

.909

Jicaque Lenca Paya

Jacon, Yoro Intibuca Dulce Nombre de Culmi

Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c Matson & Swanson, 1963c

90 116 53

8 11 5

8.89 9.48 9.43

82 105 48

91.11 90.52 90.57

.045 .049 .048

.955 .951 .952

NICARAGUA Chorotega Miskito Rama Sumo Subtiaba

Santa Isabel Saupuka, Bilwas, Ulwas Rama Cay Caurudnisban, Umbra Leon

Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d Matson & Swanson, 1963d

77 150 37 103 29

1 2 0 11 6

1.30 1.33 0.00 10.68 20.69

76 148 37 92 23

98.70 98.67 100.00 89.32 79.31

.006 .007 .000 .055 .109

.994 .993 1.000 .945 .891

BRITISH HONDURAS Maya San Antonio, Toledo Kekchi Crique Sarco, Toledo

Matson & Swanson, 1964 Matson & Swanson, 1964

230 117

20 8

8.70 6.84

210 109

91.30 93.16

.045 .035

.955 .965

COSTA RICA Bribri Cabecar Boruca Terraba

Salitre Ujarras Curres Terrabas

Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a Matson & Swanson, 1965a

50 62 56 40

0 0 8 0

0.00 0.00 14.29 0.00

50 62 48 40

100.00 100.00 85.71 100.00

.000 .000 .074 .000

1.000 1.000 .926 1.000

PANAMA San Blas Choco Guaymi

Aligandi & Ustupo Islands Darien Cerro Iglesia & Almirante

Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b Matson & Swanson, 1965b

317 80 240

24 3 1

7.57 3.75 0.42

293 77 239

92.43 96.25 99.58

.049 .019 .002

.951 .981 .998

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

DISTRIBUTION OF BLOOD GROUPS

REFERENCES Aguirre, Tandon, and Scrimshaw, 1953 Allen, F. H., Diamond, and Niedziela, 1951 Allison, Hartmann, Brendemoen, and Mourant, 1952 Andresen, 1948 Arteaga, Salazar-Mallén, Ugalde, and Veléz-Orozco, 1952 Barnicot and Lawler, 1953 Bernstein, 1931 Boileau Grant, 1936 Boyd, 1939 and Boyd, 1949 Brown, Hanna, Dahlberg, and Strandskov, 1958 Cabrera, M. Α., 1950 Callender and Race, 1946 Chalmers, Ikin, and Mourant, 1953. Chown and Lewis, 1953, 1955, 1957 Cutbush and MoUison, 1950 Davidsohn, Stem, Strauser, and Spurrier, 1953 DeNatale et al., 1955 Downs, Jones, and Koerber, 1929 Echeverría, 1956 Field, 1954 Fuentes L., 1961 Genua, 1953 Giblett, 1958 , Chase, and Motulsky, 1957 Glass and Li, 1953 Goodner, 1930 Grubb, 1951 Hart, Bosman, and van Loghem, 1954 Holman, 1953 Hulse, 1955, 1957 Ikin and Mourant, 1951 Johnson, 1940 Junqueira and Wishart, 1956 et al, 1956 Landsteiner and Levine, 1929 , Wiener, and Matson, 1942 Layrisse and Arends, 1956a, 1956b and WÜbert, 1960 Lehmann and Cutbush, 1952 Levine et al., 1956 Lewis, M., Chown, and Kaita, 1956 Loghem, Hart, Bok, and Brinkerink, 1955 Matson, 1938, 1941 , Koch, and Levine, 1954

and Piper, 1947 and Schrader, 1933 and Swanson, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1963a, 1963b, 1963c, 1963d, 1964, 1965a, 1965b et al., 1958, 1959, 1966 Miller, Rosenfield, and Vogel, 1951 Morton, N. E., Krieger, Steinberg, and Rosenfield, 1965 Moss and Kennedy, 1929 Mourant, 1954 , Kopeè, and Domaniewska-Sobczak, 1958 Newman, 1960b Nigg, 1926 Nijenhuis, 1953 Ottensooser, 1944 Pantin and Junqueira, 1952 and Kallsen, 1953 Pauls, Victors, and Dodson, 1953 Polunin and Sneath, 1953 Race and Sanger, 1958 et al., 1951 Rife, D. W., 1932 Rodriguez H., Ehsa, Alvar Loria, and Lisker, 1962 Rosenfield et al., 1953 Salazar-Mallén, 1949 and Arias, 1959 and Arteaga, 1951 and Hernández de la Portilla, 1944 and Martínez, 1947 Sanger, 1955 , Race, and Jack, 1955 et al., 1960 Shapiro, 1956, 1964 Simmons, 1957 , Graydon, Semple, and Taylor, 1951 and Jacobowitz, 1951 Stevens, 1950 Stone, 1949, 1962 Stroup, Macllroy, Walker, and Aydelotte, 1965 Tejada et al., 1959, 1961 Tippett, Sanger, Dunsford, and Barber, 1961 Walker et al., 1963a, b Wallace et al., 1957 Wiener, Zepeda, Sonn, and Polivka, 1945 Won et al., 1960 Zoutendyk, 1955

147

8. Physiological Studies

D. F. ROBERTS and MARSHALL T. NEWMAN

F

EW OF THE physical anthropologists who have studied the living Indians of Middle America have included in their field records anything but the simplest physiological observations. To have done more than this in the early days when field equipment had to be kept to a minimum would have required sacrifices in other lines of anthropological endeavor. And yet now that interest in the subject is on the increase and transportation of field equipment is less of a problem, it is no longer easy to find Indians who are racially unmixed and culturally unchanged. In spite of all such deficiencies, analysis of the accumulated physiological records affords some useful insights. BASAL METABOLISM

It was from studies among the Maya that the existence of some racial influence on basal metabolism was first argued with any degree of conviction. The finding by Williams that the Maya had a high metabolism was confirmed in subsequent expeditions by Shattuck and Steggerda and their successive publications provide an impressive 148

body of evidence (Williams and Benedict, 1928; Shattuck and Benedict, 1931; Steggerda and Benedict, 1932). Williams showed that the basal metabolic rates of 32 male Maya were consistently high, averaging 5.2 per cent above the Harris-Benedict standard for European males of the same age, height, and weight. Williams' careful study eliminated several factors that might have been held responsible for the high Maya figures. They could not be attributed to defects in apparatus or technique; to low temperatures in the room where the readings were taken; to fever in the subjects; to activity or surreptitious taking of food before the readings, for the subjects slept overnight in the test room, and their postabsorptive condition was thus ensured; to anxiety, for their pulse rates were low. Williams included in his study control readings before, during, and after the expedition on a few European members; these showed no elevated basal metabolic rates during their stay in Yucatan, which indicated that there was no transient physiological response to the immediate eflFect of climate. The differences in Maya physique

PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES

TABLE 1—SUMMARY OF DATA ON BASAL METABOLIC RATE IN ADULT MALE MAYA* Sample

Reference

No.

Oxygen Consumption (c.c./min.)

Mean Deviation from Standard

Altitude

Maya-Yucatan: Chichen Itza Chichen Itza Chichen Itza

Williams & Benedict, 1928 Shattuck & Benedict, 1931 Steggerda & Benedict, 1932

32 24 30

214 215 220

+5.2 H-B +5.8 H-B + 8.4 H-B

lowland lowland lowland

Maya-Quiche: Totonicapan Pacific slopes

Crile & Quiring, 1939 Crile & Quiring, 1939

30 5

239 222

+5.2 Mayo

+ 8.20 Mayo

2,490 m. 250 m.

• Cf. E. A. Wilson, 1950, Tables 1-3.

were taken into account in comparing results. It was possible that the heavy daily labor to which they were accustomed may have been a contributory factor in elevating the basal metabolic rate, but their low protein diet would perhaps have tended to depress it; this opinion was largely supported by a subsequent dietary survey (Benedict and Steggerda, 1936) which showed that the high average metabolism could not be ascribed to a protein-rich diet, to an excessive calorie diet with a luxus consumption, or to aftereffects of severe muscular exercise. Williams referred also to the Maya as placid and unexcitable, implying that their slow tempo of existence would not be expected to raise the metabolism to the observed level. He therefore postulated the existence of some racial factor responsible for the elevated metabolism, a suggestion which received support from his finding a tendency to higher rates in the racially purer subjects. The second expedition by Shattuck confirmed the high average values, in this sample 5.8 per cent above Harris-Benedict standard. In the series were included several of the individuals previously tested by Williams, and each subject was tested several times on one day. However, in those few cases where repeat tests were made on successive days it was found that the basal metabolic rate appeared to be lower after the first determination; in other

words, it was possible that the subjects, though outwardly calm and relaxed, were nonetheless disturbed by the prospect of the first experiment, but subsequently became reassured. The third expedition disproved this suggestion; again several of the same subjects were included in the series. Steggerda observed an average deviation 8.4 per cent above Harris-Benedict standard, each subject being tested three times per day for three successive days. Though there was a slight fall in average rate after the first day, this was probably due to chance fluctuations. Steggerda concluded that the high Maya values were primarily a racial characteristic. The only other study of basal metabolism in Middle American Indians (Crile and Quiring, 1939) refers to Maya Quiche, 30 of whom were examined at Totonicapan at an altitude of 2,490 m., while 5 Samayac planters on the lower Pacific slopes were tested at 250 m. The averages for these groups were respectively + 8.2 and +5.2 per cent above Mayo standards (Table 1). Of the several ingenious hypotheses that have been put forward to account for these elevated basal rates, that of Riddle deserves attention. He suggested that there was a temporary adjustment of thyroid function to offset the effects of cool nights, against which the Maya sleep inadequately protected. Steggerda pointed out, however, that 149

FIG. 1—CENTERS OF ENDEMIC GOITER IN MEXICO. (After Stacpoole, 1953.) the majority of Williams' observations were made in July when the average minimum temperature approximates 20 °C, and his July measurements show a definitely high metabolism. Nonetheless, there may be some truth in Riddle's suggestion. The lowland Maya are lightly dressed people. They sleep in henequen-fiber hammocks, using only light covers, if any. Their critical temperature—i.e., the lowest at which the naked body can maintain the resting metabolic rate without losing core temperature —has not been measured, but it is hardly likely to be lower than that cited by Scholander for Europeans, Lapps, and others, amongst whom it averages about 27 °C. The mean daily minimum temperature is rather below this figure for every month of the year, so it is possible that the Yucatan Maya, tested early in the morning, had undergone elevated metabolic rates just to keep warm during the chill of the preceding night. Yet this explanation would not satis150

factorily account for the Maya Quiche results at Totonicapan, where the subjects stayed in their bunks all the preceding night, and were "well blanketed and comfortable." A tendency to hyperthyroidism may be proposed as an alternative hypothesis which would cover the latter group as well as the Yucatan Maya. Centers of endemic goiter associated with iodine deficiency are widespread throughout Middle America (fig. 1 shows their reported distribution in Mexico), and the condition is especially prevalent in the poorer Indian populations (Stacpoole, 1953; Pérez and Scrimshaw, 1955). It is possible that the Yucatan Maya samples may have included a number of subjects with diffuse goiter, as indeed was noted in the Totonicapan sample. Alternatively, it is conceivable that in regions of iodine deficiency individuals with slightly elevated thyroid activity would be at some selective advantage, and hence that a strain

PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES

TABLE 2—SUMMARY OF DATA ON BODY TEMPERATURE (°C) IN MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS* Sample Male sublingual: Nahua - Huatusco Nahua - Pajapan Tepehua - Pisaflores Otomi - El Zapote Huastec - Tantoyuca Nahua - Chiconamel

Season

Reference Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber,

1950-1956 1950-1956 1950-1956 1950-1956 1950-1956 1950-1956 1950-1956

No. Mean Age

Mean

Altitude

Sept.-Oct. Mar. Mar. Feb.-Mar. June, Dec. July, Sept. Jan.-Mar.

99 100 100 100 100 99 100

36:11 34:3 32:2 35:1 32:8 32:11 33:2

37.63 ±.020 37.44 ±.027 37.44 ±.021 37.26±.027 37.25 ±0.20 37.23 ±.028 37.17±0.020

c.l500m. lowland C.300 m. C.300 m 217 m. 145 m. lowland

37.12 ±0.027 37.06 36.94 36.58 (σ 0.44) 36.44 36.22

c.l300m. lowland lowland 1700 m. C.2500 m. lowland

36.5 35.98 ±.03 (σΟ.46) 35.97±.02 (σΟ.47)

lowland C.2100 m.

Totonac-{E1 Tajin E1 Cedro Nahua - Zongolica Choco Cuna - San Blas Nahua - Tepoztlan Maya - Quiche Maya - Yucatan

Faulhaber, 1950-1956 Hrdlicka, 1926 Hrdlicka, 1926 Field, 1954 Crile & Quiring, 1939 Williams & Benedict, 1928

May -

100 27 20 117 30 32

39:2 33.05 22.39 24

Male axillary: Maya - Motul Tarascan - Paracho

Askinasy, 1938 Gómez Robleda et al., 1943

—

47

C.34

Tarascan - Janitzio

Gómez Robleda et al., 1943

—

116

C.34

Female sublingual: Nahua - Pajapan Tepehua - Pisaflores Nahua - Chiconamel Nahua - Zongolica Otomi - El Zapote

Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber,

1950-1956 1950-1956 1950-1956 1950-1956 1950-1956

Mar. Mar. July, Sept. May Feb.-Mar.

100 99 99 100 100

26:8 27:7 32:9 33:1 33:6

37.81 ±.020 37.56±.023 37.47±.020 37.42±.013 37.41 ±.024

lowland c.300 m. 145 m. C.1300 m. c.300 m.

Totonac-E1 Tajin E1 Cedro Nahua - Huatusco Huastec - Tantoyuca

Faulhaber, 1950-1956 Faulhaber, 1950-1956 Faulhaber, 1950-1956

Jan.-Mar. Sept.-Oct. June, Dec.

100 100 98

32:6 33:5 32:10

37.39 ±.017 37.35 ±.020 37.27±.018

lowland C.1500 m. 217 m.

Female axillary: Maya - Motul

Askinasy, 1938

-

-

-

36.8

C.2000 m.

lowland

* Limited to series of 20 or more. Hrdlicka (1908) includes some smaller groups.

could evolve with a tendency to thyroid hyperfunction as a normal instead of a path­ ological condition and with disadvanta­ geous features, such as rapid heart action and disturbances of carbohydrate metabo­ lism, eliminated. Again, however, this sug­ gestion is not entirely convincing, for all New World indigenous populations so far studied (Eskimo, Chippewa, Navajo, Ma­ puche) show high basal metabolic rates, and it is hardly likely that all inhabit iodinedeficient areas. The differences in basal heat

production between these peoples can be largely attributed to the differences in cli­ mate of the areas they inhabit (Roberts, 1952a), and are brought about by differ­ ences in body morphology and particularly body mass; their average basal rates are consistently above those for Old World peoples of other races living in similar en­ vironmental conditions. Only in the case of the Eskimo is there a convincing explana­ tion of this difference: their diet. It seems, therefore, that for the moment 151

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

the existence of some racial factor, whose exact nature is not clear, has to be invoked to account for the elevated basal heat production generally observed in American Indian populations. Before it is finally accepted, further studies are required to eliminate the possibility that existing figures for basal metabolic rates have been modified by the type of influence discussed above. In the meanwhile the departure of Middle American Indian basal metabolic rates from European norms can be regarded as the sum of two opposing tendencies: (1) depression by the long-continued influence of a warm climate to which their physique has become to some extent adjusted; and (2) elevation by the hypothetical racial factor. A number of studies show that the raised basal metabolism is unlikely to be attributable to an elevated normal body temperature in Middle American Indians. The available data for body temperature are presented in Table 2. Temperature in the axilla is usually about 0.6°C. below that in the mouth, and the appropriate adjustment should be made for the axillary readings; the oral means cluster very closely round 37°C., the figure generally accepted as normal in Europe and elsewhere. The variation in these figures is too slight for any significant environmental influence to be detected; nor indeed is it to be expected, for the body temperature remains remarkably constant under widely varying environmental conditions, and strenuous muscular exercise is necessary to cause a very slight temporary rise. Rather does it seem that the variation in the means in Table 2 is due to slight technical differences, such as in thermometer calibration or in the time of day at which the readings were obtained, for in health the temperature is about 1° lower in the early morning than in the late afternoon. PULSE RATE

Another outstanding feature of Williams' study (Williams and Benedict, 1928) was 152

that he noted in several instances strikingly low pulse rates, giving the low average for his Maya sample of 53.6, confirmed by the later expeditions with averages of 55 (Shattuck and Benedict, 1931) and 52.3 (Steggerda, 1932). These figures were obtained under basal postabsorptive conditions, with the subject lying down, and may be compared with Benedict's figure of 61 for Europeans (Benedict, 1928), obtained by the same technique. The low Maya rate indicates that their high basal metabolic rate is hardly likely to be due to pathological hyperthyroidism. The technique used for the Maya Quiche examined at the time of the metabolism determinations is not stated; the sample gives a figure of 61, which may indicate that the subjects were examined sitting instead of lying down (Steggerda obtained a mean of 60.8 for Yucatan Maya thus) or had moved about prior to the measurement, or by comparison with the Yucatan Maya manifested increased thyroid activity referred to above. Most of the data on Middle American pulse rates, however, summarized in Table 3, were obtained under nonbasal conditions, and the width of their range reflects the number of factors —biological, environmental, and technical —which affect any pulse-rate reading, e.g., the recency of muscular exercise, the athletic condition of the subject, his emotional excitement, the ambient temperature. The means in the female series are consistently higher than the means of the corresponding male samples, presumably because the women were more worried at the procedure. There is no clear pattern of association with altitude, or temperature whether assessed as the mean of the warmest or coldest month or as mean annual temperature; yet pulse rates in indigenous peoples in samples drawn from all over the world show a significant positive correlation with mean temperature of habitat (Roberts, 1952b) which, by contrast to the basal metabolism correlation, in this case probably reflects a direct response to the ambient

PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES

TABLE 3—SUMMARY OF DATA ON PULSE RATE IN MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS* Sample

Season

Reference

No. Mean Age

Mean

Altitude

Nonbasal Male: Nahua - Tepoztlan Tarahumara - Norogachic Nahua - Zongolica Tepehua - Pisaflores O t o m i - E l Zapote Cuna - San Blas Maya - Motul Nahua - Pajapan Totonac-E1 Tajin

Jan .-Mar.

Field, 1954 C. Basauri, 1929 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Hrdlička, 1926 Askinasy, 1938 Faulhaber, 1950-56

-

May Mar. Feb.-Mar.

-

Nahua - Huatusco Tarascan - Paracho Choco Maya-Mam - Huehuetenango Yaqui - lower Rio Yaqui Huichol - Circa Sta. Catarina Huastec - Tantoyuca Nahua - Chiconamel Tarahumara - Guajoche Tarascan - Janitzio

Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Gómez Robleda et al.. 1943 Hrdlícka, 1926 Goff, 1948 Hrdliòka, 1908 Hrdliòka, 1908 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Hrdhòka, 1908 Gómez Robleda et al.. 1943

Tarascan - Tarequate

Hrdliòka, 1908

Female: Tepehua - Pisaflores Nahua - Pajapan O t o m i - E l Zapote

Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Askinasy, 1938 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56

E1 Cedro

Totonac-E1 Tajin

E1 Cedro

Maya - Motul Nahua - Huatusco Nahua - Zongolica Nahua - Chiconamel Huastec - Tantoyuca

159 50 100 100 100 20

33.0 30 39:2 32.2 35.1

-

-

Mar.

100

34:3

Jan.-Mar. Sept.-Oct.

100 99 47 27 59 12 20 100 99 20 116

33:2 36:11 C.34

83.90 (σ 10.33) 1700 m. C.400 m. 72-80 c. 1300 m. 77.30±.72 75.15±.66 C.300 m. 74.45 ± . 7 3 C.300 m. 74.3 lowland 73.7 lowland 73.4 ± . 6 0 lowland lowland c.l500m. c,2100 m. lowland 1890 m. lowland

11

-

72.55±.69 72.24 ± . 6 7 69.95 ± . 7 2 69.3 68.9 ± . 6 3 68.42 66.65 65.93±.59 65.00±.53 64.65 63.70±.64 (σ 10.25) 58.54

Mar. Mar. Feb.-Mar.

99 100 100

27:7 31:4 33:6

83.00±.63 81.96±.57 81.65±.61

c.300 m. lowland c.300 m.

Jan.-Mar.

100

32:6

lowland lowland C.1500 m. c. 1300 m. 145 m. 217 m.

lowland C.2500 m. lowland lowland lowland

Feb.-Mar.

-

June, Dec. July, Sept.

— -

-

Sept.-Oct. May July, Sept. June, Dec.

—

29.7

-

32:8 32:11

-

c.34

100 100 99 98

33:5 33:1 32.9 32:10

78.68±.61 78.9 78.52 ± . 6 7 77.45±.70 75.97±.73 74.38 ± . 8 0

21 30 24 32 30

—

60.81 ± 1 . 2 4 61 55 53.6 52

-

-

—

217 m. 145 m.

?

C.2000 m. c.l900m.

Basal Male: Maya Maya Maya Maya Maya -

Yucatan Quiche Totonicapan Yucatan Yucatan Yucatan

Steggerda, 1932 Crile & Quiring, 1939 Shattuck & Benedict, 1931 Williams & Benedict, 1928 Steggerda & Benedict, 1932

Feb.-Apr.

-

• Limited to series over 10 in number. Hrdlicka (1908) includes some smaller groups.

153

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

TABLE 4—SUMMARY OF DATA ON RESPIRATION RATE IN MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS• Sample

Reference

No.

Male: Cuna - San Blas Nahua - Tepoztlan Choco Maya - Ixil Tarahumara - Norogachic Tarascan - Janitzio Tarascan - Paracho Maya - Cakchiquel Maya - Quiche PipÜ Maya - Mam Tarahumara - Guajoche Paya Huichol - Circa Sta. Catarina Maya-Mam - Huehuetenango Yaqui Tarascan - Tarequato Maya - Yucatan

Hrdlička, 1926 Field, 1954 Hrdlička, 1926 Aloja, 1939b C. Basauri, 1929 Gómez Robleda et al., 1943 Gómez Robleda et al., 1943 Aloja, 1939b Aloja, 1939b Aloja, 1939b Aloja, 1939b Hrdlièka, 1908 Aloja, 1939b Hrdlièka, 1908 Goff, 1948 Hrdliòka, 1908 Hrdlicka, 1908 Shattuck & Benedict, 1931

20 159 27 22 30 116 47 57 43 15 24 18 18 20 61 12 11 24

Female: Pipil Maya — Ixil Maya - Quiche Maya - Cakchiquel Maya - Mam Paya

Aloja, Aloja, Aloja, Aloja, Aloja, Aloja,

1939b 1939b 1939b 1939b 1939b 1939b

15 11 29 38 11 16

Mean Age

-

Mean

-

23.8 23.24 (σ 3.12) 22.6 21.2 20-22 20.60±. 23 (σ 3.45) 20.18 (σ 3.64) 20.1 19.9 19.7 19.6 18.61 18.7 18.5 18 17.50 17.18 16.6

— -

23.0 21.7 21.5 20.6 20.3 19.6

33.03

-

30 C.34 C.34

-

29.7

Altitude lowland 1700 m. lowland

—

C.400 m. C.2000 m. C.2100 m.

1890 m. lowland c.l900m. lowland

* Limited to series over 10 in number. Hrdlièka (1908) includes some smaller groups.

temperature at the time of the determination. The absence of a similar positive correlation in the Middle American data may be attributed to high observer and technical error combined with an ecological range that is too small to allow an association of the order expected to be detected in the relatively few samples available. There is one generalization, however, that can be made about the Middle American Indian pulse rates; when in the 20 male samples, for which a figure for the mean annual temperature of habitat can be obtained, the observed rates are compared with those predicted from the regression equation ( y = 55.8 + .303x) of nonbasal pulse rate on temperature in indigenous male samples from all over the world, 19 of the 20 observed values fall below the expected rate. Al154

though it is not possible to exclude completely a technical explanation for this, it seems likely that a tendency to bradycardia is generally characteristic of Middle American Indian populations. RESPIRATION RATE

This is another very variable measurement, which is affected by a variety of external factors similar to those modifying pulse rate; an additional source of variability making measurement difficult lies in the fact that respiration is to some extent under voluntary control. Respiration tends to be more rapid in peoples indigenous to warmer habitats throughout the world—again probl

— — — — — — —

Ed. note: Hrdliòka (1908, p. 141) was more positive: "The heart beat is . , . decidedly slower in the Indian than in the White man."

— — — — — —

PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES

ably in response to the higher ambient temperature at the time of determination— though a statistically significant correlation with mean environmental temperature can be discerned only in those determinations made under basal conditions and not in those made under nonbasal conditions, presumably since the relationship is obscured by the considerable technical variability in the latter series (Roberts, 1952b). It is hardly surprising, therefore, that the Middle American mean respiration rates, most of which are nonbasal, summarized in Table 4, show no significant association with climate or altitude. There is no tendency for the means to fall consistently above or below those observed in other populations. BLOOD PRESSURE

In the interpretation of the mean blood pressures, given in Table 5, variation due to differences in technique of measurement has again to be taken into account, particularly in the diastolic readings where there is quite marked variation according to the point in the sound sequence at which the reading is taken. Other technical factors include the recency of muscular exercise, the posture, and the digestive and emotional states of the subject. Shattuck's (1933) examination of a large number of Maya indicated that their blood pressure rises with age at a similar rate to that of the white inhabitants of the U.S.A., but the level of Maya systolic pressure is consistently lower by about 10 mm. hemoglobin. Saunders' (in Shattuck, 1933) parallel investigation confirmed this generally lower level, which he attributed chiefly to the tropical climate and unhurried way of life. Almost all subsequent studies in Maya and other Middle American peoples have yielded means lower than those generally observed in Europeans, but have made little advance in their explanation. In indigenous populations throughout the world there is a significant negative correlation of blood pressure with mean annual temperature

(Roberts, 1952b), which can be most clearly discerned in series where technical variation is minimal, and which presumably reflects ambient temperature conditions at the time of determination. In warmer surroundings the skin temperature, and hence potential loss of body heat by radiation, is raised by vasodilatation which decreases the peripheral resistance which lowers the blood pressure. The fact that the Middle American series exhibits no significant correlation with environmental temperature is again probably attributable to technical variation and the limited range of environments covered. When the observed male systolic pressures are compared with those expected for the habitat from the general regressions on temperature (y=134.2— .291x nonbasal, y=123.3-.241x basal), in only 6 samples are the observed below the expected values and in the remaining 12 they are above. It appears, therefore, that the systolic pressures, though low by comparison with those of Europeans, are not unduly low for the climates the Middle American peoples inhabit. As regards the mechanism of adjustment, lowered blood viscosity does not appear to be responsible since the plasma protein concentrations are not unduly low and anemias of the type affecting viscosity are not sufficiently widespread. The generally slower pulse rate would tend to depress the blood pressure, unless the heart-stroke volume is increased, and the pulse pressures calculated from Table 5 are not sufficiently reliable to indicate whether or not this is so. Adjustment of peripheral vasodilatation or constriction to environmental conditions could well be responsible. BLOOD COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY

Those data definitely referrable to Indians are rather scanty. Whereas the medical literature carries a number of references to these blood determinations for various towns and villages, it is impossible to judge the racial nature of these samples. The 155

TABLE 5—SUMMARY OF DATA ON BLOOD PRESSURE IN MIDDLE AMERICAN Mean

Sample

Season

Reference

No. Age

INDIANS

Diastolic

Altitude

(σ11.2) 124.10±.49 119.10±.82 119.04±.73 119.02±.82 117.84±.66 117.20±.12 (σ 13.71) 116.9±.88 115.25±.74 (σ 10.45) 111.62±.92

79.75±.72 78.72 77.4 (σ8.8) 74.56±.67 74.08 ±.62 68.52±.70 70.28±.70 73.76±.52 72.55±.85 (σ9.78) 72.8±.55 68.20±.66 (σ9.40) 68.28±.67

lowland lowland 1748 m.

111.55±.92 109.37±.94 105.2

64.80±.85 68.57±.57 69.3

C.2000 m. 217 m. lowland

Systolic

Nonbaêal Male:

Totonac-E1 Tajin E1 Cedro Maya - Yucatan (mixed) Otomi - Ixmiquilpan

Faulhaber, 1950-56 Shattuck, 1933 Schreider, 1953-55

Jan.-Mar. Jan.-Mar.

Nahua - Pajapan Nahua - Zongolica Tepehua - Pisaflores Otomi - El Zapote Nahua - Huatusco Maya - Yucatan (purest)

Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Williams, 1931

March

Maya-Mam - Huehuetenangc Goff, 1948 Gómez Robleda et al., Tarascan - Janitzio 1943 Faulhaber, 1950-56 Gómez Robleda et al., 1943 Faulhaber, 1956-56 Kean, 1944

Nahua - Chiconamel Tarascan - Paracho Huastec - Tantoyuca Cuna - San Blas

— May March Feb.-Mar. Sept.-Oct.

— Jan.-Mar.

— July, Sept.

— June, Dec.

100 33:2 289 C.37 99 28:2 100 100 100 100 99 60

34:3 39:2 32:2 35:1 36:11

—

61 29:7 116 C.34 99

32:11

47 c.34 100 32:8 408 ?

125.70±.80 121.98 121.5

lowland c.l300m. c. 300 m. c. 300 m. c.l500m. lowland 1890 m. 1702 m. 145 m.

M&F M&F

Female: Otomi-El Zapote

Faulhaber, 1950-56

Feb.-Mar.

100 33:6

117.10±.78

67.00±.65

c. 300 m.

Totonac-E1 Tajin E1 Cedro Nahua - Huatusco Nahua - Zongolica Nahua - Chiconamel Nahua - Pajapan Tepehua - Pisaflores Huastec - Tantoyuca

Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber, Faulhaber,

Jan.-Mar. Sept.-Oct.

100 100 100 99 100 99 98

116.90±.82 116.12±.50 115.54±.82 114.42±1.03 114.30±.71 111.62±.73 107.60±.80

72.84±.57 71.40±.43 67.96±.50 69.69 ±.61 70.13±.54 61.98±.67 65.34±.64

lowland c.l500m. c.l300m. 145 m. lowland c. 300 m. 217 m.

23 30

111.7 111

77

lowland C.2500 m.

17

104

72

lowland

1950-56 1950-56 1950-56 1950-56 1950-56 1950-56 1950-56

May July, Sept. March March June, Dec.

32:6 33:5 33:1 32:9 26:8 27:7 32:10

Basal

Male: Maya - Yucatan Maya - Quiche Totonicapan Maya - Yucatan

Williams & Benedict, 1928 Crile & Quiring, 1939 Shattuck & Benedict, 1931

TABLE 6—HEMATOLOGICAL DATA ON YUCATAN MAYA Shattuck* Hemoglobin, adult males Hemoglobin, adult females Hemoglobin, apparently healthy adult males only Red blood cell count, average

4,570,000

White blood cell count, average

7,300

' 1933, p. 291

ff.

74.5% 65.0% 83%

f Ibid., p. 493 ff.

752 men, women, and children 61 subjects 55 males, 2 females, 6 children 55 males, 3 females, 6 children

Saunders 70.8% 73.0% 81%

329 subjects 547 subjects 100 subjects

4,450,000

21 males, 3 females 46 adults of both sexes

8,060

PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES

blood composition of the Yucatec Maya, however, was studied by Shattuck (1933), and similar investigations by Saunders are reported in the same volume. Their findings are summarized in Table 6. The average hemoglobin percentages are somewhat misleading for two reasons; (1) the subjects included patients with various minor ailments, reducing the averages below the levels obtained in samples of apparently healthy males; and (2) more important, the Tallquist technique employed in these studies is quite satisfactory for the lower part of the scale, but notably underestimates the higher part of it. If we take this into account, the figures for healthy males are in fact quite good, while those for the whole sample indicate that mild anemia is fairly common but severe anemia is rare. These average hemoglobin percentages correspond quite closely to those of highland Maya from the Lake Atitlan basin in Guatemala (Shattuck, 1938). In this highland sample, 212 males over 10 years of age averaged 72.8 per cent, and 133 females over 10 averaged 72.2 per cent. Mestizos in Yucatan and in the Guatemalan highlands are little if any higher in their hemoglobin distributions. If the two Maya samples represent quite good hemoglobin levels, the same cannot be said for 100 Miskito Indian infants from the Coco River in northern Nicaragua who average 55 per cent (Pijoan, 1946, pp. 160-61). The explanation for this lower figure is multiple, and lies in different technique, lower altitude, and a more hostile disease environment. For the cell-count data (Table 6), a large proportion of women were included in Saunders' sample and a few women and children in Shattuck's sample. Although all subjects are stated to have been normal and any with diseases likely to influence the red count were excluded, the red cell counts tend to be somewhat below what are regarded as normal values. Thus they are compatible with the interpretation suggested by the hemoglobin values. The average

white cell counts are quite normal, but the differential counts indicate relatively low percentages of polymorphonuclear leucocytes and increased proportions of lymphocytes and eosinophils, probably associated with the parasite loads of both lowland (Shattuck, 1933) and highland Maya (Flores and Reh, 1955a,b). These intestinal parasite loads coupled with malarial infections not infrequently found in the lowland areas are probably responsible for the rather high incidence of anemia in the Maya. The high iron intakes of these people (see Table 9) probably prevent most cases of anemia from attaining severe levels. Hematological values are also available for Guatemalan boys, where urban (more Ladino) and rural (more Indian) samples are contrasted (Méndez, Guzmán, and Aguire, 1952). Hemoglobin in grams per cent averages 14.21 for the urban boys, 13.23 for the rural boys, with the difference significant at P