Handbook of climate change mitigation and adaptation. Volume 4 [Second edition] 9783319144085, 9783319144092, 9783319144108, 3319144081

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Wei-Yin Chen Toshio Suzuki Maximilian Lackner Editors

Handbook of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Second Edition

Handbook of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation

Wei-Yin Chen • Toshio Suzuki Maximilian Lackner Editors

Handbook of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Second Edition

With 1108 Figures and 352 Tables

Editors Wei-Yin Chen Department of Chemical Engineering University of Mississippi Oxford, MS, USA

Toshio Suzuki National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) Nagoya, Japan

Maximilian Lackner Institute of Advanced Engineering Technologies University of Applied Sciences FH Technikum Wien Vienna, Austria

ISBN 978-3-319-14408-5 ISBN 978-3-319-14409-2 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-319-14410-8 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14409-2 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016946080 1st edition: # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012 # Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Foreword

Scientific evidence is mounting that human activities have begun to change global climate. As a consequence, attention is increasingly turning in the public, private, and nonprofit sectors to the options available for dealing with that change. As we gradually begin to realize, actually only three options are available to us: mitigation, adaptation, and suffering. Mitigating climate change means cutting and sequestering emissions of greenhouse gases to prevent further increases in their atmospheric concentrations and perhaps even reducing concentrations to levels deemed less unsafe than the ones to which they have been driven since the start of the industrial revolution. Adaptation means finding ways that can help reduce the impacts of climate change on society, the various sectors of its economy, and the places in which we live – be those small rural villages or the cities and towns that by now house the majority of the human population, that account for the bulk of infrastructure investments, and that contribute most to energy consumption and carbon emissions. To the extent that mitigation and adaptation efforts are too timid, suffering will inevitably result. What are safe concentrations of greenhouse gases is a topic of vigorous debate because we do not yet fully understand the coupled earth system and human system dynamics that will play themselves out in a world of unprecedented greenhouse gas concentrations. How high is too high will be known well after the point of no return has been reached, that is when developments in the global biogeochemical system are kicked off to move in a direction and rate that cannot be undone. Ice sheets may melt and free the methane and carbon dioxide long locked up in the soils underneath, thus further accelerating climate change. Major ocean currents, which move waters and nutrients to support the biological activity in the seas, may abruptly change direction or entirely cease. The established precipitation and temperature patterns, which are so central to agriculture, may be altered in ways that further challenge our abilities to feed a growing human population. And so, the extent to which we embrace mitigation, in part, reflects our aversion – or desire – to take risks in matters pertaining not just to the stability of global climate conditions but the global human condition and that of other species more broadly. It is against this backdrop that this volume illuminates humanity’s mitigation options. From its coverage it is quite obvious that there is no magic knife with which to cut emissions, because the sources of emissions are varied and intricately woven v

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Foreword

into the very fabric of our society and economy. Movement from oil, coal, and natural gas, for example, to biological feedstocks for the production of fuels and chemicals is an essential strategy to decarbonize our economies, but the effect of this strategy hinges on the extent to which production of biomass can decouple itself from fossil-based generation of fertilizers and pesticides, minimize land conversation, and prevent the associated release of carbon from soils and impacts on biodiversity. Other, at least equally daunting, challenges surround the conversion of syngas to fuel; the deployment of geothermal, solar, and fusion technology; and the various means to sequester greenhouse gases. Policy and investment decision makers who wish to navigate and shape the resultant dynamics are further challenged in their abilities to understand and project resource and emissions trends into the future because of the rapid changes in technologies and markets, as well as the emergence of new, major players in the game, such as has happened in recent years with the proliferation of shale oil and shale gas developments. Even if the production of new sources of energy and materials can occur with lower emissions, the end use technologies and infrastructures need to be in place to take full advantage of these improvements. This will require changes in our built environment – from houses to transportation networks to energy storage to power grids and beyond. These changes, in turn, will, at least for the foreseeable future, require continued use of existing infrastructures that have developed around the use of conventional fuels and land use practices. Decarbonization at the process level, even when combined with the most aggressive efficiency improvements in the end uses of materials and energy, however only translates to net reductions in emissions if “other influences” do not overwhelm the rates at which these improvements are realized. Among these other influences are economic growth that comes from generating ever larger production of output, population growth that leads to ever more demand for goods and services, and climate change itself that is triggering a need for surplus production to built up our safety nets – from personal insurance to large-scale flood control systems – that can help us weather adverse climate conditions. In the final analysis, it is the interplay of technology change, behavioral change, institutional change, and environmental change that must be managed for mitigation to become effective. How well that interplay is orchestrated will in large part depend on our ability to provide the right incentives for climate mitigation – be it through international agreements or through unilateral action, through market-based approaches, direct government intervention, or a mix of them all. Our success will be indicative not just of the technological prowess of our age, but also of the values and institutions that guide our actions. Despite all efforts to stabilize and perhaps even reduce, in the long run, atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, humans have already committed themselves to decades of temperature changes and centuries of sea level rise. And, to worsen the outlook, rising global temperatures and sea levels will be accompanied by many other changes in our biophysical and socioeconomic environment. Since the heat budget of the globe will be disturbed, the frequency and severity of extreme weather events will likely increase. Disruptions in biophysical conditions will trigger, and be

Foreword

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triggered by, changes in ecosystems – including changes in the productivity of managed forests and croplands, as well as changes in the distribution of pests and diseases. The associated tightening of resource constraints will undermine the livelihoods of people, displace populations, and inflict pain and death. There are unlikely to be long-term winners from climate change. None of the places already suffering from shortages in water and food, for example, or flooding and crumbling infrastructures will, in the long run, be better off because of climate change. Even if they do feel like “winners” temporarily – perhaps because the length of growing seasons increases with rising temperatures or a melting of sea ice improves shipping and boosts their economy – those benefits are fleeting. Climate will not stop changing once optimal conditions are reached, and benefits in one sector may already be overwhelmed by costs imposed on other parts of the economy and society. Clearly, some form of adaptation will need to take place. Ideally, adaptation strategies are implemented not just as climate change unfolds, but in anticipation of any further climate change so that people, economic sectors, cities and their infrastructures, as well as natural systems such as wetlands and forests, are better prepared for, and perhaps even protected from, further disruptions. But even if there were no further climate change, there already is considerable variability in the weather conditions with which people, economic sectors, cities, and natural systems must cope. Maintaining vital wetlands well before flooding events will help provide natural buffers for coastal communities. Creating redundancies in lifeline infrastructures, such as the different ways of powering businesses and homes from centralized power plants and small-scale generators, will allow for switching across electricity sources during extreme weather events, for example. And promoting more efficient energy use in the first place will reduce the reliance on some of that energy. To the extent that adaptation helps reduce already existing inefficiencies, it can make good social, economic, and environmental sense irrespective of the details with which future climate conditions manifest themselves. The conclusion one may draw that “less mitigation today can be balanced by more adaptation in the future,” however, is misleading. It suggests that the two strategies are, at some abstract level, substitutable. In reality, though, less mitigation today means not just a need for more adaptation in the future. Rather, less mitigation today means more adaptation over more of our future, because even reduced emissions continue to add to atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, and because the damages that result will be cumulative in nature – heat waves, droughts, and flooding events, for example, will continuously undermine our wealth and welfare and require ever larger diversion of resources to address the causes and effects of climate change. Understanding the role of mitigation and choosing the proper mitigation strategies is, therefore, an essential forebear to anything else we may be doing about climate change. Recognizing the urgency for preparedness, given the extent to which humanity has already committed itself to a changing climate, is central to motivating investment in new technologies, changes in behaviors, and deployment of infrastructures that can better withstand the vagaries of the climate.

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Foreword

A worldview that is consistent with this understanding sees mitigation and adaptation as complements, offers them as strategies to address persistent and nascent inefficiencies, and treats them as a package that substitutes for the only other option available, namely suffering. It is in this sense that this Handbook of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation provides valuable insights into the preconditions for a prosperous future. School of Public Policy and Urban Affairs Northeastern University Boston, MA, USA

Matthias Ruth Director and Professor

Contents

Volume 1 Part I Scientific Evidences of Climate Change and Societal Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

Introduction to Climate Change Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maximilian Lackner, Wei-Yin Chen, and Toshio Suzuki

3

........

17

Paleoclimate Changes and Significance of Present Global Warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asadullah Kazi

47

Loss and Damage Associated with Climate Change Impacts Linta M. Mathew and Sonia Akter

Life Cycle Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L. Reijnders

61

Some Economics of International Climate Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Karen Pittel, Dirk R€ubbelke, Martin Altemeyer-Bartscher, and Sebastian Otte

93

Ethics and Environmental Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David J. Rutherford and Eric Thomas Weber

127

Mass Media Roles in Climate Change Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kristen Alley Swain

167

Economics for a Sustainable Planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arif S. Malik

221

Emissions Trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roger Raufer, Paula Coussy, Carla Freeman, and Sudha Iyer

257

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Contents

Carbon Markets: Linking the International Emission Trading Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Itziar Martínez de Alegría, Gonzalo Molina, and Belén del Río European Union (EU) Strategy to Face the Climate Change Challenge in the Framework of the International Commitments Itziar Martínez de Alegría, María-Azucena Vicente-Molina, and Cristian Moore

313

.....

341

Implications of Climate Change for the Petrochemical Industry: Mitigation Measures and Feedstock Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simon J. Bennett and Holly A. Page

383

Venture Capital Investment and Trend in Clean Technologies . . . . . . . John C. P. Huang

427

..........

477

The Role of Aviation in Climate Change Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Katsuya Hihara

489

Part II

525

Analysis of the Co-benefits of Climate Change Mitigation Douglas Crawford-Brown

Impact of Climate Change and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Carbon Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yoshihiro Fujii

527

....

555

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595

Sea-Level Rise and Hazardous Storms: Impact Assessment on Coasts and Estuaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yan Ding

621

Climate Change and Carbon Sequestration in Forest Ecosystems Dafeng Hui, Qi Deng, Hanqin Tian, and Yiqi Luo Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity David H. Reed

Projected Impacts of Climatic Changes on Cisco Oxythermal Habitat in Minnesota Lakes and Management Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xing Fang, Heinz G. Stefan, Liping Jiang, Peter C. Jacobson, and Donald L. Pereira Impact of Climate Change on Crop Production Gamal El Afandi

..................

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Volume 2 Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability, and Adaptation in East Africa (EA) and South America (SA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anne Nyatichi Omambia, Ceven Shemsanga, and Ivonne Andrea Sanchez Hernandez

749

Statistics in Climate Variability, Dry Spells, and Implications for Local Livelihoods in Semiarid Regions of Tanzania: The Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ceven Shemsanga, A. N. N. Muzuka, L. Martz, H. Komakech, and Anne Nyatichi Omambia

801

Climate Change Adaptation, Mitigation, and the Attainment of Food Security in the Sudano-Sahelian Belt of Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aishetu Abdulkadir

849

Understanding Climate Change Adaptation Needs and Practices of Households in Southeast Asia: Lessons from Five Years of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Herminia A. Francisco and Noor Aini Zakaria

863

Impact of Climate Change, Adaptation, and Potential Mitigation to Vietnam Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trinh Van Mai and Jenny Lovell

899

Potential Impacts of the Growth of a Mega City in Southeast Asia: A Case Study on the City of Dhaka, Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. K. M. Azad Hossain and Greg Easson

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Potential of Solid Waste and Agricultural Biomass as Energy Source and Effect on Environment in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. R. Samo, K. C. Mukwana, and A. A. Sohu

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The Advanced Recycling Technology for Realizing Urban Mines Contributing to Climate Change Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007 Tatsuya Oki and Toshio Suzuki An Introductory Course on Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037 Wei-Yin Chen Reducing Personal Mobility for Climate Change Mitigation . . . . . . . . . 1071 Patrick Moriarty and Damon Honnery Nontechnical Aspects of Household Energy Reductions Patrick Moriarty and Damon Honnery

. . . . . . . . . . . . 1107

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Contents

Bringing Global Climate Change Education to Middle School Classrooms: An Example from Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127 Ming-Kuo Lee, Chandana Mitra, Amy Thomas, Tyaunnaka Lucy, Elizabeth Hickman, Jennifer Cox, and Chris Rodger Climate Change: Outreaching to School Students and Teachers . . . . . . 1149 Dudley E. Shallcross, Timothy G. Harrison, Alison C. Rivett, and Jauyah Tuah Geoengineering for Climate Stabilization Maximilian Lackner

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201

Social Efficiency in Energy Conservation Patrick Moriarty and Damon Honnery

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235

Measuring Household Vulnerability to Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . 1251 Sofie Waage Skjeflo Fracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1265 Qingmin Meng Transport Through Porous Media: Case Studies of CO2 Sequestration, CO2-Oxygen Reaction in Oxy-Combustion, and Oxygen Transport in Membrane at High Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279 Aishuang Xiang Part III Climate Change Mitigation: Energy Conversation, Efficiency, and Sustainable Energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1307

Energy Efficiency: Comparison of Different Systems and Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309 Maximilian Lackner Fuel Efficiency in Transportation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1385 Maximilian Lackner, John M. Seiner, and Wei-Yin Chen Thermal Insulation for Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1413 David W. Yarbrough Thermal Energy Storage and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1433 Satoshi Hirano Smart Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465 Dawood Al Abri, Arif S. Malik, Mohammed Albadi, Yassine Charabi, and Nasser Hosseinzadeh Concentrated Solar Thermal Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1503 Anjaneyulu Krothapalli and Brenton Greska

Contents

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Volume 3 Harvesting Solar Energy Using Inexpensive and Benign Materials Susannah Lee, Melissa Vandiver, Balasubramanian Viswanathan, and Vaidyanathan (Ravi) Subramanian

. . . 1537

Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Using Advanced Heat Integration Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1581 Kailiang Zheng, Helen H. Lou, and Yinlun Huang Modern Power Plant Control for Energy Conservation, Efficiency Increase, and Financial Benefit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631 Pal Szentannai Mobile and Area Sources of Greenhouse Gases and Abatement Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1657 Waheed Uddin Biomass as Feedstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1723 Debalina Sengupta Biochemical Conversion of Biomass to Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777 Swetha Mahalaxmi and Clint Williford Thermal Conversion of Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1813 Zhongyang Luo and Jingsong Zhou Chemicals from Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855 Debalina Sengupta and Ralph W. Pike Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) of Bio-Oil Model Compounds with Synthesis Gas Using a Water Gas Shift Catalyst with a Mo/Co/K Catalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1903 Rangana Wijayapala, Akila G. Karunanayake, Damion Proctor, Fei Yu, Charles U. Pittman, and Todd E. Mlsna Biochar from Biomass: A Strategy for Carbon Dioxide Sequestration, Soil Amendment, Power Generation, and CO2 Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937 Vanisree Mulabagal, David A. Baah, Nosa O. Egiebor, and Wei-Yin Chen Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1975 Manfred Lenzen and Olivier Baboulet Wave Power: Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . 2007 Gregorio Iglesias and Javier Abanades Geothermal Energy Hirofumi Muraoka

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2057

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Contents

Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2085 Jingsheng Jia, Petras Punys, and Jing Ma Nuclear Energy and Environmental Impact K. S. Raja, B. Pesic, and M. Misra

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2133

Part IV Climate Change Mitigation: Advanced Carbon Conversion Sciences and Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2195

Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions with CO2 Capture and Geological Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2197 J. Marcelo Ketzer, Rodrigo S. Iglesias, and Sandra Einloft Chemical Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2239 Mengxiang Fang and Dechen Zhu CO2 Capture Using Solid Sorbents Yao Shi, Qing Liu, and Yi He

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2349

Volume 4 CO2 Capture by Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2405 Teruhiko Kai and Shuhong Duan CO2 Geological Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2433 Masao Sorai, Xing Lei, Yuji Nishi, Tsuneo Ishido, and Shinsuke Nakao Conversion of CO2 to Value Added Chemicals: Opportunities and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2487 Arun S. Agarwal, Edward Rode, Narasi Sridhar, and Davion Hill Oxy-Fuel Firing Technology for Power Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2527 Edward John (Ben) Anthony Gasification Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2557 Lawrence J. Shadle, Ronald W. Breault, and James Bennett Conversion of Syngas to Fuels and Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2629 Steven S. C. Chuang and Long Zhang Chemical Looping Combustion Edward John (Ben) Anthony

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2647

High Temperature Oxygen Separation Using Dense Ceramic Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2681 Jaka Sunarso, Kun Zhang, and Shaomin Liu

Contents

Part V

xv

Climate Change Mitigation: Advanced Technologies . . . . .

2707

Photocatalytic Water Splitting and Carbon Dioxide Reduction . . . . . . 2709 Nathan I. Hammer, Sarah Sutton, Jared Delcamp, and Jacob D. Graham Simultaneous CO2 and H2S Sequestration by Electrocatalytic Conversion for Chemical Feedstock Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2757 Nosa O. Egiebor and Jonathan Mbah Power-to-Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2775 Michael Sterner Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Catalytic Processes Gabriele Centi and Siglinda Perathoner Integrated Systems to Reduce Global Warming Preben Maegaard and Anna Krenz

. . . . . 2827

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2881

Thermoacoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2967 Matthew E. Poese Hydrogen Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2995 Qinhui Wang Low-Temperature Fuel Cell Technology for Green Energy . . . . . . . . . . 3039 Scott A. Gold Solid Oxide Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3087 Nigel M. Sammes, Kevin Galloway, Mustafa F. Serincan, Toshio Suzuki, Toshiaki Yamaguchi, Masanobu Awano, and Whitney Colella Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3113 Takao Watanabe Fusion Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3139 Hiroshi Yamada 3rd-Generation Biofuels: Bacteria and Algae as Sustainable Producers and Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3173 Maximilian Lackner Biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3211 Maximilian Lackner Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3231 Maximilian Lackner Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3297

About the Editors

Wei-Yin Chen is a Chemical Engineering professor with degrees in Chemical Engineering and Applied Mathematics and Statistics. He initiated the Sustainable Energy and Environment (SEE) group, which was formed at the University of Mississippi in 2007 and now has over 200 collaborators around the world. The SEE group has been offering new courses on climate change and sustainable energy, edited this Handbook, been developing experimental modules for outreach with several nationally recognized awards, and been developing a multidisciplinary research program leading to efficient power generation, CO2 utilization, CO2 capture, and carbon activation. He has served as a panelist, reviewer, or advisor for research organization in the USA, China, Romania, India, Jordan, Malaysia, etc. He is an adjunct or visiting faculty of five universities in China and Taiwan. He is currently on the editorial board of five journals. He has reviewed manuscripts and book proposals for over 50 journals and publishers. He has received the outstanding research, teaching, and service awards from the School of Engineering of the University of Mississippi. His publications on pedagogy have been cited as the “Best Practice” by a review of Chemical Engineering Education in both the thermodynamics and chemical reaction engineering areas.

Toshio Suzuki is Group Leader of Functional Integration Technology Group, at Japan’s National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), working in the fields of materials science, electrochemistry, and nanotechnology, especially on the development of next generation electrochemical devices such as solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). He is specializing in the design of advanced materials for energy conversion, with R&D experience in electrical, structural, and optical properties of novel ion conducting materials, correlating with microstructure. Dr. Suzuki received his xvii

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About the Editors

Ph.D. in Ceramic Engineering from University of Missouri-Rolla, USA, in 2001 and has published over 140 research articles, book chapters, and patents.

Maximilian Lackner received his Ph.D. in Technical Chemistry from Vienna University of Technology, Austria, in 2003, and his habilitation in Chemical Engineering in 2009. His research interests include: climate change mitigation, material science, lasers in chemistry, combustion, biofuels, and biobased plastics. Dr. Lackner was visiting researcher at Munich University of Technology (Germany), Darmstadt University (Germany), and Lund Institute of Technology (Sweden). He held several senior leadership positions in the petrochemical industry in Austria and China and founded five companies. Dr. Lackner has published over 100 research articles, book chapters, and patents. He is lecturer at Vienna University of Technology, the University of Applied Sciences FH Technikum Wien, and Johannes Kepler University (Austria).

Contributors

Javier Abanades School of Marine Science and Engineering, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK Aishetu Abdulkadir Centre for Disaster Risk Reduction and Development Studies (CDRM & DS), Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria Dawood Al Abri Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman Arun S. Agarwal Materials Program, Strategic Research and Innovation, DNV GL, Dublin, OH, USA Sonia Akter Social Sciences Division, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines Mohammed Albadi Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman Martin Altemeyer-Bartscher Faculty of Law and Economics, Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle Institute for Economic Research, Halle (Saale), Germany Edward John (Ben) Anthony CanmetENERGY, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, ON, USA Masanobu Awano National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan David A. Baah Department of Chemical Engineering, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, USA Olivier Baboulet ISA, School of Physics-A28, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia James Bennett U. S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Morgantown, WV, USA xix

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Contributors

Simon J. Bennett Imperial Centre for Energy Policy and Technology, Imperial College, London, UK International Energy Agency, Paris, France Ronald W. Breault U. S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Morgantown, WV, USA Gabriele Centi Dip. Ingegneria Elettronica, Chimica ed Ingegneria Industriale (DIECII), University of Messina, ERIC aisbl and CASPE-INSTM, Messina, Italy Yassine Charabi Department of Geography, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman Wei-Yin Chen Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA Steven S. C. Chuang First Energy Advanced Energy Research Center, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH, USA Whitney Colella Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA Paula Coussy Economics and Environmental Evaluation Department, CO2 Market Expert, IFP Energies nouvelles, Rueil-Malmaison, France Jennifer Cox Alabama Science in Motion Program, Alabama State University, Montgomery, AL, USA Douglas Crawford-Brown Cambridge Centre for Climate Change Mitigation Research, Department of Land Economy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Belén del Río Chair in International Studies, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain Jared Delcamp Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Mississippi University, Oxford, MS, USA Qi Deng Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN, USA Yan Ding National Center for Computational Hydroscience and Engineering, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA Shuhong Duan Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth (RITE), Kizugawa-shi, Kyoto, Japan Greg Easson Mississippi Mineral Resources Institute, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA Nosa O. Egiebor Department of Chemical Engineering and Division of Global Engagement, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA

Contributors

xxi

Sandra Einloft FAQUI – Faculty of Chemistry, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil Gamal El Afandi Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, College of Agriculture, Environment and Nutrition Sciences, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, USA Department of Astronomy and Meteorology, Faculty of Science, Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt Mengxiang Fang Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China Xing Fang Department of Civil Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA Herminia A. Francisco Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines Carla Freeman School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Washington, DC, USA Yoshihiro Fujii Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan Kevin Galloway Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA Scott A. Gold Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Dayton, Dayton, OH, USA Jacob D. Graham Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA Brenton Greska Cameron International, Houston, TX, USA Nathan I. Hammer Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Mississippi University, Oxford, MS, USA Timothy G. Harrison Bristol ChemLabS, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK Yi He Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Industrial Ecology and Environment, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China Elizabeth Hickman Alabama Mathematics and Science Technology Initiative, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA Katsuya Hihara Graduate School of Public Policy, the University of Tokyo, Hongo Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan Davion Hill Energy and Materials, DNV GL, Dublin, OH, USA

xxii

Contributors

Satoshi Hirano Thermal and Fluids Systems Group, Energy Technology Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan Damon Honnery Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia A. K. M. Azad Hossain National Center for Computational Hydroscience and Engineering (NCCHE), The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA Nasser Hosseinzadeh Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman John C. P. Huang Focus Capital Group, Cupertino, CA, USA Yinlun Huang Lab for Multiscale Complex Systems Science and Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA Dafeng Hui Department of Biological Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN, USA Gregorio Iglesias School of Marine Science and Engineering, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK Rodrigo S. Iglesias FENG – Engineering Faculty, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil Tsuneo Ishido National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Geological Survey of Japan, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan Sudha Iyer Cerebronics, LLC, Hoboken, NJ, USA Peter C. Jacobson Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Park Rapids, MN, USA Jingsheng Jia International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), Paris, France Liping Jiang Department of Civil Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA Teruhiko Kai Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth (RITE), Kizugawa-shi, Kyoto, Japan Akila G. Karunanayake Department of Chemistry, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA Asadullah Kazi Isra University, Hyderabad, Sindh, Pakistan J. Marcelo Ketzer IPR – Institute of Petroleum and Natural Resources, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil

Contributors

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H. Komakech Department of Water and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Nelson Mandela Institution of Science and Technology-Tengeru, Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania Anna Krenz Nordic Folkecenter for Renewable Energy, Hurup Thy, Denmark Anjaneyulu Krothapalli Department of Mechanical Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA Maximilian Lackner Institute of Advanced Engineering Technologies, University of Applied Sciences FH Technikum Wien, Vienna, Austria Ming-Kuo Lee Department of Geology and Geography, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA Susannah Lee Department of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, LME 310, MS 388, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA Xing Lei National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Geological Survey of Japan, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan Manfred Lenzen ISA, School of Physics-A28, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Qing Liu Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Industrial Ecology and Environment, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China Shaomin Liu Department of Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia Helen H. Lou Dan F. Smith Department of Chemical Engineering, Lamar University, Beaumont, TX, USA Jenny Lovell Environmental Studies Department, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA Tyaunnaka Lucy Alabama Mathematics and Science Technology Initiative, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA Yiqi Luo Department of Microbiology and Plant Sciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA Zhongyang Luo State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, College of Energy Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China Jing Ma China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing, China Preben Maegaard Nordic Folkecenter for Renewable Energy, Hurup Thy, Denmark

xxiv

Contributors

Swetha Mahalaxmi Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA Trinh Van Mai Institute for Agricultural Environment, Vietnam Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Phudo, South Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam Arif S. Malik Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman Itziar Martínez de Alegría Engineering School of Bilbao, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain L. Martz Department of Geography, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada Linta M. Mathew Social Sciences Division, International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines Jonathan Mbah Department of Chemical Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL, USA Qingmin Meng Department of Geosciences, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA M. Misra Department of Metallurgical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA Chandana Mitra Department of Geology and Geography, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA Todd E. Mlsna Department of Chemistry, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA Gonzalo Molina University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain Cristian Moore Alcoa Inc., Alcoa, TN, USA Patrick Moriarty Department of Design, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia K. C. Mukwana Energy and Environment Engineering Department, Quaid-EAwam University of Engineering, Science and Technology (QUEST), Nawabshah, Sindh, Pakistan Vanisree Mulabagal Department of Chemical Engineering, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, USA Hirofumi Muraoka North Japan Research Institute for Sustainable Energy, Hirosaki University, Aomori, Japan

Contributors

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A. N. N. Muzuka Department of Water and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Nelson Mandela Institution of Science and Technology-Tengeru, Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania Shinsuke Nakao National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Geological Survey of Japan, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan Yuji Nishi National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Geological Survey of Japan, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan Tatsuya Oki National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Onogawa Tsukuba, Ibaragi, Japan Anne Nyatichi Omambia National Environment Management Authority, Nairobi, Kenya Sebastian Otte Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany Holly A. Page Imperial College, London, UK Siglinda Perathoner Dip. Ingegneria Elettronica, Chimica ed Ingegneria Industriale (DIECII), University of Messina, ERIC aisbl and CASPE-INSTM, Messina, Italy Donald L. Pereira Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, St. Paul, MN, USA B. Pesic Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA Ralph W. Pike Minerals Processing Research Institute, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA Karen Pittel Ifo Institute – Leibniz Institute for Economic Research and University of Munich, Munich, Germany Charles U. Pittman Department of Chemistry, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA Matthew E. Poese Applied Research Laboratory, State College, PA, USA Damion Proctor Department of Chemistry, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA Petras Punys Water Management Department, Water and Land Management Faculty, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Kaunas-Akademija, Lithuania Dirk Rübbelke Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany K. S. Raja Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA

xxvi

Contributors

Roger Raufer Hopkins Nanjing Center, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China David H. Reed Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA L. Reijnders Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Alison C. Rivett Bristol ChemLabS, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK Edward Rode Materials Program, Strategic Research and Innovation, DNV GL, Dublin, OH, USA Chris Rodger Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA David J. Rutherford Department of Public Policy Leadership, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA Nigel M. Sammes Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA S. R. Samo Quaid-E-Awam University of Engineering, Science and Technology (QUEST), Nawabshah, Sindh, Pakistan Ivonne Andrea Sanchez Hernandez Sustainability Development, AB Origen Fundación, Armenia, Quindio, Colombia John M. Seiner Debalina Sengupta Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA Mustafa F. Serincan Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA Lawrence J. Shadle U. S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Morgantown, WV, USA Dudley E. Shallcross Bristol ChemLabS, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK Ceven Shemsanga Department of Water and Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Nelson Mandela Institution of Science and Technology-Tengeru, Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania David H. Reed: deceased. John M. Seiner: deceased.

Contributors

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Yao Shi Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Industrial Ecology and Environment, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China Sofie Waage Skjeflo UMB School of Economics and Business, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway A. A. Sohu Mechanical Engineering Department, QUCEST, Larkano, Sindh, Pakistan Masao Sorai National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Geological Survey of Japan, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan Narasi Sridhar Materials Program, Strategic Research and Innovation, DNV GL, Dublin, OH, USA Heinz G. Stefan St. Anthony Falls Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Michael Sterner Forschungsstelle Energienetze und Energiespeicher (FENES), Fakultät für Elektro- und Informationstechnik, OTH Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany Vaidyanathan (Ravi) Subramanian Department of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, LME 310, MS 388, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA Jaka Sunarso Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada Sarah Sutton Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Mississippi University, Oxford, MS, USA Toshio Suzuki National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan Kristen Alley Swain Meek School of Journalism and New Media, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA Pal Szentannai Department of Energy Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary Amy Thomas Outreach Program, College of Sciences and Mathematics, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA Hanqin Tian International Center for Climate and Global Change Research, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA Jauyah Tuah Secretariat of Brunei Darussalam Technical and Vocational Education Council, Permanent Secretary Office (Higher Education), Ministry of Education, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam

xxviii

Contributors

Waheed Uddin Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA Melissa Vandiver Department of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, LME 310, MS 388, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA María-Azucena Vicente-Molina Economics and Business Administration College, University of the Basque Country, Bilbao, Spain Balasubramanian Viswanathan National Center for Catalysis Research, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India Qinhui Wang Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China Takao Watanabe Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan Eric Thomas Weber Department of Public Policy Leadership, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA Rangana Wijayapala Department of Chemistry, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA Clint Williford Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA Aishuang Xiang Chemical Engineering Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA Hiroshi Yamada Department of Helical Plasma Research, National Institute for Fusion Science, Toki, Gifu, Japan Toshiaki Yamaguchi National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan David W. Yarbrough R&D Services, Inc., Cookeville, TN, USA Fei Yu Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA Noor Aini Zakaria Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines Kun Zhang Department of Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia Long Zhang Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, Akron, OH, USA Kailiang Zheng Dan F. Smith Department of Chemical Engineering, Lamar University, Beaumont, TX, USA

Contributors

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Jingsong Zhou State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, College of Energy Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China Dechen Zhu Institute for Thermal Power Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

Part I Scientific Evidences of Climate Change and Societal Issues

Introduction to Climate Change Mitigation Maximilian Lackner, Wei-Yin Chen, and Toshio Suzuki

Contents Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Greenhouse Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anthropogenic Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effects of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Climate Change: What Will Change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impact of Climate Change Mitigation Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Climate Change Adaptation Versus Climate Change Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Handbook of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Why This Book Is Needed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Audience of the Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Since the first edition of the Handbook, important new research findings on climate change have been gathered. The handbook was extended to also cover, apart from climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation as one can witness increasing initiatives to cope with the phenomenon. Instrumental M. Lackner (*) Institute of Advanced Engineering Technologies, University of Applied Sciences FH Technikum Wien, Vienna, Austria e-mail: [email protected] W.-Y. Chen Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA e-mail: [email protected] T. Suzuki National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Nagoya, Japan e-mail: [email protected] # Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 W.-Y. Chen et al. (eds.), Handbook of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14409-2_1

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recording shows a temperature increase of 0.5  C Le Houérou (J Arid Environ 34:133–185, 1996) with rather different regional patterns and trends (Folland CK, Karl TR, Nicholls N, Nyenzi BS, Parker DE, Vinnikov KYA (1992) Observed climate variability and change. In: Houghton JT, Callander BA, Varney SDK (eds) Climate change, the supplementary report to the IPCC scientific assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 135–170). Over the last several million years, there have been warmer and colder periods on Earth, and the climate fluctuates for a variety of natural reasons as data from tree rings, pollen, and ice core samples have shown. However, human activities on Earth have reached an extent that they impact the globe in potentially catastrophic ways. This chapter is an introduction to climate change.

Climate Change There has been a heated discussion on climate change in recent years, with a particular focus on global warming. Over the last several million years, there have been warmer and colder periods on Earth, and the climate fluctuates for a variety of natural reasons as data from tree rings, pollen, and ice core samples have shown. For instance, in the Pleistocene, the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, the world saw repeated glaciations (“ice age”). More recently, “Little Ice Age” and the “Medieval Warm Period” (IPCC) occurred. Several causes have been suggested such as cyclical lows in solar radiation, heightened volcanic activity, changes in the ocean circulation, and an inherent variability in global climate. Also on Mars, climate change was inferred from orbiting spacecraft images of fluvial landforms on its ancient surfaces and layered terrains in its polar regions (Haberle et al. 2012). Spin axis/orbital variations, which are more pronounced on Mars compared to Earth, are seen as main reasons. As to recent climate change on Earth, there is evidence that it is brought about by human activity and that its magnitude and effects are of strong concern. Instrumental recording of temperatures has been available for less than 200 years. Over the last 100 years, a temperature increase of 0.5  C could be measured (Le Houérou 1996) with rather different regional patterns and trends (Folland et al. 1992). In (Ehrlich 2000), Bruce D. Smith is quoted as saying, “The changes brought over the past 10,000 years as agricultural landscapes replaced wild plant and animal communities, while not so abrupt as those caused by the impact of an asteroid as the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary some 65 Ma ago or so massive as those caused by advancing glacial ice in the Pleistocene, are nonetheless comparable to these other forces of global change.” At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, over 159 countries signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC, also called “Climate Convention”) in order to achieve “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” (United Nations (UN) 1992). In 2001, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007) wrote, “An increasing body of

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observations gives a collective picture of a warming world and other changes in the climate system. . . There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities.” In its fourth assessment report of 2007, the IPCC stated that human actions are “very likely” the cause of global warming. More specifically, there is a 90 % probability that the burning of fossil fuels and other anthropogenic factors such as deforestation and the use of certain chemicals have already led to an increase of 0.75 in average global temperatures over the last 100 years and that the increase in hurricane and tropical cyclone strength since 1970 also results from man-made climate change. In its fifth assessment report of 2013, the IPCC confirms their findings as “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased” (IPCC 2013). Figures 1 and 2 show some details of IPCC’s findings. In Fig. 2, natural and man-made (anthropogenic) radiative forcings (RF) are depicted. RF, or climate forcing, expressed in W/m2, is a change in energy flux, viz., the difference of incoming energy (sunlight) absorbed by Earth and outgoing energy (that radiated back into space). A positive forcing warms up the system, while negative forcing cools it down. (Anthropogenic) CO2 emissions, which have been accumulating in the atmosphere at an increasing rate since the Industrial Revolution, were identified as the main driver. The position of the IPCC has been adopted by several renowned scientific societies, and a consensus has emerged on the causes and partially on the consequences of climate change. The history of climate change science is reviewed in (Miller et al. 2009). There are researchers who oppose the scientific mainstream’s assessment of global warming (Linden 1993). However, the public seems to be unaware of the high degree of consensus that has been achieved in the scientific community, as elaborated in a 2009 World Bank report (Worldbank 2009). In (Antilla 2005), there is a treatment of the mass media’s coverage of the climate change discussion with a focus on rhetoric that emphasizes uncertainty, controversy, and climate scepticism. Climate change skeptic films were found to have a strong influence on the general public’s environmental concern (Greitemeyer 2013).

The Greenhouse Effect A greenhouse, also called a glass house, is a structure enclosed by glass or plastic which allows the penetration of radiation to warm it. Gases capable of absorbing the radiant energy are called the greenhouse gases (GHG). Greenhouses are used to grow flowers, vegetables, fruits, and tobacco throughout the year in a warm, agreeable climate. On Earth, there is a phenomenon called the “natural greenhouse” effect, or the Milankovitch cycles.

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Without the greenhouse gas effect, which is chiefly based on water vapor in the atmosphere (Linden 2005) (i.e., clouds that trap infrared radiation), the average surface temperature on Earth would be 33  C colder (Karl and Trenberth 2003). The natural greenhouse effect renders Earth habitable since the temperature which would be expected from the thermal equilibrium of the irradiation from the sun and radiative losses into space (radiation balance in the blackbody model) is approximately 18  C. On the moon, for instance, where there is hardly any atmosphere, extreme surface temperatures range from 233  C to 133  C (Winter 1967). On Venus, by contrast, the greenhouse effect in the dense CO2 laden atmosphere results in an average surface temperature in excess of 450  C (Sonnabend et al. 2008; Zasova et al. 2007). The current discussion about global warming and climate change is centered on the anthropogenic greenhouse effect. This is caused by the emission and accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These gases (water vapor, CO2, CH4, N2O, O3, and others) act by absorbing and emitting infrared radiation. The combustion of fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas) has led mainly to an increase in the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. Preindustrial levels of CO2 (i.e., before the start of the Industrial Revolution) were approximately 280 ppm, whereas today, they are above 380 ppm with an annual increase of approximately 2 ppm. According to the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) (IPCC 2010a), by the end of the twenty-first century, the CO2 concentration could reach levels between 490 and 1,260 ppm, which are between 75 % and 350 % above the preindustrial levels, respectively. CO2 is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas because of its comparatively high concentration in the atmosphere. The effect of other greenhouse-active gases depends on their molecular structure and their lifetime in the atmosphere, which can be expressed by their greenhouse warming potential (GWP). GWP is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere. It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of CO2. With a time horizon of 100 years, the GWP of CH4, N2O, and SF6 with respect to CO2 is 25, 298, and 22,800, respectively (IPCC 2010b). But CO2 has a much higher concentration than other GHGs, and it is increasing at a higher rate due to burning of fossil fuels. Thus, while the major mitigating emphasis has mainly been placed on CO2, efforts on mitigating CH4, N2O, and SF6 have also been active.

ä Fig. 1 (a) Observed global mean combined land and ocean surface temperature anomalies, from 1850 to 2012 from three data sets. Top panel: annual mean values. Bottom panel: decadal mean values including the estimate of uncertainty for one dataset (black). Anomalies are relative to the mean of 1961–1990. (b) Map of the observed surface temperature change from 1901 to 2012 derived from temperature trends determined by linear regression from one dataset (orange line in panel a). Trends have been calculated where data availability permits a robust estimate (i.e., only for grid boxes with greater than 70 % complete records and more than 20 % data availability in the first and last 10 % of the time period). Other areas are white. Grid boxes where the trend is significant at the 10 % level are indicated by a + sign (Source: IPCC (IPCC 2013))

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Fig. 2 Radiative forcing estimates in 2011 relative to 1750 and aggregated uncertainties for the main drivers of climate change. Values are global average radiative forcing (RF), partitioned according to the emitted compounds or processes that result in a combination of drivers. The best estimates of the net radiative forcing are shown as black diamonds with corresponding uncertainty intervals; the numerical values are provided on the right of the figure, together with the confidence level in the net forcing (VH very high, H high, M medium, L low, VL very low). Albedo forcing due to black carbon on snow and ice is included in the black carbon aerosol bar. Small forcings due to contrails (0.05 W m 2, including contrail induced cirrus), and HFCs, PFCs and SF6 (total 0.03 W m 2) are not shown. Concentration-based RFs for gases can be obtained by summing the likecoloured bars. Volcanic forcing is not included as its episodic nature makes is difficult to compare to other forcing mechanisms. Total anthropogenic radiative forcing is provided for three different years relative to 1750 (Source: IPCC (IPCC 2013))

Anthropogenic Climate Change The climate is governed by natural influences, yet human activities have an impact on it as well. The main impact that humans exert on the climate is via the emission of greenhouse gases. Deforestation is another example of an activity that influences the climate (McMichael et al. 2007). Figure 3 shows the share of greenhouse gas emissions from various sectors taken from (Quadrelli and Peterson 2007). The energy sector is the dominant source of GHG emissions.

Introduction to Climate Change Mitigation Fig. 3 Shares of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (Reprinted with permission from (Quadrelli and Peterson 2007))

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Waste 2.5% Agriculture 8%

Energy* 84%

CO2 95%

Industrial processes 5.5% CH4 4% N2O 1%

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), if no action toward climate change mitigation is taken, global warming could reach an increase of up to 6 in average temperature (International Energy Association IEA 2009). This temperature rise could cause devastating consequences on Earth, which will be discussed briefly below.

Effects of Climate Change Paleoclimatological data show that 100–200 Ma ago, almost all carbon was in the atmosphere as CO2, with global temperatures being 10  C warmer and sea levels 50–100 m higher than today. Photosynthesis and CO2 uptake into the oceans took almost 200 Ma. Since the Industrial Revolution, i.e., during the last 200 years, this carbon is being put back into the atmosphere to a significant extent. This is a rate which is 107 times faster, so there is a risk of a possible “runaway” reaction greenhouse effect. Figure 4 shows the timescales of several different effects of climate change for the future. Due to the long lifetime of CO2 in the atmosphere, the effects of climate change until a new equilibrium has been reached will prove long term. A global temperature increase of 6  C would be severe, so the IEA has developed a scenario which would limit the temperature increase to 2  C (International Energy Association IEA 2009) to minimize the effects. Sea level rise will indeed be the most direct impact. Other impacts including those on weather, flooding, biodiversity, water resources, and diseases are discussed here.

Climate Change: What Will Change? An overall higher temperature on Earth, depending on the magnitude of the effect and the rate at which it manifests itself, will change the sea level, local climatic conditions, and the proliferation of animal and plant species, to name but a few of the most obvious examples. The debate on the actual consequences of global warming is the most heated part of the climate change discussion.

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M. Lackner et al.

Sea-level rise due to ice melting: Several millennia Sea-level rise due to thermal expansion: centur