Handbook of Applied Developmental Science (4 Volume Set) [1-4] 0761922784

Citation preview

Handbook of

APPLIED

DEVELOPMENTAL

SCIENCE

VOLUME

1

Handbook of

APPIJED

DEVELOPMENTAL

SCIENCE

Promoting Positive Child, Adolescent, and Family

Development Through Research, Policies, and Programs

V O L U M E

1

Applying Developmental Science

for Youth and Families

Historical and Theoretical foundations

Editors Richard M. Lemer • Francine J a c o b s • Donald Wertlieb ELIOT-PEARSON DEPARTMENT OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT, TUFTS UNIVERSITY

I SAGE Publications } International Educational and Professional Thousand Oaks • London • New Delhi

Publisher

Copyright © 2 0 0 3 by Sage Pubhcations, Inc. All rights reserved. No part o f this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. For

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Printed in the United States o f America

L i b r a r y of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication D a t a Handbook o f applied developmental science: promoting positive child, adolescent, and family development through research, policies, and programs / editors, Richard M. Lemer, Francine Jacobs, Donald Wertlieb, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0 - 7 6 1 9 - 2 2 7 8 - 4 1. Child development. 2. Adolescence. I. Lemer, Richard M. II. Jacobs, Francine. III. Wertlieb, Donald. HQ767.9 .H346 2 0 0 2 305.231—dc21 2002011869

This book is printed on acid-free paper. 02

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Acquisitions Editor: Editorial Assistant: Production Editor: Copy Editors: Typesetter: Indexers: Cover Designer:

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Jim Brace-Thompson Karen Ehrmann Sanford Robinson Carla Freeman, D. J. Peck, Karen Slaght, Karen Bnmson C&M Digitals (P) Ltd Molly Hall, Karen McKenzie, Juniee Oneida Michelle Lee

Contents

VOLUME 1

Applying Developmental Science for Youth and Families: Historical and Theoretical Foundations Foreword

xvii

Edward

Zigler

Preface 1.



xxi

Historical and Theoretical Bases of Applied

Developmental Science 1

Richard M .

Lerner, D o n a l d

Wertlieb, and Francine

Jacobs

PART I. Dimensions of Individual Diversity 2.

Neural Development and Lifelong Plasticity Charles A .

3.

Processes of Risk and Resilience During Adolescence: Stress,

Coping, and Stress Reactivity 61

G r a n t

Gender and Sexual Identity Dl\mond

and Ritch C .

101





Savin-Williams

Identity, Self, and Peers in Context: A Culturally Sensitive,

Developmental Framework for Analysis 123

M a r g a r e t B e a l e Spencer, V i n a y Harpalani, D e l l ' A n g e l o , and G r e g o r y

7.

81

W i n n e r

L i s a M .

6.

E .

The Origins and Ends of Giftedness Ellen

5.



Nelson

Bruce E . Compαs and K a t h r y n

4.

31

S u z a n n e F e g l e y ,

Τ α β π α٤

Seaton

Racial Identity and Racial SociaUzation as Aspects of Adolescents'

Identity Development 143

Janet E .

Helms

8.

Rediscovering the Importance of ReUgion in Adolescent Development 165 M i c h a e l

P A R T 9.

Kerestes and James E

. Youniss

I L F e a t u r e s o f F a m i l y

D i v e r s i t y

Positive Parenting and Positive Development in Children M a r c

H

.

187

Bornstein

10. Promoting Child Adjustment by Fostering Positive Paternal Involvement 211 M i c h a e l E . Lamb, Susan S .C h u a n g ,

a n d N a t a s h a

Cabrera

11. Ethnotheories of Parenting: At the Interface Between Culture and Child Development 233 Jayanthi

M i s t r y , J a n a H

.C h a u d h u r i ,

a n d Virginia

D i e z

12. The Development of Young Children With Disabilities and Their Famihes: ImpUcations for PoUcies and Programs 259 Penny

H a u s e r - C r a m a n d A n g e l a

H o w e l l

13. Children, Families, and Work: Research Findings and Imphcations for PoUcies and Programs 281 Jacqueline V A N D

. Lerner,

Domini

R

. Castellino,

E r i c a

L o l l i ,

Samuel W a n

14. Families and Ethnicity Harriette

P.

M c A d o o

305

a n d A l a n

M a r t i n

15. Family Functioning and Child Development: The Case of Divorce 319 P a u l R

. A m a t o

16. PubUc Investments in Child Care Quality: Needs, ChaUenges, and Opportunities 339 K a t h r y n

P A R T

T o u t a n d M a r t h a

I I L E m e r g i n g

o f P o s i t i Yv e

o u t h

Z a s l o w

M o d e l s

a n d

F a m i l y

f o r t h e

P r o m o t i o n

D e v e l o p m e n t

17. Developmental Strengths and Their Sources: ImpUcations for the Study and Practice of Community-Building 369 Peter

L

.Benson, P e t e r

C

. Scales, a n d M a r c

M a n n e s

18. Bringing in a New Era in the Field of Youth Development W i l l i a m

D a m o n

and A n n e

407

G r e g o r y

19. Strategic Frame Analysis and Youth Development: How Communications Research Engages the Public 421 F r a n k l i n D

.Gilliam

J r . and Susan

N a l l

Bales

20. Child and Youth Well-Being: The Social Indicators Field B r e t t

B r o w n

V .

and Kristin

437

M o o r e

21. The American Tradition of Community Development: Implications for Guiding Community Engagement in Youth Development 469 M a r c

M a n n e s , Peter

Author Index

501

Subject Index

523

About the Editors

L . Benson, J o h n P . K r e t z m a n n , a n d T y l e r



537



About the Contributors

539



V E n h a n c i n g a n d

O

1.

E 2

o f

Y o u t h

o f

P r o g r a m s ,

S y s t e m s

Elijah E .

Cummings

xi

Learning From Policy and Practice: A View of the Issues Francine

P A R T

Jacobs, D o n a l d

L D a n g e r s

P o s i t i v e O u t c o m e s 2.

S e r v i c e

M

ix

H o n o r a b l e

Preface

U

t h e L i f e C h a n c e s

P o H c i e s , a n d

T h e

L

F a m i l i e s : C o n t r i b u t i o n s

Foreword

N o r r i s

o n

W e r t l i e b ,

a n d R i c h a r d

t h e W a y : f o r

R i s k s

W i n d l e

t o

C h i l d r e n

Internalizing and Externalizing Problems M i c h a e l

M .

17

1

L e r n e r

A c h i e v i n g



3.

Understanding Children's Responses to Marital Conflict: A Family Systems Model 39 Rebecca

4.

.A

.S c h r ä g ,

T a r a S .Peris, a n d R o b e r t

Youth Gangs and Community Violence C a r l

5.

D

I PI .

Jasmina

r o m o t i n g

P r a c t i c e a n d

A b e r , a n d C .

Burdzovic

Andreas,

Cybele

a n d Joseph A

P o s i t i v e Y o u t h

R a v e r

E v i d e n c e

Eckenrode,

C h a r l e s

. V o r r a s i

D e v e l o p m e n t :



Early Intervention and Family Support Programs J o h n

Izzo, a n d M a r y

161

C a m p a - M u l l e r

What Is a Youth Development Program? Identification of Defining Principles 197 Jodie L . R o t h a n d Jeanne

9.

J . L a w r e n c e

Beyond the Body Count: Moderating the Effects of War on Children's Long-Term Adaptation 137

P A R T

8.

65

Child Poverty in the United States: An Evidence-Based Conceptual Framework for Programs and Policies 81

James Garbarino,

7.

E m e r y

S . T a y l o r

Elizabeth Thompson Gershoff,

6.

E .

B r o o k s - G u n n

Relationship-Based Interventions: The Impact of Mentoring and Apprenticeship on Youth Development 225 J e a n E . R h o d e s a n d J e n n i f e r

G

. R o f f m a n

10. Positive Youth Development: A Strategy for Improving Adolescent Health 237 R o b e r t

W .

B l u m

11. ImpUcations of Research on Play and Interpersonal Development for the Study and Delivery of Child Psychotherapy 253 S a n d r a W .

P A R T D o e s

R u s s , A m yB . G o l d s t e i n ,

I I PI . u b l i c C h i l d - a n d H e a l t h y

D e v e l o p m e n t

a n d E t h a n D

. Schäfer

F a m i l y - S e r v i n g

S y s t e m s :

R e s u l t . ^

12. How Cities Can Improve Children's Outcomes: The Case of ReadBoston 275 R i c h a r d

Weissbourd



13. Reforming Education: Developing 21st-century Community

Schools 291

M a r t i n A N D

J . B l a n k

Melissa

with B e l a S h a h ,

Sheri

Johnson,

W i l l i a m

B l a c k w e l l ,

G a n l e y

14. Schools and Family Services: Impacts and Implications for

Families, Family Service Providers, and School Personnel 311 C h a r l e s

B r u n e r



15. Back to Basics: Building an Early Care and

Education System 325

S h a r o n

L . K a g a n

a n d M i c h e l l e

J .

N e u m a n

16. Pubhc Health Strategies to Promote Healthy Children, Youth,

and Families 347

D e b o r a h K l e i n

W a l k e r

17. Child Welfare: Controversies and Possibilities Jacquelyn

371



M c C r o s k e y

18. Welfare Reform: Effects of TANF on Family Well-Being S a n d r a

K . D a n z i g e r

a n d A r i e l

K a l i l

19. Juvenile Justice and Positive Youth Development R o b e r t

421

445



. B r a t t

G

21. The Role of Federal and State Governments in Child and

Family Issues: An Analysis of Three Pohcy Areas 469 Jeffrey

P A R T

Capizzano a n d M a t t h e w

I V .

F a m i l y



. S c h w a r t z

G

20. Housing: The Foundation of Family Life R a c h e l

395

E f f e c t i n g



S t a g n e r

P o l i c y : S o l i d i f y i n g

a C h i l d

a n d

A g e n d a

22. Youth Leadership for Development: Civic Activism as a

Component of Youth Development Programming and a Strategy

for Strengthening Civil Society 491

W e n d y

W h e e l e r

23. Shared Leadership With FamiUes: Social Inclusion as a Core

Strategy of Family Support 507

Virginia L .

M a s o n



24. The Politics of Children's Issues: Challenges and Opportunities for

Advancing a Children's Agenda in the PoHtical Arena 535

M a r y L e e

A l l e n a n d Susanne

M a r t i n e z

25. Exploring Youth Policy in the United States:

Options for Progress 563

K a r e n

Pittman, N i c o l e Y o h a l e m ,

Author Index

585

Subject Index

605

About the Editors

a n d M e r i t a

Irby



617

About the Contributors

619



VOLUME

3



PROMOTING POSITIVE YOUTH AND FAMILY DEVELOPMENT:

COMMUNITY SYSTEMS,

CITIZENSHIP, AND CIVIL SOCIETY

Foreword D a v i d

ix B e l l

Preface 1.



xiii



Enhancing Civil Society Through Youth Development: A View of

the Issues 1

D o n a l d

W e r t l i e b , Francine Jacobs, a n d R i c h a r d M

. L e r n e r

P A R T L NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES 2.

National Youth Organizations in the United States: Contributions

to Civil Society 11

D o n a l d

3.

T

. F l o y d a n d Leigh

M c K e n n a

Collaborations and Coalitions for Positive

Youth Development 27

R o b e r t

F

. A s h c r a f t

4.

An Alliance for Youth Development: Second-Generation 53 Models of Intersectoral Partnering W i l l i a m

5.

S .Reese a n d C a t h r y n

L .

T h o r u p

Seeing Beyond the Crisis: What International Relief Organizations Are Learning From Community-Based Child-Rearing Practices 85 Heidi S . V e r h o e f

6.

The Role of NGOs in the Protection of and Assistance to Children in Complex Emergencies and Natural Disasters 107 A n g e l a

7.

International Poverty Movements and Organizations as Spaces of Freedom for Child, Adolescent, and Family Development: The Example of the Fourth World Movement 123 B r u n o

8.

R a v e n - R o b e r t s

Tardieu

Health and Disability: The Role of the World Health Organization and Other United Nations Organizations in Child, Adolescent, and Family Development 151 M a r g u e r i t e

9.

Schneider, M a t i l d e Leonardi,

Quality of Life in Children Joseph A

.D u r l a k

a n d J a n e t F .

a n d T .

Bedirhan

٢s t ü n

183 Gillespie

10. Childhood Disability in Sociocultural and Historical Context: Evolving Social Policies and Practices 205 B r u c e

L .

M a l l o r y

11. Culture, Child Development Research, and Early Childhood Education: Rethinking the Relationship 223 Rebecca S . N e w

12. Investing in Children Promotes Poverty Reduction, Social Justice, and Economic Growth: The Challenge for Asia 253 Joseph M i c h a e l

H u n t

13. Promoting the Development of the ASEAN Child: Issues and Challenges 287 K i m - C h o o

K h o o

14. The Role of Participation, Positive Youth Development, and Social Entrepreneurship in Ensuring Successful Programmes in Australia: RepUcating Good Practice Without Compromising Quality 309 U l r i k e

Schuermann

15. Nongovernment Organizations in Canada Promoting Youth Development: Opportunities for Teens, Communities, and Developmental Scientists 325 H e a t h e r

Sears

16. Positive Youth Development in the Context of National Development: The Emerging Youth Agenda of the Dominican Republic 343 Francisco A

. V i l l a r r u e l ,

R a f a e l P a z , Rosemary

T

A l b e r t o Rodriguez,

L e e n a

. Faiver, a n d O m a r a

R i v e r a

M a n g r u l k a r , V a z q u e z

17. European Youth Development and Policy: The Role of NGOs and Public Authority in the Making of the European Citizen 363 Peter

P A R T

Lauritzen

I PI .

with Irena

Guidikova

e r s p e c t i v eF s

r o m

t h e

P h i l a n t h r o p i c

C o m m u n i t y

18. Philanthropy, Science, and Social Change: Corporate and Operating Foundations as Engines of Applied Developmental Science 385 L o N N i E

R

.

S h e r r o d

19. Private Foundation Support of Youth Development A n n e

C

. Petersen a n d G a i l

D

.

403

M c C l u r e

20. Crossing the Generational Divide: Community Foundations Engaging Youth in Grantmaking, Service, and Leadership

425

J o e l J . O r o s z , K a r i n E . T i c e , a n d S a r a h V a n E c k

21. A "Renaissance in Philanthropy": The Future of Private Foundations and Their Service to Children, Youth, FamiUes, and Their Communities 441 Susanna

B a r r y , L o r n a L a t h r a m ,

M i c h a e l C h e r t o k ,

K a r j r , James C a n a l e s , T o mR e i s , D e a n n a

Susan B e l l ,

G o m b y , a n d Bess

R e n u

B e n d e t

PART III, Perspectives From the Faith Community 22. Islamic Arabic Youth and Family Development:

An Example from Kuwait 455

Fawzyiah H a d i

and G h e n a i m

A l - F a y e z

23. Youth Development Through Youth Ministry: A Renevs^ed

Emphasis of the Catholic Church 475

Elizabeth

M

.D o w l i n g and R i c h a r d J .

D o w l i n g

24. Jewish Youth and Family Development Programs Seymour

J . Friedland a n d W i l l i a m

495



B e r k s o n

25. Building Strengths, Deepening Faith: Understanding and

Enhancing Youth Development in Protestant

Congregations 515

Eugene C

.

Roehlkepartain

26. Making Room at the Table for Everyone: Interfaith Engagement

in Positive Child and Adolescent Development 535

Eugene C

.

Roehlkepartain

Author Index

565

Subject Index

575

About the Editors



587

About the Contributors

589



VOLUME 4

Adding Value to Youth and Family Development:

The Engaged University and Professional and

Academic Outreach

Foreword G r a h a m

Preface

ix



B

. Spanier

xi



1.

University Engagement and Outreach:

A View of the Issues 1

R i c h a r d

P A R T 2.

K .

13

J r . , L a w r e n c e



S .C o t e ,

a n d L a r r y

L e F l o r e

35



H e l l w i g

S .M á r q u e z ,

a n d N a n c y

K e l l y

Promoting Regional Collaborations: The Role of the

Comprehensive Regional University 59

R a m a l e y

A .

The Tufts University College of Citizenship and Public Service:

An Infusion Approach to Education for Active Citizenship 85 Hollister,

M .

M o l l y

M e a d ,



and J o h n D i B i a g g i o

Can Private Colleges Be Good Citizens?

One President's Response 99

Bakken

and M a r y P a t

Multi-University Coalitions N e a l

9.

U n i v e r s i t y

S .Prince, J r . , M a d e l a i n e

M a r j o r i e

8.

Jacobs

Liberal Arts Institutions and Child, Family, and Community

Development 51

R o b e r t

7.

W e r t l i e b , and Francine

Religiously Affiliated Colleges and Universities

Judith

6.

E n g a g e d

Hardesty,

C .

G r e g o r y

5.

D o n a l d

Changing Campus Culture

M o n i k a

4.

Lerner,

I . T h e

D a v i d

3.

M .

Hebeler

115



H a l f o n a n d R a p h a e l T r a v i s , J r .

Historically Black Universities: Making a Difference in Our

Communities 139

Shirley

H y m o n - P a r k e r

10. Revitalizing K-12 Schools: The Case for Service-Learning Shelley H .

P A R T

I AI .

153

Billig

c a d e m i c

O u t r e a c h

11. Promoting Positive Development With Human Development and

Family Studies: The Ecological Perspective 173

Stephen F . H a m i l t o n ,

B r i a n D

.Leidy, and M a r n e y G .

T h o m a s



12. Early-Childhood Education D a v i d

191

E l k i n d

13. The Role of Positive Psychology in Child, Adolescent, and Family Development 207 A n d r e w

J . Shatté,

M a r t i n E . P

.S e l i g m a n , J a n e E . G i l l h a m ,

a n d

K a r e n

Reivich

14. Classification of Positive Traits Christopher

227

Peterson

15. Promoting a Life Worth Living: Human Development From the Vantage Points of Mental Illness and Mental Health 257 C o r e y

L . M .

K e y e s

16. Reform of Science Education: A Curriculum L e o n

M .

275

Lederman

17. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and Positive Youth Development Research 283 Susan

P A R T

N e w c o m e r

I I L P r o f e s s i o n a l O u t r e a c h

18. Family and Consumer Sciences: A HoUstic Approach Stretching to the Future 293 Peggy

S . M e s z a r o s

19. The Role of Nurses in Enhancing Adolescent Development: A Comprehensive Approach 313 Linda S .Thompson a n d Georgene

B u t l e r

20. A PubUc Health Approach to Child and Youth Well-Being: Envisioning a Global Alliance 321 M a r k

L . Rosenberg,

Susan Z a r o ,

a n d M a u r e e n

M a r s h a l l

21. Promoting Positive Development in Children, Youth, and Families: A Social Work Cultural-Practice Perspective 337 Robbie W .

C . T o u r s e a n d B e t t y J .

B l y t h e

22. Including Law in the Mix: The Role of Law, Lawyers, and Legal Training in Child Advocacy 353 Catherine

J .

Ross

23. Participant Consultation: Ethical Insights Into Parental Permission

and Confidentiality Procedures for Pohcy-Relevant Research With

Youth 371

C e l i a

B .

Fisher

Author Index

397

Subject Index

407

About the Editors



415

About the Contributors

417



Foreword EDWARD ZIGLER Yale University

A

bout 3 0 years ago, Harold Stevenson substituted his presidential address to the Society for Research in Child Development, an orga­ nization dedicated to pure basic research, with a symposium in which federal officials and leading developmentalists could interact. This was a pivotal event in the rise to prominence of applied developmental science. At that point in time, if someone had told me that early in the millennium, there would be a professional discipline devoted to applied developmental science, I would have been more than a little skeptical. If they foresaw that there would be not just a handbook but a four-volume hand­ book, I wouldn't have believed it. Even in my dreams, I could not have let go of reality enough to imagine that applied work would earn enough respect to garner enough followers to produce enough of value to fill four volumes (or convince a mainstream publisher to print them). I am amazed that so much has been accomplished in such a short period of time to make developmental science a positive force in people's lives. Let me go back to that time when applied developmental science was an unimaginable dream to give readers, particularly the yoimger ones, a baseline from which to appreciate our progress. Although developmental psychology began as an applied discipline in the days of G. Stanley Hall, by the mid-1900s psychology was (or was trying to be) a purely scientific endeavor. Respected researchers toiled in laboratories and shared their findings with one another in professional journals. No one questioned the ecological validity of the results (until Urie Bronfenbrenner wondered what we could possibly learn by putting children in "strange situations with strange adults"). Those who dared ventiu-e outside of academe to study an issue or attempt to solve a problem in the real world risked their status and reputations. Basic research was king; application was perceived as a lesser task for less-qualified workers. I know this because I was a basic researcher, devising and testing hypo­ theses in an ivy-covered tower for the purpose of expanding theory and knowledge about child development. Then one day I was called by the famous pediatrician Dr. Robert Cooke to join a committee to design a preschool program for children who lived in poverty. At the time our nation

xvtt

xvi٧

I

HANDBOOK OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, VOLUME 1

was fighting a war—the War on Poverty—and I could not say no to service to my country. That is also why I later agreed to serve as the federal official responsible for administering our program, named Head Start, in the Nixon Administration. The response of my colleagues was harsh. For example, a respected senior scholar who had come to a meeting at Yale saw me in the hall and told me point blank that "you have all the makings of a first-rank developmentaiist if only you would give up this policy nonsense." In other words, the quality of my basic research could make me first rank; applying the findings of my studies to policy made me less than first rank. I relate this story to convey how much attitudes have had to change to make this handbook possible. The course of and catalysts for change are alluded to in the first chapter of this first volume. These involved acceptance of new theories, particularly Urie Bronfenbrenner's view that all levels of the ecology in which the child is reared have a critical influence on all facets of development. The bioecological approach demands that attention be focused not only on the family's and community's impact on the child but also on all the systems within the child that in totality comprise human development. Thus, students of child development had to take into account physical, cognitive, socio­ emotional, and other domains as well as their interactions. This broadened focus brought the need for insights from many disciplines. The bioecologi­ cal model also beckoned professionals into the policy arena: One level of the ecology comprises the social poUcies that shape the physical and social envi­ ronments in which development unfolds. This expansion of the concept and study of development is evident in the shifts in terminology. Child develop­ ment, not that long ago a field within psychology, is now considered by the editors of this handbook to be part of applied developmental science, an "umbrella" for "specialties in the biological, psychological, social, and behavioral sciences and the helping professions" (see Preface). This is not to say that basic research has become less important or esteemed. Indeed, applied workers would have little to apply if not for the accumulation of knowledge built—and continuing to build—from sound basic research. That is, basic researchers provide the data and theoretical insights that applied researchers need in their efforts to address social prob­ lems (e.g., the knowledge base on attachment behavior has supported efforts to improve child care programs and policies). In turn, applied workers have alerted basic researchers to issues that appear important in practical situa­ tions and thus merit further study (e.g., child care must be examined as an important environment in the determination of the child's growth trajec­ tory). The value that each type of work has for the other was thoughtfully captured by Bronfenbrenner, who once told students that they cannot truly understand any phenomenon until they try to change it. I certainly found that to be true. When I worked to mount programs to optimize the

Foreword

development of poor preschoolers, I definitely gained a better grasp of the dynamics of human development and became a much better scientist. So, while there are still those who champion one approach or the other, today I believe that the majority of scientists recognize that both basic and applied interests are reciprocal and synergistic. That the consensus is not yet unani­ mous was recently discussed by John Darley, president of the American Psychological Society, who felt it necessary to remind members that basic and applied researchers are coequals. This recognition had to be made first by senior developmentalists because they are the ones who forced, embraced, and fueled the basic applied dichotomy. They changed as individual pioneers and gradually, through their professional societies. The constitution of the American Psychological Association, whose first president was G. Stanley Hall, lists one purpose of the organization as serving the public interest. Although this group became basic oriented for a time, its leaders have long reminded members (to quote from the 1969 presidential address by George Miller) "to give psychology away." Later, APA presidents Bill Bevan and Frank Farley also used their addresses to tell members that many benefits would accrue to American psy­ chology if they would do more to use their knowledge derived from research to help society solve pressing problems. The Society for Research in Child Development, the bastion for theory-driven basic research, eventually took steps to give a voice to applied-minded workers, such as launching Social Policy Reports, a monograph devoted to policy issues in child development. It was not until the late 1990s, however, that the organization welcomed articles spanning basic research, into its major journal. Child Development, program evaluation, and policy studies. The gradual acceptance of applied work also took place in other professions traditionally associated with "hard" science. Indeed, the list of contributors to this handbook contains many names prominent in basic research circles who are currently working to build the field of applied developmental science. For the field to flourish, older workers must of course be replaced even­ tually by younger ones who are prepared to strengthen and shape the disci­ pline as it matures. This brings me to the topic of training and back to one of those unimaginable dreams. If that same person I imagined had told me about a four-volume handbook in applied developmental science had also mentioned that one entire volume would be devoted to the role of universi­ ties and professionals in advancing this new field, I would have laughed out loud. Thirty years ago when I made my first efforts to institute such training, success was slow and suffered many setbacks. First, I must briefly explain why I felt that training in both science and its application was necessary. When I worked in Washington in the early 1970s, I immediately realized how little I knew about the policymaking process. At the same time, I became aware of how little policymakers knew

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HANDBOOK OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, VOLUME 1

about the empirically identified needs of children and families. I felt strongly that policy construction could be enriched by developmental science. I joined with prominent developmentalists Bronfenbrenner, Julius Richmond, and Sheldon White to devise a plan to train scholars who wanted to work in both research and social policy. We presented our idea to the Archibald Granville Bush Foundation, which agreed to fund four Bush Centers in Child Development and Social Policy. Although the centers were widely acclaimed and very popular among students, they were allowed to fizzle out once the seed money from the foun­ dation ended. UCLA and the University of Michigan did provide some money to keep their centers open for a few more years. The North Carolina Bush Center became the Carolina Center, the remnants of which folded into the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center, all at one time directed by James Gallagher. The Yale Bush Center has remained operative through private grants and a small amount of university support. Apparently, academia was not quite ready for applied science, service learning, or endeavors that cut across traditional departmental boundaries. The fact that this handbook devotes an entire volume to such work underlies how atti­ tudes have changed within academic settings. To underscore this point, springing from the Bush model, around 40 centers now engage in inter­ disciplinary child- and family-applied and policy studies at universities throughout the nation. Many factors spurred the acceptance of applied developmental science. Among them were strong leadership among brave developmentalists, the demands of funders, the ambitions and desires of young students to make a difference, community needs for information, and attitudes within the pro­ fessions. Another critical factor can be discerned within the covers of this handbook. Applied developmental scientists have proven themselves by what they have accomplished. This handbook collates the breadth of cuttingedge science, theory, and programmatic endeavors created by some of the best thinkers in their respective areas. Students of applied developmental science now have textbooks, academic centers devoted to their training, several professional journals and groups, and now a handbook. We are a bona fide science dedicated to conducting the best research and using our results to better society. Our dream is to promote the positive development of humanity, and the efforts contained in this handbook encourage me to believe that this dream too can come true.

Preface

I

n the last decades of the 2 0 t h century and the first years of the present one, the nations of the world experienced myriad social problems, some old, some new, but all affecting the lives of vulnerable children, adolescents, adults, families, and communities. Many scholars and practitioners have sought to address these issues through preventing their occurrence. Others— a growing proportion—have sought to supplement, if not supplant, preven­ tion with promotion and with attempts to enhance human development by focusing on the strengths of people and the assets of their conmiunities. With either prevention or promotion approaches to improving the life chances of children, families, and communities, but especially in regard to promotion, scholars have combined dynamic developmental systems theo­ ries of human development with a range of quantitative and qualitative methodologies to address, through research and policy and program appli­ cations, the continuing and contemporary issues affecting the lives of indi­ viduals, families, and communities. Together, these issues speak to the need to establish, maintain, and enhance civil society. This work reflected and furthered growing interest in applied developmen­ tal science (ADS). Indeed, over the last two decades, increasing numbers of developmental scientists from diverse disciplines have come to identify them­ selves professionally as applied developmental scientists, as partners in build­ ing civil society. Joining imder this umbrella are colleagues from allied disciplines and specialties in the biological, psychological, social, and behav­ ioral sciences and the helping professions; they all share the goals and the vision found in ADS, that is, in the use of scientific knowledge about himian development to improve the life chances of the diverse infants, children, adolescents, adults, families, and communities of the world. The purpose of this Handbook of Applied Developmental Science: Promoting Positive Child, Adolescent, and Family Development Through Research, Policies, and Programs is to document the state of these arts and sciences and to further the burgeoning vision within scholarship, programs, and policy applications pertinent to the potential for positive development among children, their families, and their communities. This vision is predi­ cated on a belief that infants, children, adolescents, and families have

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significant strengths and capacities for healthy lives and that all people possess individual and ecological assets that can be actualized to create their well-being. Such well-being involves having a healthy start in life, living in a safe environment, receiving an education that results in marketable skills, having the opportunity to participate in community life, and living free from prejudice and discrimination. Well-being is marked by individuals who manifest caring and compassion, competence, confidence, positive connections to others, and character. Such individuals, and the families and communities that support them, may be said to be thriving. The positive psychology movement engaging many contemporary schol­ ars is one instance of this perspective, for example, as evidenced in the January 2 0 0 0 issue of the American Psychologist, edited by Seligman and Csikszentmihaiyi. For too long, traditions in the behavioral sciences and the helping professions have focused on the negative aspects of human behavior and development, for example, risk, disorders, and pathology and people's problems, deficits, or weaknesses. Positive psychology, as well as the inde­ pendent but conceptually consonant ideas that have arisen under the labels of positive youth development, child tvell-being, community youth develop­ ment, developmental assets, and thriving, replaces these deficit-oriented approaches by articulating the power of salubrious and strength-based approaches. Accordingly, the contributions of colleagues involved in the area of posi­ tive psychology are consistent with the more than decade-long commitment of organizations such as the National 4-H Council and the International Youth Foundation to the promotion of community youth development or to positive infant, child, and adolescent development. This latter work repre­ sents commitments of the practitioner and philanthropic communities to the growing stress on enhancing the positive features and well-being of the world's young people. Similarly, this emphasis is reflected in the work of Search Institute, which seeks to facilitate the alignment of the individual and ecological assets of communities to promote thriving among infants, children, and adolescents. The accomplishments of these groups, as well as scores of other contributors to applied developmental science, are repre­ sented in this Handbook. The growing interest in the promotion of positive development offers scholars, practitioners, and policymakers a new and exciting range of theo­ retical ideas, data sets, programming strategies, evaluation methods, and policy options. No scholarly publication has organized, integrated, and orientations to programs and extended both the prevention and promotion is a compre­ policies for children, adolescents, and families. This Handbook hensive resource aimed at making this contribution, providing both a

Preface

Statement of the current state of research and programs and some predictions about where they will be headed during the first decades of the 21st century. We see the publication of this Handbook as a particularly timely event, given the character of the challenges facing infants, children, adolescents, and famihes at the dawn of this new millennium. Each year, as the world's repository of natural resources declines, its population of children increases by 100 million. How in the year 2010 will these 1 billion additional children be fed, clothed, and housed? How will their energy needs will be met? How will the world's economies grow the hundreds of millions of jobs required so that these young people are able to contribute effectively and productively to their own well-being and that of their families and communities? Finally, how will we manage to reduce the marginalization of young people that still occurs—in the United States and around the globe—so that all young people thrive as engaged citizens of a single, interconnected civil society? The contributors to this Handbook offer analyses and proposals for addressing these concerns and for building our global civil society. If we aspire to not only prevent problems of behavior and development in the world's infants, children, and adolescents but also to promote positive life outcomes and to further social justice and civil society, the scope and complexity of the science that informs application must be greatly enhanced. The challenge for policy and programs is enormous, but no less of a chal­ lenge exists for science. This challenge is especially true in relation to the now predominant theoretical and empirical approaches to understanding human life, that is, the perspectives framed by developmental systems mod­ els. These approaches conceptualize and study human behavior and devel­ opment as a process involving integrated and changing relations among the biological, psychological, spiritual, social, cultural, physical, ecological, and historical variables comprising human life. The agenda for the application of developmental science framed by such models is to conduct scholarly activ­ ities in a manner and with timeliness that provide the highest-quality schol­ arship with a content and an ethical sensibility that efficiently and effectively meet diverse and complex community needs. As illustrated by the contributions across the four volumes of the Handbook, key items in this agenda include the following: •

Developing change- and context-sensitive measures o f child well-being o r

thriving and of the individual and community assets that promote positive

development a m o n g diverse infants, children, and adolescents

•

Designing and implementing program evaluations that (a) identify program

effects when they occur, (b) improve the day-to-day quality of a p r o g r a m , and

(c) empower p r o g r a m participants and other stakeholders t o bring t o scale and

sustain effective programs

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HANDBOOK OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, VOLUME 1 •

Serving the community through the use of tools of outreach

scholarship,

such

as needs assessment, asset mapping, issues identification, technical assistance, consultation, continuing education and training, demonstration research, and participatory action research •

Leveragmg the resources of higher-education mstitutions to engage proactively m parmerships with community mstitutions, involving, for instance, (a) communitycollaborative research, p r o g r a m design,

implementation,

and

evaluation;

(b) joint economic development, business/industry partnerships, and neighbor­ hood revitalization; and (c) undergraduate service learning and graduate/ professional training within the c o n t e x t o f collaborations between the notfor-profit/nongovernmental organization ( N G O ) sectors and governmental sectors of the community •

Engaging policymakers and funders through dissemination o f information about (a) the effectiveness of community programs promoting child well-being, (b) the impact o f current policies on child well-being and positive development, and (c) the potential of possible policy innovations on child well-being and positive development

In short, there is a vast and interrelated set of research, program, and policy actions being undertaken by individuals and institutions involved in the process of fostering generations of healthy children. In civil society, all citizens are part of this collaborative network. Existing instimtional, professional, and youth-serving organizational groups are developing innovative ideas and bold action agendas to address the challenges faced by today's and tomorrow's children. In addition, new concepts are being articulated, and new and promising individual and collective efforts are being created and honed to address these challenges. This Handbook is the first of its type to present the breadth and depth of these efforts. Volume 1, Applying Developmental Science for Youth and Families: Historical and Theoretical Foundations, is framed by an opening section that presents the historical development and current theoretical, methodological, and substantive architecture of the scientific and professional efforts to develop policies and programs promoting positive child, adolescent, and family development. This section serves as a rationale for the organization of the entire Handbook. The next section of this volume contains chapters about the innovative theoretical and conceptual issues pertinent to applying developmental science in promoting positive infant, child, adolescent, and family development. This section underscores a central theme in current scholarship and application: the need to develop policies and programs that appropriately treat the bidirectional (or in other terms, reciprocal, dynamic, or systemic) relations among diverse individuals and their diverse contexts. In addition, this section underscores another level of relation that is cen­ tral in understanding the distinct developmental trajectories involved in diverse person-context relations. This level is the bidirectional linkage that

Preface

exists between theory and appHcation. Throughout this section, contributors explain how a developmental systems view of human development is both a product and a producer of an integrated understanding of the theory < > application relation involved in the promotion of positive infant, child, and adolescent development. Accordingly, the second volume of the Handbook, Enhancing the Life Chances of Youth and Families: Contributions of Programs, Policies, and Service Systems, focuses on issues pertinent to capitalizing on the human developmental system that address (a) the risks to healthy development that exist across the first two decades in the lives of infants, children, and ado­ lescents and in turn (b) the opportunities that exist to use the assets of infants, children, and adolescents and their communities to promote positive development. These opportunities are discussed in regard to promoting pos­ itive infant, child, adolescent, and family development through professional practice; the role of public child- and family-serving systems in fostering healthy development; and the ways in which public policies may be engaged to create, bring to scale, and sustain an effective child and family agenda. As such, the sections of this volume of the Handbook focus on the contempo­ rary areas of challenge and opportunity within which infant, child, and adolescent and family policy are engaged or analyzed and programs are designed and implemented. Of course, the design, implementation, and evaluation of infant-, child-, adolescent-, and family-serving programs and policies occur in many set­ tings and involve the actions of numerous agents and institutions of civil society. The third volume of the Handbook, Promoting Positive Youth and Family Development: Community Systems, Citizenship, and Civil Society, presents information pertinent to the contributions of these tiers or sectors to promoting positive infant, child, and adolescent development. This volume includes chapters that present the contributions of the United States and the international NGO communities; the philanthropic sector; the infant-, child-, adolescent- and health-serving professions; and the faith communities. In short. Volume 3 of the Handbook is devoted to explaining the current and future contributions of each of these types of institutions, organizations, or communities. Finally, the fourth volume of the Handbook, Adding Value to Youth and Family Development: The Engaged University and Professional and Academic Outreach, is devoted to understanding how universities and com­ munities may collaborate in the service of promoting positive infant, child, adolescent, and family development. The initial section of this volume dis­ cusses the concept of and the several models reflecting the engaged univer­ sity (a term we use to include the range of postsecondary educational institutions that exist in communities). The remaining two sections of this

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volume discuss the forms of outreach pursued by applied developmental scientists with different disciplinary and professional training, respectively. In addition, Volume 4 discusses the ethics of community-collaborative scholarship pertinent to the promotion of positive infant, child, adolescent, and family development. There are numerous people to thank in regard to the preparation of this Handbook. First and foremost, we are indebted to the contributors. Their scholarship and dedication to excellence and social relevance in develop­ mental science and its application enabled this work to be produced and to serve as a model of how scholarship may contribute both to knowledge and the positive development of people across their life spans. We are also in great debt to the superb scholars who served on the editorial board of the Handbook: Peter L. Benson, Joan M. Bergstrom, Dale A. Blyth, Jacquelynne S. Eccles, Celia Β. Fisher, Donald T. Floyd Jr., Karen Hein, Donald J. Hernandez, Paul Jellinek, Rick R. Little, Peter Pιcora, Michael C. Roberts, Catherine J. Ross, T. R. Saraswathi, Jack P. Shonkoff, Graham B. Spanier, Ruby Takanishi, Carl S. Taylor, Linda S. Thompson, and Richard A. Weinberg. The guidance and wisdom of these colleagues are deeply appreciated and gratefully acknowledged. We are also especially indebted to Edward Zigler, the Honorable Elijah E. Cummings, David Bell, and Graham B. Spanier for their generous and insightful forewords to Volumes 1 through 4 of the Handbook, respectively. Our colleagues and students at Tufts University and at the Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Development were great resources to us in the devel­ opment of this volume. We thank Karyn Lu, Managing Editor of the Applied Developmental Science Institute's Publications Program in Eliot-Pearson, for her expert editorial support and guidance. Jim BraceThompson, our editor at Sage Publications, was a constant source of excel­ lent advice, encouragement, and collegial support, and we are pleased to acknowledge our gratitude to him. We thank Sanford Robinson, senior pro­ duction editor at Sage, for his meticulous work in overseeing the production of the Handbook. Finally, we deeply appreciate the love and support given to us by our families during our work on this Handbook. They remain our most cherished developmental assets, and we gratefully dedicate this book to them. —R. M. L. -F.J. —D. W.

CHAPTER

1

Historical and Theoretical Bases of Applied Developmental Science RICHARD M . LERNER

DONALD WERTLIEB

FRANCINE JACOBS

T

he latter part of the 2 0 t h century was

1 9 9 0 ; H a m b u r g , 1 9 9 2 ; Hernandez, 1 9 9 3 ;

marked by public anxiety about myr­

Huston,

iad social problems, some old, some

Fisher, 1 9 9 4 ; Schorr, 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 7 ) . And if

new, but all affecting the lives of vulnerable

people were not dying, their prospects for

children, adolescents, adults, families, and

future success were being reduced by civil

communities

unrest and ethnic conflict, by famine, by

(Fisher &

Murray,

1996;

1 9 9 1 ; Lerner,

1 9 9 5 ; Lerner

&

Lerner, 1 9 9 5 ; Lerner & Galambos, 1 9 9 8 ;

environmental

Lerner, Sparks, & McCubbin, 1 9 9 9 ) . F o r

water quality and solid-waste management),

challenges

(e.g.,

involving

instance, in America, a set of problems of

by school underachievement and dropping

historically unprecedented scope and severity

out, by teenage pregnancy and parenting, by

involved interrelated issues of

lack of job opportunities and preparedness,

economic

development, environmental quality, health

by prolonged welfare dependency, by chal­

and health care delivery, poverty, crime, vio­

lenges to their health (e.g., lack of immuniza­

lence, drug and alcohol abuse, unsafe sex,

tion, inadequate screening for disabilities,

and school failure.

insufficient prenatal care, and lack o f suffi­

Indeed, in the last years of the 2 0 t h cen­

cient infant and childhood medical services),

tury and the first years of the present one,

and by the sequelae of persistent and perva­

across the United States and in other nations,

sive poverty (Dryfoos, 1 9 9 0 ; Huston, 1 9 9 1 ;

infants, children, adolescents, and the adults

Huston, M c L o y d , &

Garcia Coll, 1 9 9 4 ;

who care for them continued to die from the

Lerner, 1 9 9 5 ; Lerner et al., 1 9 9 9 ; L e m e r &

effects of these social problems

Fisher,

(Dryfoos,

1 9 9 4 ) . These issues challenge

the

HANDBOOK O F APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, V O L U M E 1 resources and the future viability of civil

priority for what might be termed the

society in America and throughout the world

practical,

(Lemer, Fisher, & Weinberg, 2 0 0 0 a , 2 0 0 0 b ) .

to ADS. Especially relevant are discussions

or societally

oriented

applied,

issues central

The potential role of scientific knowledg e

offered by Bronfenbrenner, Kessel, Kessen,

addressin g

and White ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; Cairns ( 1 9 9 8 ) ; Davidson

these issues of individuals, families, c o m m u ­

and Benjamin ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; Hetherington ( 1 9 9 8 ) ;

about human development

in

nities, and civil society has resulted in grow­

McCall ( 1 9 9 6 ) ; McCaU and Groark ( 2 0 0 0 ) ;

ing interest and activity in what has been

Sears ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; Siegel and White ( 1 9 8 2 ) ; Parke,

termed

science

Omstein, Reiser, and Zahn-Waxler ( 1 9 9 4 ) ,

Indeed, over the last t w o decades,

Zigler ( 1 9 9 8 ) ; and Zigler and Finn-Stevenson

increasing numbers of developmental scien­

( 1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 9 ) . Hetherington ( 1 9 9 8 ) fi-ames her

tists from diverse disciplines have come to

analysis by accenting her use of the term

(ADS).

applied

developmental

applied

"developmental science . . . to emphasize both

Joining under thi s

the scientific and multidisciplinary foundations

umbrella are colleagues from allied disci­

of the study of development and the recogni­

identify themselves professionally as developmental

scientists.

plines and specialties in the biological, psy­ chological, social, and behavioral sciences and the helping professions, all sharing c o m ­ mon goals and visions captured in some of the more formal definitions of the ADS field. In many ways, ADS is "old wine in a new bottle"; that is, significant historical antecedents to the burgeoning field are evi­ dent today (Wertlieb, 2 0 0 3 ) . It is usefiil here to provide a brief overview of this history, focusing most on the events over the last quarter of a century that have given shape to contemporary ADS.

tion that development is not confined to child­ hood but extends across the life span" (p. 9 3 ) , an emphasis that is lost or diluted in the toolimiting term child

psychology.

Hetherington

interprets and extends Sears's ( 1 9 7 5 ) classic analysis, reaffirming that "unlike many areas in psychology [with their histories documented by Boring ( 1 9 5 0 ) and Koch & Leary ( 1 9 8 5 ) ] , developmental science originated ft-om the need to solve practical problems and evolved from pressure to improve the education, health, welfare and legal status of children and their families" (p. 9 3 ) . The chronology of developmental

psy­

chology offered by Cairns ( 1 9 9 8 ) serves as a APPLIED D E V E L O P M E N T A L

useful framework within which to specify

SCIENCE: A BRIEF H I S T O R Y

some of the distinctive or seminal elements of ADS. Cairns segments the emergence of

ADS has its roots in numerous fields con­

developmental psychology ( 1 8 8 2 - 1 9 1 2 ) , the

cerned with human development, for e x a m ­

middle period of institutionalization

ple, home economics/family and consumer

expansion ( 1 9 1 3 - 1 9 4 6 ) , and the m o d e m era

sciences (Meszaros, 2 0 0 3 ; Nickols,

2002),

( 1 9 4 7 - 1 9 7 6 ) . His compliance with a conven­

human ecology (Bronfenbrenner & Morris,

tion that 2 0 years must elapse before quali­

1 9 9 8 ) , comparative psychology

fying as "historical" leaves much of the

(Tobach,

and

psychology

significant milestone material in the defining

(Wertlieb, 2 0 0 3 ) . Using the latter field as a

of ADS, to be mentioned below, outside the

1994),

and

developmental

sample case, we may note that several exten­

realm of his presentation, although he does

sive histories o f developmental psychology

conclude his account with a clarion anticipa­

have been published and most include refer­

tion of and call for more integrated interdisci­

ences to the ebb and flow of interest and

plinary science, quite consistent with what we

Historical might term the postmodern

or

from this most recent period that we draw our substantive examples of ADS, after the conclusion of this historical sketch. M o s t accounts, including Cairn's ( 1 9 9 8 ) "emergence" analysis, portray the dialectic at the base of ADS as pioneered by G. Stanley Hall, the first professor of psychology in (appointed

in

1 8 8 3 at J o h n s

Hopkins University), the first president of the American Psychological Association ( 1 8 9 1 ) , and founder of the first child development research institute at Clark University and of the journal. Pedagogical

Bases

workers, mental health workers, teachers, and parents. These consrituencies wanted certain kinds of knowledge about children. Mirabile dictu, without even being develop­ mental psychologists and before we came into existence, they were all collecting data that look like ours. So, if you look at the social history that surrounds the birth of the Child Study Movement, you gradually come to the conclusion that perhaps we represent a professionalization of trends of knowledge gathering and knowledge analysis that existed in our society before our coming. That doesn't completely detach us from the mainstream of the history of psychology, but it certainly throws a very different light on the emergence and evolution of the field and its basic issues, (p. 1221)

contemporary

era ( 1 9 7 7 to the present). Indeed, it will be

America

and Theoretical

Seminary.

Among Hall's most significant contribu­

Hail was a remarkable teacher and catalyst for the field. Some of the most significant areas for developmental study—mental testing, child study, early education, adoles­ cence, life span psychology, evolutionary influence on development—^were stimulated or anticipated by Hall. Because of short­ comings in the methods he employed and the theory he endorsed, few investigators stepped forward to claim Hall as a scientific mentor. His reach exceeded his grasp in the plan to apply the principles of the new science to society. Psychology's principles were too modest, and society's problems too large. Perhaps we should use a fresh accounting to judge Hall's contributions, one that takes into account the multiple facets of his influence on individuals, the discipline, and society. The audit would reveal that all of us who aspire to better the lot of children and adolescents can claim him as a mentor. (Cairns, 1998, p. 43)

tions, according to White ( 1 9 9 2 ) , were the concern with descriptions o f children in their natural contexts and the priority need "to arrive at a scientific synthesis on the one side and

practical

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s on

the

other" (as cited in Cairns, 1 9 9 8 , p. 4 3 ) . Contemporary ADS continues in its value in the former and aspires to overcome the toodichotomous implications of the second; it emphasizes the reciprocal and mutual inter­ actions of the scientific and practical that were typical in this earliest era. Within the last quarter of a century, a key milestone in the elaboration of the field's terri­ tory occurred with the founding of the of

Applied

Developmental

Journal

Psychology,

in

1 9 8 0 , an international multidisciplinary Ufe span journal. The masthead proclaimed:

White

(1992)

points to the work

of

Bronfenbrenner as being consistent with his own perspective. For instance, Bronfenbrenner et al. ( 1 9 8 6 ) noted. The simple fact is that G. Stanley Hall marched away from experimental psycho­ logy toward the study of children because at least six different constituencies existed in American society, basically still our constituencies today—scientists, college administrators, child savers and social

A forum for communication between researchers and practitioners working in life span human development fields, a forum for the presentation of the conceptual, methodological, policy, and related issues involved in the application of behavioral science research in developmental psychol­ ogy to social aaion and social problem solving. (Sigel & Cocking, 1980, p. i) In welcoming the new journal in an inau­ g ural editorial, Zigler ( 1 9 8 0 ) narrowed the

HANDBOOK O F APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, V O L U M E 1 definition of the journal's purview to what he

for

called a "field within a field" (i.e., presumably,

interdisciplinary field. A consensus process

graduate

training in

this

emergent

applied developmental psychology

within

produced a complex four-point definition of

developmental psychology) but set high and

ADS, quoted here at length to document

broad expeaarions that "these pages shall

the current parameters of content, process,

attest to the synergistic relationship between

methods, and values:

basic and applied research" (p. 1). Almost 2 0 years later, Zigler

(1998)

issued a similar note of hope, celebration, and welcome in a significant essay called "A Place of Value for Applied and Policy Studies," this rime in the pages of Development,

Child

the prestigious archival jour­

nal of the Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD). Child

Development

had been singularly devoted to . . . Theory-driven, basic research. Now, after more than six decades of advancing science as a means to expand our understanding of human development, SRCD has formally welcomed into its major journal research that uses this knowledge on children's b e h a l f . . . the result of a very gradual trans­ formation within SRCD from a scientist's science toward a more public science. (Zigler, 1998, p. 532) The conrinuing vicissitudes of the gaps and synergies between applied and basic research will be a theme of the historical sketch offered below (see also Garner, 1 9 7 2 ) . In 1 9 9 1 , the National Task Force on Applied Developmental Science convened rep­ resentatives from a broad, but not exhaustive, range of professional scientific organizations concerned with the application of the develop­ mental psychology knowledge base to societal problems. Organizations represented included the American Psychological Association (APA), the Gerontological Society of America, the International Society for Infant Studies, the National Black Child Development Institute, the National Council on Family Relations, the Society for Research on Adolescence, and the Society for Research in Child Development. Goals included the articulation of the defini­ tion and scope of ADS along with guideUnes

1.1. Applied developmental science involves the programmatic synthesis of research and applications to describe, explain, intervene, and provide preventive and enhancing uses of knowledge about human development. The conceptual bases of ADS reflects the view that indi­ vidual and family functioning is a com­ bined and interactive product of biology and the physical and social environ­ ments that continuously evolve and change over time. ADS emphasizes the nature of reciprocal person-environment interactions among people, across settings, and within a multidiscipli­ nary approach stressing individual and cultural diversity. This orientation is defined by three conjoint emphases: Applied: Direct implications for what individuals, families, practitioners, and policymakers do. Developmental: Systematic and succes­ sive changes within human systems that occur across the life span. Science: Grounded in a range of research methods designed to collect reliable and objective information sys­ tematically that can be used to test the validity of theory and application. 1.2. ADS recognizes that valid applications of our knowledge of human develop­ ment depend on scientifically based understanding of multilevel normative and atypical processes that continually change and emerge over the life cycle. 1.3. ADS reflects an integration of perspec­ tives from relevant biological, social, and behavioral sciences disciplines in the service of promoting development in various populations. 1.4. The nature of work in ADS is reciprocal in that science drives application and

Historical application drives science. ADS empha­ sizes the bidirectional relationship between those who generate empirically based knowledge about developmental phenomena and those who pursue pro­ fessional practices, services, and policies that affect the well-being of members of society. Accordingly, research and theory guide intervention strategies, and evaluations of outcomes of develop­ mental interventions provide the basis for the reformulation of theory and for modification of future interventions. (Fisher et al., 1993, pp. 4-5) By 1 9 9 7 , these parameters defining Developmental

the following: 1. A historical

of methodologies

and

the perennial

constructs

such as basic and applied

or science

and practice

tion

balancing

perspective of

related research

or knowledge

genera­

and use. This includes a sensitivity to

historical and sociopolitical contexts cap­ tured in the notion of ADS as . . . Scholarship for our times.... As we enter the 21st century, there is growing recogni­ tion that traditional and artificial distinc­ tions between science and service and between knowledge generation and knowl­ edge application need to be reconceptual­ ized if society is to successfully address the harrowing developmental sequelae of the social, economic and geo-political legacies of the 20th century. Scholars, practitioners and policymakers are increasingly recogniz­ ing the role that developmental science can play in stemming the tide of life chance destruction caused by poverty, premature births, school failure, child abuse, crime, adolescent pregnancy, substance abuse, unemployment, welfare dependency, dis­ crimination, ethnic conflict, and inadequate health and social resources. (Lemer et al., 1997, p. 2)

ADS Science,

and audiences.

According to Lerner, Fisher, and Weinberg ( 1 9 9 7 ) , the journal publishes . . . Research employing any of a diverse array of methodologies—multivariate longitudi­ nal studies, demographic analyses, evalua­ tion research, intensive measurement studies, ethnographic analyses, laboratory experiments, analyses of policy and/or policy-engagement studies, or animal com­ parative studies—when they have impor­ tant implications for the application of developmental science across the life span. Manuscripts pertinent to the diversity of development throughout the life span— cross-national and cross-cultural studies; systematic studies of psychopathology; and studies pertinent to gender, ethnic and racial diversity—are particularly welcome. . . . (The audience includes) developmental, clinical, school, counseling, aging, educa­ tional, and community psychologists; life course, family and demographic socio­ logists; health professionals; family and consumer scientists; human evolution and ecological biologists; praaitioners in child and youth governmental and nongovern­ mental organizations, (p. 1)

context

reflecting

with further explication of a more inclusive range

Bases

special concerns. A m o n g these hallmarks are

were adopted as the editorial scope of a new journal. Applied

and Theoretical

2. A broadened of

the

ethical

involved

and deepened challenges

in implementing

and the scope

awareness imperatives of

ADS.

This awareness evolves from challenges in the use of scientific methods in new ways such that protection of the autonomy and well-being complex.

of participants is increasingly Research

participants

become

partners in the inquiry process and new, m o r e complicated c o l l a b o r a t i o n s a m o n g diverse multidisciplinary professionals and communities become key elements of defin­ ing research questions and problems and seeking answers and solutions. Moreover, as implied earlier in the chapter,

This amplified definition of ADS postu­

some leaders of ADS have seen the need to

lates a number of hallmarks of ADS key to

further broaden the potential scope of this

the discussion of its history, content, and

field, suggesting elements of a blueprint for

5

HANDBOOK O F APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, V O L U M E 1 promoting civil society and social justice, a

change, in the processes through

provocative and compelling elaboration of

change occurs, and in the means through

both the substance and ethical orientation of

which stmctures transform and

the field (Lemer et al., 2 0 0 0 b ) . Others have

evolve over the course of human life.

which

functions

focused on more traditional, academic, or

Today, Mussen's ( 1 9 7 0 ) vision has been

incremental stocktaking for defining ADS,

crystallized. The cutting edge of contemporary

with attention to advancing the numerous

developmental

knowledge bases and methodologies

(e.g.,

systems conceptions of the process of how

Schwebel, Plumert, & Pick, 2 0 0 0 ; Shonkoff,

stmctures function and how functions are

2 0 0 0 ; Sigel & Renninger, 1 9 9 8 ) . However,

stmctured over time. Thus, developmental

given the presence of this range of interests

systems theories of human development are

and activities, ADS is now considered "an

not necessarily tied to a particular content

theory

is

represented

by

established discipline" (Fisher, Murray, &

domain, although particular empirical issues

Sigel, 1 9 9 6 ) , one that is operationalized by

or substantive foci (e.g., motor development,

the diverse foci of work pursued under this

successful aging, wisdom, extraordinary cog­

framework

nitive achievements, language acquisition, the

but is linked by a c o m m o n

conceptual/theoretical

perspective

human development: developmental theory.

about

self, psychological complexity, or concept for­

systems

mation) may lend themselves readily as exem­

T o understand the diversity

of

empirical, methodological, and ethical inter­

plary sample cases of the processes depicted in a given theory (see Lemer, 1 9 9 8 a ) .

ests and activities of contemporary ADS, it is

The power of developmental systems the­

important to appreciate the developmental

ories lies in their ability to not be Umited or

systems theoretical orientation that rational­

confounded by an inextricable association

izes the use of developmental science for the

with a unidimensional portrayal o f the devel­

promotion of positive human development

oping person. In developmental

and the enhancement of civil society.

theories, the person is neither biologized,

systems

psychologized, nor sociologized. Rather, the individual is systemized.

A person's develop­ within an integrated

F R O M DEVELOPMENTAL SYSTEMS

ment is embedded

T H E O R I E S T O APPLIED

matrix of variables derived from multiple levels of organization. Development is con­

DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE

ceptualized as deriving from the dynamic Paul Müssen, the editor of the third edition

relations among the variables within this

of the Handbook

multitiered matrix.

of Child

Psychology,

pre­

saged what today is abundantly clear about

Developmental systems theories use the

the contemporary stress on systems theories

polarities that engaged developmental theory

of human development. Müssen ( 1 9 7 0 ) said,

in the past (e.g., nature/nurture, individual/

"The major contemporary empirical and

society, biology/culture; Lemer, 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 8 6 ,

theoretical emphases in the field o f develop­

2 0 0 2 b ) . They are not used to "split" depic­

mental psychology . . . seem to be on

tions

expk­

of

developmental

processes

nations

o f the psychological changes that

conceptually implausible

occur,

the

counterfactual lines (Collin, 1 9 8 1 ; Overton,

mechanisms

and

processes

and

along

empirically

accounting for growth and development"

1 9 9 8 ) or to force counteφroductive choices

(p. vii). This vision alerted developmental

between false opposites (e.g., heredity or envi­

scientists to a burgeoning interest—not in

ronment, continuity or discontinuity, con­

structure, function, or content per se, but in

stancy or change; Lemer, 2 0 0 2 b ) , but rather

Historical

and Theoretical

Bases

to gain insight into the integrations that exist

Explanatory studies, by their very nature,

among the multiple levels of organization

constitute intervention research. T h e role of

involved in human development. These theo­

the developmental

ries are certainly more complex than their

explanatory research is to understand the

one-sided predecessors. They are also more

ways in which variations in person-context

nuanced, more flexible, more balanced, and

relations account for the character of human

researcher conducting

less susceptible to extravagant or even absurd

developmental trajectories, life paths that are

claims: for instance, that nature split from

enacted in the natural laboratory of the real

nurture can shape the course of human devel­

world. T o gain an understanding of how

opment; that there is a gene for altruism, mil­

theoretically relevant variations in person-

itarism, or intelligence; or that when the social

context relations may influence developmen­

context is demonstrated to affect

develop­

tal trajectories, the researcher may introduce

ment, the influence can be reduced to a generic

policies and/or programs as experimental

one (e.g.. Hamburger, 1 9 5 7 ; Lorenz, 1 9 6 6 ;

manipulations of the proximal and/or distal

Plomin,

1986,

DeFries, &

2000;

Plomin,

Corley,

Faulker, 1 9 9 0 ; R o w e , 1 9 9 4 ;

Rushton, 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 8 8 a , 1 9 8 8 b , 1 9 9 7 , 1 9 9 9 ) . These mechanistic and atomistic views of the past have been replaced, then, by theoreti­ cal models that stress the dynamic synthesis of multiple levels of analysis, a perspective hav­ ing its roots in systems theories of biological development (Cairns, 1 9 9 8 ; Gottlieb, 1 9 9 2 ; Kuo, 1 9 3 0 , 1 9 6 7 , 1 9 7 6 ; Schneirla, 1 9 5 6 , 1 9 5 7 ; von Bertalanffy, 1 9 3 3 ) . In other words,

natural ecology. Evaluations of the outcomes of such interventions become a means to bring data to bear on theoretical issues perti­ nent

to

p e r s o n - c o n t e x t relations.

More

specifically, these interventions have helped applied developmental scientists understand the plasticity in human development

that

may exist and that may be capitalized on to enhance human life (Csikszentmihalyi &C Rathunde, 1 9 9 8 ; L e m e r , 1 9 8 4 ) . The interindividual differences in intrain­

understood as a property of sys­

dividual change that exist as a consequence

temic change in the multiple and integrated

of these naturally occurring interventions

levels of organization comprising human life

attest to the magnitude o f the systematic

development,

and its ecology (ranging from biology to cul­

changes

ture and history), is an overarching conceptual

plasticity—that

in

structure and

function—the

frame associated with developmental systems

Explanatory research is necessary, however,

models of human development.

to understand which variables, from which

characterizes human

life.

levels of organization are involved in partic­ ular instances of plasticity that have been

Explanation and Application: A Synthesis

seen to exist. In addition, such research is necessary to determine which instances of relation

plasticity may be created by science or soci­

between the individual and his or her context

ety. In other words, explanatory research is

results in the recognition that a synthesis of

needed to ascertain the extent of human plas­

disciplines is

ticity or in turn, to test the limits of plasticity

This

stress on

the

dynamic

perspectives from multiple

needed to understand the multilevel integra­ tions

involved in human development.

In

(Baltes,

1 9 8 7 ; Baltes,

Lindenberger, &c

Staudinger, 1 9 9 8 ; Lerner, 1 9 8 4 ) .

addition, to understand the basic process of

From a developmental systems perspec­

human development, both descriptive and

tive, the conduct of such research may lead

explanatory research must be

the scientist to alter the natural ecology of

conducted

within the actual ecology of people's lives.

the person or group he or she is studying.

HANDBOOK O F APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, VOLUME 1 Such research may involve either proximal

Research in human development that is

and/or distal variations in the context of

concerned with one or even a few instances o f

human development (Lerner &c Ryff, 1 9 7 8 ) ;

individual and contextual diversity cannot be

but in any case, these manipulations consti­

assumed to be useful for understanding the

tute theoretically guided alterations o f the

life courses o f all people. Similarly, policies

roles and events a person or group experi­

and programs derived from such research

ences at, or over, a portion of the life span.

or associated with it in the context of a

These alterations are indeed, then, inter­

researcher's tests of ideas pertinent to human

ventions: They are planned attempts to alter

plasticity cannot hope to be applicable or

the system of person-context relations that

equally appropriate and useful in all contexts

constitute the basic process of change; they

or for all individuals.

are conducted to ascertain the specific bases

development

Accordingly, policy

of or to test the limits of particular instances

design and delivery that are developmental

and p r o g r a m (intervention)

of human plasticity (Bakes, 1 9 8 7 ; Baltes &

and oriented to individual differences must be

Bakes, 1 9 8 0 ; Baltes et al., 1 9 9 8 ) . These inter­

a key part of the approach to applied devel­

ventions are a researcher's attempt to substi­

opmental research for which we are calling.

tute designed

person-context relations for

The variation in settings within

which

naturally occurring ones in an attempt to

people live means that studying development

understand the process of changing person-

in a standard (for example, a

context relations that provides the basis of

environment does not provide information

human development. In short, then, basic

pertinent to the actual (ecologically valid)

controlled)

research in human development is interven­

developing

tion research (Lerner et al., 1 9 9 4 ) .

distinct people and their specific contexts (for

relations between

individually

Accordingly, the cutting edge of theory

example, their particular families, schools, or

and research in human development lies in

communities). This point underscores the

the

and

need to conduct research in real-world set­

methodological expertise o f human develop­

tings (Bronfenbrenner, 1 9 7 4 ; Zigler, 1 9 9 8 )

application

of

the

conceptual

mental scientists to the natural ontogenetic

and highlights the ideas that (a) policies and

laboratory of the real world. This placement

programs constitute natural experiments,

of explanatory research about the basic rela­

that is, planned interventions for people and

tional process of development into the actual

institutions, and (b) the evaluation o f such

ecology

then,

activities becomes a central focus in the

involves the fusion of application with basic

developmental systems research agenda we

developmental science. T o pursue the study

have described (Cairns, Bergman, & Kagan,

of

human

development,

of ontogeny from a developmental systems

1 9 9 8 ; Lerner,

perspective, a research/application agenda

Freel, 1 9 9 5 ; Ostrom, Lerner, & Freel, 1 9 9 5 ) .

1 9 9 5 ; Lerner, O s t r o m ,

&

that focuses on the relations between diverse

In this view, then, policy and program

individuals and their similarly diverse con­

endeavors d o not constitute secondary work

texts is brought to the forefront (Lerner,

or derivative applications conducted after

2002b).

In addition,

however,

scholars

research evidence has been complied. Quite to

involved in such research must have at least

the contrary, policy development and imple­

two other concerns deriving from the view

mentation and program design and delivery

that basic explanatory research in human

become integral components of the

development is, in its essence, intervention

approach to research; the evaluation c o m p o ­

research.

nent of such policy and intervention work

ADS

Historical

and Theoretical

Bases

provides critical feedback about the adequacy

individuals,

of the conceptual frame from which

this

communities. Some components of the con­

research agenda should derive (Zigler, 1 9 9 8 ;

text or of individuals remain stable over time,

Zigler & Finn-Stevenson, 1 9 9 2 ) .

families,

institutions,

and

and other components may change histori­

In essence, then, a developmental systems

cally. Because phenomena of human behavior

perspective leads us to recognize that if

and development vary historically, one must

we are to have an adequate and sufficient

assess whether generalizations across time

science of human development,

must

periods are legitimate. Thus, temporality has

integratively study individual and contextual

important impUcations for research design,

levels of organization in a relational and

service provision, and program evaluation.

we

temporal manner (Bronfenbrenner, 1 9 7 4 ; Zigler, 1 9 9 8 ) . W e may also seek t o serve

Interventions are aimed at altering the developmental

trajectory of

within-person

America's citizens and families through our

changes. T o accompfish this aim, the second

science and help develop successful policies

conceptual feature of ADS is that applied

and programs through our scholarly efforts

developmental scientists take into account

that result in the promotion of

positive

interindividual differences (diversity) among,

human development. T o do this, we may

for instance, racial, ethnic, social class, and

make great use of the integrative, temporal,

gender groups, and intraindividual changes,

and relational model of the person

such as those associated with puberty.

and

of his or her context that is embodied in developmental

system theories o f

human

The third conceptual feature of ADS places an emphasis on the centrality of context.

development.

There is a focus on the relations among

From Developmental Systems Theory to the Core Principles of ADS

human development.

all levels of organization within the ecology of

As has been argued before us—for e x a m ­ ple, by Fisher (e.g., Fisher et al., 1 9 9 3 ; Fisher &

Lemer,

1 9 9 4 ) ; Weinberg

These levels involve

biology, famihes, peer groups, schools, busi­ nesses,

neighborhoods

physical/ecological

and

communities,

settings, and the socio­

cultural, political, legal, moral, and economic

(e.g.,

institutions of society. Together, bidirectional

Lerner et al., 1 9 9 7 , 2 0 0 0 a , 2 0 0 0 b ) ; Sherrod

relations among these levels of the develop­

(e.g., 1 9 9 9 a , 1 9 9 9 b ) ; Eccles (Eccles, Lord, &

mental system necessitate systemic approaches

Buchanan, 1 9 9 6 ) ; Takanishi ( 1 9 9 3 ) ; L e m e r

to research, program and policy design, and

(Lerner,

program and policy implementation.

1998b,

2002a,

2002b);

and

Wertlieb ( 2 0 0 3 ) — A D S is scholarship predi­

The fourth principle of ADS emphasizes

cated on a developmental systems theoretical

descriptively normative developmental pro­

perspective. Within this context. Fisher et al.

cesses and primary prevention and optimi­

( 1 9 9 3 ) summarize the five conceptual c o m ­

zation, rather than remediation.

ponents that together characterize the core

developmental scientists emphasize healthy

principles of ADS. Taken together, these con­

and normative developmental processes and

ceptual principles

m a k e ADS

a

unique

approach to understanding and promoting positive development.

Applied

seek to identify the strengths and assets of individuals, groups, and settings, rather than focusing on deficits, weaknesses, or prob­

The first conceptual component of ADS is

lems of individuals, families, or communities.

the notion of the temporality, or historical

Instead of dwelling on the problems faced by

embeddedness,

people, applied developmental scientists aim

of

change

pertinent

to

10

HANDBOOK O F APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, V O L U M E 1 and

Given the theoretically predicated set of

ecological assets associated with thriving

to find

combinations of individual

principles defining ADS, it is clear that not all

among people (e.g., Benson, 1 9 9 7 ; Benson,

possible

Leffert, Scales, & Blyth, 1 9 9 8 ; Leffert et al.,

would lend themselves to this view of schol­

1 9 9 8 ; Scales, Benson, Leffert, & Blyth, 2 0 0 0 )

arship (e.g., genetic-reductionist approaches

realms of developmental

science

and with the "5 Cs" of positive individual

to human development would not fit within

development: competence, confidence, con­

this approach; for a more thorough discus­

nection, character, and caring/compassion

sion of this point, see Lerner, 2 0 0 2 b ) . It is

(Hamilton

useful, then, to discuss the dimensions of

&

Hamilton,

1 9 9 9 ; Lerner,

scientific work that are brought to the fore­

2 0 0 2 b ; Little, 1 9 9 3 ; Pittman, 1 9 9 6 ) . The final principle of ADS is the apprecia­ tion of the bidirectional relationship between

front by an ADS perspective framed by developmental systems thinking.

knowledge generation and knowledge appU­ cation. By acknowledging bidirectionality, apphed developmental scientists recognize the

FOCI O F APPLIED

importance of knowledge

DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE

about life and

development that exists among the individu­ als, families, and communities being served

H u m a n developmental science has long been

by ADS. For applied developmental scien­

associated with laboratory-based scholarship

tists, collaboration and coleaming between

devoted to uncovering "universal" aspects of

researchers/universities and communities are

development by stripping away contextual

essential features of the scholarly enterprise

influences

(Cairns et al., 1 9 9 8 ; H a g e n ,

(Lemer, 1 9 9 8 a , 1 9 9 8 b ) . Such community-

1 9 9 6 ) . However, the mission and methods of

collaborative efforts are termed

human development are being transformed

outreach

(Lerner & Miller, 1 9 9 8 ) .

into an ADS that is devoted to discovering

In other words, given the developmental

diverse developmental patterns by examining

scholarship

systems perspective on which ADS is predi­

the dynamic relations between

cated,

within the multiple embedded contexts of the

applied

developmental

scientists

assume the following:

individuals

integrated developmental systems in which they live (Fisher & Brennan, 1 9 9 2 ; Fisher &

There is an interactive relationship between science and application. Accordingly, the work of those who generate empirically based knowledge about development and those who provide professional services or construct policies affecting individuals and families is seen as reciprocal in that research and theory guide intervention strategies and the evaluation of interventions and policies provides the bases for reformulating theory As a result, applied and future research developmental [scientists] not only dissemi­ nate information about development to parents, professionals, and policymakers working to enhance the development of others, they also integrate the perspectives and experiences of these members of the community into the reformulation of theory and the design of research and interventions. (Fisher & Lerner, 1994, p. 7)

Lerner,

1 9 9 4 ; Fisher &

Horowitz, 2 0 0 0 ;

Murray, 1 9 9 6 ;

Horowitz

&

O'Brien,

1 9 8 9 ; Lerner, 1 9 9 8 a , 1 9 9 8 b , 2 0 0 2 a , 2 0 0 2 b ; Lerner et al., 2 0 0 0 a ,

2 0 0 0 b ; Morrison,

Lord, & Keating, 1 9 8 4 ; Power, Higgins, & Kohlberg, 1 9 8 9 ; Sigel, 1 9 8 5 ) . This theoreri­ cal revision of the target o f developmental analysis, from the elements of relations to interlevel relations, has significant implica­ tions for applications of

developmental

science to policies and programs aimed at promoting positive h u m a n

development.

Arguably, the most radical feature of the the­ oretical, research, and applied agenda of applied developmental scientists is the idea that research

about

basic relational

processes

Historical of development enhancing

and applications

person-context

ontogeny

focused

relations

on across

are one and the same

and Theoretical

Bases

Applied Developmental Science and the Concept of Outreach Scholarship

endeavor.

Within this synthetic approach t o basic and

Given (a) their belief in the importance for

appHed scholarship, several specific domains

developmental analysis of systemically inte­

of scholarship are pursued by applied devel­

grating all components within the ecology o f

opmental scientists.

human development and (b) their stress on Applied

integrating the expertise of the researcher

Developmental Science (Fisher et al., 1 9 9 3 )

with the expertise of the community through

mdicates that the activities of ADS span a con­

collaboration and colearning, proponents of

tinuum from knowledge generation to knowl­

ADS believe that researchers and the institu­

edge application (see also Wertlieb, 2 0 0 3 ) .

tions within which they work are part of the

These activities include, but are not limited to,

developmental

The National Task Force on

system that ADS tries to

the following: research on the applicability of

understand and to enhance. They emphasize

scientific theory to growth and development

that the scholar- and university-community

in natural, ecologically valid contexts; the

partnerships they seek to enact are an essen­

study of developmental correlates of phenom­

tial means of contextualizing knowledge. By

ena of social import; the construction and use

embedding scholarship about human devel­

of developmentally and contextually sensitive

opment within the diverse ecological settings

assessment instruments; the design and evalu­

in which people develop, applied develop­

ation of developmental

interventions and

mental scientists foster bidirectional relation­

enhancement programs; and the dissemina­

ships between research and practice. Within

tion of developmental knowledge to individu­

such relationships, developmental research

als, families, communities, practitioners, and

both guides and is guided by the outcomes of

policymakers through developmental educa­

community-based interventions, for e x a m ­

tion, printed and elearonic materials, the

ple, public policies or programs aimed at

mass media, expert testimony, and commu­

enhancing human development.

nity collaborations.

The growth of such outreach scholarship

T o illustrate, Table 1.1 lists many of the

(Lerner &

Miller, 1 9 9 8 ) has fostered a

topics of inquiry and a a i o n that are recur­

scholarly challenge to prior conceptions of

rently part of the broad scope of ADS. Recent

the nature of the world (Cairns et al., 1 9 9 8 ;

textbooks (e.g.. Fisher & review

chapters

(e.g.,

Lerner,

Zigler

&

1994);

Overton, W . , 1 9 9 8 ; Valsiner, 1 9 9 8 ) . The

Finn-

idea that all knowledge is related to its con­

Stevenson, 1 9 9 9 ) ; handbooks; (e.g., Lemer,

text has promoted a change in the typical

2 0 0 2 a , 2 0 0 2 b ; Sigel & Renninger, 1 9 9 8 ) ;

ontology within current scholarship. This

special issues of journals (e.g., Hetherington,

change has emerged as a focus on relation-

1 9 9 8 ) ; and regular sections of journals, such

ism and an avoidance of split conceptions o f

as the "AppUed Developmental Theory" sec­

reality,

tion of Infants and Young

Children,

provide

such

(Overton,

W.,

as

n a t u r e versus n u r t u r e 1998).

This

ontological

ongoing articulation of ADS inquiry. Journals

change has helped advance the view that all

such as the Journal

Developmental

existence is contingent on the specifics of the

Science,

physical and social cultural conditions that

Policy,

exist at a particular m o m e n t of history

are among the central

(Overton, 1 9 9 8 ; Pepper, 1 9 4 2 ) . Changes in

Psychology, and

Applied

Children's

Research

of Applied Developmental Services:

and Practice

ouriets for new work in ADS.

Social

epistemology that have been associated with

11

HANDBOOK O F APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, V O L U M E 1

12

Table 1.1

Areas of Inquiry and Action in Applied Developmental Science

Topic

Sample Study or

Early child care and education

Lamb (1998); Scarr (1998); Zigler 8c Finn-Stevenson (1999); Ramey & Ramey (1998)

Early childhood education

Elkind (2002)

Education reform and schooling

Fishman (1999); Adelman & Taylor (2000); Renninger (1998); Strauss (1998)

Literacy

Adams, Trieman, & Pressley (1998);

Parenting and parent education

Collins, Maccoby, Steinberg, Hetherington, 8c Bornstein (2000); Cowan, Powell, & Cowan (1998)

Poverty

Review

McLoyd (1998); Black & Krishnakumar (1998)

Developmental assets

Benson (1997); Scales & Leffert (1999); Weissberg & Greenberg (1998)

Successful children and families

Masten & Coatsworth (1998); Wertlieb (2001)

Marital disruption and divorce

Wertlieb (1997); Hetherington, Bridges, & Insabella (1998)

Developmental psychopathology

Richters (1997); Cicchetti & Sroufe (2000); Rutter & Sroufe (2000); Cicchetti & Toth (1998b)

Depression

Cicchetti & Toth (1998a)

Domestic violence and maltreatment

Emery & Laumann-Biilings (1998)

Adolescent pregnancy

Coley & Chase-Landsdale (1998)

Aggression and violence

Loeber & Stouthamer-Loebe (1998)

Children's eyewitness reports

Bruck, Ceci, & Hembrooke (1998)

Pediatric psychology

Bearison (1998)

Mass media, television, and computers

Huston & Wright (1998); Martland & Rothbaum (1999)

Prevention science

Kaplan (2000); Coie et al. (1993)

this revision in ontology and contingent

Having

knowledge can be understood only if rela­

ecologically embedded and contingent ratio­

an

ontology

of

knowledge

as

tionships are studied.

nalizes the interest o f ADS scholars in learn­

Accordingly, any instance of knowledge

ing to integrate what they know with what

(e.g., the core knowledge of a given disci­

is known of and by the context (Fisher,

pline) must be integrated with knowledge

1 9 9 7 ) . It thus underscores the importance of

of (a) the context surrounding it and (b) the

colearning collaborations between scholars

relation between knowledge and context.

and community members as a key part of

Thus, knowledge that is disembedded from

the knowledge generation process (Higgins­

the context is not basic knowledge. Rather,

D'Alessandro, Fisher, & Hamilton, 1 9 9 8 ;

knowledge that is relational to its context,

Lerner & Simon, 1 9 9 8 a , 1 9 9 8 b ) .

for example, to the community as it exists in

In sum, significant changes that have

its ecologically vaHd setting (Trickett, Barone,

occurred in the way social and behavioral

&

scientists—and m o r e specifically,

Buchanan, 1 9 9 6 ) , is basic knowledge.

human

Historical developmentalists—have begun to reconcep­ tualize their roles and responsibilities

to

Child,

Adolescent,

Through

and Theoretical

and Family

Research,

Policies,

Bases

13

Development and

Programs

society is in no greater evidence than in the

presents the historical development

and

field of ADS

current

and

(Fisher &

Murray, 1 9 9 6 ;

Lerner, 2 0 0 2 a , 2 0 0 2 b ; Lerner et al., 2 0 0 0 a ,

theoretical, methodological,

substantive architecture of the scientific and

2 0 0 0 b ) . However, the key test of the useful­

professional efforts to develop policies and

ness of the integrative relational ideas of

programs that promote positive child, adoles­

scientists lies in a

cent, and family development. The volume is

applied developmental

demonstration of the greater advantages for

divided into sections that reflect the integra­

understanding and application of a synthetic

tive, relational themes of ADS, instantiated in

focus on person-context relations—as c o m ­

this volume by chapters that discuss dimen­

pared with an approach to developmental

sions of individual diversity ranging from the

analysis predicated on splitting

individuals

inner biological through the individual psy­

from their contexts or splitting any level

chological; features of family diversity; and

within

from

innovative community-based models for pro­

biological

moting positive relations across time among

from individual/psychological or social levels

children, adolescents, and families. It is useful

the

developmental

system

another, for example, splitting

through genetic reductionism (e.g., as in Rowe, 1 9 9 4 ; Rushton, 1 9 9 9 , 2 0 0 0 ) . In other words, can we improve our understanding of

to briefly discuss the contributions within each of the sections of this volume.

human development and enhance our ability to promote positive outcomes of changes across

life

by

adopting

the

relational

approach of an ADS predicated on develop­ mental systems thinking?

Dimensions of Individual Diversity Nelson explains that knowledge of brain function is far from complete, but neverthe­ less, it is clear at this point in the history of

W e believe the answer to this question is

neuroscience that knowledge of brain devel­

"yes," and to support our position, in this vol­

opment is critical to understand all of human

ume we present scholarship that illustrates

development. Contrary to ideas that contend

how a focus on the person-context relation

that brain development is the outcome of

may enhance understanding of the c h a r a a e r

endogenous variables under the control of

of human development and also of the ways in

genes and hormones. Nelson documents that

which applications linking persons and con­

the brain's development derives from the

texts in positive ways can enhance human

system relation of endogenous and exoge­

development across the life span. The scholar­

nous experiences.

ship represented in this volume considers the

One of the most compelling frameworks

importance of understanding the match, con­

in ADS for understanding development in

gruence, quality of fit, or integration between

context is the stress and coping paradigm.

attributes of individuals and characteristics of

C o m p á s and Grant explain the central role

their contexts in understanding and promot­

that stress reactivity plays within this frame­

ing healthy, positive human development.

work for understanding the process of risk and resilience during adolescence. Winner discusses the bases and outcomes

T H E PLAN O F THIS V O L U M E

of giftedness.

She explains

the

complex

challenges and the social, emotional, and This volume of the Handbook Developmental

Science:

Promoting

of

Applied

cognitive developmental needs experienced

Positive

by gifted or creative children.

14

HANDBOOK O F APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, V O L U M E 1 Diamond and Savin-Williams explain the

identifies research, p r o g r a m , and

policy

importance of diversity in gender and sexual

opportunities for effectively linking positive

identity in understanding positive child, ado­

parenting to positive youth development.

lescent, and family development. They dis­

L a m b and his colleagues discuss the spe­

cuss the ways in which positive and healthy

cial significance o f fathers in the well-being

development may be promoted among youth

of children. They discuss the ways in which

who deviate from conventional sexual and

child adjustment may be enhanced through

gender norms.

promoting positive

Spencer and her colleagues explain that the promotion o f positive development rests

parental involvement

with children and suggest applications of their work t o policies and programs.

on understanding identity formation as it

Mistry, Chaudhuri, and Diez discuss the

occurs within the ecological setting of young

importance of culturally shaped parental

people. Spencer and her colleagues frame the

beliefs about parenting—^that is, of ethno­

understanding o f the links between identity

theories o f parenting—for positive

development

development. Their w o r k integrates and

and

contextual

influences

through the use of an innovative theoretical model, labeled the phenomenological of ecological

systems

theory

variant

(PVEST),

and

extends scholarship from

child

developmental

psychology, cross-cultural psychology, and cultural psychology.

use PVEST to explain the roles of coping and

Hauser-Cram and Howell highlight the

culture on youth-context relations leading to

importance of the family system in promot­

positive development.

ing the positive development of children with

Helms explains the importance of adding to the identity-development

literature an

disabilities, their siblings, and their mothers and fathers. They add that the cultural beliefs,

understanding of the significance of adoles­

values, and practices of the family are inte­

cents' self-conceptions with respect to racial

gral to that system as well.

group memberships. In the context of her theoretical model o f racial identity,

she

Lerner, Castellino, Lolli, and W a n review current research on the influences of mater­

discusses the central roles of racial identity

nal employment outside the home on child

and racial socialization in the process of

and family functioning and well-being. They

adolescent-identity development.

explain the i m p o r t a n c e of theory-based

Kerestes and Youniss note that religious development does not tend to be a major

research as a basis for work and family pro­ grams and policies.

focus of theory or a fundamental category by

M c A d o o and Martin explain in eloquent

which normal development is measured. Y e t

terms the crucial concerns, programs, and

religious beliefs and practices apply to the

principles that must undergird policy innova­

majority of American youth and adults, and

tions aimed at enhancing the lives of ethnically

research suggests the positive role that reli­

diverse families. They stress the importance

gion can play in the lives of adolescents.

of an approach to policy that synthetically focuses on education, socialization practices,

Features of Family Diversity

health practices, and social justice. Amato gives order and direction to the

Bomstein explains the pivotal role of pos­

complex and challenging data on children's

itive parenting attitudes and behaviors in the

adaptation to parental divorce. Through use

process of healthy and positive child devel­

of the stress and coping framework, he dis­

opment. In the context of the United Nations

cusses the complex systemic relations between

Convention on the Rights of Children, he

family functioning and child development.

Historical T o u t and Zaslow describe the intersectio n of two broad themes emerging in pubU c discourse about child and family well-being : the conclusion

and Theoretical

Bases

15

and the methodology of "strategic frame analysis." Brown and M o o r e offer a brief history of

from research that chil d

the social indicators movement and identify

care quality matters for children and th e

the advantageous uses t o which child and

increasing presence of child care on the publi c

family well-being indicators are increasingly

agenda. They examine the resultant climat e

being put. This development of new sets of

for new initiatives aimed at improving chil d

indicators—for example, those that reflect

care quality.

positive development and that are useful at the community level—is proceeding apace. Mannes, Benson, Kretzmann, and Nortis

Emerging Models for the Promotion of Positive Youth and Family Development

examine the growing interest in the intersec­ tion of community and youth development. They detail the likely contributions to posi­

Benson, Scales, and Mannes explain th e

tive youth development that can be made by

importance of adopting a theoretical model o f

attending to theories, strategies, and tech­

youth development predicated on a strengt h

niques of community development.

approach to young people. They specify th e individual

and ecological

developmenta l

assets that result in the enhancement o f positively

developing,

thriving youth

an d

Key Themes of the Volume Across these sections, a central theme in

delineate how the study and practice o f c o m ­

current ADS is underscored: the need

munity building can create and integrate th e

develop policies and programs that appropri­

to

resources needed for youth to manifest c o m ­

ately treat the bidirectional

petence, mastery, caring, connection, belong ­

reciprocal,

ing, skill, and resilience.

between diverse individuals and their diverse

D a m o n and Gregory recount the remark ­

dynamic,

(or, in other terms,

or systemic)

relations

contexts. In addition, the chapters in this vol­

able sea change in the scholarship and appli ­

ume highlight another level of relation that is

cation pertinent to youth development tha t

central in understanding the distinct develop­

has o c c u r r e d in only

mental trajectories involved in diverse person-

about

a decade .

Predicated on the replacement of

defici t

context relations. This level is the bidirectional

views of youth by a strength-based conceptu ­

linkage that exists between theory and appli­

alization of young people, this new era in th e

cation. T h r o u g h o u t the volume, authors

field of youth development is also marked b y

explain how a developmental systems view of

a stress on community assets, expectation s

youth development is both a product and a

for social responsibility and service, and th e

producer of an integrated understanding of the

role of moral values and reUgious or spiritua l

theory
application relation involved in

The developmental

systems perspective

also has impUcations for the methods and

child, adolescent, and family issues. The y

ethics of ADS. Ideas about methods and ethics

provide a vision for adding value to th e

are also thematic dimensions of the chapters

investments of programs and program fun ­

in this volume. It is important to discuss the

ders and for promoting positive youth devel ­

role of these themes in current and future

opment through strategic communication s

work in ADS.

16

HANDBOOK O F APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, V O L U M E 1 Jensen, Hoagwood, and Trickett ( 1 9 9 9 )

METHODOLOGICAL AND

contrast university-based research, tradition­

E T H I C A L D I M E N S I O N S O F ADS

ally supported by the National Institute of In addition to the developmental

systems

theoretical orientation framing, the substan­

Health in an efficacy model

model,

with an

outreach

that reflects emergent approaches to

tive domain of scholarship included in this

research consistent with the parameters of

volume and also found more broadly in

ADS and basic to advancement in the numer­

ADS, we must emphasize that other features

ous domains of inquiry and action Usted in

of scholarship are emblematic of ADS. That

Table 1.1. Outreach research or outreach

is, specific views of methodology and of

scholarship charaaerizes the "engaged uni­

ethics are involved in this field of work. As we

versity" (Kellogg Commission, 1 9 9 9 ) more so

have noted earlier in this chapter, the empiri­

than the traditional "ivory tower" university

cal parameters of ADS are addressed only to

(e.g., McCall, Groark, Strauss & Johnson,

a limited extent by traditional research

1 9 9 5 ) . In outreach scholarship, knowledge

methods and designs.

advances as a function of collaborations and

Acknowledgment of the conceptual c o m ­

parmerships between universities and c o m ­

plexity imposed by the relevant developmen­

munities such that scientists and the children,

tal contextual and bioecological

theories

famihes, and communities they seek to under­

engages increasingly sophisticated method­

stand and help are defining problems, meth­

ological

approaches. Orchestration of a

ods, and solutions together. Communities

researcher's perspectives on a set of problem s

include policymakers as well as the families

with a society's perspectives on the prob­

and service providers, who both implement

lem—be they concerns about how to provid e

and consume interventions and programs.

a type of care for children or how to sustai n

Lemer et al. ( 2 0 0 0 b ) properly note that this

the health and development of an ill child —

involves a "sea change in the way scholars

requires extension and innovation by th e

conduct their research" (p. 1 4 ) and then note

applied developmental

scientist. Some o f

the principles of outreach scholarship that

the extension and innovation is relatively

characterize these special collaborations and

incremental.

methods in ADS. These principles include the

F o r example, the study o f children's adap ­ tation to illness becomes the province of inter ­ disciplinary teams of pediatricians, pediatri c psychologists, nurses, and child psychiatrists. Bolder

innovation

advances ADS

whe n

(a) families and communities are recognize d and embraced as legitimate partners in th e research enterprise, (b) the audience or "con ­ sumer" of research is broadened to includ e service providers and policymakers, an d (c) traditional institutional structures and func ­ tions associated with the "ivory tower" of th e university are challenged or modified. A lead ­ ing perspective in capturing these extension s and irmovations is, as previously mentioned , termed outreach scholarship (Chibucos Lemer, 1 9 9 9 ; Lemer & Miller, 1 9 9 8 ) .

&

following: (1) An enhanced focus on external validity, on the pertinence of the research to the actual ecology of human development . . . as opposed to contrived, albeit welldesigned, laboratory type studies; (2) incor­ porating the values and needs of community collaborators within research activities; (3) full conceptualization and assessment of outcomes, that is, a commit­ ment to understanding thoroughly both the direct and indirect effects of a researchbased intervention program on youth and their context and to measuring these out­ comes; (4) flexibility to fit local needs and circumstances, that is, an orientation to adjust the design or procedures . . . to the vicissitudes of the community within which the work is enacted; (5) accordingly, a will­ ingness to make modifications to research

Historical methods in order to fit the circumstances of the local community; and (6) the embracing of long-term perspectives, that is the com­ mitment of the university to remain in the community for a time period sufficient to see the realization of community-valued developmental goals for its youth . . . [and in addition] co-learning (between two expert systems—the community and the uni­ versity); humility on the part of the univer­ sity and its faculty, so that true co-leaming and collaboration among equals can occur; and cultural integration, so that both the university and the community can appreci­ ate each other's perspective. (Lerner et al., 2000b, p. 14)

and Theoretical

Bases

standards of extant disciplines and profes­ sions. Indeed, even the imperative—^that ethi­ cal behavior in ADS reflects some consensus or amalgam of the applied ethics embraced over time by diverse disciplines or traditions now teaming up in any of the areas of inquiry and action noted earlier—invokes challenge. Distinctive, perhaps even unique, ethical issues arise when the articulation of basic bioecological and contextual theories are

parlayed

into

research designs,

methods,

measures,

interventions, programs,

and poUcies. Furthermore, whether in the traditional disciplines or in emergent ADS,

As articulated in the definitional parame­ ters of ADS that opened this chapter and as refleaed in the specific examples of inquiry and action, the extensions and innovations involved in outreach scholarship provide a means

to

address

methodological

the

conceptual

challenges

inherent

and in

attending to the synergy and advancement of science and practice. Along with these tools and potentials come a series of ethical imper­ atives reflecting responsibilities

of

both

researchers and practitioners. These complex

ethical considerations are encumbered and enriched by the mores and pressures of the historical context. Thus, the particular exi­ gencies of our evolving multicultural and global societies manifested in concerns about diversity and cultural sensitivity and compe­ tence become deep and abiding concerns for applied

developmental

scientists

as they

develop and test their theories, design and evaluate interventions, provide health or social

services, or engage

policymakers

around social programs and policies.

challenges have been a central concern to

As one example of the special ethical

ADS from its earliest contemporary rendi­

challenges that ADS must master, consider

tions, with the frameworks offered by Fisher

the research on early child care and educa­

and Tryon ( 1 9 9 0 ) continuing to serve well as

tion. As noted, the sociohistorical

an agenda.

involving the entry of more women into the

Fisher and Tryon ( 1 9 9 0 ) noted that along

shift

workforce has fueled the interest and con­

with the synergy and integration of research

cern of both society and

developmental

and application basic to the advance of the

scientists.

(1990)

describes the

field, the applied developmental scientist is

manner in which bias in the scientific process

bound by the ethics of research, by the ethics

characterized much of the early research on

of professional service, and by a complicated

maternal employment. Knowledge was pro­

admixture that emerges with the acknowl­

duced and applied with an emphasis on doc­

edgment of their interdependence. In addi­

umenting defects or deficits in children left in

tion, as the notion of outreach scholarship

nonparental day care. As the more sophisti­

Hoffman

scientist

cated concepts and methods of ADS were

away from narrow and traditional notions of

engaged to address social concerns over non-

research subjects, patients, and clients to

parental care, there were more nuanced and

more appropriate notions of partners, con­

accurate notions of direct and indirect effects

shifts the applied

developmental

sumers, and collaborators, there emerge

of individual differences and quality vari­

areas

ables

as

yet

uncharted by

the

ethical

in

home-based

and

center-based

17

18

HANDBOOK OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, V O L U M E 1 care settings. In addition, as dire as some of

training. Clinical psychologists, as another

the ethical challenges were in the conduct of

example, can be educated and held account­

the science aimed at generating understand­

able both through their graduate training and

care

professional careers in APA standards and in

arrangements, the risks involved in the c o m ­

a variety of state and national licensing and

munication of findings to the public and to

credentialing conventions. Although applied

policymakers could also be harrow-ing and

developmental scientists now emerging from

daunting. Hoffman

traditionally regulated fields, such as clinical,

ing about the impact o f different

( 1 9 9 0 ) concludes

her

school, or counseling psychology, will have a

account with the following position:

starting point in these traditional ethical While there is a social responsibility to make findings available for social policy and individual decision, there is also a responsibility to communicate the results accurately and to educate the public about what the data can and cannot say. The ten­ tative nature of our findings, their suscepti­ bility to different interpretations, and the complications of translating them into indi­ vidual or policy actions must be communi­ cated to achieve an ethical science, (p. 268)

guidelines, neither they nor their colleagues from diverse disciplinary and

multidiscipli­

nary training bases are yet equipped

with

exphcit ethical principles or credentials for the "practice" of ADS. Indeed, Koocher ( 1 9 9 0 ) alerted the field to this challenge a decade ago, and though the sociopolitical scene has evolved in complex ways since then, the challenge remains for ADS to attend very seriously to issues o f graduate training and

A second example to capture some of the particular ethical challenges facing ADS

ethics commensurate with its appropriately broadened scope and deepened mission.

pertains especially to this particular histori­ cal moment in which ADS is gaining recog­ nition as an "established discipline" (Fisher,

CONCLUSIONS

Murray, & Sigel, 1 9 9 6 , p. xvii). Training programs to produce the next generation of

A focus on person-context relations under­

applied developmental scientists are only just

scores the key implications o f developmental

emerging. Whereas some of the root or allied

systems models for research and application

disciplines

pertinent to p r o m o t i n g

may have sophisticated

quality

positive

human

control and credentialing procedures in place

development. At any given point in ontoge­

to increase the likelihood that ethical stan­

netic and historical time, neither individuals'

dards are met, ADS cannot borrow c o m ­

attributes nor the features o f their contexts

pletely

from these traditions. ADS

must

(e.g., the demands of their parents regarding

and appropriate standards

a temperamental style) per se are the fore­

reflecting the exigencies of its special meth­

most predictors of their healthy functioning.

generate new

ods (e.g., outreach scholarship or university-

Instead, the relations

community

parent, the school, the community, and the

partnerships) and the

special

expectations and demands faced by

new

between the child, the

other levels of organization within the devel­

applied developmental scientists as they pur­

opmental

sue work in many, or any, of the domains of

understanding the character of human devel­

inquiry and action listed in Table 1.1. For instance, traditional

developmental

psychologists can be trained and their alle­

system

are most important in

opment and of the role of the ecology of human development in a person's ontogeny. Essentially, the developmental

systems

giance to the ethical standards of the APA

model specifies that applied developmental

(1992)

scholarship pertinent to understanding and

inculcated during their graduate

Historical

and Theoretical

Bases

enhancing the Hfe course should focus on th e

development of children, adolescents, adults,

relational process of human development by

and families (Jensen et al., 1 9 9 9 ; Kennedy,

longitudinally integrating the study of both

1 9 9 9 ; Overton, B . J . , & Burkhardt, 1 9 9 9 ;

the actions of the individual and the action s

Sherrod, 1 9 9 9 b ; Spanier, 1 9 9 9 ; Thompson,

of parents, peers, teachers, neighbors, an d

1 9 9 9 ) . Given the enormous and historically

withi n

unprecedented challenges facing the youth

which the individual is embedded. Bearing in

and families of America and the world, there

mind the centrality of this complex relational

is no time to lose in the development of such

system, the synthetic research and applica ­

collaborations if there is the aspiration to

tion agenda seems clear. Applied develop ­

raise healthy and successful children capable

mental scientists must continue to educat e

of leading civil society productively, responsi­

themselves about the best means available t o

bly, and morally across the 2 1 s t century

promote (through integrating the develop ­

(Benson, 1 9 9 7 ; Damon, 1 9 9 7 ; Lemer, 1 9 9 5 ;

mental system) enhanced life chances amon g

Lerner et al., 2 0 0 0 a , 2 0 0 0 b ) .

the broader institutional c o n t e x t

all individuals and families, but especiall y

As was originally the case, the under­

among those whose potential for positiv e

standing of children, their development, and

contributions to civil society is most in dan ­

their needs is pursued only in part for the

ger of being wasted (Dryfoos, 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 8 ;

intellectual bounty. It is the use of this

Hamburg,

1 9 9 2 ; Lerner, 2 0 0 2 b ;

Lerne r

et al., 1 9 9 9 ; Schorr, 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 7 ) .

knowledge to enhance the quality of life for children that launched the discipline o f devel­

The collaborative expertise of the researc h

opmental psychology in the late 19th century

and program delivery communities can pro ­

and propels ADS in the early 2 1 s t century.

vide much of this information, especially if

The field of human development has an

it is obtained in partnership with strong ,

opportunity through the publication of its

coalition s

ADS research to serve our world's citizens

could become integral components of an inte ­

and demonstrate that there is nothing of

grated child, family, and human developmen t

greater value t o civil society than a science

empowered communities. Such

policy aimed at creating caring communitie s

devoted to using its scholarship to improve

with the capacity to further the health y

the life chances of all people.

REFERENCES Adams, M. J . , Treiman, R., & Pressley, M. (1998). Reading, writing, and literacy. In W. Damon (Series Ed.), I. E. Sigel & K. A. Renninger (Vol. Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Child psychology in practice (5th ed., pp. 2 7 5 ­ 356). New York: Wiley. Adelman, H. S., & Taylor, L. (2000). Looking at school health and school reform services: policy through the lens of addressing barriers to learning. Children's Social policy, research, and practice, 3 ( 2 ) , 117-132. American Psychological Association. (1992). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 47(12), 1 5 9 7 - 1 6 1 1 . Baltes, P. B . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental Developmental psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline. Psychology, 23, 6 1 1 - 6 2 6 .

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HANDBOOK O F APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, VOLUME 1 Zigler, E. (1998). A place of value for applied and policy studies. Child Development, 69(2), 532-542. Zigler, E., & Finn-Stevenson, M. (1992). Applied developmental psychology. In M. H. Bornstein 8c M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (3rd ed., pp. 6 7 7 - 7 2 9 ) . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Zigler, E. F., & Finn-Stevenson, M. (1999). Applied developmental psychology. In M. H. Bornstein & Μ . Ε. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (4th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Parti

DIMENSIONS OF

INDIVIDUAL DIVERSITY

CHAPTER

2

Neural Development

and Lifelong Plasticity

CHARLES A . NELSON

T

he

formation

and

growth

of

the

brain. O n c e this blueprint is established, I

human brain is surely one of the most

will then proceed t o talk about the role of

remarkable, albeit unfinished,

experience in influencing the brain. I will do

scien­

tific stories of the past 2 5 years. Although in

so by drawing on the role of early as well

the United States, the 1 9 9 0 s were declared t o

as late experience t o make the point that

be the "decade of the brain," it is clear as we

although brain development is largely limited

enter the early 2 1 s t century that our knowl­

to the first t w o decades of life, brain reorga­

edge of brain function and development is far

nization continues to occur through much of

from complete. A point I hope t o emphasize

the life span.

throughout this chapter is that knowledge of brain development is surely critical t o under­ standing all of child development. In particu­ lar, although it is commonly believed that brains develop on their own accord, largely

BRAIM DEVELOPMENT: A PRECIS

under the direction of genes and hormones, I

As students of human embryology are

will make clear in the following pages that

aware, shortly after conception, rapid cell

brains desperately need

division in the zygote results in the formation

both

endogenous

and exogenous experiences to grow properly.

of the blastocyst. By the end of the first week,

This is particularly true during the postnatal

the blastocyst itself has separated into t w o

period, in which, unfortunately, the least is

layers. T h e outer layer will become support

known about brain development.

structures, such as the amniotic sac, umbili­

In the sections that follow, I will describe

cal c o r d , and placenta, whereas the inner

the major events that give rise t o the human

layer will become the embryo itself. Over the

AUTHOR'S NOTE: Reproduced with permission from Millennial Dialogue for Healthy Child Development Toronto, Canada.

(MDC),

31

32

HANDBOOK OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, VOLUME 1 course of the next week, the embryo begins t o subdivide into layers, and it is from the outer , ectodermal layer that the nervous system will form. H o w this miraculous transformatio n occurs, from a thin layer of unspecified tissue into the highly complex organ known as th e brain, is the subject of intense study. In th e following section, the major prenatal an d postnatal events that give rise to the huma n brain are described. The major prenata l events consist of neural induction and neuru ­ lation, cell proliferation and migration, fol­ lowed by differentiation,

apoptosis

(cel l

Neurulation Neurulation

involves converting the neural

plate into a neural tube (see Figure 2 . 1 ) . The plate itself emerges as a thickening

along

the midline of the dorsal ectoderm during induction. Once the neural plate appears, it becomes elongated along the rostrocaudal (top to bottom) axis (Smith &

Schoenwolf,

1 9 9 7 ) . Gradually, the neural plate is trans­ formed into a tube, which will later go on to form the brain and spinal cord. The widest section of the neural fold represents the future forebrain, and the presumptive mid­

death), and axonal outgrowth. Myelinatio n

brain is identified by a bend in the neural

and synaptogenesis begin prenatally (subse ­

axis called the cranial flexure (Sidman &

quent to the formation of processes, axons ,

Rakic, 1 9 8 2 ) .

and dendrites), with both processes continu ­ ing well into the second decade of life.

Although I have greatly simplified a very complex process, it should be recognized that the very complexity

of

neurulation

brings with it a risk of failure—that is,

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

errors in the formation of the neural tube.

Neural Induction

cephaly, commonly lead to termination of

So-called neural tube defects, such as anen­ induc­

the fetus or profound birth defects. Other

tion is the process whereby the undifferenti­

defects, such as spina bifida, are less cata­

ated cells that comprise a portion of th e

strophic but still debilitating: F o r example,

ectodermal layer of the embryo go on t o

such children frequently suffer from m o t o r

As illustrated in Figure 2 . 1 , neural

become neural tissue itself. In the human, this

problems, often

event occurs at 1 6 days gestation (O'Rahill y

complications such as hydrocephalus and

with

secondary

medical

& Gardner, 1 9 7 9 ) . The mechanisms that per ­

infection.

mit this ectodermal transformation are still

Assuming the neural tube closes correctly,

not clear. The traditional view is that a chem ­

the tube itself is comprised of progenitor

ical agent is secreted from the mesoderm ,

cells that give rise to the neurons and glia of

which induces the dorsal side ("toward th e

the central nervous system. Specifically, the

rear") of the ectoderm to develop into th e

rostral ("toward the front") portion of the

nervous

Mangold,

tube will form the brain, while the caudal

1 9 2 4 ) . M o r e recent discoveries in develop ­

portion becomes the spinal cord. In addi­

mental neurobiology

tion, lying adjacent to and outside the neural

system

(Spemann

&

have revealed tha t

members of the transforming growth factor β

tube (i.e., sandwiched

(TGF-ß) superfamily (e.g., activin) play a n

layer of the ectoderm and the neural tube;

between

the outer

important role in induction, whereas severa l

see Figure 2 . 1 ) lies the neural crest. The cells

proteins (e.g., follistatin) permit neuraliza ­

that make up the neural crest will eventually

tion by inhibiting these TGF-ßs (Hemmati -

give rise to the peripheral (autonomic) ner­

Brivanlou, Kelly, & Melton, 1 9 9 4 ) .

vous system.

Neural Development and Lifelong Plasticity

Figure 2.1

Formation of the Neural Tube (Neurulation)

SOURCE: From "The Induction and Patterning of the Nervous System," by T. M. Jessell and J. R. Sanes, 2000, in E. R. Kandel, J. H. Schwartz, and T. M. jessell (Eds.), Principles of Neural Science (4th ed., p. 1020, Fig. 52-1), New York: McGraw-Hill. Reproduced by permission.

Cell Proliferation In primates and rodents, proliferation includes a symmetrical and an asymmetrical stage (Rakic, 1988; Smart, 1985; Takahashi, Nowakowski, & Caviness, 1994). Chenn and McConnell (1995) have discussed how,

early in the proliferation period, the mitosis of a progenitor cell produces two progenitor cells. Because one cell produces two identical cells, this first phase of proliferation has been described as symmetrical. Here, the cells travel back and forth between the inner and outer sides of the ventricular zone (the first

33

34

HANDBOOK OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, VOLUME 1

c o

:;:

~

Q)

c.

o

Ql

o>­

U

Qi U

'0 Q)

-g

:E

:; c. :;

o

Cell Internal cdk4,6 cyclin D

Figure 2.2

Cell External p21, p27

Mitogens

Anti-mitogens

Cell Migration and Proliferation

SOURCE: From "Neocortical Neurogenesis: Regulation, Control Points, and a Strategy of Structural Variation," by T. Takahashi, R. S. Nowakowski, and V. S. Caviness Jr., 2000, in C. A. Nelson and M. Luciana (Eds.), Handbook of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (p. 9, Fig. 1.5), Cambridge: MIT Press.

layer of the nervous system, where early duplication occurs). Once duplication has occurred, the cell travels down the ventricu­ lar layer, where it divides again. The two progenitor cells then independently begin the process of mitosis again. During the prolifer­ ation period, the marginal zone is formed, which contains the processes (axons and dendrites) of cells from the underlying ven­ tricular zone (for review, see Takahashi, Nowakowski, & Caviness, 2001; see Figure 2.2 for illustration of these two layers). The second phase of proliferation (during which the first neurons are formed) begins at approximately 7 weeks in the human, and this process continues until mid-gestation (Rakic, 1978). Here, progenitor cells create one other progenitor cell and a postmitotic neuron, that is, a cell that no longer divides.

Because two different types of cells are created, this form of proliferation is termed asymmetrical. Again, cells synthesize DNA and divide as they travel back and forth between the two sides of the ventricular zone. While the newly formed progenitor cell goes on to generate other cells, the postrnitotic neuron is believed to stop dividing and instead begins to migrate to its final destination (Rakic, 1988). There are a multitude of subtle molecular interactions that must occur to permit and regulate cell proliferation. As a result, the embryo is very vulnerable to slight environ­ mental perturbations. For instance, microen­ cephaly (a heterogeneous group of disorders whose hallmark feature is that of a small brain) results from aberrations in neural pro­ liferation. Microencephaly can be caused by a

Neural Development

and Lifelong

Plasticity

number of exogenous experiences, including

There are t w o types of migration: radial

exposure to radiation, rubella, and maternal

and tangential (reviewed in Hatten, 1 9 9 9 ;

alcoholism (for discussion, see Shonkoff &

Rakic, 1 9 9 5 ) . In radial

PhiUips, 2 0 0 0 ) . In addition, exposure to these

cursors travel along radial glia from the pro­

migration,

neural pre­

environmental events during the prolifera­

liferation zones to the outer areas of the

tion phase may lead to an end of symmetri­

central nervous system (Rakic, 1 9 7 1 , 1 9 7 2 ,

cal proliferation, which in turn can cause a

1 9 7 8 ) . As a result, glia cells provide a path

reduction in the final number of neurons.

for the neurons to travel from the deep layers of the proliferation zones to their final desti­

Mechanisms of Migration Once an immature neuron is formed, it must migrate from the ventricular or subven­

nations. Following the migration period, many radial glia are transformed into astrocytes, another type of glial cell (Rakic, 1 9 9 0 ) . In contrast to radial migration,

tangential

tricular zone to its final destination. In the

migration

human, migration begins at around 8 weeks

to the surface of the developing brain and

gestation when the progenitor cells begin to

thus to enter and exit different brain regions

permits neurons to travel parallel

produce postmitotic neurons (Rakic, 1 9 7 8 ) .

(Rakic, 1 9 9 0 ) . Where in the developing brain

Proliferation ends at approximately 4 to 5

does

take

place?

months gestation, and thus, the last cells

O'Rourke, Chenn, and McConnell

(1997)

begin their migration at this time. Migration occurs in t w o distinct waves. In

tangential

migration

found evidence in the fetal ferret brain for tangential migration of postmitotic cells in

the first wave, migratory postmitotic neurons

the ventricular and subventricular

are primarily derived from the ventricular

Thus, at least some of the tangential dispersion

zones.

zone, whereas in the second wave, they are

is due to postmitotic cell movement that

primarily derived from the subventricular

occurs even before the cell reaches the

zone (Rakic, 1 9 7 2 ) . Cortical neurons migrate

presumptive cortex. As will be discussed in

in an inside-out pattern, meaning that neu­

the section on differentiation, whether cell

rons with earlier "birthdays" migrate to

migration follows a radial or tangential path

lower cortical layers and the cells with later

will determine whether genetic or epigenetic

"birthdays" travel over other neurons for

influences are primarily responsible for deter­

destinations in the outer cortex (Rakic, 1 9 7 4 ;

mining the precise future location of the cell.

see Figure 2 . 3 ) . Consequently, neurons gen­

That is, if cells were distributed radially, then

erated in the ventricular zone occupy the

the birth date and location of the postmitotic

lower layers of the brain (Layers 4 , 5 , and 6 ) ,

neuron's

progenitor cell

will

determine

whereas neurons that are derived from the

where the neuron will reside. However, if

subventricular zone become located in the

tangential migration is also involved,

outer regions of the brain (roughly. Layers 2

would indicate that cell fate may not be c o m ­

this

and 3 ) . An exception to this is the molecular

pletely determined by birth date and progen­

layer (Layer 1) of the cortex (Chong et al.,

itor location of the progenitor and that

1 9 9 6 ) . Here, the cells migrate at about the

environmental cues could influence the cell's

same time as the innermost layer, and it is

placement in the cortex.

thought that the early formation of the mol­ ecular and innermost layers may provide scaffolding for the subsequent patterning of the neurons that will reside in the middle layers (Chong et al., 1 9 9 6 ) .

M a n y neurons must migrate distances as far as thousands of micrometers (Rakic, 1 9 7 2 ) , an enormous distance given the size of a neuron. Because migrating neurons rely on a vast array of molecular signals for guiding

35

36

HANDBOOK OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE, VOLUME 1

Figure 2.3

Illustration of Cell Migration

SOURCE: From "Neocortical Neurogenesis: Regulation, Control Points, and a Strategy Of Structural Variation," by T. Takahashi, R. S. Nowakowski, and V. S. Caviness Jr., 2001, in C. A. Nelson and M. Luciana (Eds.), Handbook of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience [p, 4, Fig. 1.1), Cambridge: MIT Press. Reproduced with permission.

their route of migration, it is likely that deleterious perturbations during this period could lead to errors of cell migration. For example, in microgyria, an environmental insult during the migration period in human fetuses causes routing errors in traveling neu­ rons and subsequent massive deformity of the overall brain (McBride & Kemper, 1982; Norman, 1980). Receiving even more specu­ lation is whether schizophrenia represents an error of cell migration (see Elvevag & Weinberger, 2001). Unfortunately, errors of cell migration are not well understood.

Anatomical Changes Due to Proliferation and Migration As cell migration continues, the imma­ ture cortex is transformed from a single sheet composed entirely of progenitor cells to a multilayered structure with many dif­ ferent types of cells (see Figure 2.4). By the 6th week of gestation, the marginal zone appears superficially to the ventricular zone. Between the 6th and 8th week, the intermediate zone emerges between the ven­ tricular and marginal zones. By and large,

Neural Development

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Plasticity

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