Gurudakshina: Facets of Indian Archaeology: Essays presented to Prof. V. N. Misra 9781841717234, 9781407328768

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SOUTH ASIAN ARCHAEOLOGY SERIES EDITED BY ALOK K. KANUNGO

No. 2

Gurudakshina: Facets of Indian Archaeology Essays presented to Prof. V .N. Misra Edited by

Alok Kumar Kanungo

BAR International Series 1433 2005

BAR

PUBLISHING

E d i tor ia l A s r ega rd s M i s ra j i 's o wn p ub l ica t ion s , k eep ing i n v i ew t h e i r n umbe r a nd d i ve r s i ty o f t h eme s , I d ec ided t oi n v i te t wo s pec ia l ly w r i t ten p ape r s : o ne a n a nno ta ted b ib l iog raphy o fa l lh i sw r i t ing sb yD r . P .P . J og leka r , a nd t h e o the r a n e va lua t ion o f h i s p o s i t ion i n t h e I nd ian a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t b y P rof . K .K . B a sa . Imy se lf h ave w r i t ten ap i ece o n M i s ra j i a sa na r chaeo log i s ta nd h uman b e ing . S ome o ve r lap a mong t h e se t h r ee p ape r s i su navo idab le . H oweve r , t h e r e a r e s i gn if ican t d i f f e r en ce s i n o u r a pp roache s . My p ape r b a s ica l ly g ive s a c h rono log ica l a ccoun t o fM i s ra j i 's r e sea r ch c a r ee r wh i le J og leka r h igh l igh t s t h e m a in p o in t s o f e ach o f h i s m a jo r p ub l ica t ion s . A nd B a sa a t temp t s a n e va lua t ion o ft h e v a r iou s a spec t s o fM i s ra j 's w o rk . I n a l l t h e se t h r ee p ape r s , M i s ra j i b e ing t h e c o r e s ub jec t ,j u s t ice c ou ld o n ly b e d one b y s cho la r s who h ave n o t b een h i s s t uden t s b u t k now h im a nd h i s w o rk w e l l .

T oday P rof . V .N . M i s ra ( M i s r a j i ) c omp le te s 7 0 y ea r s o fh i s l i f e . H e i so ne o ft h e mo s t r e spec ted a r chaeo log i s t s o f I nd ia , h av ing a p rof ound k now ledge o f a r chaeo logy , a n th ropo logy a nd a nc ien t l i t e ra tu r e . I n h i s c a r ee r o f n ea r ly h a lf a c en tu ry i na r chaeo logy , h e h a s s upe rv i sed r e sea r ch o f2 5 P h .D . s t uden t s , a nd d i s se r ta t ion s o f an umbe r o fM .A . a nd M . P h i l . s t uden t s o n d i ve r se t o p ic s i n f i e ld s l i k e P a laeo l i th ic , Me so l i th ic , N eo l i th ic , C ha lco l i th ic , R ock A r t , H a rappan C iv i l iza t ion , H is to r ica l a r chaeo logy , b ronz e s , c e ram ics , a nd e t hnoa r chaeo logy . I nt h e se d ay so fg row ing n a r row s pec ia l iza t ion M i s ra j ii so ne o ft h es ma l ln umbe ro f a r chaeo log i s t s i n t h e c oun t ry t o h ave s uperv i sed r e sea rch i n s u ch a d i ve r se r ange o f s ub jec t s . T ha t p romp ted m e t o e d i t av o lum e o u t o f P h . D . d i s ser ta t ion s c omp le ted u nde r h i s g u idance . U n f o r tuna te ly , o ne o f M i s ra j i 's s t uden t s , S .C . N anda i s n o mo r e . A lmo s t a l l h i s s t uden t s a r e e mp loyed i nd i f f e r en t a cadem ic p o s i t ion s i nI nd ia , B ang ladesh a nd N epa l . T h i sh a s i t s p lu s a sw e l l a s m inu s p o in t s ; t h e p lu s b e ing t h a t a l a r e a cad em ica l ly o r ien ted a nd m any o ft h em a r e a c t ive i n r e sea r ch ; t h e m inu s p o in t s a r e t h a t s om e h ave d i ver ted t h em se lve s t o r e sea r ch a r ea s q u i te d i f f e r en t f r om t h e i rP h .D . t o p ic , a nd s om e a r e f u l ly o ccup ied w i th t h e a dm in i s t ra t ion o f t h e i r i n s t i tu t ion s . B u tt h en who w ou ld n o tl i ke t or e f r e sh h i s /he r m emo ry o f d oc to ra l r e sea r ch? A nd t ho se m emo r ie sl e dt ot h is v o lum e .

Ih ad t hough t o ft h i sv o lum e w hen M i s ra j i a t ta ined t h e a ge o f6 5 y ea r sa nd Iw a sj u s ts t a r t ing my P h .D . b u t Id id n o t d a r e t o a sk f o r p ape r s f r om s uch s en io rp eop le a nd t h ough t Is hou ld w a i t u n t i l Ia m b e t te r e qu ipped t o e d i t s uch a v o lum e . Is t a r ted i n v i t ing t h e p ape r s o n D iwa l i d ay i n Novembe r 2 004 . N o s oone r h ad Is en t o u t t h e i n v i ta t ion s t o t h e p o ten t ia l a u tho r s , I s t a r ted g e t t ing o verwhe lm ing r e spon se . T h i s n a tu ra l ly r e f lec t s t h e r ega rd wh ich M i s r a j i 's s t uden t s h ave f o r h im . N o t m any p eop le m ay b e k now ing t h a t t wo o f t h e c on t r ibu to r s , K a ty D a la l a nd K u ru sh D a la l , a r e mo th e ra nd s on . T h i sm ay w e l lb et h eo n ly e xamp le a nywhe r e t h a t p a r en t a nd c h i ld h ave d one P h .D . u nde rt h e s am e t e ache r . A l though Is ha r ed t h e i d ea o ft h i s v o lum e o n ly w i th t h e c on t r ibu to r s , t h e w o rd s l ow ly g o t o u t a nd m any o f M i s ra j i 's a dm i r e r s w an ted t o c on t r ibu te t o t h e v o lum e . H oweve r , I e xp la ined t ot h em t h a t Iw an ted t h e v o lume t ob e r e s t r ic ted o n ly t o t h e c on t r ibu t ion s o f M i s ra j i 's s t uden t s , t h e e xcep t ion s b e ing t h e t wo i n v i ted c on t r ibu t ion sa nd o ne o f my o wn 2.

T h e v o lum e i sp u rpo se ly d e s igned i n s uch aw ay t h a t a l l t h e p ape r s a r e b a sed o n t h e P h .D . d i s se r ta t ion s o ft h e c on t r ibu to r s , a nd d i v id ed i n to t wo p a r t s ; P a r t Ic ove r s t h e g i s t o ft h e t h e s i s , a nd P a r t Ic ove r st h ec hange sa nd i mp rovem en t sw h ich t h e a u tho r w ou ld h ave m ade i fh e / she w e r e t o d o t h e s am e r e sea rch t oday . T h i s p a r t w a s n o t m anda to ry f o rs cho la r sw ho g o tt h e i rd eg r ee i nl a s t f i ve y ea r s ' . If e l t t h a t av o lum e o ft h i s k ind w i l l p robab ly b e u sefu l t o a l l s t ud en t s o f a r chaeo logy a nd c an b e w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted . T h i s w i l l a l so m ake a va i lab le t o s cho la r s a l l t h e r e sea r ch d one u nde r M i s ra j ii no ne p l ace , a nd a l so g i ve s om ei d ea o ft h e k i nd o f r e sea r ch t h a t h a s b een c a r r ied o u t a tt h e D eccan C o l lege .

T he 1 7 p ape r s b y M i s ra j i 's P h .D . s t uden t s c ove r t h ep e r iod f r om t h eP a laeo l i th ic t ot h e e a r ly h i s to r ic t im e i nI nd ia , a nd o ne p ape r o n t h e e a r ly h i s to r ic p er iod o f B ang ladesh ( Rahman ) . R eg ion -w i se i n I nd ia , t h r ee p ape r s a r e r e la ted t o s ou th ( J aya ra j ,

S ha ik A bdu l Munaf , c o -au tho rw i th J a cob S .J aya R a j i sn o t a s t uden t o fM i s r a j i b u t o fJ a cob w ho d i d t h e l i b ra ry w o rk f o rt h e p ape r .

IT hough s om e a u tho r s h ave f i n i shed t h e i r P h .D . e a r l ie rt h an 5 y ea r s b u t h ave n o t w r i t ten t h e I nd p a r t d ue t o v a r iou s u navo idab le r e a son s .

2

I

R a ju a nd R eddy ) ; t h r ee t o n o r th ( An sa r i , H ogue a nd K ha rakwa l ) ; o ne t oc en t r e ( A lam ) ; f ou rt ow e s t ( Dandeka r , K u ru sh D a la l , M i sh ra a nd T homa s ) ; o ne t o n o r thwe s t ( Ka ty D a la l ) ; a nd t h r ee t o e a s t ( Akh i le sh , B a sak a nd P anda -Roy ) . S un i l G up ta 's p ape r i sn o t l im i ted t o ap a r t icu la r r eg ion . I nt e rm s o f c u l tu r a l p er iod s , f i ve p ape r s a r e r e la ted t o p r eh is to ry i . e .P a leo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic ( Akh i lesh , A lam , B a sak , J aya ra j , a nd R a ju ) ; t h r ee t o P ro toh i s to ry ( Ka ty D a la l , K ha rakwa l a nd M i sh r a ) ; t wo t oP r eh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s to ry t o ge the r( Hogue a nd R eddy ) ; f ou r t oE a r ly H i s to r ic ( Ku ru sh D a la l , D and eka r , G up ta a nd R ahman ) ; o ne t o A r chaeozoo logy ( Thoma s ) ; a nd o ne t o E thnoa r chaeo logy ( An sa r i ) . P anda -Roy 's p ape r c ove r s t h e p e r iod f r om t h e p r eh i s to r ic t ot h e e a r ly h i s to r ic .

o f l i t h ic p a t ter n s .

S haf iqu l A lam r e po r t s t h e t ypo log ica l , t e chno log ica l , f unc t iona l a nd s t y l i s t ic v a r iab i l i ty a mong t h e P a laeo l i th ic s t one t o o l i ndu s t r ie s o f B h imbe tka i n c en t ra l I nd ia o n t h e b a s i s o f a d e ta i led m e t r ica l a na ly s i s . H e a l so a t temp t s t o e xp la in t h e f o rm a t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a t t h es i te .

A nup M i sh ra g i ve s a n a ccoun t o f t h e v a r ied c e r am ic s f ound i n t h e C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s a t B a la tha l , a nd d i scu s se st h ec hange st h rough t im e .

t e chno logy ,

a nd

p r eh i s to r ic

l a ndu se

K a ty D a la l 's p ape r d i scu s se s t h e E a r ly a nd Ma tu r e H a r appan c e r am ic s o f t h e G hagga r ( Sa r a sva t i ) v a l ley w i th s p ec ia l r e f e r ence t ot h e s i t e o fB in jo r . S h e w a s t h e f i r s t p e r son t o d i scove r H ak r a Wa r e s h e rd s i nt h eG hagga rv a l ley . J . S . K h ar akwa l s umma r ize s t h e r e su l t s o f h i s d i scove r ie s o f r o ck a r t , c i s t b u r ia l s a nd a r ch aeom e ta l lu rg ica l s i te s i nt h e K um aun r e g ion o f t h e H im a laya s . H e s ugge s t s t h a t K ha sa s w e r e t h e p robab le a u tho r s o f t h e se b u r ia l s , a nd K umaon p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nt h e d i f fu s ion o fm e ta l t e chno logy a nd u rban iza t ion p roce s s i nt h e G anga V a l ley .

V .R . R eddy r e po r t s h i s d i scove r ie s o f al a rge n umbe r o f Me so l i th ic , N eo l i th ic , a shmound , a nd m ega l i th ic s i t es , a nd e xcava t ion o ft h e a shmound a t P a lavoy i nt h e s em i -a r id r e g ion o fA ndh ra P rade sh . P a lavoy h a s y i e lded a v e ry i n te r e s t ing b one t o o l i n du s t ry .

J a cob J aya ra j a nd A bdu l Munaf d i scu s st h e c u l tu r a l e vo lu t ion d u r ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic p e r iod s i nt h e T irupa t i v a l ley , A ndh ra P rade sh i n t h e c on tex t o f t o pog raph ica l s e t t ing , d r a inage p a t te rn , r aw m a te r ia l a nd o t he r r e sou rce s , a nd u se a na log ie s o f t h e s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s o f t h e Y anad ih un te r -ga the re r sa nd f i she rm en l i v ing i nt h e s am er e g ion .

M .M . H oque 's p ape r g i ve s a n a ccoun t o f t h e s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s d u r ing t h e p r eh i s tor ic a nd p ro toh i s to r ic p e r iod s i n t h e M idd le a nd L ow e r G anga V a l ley i n t h e c on tex t o f l a nd scape , s o i l s , c l im a te , w a te rs ou r ces , f l o ra a nd f a una .

D .R . R a ju 's p ape rs umma r i se s h i s i n ve s t iga t ion s o f t h e r i ch U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te s l o ca ted a l ong p e rmanen t w a te r p oo l s i n t h e G un jana v a l ley i n A ndh ra P rade sh , a nd e xp la in s t h e i r l o ca t ion w i th t h e h e lp o ft h e u se o ft h e s ame w a te rr e sou r ces b y t h eY anad ih un te r -ga the r e r sa nd f i she rm en .

S un i l G up ta w r i tes o n t h e h i s to r iog raph ica l f r am ewo rk o ft h e e a r ly m a r i t ime t r ade i nt h e I nd ian O cean . H e a t temp t s t or e con s t ruc t , p r im a r i ly f r om a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , a spec t s o f s e a b or n e c omme r ce b e tween I nd ia a nd t h eR om an Emp i r e . S . S .M . R ahman a t temp t s ar e con s truc t ion o f t h e c u l tu r a l h i s to ry a nd s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s i n t h e B og ra d i s t r ic t , B ang ladesh d u r ing t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic a nd E a r ly Med ieva l p e r iod s m a in ly o nt h e b a s i so fh i so wn f i e ld w o rk .

B i shnup r iya B a sak e xam ines t h e m ic ro l i th ic s i t e s i n t h e T a raf en i v a l ley i n n o r th -we s t M idnapu r i n Wes t B enga l a nd t e l l s u s a bou t h e r o ngo ing w o rk i nt h e a r ea w h ich f o cu se s o n p r eh i s to r ic l a nd u se p a t ter n s .

K u ru sh D a la l r e po r t s h i s s t udy o ft h e n on -ce r am ic m a t e r ia l r ema in s , i n c lud ing t wo i n te r e s t ing t e r r aco t ta s e a l ing s , f r om E a r ly H i s to r ic B a la tha l . A cco rd ing t o h im B a la tha l , l o ca ted o n an o r th s ou th t r ade r ou te , w a s am a jo r c en t r e o f t h e p roduc t ion o fi r on o b jec t sa nd t h e i rt r ade .

K um a r Akh i le sh r e v iew s t h e p r e sen t s t a tu s o ft h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ' Dam in ' i n du s t r ie s o f t h e B an s lo ir i ve rb a s in , J ha rkhand o nt h e b a s i s o ff i nd s f r om h i s f i e ld w o rk . T he s t udy e xam ine s t h e s t r a t ig raph ic c on tex t o f t h e s i t e s a nd a r tef ac t s , n a tu re o fa r tef ac t a s semb lages , i n te r -s i te v a r iab i l i ty

I

A bh i j i t D andeka r 's p ape r a t temp t s t o u nde r s tand t h e l o ca l t r ad i t ion s o f p o t t e ry s hape s a nd t e chno logy i nt h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod a tB a la tha l i nR a ja s than i nr e la t ion t os u r round ing r e g ion s .

u nd iv ided c oa s ta l d i s t r ic t s o fP u r i a nd G an jam , a nd i n land d i s t r ic t o fS amba lpu r i nO r i s sa o n t h e b a s i s o f g eog raph ica l , a r chaeo log ica l , h i s to r ica l , e t hnog raph ic , a nd l i ngu i s t ic d a ta .

P .K . T homa s w r i te s o n t h e r o le o ff auna l r ema in s i nt h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e s ub s i s tence p a t ter n s o f t h e Me so l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic c ommun i t ies o f w e s ter n I nd ia . H i s s t udy w a s t h e f i r s t i n I nd ia o f t h et o ta l f auna lr em a in s f r om a na r chaeo log ica l s i te ( Bago r ) . H e a l so d i scu s se s t h e m e thodo log ica l a dvances i n a r chaeozoo log ica l r e sea r ch , w i th s p ec ia lr e f e r ence t ow o rk a tt h eD eccan C o l lege .

A l l t h e p ape r s i nt h e v o lum e w e r e s en t t od i f f e r en t r e f e ree s a nd a l l o f w hom h ave b een mo s t c oope ra t ive . It h ank D r s . K i sho re K . B a sa , Ku ldeep K . B han , R av i K o r i se t ta r , M .L .K . Mu r ty , S .B . O ta , V inod N au t iya l , G au tam S engup ta , V .H . S onawan e , a nd R ak e sh T ewa r i f o r s pa r ing t h e i r t im e t or e ad t h e p ape r s a nd g ive t h e i r c omm en t s . I am g ra tef u l t o R av i M i s ra f o r p roof r e ad ing ; S h r i ikan t P r adhaan f o r m ak ing t h e s ke tches o f p rof e sso r s K .N . S ha rma , D .N . Ma jumda r , H .D . S anka l ia a nd V .N . M i s r a ; T rup t i Mo r e f o r a r ch iva l h e lp ; a nd S hah ida A n sa r i f o r l i s ten ing a nd d i scu ss ing e ve ryday o nt h i sv o lum et h rough o u tt h e y ea r .

S hah ida An sa r i h a s a t temp ted ar e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e s e t t lem en t a nd s ub s is ten ce p a t ter n s d u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic -Cha lco l i th ic p e r iod s i n t h e S ou th C en t ra l G anga V a l ley o n t h e b a s i s o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta c o l lec ted b y a r chaeo log is t s o f t h e A l lahabad Un ive r s i ty a nd h e r o wn e x ten s ive f i e ld w o rk a mong t h e p r im i t ive c ommun i t ie s o f K o l s , Mu saha r sa nd Ma l lah so ft h er eg ion .

Ia m g r a tef u l t o J ohn a nd E r ica H edges f o r a g r ee ing t op ub l i sh t h i s v o lume i nt h e BAR s e r ie s a nd b r ing ing i to u ti n as ho r tt ime .

T am a P anda -Roy h a s a t temp ted t ot r ace t h e s oc io c u l tu r a l e vo lu t ion i n t h e a r ea c ove r ed b y t h e

D r .A lok Kuma rK anungo D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te & R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te PUNE —4 11 0 06 , I ND IA Ema i l : a l ok_kanungo @yahoo .com 1 7t hA ugu s t2 005

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L i s to fC on tr ibu tor s 1 .

A lok Kuma rK ammgo D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P os t -G radua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te P une 4 11 0 06 , I ND IA a l ok_kanungo @yahoo .co ln

2 .

K isho rK . B a sa I nd i ra G andh iR a sh tr iya Manav S ang raha laya S ham la H i l ls ,B hopa l4 62 0 13 , I ND IA h omosap ien @sancha rnet in

3 .

P ramod P .J og leka r D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P os t -G radua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te P une 4 11 0 06 , I ND IA p rm jog @yahoo .co . in

4 .

Md . S haf iqu lA lam D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy 2 2 / 1 , B lock -B ,B aba rR oad Mohammedpu r , Dhaka -1207 BANGLADESH a r chaeo logy @agn ion l ine .com

5 .

J a cob S .J aya R a j D ep t . o f An th ropo logy S r iV enka teswa ra Un ive r s i ty T i rupa t i 5 17 5 02 , I ND IA j a cobs j @yahoo .co . in

6 .

S ha ik A bdu l Munaf D ep t . o f An th ropo logy Un iver s i ty o f Hyde rabad Hyde rabad 5 00 0 46 , I ND IA s amunaf 28 @yahoo .co . in

7 .

D . R .R a ju D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy a nd A r ch i tec tu re P .S . T e lugu Un iver s i ty S r isa i lam 5 18 1 01 , Andh ra P rade sh , I ND IA d r ra ju tu @ red if fma i l .com

8 .

B ishnup r iya B asak D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy , C a lcu t ta Un ive r s i ty C /o A . Gup ta , 2 28 K endua Ma in R oad F l 4 02 , K o lka ta 7 00 0 84 , I ND IA mun2000 @v sn l .ne t

9 .

Kuma r Akh i lesh D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy D eccan C o l lege P os t -G radua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te P une 4 11 0 06 , I ND IA

1 0 .

K a ty F e roze D a la l ( n ee K a ty N a r iman F renchman ) 2n d f l oo r , Manga lam H ou se 3 8 , Wa lchand H i rachand Ma rg Mumba i4 00 0 01 , I ND IA k ae tayun @ red if fma i l .com

I V

1 .

J e ewan S . Kha rakwa l I n s t i tu te o fR a jas than S tud ies R a jas than V idyapee th Uda ipu r3 13 0 01 , I ND IA k ha rakwa l@ red if fma i l .com

1 2 .

Anup M ish ra D ep t . o f Anc ien tH is to ry a nd C u l tu re M .J .P . R oh i lkhand Un iver s i ty , B a re i l ly 2 43 0 06 ,U .P . , I ND IA r n ish raanup @ red if fma i l .com

1 3 .

V . R am iR eddy D ep t . o f An th ropo logy C /o Hou se No . 9 80 ,A l ipo re R oad NGOs C o lony ,T i rupa t i 5 17 5 07 , I ND IA v ram i reddy @ho tma i l .com

1 4 .

M .M . H ogue D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy ,J ahang irnaga r Un ive r s i ty S ava r , Dhaka 1 342 , BANGLADESH p awanka r ju @yahoo .com

1 5 .

S un i l Gup ta A l lahabad Mu seum ,A l lahabad 2 11 0 02 , I ND IA s un i lcharu @ho tma i lcom

1 6 .

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Con ten ts E d i tor ia l L i s to fC on t r ibu to r s V .N . M i s ra a tG i lund C on ten t s 1 .

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1 4 . F rom A rchaeo logy o fI ndo -Roman T rade t o I nd ian O cean A rchaeo logy

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1 7 . E a r ly H is to r ic C e ram ics o f Mewa rw i th S pec ia l R ef e rence t oB a la tha l , Uda ipu r , R a ja s than

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V irendra N a th M i sra : A rchaeo log i s ta nd Human B e ing A lok Kuma rK anungo K anpu r . KNS p e r suaded VNM t o s t udy s oc io logy a so ne o fh i s s ub jec t s ( t he o the r sb e ing H is to ry a nd E ng l i sh l i t e r a tu r e ) . VN M p a s sed h i s B .A . e xam ina t ion i n 1 955 i nt h e f i r s t d i v i s ion , t h e o n ly s t uden t i nt h r ee c o l lege s a tK anpu r a tt h a t t im e t o g e t t h i s d i s t inc t ion . I n 1 954 h e p a s sed t h e P ra thama c e r t if ica te e xam ina t ion i nS an sk r i t f r om t h e G ove rnm en t S an sk r i t C o l lege , B ana ra s ( now S ampu rnanand S an sk r i t U n ive r s i ty , V a r ana s i ) . H e s t ood f i r s t a mong a l l t h e s u cce s sf u l s t uden t s a nd w on af ou r -yea r g ove rnm en t s cho la r sh ip t op u r sue f u r the rs t ud ie si nS an sk r i t .

I .B ackground ( Educa t ion ) V i r end ra N a th M i s ra ( VNM ) w a s b o rn o n 1 7t h A ugu s t 1 935 i n af a rm ing f am i ly i n K handau l i v i l lage i nF a r rukhabad d i s t r ic t o fU t ta rP rade sh . I n 1 951 h eb ecame t h e f i r s ts t ud en tf r om h i sv i l lage t o p as sH igh S choo l f r om R a s tog i S choo l ( l a te rK . R . R a s tog i I n te r C o l lege ) , F a r rukhabad . Wh i le s t udy ing f o r h i s I n te rm ed ia te c e r t if i ca te , VNM p r iva te ly s t ud ied f o r t h e V i sharad e xam ina t ion o f H ind i S ah i tya S amme lan , A l lahabad a nd p a s sed i t i nt h ef i r s td iv i s ion .

Af t e r t h e B .A . r e su l t s w e r e o u t , K . N . S ha rma a dv i sed VNM t os t udy A n th ropo logy f o r h i s M .A . a tL ucknow Un ive r s i ty w he re t h e D epa r tmen t w a s h eaded b yt h e r enowned a n th ropo log i s tP rof . D . N . Ma jumda r . A cco rd ing ly , VNM j o ined L ucknow Un ive r s i ty i n 1 955 . I n r e cogn i t ion o f h i s p e rf o rmance a t t h e B .A . e xam ina t ion , h e g o t B u r sa ry s cho la r sh ip o f L ucknow U n ive r s i ty f o r t wo y ea r s . H e p a s sed t h e M .A . e xam ina t ion i n 1 957 i nt h e f i r s td i v i s ion , a nd s t ood f i r s ti no rde ro f m e r i t i nh i s c l a s s . F o rt h is p e rf o rm ance h e w on t h e P and i t J agpa l K r i shna G o ld Meda l . Du r ing t h i s p e r iod h e a l so p a s sed t h e P urva Madhyama e xam ina t ion i n S an sk r i t f r om t h e G over nm en t S an sk r i tC o l lege ,B ana r a s .

V .N . M is ra

Af t e r p a s s ing t h e I n te rm ed ia te e xam ina t ion i n 1 953 , VNM j o ined t h e D .A .V . C o l lege , K anpu r ( t hen a ff i l ia ted t o A g ra Un ive r s i ty ) i n t h e s am e y ea r t o s t udy f o r t h e B .A . d eg r ee . H i s H ind i t e ache r , P t . B rahm anand S ha s t r i , e ncou raged h im t o c on t inue h i s s t ud ie s a nd h e lped h im t o g e t a dm i s s ion i n to t h e c o l lege . A nd t o c on t inue h i s s t ud ie s i nS an sk r i t , as ub jec th e h ad s t ud ied d u r ing t h e I n te rm ed ia te , S ha s t r i j i a r r anged f o r VNM t o j o in aS an sk r i tV idya laya a nd s t ay i ni t sh o s te l . H i s S an sk r i tt e ache r ,t h el a te P t . V a ikun th N a th S ha s t r i , av e ry e rud i te s cho la r a nd a n i n sp i r ing t e ache r , i n t roduced VNM t o h i s s on , K a i la s N a th S ha rma w ho w a s h ead o f t h e D ep t . o f S oc io logy a t t h e DAV C o l lege , a nd l a te r r e t i r ed a s p rof e s so r o f s oc io logy f r om t h e I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fT echno logy ,

K .N . S ha rma

1

Du r ing h i sM .A . c ou r se , VNM , a l ong w i th a l l o the r s t uden t s o f h i s c l as s , c a r r ied o u t t wo w eek s c ompu lso ry f i e ld w o rk i nt h e t r iba l v i l lage o fJ ha ro i n Dudh i t a h s i l o f M i rzapu r d i s tr ic t . I mmed ia te ly a f te r h i s M .A . e xam ina t ion w a s o ve r , Ma jumda r d i spa tched VNM a nd h i s c l as sma te , J . S . B handa r i , t o d o f i e ld w o rk among t h e t r iba l c ommun i t ies i n Dudh i t a h s i l . H e s pen t t wo mon th s ( du r ing May J u ly ) c o l lec t ing d a ta o n s oc ia l a nd e conom ic o rgan iza t ion o f t h e t r ibes l i ke G ond s , Kha rwa r s , C he ros a nd K orwa s , t h e l a s t a n Au s t ro -A s ia t ic s peak ing c ommun i ty a nd o ne o ft h e mos tp r im i t ive t r ibes i nI nd ia .

i n s t i tu ted U .G .C . r e sea rch s cho la r sh ip o fR s . 1 50 / p er mon th . A t L ucknow VNM h ad r e ad V incen t Sm i th 's a r t ic le o nA .C .L . C a r l ley le 's d i scover ies o f Me so l i th ic ma te r ia l a nd r o ck p a in t ing s i nM i rzapu r d i s t r ic t o f U t ta r P radesh ( U .P . ) , a nd G rahame C la rk 's b ook s Me so l i th ic A ge i n B r i ta in a nd Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen to fN or thern E urope , a nd w a s a t t rac ted t ot h is p e r iod . H e w an ted t ow o rk o n t h e Meso l i th ic o fM i rzapu r f o r h i s P h .D . , b u t t oa vo id m i sunde r s tand ing w i th P rof . G .R . S ha rma o f A l lahabad Un iver s i ty , who w a s w o rk ing i n t h e s ame g ene ra l a r ea , S anka l ia a dv i sed VNM t ow o rk i nR a ja s than wh ich w a s v i r tua l ly at e r ra i n cogn i ta f o rp r eh is to ry .

D .N . Ma jumda r H .D . S anka l ia

I . E n try i n to A rchaeo logy : F ie ld Work i n R a jas than A f te r h e r e tu rned f r om f i e ld w ork i n J u ly , VN M w a s a ppo in ted a s al e c tu r e r i n t h e An th ropo logy d epar tmen t , a nd h ad t o t e ach P reh is tor ic A rchaeo logy a nd S oc ia l An th ropo logy t oB .A . a nd M .A . s t uden t s . A s t h e re w a s n o p rope r ly q ua l if ied t e acher t o t e ach p r eh is to ry , Ma jumda r a dv ised VN M t o g o t o D eccan C o l lege ( s hor t f o r D eccan C o l lege P os t -G r adua te & R esea rch I n s t i tu te ) , P une a nd d o P h .D . i np r eh is tory u nde r t h e g u idance o f t h e em inen t a r chaeo log is t , H .D . S anka l ia , a nd c ome b ack t o L ucknow t o t e ach t h is b ranch . A cco rd ing ly , VNM w en tt oP une i nJ une 1 958 o na mon th ly s cho la r sh ip o f R s . 8 0 / - o f f e red b y t h e D eccan C o l lege . A f te r s ome t ime h e g o t t h e n ew ly

VNM p a r t ic ipa ted i n S anka l ia 's e xcava t ion o ft h e C ha lco l i th ic s i te o fN avda to l i i n Madhya P radesh d u r ing D ecembe r , 1 958 , a nd f r om t h e re p roceeded t oC h i t tau rga rh i nR a ja s than i nJ anua ry , 1 959 , a nd e xp lo red P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n t h e G ambh i r i a nd B e rach r i ve r s . F rom C h i t tau rga rh ( Ch i to rga rh ) h e w en t t o P a l i i n w es ter n R a ja s than ( a c ros s t h e A rava l l i h i l ls ) t o e xp lo re t h e r i ve r L un i a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ies . I n t ho se d ay s s t one a ge r e sea rch w a s d one a lmos t e xc lu s ive ly i n r i ve r v a l ley s b ecau se r i ve r s p rov ided n a tu ra l ly e xpo sed g eo log ica l d epos i t s i n wh ich o ne c ou ld f i nd s t one t oo l s a nd a n ima l f o s s i ls i n s t ra t if ied c on tex t s , a nd f r om w h ich o ne c ou ld a t temp t ar e con s t ruc t ion o f p a s t c l ima tes a nd l a ndf onn s . VNM c a r r ied o u t f i e ld

2

VNM r e ca l l s m any e xpe r ience s o fh i s f i e ld w o rk . I n t ho se d ay s t r an spor t s y s tem i n R a ja s than w a s v ery p oo r ly d eve loped . On ly i mpo r tan tt own s w e r e c onnec ted b y b u s , a nd o f ten VNM h ad t ot r ave l b y t r a in a to dd t ime s , i n c lud ing i nt h e n i gh t , a nd w a i t a ts ma l l s t a t ion s t i l l s un r i se t o b e a b le t o w a lk t o t h e r i ve r b ed f o r e xp lo ra t ion . H e w ou ld s t ay i n d haram sha las ( i nn s ) w he r e t h e r oom s o f t en h ad n o d oo r s ,p anchaya t o ff ice s , s choo l s , e t c . L uck i ly , h i s t h ing s w e r e n eve r s t o len a nd t h e p eop le h e m e t w e r e g ene ra l ly v e ry h e lpf u l a nd h o sp i tab le . Mo s t I nd ian s , e spec ia l ly i n r u r a l a r ea s , h ave a p ecu l ia r h ab i t o f m ak ing p e r sona l e nqu i r ie s f r om a ny p e r son t h ey m ee t t h e f i r s t t im e . VNM w a s a l so o f ten a sk ed w ho h e w a s , w he re a nd t ow ha t c a s te h e b e longed , a nd w ha t h e w a s d o ing i n t h e c oun t ry s ide o fR a ja s than . When h e t o ld a bou t h i s s e a r ch f o r p r eh i s to r ic r ema in s a nd h i s e duca t ion , q u i te a f ew p e r son s t h ough t t h a t h e w a s b luff ing ; s om e t hough t t h a t h e w a s l o ok ing f o r h e rba l m ed ic ina l p l an t s . T he p opu la r i mage o f ah i gh ly e duca ted p e r son i nr u ra lI nd ia , a tl e a s ti nt h e 1 950 s , w hen f o r a n e duca ted p e r son f i nd ing e mp loym en t w a s n o t ap rob lem , w a s t h a t h e s hou ld b e h av ing a w e l l -pa id a nd c om f o r tab le j ob i n ac i ty . T he r u ra l p eop le f ound i ti mpo s s ib le t ob e l ieve t h a t ap e r son h o ld ing a nM .A . d eg r ee s hou ld b e w ande r ing a l one t h rough s andy r i ve r b ed s i n s e a son s o f e x t r eme h ea t a nd c o ld . E ven m any w e l l -educa ted p eop le h ave l i t t le i d ea o fa r chaeo logy . O ne s en io re ng inee r o f t h e R a ja s than ( now I nd i ra G andh i ) C ana l d i r ec t ly a sk ed VNM w hy t h e G ove rnm en t w a s w a s t ing money o n an on -p roduc t ive s ub jec t l i ke a r chaeo logy .

w o rk i nt h i s a r ea a sw e l l a st h e v a l ley s o ft h e r i ve r B ana s a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s i n e a s ter n R a ja s than f o r t h ree s ucce s s ive s e a son s a nd d i scove r ed 1 4 L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , 1 8 M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( t he l a t te r mo s t ly i nt h eL un ib a s in ) a nd f ou r Meso l i th ic s i t es , b es ide s e xam in ing an umbe r o fo t he r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s i te s w h ich h ad b een d i scove r ed b y M .N . D e shpande , S .R . R ao a nd K .N . P ur i o ft h e A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia ( AS I ) i nv a l ley s o f t h e C hamba l a nd B ana s r i ve r s a nd t h e i rt r ibu ta r ies a r ound C h i t tau rhga rh . T he a r tef ac tua l m a te r ia l a nd Q ua te rna ry g eo log ica l o b serva t ion s f o rm ed ap ar t o f VNM 's P h .D . d i s se r ta t ion , e n t i t led S t one A ge C u l ture so fR a jpu tana p repa r ed u nde rt h eg u idance o f H .D . S anka l ia a nd s ubm i t ted t o P oona U n ive r s i ty i n J u ly 1 961 . T he d i sse r ta t ion w a s e xam ined b y t h e l a te F .E . Z eune r a nd C .B .M . McBur n ey o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon , a nd C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty , r e spec t ive ly , a nd h e g o t h i s d eg r ee i n 1 962 . Wh i le p r epa r ing h i s d i s se r ta t ion , VNM w ro te a c omp r ehen s ive a r t ic le o n t h e P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t ry o f w e s ter n R a jpu tana ( a s R a ja s than w a s c a l led t h en ) . T h i sw a sp ub l i shed i nV o l . 2 1 o ft h eB u l le t in o ft h eD eccan C o l lege i n1 962 .

VNM w ou ld e a t w ha teve r f ood h e c ou ld g e t . T he w o r s tp rob lem w a so fw a te r ,p a r t icu la r ly i nw e s ter n R a ja s than , w he re s e t t lem en t a r e l o ca ted a t l o ng d i s tances , w a te r i ss c a r ce a nd o f ten b rack ish . O n m any o cca s ion s t h e w a te r t h a t h e c a r r ied t o t h e f i e ld w ou ld r un o u t a nd h e w ou ld b e f o r ced t o d r ink h i gh ly b rack i sh a nd u nc lean w a te r f r om p oo l s i nt h e r i ve r b ed s . Much l a te r h e l e ar n t t h a t t h i s s t agnan t w a te r h a rbou r ed h ookwo rm w h ich w ou ld g e t i n to t h e b ody o f ap e r son a l ong w i th w a te r , g row i n s ide t h e b ody t oc on s ide r ab le l e ng th a nd f i na l ly b u r s t i t s w ay o u t f r om s om e p a r t o ft h e b ody . I t h ad t o b e s l ow ly p u l led o u t c au s ing e no rmou s p a in t o t h e p e r son . B ecau se o f t h e p o l lu ted w a te r t h i s w a s ac ommon a i lm en t i nt h a t p a r t o f R a ja s than . L uck i ly VNM d i d n o t g e t t h i s p a inf u l d i sea se . H e s t i l l r emembe r s t h e j oy a nd e xc i tem en t h e f e l t a f t e rf i nd ing t h e f i r s t s t one t o o l s i nt h e L un i b ed , b ecau se h e w a s n o t a ta l l s u re o f

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I V .P une a ga in Meanwh i le , Un ive r s i ty G ran t s C omm is s ion ( UGC ) c r ea ted a n ew l e c tu re r sh ip ( i n P reh is to r ic A rchaeo logy ) i n P une Un ive r s i ty 's D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy l o ca ted a t t h e D eccan C o l lege a nd h eaded b y S anka l ia . S anka l ia o f f e red t h is j ob t o VNM who g ra tefu l ly a ccep ted i t , a nd a f te r s p end ing o ne a cadem ic y ea r a tL ucknow ,j o ined i t o n 2 6 J u ly , 1 962 . VNM p r ef er red P une t o L ucknow b ecau se o fb e t ter r e sear ch f a c i l i t ies a nd a tmosphe re , a nd a l so b ecau se a f ter Ma jumda r 's d ea th h i s c omm i tmen t f o r L ucknow w a s o ve r . I n 1 968 h e b ecame a R eade r a nd H ead o f t h e D epa r tmen ta nd c on t inued i nt h o se p os ts u n t i l 1 981 when h e j o ined t h e D eccan C o l lege . Du r ing t h is p e r iod , b es ides d o ing t e ach ing a nd r e sea rch , VN M p as sed t h e c e r t if ica te c ou r se e xam ina t ion s i n F rench a nd G e rman f r om P oona Un ive r s i ty a nd Max Mue l le r B havan ( Goe the I n s t i tu te ) , r e spec t ive ly i n 1 966 a nd 1 971 , b o th i n f i r s t d i v i s ion , a nd a l so d i d ac ou r se i nR u ss ian i nP oona Un ive r s i ty .

B es ides t h e h app iness o ff i nd ing s t one t oo ls i nt h e s em i -a r id r eg ion o f Ma rwa r , VNM w as l u cky o n a no the r c oun t . H e h ad g iven c op ies o f h i s d i s ser ta t ion f o r b ind ing t o ab inde r i n D eccan G ymkhana a r ea a nd h ad b rough t t h em b ack o n t h e e ven ing o f 1l t h J u ly 1 961 . E a r ly n ex t mo rn ing t h e n ew ly b u i l t P an she t d am b u r s t a nd l a rge p a r t s o f P oona c i ty , i n c lud ing t h e s hop whe re h e h ad g i ven h i s d i sse r ta t ion f o rb ind ing , w e re s ubme rged u nde r d eep w a te r . H ad h e n o t c o l lec ted t h e c op ies t h e p rev iou s e ven ing , t h ey w ou ld h ave b een w a shed a way b y t h e f l ood , a nd i t wou ld h ave b een a d i sa s te r f o r VN M b ecau se h e w ou ld h ave t o p r epa re t h e d i s ser ta t ion o nce a ga in f o r wh ich h e h ad n o f i nanc ia lr e sou r ces , a nd t h ej ob p rom ised b y Ma jumda ra tL ucknow w i l l a l so b e i nj eopa rdy .

V . F ur ther f i e ld w ork i nR a jas than I mmed ia te ly a f te r j o in ing t h e D eccan C o l lege , VNM s pen t t wo mon th s ( Sep tembe r -Oc tobe r , 1 962 ) a t t h e I nd ian Mu seum , C a lcu t ta , a nd e xam ined a l l t h e s t one a ge c o l lec t ion s t h e re . O f p ar t icu la r i n te res t w ere t h e c o l lec t ion s o f g round s t one t oo ls f r om n o r thea s t I nd ia wh ich w e re t o ta l ly d i f f e ren tf r om t hose o fp en in su la rI nd ia .

r e .

A f te rt h a t h e r e sumed f i e ld w o rk i nR a ja s than , a nd t h is t ime c oncen t ra ted o n t h e B erach b a s in i n Mewa r , p ar t icu la r ly t h e d i s t r ic t s o f U da ipu r , C h i t tau rga rh a nd B h i lwa ra . H e d i scove red a n umbe r o f L ower a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ,

4 1 .4 . r t oo

V .N . M is ra s i t t ing o n ag r ave l c l if f o f t h e R ena r i ve r , P a l i d i s t r ic t , R a ja s than 1 959 .

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Meso l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i t lüc s i te s i nt h e v a l ley s o f t h e B e rach , G ambh i r i a nd Wagan r i ve r s . M ic ro l i th ic s i te s w e r e q u i te c ommon a nd o ccu r r ed o n r o cky g round w he r e r aw m a te r ia l —c r yp to c r y s ta l l ine s i l ica a nd q ua r tz — w a s a va i lab le . C ha lco l i th ic s i te s , wh ich b e longed t o t h e A ha r C u l tu r e , a t t h a t t im e k nown o n ly f r om t h e e xcava ted s i te so fA ha ra nd G i lund , a nd af ew s i te s d i scove r ed b y K .N . P ur i o f t h e A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia ( AS I ) , w e r e l o ca ted b o th a l ong t h e r i ve r b ank s a nd a way f r om t h em . T he se w e r e c ha rac te r ized b y , a mong o the r e l em en t s , p a in ted B lack -and -Red Wa r e ( BR W ) , T an Wa r e , wh ich h ad d i s t inc t H a rappan a ff in i ty , a nd a T h in R ed Wa r e ,a l lo fv e ry h i gh q ua l i ty .

T i lwa ra i n B a rm e r d i s t r ic t i n w e s te rn R a ja s than , a nd B ago ri nB h i lwa ra d i s t r ic ti ne a s te rn R a ja s than . A st r ia l d ig s a tt h ese s i te s p roved p rom i s ing , i nt h e f o l low ing f ou r y ea r s VNM e xcava ted t h em o n a l a rge r s c a le j o in t ly w i th t h e D epa r tm en t o f A r chaeo logy a nd Mu seum s o f t h e R a ja s than G ove rnm en t ,J a ipu r . V I I I . E xcava t ion a tT i lwara T he s i te o fT i lwa ra i sl o ca ted o n al ow s and d une a bou t t wo km a way f r om t h e s ou ther nb ank o ft h e L un ir i ve ra tt h ee a s ter ne dge o ft h eT ha rd e se r t . T o r e ach t h e s i te t h e e xcava t ion t e am m embe r s ( c omp r i s ing VNM , C .G . P adva l a nd L ak shaman Ma ta l f r om P une , a nd V i jay K uma r a nd H .C . M i sh ra f r om J a ipu r ) h ad t o t r ave l b y t r a in t o B a lo t ra a nd f r om t h e r e w a lk s eve r a l km t h rough t h e w ide s andy b ed o ft h e r i ve r a nd w ade t h rough t h e w ide s t r e tch o fs ha l low w a te rw h ich w a s b i t ing c o ld i nw in te r . F o ra l lt h ep u r cha se so ne m embe ro f t h et e am h ad t og ot oB a lo t r aa tl e a s tt w ice aw eek . T h et e am s t ayed i nt h e G ove rnm en tD ak B unga low a nd h ad t ow a lk a bou tt h r ee km t ot h es i te a nd b ack e ve ry d ay . T he s i te wh ich h ad ad epo s i t o fo n ly 6 0 c m y i e lded a r i ch a nd h igh ly e vo lved g eom e t r ic m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t ry m ade o n c he r t a nd q ua r tz i n t h e l owe r l e ve l s a nd m ic ro l i th s a s soc ia ted w i th w hee l m ade p o t te ry a nd i r on t o o ls i n t h e u ppe r l e ve l s . T he e v idence s howed t h a t i nt h i sb ackwa te r r e g ion u se o fm ic ro l i th s p e r s i s ted w e l l i n to h i s to r ic p e r iod .

V I .E xp lora t ion i nU .P . Du r ing 1 964 -65 VNM a na lyzed t h e m a te r ia l f r om R a ja s than f i e ld w o rk a nd w ro te s eve ra l a r t ic le s f o r d i f f e r en t j ou rna l s ( s ee l i s t o f p ub l ica t ion s i n P .P . J og leka r 's p ape r ) a nd a monog raph e n t i t led P re a nd P ro toh i s to ly o ft h e B erach B a s in , S ou thea s t R a ja s than , wh ich w a s p ub l i shed b y t h e D eccan C o l lege i n 1 967 . H e a l so p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e p r eh i s to r ic e xp lo ra t ion s i nt h e N a rmada v a l ley a nd i n t h e e xcava t ion s a t t h e N eo l i th ic s i t e o f T ekka lako ta i nK a rna taka a nd t h ee a r ly h i s to r ic s i te o f T r ipu r i i n Madhya P rade sh , a l l u nde r t h e l e ade r sh ip o f H .D . S anka l ia . D u r ing t h e s umm e r v aca t ion ( May -June ) w hen VNM u sed t og o t oh i s h om e i n U .P . , h e e xp lo red s eve ra l s i tes o f t h e e n igma t ic c oppe r h oa rd s a s w e l l P a in ted G r ey Wa r e ( Pa VV ) a nd l a te r c u l tu re s i n H a rdo i , F a r ru ld iabad , S hah jahanpu r , a nd K anpu r d i s t r ic t s . T h rough e nqu i r ie s f r om l o ca lp e r son s h e f ound o u t t h a t c oppe r h oa rd s a ts i te s l i k e D haka , S a r thau l i , I nd i lapu r , S heo ra jpu r , N ak r ah iya a nd Madnapu r w e r e f ound d u r ing a c t iv i t ie s l i k e p l ough ing , c ana l d i gg ing , g round l e ve l ing , a nd j u s t c a sua l d i gg ing , a nd t h ey w e r e n o t a s soc ia ted w i th h ab i ta t ion s i te s . H ea l so e xp lo r ed PG W a nd r e la ted s i te sa tK amp i l , F a r rukhabad , a nd S ank isa i nF a r rukhabad d i s t r ic t , J a jmau i nK anpu r d i s t r ic t , a nd S hampu r i nH o rdo i d i s t r ic t .

I X .E xcava t ion a tB agor T he s i te o fB ago r i sl o ca ted o n al ow d une o n t h e l ef tb ank o ft h e K o tha r i r i ve r , a bou to ne km e a s t o f t h e l a rge v i l lage o f B ago r . T he s i te i sk nown a s Maha sa t i b ecau se R a jpu t w om en c omm i t ted s a t i ( immo la ted t h em se lve s o n t h e p y r e s o f t h e i r h u sband s ) h e r e a nd S h iva s h r ine s h ave b een b u i l t o n t ho se s po t s . W i th t h e h e lp o f S a tya P raka sh , D i rec to r o fA r chaeo logy a nd Mu seum s , R a ja s than , t h e e xcava t ion t e am ( c omp r i s ing s am e m embe r s a s a t T i lwa ra ) g o t a ccommoda t ion i n t h e M ica We lf a r e C en t r e i n s ide t h e v i l lage . Mang i L a l S ha rma , al o ca l C ong r e s s w o rke r a nd a v e ry r e sou rcef u l p e r son , w a s o fg r ea t h e lp i na r rang ing l a bou r a nd s o lv ing a l l k ind s o f p rob lem s . A t h i s i n i t ia t ive t h e w o rke r s i nt h e e xcava t ion w ou ld h o s t af e a s t o f t r ad i t iona l Mewa r i d i she s , wh ich t h ey t h em se lve s p repa r ed , t ot h e e xcava t ion t e am a tt h e e nd o f e ach s e a son 's e xcava t ion , a nd l a te r w ou ld c a r ry t h e t e am i n ap roces s ion t h rough t h e v i l lage a ccompan ied b y mu s ic a nd t h row ing o f c o lou r . VNM g e t sn o s ta lg ic wh i le r e ca l l ing t h ea f f ec t ion o f

V I I .E xp lora t ion i n Gu jara ta nd R a ja s than I n 1 966 VNM a nd L .S . L eshn ik o ft h e H e ide lbe rg Un ive r s i ty , We s t G e rmany c a r r ied o u t e x ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion s i n R a ja s than a nd G u ja ra t , m a in ly t o t e s tL e shn ik 's h ypo the s i st h a te a r ly a g r icu l tu r em ay h ave b egun i n t h e f oo th i l l r e g ion o f t h e A rava l l i moun ta in s . D u r ing t h e e xp lo r a t ion s , a pa r t f r om m any s ma l l m ic ro l i th ic a nd l a te r s i tes , t h ey d i scove r ed t wo i mpo r tan t Me so l i th ic s i te s a t

5

t h e s imp le v i l lage p eop le . S ome t wen ty y ea r s l a te r , w hen , a l ong w i th s om e o f h i s c o l league s o f t h e B a la tha le xcava t ion , h e v i s i ted B ago ra ga in , h ew a s m obbed b y t h e w o rk e r s w ho s pon taneou s ly l i f ted h im a nd d anced w i th j oy .

b on e b ead s . A nd f i na l ly , t h ey c ame i n to c on tac t w i th i r on u s ing p eop le a nd l e a rn t t h e u se o f i r on t o o l s a nd w eapon s a nd w hee lm ade p o t te ry . I ti sb y t h i s p roces s t h a t mo s t o fI nd ia 's s t one a ge h un te r g a the r e r s h ave b een a s s im i la ted i n to t h e m a in s t r eam s oc ie ty .

T he s i te w a s e xcava ted o ve r a n a r ea o fa bou t 2 20 s qmf o rt h r ee y ea r s ( 1968 -70 ) , e ach y ea rf o ra bou t t h r ee m on th s . B ago rr ema in st h e l a rge s t Me so l i th ic s i te e xcava ted s of a ri nI nd ia .

X . S r iL anka I n 1 969 VNM p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e S econd I n ter na t iona l C onf e rence o f A s ian A r chaeo logy o rgan ized b y t h e S r i L ankan G ove rnm en t 's D epar tmen t o f A r chaeo logy a t C o lombo , a nd p r e sen ted a p ape r o n h i s w o rk a tB ago r . H e w a s a l so a b le t ov i s i tt h e f amou s S r i L ankan Me so l i th ic s i te s o fB e l i L ena A thu la , B e l i L ena K i tuga la , a nd B a tadomba L ena , a nd m ade f r i end sh ip w i th S i ran D e ran iaga la w ho l a te r d i s t ingu i shed h im se lf a st h e l e ad ing a r chaeo log i s t o f S r i L anka . VNM a ga in v i s i ted S r i L anka i n 1 990 t o p a r t ic ipa te i n t h e i n ter n a t iona l c onf e r ence o rgan ized b y t h e D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy o f t h e S r i L anka G ove rnm en t t o c e leb ra te t h e c en tena ry o f i t s f ounda t ion .

VNM r e ca l l s t h a t t h ey u sed t op r epa r e t h e s i te f o r p ho tog raphy t h e p r ev iou s e ven ing , a nd n ex t m o rn ing i nt h e c h i l ly w in te r h e w i l l r e ach t h e s i t e b ef o r e s un r i se t o t a k e p ho tog raph s b ef o r e l o ng s hadow s f e l l o n t h e e xcava ted t r ench . L ak shman Ma ta l w a s a n e xce l len t c ook a nd a n e x t rao rd ina ry p e r son . H e d e r ived g r ea tes t h app ine s s b y m ak ing o t he r p eop le h appy . H e w ou ld e n te r ta in e ve ry v i s i to rt ot h e c amp w i th t e a a nd s nack s . S ome t ime s h e w ou ld c a r ry e ven ing s nack s t o t h e s i te a nd w ou ld m ee tt h et e am m idway a si tw a sr e tur n ing t o t h e c amp . H e w ou ld i n s i s t t h a t t h e t e am m embe r s e a tt h es nack sa t aw e l li n af i e ld l e s tt h ey g e tc o ld .

X I . Hom iB habha F e l low sh ip a nd E urope I n 1 970 VNM w a s a wa rded a H om i B habha F e l low sh ip t o s t udy E u ropean p r eh i s to ry . H e v i s i ted al a rge n umbe ro fa r chaeo logy d epa r tm en t s , mu seum s a nd e xcava t ion s , s t ud ied s t one t o o l c o l lec t ion s , a nd m e t m any l e ad ing a r chaeo log is t s i n I s rae l , I t a ly , F rance , G e rm any , U .K . , t h e N e the r land s , D enma rk , a nd C zecho s lovak ia . H e g ave l e c tu re s o nI nd ian p r eh i s to ry a ts eve ra lp l ace s , a nd p a r t ic ipa ted i nF ranco i s B o rde s ' e xcava t ion a t P ech d e l 'Aze a nd H en ry d e L um ley 's e xcava t ion a t G ro t te d e L aza r e t i n F r ance . A s F r ench p r eh is to ry i s l a rge ly c ave p r eh is to ry , i n F rance VNM w a s o f ten a sk ed w he the rt h e r e w e r e c ave s i n I nd ia , a nd i fs o , h e s hou ld l o ok f o r e v idence o f p r eh is to r ic o ccupa t ion t h e r e . H e r e tur n ed t o I nd ia w i th a d e te rm ina t ion t o l o ok f o r a nd e xcava te a c ave s i te . O n c omp le t ion o f t h e f e l low sh ip VNM p r epa r ed amonog raph o n Me so l i th ic A ge i nI nd ia , a nd s ubm i t ted i tt o H om i B habha F e l low sh ip s C ounc i l .

T he c u l tu ra l s equence o ft h e s i t e w a s d i v ided i n to t h r ee p ha se s . P ha se Iy i e lded am ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry , a n ima l b on e s , a nd o ne h uman b u r ia l c on ta in ing a n a du l ts k e le ton l a id i na ne x tended p o s i t ion . P ha se I y i e lded , b e s ide s m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry a nd a n ima l b one s , h andmade a nd p oo r ly b aked p o t te ry d eco ra ted w i th i n c i sed d e s ign s , a nd t h r ee h uman b u r ia l s w i th t h e b ody b u r ied i n af l exed p o s i t ion . W i th t h e b u r ia l s c oppe r o b jec t s , c omp le te c l ay p o t s , b ead s o fs em i -p r ec iou s s t one s a nd b one , a nd a n ima lb ones , o r ig ina l ly p robab ly p l aced a sc hunk s o f m ea t , w e r e f ound a s o f f e r ing s . I n P ha se I I m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry a nd a n ima l b one s d ec l ined i n q uan t i ty , a nd w hee l m ade p o t te ry o f t h e e a r ly h i s to r ic p er iod a nd i r on t o o l s a ppea r ed . B ago r w a s t h e f i r s t a r chaeo log ica l s i te i n I nd ia f r om w h ich e n t i r e a n ima l b one m a te r ia l w a s c o l lec ted . I tw a s s y s tem a t ica l ly s t ud ied b yP .K . T hom a sw ho g o th i s P h .D . d eg r ee o nt h es t udy . B ago r h a s p rov ided e xce l len t e v idence o f t h e p roce s s o f a ccu l tu ra t ion i n p r eh i s to ry . T he f i r s t s e t t le r s a tt h e s i te w e re p r ima r i ly h un te r -ga the r e r s , b u t w e r e a l so h e rd ing s h eep /goa t a nd b r eed ing c a t t le . W i th t h e p a s sage o ft ime t h e r o le o fh un t ing d ec l ined a nd t h a to fd om e s t ic a n im a l si n c r ea sed . A t al a te rs t age t h e h un te r -ga the r e r s c am e i n to c on tac t w i th s e t t led f a rm ing p eop le f r om w hom t h ey o b ta ined p o t te ry , c oppe r o b jec t s , a nd s t one a nd

X I I .B h imbe tka Af t e r h i s r e tur n f r om E u rope VNM w a s c on t inuou s ly t h ink ing o f e xcava t ing a s t one a ge c av e s i te . T he o ppo r tun i ty c am e i n1 972 w hen V .S . Wakanka r , w ho h ad d i scove red t h e s i te o f B h imbe tka i n 1 957 , w an ted t o e xcava te i ta nd r e que s ted H .D . S anka l ia f o r D eccan C o l lege t o c o l labo ra te i nt h e p ro jec t . S anka l ia a sked VNM t o

6

u nde r tak e t h e e xcava t ion o n b eha lf o ft h e D eccan C o l lege .

s t one a ge h un te r -ga the r e r s i n hab i ted t h e a r ea f o r a t l e a s t ah und r ed t h ou sand y ea r sa nd p robab ly m o r e . Wakanka r a nd Y a shodha r Ma thpa l , w ho c a r r ied o u t c omp r ehen s ive s t ud ies o f t h e r o ck a r t o f t h e s i te , c l a s s if i ed t h e s he l te r s i n to a t h r ee t ie red s chem e . T he f i r s tt i e rc on s i s t s o fe i gh tm a in g roup s o r a r ea s w h ich h ave b een n umbe r ed I -V I I I . E ach a r ea h a s b een d i v ided i n to s uba rea s o r c l u s te r s w h ich h ave b een n umbe r ed A , B , C , e t c . A nd i n e ach c l u s te rt h e s h e l te r s h ave b een n umbe r ed 1 ,2 , 3 ,e t c . T hu s e ach s he l te rb ea r s at h r ee t ie r n umbe r , f o r e xamp le , I IF -23 . I n 1 972 V .S . Wakanka r b egan e xcava t ion a t t h e s i te a nd d ug i n s eve ra l s he l te r s f o r f i ve s e a son s . I n 1 973 V .N . M i s ra , a s s i s ted b y r e sea r ch s cho la r s Y a shodha r Ma thpa l , P .K . T hom a s , S .C . N anda , D .R . R a ju , Ma ldd ian L a l a nd N ived i ta B oga , a nd s eve ra l m embe r s o ft h e t e chn ica l s t af f , s t ar ted e xcava t ion a nd d ug t h ree s he l te r s , n am e ly I IF -23 , I IF -13 , a nd IB -33 f o r f i ve s e a son s .

Ap a r t o fB h imbe tka h i l l , t h e s he l t e r s a r e a tt h e b o t tom o ft h e m ono l i th ic r o ck s 1 973

B h imbe tka ( 70 ° 3 7 ' E : 2 2° 5 0 ' N ) i sn am e o f ah i l l a nd a r chaeo log ica l s i te c omp lex i nR a i sen d i s t r ic t o f Madhya P rade sh . T he n am e i s d e r ived f r om B h ima , o ne o f t h e P andava h e roe s o f t h e Mahabha ra ta e p ic , w ho , a cco rd ing t o l o ca l b e l ief , s p en t s om e t im e i nt h e c ave s o nt h e h i l l d u r ing t h e p er iod o ft h e i r e x i le . T he h i l l i ss i tua ted a bou t 4 5 km s ou th o f B hopa l a nd 3 5 km n o r th o f H o shangabad , a nd a bou tt wo km s ou th o ft h et r iba l v i l lage o f B h iyanpu r w h ich i s l o ca ted o n t h e s ou the rn s i de o f t h e Mumba i -De lh i r a i l l i ne a nd h i ghway r unn ing p a ra l le l t o i t .T he h i l l p o s se s se s o ve r 2 00 c ave s a nd r o ck sh e l te r s , s om e o f w h ich c on ta in e v idence o fo ccupa t ion b y s t one a ge m an a nd a lmo s t a l o f t h em c on ta in p a in t ing s d a t ing f r om t h e s t one a ge t o h i s to r ica l p e r iod . S eve r a l o t he rh i l ls i nt h ev i c in i ty o fB h imbe tka a l so c on ta in c av e s a nd r o ck she l te r s a nd t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f t h e se i n t h e a r ea i s o ve r 1 000 . T he c ave s a nd r o ck she l te r s h ave b een f o rm ed b y n a tu ra l w ea ther ing i n t h e s of t V indhyan s and s tone . T he h i l l s a nd v a l ley s a r e c ove r ed b y af a i r ly t h ick d ry d ec iduou s v ege ta t ion , w h ich c on ta in s o ve r 3 0 s p ec ie s o ft r ee s , p l an t s a nd c r eepe r s h av ing e d ib le l e ave s , f l owe r s , f r u i t s , s e ed s , r oo t s a nd t u be r s . T he f o r e s t a l so h a rbou r s ar i ch w i ld l if e , i n c lud ing h e rb ivo r es a sw e l l a sc ar n ivo r e s . As e a sona l s t r eam f l ow s b y t h e e a s ter ne dge o ft h e h i l l a nd an umbe r o fp e r enn ia l s p r ing s a r e f ound i nt h e v i c in i ty o ft h e h i l l . T he s t r eam a nd t h e s p r ing s m ee t t h e w a te r n eed s o fh uman a s w e l l a s a n ima l ( bo th w i ld a nd d om es t ica ted ) p opu la t ion s . T he t r iba l p eop le , m a in ly G ond s , p r inc ipa l i n hab i tan t s o f t h e a r ea , e x ten s ive ly e xp lo i t t h e w i ld p l an t f ood r e sou rces . B h imbe tka t hu s h a s a l t h e i n g r ed ien t s —f ood , w a te r a nd s h e l te r —r e qu i r ed t o s u s ta in ah un t ing g a the r ing w ay o f l i f e , a nd i ti sn o s u rp r i se t h a t

VNM 's c amp w a s l o ca ted i n s ide t h e f o re s t a tt h e f oo t o ft h e h i l l . I n t h e e ven ing s t h e c amp i nma tes w ou ld s i t a r ound a b ig f i re a nd h ave l i ve ly d i scu s s ion s o n v a r iou s a r chaeo log ica l t o p ic s i n a v e ry t r anqu i l a tmo sphe r e . T he r e w a s q u i te ab i t o f w i ld l if e i nt h e f o r e s t , a nd s amba r , n i lga i a nd w i ld b oa r w ou ld o f t en v i s i t t h e c amp . T he re w a s a l so a l a rge t r oupe o fl a ngu r s w ho se a g i le j ump ing o nt h e t r ee s a nd o the r a spec t s o f b ehav iou r t h e c amp i nma te s o f ten g o t t o w a tch . S nake s , i n c lud ing c ob ra s , p o sed a s e r iou s d ange r a nd o cca s iona l ly p y thon s w e r e a l so s i gh ted . S co rp ion s w e r e v e ry c ommon a nd ab ig n u i sance , a nd i nt h e e ven ing s w hen e xcava t ion t e am s a t d own o n ac a rpe t t o c a ta logue t h e d ay 's f i nd s , t h ey w ou ld m ake ar i ng o f DDT a r ound t h e c a rpe t t op r even t t h e s co rp ion s f r om c r aw l ing o nt oi t .H oney b ees f r om n ume rou s b eeh ive sw e r ea l so ab i gn u i sance .

O ne o ft h e s h e l te r s a tB h imbe tka o ve r look ing t h e g r een v a l ley 1 974

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T he s i te w a s l o ca ted a bou t t wo km f r om t h e r oad . T he e xcava t ion t e am h ad n ot r an spor t o ft h e i r own . T hey wou ld t r ave l b y t r a in f r om P une t o H oshangabad a nd b y ag ove rnmen t b u s f r om t h e re t o Bh iyanpu r , a nd t h en w a lk t h et wo km d i s tance t o

l o ca l H ind i n ew spape r s a s w e l l a s f u l l leng th a r t ic les b y VNM i nt h e I nd ian E xpre ss D a i ly a nd D harmayug , ap re s t ig iou s H ind i w eek ly , d id a l o t t op opu la r ize t h e s i te . F o re ign p res s a l so g ave al o t o fc ove rage t or ock p a in t ing s .

t h e s i te . B h iyanpu r , b e ing as ma l l s e t t lemen t o fn o c on sequence , w a s n o t ar e gu la r b u s s t op , a nd t h e d r ive rw i l l s t op t h eb u s o n ly o nt h e t e am m embe r s ' r eques t . T he l a ndma rk f o r a l igh t ing f r om t h e b u s w a s t h e r a i lway g a te . S ome t im es t h e m embe r s a r r ived l a te i nt h e n igh t a nd t h e i rg ues s f o rl o ca t ing t h e g a te t u rned o u t t o b e m is judged . O n s uch o cca s ion s t h e b u s w i l l o ver shoo t t h e g a te a nd t h e m embe r s w i l l h ave t o w a lk a head o r b ack t o i t . T here w a s n o w e l l -def ined p a th t o t h e h i l l , a nd t h e re w e re o cca s ion s when s ome o f t h e t e am m ember s wou ld f o rge t t h e p a th a nd g e t l o s t f o r h ou r s a nd e ven tua l ly l o ca te t h e c amp w i th t h e h e lp o f t h e wh i te c o lou r o f t h e c amp t e n t s . T he t e am m ember s w i l l l e ave t h e i r b aggage i nc ha rge o ft h e r a i lway g a teman , who w a s mo s t c oope ra t ive , a nd s end o ne o ft h e w o rke r s i nt h e mor n ing t ob r ing i t t ot h e c amp . Wr i t ten i n s t ruc t ion st ot h is e f f ec tw e re s en tt oa l l wou ld b ev i s i to r st ot h e s i te . F o rc a r ry ing t h e c amp e qu ipmen t f r om t h e r oad t ot h e c amp t h e t e am w i l l h i re b u l lock c a r t s . F o r t h e c a r t t o r e ach

I l u n tc r s a nd t h e i r g ame , Meso l i th ic p a in t ing s a t B h imbe tka 1 975

Al a rge n umbe ro fa r chaeo log i s t s f r om u n ive r s i t ie s a nd o the r i n s t i tu t ion s v i s i ted t h e s i te d u r ing e xcava t ion s a nd s ome p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h em . T he v i s i tor s i n c luded H .D . S anka l ia , B .B . L a l , M .N . D eshpande , G .R . S ha rma , D .P . A g rawa l , S .P . Gup ta , T .C . S ha rma , V .D . M isra , R .K . V a rma , K .T . R eddy a nd K .C . T r ipa thy . F o re ign a r chaeo log is t s , who v i s i ted t h e e xcava t ion s , i n c luded p rof e sso r s H en ry a nd M -A . d e L um ley a nd D r . J .R . L ukac s . I n D ecembe r 1 978 , a bou t 5 0 a r chaeo log is t s f r om Nor th Amer ican , E u ropean ,

t h e c amp t h et e am h ad t or emove l o t so fr o ck s f r om t h e p oo r ly d ef ined t r ack . T hey w ou ld m a rk t h e t r ack o n b o th s i des b y p a in t ing s e lec ted r o ck s i n wh i te a s ag u ide f o rt h em se lves a nd t h ev i s i to r s . F o rw a te rt h e t e am d epended o n t h e n a la ( s ea sona l s t r eam ) . A f te r i td r ied u p i n F eb rua ry - Ma rch , t h e e xcava to r s w ou ld d ig aw e l l i n i t s b ed . T he w a te r w a s n o t v e ry c l ean a nd h ad t o b e b o i led f o r c on sump t ion . F o r tuna te ly , n one o f c amp i nma tes ( t he re w ou ld b e 1 5 -20 o ft h em a ta ny t ime ) n o ra ny o f t h e h und r ed s o f v i s i to r s , i n c lud ing f o r e igne r s , d eve loped a ny s t omach p rob lem .

A f r ican , a nd P ac if ic c oun t r ies , who h ad c ome t o I nd ia t op ar t ic ipa te i nt h e I n ter n a t iona l c onf e rence o f An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c ience s a t N ew D e lh i a nd I ndo -Pac if ic P reh is tory A ssoc ia t ion s ympo s ium o n I ndo -Pac if ic p r eh i s to ry a t D eccan C o l lege , P une , v i s i ted t h e s i te . B ecau se o f i t s s e t t ing i n af o res t , c ompa ra t ive ly e a sy a ccess ib i l i ty , r i ch r o ck a r t , a nd v i s i t s o fm any s cho la r s d u r ing h i s e xcava t ion s , VNM r e ga rd s B h imbe tka a s t h e mo s t m emo rab le o fh i s e xcava t ion c amp s .

T he t e am w ou ld b e c amp ing a t t h e s i te f o r 2 3 mon th s e very y ea r . A s t h e n ew s o ft h e e xcava t ion s t ar ted a ppea r ing i nt h e p r es s , p eop le f r om B hopa l a nd o the r n ea rby p l aces s t a r ted v i s i t ing t h e s i te , p a r t icu la r ly o n S unday s a nd o the r h o l iday s . On t h ese d ay s s ome o ft e am m embe r sw ou ld d oub le u p a s g u ides a nd w i l l s pend s eve ra l h ou r s i n g iv ing l e s son s i n e l emen ta ry p reh is tory , e xp la in ing t h e e xcava t ion a nd s t one t oo ls , a nd s how ing t h e f a r f l ung p a in ted s he l te r st ot h ev i s i to r s . T h is o fc ou r se i n te rf ered w i th t h e e xcava t ion w o rk b u t a s a r chaeo log is t s t h e e xcava to r s d i d n o t m ind t h e s a cr if ice b ecau se i th e lped i nc r ea t ing a na wa renes s a bou t a r chaeo logy . R epor ts a bou tt h e e xcava t ion i n

T he m a jo r f i nd ing s o f t h e e xcava t ion s i n t h ree s he l te r sa r eb r ie f ly s umma r ized b e low . X I Ia . I I F -23 An a r ea o f5 2 s q . mw a s e xcava ted i nt h is s he l te r , a nd a m ax imum d epos i t o f 3 . 80 m w a s e ncoun te red . T he s he l te r y i e lded a n u nb roken c u l tu ra l s equence f r om L a te A cheu l ian t o t h e t r an s i t ion f r om Meso l i th ic t o C ha lco l i th ic a nd f i na l ly t oI r on A ge .

8

L ay e r s 1 3 y i e lded Me so l i th ic m a te r ia l . L aye r 1 p roduced ag eom e t r ic m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry m ade o n c ha lcedon ic s i l ica , as ma l l q uan t i ty o f q ua r tz i te f l ak e s , b l ades a nd m ic rob lade s , h amm e r s , g r inde r s a nd q ue rn s o fb a sa l t , o cca s iona l s t one b ead s , s ma l l q uan t i ty o fh i gh ly f r agm en ta ry p l a in r e d a nd g r ey p o t te ry , a nd r a r e b one p i ece s . L aye r 2h ad c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l s im i la rt ol a ye r 1b u t w i thou t p o t te ry a nd b ead s , a nd i t s s t on e i n du s t ry w a sr i che rt h an t h a t o f l a y e r 1 .I n l a ye r 3t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry w a s q uan t i ta t ive ly s ma l le r .

d epo s i t o f a bou t 6 0 c m . F ou r l a ye r s w e r e r e cogn ized i n t h e d epo s i t a nd i n t h e u ppe r t h ree l a ye r s an umbe r o f a shy p a tches o f 2 5 -30 c m d i ame te r w e r e o b served . T he t op t wo l a ye r s w e r e r i ch i nm ic ro l i th s a nd c on ta ined p l a in g r ey a nd r e d p o t she rd s . M ic ro l i th s w e r e f ewe ri nl a ye r s 3 -4 , a nd p o t te ry w a s a b sen t . T he m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry o ft h i s s he l te r d i f f e r s f r om t h a t o fI IF -23 b y t h e a b sence o fl a rge b l ade s . O ne i n comp le te a nd p oo r ly p r e se rved h uman b u r ia l , l a id i n af l exed p o s i t ion , w a s f ound i nl a ye r 2 . A s e cond b u r ia l c on s i s ted o f o n ly a f ew f r agm en t so ft h e s ku l l .

L aye r 4h ad n o m ic ro l i th s b u t c on ta ined q ua r tz i te f l ak e s ,b l ade sa nd s c rape r so fU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic o r l a te M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t y pe . L aye r 5y i e lded a t y p ica l M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage c omp r i s ing L eva l lo i s f l ake s , b l ade s , aw ide v a r ie ty o f s i de s c r ape r s , af ew e nd s c rape r s a nd r a r e b i f ace s . L ay e r s 6 -8 y i e lded a t y p ica l L a te A cheu l ian a s semb lage .

X I Ic . S he l ter IB -33 T h i s s he l te r i s l o ca ted a bou t o ne km t o t h e s ou thea s t o ft h e m a in B h imbe tka h i l l . I th ad o n ly Me so l i th ic d epo s i t w h ich w a s n ea r ly 1 . 50 m t h ick a nd c on s i s ted o ff i ve l a ye r s . L aye r s 1 2 y i e lded a m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry a nd p l a in g r ey a nd r ed p o t she rd s . L aye r 3 y i e lded a r i ch m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry , a nd C ha lco l i th ic p o t she rd s , t h e l a t te ro n ly i n t h e u ppe r p a r t . Two h uman b u r ia ls , l a id i n a n e x tended p o s i t ion ,w e r e f ound i nt h i sl a ye r . L aye r4 h ad n o p o t te ry a nd f ewe r m ic ro l i th s . I ty i e lded t h r ee h um an b u r ia l s .

P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s a r e m ade o f o r thoqua r tz i te . H eavy d u ty t o o l s , l i ke b i f aces , w e r e m ade o ft ough ,d a rk q ua r tz i te w h i le l i gh td u ty t oo l s l i ke s c rape r s a nd p o in t s , w e r e m ade o f s of t , y e l low i sh q ua r tz i te . T he A cheu l ian i n du s t ry i s d om ina ted b y f l ake t o o ls l i k e s c rape r s , p o in t s , a nd d en t icu la tes w h ich a ccoun t f o r n ea r ly 8 % o ft h e c o l lec t ion w h i le b i f ace s c on s t i tu te o n ly 1 2% . T h e r a t io o fc l eave r st oh andaxe si s3 : 1 . A l lt h ec l eave r s a nd mo s to ft h eh andaxe s a r e m ade o n f l ake s . O ve r 1 2% o f a l l f l ak e s a r e m ade b y t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique . T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t ry d ev e lop s i n s i tu o u t o f t h e A cheu l ian , a nd i s c ha rac te r ized b y av a r ie ty o f f l ake t o o l s l i ke s c r ape r s , p o in t s , d en t icu la te s a nd n o tche s t h ough b i f aces c on t inue i nt h e e a r ly p ha se . T he L eva l lo i s t e chn ique c on t inue s t o b e d om inan t b u t as i zab le p ropor t ion o ft h e s c rape r s a r e m ade o n n a tu ra l f l a t p i ece s o fr o ck . T he U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod i sa c on t inua t ion o f , b u t s hor te r t h an , t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . I t s s i gn if ican t n ew f e a tu re s a r e ah igh p e r cen tage a nd m o r et yp ica ln a tu r e o fe nd s c rape r s , a nd t h e a ppea rance o f s ho r t , t h in b l ade s , m ic rob lade sa nd o cca s iona lb u r in s .

T h is s he l te r h ad t h e m ax imum Me so l i th ic d epo s i t a tB h imbe tka , a nd t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry s howed e vo lu t ion i n r e spec t o f r educ t ion i n t h e s i ze o f b l ade s a nd mo re s y s tem a t ica l ly p roduced m ic ro l i th s . A l l t h e b u r ia l s w e re l a id i na n e x tended a nd s up ine p o s i t ion , a nd w e r e p oo r ly p r eserved . G r ind ing s t one s , g round h aema t i te p i eces , a n t le r p i ece s , a nd b one t o o l s w e re p l aced w i th t h e b u r ia l s a sg r ave g ood s .

N ex tt ot h e A cheu l ian c u l tu r e , t h e e v idence f o rt h e Me so l i th ic a t B h imbe tka i sv e ry r i ch . T h is w a s f ound i na l lt h et h r ee s he l te r sd ug b y VNM . e E nac t ing s t one t oo l m ak ing i n as he l te ra tB h imbe tka 1 974

Xlb .I IF -13 T h i s s he l te r i sl o ca ted o n t h e m a in B h imbe tka h i l l a bou t 1 00 m t o t h e s ou thea s t o f I IF -23 . I th as a f l oo r a r ea o f a bou t 5 00 s q . m , a nd a h ab i ta t ion

R ad ioca rbon d a te s f o r U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic o ccupa t ion a tB h imbe tka r ange f r om c .

9

1 7 ,000 BP t o c .2 000 BP ( unca l ib ra ted ) . B es ides , c ave o ccupa t ion s t h e re a r e a l so a n umbe r o f r i ch o pen a i r P a laeo l i th ic s i tes a t a nd a round B h imbe tka .

r i gh tu pt ot h e mou th o fs ome o ft h e m a in c aves b y o ne 's o wn t r an spo r t . X I I I . Aus tra l ia a nd I ndo -Pac if ic P reh is tory A s soc ia t ion ( IPPA ) I n 1 969 J a ck G o lson o f t h e A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty ( ANU ) , C anber ra , w h i le o n h i s w ay t o U .K . , m ade a b r ief v i s i t t o P une , a nd d i scu ssed w i th H .D . S anka l ia a nd VNM t h e q ues t ion o f p o s s ib le r e la t ion sh ip b e tween A u s t ra l ian a nd I nd ian m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t r ies a nd b e tween t h e Au s t ra l ian d ingo a nd I nd ian p ar iah d og . N ex t y ea r G o lson i n v i ted VNM t op resen t ap aper o n I nd ian I n ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t r ies a tt h e e i gh th m ee t ing o ft h e F a r E a s tern P r eh is tory A ssoc ia t ion ( FEPA ) , w h ich w a s t ob e h e ld i nJ anua ry , 1 971 a t ANU , u nde rt h e a u sp ices o f t h e 2 8t h I n terna t iona l C ong res s o f O r ien ta l is t s . VNM a nd s eve ra l o the r I nd ian a r chaeo log is t s l i ke B .B . L a ! , A .K . N a ra in , D .P . Ag rawa l a nd A .K . Ghosh p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h e m ee t ing . A tt h is m ee t ing i tw a s s ugges ted b y W .G . S o lhe im , P res iden to fF EPA a nd o t he rs cho la r st h a t S ou th A s ian a r chaeo log i s t s s hou ld a c t ive ly p ar t ic ipa te i n F EPA a c t iv i t ies , a nd t o e xp res s t h i s e n la rged g eog raph ica l s cope o ft h e A s soc ia t ion t h e n am e o fF EPA s hou ld b e c hanged t o I ndo -Pac if i c P reh is tory A s soc ia t ion ( I PPA ) . T he i d ea w a s f u r the r d i scu ssed d u r ing an ea r ly t wo -week t ou r o f A u s t ra l ian a r chaeo log ica l s i te s t h a t c ove red t h e s t a tes o f V ic to r ia , S ou ther n Au s t r a l ia , N ew S ou th Wa les , Wes ter n Au s t ra l ia a nd T asman ia . T he n ew n ame a nd c on s t i tu t ion w e re f o rma l ly a pp roved a t t h e n i n th m ee t ing o fF EPA wh ich w as h e ld u nde r t h e a u sp ices o f t h e n in th C ong ress o f t h e I n ter n a t iona l Un ion o fP reh is tor ic a nd P ro toh is to r ic S c ience s a t N ice . A t t h is m ee t ing VNM w a s e l ec ted a s am embe r o f t h e I PPA e xecu t ive . H e o f f e red t o h os t t h e f i r s t c onf e rence o f I PPA a t D eccan C o l lege , P une i nD ecembe r 1 978 a s ap a r t o f , a nd i mmed ia te ly a f te r , t h e I X th C onf e rence o f t h e I n terna t iona l Un ion o f An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences wh ich w a s s chedu led t ob e h e ld a tN ew D e lh i i nt h e s ame mon th . VNM w a s V ice -P res iden t o f I PPA d u r ing 1 981-84 a nd P re s iden td u r ing 1 985 -88 .

I n a dd i t ion t o i t s s t one a ge h ab i ta t ion d epos i t s , B h imbe tka i sk nown f o r i t s r i ch w ea l th o fa nc ien t p a in t ing s , wh ich h a s m ade i t a m a jo r t ou r is t a t t rac t ion . T he p a in t ing s a r e f ound o nt h ew a l ls a nd c e i l ings a nd i nt h e n i ches o ft h e s he l te r s . T hey a r e m ade mos t ly i n r ed a nd wh i te p igmen t s a nd o ccas iona l ly a l so i ny e l low a nd g r een . A l though a n umbe r o f c h rono log ica l s t ages h ave b een r e cogn ized b y d i f f e ren t i n ve s t iga to r s , b road ly t h e p a in t ing s c an b e d i v ided i n to t wo s t ages : P r eh is tor ic a nd H is to r ic . T he p a in t ing s o ft h e f i r s t s t age a r e d om ina ted b y w i ld a n ima ls a nd h un t ing s c enes . L es s f r equen t ly s c enes o f f i sh ing , p l an t f ood c o l lec t ing , h oney c o l lec t ing , a nd c e remon ia l a nd r e l ig iou s s ub jec t s a r e a l so s hown . T hese p a in t ings a r e r ema rkab ly n a tu ra l is t ic a nd a r e m a rked b y v i ta l i ty a nd v i gou r . P a in t ing s o f t h e l a te r p er iod a r e o f as t y l ized n a tu re a nd ma in ly d ep ic t p roce ss ion s w i th m en r i d ing c apa r isoned h o r ses a nd e l ephan t s , a nd b a t t le s c enes i n wh ich w a r r io r s f i gh t w i th s pea r s , s wo rd s , s h ie ld s , a nd b ow s a nd a r row s . H aema t i te n odu les w e re g round t o p roduce p igmen t f o r m ak ing p a in t ing s . T he p r esence o f s uch n odu les w i th g round f a ce t s i n h ab i ta t ion d epos i t s o n t h e f l oo r s o f t h e s he l te r s p rov ides c l ea r p roof t h a t t h e p a in t ings w e re made b yt h ep eop le w ho d we l ti nt h e s he l te r s .

_ — A r c h a e o l o gi s te xam in ing s t one t oo ls a tB h imbe tka ( V .N .

M is ra i n t h e c en t r e ) . T hey a r e c ove red w i th c l o th a s ap ro tec t ion a ga ins tt h e m enace o fh oney b ees 1 976

Du r ing h i s s t ay a t C anber ra a nd t h e l o ng a r chaeo log ica l t ou r o f Au s t ra l ia VN M h ad a n o ppor tun i ty t o m ee t a nd make f r iends w i th m any a r chaeo log is ts f r om a l a rge n umber o f c oun t r ies , p ar t icu la r ly Au s t ra l ia . No tab le among t h em w e r e D .J . Mu lvaney , J a ck G o lson , I s abe l McBryde , R hy s J ones , B e t ty Meehan , C o l in G roves , a nd

E ven tua l ly , a s t h e f ame o f B h imbe tka g r ew , a nd t ou r is t t r aff i c i n c rea sed , t h e Madhya P rade sh g ove rnmen tb u i l t am e ta l led r o ad f r om t h e h ighway t ot h e s i te ( s evera l y ea r s a f te rt h e e xcava t ion s w e re o ve r ) a nd o ne c an n ow c omf or tab ly r e ach t h e s i te

1 0

P e t e rB e l lwood f r om Au s t ra l ia , a nd W .G . S o lhe im f r om t h e USA

y ounge r c o l league s p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h e f i e ld w o rk . I n 1 980 t h e t e am w a s j o ined b y G u rd ip S ingh , w e l l -known p a lyno log i s t , a nd R .J . Wa s son , g eomo rpho log i s t , b o th o f ANU , C anbe r ra f o r p a r t ic ipa t ion i nf i e ld w o rk . Wa s son 's m a in i n te r e s t w a s i nt h e s t udy o ft h e mo rpho logy a nd f o rma t ion p roce sse s o f t h e s and d une s , a nd h e w a s v e ry h appy t ov i s i ta nd s t udy t h ed une f i e ld so ft h eT ha r . Ms . C la i r e G a i l la rd , ap r eh i s to r ian f r om t h e I n s t i tu t d e P a leon to log ie Huma in e a tP a r is ,t o ok a c t ive p a r t i n t h e e xcava t ion o f t h e A cheu l ian s i te o f S ing i T a lav a tD idwana .

X IV . L everhu lme V i s i t ing F e l low sh ip a nd Au s tra l ia a ga in I n 1 975 D .J . Mu lvaney w a s i n s t rum en ta l i n VNM b e ing o f f e red t h e L eve rhu lm e V i s i t ing F e l low sh ip a t t h e ANU , w h ich h e a va i led d u r ing J u ly D ecembe r 1 977 . T he f e l low sh ip g ave VNM a n o ppo r tun i ty t o e xam ine r i ch s t one t o o l a nd e t hnog raph ic c o l lec t ion si nm any mu seum s i nN ew S ou th Wa le s , S ou th Au s t ra l ia , a nd We s te rn A u s t r a l ia ; v i s i t an umbe r o f a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s , i n c lud ing as e cond v i s i t t oL ak e Mungo a nd o t he r s i te s i nt h e W i l land ra L ake s y s tem , p a r t ic ipa te i n s eve ra l c onf e r ence s , i n c lud ing o ne o n t h e c on serva t ion o fr o ck a r t a tP er th , a nd v i s i t al a rge n umbe r o f r o ck a r t s i te s i n We s ter n Au s t r a l ia a s p a r t o f at ou r w h ich f o l lowed t h e c onf e r en ce . O n t h i s t o u r t h e p a r t ic ipan t s i n c luded a n a bo r ig ina l a r t i s t ,w ho k new t h e my tho logy b eh ind t h er o ck a r t v e ry w e l l , a nd a c ted a s av e ry i n f o rm a t ive g u ide . VNM a l so g ave l e c tu r e s o n I nd ian p r eh i s to ry , i n c lud ing r ock a r t , a tC anbe r r aa nd o t h e rp l a ce s . H e a l so t o ok a dvan tage o f t h e v i s i t t o d i scu s s t h e p l ann ing o f t h e I PPA s ympo s ium t o b e h e ld a t P une i n 1 978 , w i th a n umbe r o f a r chaeo log i s t s , i n c lud ing J ack G o l son , J ohn Mu lvaney , R hy s J on e s ,a nd I s abe l McB ryde .

T h e t e am c a r r ied o u t e x ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion o ve r a l a rge p a r t o f t h e s em i -a r id a nd a r id z one i n t h e d i s t r ic t s o f S i roh i , J a lo r e , P a l i , A jm e r , J odhpu r , N agau r , B a rme r , J a i sa lm e r , a nd B ikane r , a nd s t ud ied t h e mo rpho logy o f s and d unes , e xam ined c o l luv ia l a nd a l luv ia l d epo s i t s , a nd l o ca ted a n umbe r o fP a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s i te s . Mo s t o f t h e i r i n ten s ive w o rk w a s c oncen t ra t ed a r ound t h e D idwana t own i nN agau rd i s t r ic t . E xcep t i nt h e v i c in i ty o f A rava l l i h i l l s , t h e e n t i r e r eg ion t o t h e w e s t o ft h e se h i l ls i sc ove red b y s and s hee t s a nd s and d une s , t h e i r s i ze s t ead i ly i n c r ea s ing a s o ne p roceed s a way f r om t h e h i l l s t owa rd s t h e w e s t a nd n or th . I nh i s e a r l ie r e xp lo ra t ion s VNM h ad l o ok ed f o r a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l i n r i v e r b ed s a nd s e c t ion s , a nd o nr ock o u tc rop s . T h i st im eh el o oked f o ri ti nc o l luv ia l d epo s i t s a nd o n s and d une s a way f r om r i ve r s . A n ew a nd i mpo r tan t f i e ld o f P a laeo l i th ic r e sea rch w a s o pened w hen B ima l G hose , a g eomo rpho log i s t a t CAZR I , s howed VNM a nd R a jagu ru s om e s t one t oo l sw h ich h e h ad f ound n ea rJ aya li nN agau rd i s t r ic t . When R a jagu ru a nd VNM v i s i ted t h e p l ace , t h ey w e r e s u rp r i sed t o f i nd a n e x ten s ive a nd u nu sua l ly t h ick d epo s i t o f h eav i ly r o l led b ou lde r s a nd p ebb le s i n a n a r ea wh ich w a s s eve ra l h und red km a way f r om a ny r i ve r t h a t c ou ld h ave f o rm ed i t . S ub sequen t e xp lo ra t ion l e d t o t h e d i scove ry o f m any P a laeo l i th ic s i te s o nt h i sg rave lr i dge b e tween J aya l a nd D idwana .

XV .B ack t oR a ja s than I n 1 977 , m a in ly b ecau se o f t h e i n s i s tence o f h i s c l o se f r iend , D .P . A ga rwa l o f P hy s ica l R e sea rch L abo ra to ry ( PRL ) , A hm edabad , VNM , a l ong w i th h i s g eo log i s t c o l league , S .N . R a jagu ru , r e sum ed r e s ea r ch i n R a ja s than , t h i s t im e m a in ly t o u nde r s tand t h e e vo lu t ion o ft h e e nv i ronm en t o ft h e s em i -a r id a nd a r id r e g ion ,k nown a sT ha rd e se r t , o n t h ew e s ter ns i d e o ft h eA rava l l is . T hey e n l i s ted t h e c oope r a t ion o fR .P . D h i r , aw e l l k nown p edo log i s t o f t h e C en t ra l A r id Z one R e sea rch I n s t i tu te ( CAZR I ) o fJ odhpu r . T h i s p ro jec t l a s ted f o r e i gh t y ea r s . E ve ry y ea r VNM a nd R a jaguru , a l ong w i th s om e o f t h e o t he r m embe r s o ft h e r e sea rch t e am l i k e P .K . T hom a s , D .R . R a ju , S .C . N anda , Makkhan L a l , a nd H ema R aghavan , w ou ld t r ave l b y r o ad t oJ odhpu r , s t opp ing o n t h e w ay f o r ad ay o r t wo a t PRL f o r d i scu ss ion s w i th D .P . A g rawa l a nd h i s c o l league s , a nd c amp ing f o r af ew d ay s a t CAZR I f o r d i scu s s ion s w i th R .P . D h i r a nd h i s c o l league s . I n t h e i n i t ia l y ea r s o f t h e p ro jec t VNM 's t e am a l so h ad c o l labo ra t ion w i th t h eJ a ipu r b r anch o f t h e G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia ( GS I ) w ho se D i r ec to r , S ub ro to S inha a nd an umbe ro fh i s

Wes ter n R a ja s than h a s al a rge n umbe r o f l a k es w h ich a r e d ry t oday b u t w e r e c a r ry ing f r e sh w a te r i nt h e p a s t . I nt h e 1 960 s G u rd ip S ingh h ad s t ud ied t h e s ed im en t s o f t h r ee o f t h e se l a k e s , n am e ly S ambha r , D idwana , a nd L unka ran sa r , a nd f ound t h a tb e low t h e s u rf ace t h ey c on ta ined ad a rk b l ack , f i ne ly l am ina ted c l ay d epo s i t w h ich w a s r i ch i n p o l len g ra in s . F rom t h e s t udy o fp o l len h e d educed t h a t i n t h e p a s t t h e r e g ion o ft h e l a k es e n joyed a much h igh e rr a inf a l l w h en t h e p o l len r i ch c l ay w a s

1

d epo s i ted . S ub sequ en t ly , t h e c l ima te b ecame d ry a nd s andy d epo s i tw a sf o rm ed o ve rt h ec l ay s .

e a s ter n a nd n o r ther n e dge s o f t h e q ua r ry . Two c u l tu r a l h o r izon s w e r e r e cogn ized : o ne b e tween s u r f ace a nd 1 5 c m , a nd t h e o t h e r b e tween 1 5 c m a nd 1 . 20 m . T h e a s semb lage o fH o r izon 1 ,m a rk ed b y s ma l l f l ak e s a nd f l ak e t o o ls , i s M idd le P a laeo l i th ic wh i le t h a t o fH o r izon 2 ,c ha rac te r ized b y h andaxes , c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s a nd p o lyhed ron s , r e p r e sen t s a n e a r ly s t age o f t h e A cheu l ian . C oncen t ra t ion o f a r tef ac t s b e tween 4 0 c ma nd 8 0 c md ep th f r om t h e s u rf ace a nd p r e sence o f ah a rd c a lc r e te l a ye r b e low 8 0 cm s ugge s t s o ccupa t ion o n ad ry l a nd s u rf ace a l ong s ide aw a te r c ou r se .

I n 1 980 d u r ing av i s i tt oD idwana l a k e w i th S ingh , Wa s son a nd R a jaguru VNM n o t iced aq ua r ry i na d ep re s s ion k nown a s S ing i T a lav w h ich i s s e pa ra ted f r om t h e l a ke b y al a rge d une . O n e xam ina t ion h e f ound A cheu l ian t oo l si ne x t r em e ly f r e sh c ond i t ion l y ing o n t h e s u rf ace o ft h e q ua r ry a nd e xpo sed i n t h e c l if f s . F u r the r e xp lo ra t ion s i n t h e r e g ion l e d t o t h e d i scove ry o f m any q ua r r ie s w h ich y i e ld ed A cheu l ian a s w e l l a s M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s . T he d epo s i t o f t h e q ua r r ie s c on s i s t s o f ac a lca reou s l o am wh ich i s q ua r r ied b y t h e P ub l ic Wo rk s D epa r tm en t f o r s p r ead ing a l ong r o ad s i de s , a nd b y t h e v i l lage p eop le f o rm ak ing l im eb yb u rn ing i t ,a sw e l l a sf o r m ak ing h ou se f l oo r s , a nd a s mo r ta r f o r j o in ing s t one s i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f h ou ses a nd o t he r s t ruc tu re s . M ic ro l i th s w e r e f ound o nt h e s u rf ace o f v i r tua l ly e ve ry d une i nt h ed e ser t .

F iv e q ua r tz c r y s ta l s , s how ing s om e d e l ibe ra te m od if i ca t ion , f ound i nt h i s d epo s i t , w e r e p robab ly b rough t t o t h e s i te b y m an f o r t h e i r c u r io s i ty o r a e s the t ic v a lue . T h e r e su l t s o ft h e se d i g s a nd c o l lec t ion s f r om t h e q ua r ry s e c t ion s s howed t h a t s t one a r tef ac t s i nt h e l o am o ccu r o n ly i n l o ca l iz ed c l u s te r s . T h i s c l u s ter ing c an o n ly b e d ue t oh um an a c t iv i ty , a nd n o t t o n a tu ra l a genc ies ; t h e l a t te r w ou ld h ave p roduced a r a ndom d i s t r ibu t ion . Mo s t o f t h e a r tef ac t s a r e r ema rkab ly f r e sh , c l ea r ly s how ing t h a t t h ey w e re m anuf ac tu r ed , u sed a nd d i sca rd ed a tt h e e dg e o f al a ke , p oo l o r s ha l low s t r eam c hanne l , a l ong w h ich A cheu l ian g roup s c amped , a nd g o t i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e f i ne -g ra ined s ed im en t s w hen w a te r l e ve l r o se d u r ing t h e r a iny s e a son . T hey a r e m ade o f c oa r se t o m ed ium -g r a ined q uar tz i te a nd v e in q ua r tz wh ich w e r e q ua r r ied f r om t h e s eve r a l h i l l s i n t h e a r ea a nd o cca s iona l ly o b ta ined a s p ebb le s f r om a n e xposu r e o ft h e J aya l g r ave l r i dge o ra na nc ien t s t r eam b ed e xpo sed a tt h a tt im e .

I n a dd i t ion t o t h e e xp lo ra t ion s , t h e t e am a l so c a r r ied o u t e xcava t ion s a t J aya l , C hha jo l i , S ing i T a lav , I ndo la -k i -Dhan i , B anga r C ana l a nd i n D idwana l a k e . T hese a r eb r ie f ly d e sc r ibed b e low . XVa .J aya l T he s i te i sl o ca ted a bou tt wo km t ot h e s ou th o ft h e t own o fJ aya l ( 27 ° 1 3 ' N ; 7 4 ° 1 ' E ) . F ou r 1m s q . t r enche s w e r e d ug o n t h e t op a nd s l ope s o f t h e g r ave l r i dge . L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s c omp r i s ing c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s , s c rape r s , h andaxe s , f l ak es a nd c o r e s ,m ade o fq ua r tz i te , w e r e f ound i n4 0 c m t h ick g r ave l d epo s i t 6 0 cm b e low t h e s u rf ace . T he a b sence o fc l eave r s a nd L eva l lo i s f l ak es s ugge s t s t h e a s semb lage t o b e e a r ly A cheu l ian .

A r tef ac tua l m a te r ia l f r om t h e e xcava t ion s a nd f r om t h e d eb r i s o f s eve ra l t a nk s d ug i n t h e Am a rpu ra l o am s how s t wo t e chno log ica l s t age s i n t h e A cheu l ian i ndu s t ry : a n e a r l ie r o ne c on s i s t ing m a in ly o f c o r e t o o l s c ompr i s ing c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t oo l s , s phe ro id s , p o lyhed ron s , h andaxe s , c l eave r s , s i de s c rape r s , f l ake s a nd c o r e s , a nd a b sence o f L eva l lo is t e chn iqu e ; a nd a l a te r a nd m o r e d eve loped o ne , c ha rac te r ized b y s ma l le r , t h inne r a nd mo r e s ymm e t r ica l h andaxe s , al a rge r p ropo r t ion o f f l ake s a nd f l ak e t o o ls , o cca s iona l c l eave r s , a nd t h e u se o fs of th amm e r a nd L eva l lo i s t e chn ique so ff l ak ing .

XVb .C hha jo l i T h ree s ma l l t r enche s w e r e d ug o n t h e g r ave l r i dge n ea r C hha jo l i v i l lage , t wo km s ou thwe s t o f t h e J aya l t r enche s . L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s s im i la r t ot h o se o fJ aya l w e r e f ound i nt h e g r ave l a t1 . 10 1 . 30 m , 1 . 50 -1 .80m , a nd 1 . 90 -2 .30 m d ep th sb e low t h es u rf ace . XVc . S ing i T a lav S ing iT a lav i s al a rge s ha l low d ep r es s ion a bou tt wo km w es t o fD idwana t own . T he re i s al a rge l o am q ua r ry a tt h e s ou thea s t er n e dge o ft h e d ep re s s ion . I n t h e s e c t ion s o f t h e q ua r ry a s w e l l o n i t s f l oo r m any f r e sh A cheu l ian a r tef ac t s c an b e s e en . F ou r t r enche s o f 4x4m w e r e d ug i n t h e l o am a tt h e

XVd . I ndo la -k i -Dhan i A t I ndo la -k i -Dhan i , o ne km w e s t o f S ing i T a lav , d i gg ing w a s d one i nt h e l o am d epo s i t t o ad ep th o f

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5 . 15 m , a nd i tw a s d i v i s ib le i n to s i x l a ye r s . S tone a r t ef ac t s o ccu r r ed i n a l t h e l a ye r s b u t ap a r t o f l a ye r s 4a nd 5 ( 3 .85 -4 .45 m ) w a s s t e r i le . T h r ee a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon s w e r e r e cogn ized . H o r izon 3( 4 .46 — 5 . 05 m )y i e lded av e ry s ma l la nd a t yp ica l a s semb lage . H o r izon 2 ( 1 .86 — 3 . 85 m ) y i e lded a l a rge r c o l lec t ion , c omp r i s ing p o in t s , s c rape r s , c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s ,p o lyhed ron s , k n ives , a nd h andaxes . T he h ighe rp ropo r t ion o ff l ake t o o l s a nd s m a l le r s i ze o f t oo l s i n c ompa r i son t o t ho se o f S ing i T a lav s ugge s t s t h i s a s semb lage t o b e l a te A cheu l ian i nc ha rac te r .

t h e se s t ud ies t h ey r e con s t ruc ted t h ec l im a t ic h i s to ry o ft h el a ke o ve rt h el a s t 1 5 ,000 y ea r s . O n t h e b a s i s o ft h e s t ra t ig raph ic o bserva t ion s a nd f i nd s o fs t one t o o l s f r om e xp lo ra t ion s o ft h e J aya l g rave l r i dge , l o am q ua r r ies a t S ing i T a lav , Ama rpu ra a nd m any o t he rp l ace s , a sa l so i nw e l l s , a nd o nd une s u rf ace s a nd r a i l r o ad c u t t ing st h rough d une s a tn um e rou s p l aces , w e l l s a nd t r enche s i n s a l ine p l aya s , e xcava t ion s m en t ioned a bove , a nd t wo s pec ia l ly d ug w e l l s i n t h e D idwana l a k e , R a jagu ru a nd VNM i d en t if ied t h ree Q ua te rna ry g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s , n am e ly J aya l , Ama rpu ra a nd D idwana , t h e l a s t c on s is t ing o ft wo u n i t s —a n e a r l ie r a eo l ian a nd al a te r l a cu s t r ine . T he c l ima t ic , h yd ro log ica l , l a ndf o rm a nd c u l tu ra l h i s to ry r evea led b y t h e se f o rma t ion s c an b e b r ief ly s umma r ized a sf o l low s .

XVe .B angar C ana l( 16 R ) T he mo s t i mpo r tan t g eo log ica l d epo s i t f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e c l ima t ic h i s to ry o f t h e T ha r i s s and d unes , w h ich a r eb road ly o ft wo t y pe s : a c t ive o ne s , wh ich a r e s t i l l b e ing f o rm ed , a nd f o s s i l o r b u r ied o ne s , wh ich w e r e f o rm ed i nt h e p a s t , a nd a r e n ow s t ab le a nd c ove r ed b y v ege ta t ion . T he d une s w e r e f o rm ed w hen t h e c l ima te w a s d ry a nd t h e w ind a c t iv i ty s t rong , a nd t h ey w e r e s t ab i l ized w hen t h e c l ima te w a s c ompa ra t ive ly h um id a nd w ind a c t iv i ty l ow . T he h i s to ry o f s and d une f o rma t ion c an b e u nde r s tood o n ly b y d igg ing t h rough t h e s and . B u t s and , b e ing al o o se d epo s i t , i sp rone t oc o l lap s ing d u r ing d i gg ing . F or tuna te ly , VNM a nd R a jagu ru f ound a d une i n w h ich t h e s and w a s q u i te c ompac t a nd h a rd . D u r ing t h e f am ine o f 1 940 -4 1 t h e B anga r f am i ly o fD idwana h ad d ug a c ana l t h rough t h e d une s t o b r ing m on soon w a te r t o at a nk a tD idwana . T he c ana l a nd i t s b ank s a r e s t i l l w e l l p r e se rved . VNM a nd R a jagu ru e xcava ted a n ea r ly 2 0 m d eep s t epped t r ench t h rough t h e d une a bou t t wo km w es t o f S ing iT a lay . T he e xcava ted p rof i le r e vea led s eve ra l a l te rna t ing h o r izon s o fl o o se a nd h igh ly c ompac ted s and , wh ich r e p r e sen ted p ha se s o fa r id a nd h um id c l ima te , r e spec t ive ly . T h ep rof i le a l so y i e lded s t one a s semb lage s o f L owe r , M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s . I th a s b een d a ted b y D .P . A g r awa l a nd A .K . S inghv i o f PRL t h rough r a d ioca rbon , T L a nd U r an ium /Tho r ium d ecay s e r ies t e chn ique s f r om a bou t 4 00 ,000 B P t o c . 6 , 000 B P . T he 1 6 R e xcava t ion h a s m ade a n u nu sua l ly i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion t o o u r u nde r s tand ing t h e c l im a t ic a nd c u l tu ra l h i s to ry o f t h eT ha rd e ser t .

2 0 md eep t r ench i nt h es and d une a t1 6R , D idwana 1 982

D u r ing t h eN eogene a nd e a r ly Q ua ter n a ry t h e T ha r r eg ion h ad a n i n teg ra ted a nd p owe rf u l d r a inage s y s tem wh ich d epos i ted t h e e x ten s ive a nd t h ick g r ave l b ed s o ft h e J aya l F o rma t ion . S ub sequen t ly t h i s f o rma t ion w a s t e c ton ica l ly u p l if t ed , a nd i t a s sum ed i t s p r e sen t f o rm o f r o l l ing t opog raphy t h rough e r o s ion . N eogene t e c ton ic a c t iv i ty i s b e l iev ed t oh ave d i srup ted t h e i n teg ra ted d r a inage s y s tem , a nd r e p laced i tw i th l ow e ne rgy , s ha l low

VNM a nd h i s t e am d ug t wo w e l l s i nt h e D idwana s a l t l a k e t o c o l lec t s amp le s f o r p a lyno log ica l a nd g eochem ica l s t ud ie s w h ich w e r e c a r r ied o u t b y G u rd ip S ingh a nd R .J . Wa s son , r e spec t ive ly . F rom

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s t r eam s f l ow ing t h rough w ide f l ood p l a in s d o t ted w i th n um e rou s l a ke s a nd p l aya s . I n t h e se w a te r b od ies c a lca r eou s l o am o ft h e Am a rpu ra f o rma t ion w a s d epo s i ted e x ten s ive ly . S t rong a eo l ian a c t iv i ty l e d t o t h e f o rma t ion o f i r r egu la r l i nea r a nd l o ng i tud ina l d un es o nt h e d ef unc t f l ood p l a in s . T he d unes f a vou r ed t h e f o rma t ion o f p an s i n w h ich m a r ls a nd c a lca r eou s c l ay s w e r e d epo s i ted . T he c l ima te d u r ing t h i sp e r iod w a se s sen t ia l ly s em i -a r id b u t i t w a s i n te r rup ted b y s eve ra l e p i sode s o f i n c r ea sed r a inf a l l w h ich l e d t ot h e s t ab i l iza t ion o f d une s .

t o a m e l io ra te f r om a r ound 1 5 ,000 B P , a nd t h e r e w a s ap a r t icu la r ly s i gn if i can t i n c r ea se i n r a inf a l l b e tween 6 , 000 a nd 4 , 000 B P w h en l a k es w e r e f u l l w i th f r e sh w a te r . P l an t a nd a n ima l r e sou r ce s i n c r ea sed i n r e spon se t o e nhan ced r a inf a l l , a nd m o r e f ood r e sou r ce s l e d t o af a s t g row th i nh um an p opu la t ion . T h i s i sc l ea r ly r ef lec ted i n t h e l a rge n umbe r o f m ic ro l i th ic s i t es a l o ve r t h e s em i -a r id a nd a r id z one . I nf a c t , i fo ne c l imb s ad une a lmo s t a nywhe re i nt h e d e se r t a nd s e a r ch es c a r ef u l ly , o n e i ss u r e t of i nd af ew m ic ro l i th s a nd b roken a n ima l b one p i ece s .

S t one a ge h uman g roups f r om t h e E a r ly A cheu l ian s t age o nwa rd s c amped o n t h e s u rf ace o ft h e J aya l g r ave l r i dge a nd e xp lo i ted t h e a bundan t s upp ly o f q ua r tz i te f o r m ak ing t h e i rt o o l s . T hey a l so c amped a l ong t h e s ha l low s t r eam s , l a k es a nd p oo ls i nt h e f l ood p l a in s , o n l ow h i l l s , a nd o n s t ab le d une s u rf aces . T he a r tef ac t s f r om c amp s o n h i l l t o p s a nd s l opes w e r e w a shed d own b y r a inwa te r a nd g o t i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e c o l luv ium a t t h e f oo t o f t h e h i l l s . T ho se f r om c amp s a l ong s t r eam s , l a k es a nd p oo l s w e re i n co rpo r a ted i nt h e m a r l s o rc a lca r eou s c l ayey d epo s i t s f o rm ed i nt h e se w a te r b od ie s , a nd t h o se o fc amp s o n d une s u rf ace s g o t b u r ied u nde r f r e sh d epo s i t ion o fs and . I n a l t h e se l o ca t ion s t h e a r tef ac t sh ave b een p re se rved i n ar ema rkab ly f r e sh c ond i t ion .

D u r ing t h i s l o ng f i e ld w o rk VNM h ad m any m emo rab le e xpe r ience s . H e f ond ly r em embe r s t h e a cadem ic h e lp a nd v a luab le s ugge s t ion s g i ven t o h im a nd h i s c o l league s a nd h o sp i ta l i ty e x tended t o t h em b yD r s . H .S . Mann a nd K .A . S hankar n a rayan , s u cce s s ive d i rec to r s o f CAZR I , a nd t h e i r c o l leagu es l i ke B ima l G ho se , S en , a nd Ama l K a r . H e i sp a r t icu la r ly g r a tef u l t ot h e w a rm h o sp i ta l i ty o f P rof D .P . A g rawa l a t PRL a nd o f p rof e s so r s R .P . D h i r a nd I s hwa r P raka sh a t CAZR I . H e a l so m e t a n umbe r o f n omad ic h un t ing -ga the r ing , e n t er ta in ing , d rug -d i spen s ing , a nd o t he r g roup s , a nd l e ar n t al o t a bou t t h e n ob le p eop le a nd t h e r i ch c u l tu r eo fR a ja s than . A n umbe r o f I nd ian a nd f o r e ign a r chaeo log i s t s v i s i ted D idwana a nd s aw t h e e xcava t ion s a tS ing i T a lav a nd B anga r c ana l . Among t h e l a t te r w e r e D e smond C la rk , J ohan K amm inga , Ma r t in J on e s , a nd I .M . C rawf o rd , t h e l a s t t h ree f r om t h e u n ive r s i t ie s o f ANU , L a T robe , a nd We s ter n A u s t ra l ia .

S tone a ge s i tes o fd i f f e r en t s t ages h ave b een f ound w ide ly i n t h e d e se r t , a s f a r w e s t a s B anne r a nd J a i sa lm e r , a nd Me so l i th ic s i t e s h ave b een f ound e ven i nt h eB ikane rd i s t r ic t . D u r ing t h eU ppe rP l e i s tocene c l ima te b ecame m o r e d ry b u t t h e re w e r e p e r iod s o f i n c r ea sed r a inf a l l d u r ing t h e l o ng d ry p e r iod . T he se a l te rna t ing d ry a nd w e tp ha se sa r er e p r esen ted i nt h e f o rm o fl o o se a nd c ompac t s and h o r izon s i n t h e B anga r c ana l p rof i le . S t r eam s k ep t s h if t ing t owa rd s t h e w e s t . A n umbe ro fp a laeochanne ls o fv a ry ing s i ze s e x i s t ing i nt h en o r thwe s ter np a r to ft h e d e ser tt e s t if yt ot h is . VNM a nd R a jagu ru h ave l o ca ted a t l e a s t t h r ee e x t r em e ly w ide c hanne ls b e tween J a i sa lme r a nd R amga rh , 10 km n o r th o f J a i sa lm e r . A long t h e n o r ther nb ank o ft wo o ft h ese c hanne ls M idd le to U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s w e r e f ound n ea r S anu a nd Moka lv i l lage s .

XV I . L ucknow a ga in , a nd F u lbr igh tF e l low sh ip I n 1 983 VNM w a s o f f e r ed ap rof e s so r sh ip i nt h e D epa r tmen t o f An th ropo logy a t L ucknow U n ive r s i ty , a nd h e j o ined i ti n S ep tembe r o f t h e s am e y ea r . H oweve r , h e f ound t h e r e sea r ch f a c i l i t ie s i n adequa te a nd t h e a cadem ic a tmo sph e r e n o t v e ry c onduc ive , a nd c am e b ack t o P une i n A ugu s tn ex ty ea r . I n t h e s am e y ea r h e w a s s e lec ted f o r aS en io r F u lb r igh t F e l low sh ip , a nd h e a va i led i t d u r ing J anua ry - May 1 984 a t t h e D epa r tm en t o f A n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f C a l if or n ia ( UC ) , B e rk e ley . D u r ing h i s v i s i t h e c o l lec ted m a ter ia l o n S ou th A s ian a r chaeo logy f r om l i b ra ry s ou r ce s , a nd g ave l e c tu r e s o n S ou th A s ian a r chaeo logy a t s e ve ra l u n ive r s i t ie s , i n c lud ing UC , B e rke ley , P enn sy lvan ia ( Ph i lade lph ia ) , V i rg in ia

G eoch em ica l a nd p a lyno log ica l d a ta f r om t h e D idwana a nd o t he r s a l t l a k e s , a nd w ea the r ed h o r izon s o f t h e y ounge s t d une s , i n c on junc t ion w i th C -14 a nd T L d a te s , s how t h a t c l ima te b egan

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Ab i gge r e xcava t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t a tS amnapu r . T he s i te i sl o ca ted o n t h e t o pmo s t t e r r ace o f t h e N a rm ada wh e r e i ta bu t s ac he r ty q ua r tz i te o u tc rop o ft h eV indhyan h i l l s . T he a r tef ac t s , wh ich o ccu ri n a5 0 -70 cm t h ick r ubb le d epo s i t b u r ied u nde r s i l t , h ave b een e xpo sed b y e r o s ion b y r a in w a te r . T hey a r e r em a rkab ly f r esh a nd a r e c l ea r ly i n ap r ima ry c on tex t . T he a s semb lage c on s i s t s m a in ly o ff l ak es a nd av a r ie ty o fs c rape r s , k n ive s a nd d en t icu la tes . T h e p r e sence o f m any c o r e s a nd f l ak ing d eb r i s s how s t h a t t h e t o o ls w e r e m anuf ac tu r ed a tt h e s i te , a nd g o t b u r ied u nde r s i l t d u r ing a n a gg rada t iona l p ha se o f t h e N a rm ada . T he a bsen ce o f b i f aces , w h ich o ccu r i n ad epo s i t s eve r a l m e t r e s b e low t h e r ubb le , a s w e l l a s o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic t oo l s c l ea r ly s how s t h e a s semb lage t o b e o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a ge . T he s t one a ge p eop le a ppea rt oh ave c ho sen t h e l o ca t ion f o rt h e i r c amp ing b ecau se i tw a s w e l l a bove t h e n o rma l f l ood l e ve l o f t h e N a rmada , w a s c l o se t o r i ch s ou rce o f r aw m a te r ia l i n t h e c he r ty q ua r tz i te o u tc rop , a nd h ad e a sy a cce s s t o t h e a n im a l a nd p l an t f ood r e sou r ces o f t h e p l a teau a nd t h e f l ood p l a in . S amnapu r i so ne o ft h e f ew p r im a ry c on tex t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te si nI nd ia .

( Cha r lo t te sv i l le ) , S an ta C ruz , W i scon s in ( M i lwauk ee ) , C o rn e l l ( I thaca ) , a nd O r egon ( Eugene ) . T he s t ay a t B e rk e ley g ave VNM a n o ppo r tun i ty t o h ave p l en ty o f i n te r ac t ion w i th em inen t s cho la r s l i k e J .D . C la rk , D ona ld J ohan son ( of L ucy f am e ) , T im Wh i te , G eo rge D a les a nd s eve ra lo t he r s . XV I I .N armada V a l ley N a rm ada v a l ley , p a r t icu la r ly i t s c en t ra l p a r t b e tween N a r s inghpu r a nd H o shangabad , h a s p r eserved t h ick a l luv ia l d epo s i t s o f M idd le P l e i s tocene t o H o locene . T hey a r e e x t rem e ly r i ch i n a n im a l , p a r t icu la r ly , m amma l ian f o s s i l s , a nd P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic a r tef ac t s . An umbe r o f p a laeon to log i s t s , g eo log is t s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s h ave i n ves t iga ted t h e se d epo s i t s f r om 1 830 s o nwa rd s . A l though al o t o fa r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l h a s b een c o l lec ted , f ew p r ima ry s i t e s h ave b een f ound . A s r ega rd s h uman p hy s ica l r ema in s , t h ey a r e r e p r esen ted b y as i ng le i n comp le te c r an ium f ound b y A run S onak ia a t H a thno r a n ea r H oshangabad . Du r ing t h e m id 1 960 s VNM h ad p a r t ic ipa ted i n f i e ld w o rk i nt h e N a rmada v a l ley i n ap ro jec t l e d b y H .D . S anka l ia , a nd h e w a s f am i l ia r w i th t h e k nown g eo log ica la nd a r chaeo log ica l h i s to ry o ft h e v a l ley . I n 1 986 ,h e , S .N . R a jagu ru a nd G .L . B adam d ec ided t o c a r ry o u t f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion s i n t h e v a l ley . O the rp a r t ic ipan t s i nt h e p ro jec t w e r e R .K . G an joo , V .G . S a the , S a lahudd in a nd S haf iqu l A lam . T he o b jec t ive s o f t h e p ro jec t w e r e : a ) t o s e a r ch f o r h uman f o s s i l s ; b ) r e con s t ruc t p a laeoc l ima t ic a nd p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l h i s to ry o f t h e r e g ion ; a nd c ) t o r e la te s t one t o o l i ndu s t r ie s w i th p a laeoc l ima t ic p ha se s . T he t e am w o rk ed f o r f i ve s e a son s f r om 1 986 t o 1 990 , e xp lo r ed al a rge a r ea i nN a r s inghpu r d i s t r ic ta nd d i scove r ed s eve r a l P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i t ic s i te s , t h e mo s ti mpo r tan t b e ing t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i t e o f S amnapu r ( 2 3° 0 6 ' 1 7" N ; 7 9° 0 7 ' 3 0" E ) a nd t h e Me so l i th ic s i te o f K e rpan i ( 2 3° 0 4 ' 3 7" N ; 7 9° 0 9 ' 3 0" E ) , b o th l o ca ted o n t h e N a rmada r i ve r . T h e t e am c oncen t ra ted i t s w o rk a r ound D evakacha r v i l lage , l o ca ted a t t h e c on f luence o f S he r a nd V a ru r ewa r i ve r s , b o th t r ibu ta r ie s o f t h e N a rmada , a nd a t S amnapu r . Sma l l e xcava t ion s a tG ua r igha t o n t h e S he r a nd T a layagha t o n t h e V an i rewa i n t h e g r ave l ly s and b e long ing t ot h e U ppe rG roup o ft h e N a rmada s t ra t ig r aphy , a tt h e b a se o ft h e e xpo sed s e c t ion , y i e lded r i ch M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s a nd f o s s i l s o f av a r ie ty o f a n ima l s .

XV I I I . E xcava t ion a tB a la tha l B a la tha l w a s o ne o f t h e n ine s i tes o f t h e A ha r C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e wh ich VNM h ad d i scove red i n Mewa r d u r ing h i s 1 962 -64 e xp lo ra t ion s . T he q ue s t ion o f e xcava t ing a ny o f t h e se s i t e s d id n o t a r ise a s h e g o t b u sy i n o t he r p ro jec t s d e sc r ibed a bove . H ow eve r , i n 1 989 R a ja s than V idyapee th ( a d eem ed u n ive r s i ty ) , U a ipu r i n v i ted h im t o d e l ive r G ou r ichand H i rachand O jha Memo r ia ll e c tu r es . O n t h a t o cca s ion V ice -Chance l lo r o f t h e V idyapee th , K .K . V a sh is th e xp r e ssed a d e s i r e t o e s tab l i sh a n a r chaeo logy d epa r tm en t i n h i s u n ive r s i ty a nd s o l ic i ted VNM 's h e lp . VNM t o ld V a sh i s th t h a t s i nce a r chaeo logy w a sp r im a r i ly af i e ld s c ience ,t h e b es t w ay t ot r a in h i s s t af fw ou ld b e t oc a r ry o u t a j o in t e xcava t ion b y t h e D eccan C o l lege a nd t h e V idyapee th . Af t e r a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e s i te s d i scove r ed b y VNM , B a la tha l w a s s e lec ted o n t h e g round st h a t : ( 1 ) i tw ou ld a dd t oo u rk now ledge o f t h e Aha r c u l tu r e wh ich w a s t i l l t h en m a in ly b a sed o ne xcava t ion s o f Aha ra nd G i lund ; ( 2 ) w a sn o tt oo b ig a nd t h e r ef o r e m anageab le ; ( 3 ) w a s f a i r ly i n tac t ; a nd ( 4 ) w a s c onnec ted w i th U da ipu rb y am e ta l led r oad . T h e s i te c ove r s a n a r ea o fa bou t f i ve a c r es a nd h a s ah ab i ta t ion d epos i t o f a bou t s even m . I t w a s h o r izon ta l ly e xcava ted f o r s even s e a son s ( 1994 -

1 5

2 000 ) b y VNM , V .S , S h inde a nd R .K . Mohan ty o f t h e D eccan C o l lege , a nd L a l i t P andey a nd J .S . K ha rakwa l o f t h e R a ja s than V idyapee th . T hey w e re a s s i s ted b y an umbe r o f t h e i r c o l league s , i n c lud ing M .D . K a ja le , P .K . T homa s , P .P . J og leka r , A nupam a K sh i r saga r , a nd A ra t i D e shpande , s eve ra l m embe r s o ft h e t e chn ica l s t af f , a nd an umbe ro fr e sea rch s cho la r sf r om t h e D eccan C o l lege . T he f i nd s f r om t h e e xcava t ion m o r e t h an f u lf i l led t h e e xcava to r s ' e xpec ta t ion s . T he e xcava t ion s h ave p roduced e v id ence o f t wo c u l tu r a l p e r iod s , v i z . C ha lco l i th ic a nd E a r ly H i s to r ic . T hey a r e s epa ra ted b y as t e r i le l a ye r o f a bou to n em e t re t h ickne s s .

b l ack -and r ed w a r e , t h ick r e d s l ipped w a r e , a nd g r ey w a r e , t h e l a t te r t wo d eco r a ted w i th i n c i sed d e s ign s . I n P ha se B n ew a nd f i ne r c e ram ic s l i ke t h in r ed w a re a nd t a n w a r e m ade o fv e ry f i ne c l ay a nd b ak ed a t a h igh t empe ra tu r e a nd h av ing d i s t inc t ive s hape s w e r e i n t roduced . T he t a n w a r e h a s c l o se a f f in i ty w i th H a rappan p o t te ry i nf a b r ic a nd s hape s . T h i s w a r e a nd t h e c on s t ru c t ion o ft h e e nc lo su r e w e r e p robab ly i n sp i r ed b y t h e c on tac t o f t h e B a la tha l p eop le w i th t h e H a rappan p eop le o f G u ja r a t . T h e s ub s is tence e conomy o f t h e B a la tha l p eop le c on s i s ted o f c u l t iva t ion o f w hea t , b a r ley , g r een g r am , b l ack g r am , c ommon p ea ,j u jube a nd m i l le t s a nd d ome s t ica t ion o f c a t t le , b uf f a lo , s h eep , g oa t a nd p ig . T he w i ld a n ima l s e xp lo i ted b y t h e p eop le i n c luded n i lga i , b l ackbuck , f ou r -hor n ed a n te lope , c h i ta l , s amba r , w i ld b oa r , h a r e , mongoo se , s eve ra l s p ec ie s o f b i rd s , f i sh a nd t u r t le . T he t e chno logy m a in ly c on s i s ted o f c oppe r t oo l s t h ough o cca s iona l ly s t one b l ades a nd m ic ro l i th s w e r e a l so u sed .

T he C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod , d i v i s ib le i n to t wo p ha se s , A a nd B , i s c ha rac te r ized b y r i ch e v idence o f a r ch i tec tu r e , c e ram ic s , c oppe r t e chno logy , t e r raco t ta o b jec t s , s t one a nd s t ea t i te b ead s , a nd p l en t if u l e v idence o f a n im a l b one s a nd p l an t r ema in s . T he a r ch i tec tu r e c on s i s t s o f r e s iden t ia l s t ruc tu r e si nt h eo u te ra r ea a nd af o r t if ied e nc lo su r e i nt h e c en t r e o ft h e s e t t lem en t . I ts how s i n c ip ien t p l ann ing a s t h e t h r ee e xpo sed r e s iden t ia l c omp lexes a r e d i v ided b y a2m w ide s t r ee ta nd a1 m w ide l a ne . S t ruc tu r es a r e m ade o f s t one , mud b r ick a nd mud a nd r ange f r om s ma l l s i ng le r oom h ou se s t o l a rge mu l t i room ed c omp lexe s . T he h ou se s h ave o ve rg round a nd u nde rg round s t o rage b in s , k i tchen s w i th U shaped c hu lhas , a nd g r ind ing s t one s . T he f o r t if ied e nc lo su r e i s o f r ough ly r e c tangu la r s hape w i th w a l l s m ea su r ing 3 7 m i n e a s t -we s t d i rec t ion a nd 2 5 m i n n o r th -sou th d i rec t ion . T he i r w id th r a nges f r om 4 . 5 t o 5m a nd h e igh t f r om 3 . 5 t o 4m . T he c o r e o ft h e w a l l s i s m ade o f mud a nd t h e s i de s u pt o aw id th o f1 . 25 m o fs t on es . O n a l l t h e c o rne r s t h e r e a r e r e c tangu la r o rs qua r eb a s t ion s . T he e nc lo su r e c ove r s a na r ea o f a r ound 6 00 s q . ma nd i sf i l led f r om b o t tom t ot o p w i th b u rn t c ow d ung a nd c ow d ung c ake s . N o e n t rance t ot h e e nc lo su r e h a s b een l o ca ted a nd i t s f unc t ion r em a in s e n igma t ic . I t mu s t h ave r equ i r ed c on s ide rab le m anpowe rf o rq ua r ry ing a nd t r an spo r t o fs t one s a nd a c tua l c on s truc t ion o ft h e e nc lo su r e . T h i s w i l l b ep o s s ib le o n ly b y a n a ccep ted a u tho r i ty l i k e ac ommun i ty c h ief w ho c ou ld m ob i l ize t h e r equ i r ed l a bou r .

O f t h e t h ir ty ( c a l ib ra ted ) r a d ioca rbon d a te s f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic d epo s i t , 2 5 a r e s t r a t ig raph ica l ly c on s i s ten t a nd r a nge f r om 3 700 -3620 BC t o2 200 1 800 BC , m ak ing B a la tha l c on tempo ra ry w i th E a r ly a nd Ma tu r e H a rappan c u l tu re s a nd t h e o l de s t k nown v i l lage i nI nd ia . T h e s i t e w a s a bandoned b e tween 1 800 a nd 1 500 BC a nd r e occup ied b y i r on u s ing p eop le a r ound 4t h c en tu ry BC a nd r em a ined i no ccupa t ion u n t i l c . 3r d c en tu ry AD T he E a r ly H i s to r ic o ccupa t ion i s c ha rac te r ized b y e v idence o f i r on w o rk ing a nd a r i ch a nd v a r ied a s semb lage o f i r on t o o l s a nd w eapon s . T he a r ch i tec tu r e c on s i s ted o f s ma l l w a t t le a nd d aub h ou ses w i th t e r raco t ta d r a in s a nd r i ng w e l l s . S eve r a l t e r raco t ta s e a l s w i th B r ahm i s c r ip th ave b een f ound i nt h i sp e r iod .

T he f o r t if ied e nc lo su r e w a s b u i l to nt o p o fn ea r ly 2 m t h ick C ha lco l i th ic h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t . T he p r e f o r t if i ca t ion d epo s i t ( Pha se A ) r e p re sen t s a n e a r l ie r p ha se o fo ccupa t ion w he r ea st h e d epo s i ta bove a nd o u t s ide t h e f o r t if ica t ion r e p r e sen t s al a te r p ha se . T he e a r l ie rp ha se i sc ha rac ter ized b y w h i te p a in ted

C ha lco l i th ic a r ch i tec tu r eo fB a la tha l 1 996

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F iv e s t uden t s , n am e ly A nup M i sh r a , K u ru sh D a la l , A bh i j i t D andeka r , a nd D eba sh r ee D a sgup ta o ft h e D eccan C o l lege a nd N ico le B o iv in o f C amb r idge h ave p r epa r ed t h e i r P h .D . t h e ses o n t h e m a te r ia l f r om B a la tha l .

c onc re te t omb s ) among t h e Mu r ia G ond s o fB a s ta r i n M .P . ( now C hha t t i sga rh ) , a nd c a r r ied o u t e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s among t h e B h i l s , B an ja ra s , a nd K a lbe l iya si nR a ja s than .

X IX .E thnograph ic R e search B ecau se o f h i s r u ra l b ackg round VNM h ad a f e e l ing o fr e spec t a nd s ympa thy f o r t h e r u ra l a nd t r iba lp eop le f r om t h eb eg inn ing . H i s e xpe r ience o f f i e ld w o rk a mong t h e t r iba l p eop le a s M .A . s t uden t , a f te r c omp le t ing h i s M .A . e xam ina t ion , a nd a s aL ec tu r e r i n An th ropo logy a t L ucknow U n ive r s i ty , a nd e xamp le o f h i s t e ache r , D .N . Ma jumda r , h ad i n c r ea sed h i s i n te r e s t i n t r iba l e t hnog r aphy . A s h e b ecam e m o r e a nd mo r e a wa r e o f t h e i mpor tance o f e t hnog raph ic a na logy i nt h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta , h i s i n te r e s t i n e t hnog raphy d eepened . Du r ing h i se xp lo ra t ion sa nd e xcava t ion s h e w ou ld a lway s c o l lec t i n f o rma t ion a bou tr u ra l a nd t r iba l s oc ie t ie s f r om w o rk e r s i nt h e e xcava t ion a nd o t he r p eop le w hom h e m e t i n v a r iou s c on tex t s . I f w h i le t r ave l l ing b y r o ad h e w ou ld s e e ag roup c amp ing b y t h e r o ad s ide , h e w ou ld i n s tan t ly r e cogn ize t h em t ob e s om e k ind o f n om ad s , a nd w i l l s t op a nd s p end s om e t im e w i th t h em t o e nqu i r e a bou t t h e i r i d en t i ty , o ccupa t ion , s o c ia l o rgan iza t ion , e t c . H e h a s as pec ia l i n te re s t i n h un t ing -ga the r ing p eop le , a nd w ou ld a lway s m ak e e nqu i r ie s a bou tt h e e x i s tence o fs uch p eop le i nt h e a r ea d u r ing h i s e xp lo ra t ion a nd e xcava t ion w o rk . V i l lage m en a nd w om en e mp loyed i ne xcava t ion s w e r e am a jo r s ou r ce o fe t hnog r aph ic i n f o rma t ion , a nd w ou ld e n thu s ia s t ica l ly a n swe r q ues t ion s a sk ed t ot h em . B y s u ch e nqu i r ies i nt h e D idwana a r ea h e c am e t o k now a bou t t h e h un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i ty o ft h eV an V ag r i s a bou t whom n o th ing w a s k nown f r om t r ad i t iona l s ou r ce s l i ke g aze t tee r s a nd c en su s r e po r t s . T he se p eop le w e r e v e ry s hy a nd s c a red o f s t range r s , p a r t icu la r ly a f te r t h e g ove rnm en t 's f o r ced v a sec tomy p rog ramme d u r ing t h e 1 970 s . H oweve r , w i th p e r seve rance a nd t h rough t h e h e lp o f l o ca l p e r son s w hom t h e V an V ag r i s t r u s ted , VNM w a s a b le t o e s tab l i sh e xce l len t r a ppo r t w i th s eve ra l i n f o rm an t s , a nd c o l lec t e x t r em e ly i n te r e s t ing d a ta o n h un t ing t e chn ique s a nd t e chno logy , g am e h un ted , s oc ia l o r gan iza t ion , a nd r e l ig ion . VNM a l so c a r r ied o u t d e ta i led s t ud ie s o f t h r ee o t h e r h un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i t ie s , n ame ly P a rdh i s a nd K uchbandh iya s i nM .P . , j o in t ly w i th Ma l t i N aga r , a nd K an ja r s i n U .P .H e a l so s t ud ied t h ep r ac t ices o fd i spo sa lo ft h e d ead a nd r a i s ing o f m emo r ia l s t ruc tu r e s ( wood , s t one a nd c emen t c onc r e te p i l la r s a nd c emen t

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VNM s ay s t h a t t h e e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s o f a l s imp le ( non indu s t r ia l ized ) s oc ie t ies , a nd p ar t icu la r ly o ft ho se p r ac t i s ing ah un t ing -ga the r ing e conomy , h ave g r ea t r e levance f o r a r chaeo logy . K now ledge o ft h e i r t e chno logy , h un t ing a nd p l an t f ood g a the r ing t e chn ique s , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , r e l ig ion , a nd i n te rac t ion w i th o t he r c ommun i t ie s p rov ide s u s v e ry v a luab le c l ue s f o r i n te rp r e ta t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a nd u nd e r s tand ing t h e b ehav iou r o f p a s t s o c ie t ie s . O ne o f t h e m any e xamp les o f t h e a pp l ica t ion o f e t hnog r aph ic a na logy t oa r chaeo logy c an b e c i ted f r om w e s te rn R a ja s than . I nt h i s r e g ion m ic ro l i th ic s i tes a r e v e ry c ommon , o ccu r r ing m a in ly o n s and d une s a nd o cca s iona l ly o n r o cky s u rf ace s . T hey c ove r a r ea s o fv a ry ing s i zes , f r om a bou t 3 0 -40 s q . mt os eve r a l h und r ed s q . m , a nd t h e n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s v a r ie s f r om af ew s co re s t os eve ra l t h ou sand . O bv iou s ly , m any o f t h e se s i t es r e p r e sen t e ph eme ra l o ccupa t ion s b y s ma l l g roups . As i gh tw h ich i sv e ry c ommon i nt h e r e g ion t oday i so fs m a l l g roup s o f p eop le b e long ing t on omad ic c ommun i t ie s l i ke t h e V an V ag r i s , K a lbe l iya s , B h i l s ,J og i s , a nd B an ja ra s ,

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T he a r ea w he r eV .N .M i s ra h a sc a r r ied o u tf i e ldwo rk s

m ov ing i n t h e c oun t ry s id e o r c amp ing o n s and d un e si ns m a l lg r oup s . T h ey s t ay i no n ep l a ce f o ra f ew d ay so rw eek sf o rw o rk o nt empo r a ry p ro jec t s , h un t ing , p r ov id ing e n t e r ta inm en t t o l o ca l p eop le , w a t ch ing c r op s o f f a rm e r s ,e t c . T h ey b u i ld v e ry

f l im sy h u t s , a nd l e ave s om e t r a ce s o f t h e i r o ccupa t ion i n t h e f o rm o f h ea r th s , d i sca rd ed o b jec t s , e t c . T h e s e e xamp le s s u gg e s t t h a t t h e m ic ro l i th ic s i te s p robab ly r e p r e sen t s ho r t s t ay s o f n om ad ic Me so l i th ic h un t e r -ga th e r e rg r oup s .

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XX . P ar t ic ipa t ion i n c onf erence s , s em inar s , e t c . a nd v i s i t sa broad VNM h a sp a r t ic ipa ted a nd p r e sen ted p ape r si no ve r f i f ty n a t iona l a nd i n te rna t iona l c onf e r ences , s em ina r s , s ympo s ia , w o rk shop s , e t c . O f t h e i n te rna t iona l c onf e r ences , e t c . t h e m a jo r o ne s a r e l i s ted i nA ppend ix F .

( i ) I nd ian P reh i s tory 1 964 I n 1 964 H . D . S anka l ia o rgan ized t h e f i r s t n a t iona l s em ina r o n p r eh is to ry a nd p ro toh i s to ry o f I nd ia , a nd n om ina ted VNM a ss e c r e ta ry t ol o ok a f t e r t h e o rgan iza t iona l w o rk . T he s em ina r h ad a p a t ter n q u i te d i f f e r en t f r om n o rma l s em ina r s /conf e rence s . F o r ty a r chaeo log i s t s a c t ive ly e ngaged i n f i e ld a nd /o r l a bo ra to ry r e sea rch w e r e i n v i ted f o r p a r t ic ipa t ion . P ape r s o n 1 0 t o p ic s o n wh ich m ax imum r e sea r ch w a s b e ing d one o r wh ich w e r e c on s ide r ed p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t f o r r e sea r ch , w e r e i n v i ted f r om e xper t s i nt ho se f i e ld s . E ach o f t h ese p ape r s w a s s en t t o as e lec t g roup o fs cho la r s f o r s ubm i t t ing w r i t ten c omm en t s i n a dvance . S ix teen y oung r e sea r ch s cho la r s f r om d i f f e ren t i n s t i tu t ion s w e r e i n v i ted t oe nab le t h em t oi n te rac t w i th s en io r s cho la r s . T he p ape r s w e r e d i scu s sed i n m ax imum p o s s ib le d e ta i l o ve r ap e r iod o f e i gh t d ay s ( f rom 2 4t h t o3 1s tM ay ) . E ve ry p a r t ic ipan tw a s g i ven a n o ppo r tun i ty t oc omm en t o nt h e p ape r s . I n t h e e nd a l l t h e c ommen t s w e r e s ubm i t ted t o t h e a u tho r s o f t h e p ape r s , who w e re a sk ed t o s ubm i t w r i t ten r e p ly t o t h e c omm en t s . T he p roceed ing s w e r e e d i ted b y VNM a nd M .S . Ma te a nd w e r e p ub l i sh ed b yt h e D eccan C o l lege i n1 965 u nde rt h e t i t le , I nd ian P r eh i s tory : 1 964 . T he b ook c on t inued t ob e i nd em and e ven a f te r t h r ee d ecade s a nd w a s r e p r in ted i n1 995 .

V .N . M is ra w i th J .D . C la rk a nd T im Wh i te ( t o l ef t ) a nd Mr s . C la rk ( t or i gh t ) , I UPPS C onf e r en ce a tF o r l i , I t a ly 1 996

I na dd i t ion t ot h e se c onf e r ence r e la ted v i s i t s , VNM v i s i ted s eve ra l o the r c oun t r ie s f o r o t he r p u rpo se s . I n 1 979 h e w en t t o G r eece u nde r t h e I ndo -G r eek c u l tu ra l e xchange p rog ramm e , s aw m any f amou s a r chaeo log ica l s i tes a nd mu seum s o n t h e m a in land a s w e l l a s i n C r e te , a nd g ave l e c tu r e s o n I nd ian a r chaeo logy i nt h e A rchaeo logy D epa r tm en t o ft h e Un ive r s i ty o f A then s . O n t h i s o cca s ion h e a l so v i s i ted E gyp ta nd s aw t h ep y ram id sa tG iza a nd t h e C a i ro mu seum . I n 1 982 h e w en t t o E th iop ia a s a m embe ro ft h e i n ter n a t iona l e xped i t ion l e d b y J .D . C la rk f o r s e a r ch o fE a r ly Man . I n 1 986 a nd 1 994 h e v i s i ted B ang ladesh o n b eha lf o f t h e F o rd F ounda t ion , f i r s tt im et op r epa r e af e a s ib i l i ty r epor t f o r e s tab l i sh ing a D epa r tm en t o f A r chaeo logy a t J ahang ir n aga r Un ive r s i ty , S ava r , D haka , a nd s e cond t im e t o r ev iew t h e p rog r e s s o f t h e D epa r tm en t w h ich w a s e s tab l i shed i n 1 987 . T he n ew ly e s tab l i shed d epa r tm en t s en t f ou r o f i t s l e c tu r e r s , M .M . H ogue , S .S .M . R ahm an , S . Ah san , a nd A .B . P au l t o d o t h e i r P h .D . a t t h e D eccan C o l lege . T he f i r s t t wo w o rk ed u nde r t h e s uperv i s ion o f VNM , a nd t h e o t he r t wo u nde r t h e s uperv i s ion o fS .N . R a ja gu ru a nd V .S . S h inde .

( i ) S ympos ium o n I ndo -Pac if i c P reh i s tory 1 978 I n 1 977 , a s am embe r t h e n a t iona l o rgan iz ing c omm i t tee o f t h e X th I n te rna t iona l C ong r e s s o f An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c ience s ( ICAES ) , wh ich w a st ob eh e ld a tN ew D e lh i i nt h e s e cond w eek o fD ecembe r 1 978 , VNM h ad o f f e r ed t o o rgan ize ap o s t -Cong re s s s ympo s ium o n I ndo P ac if ic p r eh i s to ry a s t h e f i r s t c onf e r ence o f t h e I ndo -Pac if ic P r eh i s to ry A s soc ia t ion ( I PPA ) a tt h e D eccan C o l lege , P un e . T he s ympo s ium w a s h e ld o n 1 9 -21 D ecembe r 1 978 . O ne h und red a nd t wen ty two s cho la r s f r om 1 3 c oun t r ie s p a r t ic ipa ted i n i t ,t h e m ax imum p a r t ic ipan t s b e ing f r om I nd ia , Au s t ra l ia , USA , U .K . F rance a nd C anada . S even ty f i ve p ape r s , d i v ided i n to f ou rs e c t ion s a nd c ove r ing t h e e n t i re r ange o f I ndo -Pac if ic p reh i s to ry , w e r e p r e sen ted a tt h e s ympo s ium . T he a b s t rac t s o f a l l t h e p ape r s , a nd i n s om e c a ses f u l l p ape r s , w e r e e i the r m a i led t o t h e p a r t ic ipan t s i n a dvance o r g i ven b y h and a tt h e I CAES i nN ew D e lh i . E ve ry e ven ing t h e p a r t ic ipan t s w e re e n ter ta ined b y p rog r amm e s o f I nd ian c l a s s ica l mu s ic a nd d ance b y w e l l -known a r t i s t s . T h e p roceed ing s o f t h e s ympo s ium , e d i ted b y VNM a nd P e te r B e l lwood ,

XX I .O rgan iza t ion o fC onf erence s VNM h a s b een a s soc ia ted w i th t h e o rgan iza t ion o f an umbe r o f c on f e ren ce s . T he i mpor tan t o ne s o f t h em a r et h ef o l low ing .

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t h e l a t te r s e c re ta ry o fI PPA , w e re p ub l ished u nde r

c ou ld n o t c a r ry a n e x t ra c oach . T hey o f f e red t o a t tach t h e c oach t o a no the r t r a in wh ich w a s o fn o u se . I n d espe ra t ion , a t t h e l a s t momen t , VNM d ec ided t o s e ek t h e h e lp o f t h e r a i lway m in is te r , Madhu D andawa te , a nd w en t t o h i s r e s idence a nd m e t h i s p er sona l s e c r e ta ry ( PS ) . T o VNM 's g r ea t r e l ief t h e P S s a id t h a t h e w i l l a r range ac oach t ob e a t tached t ot h e GT E xp re ss . T he o n ly p rob lem w as t h a t n o F i r s t C la s s c oach w as a va i lab le a nd h ence a s e cond c l a ss c oach , wh ich h a s o n ly h a rd w ooden b er th s , w i l l b e a t tached . VNM h ad n o c ho ice b u tt o g r a tefu l ly a ccep t wha t w a s o f f ered . T he t r ave l a gency n ow m ade amend s f o rt h e i r e a r l ie r l a p se . I t s en t t wo o f i t s emp loyees , w i th m a t t resses a nd c l ean l i nen a nd a l l a r rangemen ts f o r t e a /cof f ee a nd f ood u p t o B ombay . T he d e lega tes a r r ived a t B hopa l o n 1 7 D ecember mo rn ing . H e re VNM 's f r iend s , B .M . P ande , S uper in tend ing A rchaeo log is t o ft h e AS I , a nd M .D . Kha re , D i rec to ro fM .P . S t a te A r chaeo logy D epa r tmen t , a tB hopa l , h ad a r ranged f o rt h e d e lega tes t ob e t r ea ted a s S t a te Gues t s , a nd a l l h o sp i ta l i ty , i n c lud ing ad inne r a tI t a ra s i b y t h e C o l lec to r o fH oshangabad , w e re p rov ided t ot h em . T he p a r t ic ipan ts c ou ld s e e t h e e xcava ted t r enches a nd r o ck p a in t ing s a tB h imbe tka o n 1 7 D ecembe r a nd t h e N a rmada Q ua terna ry s e c t ion s a t Ho shangabad t h e n ex t d ay . T hey l e f t I t a ras i i nt h e a f ter noon o f 1 8 D ecembe r a nd a r r ived a t P une e a r ly i nt h e mor n ing o f 1 9 D ecembe r ,j u s t i nt ime f o rt h e i n augu ra t ion .

t h e t i t le o f R ecen t A dvance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c P reh i s tory b yO xf ord IBH ,N ew D e lh i i n1 985 . VNM r e ca l ls a n u nf o rge t tab le e xper ience a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ympos ium . H e h ad o f f e red t o o rgan ize a v i s i t f o r t h e p a r t ic ipan t s t o B h imbe tka a nd N a rmada v a l ley s i tes a t Hoshangabad o n t h e w ay f r om N ew D e lh i , a f te rt h e I CAES e nded o n 1 6 D ecembe r , t o P oona . A l a rge n umbe r o f p a r t ic ipan t s , ma in ly f r om o ve r sea s c oun t r ies h ad w e lcomed t h e v i s i t a nd s en t money t o c ove r t h e t r ave l e xpen ses f r om N ew D e lh i t o P une b y t r a in . VNM h ad e n t ru s ted t h e t r ave l a r rangemen t s t o a r e pu ted t r ave l a gency i nP une , wh ich h ad , i nt ur n , a s s igned t h e j ob t o i t s D e lh i b ranch . Howeve r , when VN M r e ached D e lh i o n 8D ecembe r , h e l e ar n t t o h i s h o r ro r t h a t t h e a gency h ad m ade n o a r rangemen t s . H e w as i n ap an ic a s h i s r e pu ta t ion a nd c r ed ib i l i ty w e re a ts t ake , a nd u n les s t h e t r ave l a r rangemen t s w e re made q u ick ly , t h e p a r t ic ipan t s w i l l n o t b e a b le t o r e ach P une i n t ime , wher e a l l a r rangemen t s f o r t h e s ympo s ium h ad b een m ade . H e m e t s en io r r a i lway o ff ice r s w i th a r eques t t o a t tach as pec ia l c oach t o GT E xp res s , t h e o n ly t r a in whose s chedu le c ou ld c a r ry t h e d e lega tes t o B hopa l , d e tach t h e c oach t h e re f o r 2 4 h ou r s , a nd t h en a t tach i tt o a no the r t r a in wh ich w ou ld c a r ry t h e d e lega tes t o B ombay o n w ay t o P une . T he o ff icer s , h oweve r , t o ld VN M t h a t t h e GT E xp res s a l ready h ad i t s f u l l l o ad o fc oaches a nd i t s e ng ine

X th I CAES : P os t -P lena ry S ympo s ium o n l u do -P . . 1c li c P r eh is tory . D eccan C o l lege 1 978 S tand ing i s t r ow ( l ef t t or i gh t ) : P .R . K u lkam i , D .K . B ha t tacha rya , M .D . K a ja le , C . H igham , I .G love r , K . P addayya , B . Mur ty , S .W . C h i ta le , S .N . R a jaguru , S .C hak raba r t i , J .J acobson , P .C . P an t , C .P . G rove s , P . B e l lwood , I .M . C rawf o rd , K . G o I lan , V . P raka sh , D . M i l le r , W . Meecham , D .W . O r ch is ton , S .C . Ma l ik , S . J . H a l lam ; l i nd r ow : K . K au l , A .K . G ho sh , S .P . G up ta , M . B ha t tacha rya , T .C . S ha rma , K .L . Meh r a , C .E . D o r tch , V .VM . R ao , D . R a ju , R . S e t ta r , B .P . B opa rd ika r , P .S i ngh , P .R a jend ran , G . K uma r , Y .H . S i no to , R . O h t suka , K .R . B a r z , W . Ay re s , S .G . S upeka r , M r s . A u re s ; t urd r ow : Z .C oope r , S .P andya , N . B oga , V . J aya swa l , S . Wad ia , R . R ay , V .S . Wakanka r , G . P re s land , M r s . Why te , R .O . Why te , G .L . B adam , M . Maf aa t ,A . K uma r , R .V . J o sh i , B . B ronson , R .P . S oe jono , K .A .R . K ennedy , A .V .N . S a rma , S .S unda r a , S .N . R ao , R .S . P appu , V . C hapman S i t t ing I s t r ow : B . A l lch in , 1 . McB ryde , D . J . Mu lvaney , G .R . S ha rma , W .G . S o lhe im I t , M .A . d e L um ley , H .de L um ley , S .B . D eo , J .D . C la rk , H .D . S anka l ia , V .N . M is ra , K .R . A lu r , J . G o lson , P .E .L . Sm i th , F . I k awa -Sm i th , P .G rove s ; l i nd r ow : L . Modoko ro , I .L im , V . M is ra , Y . Ma thpa l , J . S . C h ingunde , D .R . R a ju , M . N aga r , M . L a l , R .P . P andey , Z . H u sa in , N . C hande r , S .C . N anda , C . G r ig son , J .K amm inga , S .K . R ay , V . B udho l ia , D . Sm i th .

( i i ) Wor ld A rchaeo log ica l C ongres s -3(WAC 3 ) 1 994 T he o rgan iza t ion o f Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica l

s p l i t i nt h e I n terna t iona l Un ion o f P r eh is tor ic a nd P ro toh is to r ic S c iences ( IUPPS ) o n t h e q ues t ion o f p a r t ic ipa t ion o f a r chaeo log is t s f r om S ou th A f r ica

C ong re ss (WAC ) w a sb or ni n 1 986 o u t o f as t ormy

a nd I s rae l i n t h e c ong res s a t S ou thamp ton . Af t e r

2 0

t w ice a w eek . H e s pen t n ea r ly a y ea r o n t h e p r epa ra t ion s a nd o rgan iz ing o ft h ec onf e r ence .

P e te r U cko , who w a s t o o rgan ize t h e c ong r es s , e xp r es sed h i si n ab i l i ty ,u nde rp r e s su r ef r om L abou r P a r ty d om ina ted o rgan iza t ion s , t o a ccep t t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f S ou th A f r ican a nd I s rae l i a r chaeo log i s t s , I UPPS d i sowned t h e c ong r e ss . B u t b yt h en U cko h ad g one s of a rw i th p r epa ra t ion sf o r t h e c onf e r ence t h a t i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le f o r h im t o a bandon i t . H e t h e r ef o r e w en t a head w i th o rgan iz ing i tu nde r t h e h u r r ied ly f ounded Wo r ld A r chaeo log ica l C ong r e s s . O n U cko 's r eque s t I nd ian A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( IAS ) a nd I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh i s to r ic a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ies ( I SPQS ) b ecam e , a mong o t h e r o rgan iza t ion s , s pon so r s o f t h e WAC -1 . Makkhan L a l , ay oung I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t , who w a s i nE ng land a tt h a t t im e , a s s i s ted i n o rgan iz ing WAC -1 , a nd o ve r 5 0 I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t s p a r t ic ipa ted i n i t . A f te r h i s r e tu rn t oI nd ia L a lt ook i n i t ia t ive i ne s tab l i sh ing a n I nd ian c hap te r o f WAC , a nd l o bb ied w i th s en io r a r chaeo log i s t s f o r o rgan iz ing t h e t h i rd c onf e r ence i nI nd ia . W i th t h e i n i t ia t ive t a ken b yB .B . L a l , S .P . G up ta , D .P . Ag rawa l , VNM a nd af ew o t he r s , t h e AS I a g r eed t o b e t h e h o s t a nd s en t af o rm a l i n v i ta t ion t o J a ck G o l son , P r e s iden t o f p a r en t WAC , i n 1 991 f o r h o ld ing WAC -3 i n I nd ia , a nd t h i s w a s a ccep ted b y t h e p a r en t b ody . A n o rgan iz ing c omm i t tee w a s s e t u p w i th B .B . L a l a s P r e s iden t , M .N . D e shpande a nd B .K . T hapa r a s V ice -P r e s iden t s , M .C . J o sh i , D i r ec to rG en e ra l , A S I a s S ec r e ta ry G ene ra l , Makkhan L a l a s T rea su r e r , a nd s eve ra l o the r s , i n c lud ing VNM , a s m embe r s . Meanwh i le , M .C . J o sh ir e t i r ed o n3 1s tM a rch , 1 993 a s DG , AS I , a nd t h e r ef o r e c ea sed t ob e S ec r e ta ry G ene ra l . H e w a s s ucceeded b y ab u r eauc ra t who w a s u nf or tuna te ly n o t v e ry c oope ra t ive w i th t h e c omm i t tee . T he P r e s iden t a nd V ice -P re s iden t st h en a sk ed VNM t o a ccep t t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o f S ec r e ta ry G ene ra l . VNM p o in ted o u t t ot h em t h a t b ecau se o fh i sa dm in i s t ra t ive j ob a sD i r ec to ro ft h e D eccan C o l lege , a nd a l so b e ing b a sed i nP un e , i t w i l l n o t b e p o s s ib le f o r h im t o d o j u s t ice t o t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o ft h e p o s i t ion o fS ec r e ta ry G ene ra l , mo r e s o b ecau se WAC -3 w a s t ob e h e ld i nD e lh i . H oweve r , b ecau se o ft h e i n s i s tence o ft h e se s en io r a r chaeo log i s t s h e r e luc tan t ly a ccep ted t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty .

Unf o r tuna te ly , t h e c onf e r ence g o t b ese t w i th p o l i t ic s f r om t h e v e ry b eg inn ing . As ma l l g roup o f h i s to r ian s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s w e r e o b ses sed t h a t t h e i s sue o f t h e d emo l i t ion o f t h e B abr i Ma s j id ( wh ich h appened i nD ecembe r 1 992 ) s hou ld b e a m a jo r s ub jec t o f d i scu s s ion d u r ing t h e C ong r e ss . T he o rgan ize r sw an ted t oa vo id i tb ecau se i tw a s a n e mo t iona l ly c ha rged i s sue a nd h ad b een g i ven a c ommuna l c o lou r . I th ad l e dt oc ommuna lr i o t s a nd l o s s o fm any l i ve s a nd p roper ty . D i scu s s ion o ft h i s i s sue w ou ld p u sh t h e l e g i t ima te a nd s e r iou s a cad em ic s ub jec t s o f t h e C ong re s s i n to t h e b ackg round a nd v i t ia te t h e a cadem ic a tmo sph e re . S om ep eop le c r ea ted al o to fd i s tu rbance d u r ing t h e r eg i s t ra t ion o fd e lega te s o n t h e v e ry f i r s t d ay a nd a ga in d u r ing t h e p l ena ry s e s s ion . A s e c t ion o ft h e E ng l i sh p r e s s d ep ic ted t h e o rgan iz ing c omm i t tee a s c ompo sed o f H indu f undam en ta l i s t s , wh ich w a s t o ta l ly u n true . B ecau se o ft h e a dve r se p ropaganda i nt h e E ng l i sh p r e s st h e P r e s iden t o fI nd ia w ho h ad e a r l ie r a g r eed t oi n augu ra te t h e C ong r e s s d ec l ined t od os oa tt h el a s t mom en t . T h e re w e r e o t he rp rob lem s a sw e l l . T he o rgan ize r s h ad n op rope ro ff i ce i nD e lh i . T h e m ake sh if to ff ice i nP u rana Q i la d i d n o t e ven h ave at e lephone , a nd s e c r e ta ry g en e ra l h ad t o s ha r e t h e p hone w i th t h e A S I o ff i ce i n t h e s ame p rem i se s . Many p a r t ic ipan t s , s pec ia l ly f r om o ve r sea s , w e re p u t t o g r ea t i n conven ience i n c on tac t ing t h e C ong r e ss o ff ice . A l so , an umbe ro ff o r e ign p a r t ic ipan t s c ame w i thou t av i sa a nd w e re s t r anded a t t h e a i rpor t . VNM s pen t a l o t o f t ime i n c on tac t ing t h e a u tho r i t ie s i n t h e H om e M in i s t ry t o o b ta in g ove rnm en t c l ea r ance f o r t h e se d e lega te s t o p a r t ic ipa te i n t h e C ong r e s s . A l toge the r , t h e c onf e rence t u rn ed o u t t o b e ac hao t ic a f f a i r a nd b rough t ab ad n am e t o t h e o rgan ize r s a nd t h e c oun t ry . ( i v ) I n troduc t ion o f A f r ican Cu l t ivar s i n to S ou th A s ia C e r ta in m i l le t s l i k e b a jra ( Penn i se tum t y pho id e s ) , j owa r ( Sorghum b i co lor ) , a nd r a g i ( E leus ine c oracana ) p l ay a v e ry i mpor tan t r o le i nt h e f ood e conomy o fs em i -a r id a nd e ven s ub -hum id r eg ion s o fS ou th A s ia . T he se m i l le t s a r e b e l ieved t ob e o f A f r ican o r ig in . H oweve r , t h e e xac t t im e a nd p roce s s o f t h e i r i n t roduc t ion i n to S ou th h ave n o t b een c o r r ec t ly i d en t if i ed . Mau r iz io T o s i , a n em inen t a r chaeo log i s t a nd t h e d i r ec to r o f t h e

A s S ec r e ta ry G ene ra l VNM w a s e x -of f ic io c onv ene r o fa l l t h e c omm i t tee s . H e h ad t op r epa r e t h e a genda a nd m inu tes o ft h e m ee t ing s o fa l l t h e c omm i t tee s a nd s end t h em t ot h e m embe r s . A s a l l t h em ee t ing sw e r eh e ld i nD e lh i , f o ra lmo s ta ny ea r h e h ad t o t r ave l f r equen t ly t o D e lh i , s om e t ime s

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I t a l ian Emba s sy C u l tu ra l C en t r e , N ew D e lh i i nt h e l a te 1 980 s a nd e a r ly 1 990s , a nd K .L . Meh ra , a f o rm e r s c ien t i s t o f t h e I n te rna t iona l B u r eau o f P lan t G ene t ic R e sou rces ( IBPGR ) , N ew D e lh i , d i scu s sed t h i s s ub jec t w i th VNM o n s eve ra l o cca s ion s d u r ing 1 989 -90 a nd s ugges ted t oh im t o o rgan ize aw o rk shop f o r at ho rough d i scu s s ion o f t h e i s sue . A cco rd ing ly , VNM o rgan ized a n i n te rna t iona l w o rk shop o n 7 -8 D ecembe r 1 991 a t t h e D eccan C o l lege o n ' P r eh i s to r ic C on tac t s b e tween S ou th A s ia a nd A f r ica : T he D i spe r sa l o f P lan t C u l t iva r s a l ong t h e No r th I nd ian S eaboa rd ' . T he p a r t ic ipan t s i n c luded , b es ide s T os i , Meh ra a nd VNM , M .D . K a ja le f r om D eccan C o l lege , K .S . S a ra swa t f r om B i rba l S ahn i I n s t i tu te o f P a laeobo tany , L ucknow , R .K . A ro ra f r om I BPGR , N ew D e lh i , L o r enzo C o s tan t in i f r om I sMEO , R om e , S ando r B okony i f r om B udapes t , P h i l ippe G own f r om CNRS ,P a r i s ,a nd f a cu l ty m embe r sa nd r e sea rch s cho la r s o ft h e A r chaeo logy D epa r tm en t o f D eccan C o l lege . T he p roceed ing s o f t h e w o rk shop , wh ich a l so i n c lude t h e s pec ia l ly i nv i ted p ape r sb yM .R . Mugha l f r om L aho r e , P ak i s tan a nd S ee tha N . R eddy f r om Wi son s in , USA , e d i ted b y VNM a nd M .D . K a ja le , h ave b een p ub l i shed b yt h e I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh i s to r ic a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ie s i n2 003 , P un e , u nde rt h e t i t le ,I n t roduc t ion o fA f r ican C rop si n to S ou th A s ia .

V .N . M i s ra w e lcom ing t h ed e lega t e so ft h eS oc ie t ie s 1 999

V .N . M is r a w i th S .P . G up ta d u r ing C onf e r en ce a t D eccan C o l lege 1 999

XX I I . VN M a nd t he D eccan C o l lege F rom 1 962 t o 1 981 VNM w a s o n t h e s t af fo ft h e P oona Un ive r s i ty D epa r tm en to fA r chaeo logy , f i r s t a sl e c tu r e r( 1962 -68 ) a nd t h en a sR eade ra nd H ead o ft h e D epa r tm en t( 1968 -81 ) . I n 1 981 h ej o in ed t h e D eccan C o l lege a s p rof e s so r o f p r eh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy . H eb ecam eJ o in tD i r ec to ri n1 986 a nd D i r ec to ri n 1 990 . H e r e t i r ed f r om t h e l a t te rp o s t o n 3 1 A ugu s t2 000 .

( v )J o in tC onf erence o ft hree s oc ie t ie s T h e I nd ian A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( IAS ) , T h e I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh i s to r ic a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ie s ( I SPQS ) , P une , a nd t h e I nd ian H i s to ry a nd C u l tu r e S oc ie ty ( IHCS ) , N ew D e lh i , h ave b een h o ld ing t h e i r a nnua l c onf e rence j o in t ly r i gh t f r om t h e t im e o f t h e i r i n cep t ion s . I n 1 999 VNM o rgan ized t h e j o in t c onf e ren ce o f t h e s oc ie t ies a t t h e D eccan C o l lege t oc o inc ide w i th t h e D iamond J ub i lee o ft h ec o l lege a s aR e sea rch I n s t i tu te . I tw a s o ne o ft h e mo s t l a rge ly a t tended c onf e r ence s . O n t h i s o cca s ion s en io ra r chaeo log i s t s S .P . Gup ta , J . P . J o sh i a nd V .D . M i s ra , a nd p a s t s t uden t s o ft h e o ld ( p r e 1 934 ) D eccan C o l lege , N .B . G odbo le , M .V . D e shpande , N .V . B apa t a nd K .G . B hadbhade w e r e f e l ic i ta ted . D r . S t a t i ra Wad ia w a sf e l ic i ta ted f o rh e r v ery i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e e d i t ing o f Man a nd E nv ironmen t . S .P . Gup ta d e l ive r ed t h e H .D . S anka l ia Memo r ia l l e c tu r e a nd K .N . D ik sh i t d e l ive r ed t h e P r e s iden t ia l a dd r e s s o f I SPQS . A l a rge n umbe r o fp ape r s w e re p re sen ted d u r ing t h e c onf e rence .

S om e o f t h e s a l ien t d eve lopm en t s a nd e ven t s d u r ing t h e p e r iod o f h i s d i rec to r sh ip a r e g iv en b e low . ( i ) D eemed Un iver s i ty S ta tus I n 1 983 t h e t h en D i rec to ro ft h e I n s t i tu te , S .B . D eo a pp l ied t o t h e UGC f o r g r an t ing t h e D eem ed Un iv e r s i ty s t a tu s t ot h e I n s t i tu te . T he UGC s en t a n e xpe r t c omm i t tee i n 1 985 f o r i n spec t ion o f t h e I n s t i tu te , a nd t h e c omm i t tee r e comm ended t h e g r an t ing o ft h e d eem ed u n ive r s i ty s t a tu s , s ub jec tt o t h e f o rma t ion o f a r eg i s te r ed s oc ie ty a nd m emo randum o f a s soc ia t ion f o r r unn ing t h e I n s t i tu te . T h is r e comm enda t ion p osed a s e r iou s p rob lem b ecau se t h e I n s t i tu te i s r un b y t h e g ove rnm en t o f Maha ra sh t ra u nde r t h e B ombay H igh C ou r t D ec r ee o f 1 938 , a nd f o rma t ion o fn ew s oc ie ty w a s l e ga l ly n o t f e a s ib le . B y t h i s t im e D eo h ad r e t i r ed a nd M . K . D hava l ika rs ucceeded h im a s

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D i r ec to r . D hava l ika r b rough t t h e p rob lem t o t h e n o t ice o ft h e UGC b u t i tt ook al o t o fe xp la in ing a nd c o r r e sponden ce t o c onv ince t h e UGC n o t t o i n s i s t o n t h e f o rm a t ion o f ar e gd . s o c ie ty . F ina l ly , t h e M in i s t ry o f HRD , G ov t . o f I nd ia , o n t h e r e comm enda t ion o ft h e UGC , g r an t ed t h e s t a tu s i n Ma r ch 1 990 , a nd a sk ed t h e I n s t i tu te t of r ame n ew R u le s a nd B ye law s f o r t h e f un c t ion ing o f t h e U n ive r s i ty . O n D hava l ika r 's r e que s t , t h e C ha i rman o f t h e I n s t i tu te 's C ounc i l o f Managem en t , P rof . S .C . G up te , a ppo in ted af ou r -m embe rc omm i t tee t o f r am e t h e d r af t r u le s a nd b ye law s . D hava l ika r r e t i r ed a sD i r ec to ri n May 1 990 a nd w a s s ucceeded b y VNM . Af t e r an umbe ro fs i t t ing st h e c omm i t tee p r epa r ed t h e d r af t s . T hese w e r e t h en p l aced b ef o r e t h eC ounc i l o f Managem en t , w h ich e xam ined t h em t h o rough ly o ve r s eve ra l s i t t ing s l a s t ing n ea r ly s i x mon th s . T he R u le s w e r e t h en s ubm i t ted t o t h e UGC a nd t h e S t a te G ov t . a nd t h e B ye law s o n ly t o t h e S t a te G ov t . f o r t h e i r a pp rova l . O b ta in ing t h is a pp rova l p roved t ob e av e ry t o ugh t a sk b ecau se t h e UGC w an ted t h e I n s t i tu te t o h ave c omp le te a u tonomy a nd t h e S t a te G ov t . w an ted t oh ave t o ta l c on t ro l . I tr equ i r ed a l o t o f c o r r e spond en ce a nd m any v i s i t s b y VNM t o D e lh i a nd Mumba i t o p e r suade t h e s en io r o ff ice r s o f t h e t wo o rgan iza t ion s t o d i lu te t h e i r s t and s s o t h a t a m ee t ing g round c ou ld b e f ound . F ina l ly , t h e r u le s w e r e a pp roved i n J u ly 1 994 a nd t h e I n s t i tu te s t a r ted f unc t ion ing a s aD eem ed U n ive r s i ty . O n D hava l ika r 's r e qu e s t t h e S t a te G ov t . h ad a g reed t o c r ea te s eve ra l n ew t e ach ing a nd n on teach ing p o s t s , a ppo in tm en t s t o wh ich w e r e m ade a f te r t h e I n s t i tu te s t a r ted f unc t ion ing i ni t sn ew c apac i ty .

g r an t s , t h e l a s t i n1 992 , t h e t o ta l a moun t e xceed ing 8 00 ,000 U S S . Ma ry Z u rbu chen , o ne o f J o sh i 's s ucce s so r s , w a s a l so v e ry s uppo r t ive . T he se g r an t s w e r e u t i l ized f o r a cqu i s i t ion o f s oph i s t ica ted r e sea rch e qu ipm en t l i k e X -Ray D if f r ac tom e te r , A tom ic A b so rp t ion S pec topho tome te r , an umbe ro f m ic ro scope s , s eve ra lv eh ic le s f o rf i e ld w o rk , b ook s a nd j our n a l s f o r t h e l i b ra ry , f o r d o ing f i e ld w o rk , f o rp ub l ica t ion , f o re s tab l i sh ing ac ompu t ing c en t r e f o r s t af f a nd s t ud en t s , a nd f o r s end ing f a cu l ty m embe r s f o r a dvanced t r a in ing i n o ve r sea s i n s t i tu t ion s a nd f o r p a r t ic ipa t ion i n i n ter na t iona l c onf e r ences . T he g r an t s h ave m ade a s ub s tan t ia l c on t r ibu t ion t ou pg rad ing r e sea rch f a c i l i t ie s a nd t o t h e q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o ft h e r e sea r ch o u tpu t o f t h e d epa r tm en t .

V .N . M i s r a w i th C . S ub raman iam , G ove rno r o f Maha r a sh t r a a nd S .C . G up te , V ice -Chance l lo r , P une U n iv e r s i ty i nL okmanya B a lG angadha rT i lak 's r oom a tD eccan C o l lege 1 99 1

( i ) T he F ord F ounda t ion O ne o ft h e m any m emo rab le e xper ience s o f VNM a tt h e D eccan C o l lege w a s h i s c on tac t w i th t h e F o rd F ounda t ion . I n 1 981 V .C . J o sh i , t h en P ro jec t O ff ice rw i th t h eF ounda t ion a tN ew D e lh i , a nd o ne o f t h e f i ne s t p e r son s VNM h a s m e t , e xp r e s sed a d e s i r e t o m ee t t h e l a t te r . T he i r m ee t ing l a te r i n J o sh i 's o ff ice l e d t o VNM j o in ing t h e e xped i t ion l e d b y d i s t ingu i shed a r chaeo log i s t J .D . C la rk f o r s e a r ch o f e a r ly m an i n E th iop ia i n 1 982 . S ub sequen t ly , VNM i n v i ted J o sh i t o v i s i t t h e D eccan C o l lege , m ee t h i s c o l league s a nd s e e t h e r e sea r ch w o rk b e ing d one i n a r chaeo logy . J o sh i v i s i ted t h e I n s t i tu te i ne a r ly 1 983 a nd w a s h igh ly i mp r es sed b y t h e r e sea r ch o u tpu t a nd p o ten t ia l o f t h e d epa r tm en t . H i s v i s i t l e d i n 1 983 t o t h e F ounda t ion g i v ing ag r an t o fn ea r ly 3 00 ,000 U S $ t o t h e d epa r tm en t f o r a ugm en ta t ion o f r e sea r ch f a c i l i t ie s . L a te r , t h e F ounda t ion g ave f ou r mo r e

V .N . M is r a w i th P .C . A lexand e r , G ove rno r o f Maha ra sh t ra a nd M r s . A lexande ra tD eccan C o l lege 1 994

( i i ) U n iver s i ty G ran t sC omm i s s ion ( UGC ) T he UGC r e gu la te s t h e s t anda rd s o f h i ghe r e duca t ion a nd p rov ide s f und ing f o ru n ive r s i t ie s a nd c o l lege s . I n s t i tu t ion s a nd d epa r tm en t s p erf o rm ing b e t te r a r e g iven s pec ia l a nd h i ghe r g r an t s . I n 1 972 t h e UGC h ad r e cogn ized t h e a r chaeo logy d epa r tm en t o f t h e I n s t i tu te f o r S pec ia l A s s i s tance P rog ramme ( SAP ) a nd i n 1 985 t h i s s t a tu s w a s

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u pg raded t o C en t re o f Advanced S tudy ( CAS ) . Du r ing t h ep er iod o f VN M 's d i rec to r sh ip , t h e w o rk o ft h e CAS w a s e va lua ted b y e xper t c o mm i t tees i n 1 992 a nd 1 998 . T he c omm i t tees g ave s upe r la t ive r epor t s , a nd o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e po r t s t h e UGC s anc t ioned s ubs tan t ia l g r an t s t ot h e d epa r tmen t f o r a cqu is i t ion o f l a bo ra to ry e qu ipmen t , b ook s a nd j ou rna ls , t wo v eh ic les f o r f i e ld w o rk , a nd f o r f i e ld wo rk , p ub l ica t ion , a nd h i r ing o fs e c re ta r ia l s t af f . I t

t h e b a r rack s w er e m ean t t o b e t empo ra ry s t ruc tu res , t h ey s l ow ly s t a r ted d ecay ing a nd h ad t o b e p u l led d own a s t h ey b ecame u n saf e f o r l i v ing . A s ac on sequence mos t o ft h e c ampu s w a s s l ow ly r e duced t o emp ty a nd b a r r en r o cky l a nd . VNM s uccessfu l ly p e r suaded t h e S t a te F o res tD epa r tmen t t op l an t t r ees o ve r t h e e n t i re v acan t l a nd . T h i s h a s m ade t h e c ampu s g reen a nd b eau t ifu l , a nd h a s r e duced p o l lu t ion f r om t h e g row ing n umber o f v eh ic les wh ich u se t h e r oad p a s s ing t h rough t h e

a l so s anc t ioned t wo n ew p os t s o f l e c tu re r i n b ioa rchaeo logy a nd c ompu te r a r chaeo logy . Du r ing t h e I X th F ive Y ea r P lan t h e UGC p rov ided s ubs tan t ia l f und s t ot h e I n s t i tu te f o rt h e a cqu is i t ion o f l a bo ra to ry e qu ipm en t , b ook s a nd j ou rna ls , f o r e x ten s ion o f a r chaeo logy a nd l i b ra ry b u i ld ing s , r enova t ion o f o ld b u i ld ing s , c ompu ter iza t ion a nd n e two rk ing o ft h el i b ra ry , a nd p u rcha se o f ac a r .

c ampu s . T he t r ees a l so p rov ide f u e l w ood ( t h rough i l ega l f e l l ing ) t o p oo r i nma tes o f t h e c ampu s a s w e l l a s t o r e s iden t s o f c o lon ies i mm ed ia te ly o u t s ide t h e c ampu s . XXI I I . I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic a nd Qua ternary S tud ies ( I SPQS ) a nd Man a nd Env i ronmen t (ME ) T he I nd ian A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( IAS ) w a s f ounded a t V a rana s i i n 1 966 a t t h e i n i t ia t ive o f P rof . A .K . N a ra in , a nd i t i mmed ia te ly s t a r ted h o ld ing i t s c onf e rence a nd p ub l ish ing i t s j ou rna l , P ura ta t t va , e ve ry y ea r . H oweve r , a f te r af ew y ea r s i tb ecam e c l ea r t h a t t h e I AS a nd P ura ta t t va , w i th t h e i r t h ru s t o n p ro toh i s to ry a nd e a r ly h i s tor ic a r chaeo logy , w e re u nab le t o d o j u s t ice t o p reh is tory wh ich w a s af a s t g row ing b ranch o f I nd ian a r chaeo logy . T heref o r e , i n1 975 S .P . G up ta , D .P . A g rawa l ( DP ) , VNM , S .C . Ma l ik a nd a f ew o the r c o l leagues e s tab l ished t h e I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic a nd Q ua terna ry S tud ies ( I SPQS ) t o p romo te r e sea rch i np reh is to ry , Q ua terna ry s t ud ies , h uman e vo lu t ion , a nd e thnoa r chaeo logy . I n i t ia l ly , t h e S oc ie ty 's o ff i ce w a s l o ca ted a t PRL , Ahmedabad , a nd DP w a s g ene ra l s e c re ta ry . T he o ff i ce w as s h if ted t o D eccan C o l lege , P une a f te r VNM b ecame g ene ra l s e cr e ta ry i n 1 981 . T he S oc ie ty s t a r ted h o ld ing i t s a nnua l c onf e rence j o in t ly w i th I AS f r om 1 976 , a nd b r ing ing o u t i t s own j our n a l , Man a nd E nv ironmen t , i n 1 977 w i th VNM a se d i to r . Du r ing 1 982 -84 ( Vo ls . V -V I I ) a nd 1 985 -88 ( Vo ls . V I I I -X I I ) DP a nd D .K . C hak raba r t i w e r e e d i to r , r e spec t ive ly . F rom 1 989 VNM h a s b een e d i to r . H e w a s a l so g ene ra l s e cre ta ry o ft h e S oc ie ty f r om 1 981 t o2 000 , b u t f o r ag ap o ft h ree y ea r s when S .N . R a jagu ru h e ld t h i s p os t . F rom 2 001 h eh a sb een c ha i rman o ft h e S oc ie ty .

( i v ) D eccan C o l lege Emergency R e l ief F und L ike a l l p ub l ic i n s t i tu t ion s i n I nd ia , D eccan C o l lege t oo h a s a l a rge s t reng th o f p eon s , w a tchmen , a nd o the r c a tego r ies o f emp loyees whose s a la r ies a r e l ow . Mos t o f t h em a r e h a rd ly a b le t o make a ny s av ing s , a nd i n s i tua t ion s o f i lness o r o t he r u nexpec ted p rob lem s , t h ey a r e f o rced t ob o r row money f r om t h e i r p rov iden t f und a nd s t af f w e lf a re a s soc ia t ion f und , b o th o f wh ich t h ey h ave t or e fund i ni n s ta l lmen t s . B es ides , o f ten t h ey h ave t o b o r row money f r om b ank s a nd money lender s a t h igh r a te s o f i n te r es t , a nd a l so f r om t h e i r b e t te r p a id c o l league s i n t h e C o l lege . VN M , who w a s a l so o f ten a pproached f o r l o an s a nd g ave t h em , w as c on t inua l ly t h ink ing o ff i nd ing s ome w ay t oh e lp t h ese p eop le . F ina l ly h e t hough t o f e s tab l ish ing a n eme rgency r e l ief f und t h rough c on t r ibu t ion s f r om t h e e mp loyees . F rom t h is f und n eedy emp loyees w i l l b e g iven a n on refundab le g ran t i n c a se o f eme rgenc ies l i ke s e r iou s i lness a nd d ea th . H e a ppea led t o t h e emp loyees a nd t h e r e spon se w a s g ood . O ve r t h e y ea r s h e lp h a s b een g i ven f r om t h e f und t o an umbe ro fp e r son s . ( i v ) A f f ore s ta t ion o ft he c ampus D eccan C o l lege h as al a rge c ampu s o f 1 25 a c r es . B e ing a s pec ia l ized r e sea r ch I n s t i tu te w i th s ma l l s t uden t a nd s t af fs t reng th s i ti su nab le t ou t i l ize a l l t h e l a nd . Du r ing Wo r ld Wa r I t h e c ampu s w a s t a k en o ve r b y t h e I nd ian A rmy f o r e s tab l ish ing a n o ff i ce r s t r a in ing s choo l a nd w a s i n A rmy 's p os sess ion f o r a bou t t e n y ea r s . Du r ing t h is p er iod t h e a rmy b u i l t al a rge n umbe r o f b a r rack s f o r i t s s t af f . T hese b a r rack s b ecame t h e p roper ty o f t h e I n s t i tu te a f t er t h e a rmy v aca ted t h e c ampu s i n 1 949 , a nd w e re u sed f o r h ou s ing i t s s t af f . B u t a s

D eve lop ing t h e S oc ie ty a nd i t sj our n a l h ave b een a m iss ion f o r VNM , a nd h e h a s d evo ted al o t o ft im e a nd e ne rgy f o r t h is p u rpose . A f te r h e t ook o ve r a s g ener a l s e c re ta ry , l i f e m embe r sh ip o f t h e S oc ie ty g r ew f a s t , a nd n ow s t and s a r ound 5 00 . I n 1 989 h e o b ta ined a g ran t o f 4 5 ,000 US $ f r om t h e F o rd

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V .N . M is r a b e ing f e l ic i ta ted a t t h e S o c ie t ie s c onf e r ence a t T i rupa t i2 003

F ounda t ion f o r m ak ing t h e j ou rna l b i annua l a nd i mp rov ing i t s e d i to r ia l a nd p r in t ing q ua l i ty . Man a nd E nv ironmen t i st h e o n ly r e f e r eed a r chaeo logy j ou rna l i n S ou th A s ia a nd r e ce iv e s c on t r ibu t ion s f r om l e ad ing a r chaeo log is t si nI nd ia a nd o u t s ide . I n r unn ing t h e S oc ie ty a nd t h e J ou rna l , VNM i s a s s is ted b yc ompe ten ts ma l lt e am s .

XX IV . VN M a s An thropo log i s t VNM c am et oa r chaeo logy f r om a n th ropo logy , a nd t h roughou t h i s a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch h e h a s r e ta ined h i s i n te re s ti na n th ropo logy , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e l i f eway s o ft h e r u r a l a nd t r iba l p eop le , a nd i n t h e f o rma t ion o fI nd ian s oc ie ty . H e f i rm ly b e l ieves t h a t t h e e x i s t ing I nd ian s oc ie ty h a s e vo lved n o t o n ly f r om i t s h i s to r ica l a n teceden t s b u t a l so f r om p r eh i s to r ic a nd p ro toh i s to r ic o ne s . I n h i s v i ew much o f t h e e no rmou s b i o log ica l , e conom ic , t e chno log ica l , m a te r ia l c u l tu re , s oc ia l , l i ngu i s t ic , a nd r e l ig iou s d i ve r s i ty s e en i nt h e c oun t ry c an b e s a t i sf ac to r i ly e xp la ined o n ly w i th t h e h e lp o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . H e a l so b e l ieve s t h a t a r chaeo logy c an b e m ean ingf u l o n ly i fi ti su sed t o u nde r s tand t h e p r e sen t s oc ie ty . F o rt h is r e a son , t h e a r chaeo log i s t s hou ld n o t o n ly b e f am i l ia r w i th a r chaeo log ica l d a ta b u t a l so w i th t h a t o ft h e l i v ing s oc ie ty . I ti sb ecau se o f t h is c onv ic t ion t h a t h e s pend s a c on s ide r ab le t im e i n c o l lec t ing i n f o rm a t ion a bou t t h e c u l tu r e o ft h e p eop le l i v ing i n t h e a r ea whe r e h e d oes a r chaeo log ica l f i e ld w o rk . O ne o f t h e mo s t f a vou r i te t op ic s o f h i s l e c tu r e si s' P reh i s to r ic r oo t so fI nd ian s oc ie ty ' .

V .N . M is ra w i th V .S . P a thak a nd o t he rd e lega t e sa tt h eS o c ie t ies c onf e r ence a tG o r akhpu r 1 995

VNM w a s i n s t rum en ta l i n e s tab l ish ing t h e H .D . S anka l ia Memo r ia l L ec tu r e a nd t h e H .D . S anka l ia Y oung A r chaeo log i s t Awa rd t h rough t h e S oc ie ty . O the r a wa rd s g i ven b y t h e S oc ie ty , w i th t h e e s tab l i sh ing o fw h ich h e w a s a s soc ia ted , a r e Ma l t i N aga r Awa rd f o r E thnoa r chaeo logy , a nd R .K . S ha rma Awa rd f o rE xce l lence i nA rchaeo logy . T he l a s t t wo a wa rd s h ave b een e s tab l ished f r om t h e d ona t ion s g iven b y t h e s cho la r s a f t e r w hom t h ey a r e n amed . T he S anka l ia Memo r ia l l e c tu re i s p ub l i shed i n ME i n t h e i s sue i mmed ia te ly f o l low ing t h e l e c tu r e . T he H .D . S anka l ia Y oung A r chaeo log i s t Awa rd a nd Ma l t i N aga r Awa rd f o r E thnoa r chaeo logy a r e g i ven f o r r e sea r ch p ape r s p r e sen ted a tt h e S oc ie ty 's c onf e rence a nd a d judged b e s tb yi n dependen tp ane l so fj udge s . T he S anka l ia Awa rd i sr e s t r ic ted t o s cho la r s b e low 3 5 y ea r s o f a ge , a nd t h e N aga r Awa rd c an a l so b e g i ven f o r p ub l i shed w o rk .

VNM g i ve s c r ed i t f o r h i s modes t a cadem ic a ch ievem en t s t o h i s t e ache r s a nd t o t h e D eccan C o l lege . Among t h e f o rm e r h e i s p a r t icu la r ly i n deb ted t of ou r : P and i t B rahm anand S ha s t r i , who e ncou r aged h im t o g o f o r c o l lege e duca t ion a nd h e lped h im g e t a dm i s s ion i n to D .A .V . C o l lege , K anpu r ; P rof . K .N . S ha rma , w ho a dv i sed h im t o s t udy a n th ropo logy a tM .A . ; D .N . Ma jumda r a nd H .D . S anka l ia , b o th o fw hom i n cu lca ted i nh im t h e s p i r i t o fh a rd w o rk a nd d ed ica t ion , a nd Ma jumda r a l so f o r a dv i s ing h im t od o r e sea r ch i np r eh i s to ry , wh ich b ecam e h i s l i f e l ong w o rk . S anka l ia , t h ough p hy s ica l ly f r a i l , w a s e x t r em e ly e n e rge t ic , i ndu s t r iou s a nd t o ta l ly d evo ted t oa r chaeo logy . H e w a s a l so e x t r em e ly s imp le , u na s sum ing , d i sc ip l ined a nd w e l l o rgan ized . B yh i s e xamp le , h e w a s ag r ea t s ou r ce o fi n sp i r a t ion t o VNM . A s b o th o ft h em w e r e l i v ing o nt h e c ampu s o ft h e I n s t i tu te , t h ey w e r e i n c on tac t w i th e ach o t he r e ven o n h o l iday s . D eccan C o l lege p rov ided VNM t h e b e s t f a c i l i t ies f o r r e sea rch a va i lab le i n a ny i n s t i tu t ion o f h uman i t ie s a nd s oc ia l s c ience s i n I nd ia : aw e l l e qu ipped a nd w e l l -managed l i b ra ry , f und s f o r r e sea r ch , q ua l if i ed t e chn ica l s t af f , f r eedom t o c hoo se t h e s ub jec t , g eog raph ica l a r ea a nd t im e o f

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o n e 's r e sea r ch p ro jec t s , a c ondu c ive r e sea r ch e nv i ronm en t w i th m any c ompe t en t a nd d ed ica ted c o l leagu e s a nd s t ud en t s , a nd ap l a ce w h e r e l e ad ing s cho la r s f r om a l o v e r t h e w o r ld w e r e r egu la r v i s i to r s a nd d e l iv e r ed l e c tu r e s . H e c on s id e r s h im se lf v e ry f o r tuna t e t h a t m any l e ad ing a r chaeo log i s t s , b o th f r om I nd ia a nd o u t s id e , h av e v i s i t ed h i s h om e . H e i sp a r t icu la r ly h appy t h a t h e h ad S .N .R a jagu ru a sh i sc o l leagu ei nt h eR a ja s than a nd N a rm ada v a l ley p r o jec t s . R a jagu ru i st o ta l ly d evo ted t oh i s w o rk , e x t r em e ly i n du s t r iou s , h on e s t a nd u na s sum ing . VNM l e a rn t al o t o fQ ua te rn a ry g eo logy f r om h im . H e i sa l so h appy t h a t h e g o t a n umbe r o f b r igh t , h on e s t a nd h a rd w o rk ing s t ud en t s f o r d o ing d oc to r a l r e sea r ch u nde r h i s s upe rv i s ion . Mo s to ft h em g o tj ob s i na r cha eo logy . O n e h a s r e t i r ed a s ap rof e s so r , f i v e a r e w o rk ing a s p rof e s so r s a nd s e ve r a l o t h e r s i n o t h e r p o s i t ion s , i n c lud ing t h r e e a tt h e D eccan C o l leg e . VNM i s a l so h appy t h a t h e h a s g o t an umbe r o fl o ya l a nd c a r ing f r iend s , n o tab le a mong w hom a r e V i shwa Mohan a nd P .K . T ewa r ia tL u cknow , S . P . G up ta a t D e lh i , D .P . A g rawa l a tA hm edabad , l a t e K .T .M . H egd e a tB a roda , a nd S .C . G up te a tP un e . P rof . G up te a sC ha i rm an o ft h e C oun c i l o f Managem en t o fD eccan C o l leg e a nd a sP r e s id en to ft h eD eem ed U n ive r s i ty , e x t end ed u nqua l if i ed s uppo r t t o VNM i ns ev e r a l c r i s e s h e h ad t of a ce a sD i r ec to r o ft h e I n s t i tu t e . VNM i si n d eb t ed t o al a rg e n umbe r o f m embe r so ft h e a r cha eo log ica la nd a n th ropo log ica l c ommun i t ie s —e l d e r s , c on tempo r a r ie sa nd j un io r sw ho h ave g i ven h im t r em endou s a f f ec t ion . F ina l ly , h e f e e l s e x t r em e ly g r a tef u l t o h i s w if e w ho h a s t a k en c a r e o ft h e h om e , l e av ing h im f r ee t op u r su e h i s r e sea r ch , a nd c h ee r f u l ly e ndu r ed l o ng p e r iod s o f s e pa ra t ion w h i le h e w a s a way o n f i e ld w o rk , f e l low sh ip s , c onf e r en ce s , a nd o t h e r a c ad em ic a s s ignm en t s .

A sk ed i fh e h a s a ny r e g r e t s , a nd i fh e w a s g i v en a c han ce , w ou ld h e d ot h ing s d i f f e r en t ly , VNM s a y s t h a t h i s m a in r e g r e t i st h a t h e d evo t ed t o o m u ch t im e t o f i e ld w o rk , a nd a c c ep t ed m embe r sh ip o f t o o m any c omm i t t ee s . T h i s l e f t h im i n ad equ a t e t im e f o r a na ly s i s o fd a ta , w r i t ing a nd p ub l ica t ion . H i s a dv ice t oy ounge r s cho la r s i s : d on ' t t a k e u p a s e cond p ro jec t u n t i l y ou h av e c omp le t e ly f i n i sh ed t h e f i r s t o n e , a nd t r y t o r e s i s t t h e t emp ta t ion o f m embe r sh ip o ft o om any c omm i t t ee s . XXV . VN M a s aHuman B e ing B y t empe r am en t VNM i ss imp le , u na s sum ing a nd i n f o rm a l , a nd l e a s t c on sc iou s o fh i s a cad em ic o r a dm in i s t ra t ive s t a tu s . O n h i s l e t t e rh ead o rv i s i t ing c a rd h eh a sn eve ru sed D r . o rP rof .b ef o r eh i sn am e o r a c ad em ic d eg r ee s a f t e r i t . A s h ead o f t h e d epa r tm en t o f a r ch aeo logy a nd d i r ec to r o f t h e I n s t i tu t e , h e w a s e a s i ly a c ce s s ib l e t o e ve ry b ody w ho w an t ed t o s e e h im — b e i t as t ud en t , l ow e r c l a s s e mp loy ee o r a ny v i s i to r . H e w ou ld o f f e r a c h a i r t o e v e ry p e r son w ho w en t t o s e e h im , a nd h a t ed t ok eep p eop le s t and ing , a si sc ommon w i th a dm in i s t r a to r s i n I nd ia . H e w ou ld a l so o f f e r t e a / cof f ee t oe ve ry v i s i to r a nd b y g i v ing c ompany t ot h em e nd ed u p d r ink ing s e v e r a l c up s e ve ry d ay . H i s h om e h a s b een a s w e lcom e ap l a ce a s h i s o ff i ce ,a nd s t ud en t sa nd s t af fm embe r sw e r ef r ee t o v i s i t h im a ta ny h ou r e ven o nh o l iday s . E ven a f t e r h i s r e t i r em en t q u i t e af ew s t uden t s a nd c o l leagu e s c on t inu e t ov i s i t h im . A s D eccan C o l lege d i d n o t h av e ag u e s t h ou se , h i s h om e s e rv ed a s ag u e s t h ou s e f o r m any v i s i to r s t ot h e C o l l eg e . H e w ou ld f r ee ly m ix w i th s t ud en t s a nd e mp loyee s i re spec t ive o f t h e i r s t a tu s , p a r t i cu la r ly d u r ing f e s t iva l sl i k eH o l ia nd i mm e r s ion o fG an e sh i d o l s . VNM i sa lway s p o l i t e a nd r e spec tf u l t oo t h e r s , i n p a r t icu la rt ot h o se l e s s p r iv i leged t h an h im , a nd i s v e ry c on sc iou s o f n o t h u r t ing t h e f e e l ing s o f a nybody . H e i sp a r t icu la r ly r e spec tf u l t o w om en , i re sp ec t iv e o f t h e i r a g e o r s t a tu s . H e h a s d eep r e spec t f o rh i s t e ach e r s , e l d e r s a nd f o rp eop le w ho h ave h e lped h im i ns om ew ay o rt h eo t h e r . H ef e e l s m o s th appy i nt h ec ompany o fs imp le a nd i n nocen t p eop l e l i k e t h e w o rk e r s i n h i s e xcava t ion s a nd i n f o rm an t s i n e t hnog r aph ic e nqu i r ie s . VNM a l so d e r iv e sh app in e s sb yb e ing a b le t oh e lp o t h e r s , a nd h a s h e lped m any n eedy p eop le b y l e nd ing t h em m oney , s t ud en t s i ng e t t ing f e l low sh ip s a nd g r an t s , a nd c o l leagu e s i ng e t t ing f und ing f o r c onf e r en ce s , e t c . I nr e tu rn , h e h a s r e ce iv ed p l en ty o fk i ndn e s s , h e lp a nd h o sp i ta l i ty f r om n um e rou s s t ud en t s a nd p rof e s s iona l c o l leag u e s a l o ve r t h e c oun t ry a nd

P r inc ipa l N .D . N aga rwa la , af o rme r s t uden t o f t h e p r e 1934 D eccan C o l lege ,f e l ic i ta t ing V .N .M i s r a 1 995

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1 0 .

o u t s ide , a nd h e g r ea t ly c he r i she s t h e c on s ide ra t ion s hown t oh im b ys om any p eop le .

1 . B e ing b o rn i n av i l lage o nt h eb ank o f al a rge r i ve r , R amganga , VNM l e a rn t s w imm ing a t av e ry e a r ly a ge , a nd i sv e ry f ond o fi t .I nf a c t , i fh e s e e s ar i ve r o r l a ke , h e c an ' t r e s i s t j ump ing i n to i t . When h e w a s d i gg ing a tS amnapu r i nt h e l a te 1 980 s , h e h ad t oc r o s s t h e N a rmada t w ice e ve ry d ay b y b oa t . I n t h e e ven ing wh i le r e tu rn ing t o h i s c amp h e w i l l i n va r iab ly s w im i nt h er i ve r . H e h a s a l so b een f ond o fw a lk ing . U p t oa lmo s t t h e a ge o fs i x ty y ea r s h e u sed t op l ay b adm in ton e ve ry d ay . I nh i s y ou th h e w a s a l so f ond o f p l ay ing c hes s . Unf o r tuna te ly , f r om 2 004 h e i sn o t k eep ing g ood h ea l th b ecau se o f t h e p ro s ta te p rob lem , a nd t h i s h a s s eve r e ly r e s t r ic ted h i s movem en t . B u ts t i l lh e s p end sa tl e a s t t e n h ou r s e ve ry d ay i nr e ad ing a nd w r i t ing , a nd i n a n swe r ing e -ma i l sa nd l e t te r s .

1 2 .

1 3 .

V i s i t ing P rof es so r sh ip i n A n th ropo logy , N o r th E a s ter nH i l l Un ive r s i ty , S h i l long , 1 985 N a t iona l F e l low sh ip , I nd ian C ounc i l o f H i s to r ica lR e sea r ch ,N ew D e lh i , 2 000 -2003 D .N . Ma jumda r Meda l f o r F i e ld Wo rk i n A n th ropo logy , I nd ian S oc ia l S c ience A s soc ia t ion ,2 002 Em er i tu s F e l low sh ip , U n ive r s i ty G ran t s C omm i s s ion ,N ew D e lh i , 2 003 -2005

B . S pec ia lL ec ture sd e l ivered VNM h a s d e l ive r ed i nv i ted l e c tu r e s i na r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy i n m any I nd ian a nd f o re ign u n ive r s i t ie s . I na dd i t ion , h eh a sd e l ive r ed f o l low ing s pec ia lo cca s ion l e c tu r es . 1 . Madho j i S c ind ia Memo r ia lL ec tu r e , S choo l o f Anc ien t I nd ian H i s to ry , C u l tu r e & A r chaeo logy , J iwa j i Un ive r s i ty , Gwa l io r , Novembe r 1 978 2 . D r . K .S . Ma thu r Memo r ia l L ec tu r e , E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu r e S oc ie ty , L ucknow ,D ecembe r 1 978 3 . P rof . D . S en . Memo r ia l L ec tu r e , I nd ian A n th ropo log ica l S oc ie ty , C a lcu t ta ,J u ly 1 987 4 . P rof . R a jaba l i P andey Memo r ia l L ec tu re , D epa r tm en t o f A nc ien t I nd ian H i s to ry , C u l tu r e & A r chaeo logy , R an i D u rgawa t i V i shwav idya laya , Ma r ch 1 988 5 . Mahamahopadhyaya G ou r i shanka rH i rachand O jha Memo r ia l l e c tu r e s , R a ja s than V idyapee th , U da ipu r , O c tobe r 1 989 6 . D r . V . S . Wakanka r Memo r ia l L ec tu r e , R ock A r tS oc ie ty o fI nd ia ,A g ra , O c tobe r 1 992 7 . F ounda t ion D ay Memo r ia l L ec tu r e , Wad ia I n s t i tu te o f H ima layan G eo logy , D eh radun , J une 1 996 8 . P rof . M . R . S ahn i Memo r ia l L ec tu r e , P a laeon to log ica l S oc ie ty o f I nd ia , L ucknow , O c tobe r 1 996 9 . Z amo ra E ndowm en t L ec tu r e , D epa r tm en t o f An th ropo logy , K a rna taka Un ive r s i ty , D aharwad , Ma r ch 1 998 1 0 . G o lden J ub i lee L ec tu r e , E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu re S oc ie ty ,L ucknow , A p r i l 1 998 1 . S i r R . G . B handa rka r Memo r ia l L ec tu re , B handa rka rO r ien ta l R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te , P une , Augu s t 1 998 1 2 . UGC E x ten s ion l e c tu r e s , D epa r tm en t o f Anc ien t I nd ian H i s to ry , C u l tu re & A rchaeo logy , B ana ra s H indu Un ive r s i ty , V a rana s i ,J anua ry 2 001 1 3 . UGC E x ten s ion l e c tu r e s , D epa r tm en t o f A n th ropo logy , P t . R .S . S huk la U n ive r s i ty , R a ipu r ,D ecembe r2 00 1

l k

V .N . M i s ra i nh i ss t udy a th om e2 00 1

APPEND ICES A . S cho lar sh ips ,F e l low sh ip s ,P r ize s ,e t c . 1 . S cho la r sh ip , G ove rnm en t S an sk r i t C o l lege , B ana ra s , 1 954 -56 2 . B u r sa ry S cho la r sh ip , L ucknow Un ive r s i ty , 1 955 -57 3 . P and i t J agpa l K r i shna G o ld Meda l , L ucknow Un ive r s i ty , 1 957 , f o rs t and ing f i r s ti no rde ro f m e r i ti nM .A . e xam ina t ion i nA n th ropo logy 4 . UGC J un io rR e sea rch F e l low sh ip , 1 958 -61 5 . H o rn iB habha F e l low sh ip , 1 970 -71 6 . L eve rhu lm e V i s i t ing F e l low sh ip , Au s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty , C anbe r ra , A u s t ra l ia , 1 977 7 . S en io r F u lb r igh t F e l low sh ip , Un ive r s i ty o f C a l if o rn ia ,B e rk e ley ,U SA , 1 984 8 . C o r r e spond ing Membe r , I s t i tu to I t a l iano p e r i lMed io e dE s t remo O r ien te ( I s ME0 ) ,R om e , I t a ly , 1 994 9 . V i s i t ing F e l low sh ip i n A r chaeo logy , A l lahabad U n ive r s i ty , 1 981 a nd 1 988

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1 9 .

C . L is to fP h .D . s t uden t s F o l low ing s t uden t s h ave c a r r ied o u t t h e i r P h .D . r e sea rch u nde rt h e s upe rv is ion o f VNM 1 . 1 968 . V . R am i R eddy . P re a nd P ro toh is tory o fS ou thwes ter n Andh ra P radesh . 2 . 1 972 . Ms . K a ty N . F renchman . P reh i s tor ic

3 .

4 . 5 .

6 .

7 .

8 . 9 .

1 0 . 1 .

1 2 .

1 3 . 1 4 .

1 5 .

1 6 .

1 7 .

1 8 .

2 0 .

2 1 .

P o t tery I ndu s t r ies a l ong t h e " Los t" S a ra swa t i R ive ro ft h eG rea tI nd ian D eser t . 1 977 . P .K . T homa s . A rchaeozoo log ica l A spec t s o f t h e P reh is to r ic C u l tu res o f Wes ter nI nd ia . 1 978 . Y a shodha r Ma thpa l . P reh is tor ic R ock P a in t ing so fB h imbe tka C en t ra lI nd ia . 1 982 . D .R . R a ju . E a r ly S e t t lemen t P a t te r n s i n C uddapah D is t r ic t , Andh ra P rade sh : A P a laeoan th ropo log ica l S tudy . 1 982 . Makkhan L a l . E a r ly Human C o lon iza t ion P a t te r n s i n t h e G anga -Yamuna D oab ( w i th s pec ia l r e f e rence t o K anpu r D i s t r ic t ) . 1 983 . J acob S . J aya ra j . E a r ly Hun te r g a the rer s Adap ta t ion s i nt h e T i rupa t i V a l ley , S ou th I nd ia . 1 984 . S .C . N anda . S tone Age C u l tu res o f I nd rava t iB a s in Ko rapu tD is t r ic t , O r issa . 1 984 . Z ar ine C ooper . P reh i s to r ic H ab i ta t ion P a t ter n s a r ound C h i t rako t F a l ls , B a s ta r D is t r ic t , Madhya P radesh . 1 988 . V i jay S ingh . R ock P a in t ing s o f S aga r R eg ion , Madhya P radesh . 1 990 . Md . S haf iqu l A lam . A Mo rphome t r ic S tudy o f P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t r ies o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia . 1 993 . M .M . H ogue . P re a nd P ro toh i s tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t ter n s o ft h e M idd le a nd L ower G anga V a l ley . 1 994 . J . S . Kha rakwa l . A rchaeo log ica l E xp lo ra t ion i nt h e Kumaon H ima laya . 1 998 . B ishnup r iya B a sak . P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t ter n s o f t h e T a raf en i V a l ley , M idnapore D is t r ic t , Wes tB enga l . 1 998 . S un i l G up ta . R oman E gyp t t o P en in su la r I nd ia : A rchaeo log ica l P a t ter n s o f T rade i s t C en tu ry B .C . t o 3rd C en tu ry A .D . 1 999 . S hah S uf i Mos taf izu r R ahman . A rchaeo log ica l I nves t iga t ion i n B og ra D is t r ic t , B ang ladesh ( f rom E a r ly H i s tor ic t o E a r ly Med ieva lP er iod ) . 1 999 . Ma la Ma iya Ma l la . A s t udy o f t h e N epa lese B ronzes f r om Anc ien t t o Med iaeva l P er iod s . 1 999 . B .S . H a r ishanka r . P reh is tory a nd E a r ly H i s tory o f S ou th K e ra la w i th S pec ia l R ef e rence t oK o l lam .

2 2 .

2 3 .

2 4 .

2 5 .

2 000 . Anup M ish ra . C ha lco l i th ic C e ram ics a t B a la tha l , D is t r ic t Uda ipu r , R a ja s than . 2 001 . B a la ram T r iap thy . A rchaeo logy o f B oudh d i s t r ic t , O r is sa w i th S pec ia l R ef erence t ot h eE a r ly H is to r ic S e t t lemen tP a t ter n . 2 001 . S hah ida An sa r i . P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t ter n o f S ou th -Cen t ra l G anga V a l ley : An E thnoa rchaeo log ica lP e r spec t ive . 2 001 . Ku ru sh F e roze D a la l . ' Ea r ly H is tor ica l S e t t lemen t o f S ou ther n R a ja s than ( Mewa r ) w i th S pec ia l R ef e rence t o B a la tha l : An A r tef ac tua lA pp roach ' . 2 001 . Abh i j i t D andeka r . ' Ea r ly H i s to r ic C e ram ics o f Mewa rw i th S pec ia lR ef e r ence t o B a la tha l , D is t r ic t Uda ipu r , R a ja s than ' . 2 003 . T ama P anda . E vo lu t ion o fs oc ie ty a nd C u l tu re o f O r is sa , b a sed o n aS yn thes is o f A rchaeo log ica l , H is to r ica l , L l ingu is t ic a nd An th ropo log ica ld a ta . 2 005 . Kuma r Akh i lesh . AR e -exam ina t ion o f t h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic ' Dam in I ndu s t r ies ' , B an s lo iR ive rB a s in , J ha rkhand .

V .N . M is r a w i th t h e e d i to ro ft h e v o lum e ( t o h i s l e f t ) a nd t h r ee g ene r a t ion s o f h i s s t uden t s , P .K . T homa s , P .P . J og leka r a nd D av id T e t so ( t oh i sr i gh t ) .

D .A s soc ia t ion w i th a cadem ic s oc ie t ie s VNM h as b een l i f e m embe r o f t h e f o l low ing a cadem ic s oc ie t ies : 1 . E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk c u l tu re s oc ie ty , L ucknow 2 . I nd ian A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ,N ew D e lh i 3 . I nd ian An th ropo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion , N ew D e lh i 4 . I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic & Q ua ter n a ry S tud ies , P une 5 . R ock A r t S oc ie ty o fI nd ia ,A g ra 6 . S oc ie te P reh is to r ique F ranca ise , P a r is 7 . C u r ren t An th ropo logy , C h icago

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E .A ssoc ia t ion w i th j ourna ls ( a )E d i to r Man a nd E nv ironmen t , J our n a l o f t h e I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ies , P une ( 1977 ) .

1 0 . 1 . 1 2 .

( b )C o -Ed i to r T he E as tern A n thropo log i s t , J ou rna l o f t h e E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu re S oc ie ty , L ucknow ( 1981-86 ) .

1 3 .

1 4 . ( c ) Membe r , E d i to r ia l Adv iso ry B oa rd 1 . J ourna l o ft h e S ara t C hand ra R oy I n s t i tu te , R anc lü . 2 . T he A n thropo log i s t , J ou rna l o f t h e I nd ian An th ropo log ica lA ssoc ia t ion , D e lh i . 3 . T he E as tern A n thropo log i s t , J ou rna l o f t h e E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu r e S oc ie ty , L ucknow . 4 . Manav ( H ind i ) , J ou rna l o ft h e E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu re S oc ie ty ,L ucknow . 5 . L' A n thropo log ie ,P a r is . 6 . J ourna lo fW or ld P reh i s tory , N ew Y o rk . 7 . T he Ho locene , C a rd if f ,U .K . 8 . A s ian P er spec t ive s ,H awa i i , USA . 9 . G eoar chaeo logy ,W i ley , USA . F . 1 . 2 .

3 . 4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

8 . 9 .

1 5 .

1 6 .

1 7 .

1 8 .

1 9 .

P ar t ic ipa t ion i n ma jor i n terna t iona l c onf erence s ,S ympos ia ,e t c . S econd C onf e rence o n A s ian A rchaeo logy , C o lombo , S r iL anka , Augu s t 1 969 . E igh th C ong res s o ft h eF a rE a s ter nP reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion , C anbe r ra , Au s t ra l ia , J anua ry 1 971 S ympo s ium o n R ad ioca rbon a nd I nd ian a r chaeo logy ,T IFR , Mumba i , Ma rch 1 972 . N in th C ong res s o f t h e An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences , C h icago , Augu s t S ep tembe r 1 973 . N in th C ong ress o ft h e I n ter n a t iona l Un ion o f P reh is to r ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic S c iences , N ice , F rance , S ep tembe r 1 977 . T he Au s t ra l ian Mu seum , S ydney , 1 50 t h Ann ive r sa ry s ympo s ium , S ydney , Au s t ra l ia , Augu s t 1 977 . F or ty -e igh th C ong re s s o f t h e Au s t ra l ia a nd N ew Z ea land A s soc ia t ion f o r t h e Advancemen t o f S c ience , Me lbour n e , Au s t ra l ia , S ep tembe r 1 977 . S ympos ium o n C on serva t ion o f R ock A r t , P er th , Au s t ra l ia , S ep tembe r 1 977 . T en th C ong res s o f t h e An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences ,N ew D e lh i , D ecember 1 978 .

2 0 .

2 1 .

2 2 .

2 3 .

2 4 .

2 5 .

2 6 .

F i r s t C ong re ss o ft h e I ndo -Pac if i c P reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion , P une ,D ecembe r 1 978 . F i r s t C ong res s o f Human P a laeon to logy , N ice ,F rance , O c tobe r 1 982 . I ndo -Sov ie t J o in t S em ina r o n C oppe r -Bronze Age C u l tu res o f I nd ia a nd C en t ra l A s ia , A l lahabad Un ive r s i ty , F ebrua ry 1 982 . E leven th C ong r es s o f t h e An th ropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences , Quebec a nd V ancouve r , C anada , 1 983 . I ndo -U .S . S ympo s ium o n P rob lem s o f t h e A r id Z one , CAZR I , J odhpu r , J anua ry 1 985 . Twe lf th C ong ress o f t h e I ndo -Pac if ic P reh i s tory A s soc ia t ion , P enab lanca , T he P h i l ipp ines , J anua ry -Februa ry 1 985 . E igh th C ong res s o ft h e E u ropean A s soc ia t ion o f S ou th A s ian A rchaeo log i s t s , A a rhu s , D enma rk ,J u ly 1 985 . S ympos ium o n P a laeoc l ima te , P hy s ica l R esea rch L abo ra to ry ( PRL ) , Ahm edabad , D ecembe r 1 986 . T he L onges t R eco rd : Human C a ree r i n A f r ica . C onf e r ence i n Honou r o fJ .D . C la rk , Un ive r s i ty o f C a l if o rn ia , B e rke ley , A pr i l 1 986 . C onf e rence o n O ld P rob lem s a nd N ew P er spec t ives o n t h e A rchaeo logy o f S ou th A s ia , Un ive r s i ty o f W iscon s in - Mad ison , USA , Novembe r 1 986 . T h ir teen th C ong res s o f t h e I ndo -Pac if i c P reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion , J apanese S oc ie ty f o r O cean ic S tud ies , a nd N a t iona l Mu seum o f E thno logy , O saka a nd T okyo , S ep tembe r 1 987 . S em ina r o n N ew A rchaeo logy a nd I nd ia , I nd ian C ounc i l o f H is to r ica l R esea rch , N ew D e lh i , O c tobe r 1 988 . S em ina r o n E nv i ronm en ta l C hange a nd Human R e spon se : T he F i r s t Two M i l l ion Y ea r s , D eccan C o l lege , P une , D ecember 1 990 S em ina r o n T owa rd s t h e S econd C en tu ry o f A rchaeo logy i n S r i L anka , C o lombo , J u ly 1 990 . F ou r teen th C ong ress o f t h e I ndo -Pac if i c P reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion , Yogyakar ta , I ndones ia , Augu s t -Sep tembe r 1 990 . S ympos ium o n t h e E thnoa rchaeo logy o f S ou th A s ia , C ambr idge , U .K . , S ep tember 1 991 . S ympos ium o n t h e 5 0 t h Ann iver sa ry o f t h e L ubbock L ake L andma rk , L ubbock , T exa s , USA ,O c tobe r 1 992 .

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2 7 .

2 8 . 2 9 . 3 0 .

3 1 .

3 2 .

3 3 .

3 4 .

Twe lf th C onf erence o f t h e A ssoc ia t ion o f

6 .

S ou th A s ian A rchaeo log is t s , Un ive r s i ty o f H e ls ink i ,F in land , J u ly 1 993 . Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica l C ong res s - 3 , N ew D e lh i , D ecembe r 1 994 . S econd C ong ress o ft h e K .R . K ama I n s t i tu te , B ombay , J anua ry 1 995 . T h ir teen th C ong ress o f t h e E u ropean A ssoc ia t ion o f S ou th A s ian A rchaeo log is t s , C ambr idge ,U .K . , J u ly 1 995 . T h i r teen th C ong res s o f t h e I n ter na t iona l Un ion o f P reh is tor ic a nd P ro toh i s to r ic S c iences , F o r l i , I t a ly , S ep tembe r 1 996 . Dua l C ong ress o ft h e I n ter n a t iona l Un ion f o r t h e S tudy o fP a laeon to logy a nd I n ter n a t iona l Un ion o f Human B io log i s t s , S un C i ty , S ou th A f r ica , J une -Ju ly 1 998 . F if teen th C ong res s o f t h e E u ropean A ssoc ia t ion o f S ou th A s ian A rchaeo log is t s , L e iden , T he N e ther land s , J u ly 1 999 . S even teen th C ong ress o f t h e I ndo -Pac if ic P reh is tory A ssoc ia t ion , T a ipe i , T a iwan , S ep tember 2 002 .

7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . 1 . 1 2 .

1 3 .

1 4 .

G . S ome o ther p os i t ions o fr e spons ib i l ity h e ld 1 . Membe r o f t h e c omm i t tee wh ich d i d t h e i n i t ia l p l ann ing o f t h e N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man ( now I nd i ra G andh i R a sh t r iya Manav S ang raha laya ) , B hopa l , i n 1 976 , a nd l a te r o f i t s S am i t i a nd e xecu t ive c omm i t tee . VN M w as a s soc ia ted w i th t h e Mu seum i n o ne c apac i ty o ro t he rf o ra bou t2 5 y ea r s . 2 . Membe r , UGC P ane lo n An th ropo logy ( 1980 3 . 4 .

5 .

1 5 .

8 3 , 1 985 -88 ) . Membe r , UGC P ane l o n H is to ry a nd A rchaeo logy ( 1990 -92 ) . Membe r , E xecu t ive C omm i t tee ( 1976 -80 ) , V ice -P res iden t ( 1981-84 ) a nd P res iden t ( 1985 -88 ) , I ndo -Pac if ic P reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion . Member , Adv i so ry C omm i t tee , An th ropo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia ( 1976 -80 ) .

1 6 .

1 7 . 1 8 .

3 0

P res iden t , An th ropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy s e c t ion , I nd ian S c ience C ong ress , B anga lo re , 1 987 . Member , I nd ian C ounc i l o f H is tor ica l R esea rch ( 1991-97 ) . Membe r , S t and ing C omm i t tee , A s soc ia t ion o f I nd ian Un ive r s i t ies , ( 1997 -99 ) . Member , C en t ra l Adv i so ry B oa rd o f A rchaeo logy ( 1998 -2002 ) . Membe r , S c ien t if ic Adv iso ry C omm i t tee , D ep t . o fC u l tu re , G ov t . o fI nd ia ( 1999 -2002 ) . Membe r , C en t ra l S an sk r i t B oa rd ( 1999 2 002 ) . Member , A cadem ic C ounc i l , P une Un ive r s i ty , M .S . Un ive r s i ty o f B a roda , B ana ra s H indu Un iver s i ty , a nd Un ive r s i ty o f T r ivand rum . Member , B oa rd o f Managemen t( 1998 -2002 ) , a nd V ice -P r es iden t ( 2004 ) , I nd ian A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty . Member , UGC R ev iew C omm i t tee , S pec ia l A ss i s tance P rog ramm e , D epa r tm en t o f H is to ry , M .S . Un ive r s i ty o f B a roda ( 1996 9 1) , D ep t . o fA IHC & A rchaeo logy , B ana ra s H indu Un ive r s i ty , A l lahabad Un ive r s i ty , a nd HNB Un ive r s i ty , S r inaga r ( Ga rhwa l ) ( 2002 0 4 ) . Membe r , UGC Adv iso ry C omm i t tee , S pec ia l A ss is tance P rog ramme , D ep t . o f A IHC & A r chaeo logy , HNB Un ive r s i ty , S r inaga r ( Ga rhwa l ) ( 2002 -04 ) , M .S . Un ive r s i ty o f B a roda ( 2002 -04 ) , D epa r tmen t o f H i s to ry , S amba lpu r Un ive r s i ty ( 1999 -2002 ) . Membe r , B oa rd o f Managem en t , N a t iona l Mu seum I n s t i tu te ( Deemed Un ive r s i ty ) , N ew D e lh i( 2002 -04 ) . Membe r , I nd ian I n s t i tu te o f Advanced S tudy S oc ie ty , S im la ( 2002 -04 ) . C onvene r , UGC X P lan V i s i t ing C omm i t tee , V idya saga r Un ive r s i ty , M idnapo re a nd Maha r sh i D ayanand S a ra swa t i Un ive r s i ty , A jm e r .

Anno ta ted B ib l iography o fP rof .V .N .M i sra 's R e search P ub l ica t ion s( 1962 -2005 ) P .P . J og leka r B ackground P rof e s so r V .N . M i s r a b egan h i s a cadem ic c a r ee r n ea r ly h a lf ac en tu ry a go . T hough i n i t ia l ly t r a ined i nS an sk r i ta nd A n th ropo logy , h eh a s d evo ted mo s t o f h i s c a r ee r t o t h e s t udy o f p r eh i s to ry , p ro toh i s to ry , t r iba l e t hnog raphy , a nd e vo lu t ion o f I nd ian s oc ie ty . B es ide s h i s i n d iv idua l w r i t ing s , h e h a s c o l labo ra ted w i th an umbe r o fh i s c o l league s a nd s t uden t s t o w r i te s eve ra l h und r ed p age s i n E ng l i sh a nd H ind i . T hese i n c lude b ook s , e d i ted v o lum e s , r e sea r ch a r t ic le s , s ho r t n o tes , p opu la r a r t ic le s , b ook r e v iew s , r em in i scence s , a nd o b i tua r ie s . H oweve r , t h i s a nno ta ted b i b l iog raphy i s l im i ted t o o n ly t h e r e sea rch a r t ic le s i nE ng l i sh . A l i s t o f a l o t he r p ub l ica t ion s h a s b een g iven i n S ec t ion I I .

j un io r t o c ommen t o n h i s p e r sona l i ty . I n f a c t , h e b egan h i s c a ree r b ef o re Iw a s b o rn . Iw ou ld o n ly d a re t ov oca l i se wha t Ig a ined f r om h im . A l l t h e se y ea r s I f ound h im t o b e e ncou rag ing a nd s uppor t ive , y e t u ncomp rom i s ing o n i s sues o f c o r r ec tne s s a nd p r ec is ion w r i t ing . T h i s w o rk i sa n a t temp tt ot h ank h im f o ra l lt h a t . S eve ra l o f P rof . M i s ra 's s t uden t s a nd c o l leagues h e lped m e i n t h i s t a sk o f c o l lec t ion , r e ad ing a nd a nno ta t ion . Ia m g r a tef u l t o D r s . S .N . R a jagu ru , P .K . T homa s , S he i la M i sh ra , A .K . K anungo , a nd S .G . D eo . A lso P rof . D .P . A g rawa l a nd D r . J . S . K ha rakwa l h e lped m e i n p rocu r ing a c oup le o f p ho tocop ies f r om t h e i r c o l lec t ion s . It h ank t h em b o th .

I nt h is a nno ta ted b i b l iog raphy e ach a r t ic le h a sb een g i ven as e r ia ln umbe rb a sed o nt h en am eo ft h ef i r s t a u tho r i n c a se o f mu l t i -au tho r a r t ic le s . E xcep t a f ew , mo s t o ft h e a nno ta t ion s a r e b e tween 1 50 -300 w o rd s . H oweve r , t h e s i ze o f t h e a nno ta t ion d oes n o t r ef lec t t h e s i ze o f t h e o r ig ina l a r t ic le . T h e o r ig ina lw o rd sa nd t e rm su sed b yP rof . M i s ra o rh i s c o -au tho r s h ave b een r e ta ined c omp le te ly , y e t t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f s en tences f o r t h e p u rpo se o f c ompac t ing t h ec on ten ti sn ew .

S ECT ION I S ummary o fa r t ic le s V -00 1 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 962a . P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t ry o f t h e B ana s , E a s ter n R a jpu tana , J our na l o f t h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB ombay 3 4 -35 : 1 38 -160 . T he m idd le r e aches o fr i ve rB ana s ( Ham i rga rh a nd T onk ) , i n E a s ter n R a jpu tana ( Ra ja s than ) w e re e xp lo r ed b e tween 1 958 a nd 1 961 .N ine P a laeo l i th ic s i te s w e r e f ound : H am i rga rh , S arupgan j , Mandp ia , B igod , J aha jpu r , D eo l i , B an tha l i , Mahuwa a nd T onk . B e s ide s t h e se , a t N a thdwa r a a s i ng le h andaxe l ike t r iangu la r p ebb le t oo l w a s f ound . No f o s s i l s w e re e ncoun te red d u r ing t h e e xp lo ra t ion . T he a r t ic le d i scu s ses t h e s t r a t ig raph ic c on tex t s , a nd t h e r aw m a te r ia lu sed f o rm ak ing t h e t o o l s . N ine ty s i x t oo l s w e r e c o l lec ted o f w h ich 2 7 w e r e r e cove r ed i n s i tu . T he c o l lec t ion c on ta ined c hoppe r s a nd s c r ape r s m ade f r om p ebb le s a nd f l ake s ( 3 3 ) ,h andaxes ( 3 5 ) , c l eave r s( 7 ) , f l ak es ( 12 ) , a nd c o r es ( 9 ) . Twe lve p ebb le c hoppe r / sc rape r s h ave b een d esc r ibed a l ong w i th t h e m ea su r em en t s a nd i lu s t ra ted . S im i la r ly , s eve ra l o t he r t o o l t y pe s a r e a l so d e sc r ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted . E xcep t o ne , a l l t oo l s a r em ade o fm ed ium t of i ne -g r a ined q ua r tz i te . H eavy s t one h amm e r t e chn ique w a s u sed t om ak e mo s t o f t h e f l ake s a nd a f ew h andaxes o f c r ude v a r ie ty . L igh ts t one h amm e rt e chn iqu ew a sp e rhap s e mp loyed t o p roduce p ebb le t o o l s , mo s t o f t h e h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . A s ma l l n umbe r o f h andaxe s e xh ib i t s of tf l ak e s c a r s w he r e f l ake sw e re r emoved b y t h e " cy l inde r h amm e r t e chn ique " a s

A l though I h ave l e a rn t af ew s k i l l s f r om P rof . M i s ra , Ia m n o t h i s f o rm a l p up i l . Ia m s t uden t o f h i s s t uden t , D r . P .K . T hom a s . T he re a r e t wo r e a son s w hy Ih ave d ec ided t od ot h i s a nno ta t ion . I c am e t oD eccan C o l lege i n 1 987 f r om t wo e n t i r e ly d i f f e r en t d i sc ip l ine s o fb io logy a nd s t a t i s t ic s . S ince t h en I h ave b een r e ad ing a bou t h i s to ry , a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy i n c onnec t ion w i th m y d a i ly w o rk a sw e l l a s f o r my p e r sona l i n te r e s t i nt h e se s ub jec t s . If ound t h a t e ven e a r ly a r t ic le s o f P rof . M i s ra s how h i s a na ly t ica l a t t i tude , m e t icu lou sne s s , m e thodo log ica l r i gou r ( b ef o r e i t w a s f o rm a l ly d i scu s sed i nt h e se w o rd s i nt h e f o rm o f N ew A r chaeo logy ) , a nd c a r ef u l ly d ev i sed l o g ica l s t ru c tu r e o f a r gum en t . If e l t i te ven mo r e c on sp icuou s ly w hen Ir ev iew ed I nd ian p r eh i s to r ic s t ud ie s t o l o ok f o r m e thodo log ica l r i gou r a nd q uan t i ta t ive f r am e o f m ind ( J og leka r 2 002 i n A r chaeo logy a nd H i s tor iog raphy I V - e d i ted b y S . S e t ta r a nd R av i K o r ise t ta r ) . Ih ave h ad a l o ng a s soc ia t ion w i th P rof . M i s ra a s aj un io r c o l league i n t h e I n s t i tu te a nd a s a n e d i to r o f h i s a cadem ic b aby "M an a nd E nv ironmen t " . I nr e a l i ty , Ia m t oo

3 1

T he a u tho r f avou r s c on t inua t ion o f u s ing t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy o n t h e g round t h a t i t i s p r ec ise a nd e a sy t ou nde r s tand .

d escr ibed b y L eakey . T echno log ica l ly t h e B anas i mp lemen t s a r e n o t o f a dvanced t ype . T he p ebb le t oo ls a r e c rude . H andaxes a r e mos t ly a symme t r ica l a nd t h ick . T hese a r e ma in ly b e long ing t o t h e A bbev i l lean t ype a nd a f ew o f E a r ly t o M idd le A cheu l ian s t age .

V -004 : M is ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 963 . Two S t one Age S i tes o n t h e R ive r C hamba l , R a ja s than , B u l le t in o ft h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -Gradua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 2 2 : 1 56 -169 .

V -002 : M is ra , V .N . 1 962b . P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu re o f Wes ter nR a jpu tana , B u l le t in o ft h eD eccan C o l lege P os t -Gradua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 2 1 : 8 6 -156 .

E a r l ie r M .N . D eshpande ( J AR 1 953 -54 ) a nd S .R . R ao VAR 1 955 -55 ) h ad d e sc r ibed p reh i s to r ic a r tef ac t s f r om t h e C hamba l , a m a jo r r i ver i n R a ja s than . T hese f i nd s w e re n o t s t ud ied i n d e ta i l a nd t h e ref o re t h e a u tho r s e xp lo r ed t h e r i ve ra t Ko ta a nd R awa tbha ta i n 1 961 . T h i s a r t ic le d escr ibes a r chaeo log ica l d i scover ies a tt wo s i tes -K o ta ( 2 5° 1 0N ; 7 5° 5 2 E )a nd R awa tbha ta ( 48 km u ps t ream o f K o ta ) . A f ew a r tef ac t s f r om b o th t h e s i tes a r e d escr ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted . N ine ty -s ix a r tef ac t s w e re f ound f r om g r ave l s p read n ea r t h e r a i l b r idge a t K o ta . T hese i n c lude 6 2 L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls s uch a s p ebb le c hoppe r s , s c rape r s , h andaxes , c l eave r s , c o res a nd f l akes . S ix M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s ( Leva l lo i s f l akes ) , a nd 2 3 Meso l i th ic t oo ls ( po in t s , s c rape r s , b l ades , f l ak es a nd c h ips ) w e re a l so f ound a t K o ta . T he m ic ro l i th s w e r e w ashed d own f r om s ome n ea rby Meso l i th ic s i te , a nd w e re made o f c ha lcedony . A l l t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t oo l s a r e made o fq ua r tz i te . T h i s r aw m a ter ia l w a s a va i lab le a bundan t ly i n t h e f o rm o f r ounded p ebb les . Mos t o ft h ese t oo ls w e re r o l led i nv ary ing d eg rees , a nd w i thou t much p a t ina t ion . S .R . R ao h a s r e po r ted p resence o f t h ree t e r races n ea r P ra tap S aga rD am a tR awa tbha ta . T he a u tho r s d id n o tf i nd a ny g rave l o r s i l t d epos i t ion i n t h e a r ea . F ive M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls w e r e f ound h e r e . T hese s u rf ace f i nd s i n c lude t wo h andaxes , a nd t h ree p ar t ly /fu l ly wo rked f l ake s . T hese f l ake s a r e s im i la r t ot ho se f ound a tK o ta .

T hough a d jo in ing a r ea s s uch a s Gu ja ra ta nd e a s ter n R a jpu tana w e re i nves t iga ted , t i l l t h e m id 1 950s w es ter n R a jpu tana w a s t e rra c ogn i ta i n I nd ian p reh i s to ry . T he a r t ic le p rov ides p hy s iog raph ic a nd g eo log ica l b ackg round t o t h e em ergence o f p reh i s to r ic c u l tu res , a nd d i scu sses t h e p rob lem o f f i gu r ing o u t c l ima t ic c ond i t ion i n t h e p a s t . R ive r L un i w a s e xp lored f r om i t s s ou rce t o S amda r i i n t h e m idd le r e aches d u r ing 1 958 -1960 f i e ld s e a son s . T h is a r t ic le r epo r t s a r chaeo log ica l f i nd ing s a t 1 7 s i tes l o ca ted o n r i ve r L un i a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ies s uch a sJ o jr i , Guh iya a nd S uk r i . P a laeo l i th ic p eop le u sed t wo t ype s o fr aw ma te r ia l : q ua r tz i te , s and s tone a nd s i l iceou s m a ter ia ls , a nd l a va r ock s s uch a sr hyo l i te a nd f e lspa rp o rphy ry . Mos t o ft h e t oo ls w e re m ade o n f l akes u s ing f ou r t ypes o f p r ima ry f l ak ing t e chn iques , v i z , s t one h ammer , t o r to ise c o re , p unch a nd c y l inder h amme r . T he P a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t ry o f t h e L un i b a s in c on s is t s m a in ly o fs c rape r s , p o in t s , f l akes a nd b l ades . R ep resen ta t ive t oo ls o f a l l t h e t ypes a r e d escr ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted . T he a r t ic le p rov ides q uan t i ta t ive i n f orma t ion i n t h e f o rm o f t a b les . Mea su remen t s o f t h e i lu s t ra ted s pec imen s a r e r e co rded . T he p l ace o f Wes te r n R a japu tana P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n t h e c on tex t o f I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic p ha ses a nd i t st e rm ino logy i sd i scu ssed i nd e ta i l . V -003 : M is ra , V .N . 1 962c . P rob lem s o f T e rm ino logy i n I nd ian P reh is to ry , E as tern A n thropo log i s t 1 5 (2 ) : 12 -124 .

V -005 : M is ra , V .N . 1 964 . P a laeo l i th s f r om D is t r ic t Uda ipu r R a ja s than , J ourna l o ft h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB ombay 3 6 -37 : 5 5 -59 .

A t l e a s t t h ree s ys tem s o f n am ing S tone Age c u l tu res w e re b e ing u sed : ( 1 ) t h e E u ropean w ay o f d i v id ing t h e S tone Age i n to P a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic ; ( 2 ) t h e S ou th A f r ican m e thod o f r e cogn iz ing E a r ly , M idd le a nd L a te S tone Ages ; a nd ( 3 ) c l a s s if y ing c u l tu res i n to s imp le s e r ies a sI ,I a nd I I . B ecau se p reh is to r ic s t ud ies i n I nd ia w e re i n a n e a r ly s t age , t h e a u tho r f e l t t h e n eed t o h ave a f r esh l o ok a t s uch t e rm ino log ies . I mpor tan t f e a tu res , v i ew s o fv ar iou s s cho la r s , a nd t h e c r i t ic ism s o fa l l t h et h r ee s y s tem s a r e d i scu ssed .

T he a u tho r e xp lo red r i ve r B e rach a nd p ar t icu la r ly t h e r e g ion f r om Uda ipu rt ot h e e a s ta sf a ra s Ako la . N ine P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls w e re c o l lec ted f r om t h ree s i te s : N a thdwa ra ( 2 ) , D abok ( 1 ) a nd Kher i ( 6 ) . T hese t oo ls a r e d escr ibed a nd m ea su remen t s a r e p rov ided . T he a r tef ac t s f r om N a thdwa ra c ompr ise o ne l a rge a nd t h ick f l ake o f m icaceou s q ua r tz i te , a nd o ne l e af -shaped p ebb le c hoppe r . T he a r tef ac t s f r om Kher i i n c lude t h ree h andaxe s , o ne p ebb le c hoppe r a nd t wo f l akes . As i ng le r ound s c rape r o f

3 2

f i ne -ga in ed q ua r tz i te w a s r e cov e r ed f r om D abok . T he a ge o f t h e t o o l s i st h e s am e a s t h a t o f t h e h andaxe -c leave r i n du s t r ie s i n p en in su la r I nd ia . A l though t h e c o l lec t ion i sl im i ted , i tb e long st ot h e Mad r a s ian f a c ie s .

a s s igned t o Meso l i th ic o n ly o n c u l tu ra l b a ses . H e a g r ee s t o B .K . T hapa r ' s s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e Meso l i th ic s t one i n du s t r ie s a nd t ho se o f N eo l i th ic /Cha lco l i th ic c u l tu r en eed sf u r the ri n ve s t iga t ion .

V -006 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 965a . G ov indga rh , a P a laeo l i th ic S i te i n We s te rn R a ja s than , J ourna l o f t h eA s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB ombay 3 8 : 2 05 -208 .

V -008 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 966 . S tone A ge R e sea r ch i n R a ja s than -A R ev iew , i n S t ud ie s i n P r eh i s to ry : R ober tB ruce F oo te Memor ia l V o lume ( D . S en a nd A .K . G ho sh E d s . ) , p p . 1 22 -130 . K o lka ta : F i rm a K .L . Mukhopadhyaya .

T h i s a r t ic le p re sen t s r e su l t s o f t h e e xp lo ra t ion c a r r ied o u t( 1959 a nd 1 961) i nt h eA jm e rd i s t r ic to f R a ja s than . A r ea u p s t r eam o ft h e c onf luen ce o ft h e r i ve r s S a ra swa t i a nd S aga rma t i w a s e xp lo r ed . N ea r t h ec onf luence a tG ov indga rh ,P a laeo l i th ic a r t ef ac t s w e r e f ound i n as e c t ion o n t h e r i gh t b ank o f S aga rm a t i . A l l f ou r t oo l s c o l lec ted f r om t h i s s e c t ion a r e d e sc r ibed . T he se c ompr i se a l ong c l eave r o f q ua r tz i te ( L= 11 .7 c m ) , a much r o l led m in ia tu r e c l eave r ( L=8 .5 c m ) o f d a rk -b rown q ua r tz i te , c omp le te ly f r esh p o in ted c hoppe r ( L= 12 .5 cm ) o f wh i t ish -b rown q ua r tz i te a nd u n ro l led r e c tangu la rf l ak e s i de s c rape r( L= 11 .0 cm ) o fw h i t i sh -b rown q ua r tz i te . T he t oo l s a r e o fL owe r P a la eo l i th ic t ype . S ince t h e e v idence w a s l im i ted , n og ene ra l iza t ion sw e re a t temp ted .

T h r ee d i scove r ie s o f h i s to r ica l i mpo r tance i n R a ja s than a r e t ho se o f A .C . C a r l ley le ( 1871-73 ) , C .A . H eck e t t o f t h e G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia , a nd S e ton -Ka r r i n 1 925 a tJ ha lawa r . T h i s a r t ic le c on ta in s h i s to r ica l r ev iew o fS tone A ge r e sea rch i n R a ja s than . I th igh l igh t s i mpor tan t e v idence o f a l l t h e p ha se s o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e a r chaeo logy o f Meso l i th ic c u l tu r e f ound i nt h e B e rach b a s in i n U da ipu r , C h i to rga rh ( Ch i t tau rga rh ) a nd B h i lwa r a d i s t r ic t s . V -009 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 967 . P r eh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s to ry , i nR ev iew o fI ndo log ica lR e sear ch i n L a s t S even ty -f ive Y ear s ( P .J . C h inmu lgund a nd V .V . M i ra sh i E d s . ) , p p . 3 51 -425 . P une : C ha r i t rako sh Manda l .

V -007 : M i s ra ,V .N . 1 965b . Me so l i th ic P ha se i nt h e P r eh is to ry o f I nd ia , i n I nd ian P reh i s to ry : 1 964 ( V .N . M i s ra a nd M .S . Ma te E d s . ) , p p . 5 7 -85 . P une : D eccan C o l lege .

T he m a in p u rpo se o f t h i s a r t ic le i st o r ev iew o f r e sea rch i n I nd ian p r e - a nd p ro toh i s to ry . C lo se c onnec t ion b e tween a r chaeo logy a nd a nc ien t l i t e ra ry t r ad i t ion s i s e mpha s ised . T he r ev iew o f p reh i s to r ic r e sea r ch h i gh l igh t s c on t r ibu t ion s m ade b y R .B . F oo te , L .A . C am rn iade , M .C . B u rk i t t , Y a le -Camb r idge e xped i t ion i nP un jab a nd K a shm i r ( 1939 ) , a nd H .D . S anka l ia ' s a nd h i s s t uden t s ' w o rk a l l o ve rI nd ia . T he m ean ing a nd s c ope o ft h e t e rm s P reh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s to ry i nI nd ian c on tex t , a nd v a r iou s S t one A ge c u l tu r es a r e d i scu ssed . T he m a jo r c u l tu ra l s t age s i np r eh i s to ry a r e d i scu s sed i n d e ta i l . T he se i n c lude S tone A ge c u l tu r es , t h e Me so l i th ic p ha se , a nd t h e I ndu s c i v i l iza t ion . R e su l t s o fr e cen t e xcava t ion s a tt h e H a rappan s i tes o fL o tha la nd K a l ibangan a r ed i scu s sed . T h e s p r ead o f t h i s c i v i l iza t ion , c l ima te , c h rono logy , a nd i t s c on tac t s w i th We s t A s ian c i v i l iza t ion s a r e e xam in ed . T he c ha r ac te r i s t ic s o ft h ep os t -Ha rappan c u l tu r e s a nd t h e " Da rk A ge " o f I nd ian h i s to ry f o rm s l a rge p or t ion s o f t h i s r e v iew a r t ic le . T he t op ic s d ea l t w i th a r e t h e C eme te ry H c u l tu re a nd t h e J huka r c u l tu r e ( Pun jab a nd S ind ) , c oppe r h oa rd s a nd PG W e v idence f r om G anga v a l ley , t h e A ha r c u l tu re a nd i t s c e ram ic s , t h e J orwe c u l tu r e o f

T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s ac omp r ehen s ive r e v iew o f t h e Meso l i th ic c u l tu ra lp ha se i nI nd ia . I tc on ta in s a t h o rough d i scu s s ion o f t h e m ean ing o f t h e t e rm s s uch a s Me so l i th ic a nd m ic ro l i th s . T he p l ace o ft h e Me so l i th ic i n I nd ian p r eh i s to r ic c on tex t , d i s t r ibu t ion o f s i te s , c h rono logy , a nd e co log ica l b a ckg round o ft h i s c u l tu ra l p ha se a r e e xam ined i n d e ta i l . T he e v idence a bou tv a r iou st oo lt y pes f ound f r om s eve ra l s t a te s i n I nd ia i s c omp i led a nd c r i t ica l ly e xam ined . A l so t h e e v idence o f o the r a r tef ac t s l i ke p o t te ry , s t one o b jec t s a nd c oppe r t o o l s . T he a r t ic le i sf o l low ed b y c omm en t sb yH .D . S anka l ia , B .K . T hapa r , K .V . S ounda ra R a jan , R .K . V a rma , G .R . S ha rma , G .C . Mohapa t ra , K .A .R . K ennedy , A .K . G ho sh , P .C . P an t , a nd S .P . G up ta . T h e se s cho la r s h ave r a i sed s eve ra l q ue s t ion s a nd h ave c i ted p i ece s o f e v iden ce f r om o the r w o rk s . T he q ue s t ion s w e re r e la ted t o s e t t lem en t p a t ter n , r o ck s he l te r s , p a in t ing s , h uman r ema in s , a nd a n ima lr ema in s .A tt h ee nd t h ea u tho rh a sr e p l ied t o t h e q ues t ion s . H e p o in ted o u t t h a t mo s t o f t h e Me so l i th ic s i te s a r e o ne -pe r iod s i te s a nd h ave t ob e

3

V -012 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 969 . E a r ly V i l lage C ommun i t ies o f t h e B ana s B a s in , R a ja s than , i n A n thropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy : E s say s i n Memor y o f V err ier E lw in ( M .C . P radhan e t a l . E d s . ) , p p . 2 95 -310 . Mumba i : O xf o rd Un ive r s i ty P re ss .

n or ther n D eccan , t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu re o fs ou the rn D eccan , a nd t h ep rob lem o fa sh mound s . V -010 : M is ra , V .N . 1 968a . M idd le S tone Age i n R a jas than , i n L a P reh i s to ire : P rob lems e t T endance s ( F ranco is B o rdes a nd D . d e . S onnev i l le B ordes E d s . ) , p p . 2 95 -302 . P a r is : C en t re N a t iona l d e l aR eche r che S c ien t if ique .

T he a u tho r p o in t s t o at im e g ap b e tween t h e I ndu s c i v i l iza t ion a nd t h e b eg inn ing o fh i s tor ica l p er iod . T h is g ap i s f i l led b y s eve ra l C ha lco l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic c u l tu res . T h is a r t ic le p rov ides t h e b ackg round o fp re I ron Age c u l tu res i n R a jas than a nd a b r ief s umma ry o f p r ev iou s i nves t iga t ion s . T he a u tho r d i scu s ses a l ter n a te t e rm s t ob e u sed f o r t h e n ew ly d i scove red C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re a nd s ugges t s t ha t t h e n ame ' Aha r c u l tu re ' i s mo re a p t t h an t h e n ame ' B ana s c u l tu re ' . A l though t h e k now ledge o ft h i s c u l tu re i sl im i ted , i t s i mpo r tan t k nown f e a tu res a r e d esc r ibed . T hese i n c lude e co log ica l s e t t ing , s e t t lemen t p a t te rn , t e chno log ica l b a se , a r ch i tec tu re , c e ram ics , t e r raco t ta o b jec t s a nd e conomy . T he a ff in i ty o ft h e s i tes s uch a s Aha ra nd G i lund w i th t hose o f Wes tA s ia s ugges t st h e i re a r ly d a tes . W i th t h e h e lp o fa va i lab le r ad ioca rbon d a tes f r om Aha rt h e c h rono logy o ft h e s i tes i sd i scu s sed .

R ecen t ly a n ew p ha se o f P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re , n ame ly t h e M idd le S tone Age h a s b een f ound i n R a ja s than . T h is c u l tu r e i si n te rmed ia te b e tween t h e L ower P a laeo l i th ic ( Ea r ly S tone A ge ) a nd t h e Meso l i th ic ( La te S tone Age ) . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ides as umma ry o f e v idence f o r t h e e x i s tence o f t h e M idd le S tone Age i n R a ja s than . T he e v idence i s d escr ibed i n s e c t ion s a bou t t h e p hy s ica l s e t t ing o f R a jas than , t h e s t ra t ig raphy , t h e a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage ( t he L un i i ndu s t ry ) a nd i t s c ha rac te r is t ics . T he M idd le S tone Age i sp receded b y aw e l l -deve loped E a r ly S tone Age c u l tu re whe re t h e t oo ls w e re h andaxes , c l eaver s , p ebb le c hoppe r s a nd s c rape r s . T hese t oo ls a r e m a in ly made o f q ua r tz i te a nd r a re ly s and s tone . I nt h e M idd le S tone Age t h e r aw ma ter ia l u sed w a s s i l iceou s r o ck s b es ides q ua r tz i te a nd s and s tone . T he p ropor t ion o f f l ake t oo ls i n c rea sed i n t h is p er iod . T he t wo c u l tu ra l p ha ses a r e mo re c l ea r ly d i s t ingu ished i n t h e p ropo r t ion o f r e touched f l ake t o o l s . I t i s c onc luded t h a t b o th t ypo log ica l ly a nd s t ra t ig raph ica l ly t h e M idd le S tone Age e vo lved f r om t h eE a r ly S tone Age i nt h is r eg ion .

V -013 : M is ra , V .N . 1 970a . C u l tu ra l S ign if icance o f T h ree C opper A r row -Head s f r om R a ja s than , I nd ia , J ourna lo fN ear E as tern S tud ie s2 9 (4 ) : 2 21-232 . T h r ee c oppe r a r rowhead s f ound a t B ago r i n R a ja s than a r e d i scu ssed . T hese u n ique f i nd s w e re e xcava ted d u r ing 1 968 -69 f r om t wo h uman b u r ia ls o fP ha se I ( Cha lco l i th ic ) a tB ago r ( 2 5° 2 1 ' N ; 7 4 ° 2 3 ' E ) . A r rowhead n os . 1a nd 2 a r e o f c oncave b ased t ype whe rea s A r rowhead n o . 3i so fb a rbed v a r ie ty . T hese h ave b een c ompa red w i th t hose f ound f r om H a rappan c on tex t s a nd f r om s i tes o u t s ide I nd ia . T he b a rbed t ype w a s f ound t o b e mo re c l ose t o t h e A egean a nd C aucasu s r eg ion t ypes ( of a l a te r d a te t h an t h e H a rappan p er iod ) . C oncave -ba sed a r rowhead s a r e k nown f r om P e r s ia a nd T ran scauca s ia . T he s t udy c onc luded t h a tB ago r ma rk s t h e e a s ter n l im i t o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ese t ypes o f a r rowh ead s . S tone p ro to types o f a r rowhead s a r e c o mp le te ly a bsen t i n I nd ian S ubcon t inen t a nd t h e ref o re , i t i s d i ff icu l t t o p inpo in t t h e e xac t s ou rce o ft h e a r rowhead s f ound a tB agor o ra tt h eH a rappan s i tes .

V -011 : M is ra , V .N . 1 968b . L a te S t one Age i n R a jas than , P roceed ing s o f t h e R a jas than H i s tory C ongre s s , J odhpu r S ess ion , p p . 1 6 -22 . J a ipu r : R a jas than H is to ry C ong res s . R esea rch d u r ing l a s t f i f teen y ea r s h a s b rough t t o l i gh t 7 3 s i tes o f L a te S tone Age i n R a ja s than o f wh ich o n ly n ine a r e f ound o nt h ee as ter ns i de o ft h e A rava l l is . I n e a s ter n R a ja s than mos t o ft h ese s i tes a r e l o ca ted o n s t ony e l eva t ion s o n t h e g ne is s ic p l a teau o f Mewa r . R aw m a ter ia l u sed f o r t h e m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t r ies c on s i s t s o f c her t , q uar tz i te , q ua r tz a nd c ha lcedony . A rchaeo log ica l f i nd s f r om t h ree s i tes ( N imbahe ra , Mandp ia a nd B ago r ) a r e d escr ibed i nd e ta i l . I nw es ter nR a jas than af ew s i tes a r e b e t te r k nown t h an o the r s . T hese a r e S o ja t , D hane r i , J adan , K anawa s a nd T i lwa ra . T he e v idence f r om K anawas s ugges t s c on t inu i ty o ft h e M idd le S tone A ge t r ad i t ion i n to t h e L a te S tone A ge . T he a r chaeo log ica l m a ter ia l f r om t h e s i te o f T i lwa ra i nB a rme rd i s t r ic th a sb een d escr ibed .

V -014 : M is ra , V .N . 1 970b . E v idence f o r aN ew C ha lco l i th ic C u l tu re i n S ou th R a ja s than , I nd ian A n t iquar y( Th i rd S er ies )4 ( 1-4 ) : 8 5 -95 .

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c h ipped p i eces o f wh ich 8 6 .5 % w e r e f l ak es a nd c o r es . T he p ropo r t ion o f w a s te w a s mo r e a nd f i n i shed t o o l s w e re o n ly 1 . 5% . Mo s t o f t h e t oo l s w e r e m ade o f r hyo l i t e ( h igh ly s i l iceou s v o lcan ic r ock ) . A t o ta l o f 2 61 p o t she rd s w a s r e cove r ed wh ich c on ta in ed R ed Wa r e ( 7 1 .64% ) a nd G rey Wa r e . A f ew s he rd s a r e d e sc r ibed . O the r f i nd s i n c luded s t on e p i ece s , k anka r b lock s , b ak ed c l ay l ump s , ap i ece o f i r on n a i l , a nd a n ima l b on es . Mea su r em en t s o ft h et o o l s f r om b o th t h e s i tes w e r e t ak en a nd t h e a r t ic le p rov ides s umm a ry s t a t i s t ic s o f s e lec tp a r am e te r s . F ive r ad ioca rbon d a tes a r e g iven i nt h ep o s t sc r ip t .

I nr e la t ion t on ew ly e xcava ted s i t e o fB ago r( 1968 1 970 )t h e e v idence o fp o t te ry a nd c oppe ro b jec t s i s d i scu s sed i n d e ta i l . T he e a r l ie s t s e t t le r s a tB ago r w e r e p u r e ly h un te r -ga th e r e r s w h i le t h e r e i s e v idence o f f ood p roduc t ion i n P ha se I . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic p ha se w hen c ompa r ed t ot h ose f r om A ha r s how t h a t t h e t wo c u l tu r es a r e d i f f e r en t . T h e c oppe r a r rowh ead s w e re c ompa r ed t ot h e H a rappan a r rowhead s f ound a t s eve r a l s i te s ( e .g . H a r appa , Moh en jo -da ro , C hanhu -da ro , S u tk agen -do r ) . O n ly t wo m ino r d i f f e r ence s w e r e n o t iced . T h e B ago r a r rowhead s a r e l i ke ly t o b e long t o t h e m idd le o f t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium BC T he a u tho rs ugge s t st h a tt h e B ago r a nd H a rappan a r rowhead s c ou ld h ave b een d e r ived i n dependen t ly f r om t h e s am eo rd i f f e r en ts ou rces .

V -016 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 971b . Two L a te Me so l i th ic S e t t lem en t s i n R a ja s than - a B r ief R ev iew o f I nve s t iga t ion s , P oona U n iver s i ty J ourna l ( Hum an i t ie s ) 3 5 : 5 9 -79 .

V -015 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 971a . Two M ic ro l i th ic S i te s i nR a ja s than -A P r e l im ina ry I nv e s t iga t ion ,E as tern A n thropo log i s t2 4 (3 ) : 2 37 -288 .

T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s as umma ry o f e xcava t ion r e su l t s o b ta ined a tt wo Me so l i th ic s i te s ( Bago r a nd T i lwa ra ) i n Wes ter nR a ja s than . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s a tB ago r s uch a s p o t te ry , m ic ro l i th s , c oppe r o b jec t s , i r on o b jec t s , o rnam en t s , s t one o b jec t s , s t ruc tu ra lr ema in s a nd h uman b u r ia l s , a r e d i scu s sed i n d e ta i l . T he r e la t ive c h rono logy o f t h e t h r ee p ha se s o fo ccupa t ion a tB ago rw a sp r e sen ted i nt h e e a r l ie r a r t ic le ( 1971 ) . H e r e w i th f i ve r ad ioca rbon d a te s i ti ss ugge s ted t h a t P ha se Ir ange s f r om c . 5 000 t o 2 800 BC , w he r ea s P ha se I p e rhaps e x tend st ot h e m idd le o ft h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BC T he f auna l s t ud ies d one b y D .R . S hah a nd K .R . A lu r s howed t h a t b o th a n im a l h u sband ry a nd h un t ing w e r ep rac t i sed t oge the ri nP ha se I .

Two n ew s i t e s -B ago r a nd T i lwa ra - w e r e d i scove r ed d u r ing e xp lo ra t ion ( i n 1 967 ) i n S ou th G u ja ra t a nd t h e L un i R ive r i nR a ja s than . L im i ted d i gg ing w a s d one a tb o th t h e se s i t es . B ago r ( 2 5° 2 1 ' N ; 7 4 ° 2 3 ' E ) y i e lded a t o ta l o f 8 546 s t one a r tef ac t s o f wh ich mo r e t h an 7 4% c am e f r om a4 5 c mt h ick h o r izon ( 60 -105 c md ep th ) . At o ta l o f3 62 f i n i shed t oo l s i n c lude s b l ade s , t r iang le s , t r apezes , c r e scen t s , p o in t s , s c r ape r s , n o tched f l ak es , b u r in s a nd b o r e r s . B ago r m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry i s t y po log ica l ly h i gh ly e vo lved a nd s im i la r t ot h a t o f L anghna j i nG u ja ra t . S eve r a l f r agm en ted p o t she rd s ( 9 97 ) w e r e f ound d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion a nd t h e i r v e r t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion w a s u n even . Mo s t o f t h e se ( 96 .20% ) c am e f r om t op 7 5 c md epo s i t . T he w a r es w e r e c l a s s if i ed i n to t h r ee t y pe s ( A -C ) . A f ew s he rd s a r e d e sc r ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted . O the r a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s f r om B ago r w e r e s ma l l f r agm en t s o fb u rn t b r ick s f r om t op 5 0 c m d epo s i t , s t one o b jec t s s u ch a s h amm e r s t one s ( 3 ) , r ubbe r s ( 3 ) a nd q ue rn s ( 2 ) , a nd a s i ng le s o ck e ted i r on a r rowhead ( l eng th 6 . 7 c m ) f ound a tt h e d ep th o f6 0 c m . E xcep t i nt o p 3 0 c m , a n ima l b one s ( 3098 g ) w e r e f ound a ta l l d ep th s . O n t h e b a s i s o f r e la t ive c h rono logy , B ago r o ccupa t ion w a s d i v ided i n to t h r ee p ha se s : I( b ef o re 2 000 BC ) , I( c . 2 000 BC ) a nd I I( 500 BC t o2 00 AD ) .

A tT i lwa ra a l so t h em ic ro l i th ic s i t e o ccu r s i n as and d une . I nt h ec en t ra lp o r t ion a na r ea o f1 6 x5m w a s e xcava ted whe r e h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t w a s a bou t 9 0 cm . T he m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry i se s sen t ia l ly s im i la r t ot h a t o fB ago r . T h e m a in t o o l t y pes w e r e b l ades w i th f l a t r e touch , b lun ted b ack b l ades , a nd s ymm e t r ic a nd a symm e t r ic p o in t s o n b l ade s , c r e scen t s , t r iang le s a nd t r apeze s . No c oppe r t oo ls w e r e f ound a tT i lwa ra . T i lwa ra p o t te ry i se n t i r e ly whee l -made a nd d i f f e ren t f r om t h a t a tB ago r . R ed Wa r e a nd G r ey Wa r e s he rd s a r e a lmos t e qua l i n p ropo r t ion . T he f a una l m a ter ia l s t ud ied b y D .R . S hah p o in t s t o am ix tu r e o f d om es t ic a nd w i ld f a una . S phe r ica l s t one b a l l sf ound i nt h e e xcava t ion p o s s ib ly w e re u sed f o rh un t ing .

T he m ic ro l i th ic s i te a tT i lwa ra ( 2 5° 5 1 ' N ; 7 2° 5 0 ' E )i ss i tua ted o nt h el ef tb ank o fr i ve rL un i . As ma l l t r ench ( 3 .5 x 2 . 5 m ) l o ca ted i nt h e c en t ra l p or t ion o ft h e mound w a s d ug . T h e h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t w a s m a in ly c onf in ed t o5 0 c m . E xcava t ion y i e lded 7 79

V -0 17 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 971c . S t one O b jec t s f r om N avda to l i , i n C hako l i th ic N avda to l i ( H .D .

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T h is

S anka l ia , S .B D eo a nd Z .D An sar i ) , p p . 3 23 -350 . P une : D eccan C o l lege .

a r t ic le

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o f

p r eh is to r ic r e sea rch c onduc ted i n I nd ia f o r a bou t t wo d ecades . T hough n o h uman r ema in s p r io r t o a bou t 3 000 BC h ave b een f ound , e v idence o f P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu res i sf ound a tm any s i tes i nI nd ia . T he s t ud ies r ev iewed i n c lude t h ose o fp ebb le too l S oan c u l tu re (Wes t P ak is tan ) , A cheu l ian c u l tu re o f p en in su la r I nd ia a nd i t s a s soc ia ted f auna l r ema in s , f l ake too l i ndu s t r ies o f R a ja s than , U t ta r P radesh ,

Mo re t h an 1 500 s t one o b jec t s w e re f ound a t t h e C ha lco l i th ic s i te o fN avada to l i i n Madhya P radesh . T h is a r t ic le r epo r t s a na ly s is o ft h ese s t one o b jec t s e xc lud ing b l ades . S ix t ypes o f s t one o b jec ts w ere f ound . T hese c o mpr ise 3 6 r i ng s t ones , 6 20 s l ing b a l ls , 3 38 h amme r s t ones , 3 1 h amm er s t one -anv i ls , 4 00 g r ind ing s t ones a nd 6 7 q uer n s . A l l t h ese w e re t h o rough ly e xam ined w i th r e spec t t or aw m a ter ia l , s i ze , s hape , w e igh t , s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t s , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion w i th in t h e e xcava ted t r enches . R ing s t ones a r e m ade o f av a r ie ty o f ma ter ia l s l i ke q ua r tz i te , s and s tone , b a sa l t a nd q uar tz . T he a r t ic le d i scu s ses e v idence a ga in s t t h e ' we igh t t h eory ' r e la ted t ot h ef unc t ion o ft h es l ing b a l ls .

G u ja ra t , Madhya P radesh a nd t h e D eccan . I n s eve ra l a r eas t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t r ies a r e f o l lowed b y b l ade a nd b u r in i n du s t r ies . T he a u tho r o p ine s t h a t t h ese b l ade a nd b ur in i ndu s t r ies r e p resen t t h e c u l tu re o f Moder n Man i nI nd ia . T he U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te i n t h e Ku rnoo l d i s t r ic t i s d i scu s sed p o in t ing t h a t e v idence o f t h is p ha se i s s c an ty . V -020 : M is ra , V .N . 1 972 -73 . N ew L igh t o n t h e Meso l i th ic P er iod i n I nd ia f r om E xcava t ion s a t B ago ri nR a jas than , T he R e searcher 1 2 -13 : 1 14 .

V -018 : M i s ra ,V .N . 1 972a . P reh is tor ic B u r ia ls f r om B ago r , R a ja s than , i nA r chaeo log ica l C ongre s s a nd S em inar P aper s ( S .B D eo E d . ) , p p . 5 8 -65 . N agpu r : N agpu r Un ive r s i ty

A b r ief a ccoun t o f e xcava t ion c onduc ted a t t h e Me so l i th ic s i te o f B ago r i n Wes te rn R a ja s than i s

T he ma in f o cu s o f t h is a r t ic le i st o d esc r ibe t h e h uman b u r ia ls f ound d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion a t B ago r ( 25° 2 1 ' N ; 7 4° 2 3 ' E ) , aMeso l i th ic s i te i n R a ja s than . A s umma ry o f a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t , t h ree p ha ses o f o ccupa t ion a nd a n ima l b ones i s p rov ided . F ive h uman b u r ia l s w e re f ound . B u r ia l I f ound a t ad ep th o f 1 . 20 m c on ta ined t h e s ke le ton o f a n a du l t . T he b ody w a s l a id o n i t s b ack a nd a s ma l l s t one w a sk ep to ve rt h e f a ce . No o b jec t sw e re f ound o the r t h an a f ew a n ima l b ones f ound n o rma l ly w i th h ab i ta t ion d ebr is . B u r ia l I( a t 1 . 10 m d ep th ) c on ta ined p oo r ly p rese rved s ke le ta l e l emen t s o f a n a du l t . T he g rave g ood s w e re f ou r c l ay p o t s , ac oppe rs pea rhead , ac oppe r a r rowhead , ac oppe r a w l , b ead s ( 3 5 ) a nd a n ima l b ones . B u r ia l I I ( a t 0 . 88 m d ep th ) w a s n o t w e l l -prese rved a nd i t c on ta ined as ma l l c a r ina ted p o t k ep t o ve r t h e f a ce . B u r ia l I V f ound a t0 . 98 m d ep th i sb es t p reserved among t h e f i ve b u r ia l s . T he b ody w a s l a id i nf u l ly e x tended p os i t ion i nN -S d i rec t ion . T her e w e re n o b u r ia l g ood s h er e . B u r ia l V f ound a t 1 . 0 m d ep th h ad a c i rc le o f s t ones o n t h e s u rf ace c ove r ing i t . T h is b ur ia l c on ta ined s eve ra l o f f e r ings o ne l a rge a n ima l b one , c l ay p o ts ( 8 ) a nd c oppe r a r rowhead s ( 2 ) . T he a r rowhead s h ave t wo p a ra l le l h o les n ea r t h eb a se . V -019 : M is ra , V .N . 1 972b . E vo lu t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu res i n I nd ia , i n T he O r ig in o f Homo S ap iens ( F ranco is B o rdes E d . ) , p p . 16 -120 . P ar is : UNESCO .

p rov ided . A c ompac t a r ea o f 2 0 x 1 2 m w a s s e lec ted f o r e xcava t ion whe re t h ree c u t t ing s w e r e d ug ( ma rked E t oG ) . T he m ic ro l i th s f ound d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion a r e c ompa r ed t ot h ose f ound o u t s ide I nd ia . T he a r t ic le c on ta in s ad i scu ss ion o f t h e e conomy o f B ago r p eop le . T he B ago r c u l tu r e b e long s t o aw ide r c u l tu re c omp lex t h a t e x tend s t o No r th G u ja ra t p l a in a nd t o t h e L un i b a s in . T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re i nt h ev a l ley s o f Wagan a nd K adma l i r i ver s i mmed ia te ly p recedes t h e Meso l i th ic c u l tu re a tB ago r . T he b l ade e l emen t i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re i s t o o u nde rdeve loped t o b e a nces t ra l t o t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry o fB ago r . V -021 : M is ra , V .N . 1 973a . P rob lem s o f P a laeo e co logy , P a laeo -c l ima te a nd C h rono logy o f t h e M ic ro l i th ic C u l tu res o f Wes ter n I nd ia , i n R ad iocarbon a nd I nd ian A rchaeo logy ( D .P . A g rawa l a nd A . Gho sh E d s . ) , p p . 5 8 -72 . Mumba i : T a ta I n s t i tu te o fF undamen ta lR esea rch . T h is a r t ic le c ove r st h e m ic ro l i th ic r ema in s f ound i n t h ree a r ea s i nw es ter nI nd ia n ame ly Nor th Gu ja ra t , S ou th -wes t R a ja s than a nd S ou th -ea s t R a jas than . T he m a ter ia l r ema in s f r om L anghna j , B ago r , T i lwa ra a nd P avaga rh ( c en t ra l Gu ja ra t ) a r e d i scu s sed i n r e la t ion t o t h e e co log ica l c ond i t ion s a nd c l ima te i n t h e p a s t . T he n a tu re o f h uman o ccupa t ion a nd t h e f o rma t ion o f s and d unes

3 6

V -024 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 973 . Twen ty -f iv e Y ea r s o f I nd ian P reh i s to ry ( 1947 1 972 ) -A R ev iew o fR e sea r ch , i n Man a nd S oc ie ty ( K .S . Ma thu r a nd S .C . V a rm a E d s . ) , p p . 1 54 . L ucknow : E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu r e S oc ie ty .

s howed t h a ts and w a sg e t t ing d epo s i ted s e a sona l ly . T he a s soc ia ted f a una s ugges t s t h a t a n o pen t ho rny f o r e s t a nd t h in s o i l c ove r e x i s t ed . T he a r t ic le a l so c on ta in s d i scu s s ion a bou t c h rono logy a nd i nve s t iga t ion s a r ound t h e l a k e s i nR a ja s than . I ti s c onc luded t h a tf o rs eve ra lt hou sand so fy ea r sN o r th G u ja ra th ad p e rhap s much d r ie rc l ima te t h an t oday .

T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s a n o verv iew o fe xcava t ion a t t h e Me so l i th ic s i te o fB ago r( 2 5° 2 1 ' N ; 7 4 ° 2 3 ' E ) i n e a s ter n R a ja s than . T en t r ench e s o f 4 x4 m a nd f i ve t r enche so f4 x2 m w e r ed ug i nt h ec en t r eo ft h e Maha sa t i mound . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s a t B ago r d i scu s sed e a r l ie r ( 1971) a r e d i scu s sed i n d e ta i l a l ong w i th t h e c h rono logy o ft h r ee p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion a tB ago r . T he a r tef ac t si n c lude av a r ie ty o fm ic ro l i th s , c oppe r o b jec t s ( 5 ) , i r on a r rowhead s ( 2 ) , p o t te ry o ft wo m a in f a b r ic s . P ha se I p o t te ry ( Type A ) i sg r i t ty a nd m ade o f m icaceou s c l ay . P ha se I I ( t ype B ) p o t te ry i se n t i r e ly d i f f e r en t a nd h a sn o c onnec t ion w i th t ype A p o t te ry . F ive b u r ia l s w e r ef ound ( t h r ee i nP ha se I a nd o ne e ach i nP ha se Ia nd I I ) . I n p ha se Ib u r ia l n o g r ave g ood s w e re f ound , a l though af ew a n im a l b one s w e r e f ound i n t h e v i c in i ty . B u r ia l s o f b o th P ha se s Ia nd I a r e p oo r ly p re served . B u r ia l s o f P ha se I c on ta in o f f e r ing s i nt h e f o rm o fp o t te ry , or n am en t s , m e ta l o b jec t s a nd a n im a l s b on e s , t h e l a s t n o d oub t o r ig ina l ly k ep t a sc hunk s o fm ea t . P ha se I I b u r ia l , b ecau se o f t h e a s soc ia t ion o f am ed ieva l c o in , i s c on s ide r ed t o b e o f al a te r p e r iod a nd i ta c tua l ly d oe s n o t b e long t oP ha se I I . An ima l r ema in s a nd v a r iou s a spec t s o ft h e f ood e conomy a r e d i scu s sed . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t i n i t ia l s e t t le r s a t B ago r w e r e h un te r s a nd h e rde r s , b u t l a te r t h e r o le o f h un t ing d ec l ined a nd p a s to ra l i sm i n c r ea sed .

T h i s a r t ic le g i ves a c omp rehen s ive r e v iew o f p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch c onduc ted i nI nd ia f r om 1 947 t o 1 972 . A s e c t ion o n t h e r e sea rch b ef o r e 1 947 i n c lude s w o rk s o f C o l . Meadow s T ay lo r ( 1842 ) , H .P . L e Me su r ie r ( 186 1) a nd c on t r ibu t ion s m ade b y t h e A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia . S eve ra l s em ina r s a nd c onf e r ence s o rgan ized , e spec ia l ly a f t e r 1 960 p rov ided o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r s cho la r s t o d i scu ss t h e e m e rg ing a r chaeo log ica l p rob lem s . A l so t h e i mpo r tan ce o fp ub l ica t ion s b yp eop le l i k e D .H . G o rdon , S tua r t P iggo t t , H .D . S anka l ia , B r idge t a nd F .R . A l lch in a nd W .A . F a i r serv i s J r . i s h i gh l igh ted . A l l t h e m a jo r c u l tu r a l s t age s i n p r eh is to ry a r e d i scu s sed i n d e ta i l a l ong w i th a t ho rough d i scu s s ion o ft h e S tone A ge t e rm ino logy . T he c u l tu r e -w i se r e v iew o f r e sea r ch c on ta in s s e c t ion s d ea l ing w i th A cheu l ian c u l tu r e , Q ua ter n a ry s t ud ies , t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e Meso l i th ic p ha se , e m e rgence o fs e t t led v i l lage l i f e , t h e p r e -Ha rappan c u l tu r e s i n n o r thwe s t I nd ia , B u rzahom N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e , t h e I ndu s c i v i l iza t ion a nd i t s c ha r ac te r i s t ic s ( ch rono logy , s p r ead a nd d ec l ine ) , N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e o f S ou th I nd ia a nd t h e a shmound s . T he a r t ic le a l so i n c lude s ar e v iew o f e xp lo ra t ion s a nd e xcava t ion s r e la ted t o t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e s o ft h e D eccan , C en t ra l I nd ia a nd R a ja s than , t h e Mega l i th ic r ema in s , p ro toh i s to r ic a r t , i mpo r tance o f e t hnoa r chaeo logy , m e ta l lu rgy , h uman r em a in s , a n ima l r ema in s , p l an t r ema in s , r ad ioca rbon d a t ing . Au tho r s c on c lude t h a t s o f a r t h e w o rk w a s m o re o ft h e e xp lo ra t ion t y pe a nd p e r ta ined t oc o l lec t ion o fa r tef ac t s , a nd s ugges t t h a t mo r e h o r izon ta l e xcava t ion s a r e n eeded i n f u tu r e .

V -023 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 973c . A N ew P r eh i s to r ic C e ram ic f r om R a ja s than , E a s t a nd W e s t 2 3 (3 -4 ) : 2 95 -305 .

V -025 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 974a . A r chaeo log ica l a nd E thnog raph ic E v idence f o rt h e H af t ing a nd U se o f M ic ro l i th sa nd R e la ted T oo l s ,P ura ta t t va 7 :3 12 .

T h i sa r t ic le i sa im ed a td e sc r ib ing t h ep o t te ry f ound a tt h e Me so l i th ic s i te o fB ago r ( 2 5° 2 1 ' N ; 7 4 ° 2 3 ' E ) i ne a s ter nR a ja s than a nd i t s p l ace i np r eh i s to r ic c e r am ic t ypo logy . A l so , as umma ry o fe xcava t ion , t r enches , a r tef ac t s a nd g en e r a l o b se rva t ion s a tt h e s i t e i sp rov ided . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t t h e c e ram ic f ound a tB ago ri sd i s t in c t ive a nd b e n am ed " Bago r w a r e " . T he m a in f e a tu r e so ft h i sw a r e a r ed e sc r ibed a nd af ew p o t sa r e i lu s t ra ted .

A t s eve ra l p l ace s i n I nd ia p r eh i s to r ic t o o l s a r e f ound . T he m ic ro l i th ic t oo l s ( e .g . s pea rhead s , a r rowh ead s , s i ck le s a nd k n ive s ) d i scove r ed i n a bundance a t m any s i te s a r e b e ing d e sc r ibed . H oweve r , o u rk now ledge o ft h eu se o ft oo l s , a nd o f t h e i r f unc t ion i s l im i ted . I n r e cen t y ea r s a r chaeo log i s t s h ave f o cu sed t h e i r a t ten t ion o n s uch i s sue s . Many o f t h e se m ic ro l i th s w e r e h af ted i n s u i tab le s haf t s . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s s eve ra l

V -022 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 973b . B ago r -A L a te Me so l i th ic S e t t lem en t i nN o r th -W es t I nd ia , W or ld A r chaeo logy 5 ( 1) : 9 2 -110 .

3 7

e xamp le so fs uch u sage f r om a l lo ve rt h ew o r ld a nd h i gh l igh t s i mpo r tance o f e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s i n i n te rp r e t ing t h et oo lu se i nt h ep a s t .

V -027 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 976a . T h e A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock she l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia ,P ura ta t t va 8 :1 3 -36 .

V -026 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 974b . H i s to ry a nd A rchaeo logy — N eed f o r aN ew U nde r s tand ing , P rachya P ra t ibha 2 ( 1) : 8 14 .

T he s i te o f B h imbe tka ( 22 ° 5 0 ' N ; 7 7° 3 7 ' E ) i s l o ca ted i nt h eR a i sen d i s t r ic to f Madhya P r ade sh i n C en t ra l I nd ia . S eve ra l c ave s a nd r o ck she l te r s a r e s c a t t e red i nt h e V indhyan h i l l s o f wh ich a bou t 5 00 c on ta in p a in t ing s o n t h e i r w a l l s a nd c e i l ing s . V .N .

Ag ene ra lp i c tu re o fI nd ian p ub l ic p e r cep t ion a bou t t h ep a s ti st h a th i s to ry i sm a in ly t h es t o ry b u i l tf r om w r i t t en r e co rd s . I ti s ac ommon b e l ief t h a th i s to ry i s c oncer n ed w i th k ing s , b a t t le s a nd d a te s . T h i s i s m a in ly d ue t o t h e w ay h i s to ry i st a ugh t i n o u r e du ca t iona ls y s tem . T h ep e r iod o fm an ' sp reh i s to r ic p a s t i sv a s t a nd o u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h i s p e r iod i s e n t i r e ly d epend en t o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l d i scove r ie s a nd e xcava t ion s . T he a u tho r s how s t h e i mpo r tan t r o le t h a t a r chaeo logy p l ay s i nh i s to r ica l r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e p a s t . I n We s ter n c oun t r ie s a r chaeo logy i s i n c r ea s ing ly b ecom ing p opu la r . A l though a r chaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty i n I nd ia i s q uan t i ta t ive ly mo r ei nt h an many o th e rc oun t r ie s , i t i so f t en l im i ted t o a cadem ic c i rc le s . T he n eed t o e duca t e p ub l ic w i th e xh ib i t ion s o fa n t iqu i t ie s a nd p opu la ra r t ic le si sh igh l igh ted .

S i t e B h imbe tka ,( s he l te rI IF -24 ) Madhya P rade sh L a l i tpu r ,U t ta rP rad e sh C h i rk i -Neva sa , Maha ra sh t ra A nangwad i ,K a rna taka A damga rh , Madhya P rade sh Mahadeo P ipa r ia , Madhya P rade sh Ku l iana ,O r i s sa H un sg i ,K a rna taka

M i s ra e xcava ted a n a r ea o f5 2 m2 i n s ide t h e r o ck s h e l te r I I F -23 f o rt h r ee y ea r s ( 1973 -1975 ) . I n a l l e i gh t l a ye r s w e r e r e cogn i sed i n 3 . 80 m t h ick d epo s i t . T he a r tef ac t a s semb lage ( n=4705 ) c on s i s ted o f f l ak e s ( 1378 ) , c o r es ( 1 55 ) , c h ip s ( 1 260 ) a nd d eb r i s ( 183 ) b e s ide s t h e s haped t o o l s ( 1 50 1) . T he i ndu s t ry b e longed t o t h e A ch eu l ian c u l tu r e . T he p ropo r t ion o f s i de sc rape r s a nd o t he r n on -b if ace t oo l s w a s mo r e ( n= 1322 ) wh i le t h e h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s a ccoun ted f o r o n ly 1 79 s pec im en s . T he a r t ic le d e sc r ibe s a nd i lu s t ra te s t h e a r t ef ac t s a nd p rov ide s s t a t i s t ica l d a ta o f t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion w i th in t h e d epo s i t . T he m a te r ia l r em a in s f r om t h i sr o ck s he l te rw e r e c ompa r ed w i th f o l low ing o the rA ch eu l ian s i te s .

G eo -co -ord ina te s 2 2 ° 5 0 'N ; 7 7 °3 7 'E

S tud ied /Excava ted b y V .S . Wakanka r

2 4 °4 2 'N ; 7 8 °2 5 'E 1 9 °3 0 'N ; 7 4 °5 0 'E 1 6 ° 1 5 'N ; 7 5 °4 0 'E

R . S ingh ( 1965 )

2 2 ° 2 3° 2 2° 1 6 °

4 5 ' 0 6 ' 0 4 ' 2 7 '

N ; N ; N ; N ;

7 7 °43 'E 7 9 ° 1 6 'E 8 6 °3 9 'E 7 6 °3 1 'E

V -028 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 976b . E co log ica lA dap ta t ion s

G . C o rv inu s( 1966 -68 ) R .S .P appu ( 1965 ) R .V .J o sh ia nd M .D .K ha r e( 1964 ) S .G . S upeka r( 1963 a nd 1 965 ) N .K . B o se a nd D . S en K .P addayya

m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t ry . T he f i nd s f r om t h e r o ck s h e l t e r s i t e o fL ekhah ia ( 24 ° 3 0 ' 5 "N ; 8 2° 3 2 ' E ) , a nd B h imbe tka i n C en t ra l I nd ia w e re e xam ined . T en s i t e s d i scu s sed f r om G anga V a l ley i n c lude J h i r i , G a rha , S a ra i N aha r R a i , Ku rha a nd B icch ia . T h i s s t udy h igh l igh t s t h e n a tu re o f h um an a dap ta t ion s a tt h e e nd o ft e rm ina l S t one Age . T h e h un te r -ga the r e r sh ave a dap ted t od i ve r se e co log ica l s e t t ing s s uch a s t h e r o cky p l a in s o f Mewa r a nd h i l ly -f o r e s ted a r ea s o f C en t ra l I nd ia . T h e t e chno log ica l e qu ipm en ta nd t h e e conom ic p a t te rn s o ft h e se h uman g roup ss how v a r ia t ion .

D u r ing t h e T e rm ina l S tone Age i n We s te rn a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , i nE co log ica lB ackg round s o fS ou th A s ian P reh i s to ry ( K .A .R . K ennedy a nd G . P o s seh l E d s . ) ,p p .2 8 -51 . I t haca : C o rn e l l Un ive r s i ty . T h e L a te S ton e A ge ( Me so l i th ic p ha se ) r e sea r ch c onduc ted i nG u ja ra t , R a ja s than , Madhya P rade sh a nd t h e G anga V a l ley i n U t ta r P rade sh h a s b een r e v iewed . P hy s iog raph ic b ackg round o f a l l t h e se r e g ion s h a s b een p rov ided . Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e s i te s e xam in ed f r om Gu ja ra t w e r e L anghna j , Akha j , V a la sana a nd H i rpu ra . T he s i te s o f B ago r , P achpad ra s a l t b a s in a nd T i lwa ra f r om R a ja s than h ave b een c ompa r ed t oo t he r s i te s . A r cha eo log ica l f md s i nr e la t ion t ot h e r ad ioca rbon d a te s d e sc r ibed i nd e ta i l f r om t h e se s i tes i n c lude a n im a lb one s a nd

V -029 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 976c . P r eh is to ry a nd P a laeo env i ronm en t i n R a ja s than , i n A r chaeo logy a nd P a laeoenv ironmen t i n W e s te rn I nd ia ( D .P .

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A g rawa l a nd B .M . P ande E d s . ) , p p . 3 1-54 . N ew D e lh i : C oncep t .

S ub rahm anyam a nd N . R ame san E d s . ) , p p . 3 45 -59 . H yde rabad : G ove rnm en to fA ndh ra P rade sh .

T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s ab r ief a ccoun t o fp r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch c onduc ted i nR a ja s than a nd t h e f e a tu r es o f t h e L ow e r P a laeo l i th ic t ot h e Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e s . A l so , e m e rgence o fe a r ly f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s a nd t h e e v idence o f OCP a nd PG W c u l tu r es a r e d i scu s sed . T he e nv i ronm en t o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod h a s b een e xam ined u s ing p edo log ica l a nd p a lyno log ica l d a ta . G u rd ip S ingh ' s s chem e o f c l ima te c hanges i sd i scu s sed . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t t h e r ew a s a ni n c r ea se i nr a inf a l l a tt h eb eg inn ing o f t h e H o locene p e r iod . H oweve r , t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence d oe s n o t p o in t t o av e ry w e t c l ima te . T he re i s n o t a dequa te i n f o rm a t ion t o s uppo r t G u rd ip S ingh ' si n f e r ence a nd t h e r ef o r e , i ts hou ld b e c on s ide r ed a s aw o rk ing h ypo the s is . A t t h e e nd o f t h i s a r t ic le t h e a u tho r ' s r e p l ie s t o q ue s t ion s r a i sed b yS ub r a ta S inha a nd K .T .M . H edge a r ea l so g i ven .

T h i s a r t ic le s umma r ises r e su l t s o f p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch c onduc ted i nR a ja s than s of a rb yg i v ing a n i n t roduc t ion t o t h e g eog raph ic s e t t ing . P r eh i s to r ic c u l tu r es i n R a ja s than a r e d i v ided i n to f o l low ing p ha se s : e a r l ies t h un te r -ga the r e r s ( t he L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ) , a dvanced h un te r -ga the r e r s ( t he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ) , f i na l h un te r -ga the r e r s ( t he Me so l i th ic ) , b eg inn ing o f s e t t led v i l lage l i f e ( t h e C ha lco l i th ic ) , b eg inn ing o f u rban l i f e ( t he I ndu s c i v i l i sa t ion ) , a nd t h e e xpan s ion o f s e t t led v i l lage l i f e ( t he I r on A ge ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s f r om t h e s i t es o ft h ese p e r iod s a r e d i scu s sed b y g iv ing t h e i rn a tu r e , c h rono logy , f e a tu r es a nd s p r ead . V -032 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 977 . E vo lu t ion o ft h e P a t ter n o f H uman S e t t lem en t i n t h e A r id a nd S em i -a r id R eg ion , i n D e ser t if ica t ion a nd i t s C on t ro l ( P .L . J a i swa l , R . S ingh , N .N . C hhab ra a nd K . S unda ra r aman E d s . ) , p p . 1 0 -24 . N ew D e lh i : I nd ian C ounc i lo fA g r icu l tu ra lR e sea r ch .

V -030 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 976d . E v idence o f C u l tu r e C on tac t b e tween T e rm ina l S t one A ge H un te r g a the r e r s a nd C on tempo ra ry F a rm e r s , i n A r chaeo log ica lC ong re s sa nd S em inar : 1 972 ( U .V . S ingh E d . ) , p p . 15 121 . Ku ruk she t ra : Ku ruk she t r a U n ive r s i ty .

D ue t or e cen t p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch i ti sp o s s ib le t o v i ew t h e p roce s s o f h uman e vo lu t ion a nd c o lon iza t ion i n a r id a nd s em i -a r id p a r t s o f I nd ia . T he f o cu s h a s b een o n w o rk d one i n G u ja ra t , R a ja s than a nd H a ryana . T he r ev iew o fr e sea r ch i s r e la ted t o t h e h uman c u l tu r e s d u r ing t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd Me so l i th ic p ha se s . A l so t h e c hanges d ue t o f ood p roduc t ion a nd s e t t led l i f e d u r ing t h e C ha lco l i th ic -B ronze A ge a nd t h e I r on A ge w e r e e xam ined . T he e nv i ronm en ta l c ond i t ion s d u r ing t h is p e r iod a nd t h e h uman a dap ta t ion s a r e d i scu s sed . T he a u tho r c onc lude s t h a t i ti sd i ff icu l t t or e conc i le t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence k nown s o f a r a nd t h e c l ima t ic p i c tu r e p r esen ted b y G u rd ip S ingh .

T h i sa r t ic le p rov ide s at ho rough r e v iew o fr e sea r ch o n t h e Meso l i th ic c u l tu re s i te s f r om We s te rn a nd C en t ra l I nd ia . M ic ro l i th s w e re u sed u n t i l t h e e a r ly c en tu r ie s o ft h e C h r i s t ian e r a . A l though t h e d a ta i s n o t v o lum inou s , i ti sa dequa te t o i n f e r a bou t t h e m ic ro l i th -u s ing c ommun i t ie s a tt h e e nd o ft h e L a te S t one A ge . Whe r eve r t h e m ic ro l i th -u s ing c ommun i t ie sw e r el i v ing c l o se t oc oppe r / i ron -u s ing s e t t led f a rm e r s , t h ey o b ta ined m e ta l t oo l s , p o t te ry a nd o t he ro b jec t s . T hough i r on t o o l sw e r e a cqu i r ed , t h e e conomy c on t inued t ob e d ependen t o nh un t ing a nd g a the r ing o r t h e se p eop le p a r t ia l ly a dop ted f ood p rodu c t ion . T he s i te s d i scu s sed f r om G u ja ra t a nd R a ja s than a r e L anghna j , B ago r a nd T i lwa ra . T he a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s f r om s eve ra l s i te s i n Madhya P rad esh a r e e xam ined . T he se i n c lude B h imbe tka a nd P u t l i K a r a r ( Ra i sen d i s t r ic t ) , A damga rh ( Ho shangabad d i s t r ic t ) a nd D o ro thy D eep r o ck she l te r s i te n ea r P achm a rh i . B es ide s t h e se , T odd ' sr e por to nm ic ro l i th s f ound o nS a l se t te I s land o nt h ew e s tc oa s th a sb een d i scu s sed .

V -033 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 978a . P r eh i s to r ic C ave a r t o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i nC onser va t ion o fR ock A r t( C . P ea r son E d . ) , p p . 6 9 -70 . C anbe r ra : I n s t i tu te f o rt h e C on se rva t ion o fC u l tu r a l Ma te r ia l . Mo r e t h an 9 0 p e r c en t r o ck a r t s i te s k nown s o f a r a r e f ound i nt h e s and s tone h i l l s ( t he K a imu r s , t h e V indhya s a nd t h e Mahadeo ) o fC en t r a l I nd ia . T he s i t e o f B h imbe tka i n R a i sen d i s t r ic t ( Madhya P rade sh ) i st h e r i che s t a mong t h e se w he r e mo r e t h an 2 00 c ave s a nd r o ck she l te r s h ave b een f ound . A lso , mo re t h an 5 00 s uch p l ace s i na d jo in ing h i l l s h ave p a in t ing s . E xcava t ion s o f s om e s e lec t r o ck -

V -031 : M is r a , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 976 . P r eh i s to r ic B ackg round o f R a ja s than , i n S oma sek hara S arma C ommemora t ion V o lume ( R .

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s he l te r s s how t h a t h uman s h ave o ccup ied t h ese p l aces f r om A cheu l ian t o Meso l i th ic t ime s . B a sed o n s t y le a nd s uper impo s i t ion , t h e p a in t ing s w e re c l a s s if ied i n to t wo c u l tu ra l -ch rono log ica l p ha ses ( p reh i s tor ic a nd h i s tor ic ) . T he c on ten t s , s ub jec t s , p a in t ing s t y les a nd d a t ing o f t h ese r o ck a r t s pec im en s h ave b een d esc r ibed . T he p a in t ing s a t B h imbe tka a r e i n v a r iou s s t ages o f p r eserva t ion . T hese n eed c on serva t ion e f f or t s s i nce b o th h uman a nd n a tu ra l f a c to r s a r e r e spon s ib le f o r t h e i r d es t ruc t ion .

V indhyan H i l ls ( Ra isen d i s t r ic t , Madhya P radesh ) . T he a u tho r s h ave d escr ibed t h e l o ca t ion , f o res t c ove r , c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s , p eop le l i v ing n ow a nd h i s tor ica l e v idence ( i . e . G up ta i n scr ip t ion s a nd P a rama ra t emp le r u in s ) a va i lab le f r om t h is a r ea . P a in t ing s a r e f ound o nt h e w a l ls a nd c e i l ings o ft h e r o ck s he l te r s a s w e l l a s o n v er t ica l c l if f f a ces . B a sed o n s t y le , c o lou r a nd s uper impos i t ion 1 6 l a ye r so fp a in t ing sh ave b een r e cogn ised . T he s t udy o f 1 33 c aves o n t h e m a in B h imbe tka h i l l r evea led t h a t 1 6 c o lou r s h ave b een u sed a nd 1 2 p a in t ing s t y les c ou ld b e i d en t if ied . T hese h ave b een g rouped i n to 9 c h rono log ica l a c t iv i ty u n i t s : P ha ses A t o E ( P reh is to r ic ) , P ha se F ( t ran s i t iona l /Cha lco l i th ic ) a nd P ha ses G t o I( H is tor ic p er iod ) . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ides a d i scu s s ion a bou t t h e r e la t ive c h rono logy , p a in t ing t e chn ique s a nd c on ten t s o f p a in t ings o fv a r iou sp ha ses .

V -034 : M is ra , V .N . 1 978b . A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , B u l le t in o f t h e I ndo P ac i f ic P reh i s tory A ssoc ia t ion 1 :1 30 -173 . T h is a r t ic le p rov ides a b r ief r ev iew o f t h e e xcava t ion c onduc ted a tt h e s i te o fB h imbe tka ( 22 5 0 ' N ; 7 7 3 7 ' E ) , l o ca ted i n t h e R a isen d i s t r ic t o f Madhya P radesh i n C en t ra l I nd ia . I t i s m a in ly c once rned w i th t h e r ock s he l te r I I F -23 . S eve ra l o ther A cheu l ian s i tes h ave b een u sed t o c ompa re t h e r e su l ts o f B h imbe tka e xcava t ion . T hese a r e L a l i tpu r ( U t ta r P radesh ) , C h i rk i -Neva sa ( Maha ra sh t ra ) , Adamga rh a nd Mahadeo P ipa r ia ( Madhya P radesh ) , Ku l iana ( Or is sa ) a nd Anangwad i a nd Hun sg i( Kar n a taka ) .

V -037 : M is ra , V .N . 1 980 . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock -She l ter I IF -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia - A P re l im ina ry S tudy , A u s tra l ian A r chaeo logy 8 :6 3 -106 . T h i s a r t ic le p resen t s r e su l t s o f t h e e xcava t ion c a r r ied o u tb y t h e a u tho r i n s ide t h e r ock sh e l te r I I F -23 a tB h imbe tka ( 22° 5 0 'N ; 7 7° 3 7 'E ) i nC en t ra l I nd ia ( Ra isen d i s t r ic t o f Madhya P rade sh ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l s t ra t ig raphy , t o o l t ypes a nd t h e i r f r equenc ies , t e chn iques o f t oo l p roduc t ion a nd o the r f e a tu res h ave b een d escr ibed . D e ta i led i n f o rma t ion i sp rov ided i nf o rm o fe l abo ra te t a b les , l i ne d raw ings , a nd p ho tog raph s . B h imbe tka A cheu l ian i ndu s t ry i s c ha rac ter ised b y l ow p ropor t ion o f b i f aces , h i gh s t anda rd o f w orkman sh ip i n b i f ace p repa ra t ion s a nd h igh p ropo r t ion o f c l eaver s t o h andaxes . T h is i n du s t ry h a s c l o se s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e Mou s ter ian o f A cheu l ian t r ad i t ion . T he a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l f r om r ock -she l te r I I F -23 h a s b een c ompa red t o t h a t f r om r ock -she l te r I I F -24 e xcava ted b y V .S . Wakanka r a t B h imbe tka a nd s evera l o the r I nd ian s i te s . T he o the r s i tes u sed f o r c ompa r i son a r e C h i rk i -Neva sa ( Maha ra sh t ra ) , L a l i tpu r ( U t ta r

V -035 : M is ra , V .N . 1 978c . E xp lo ra t ion s i nA jme r a nd J a ipu r D is t r ic t s , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 :7 4 . A s ap a r t o f t h e mu l t i -d isc ip l ina ry p ro jec t o n t h e e a r ly man a nd h i s e nv ironmen t i n n o r th -wes ter n I nd ia , t h e a u tho r a l ong w i th h i s c o l leagues S .N . R a jaguru a nd P .K . T homa s , e xp lo red A jm e r a nd J a ipu r d i s t r ic t s o f R a jas than i n 1 976 . E xposed f l uv ia l s ed imen t s i nt h eu ppe rr e aches o fr i ve rL un i a nd s and d unes ( a eo l ian s ed imen ts ) w e re i n ves t iga ted . Two g enera t ion s o f s and d unes w e re r e cogn ised . Meso l i th ic s i tes w e re f ound o n t h e d ef la ted p o r t ion s o ft h e o lde r s and d unes a tN awa , a nd o n t h e o ld t e r race o ft h e S a ra swa t i r i ve r n ea r G ov indga rh . O the r s i tes e xp lo red w er e B udha P u shka r a nd B ena ra . P re l im ina ry o bserva t ion s s ugges t t h a t t h e c l ima te w as e x t reme ly d ry d u r ing t h ec l o s ing p ha se o ft h eP le is tocene . V -036 : M is ra , V .N . a nd Y . Ma thpa l 1 979 . R ock A r t o fB h imbe tka R eg ion , C en t ra l I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t3 :2 7 -33 .

P rade sh ) , Anangwad i a nd Hun sg i ( Ka rna taka ) , Mahadeo P ipa r ia a nd A damga rh ( Madhya P radesh ) , a nd Ku l iana ( Or issa ) . T he a ppend ix b y S .N . R a ja gu ru p rov ides s ed im en to log ica l o bserva t ion s , f o ss i l e v idence f r om N a rmada R ive r a nd c onc lu s ion s a bou t t h e p a laeoenv ironmen t a t B h imbe tka .

I n 1 958 V .S . Wakanka r d i scove r ed t h e r i ch c omp lex o f r o ck a r t s i tes a t B h imbe tka i n t h e

V -038 : M i sra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , R .J . Wa sson , G . S ingh a nd D .P . A g rawa l 1 979 -80 . F u r the rL igh t

4 0

A -040 : A g rawa l , D .P . , P .S . D a t ta , Z ah id Hu s sa in , R .V . K r i shnamu r thy , V .N . M i s ra , S .N . R a jagu ru a nd P .K . T homa s 1 980 . P a laeoc l ima te , S t ra t ig raphy a nd P r eh is to ry i n N o r th a nd We s t R a ja s than , P roceed ing s o ft h e I nd ian A cad emy o f S c ience s 8 9 ( 1) : 5 1-66 .

o n L owe r P a laeo l i th ic O ccupa t ion a nd P a la eoenv i ronmen t i n S em i -a r id Z on e o f R a ja s than ,P ura ta t t va 1 : 1 -18 . I n 1 979 V .N . M i s ra , S .N . R a jaguru a nd D .P . Ag rawa l d i scove r ed aL owe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te n ea r J aya l ( 27 ° 1 3 ' N ; 7 4 ° 1 ' E ) i nN agau r d i s t r ic t o f R a ja s than . T oo l s w e r e f ound t o ad ep th o f0 . 50 m i np r im a ry g rave la nd t od ep th so fs eve ra lm e t r e s i n t h e r e -depo s i ted g r ave l . O n t h e b a s i s o f s ed im en to log ica l a nd g eomo rpho log ica l d a ta t h e g rav e l r i dge ( 1 5 km l ong ) o n wh ich a r tef ac t s a r e s c a t t e r ed h a s b een d a ted t e n ta t iv e ly t o t h e E a r ly P l e i s tocene . I n 1 980 t h e a u tho r sd i scove r ed a no the r A ch eu l ian s i te a tD idwana ( 37 ° 2 4 ' N ; 7 4 ° 3 5 ' E ) , a l so i n N agau r d i s t r ic t . T h i s a r t ic le d e sc r ibe s t h e s t a t e o fp r e serva t ion o ft h e l o ca l i t ies n ea rD idwana ( S ing i T a lav , Am a rpu ra a nd I ndo la k i D han i ) , t h e s t ra t ig raphy , a nd a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s . T he a s semb lage ( n= 130 ) c on ta in ed t oo ls ( h andaxe s , s c r ape r s a nd c hoppe r s ) a s w e l l a s d eb i tage . T he s i te s o fD idwana a r e l o ca ted i nl ow -ene rgy f l uv ia l f o rma t ion a nd i n p r im a ry c on tex t . T he a r t ic le p rov ide s a d i scu s s ion o f e nv i ronm en t a r ound D idwana d u r ing t h eA cheu l ian c u l tu re .

T he a u tho r s p rov ide a b r ief r ev iew o f p r ev iou s p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l r e sea r ch c a r r ied o u t i n R a ja s than . Q ua te rna ry f o rma t ion s i nR a ja s than a r e o ff l uv ia la nd a eo l ian o r ig in . T he f o s s i lg r ave lr i dge a t J aya l i n N agau r D i s t r ic t i so ne o f t h e e a r l ie s t Q ua te rna ry f o rma t ion s s o f a r r e co rded i n t h i s r eg ion . Ar i ch p a laeo l i th ic s i te h a s b een d i scove red i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e g r ave l r i dge . T h i s a r t ic le d i scu s se s d a ta a bou t p a s t c l ima te c hanges c om ing f r om mu l t ip le s ou rce s . I t i s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e o sc i l la t ion s h ave b een b e tween a r id a nd s em i -a r id p ha se s r a the r t h an b e tween s em i -a r id a nd h um id p ha se s . A -041 : A g rawa l , D .P . , R .P D h i r , R .V . K r i shnamu r thy , V .N . M i s ra , S .C . N anda a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 980 . Mu l t ip le E v idence f o r C l im a t ic C hange i nR a ja s than , i nA r id Z one R e sear ch a nd D eve lopmen t ( H .S . Mann E d . ) , p p . 1 18 . J odhpu r : S c ien t if ic P ub l i she r s .

V -039 : M i s ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , D .P . A g rawa l , P .K . T hom a s , Z . Hu sa in a nd P .S . D ana 1 980 . P r eh is to ry a nd P a laeoenv i romn en t o f J aya l , We s te rn R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 4 : 1 9 3 1 .

T o u nde r s tand p a laeoc l ima t ic c hange s i n R a ja s than , q ua r tz g r a in s f r om k ankar -ba sed a nd k ankar f r ee d epo s i t sw e re e xam ined . T he t e chn ique o fS EM ( s cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy ) w a s u sed . T he m a in f o cu s o f t h e w o rk w a s o n t h e s i te s o f C h i ra i , C hamu a nd G ud la i t h a t a r e l o ca ted n ea r J odhpu r . A l so , t h e B ap B ou lde r s f r om B ap n ea r J odhpu r w e re s t ud ied . T he f i nd ing s s howed t h a t t h e r e i sn o p o s s ib i l i ty o fg l ac ia t ion e x tend ing i n to R a ja s than d u r ing t h e Q ua ter na ry . M ine ra log ica l a nd c hem ica l a na ly se s o f Ma lha r R ann s ed im en t s s ugge s ted t h a t l a k e l e ve l s i n t h e p a s t f l uc tua ted s i gn if ican t ly . T h e c l im a te s equ ence f ound i n t h i s s t udy m a tche s w i th t h ose i n n o r th R a ja s than a nd K a shm i r .

I n 1 979 a t e am o f s c ien t i s t s a nd a r cheo log i s t s s t ud ied t h e e x ten s ive g r av e l r i dge n ea r J aya l ( Nagau rd i s t r ic t , R a ja s than ) w i th t h e a im t oc o l lec t e v idence o fe a r l ie s t h um an o ccupa t ion i nt h a t a r ea . T he g eo log ica l s e t t ing , v a r iou sr ock u n i t s , o r ig in o f t h e g rave l , n a tu r e o f Q ua ter n a ry f o rm a t ion s n ea r J aya l ( 27° 1 3 'N ; 7 4 ° 1 ' E ) a nd p robab le a ge o fi t s d epo s i t ion h ave b een d e sc r ibed . S eve ra l s ma l l t r enche s ( 1 x 1m ) w e r e d ug a t J aya l . A l l t h e a r tef ac t s w e r e m ade o fq ua r tz i te . O ft h e t o ta l 4 56 a r tef ac t s , mo s t ( 82 .02% ) w e r e f l ak e s a nd c o r e s . T he f i n i shed t o o l s i n c lude s c rape r s , h andaxe sa nd a s i ng le c l eave r . T r ia l e x cava t ion w a s c onduc ted a t t h r ee p l aces o n t h e g r ave l r i dge a tC hha jo l i wh e r e t o o l s w e r e f ound i nt h r ee g r ave l l a ye r s . Ma in t o o l t y pe s w e r e s c rape r s , h andaxe s , c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s , d en t icu la te s , k n ive s a nd t r unca ted f l ak e s . A l so , c on t ro l led s u rf ace c o l lec t ion ( n=433 ) w a s d one f r om a n a r ea o f 4x4m o n t h e m id s lope o fa g r ave lr i dge n ea rR a ta N ad ip ond .

V -042 : M i s ra ,V .N . 1 981 . T h eP r eh i s to r ic R ock A r t o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , J ourna l o f t h e N a t iona l C en t re f or t h e P erf orm ing A r t s 1 0 ( 1) : 1 1 6 . A .C .L . C a r l ley le i n 1 867 -68 f i r s t d i scove r ed r o ck p a in t ing s i n I nd ia . T he a u tho r p rov ide s ab r ief r ev iew o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f r o ck a r t s i te s i n g ene r a l a nd w o rk d one s i nce t h en . S eve ra l r o ck s h e l te r s a nd c ave s a tB h imbe tka i nR a i sen d i s t r ic t

4 1

( Madhya P radesh ) h ave p a in t ings o n t h e w a l ls a nd c e i l ing s . E xcava t ion s o f af ew r ock -she l te r s h ave p roved t h a t h uman s h ave o ccup ied t h ese s i nce t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t im es ( mo re t h an 1 00 ,000 y ea r s ) . T he l o ca t ion s , c o lou r s u sed , b ackg round o f t h e p a in t ing s , t h em es , n a tu re o f d ep ic t ion s , mo t iva t ion b eh ind t h e p a in t ing s , p a in t ing t e chn iques , s t a te o fp rese rva t ion a nd c h rono logy o f t h e r ock a r t a r e d escr ibed . T he s ub jec t s o ft h e e a r ly a r t a tB h imbe tka a r e r e la ted t on a tu re , a n ima ls a nd h un t ing -ga ther ing w ay o f l i f e . P a in t ing s o f P ha se V I s how t r an s i t ion b e tween t h e e a r ly h un t ing g a ther ing e conomy a nd t h e s e t t led f a rm ing e conomy . T he p a in t ing s o fP ha ses I -V a n teda te t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BC T he p a in t ings o fP ha se V I I I X ( 500 BC t o AD 1 000 ) a r e m any b u t p oo r i n q ua l i ty . T he s ub jec t s o ft h e se p ha ses a r e mo re o f ten b a t t le s c enes , r oya l p rocess ion s , e l ephan t s , h o r se r i der s a nd s o ld ie r s .

b e c a r r ied b y t h e m ig r a to ry d unes . C a lc ium c a rbona te o ccu r s a s a t h in c ru s t a t t h e t op i n d ica t ing d une s t ab i l i sa t ion , a nd a s d i sc re te u n i t s o f r oo t -ca s t s w i th in t h e d une p rof i le . R ep re sen ta t ive s amp les o f r oo t -ca s t s w ere e xam ined . B a sed o n t h e s t udy o ft h e c a rbona tes , a m ode l f o r p a laeoc l ima te c hanges d u r ing p a s t 6 000 y ea r s h a s b een p r esen ted . T he s t ab i l isa t ion o f t h e d une o ccu r red a r ound 6 500 y ea r s B P s ugge s t ing a w e t p ha se . Af t e r a r e la t ive ly d r ier p ha se t h e c ond i t ion s b ecame w e t ter a ga in f r om a bou t 5 000 y ea r s B P . T h i s p ha se c on t inued u n t i l 3 000 y ea r s B P a nd h ad m ino r f l uc tua t ion s . T he mo s t s i gn if ican t s h if t f r om t h e d ry t ow e t p ha se p e rhaps t o ok p l ace b e tween 5 000 a nd 4 500 y ea r s a go . T hese r e su l ts w e re i n a g reemen t w i th t hose b a sed o np o l len d a ta . V -045 : M is ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 981 . T he M ic ro l i th ic I ndu s t ry o f B ago r , R a ja s than , i n C u l tura l C on tour s o fI nd ia ( V .S . S r ivas tava E d . ) , p p . 6 11 . D e lh i : A bh inay .

K -043 : K ennedy , K .A .R . , C .B . B u r row a nd V .N . M is ra 1 981 . D en ta l Mu t i la t ion s f r om P reh is tor ic I nd ia C urren tA n thropo logy 2 2 (3 ) : 2 85 -86 .

Du r ing t h e e xcava t ion a t t h e Meso l i th ic s i te o f Human s ke le ta l r ema in s f r om t h e r ock -she l ter s i te o f B h imbe tka , R a isen d i s t r ic t i n Madhya P radesh w e re e xam ined . V .N . M i s ra e xcava ted t h e s ke le ton o fa n a du l t ma le f ound i nb u r ia l n o . 4i n 1 977 . T he b ody w a s l a id i n s up ine p o s i t ion . T he p e r son w a s 2 3 -27 y ea r s o fa ge a tt h e t ime o fd ea th . T he g rave g ood s w ere ap a r t ia l ly g round a n t le r f r agm en t a nd r ubb ing s t one . T h is s ke le ton a nd f i ve o t he r s a r e a s s igned t o 8 000 BP T he i n c iso r s s howed i n ten t iona l mu t i la t ion ma rk st e rmed l i nes o rg roove p a t ter n mu t i la t ion s . T he i n c isor s w e re d e l ibe ra te ly e ng raved . T he d en ta l o pe ra t ion s e em s t oh ave b een p erf o rmed u s ing a m ic ro l i th o r as ha rp a nd h a rd e dge .

B ago r( Ra ja s than ) a n a r ea o f2 24 m2 w a s d ug . T he r e su l t s o f t h is w o rk a r e d esc r ibed . T he s t udy i n c ludes t h e m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t ry , c h rono logy b a sed o n r a d ioca rbon d a tes , h or izon ta l a nd v e r t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t s . B ago rm icro l i th ic i ndu s t ry h as b een c ompa red t o t h ose f r om o ther s i tes s uch a s Mandp ia o n r i ve rB ana s n ea rB agor , N imbahe ra o nr i ve rK adma l i , L anghna j , K anawa sa nd S o ja t . V -046 : M is ra , V .N . 1 982a . T he E vo lu t ion o fB lade E lem en t i n t h e S tone I ndu s t r ies o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy : N ew P er spec t ive s ( R .K . S ha rma E d . ) , p p . 7 13 . D e lh i : Agam .

K -044 : K r ishnamu r thy , R .V . , D .P . Ag rawa l , V .N . M is ra a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 981 . P a laeoc l ima t ic I n f e rences f r om t h e B ehav iou r o f R ad ioca rbon D a tes o f C a rbona tes f r om S and Dunes o f R a ja s than , P roceed ing s o ft h e I nd ian A cademy o f S c ience s9 0 (2 ) : 1 55 -160 .

R ock s he l te r I I F -23 a t t h e s i te o f B h imbe tka ( Ra isen d i s t r ic t , Madhya P radesh ) i nC en t ra l I nd ia w a s e xcava ted d u r ing 1 973 -75 . T he h ab i ta t ion d epos i t ( 3 .90 m ) w a s d iv is ib le i n to e i gh t l a ye r s . T he e xcava t ion y i e lded a t o ta l o f 3 2036 a r tef ac t s made o n q ua r tz i te . T hese i n c lude h andaxes , c l eave s , b l ades , m ic rob lades , f l akes , c h ips a nd d ebr is . T hese a r tef ac t s b e longed t ov ar iou s c u l tu ra l p ha ses : A cheu l ian ( 58 .46% ) , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( 26 .56% ) , U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ( 7 .87% ) a nd Meso l i th ic ( 7 .11 % ) . Me t r ica l a na ly s is o f t h e a r tef ac t s i sp rov ided i n t a bu la r f o rma t . T he s t udy r evea led t h a t ( 1 ) t h e p ropo r t ion o fb l ades i n crea ses s t ead i ly f r om t h e A cheu l ian t o t h e Meso l i th ic p ha se , a nd ( 2 ) t h e re w a s r educ t ion i n s i ze o f t h e

A l though r ad iome t r ic d a t ing h a s b een d one e a r l ie r u s ing p edogen ic c a rbona tes t os t udy t h e p roces s o f p edogenes is , c a rbona tes h ave b een u sed o n a l im i ted s ca le a s t h e i nd ica to r s o f p a laeoc l ima t ic c ond i t ion s . S uch a p oss ib i l i ty w a s t e s ted u s ing p edogen ic c a rbona tes f r om t h e s and d une a tB udha P u shka r ( 26° 3 0 ' N , 7 4° 3 6 ' E ) i n R a ja s than . T he s i zes o ft h e c a rbona tes i nt h ed une w ere t o ol a rge t o

4 2

b l ade s a nd m ic rob lade s d u r ing t h e s am e t ime p er iod .

D idwana i n t h e T ha r D e se r t , I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t6 :7 2 -86 .

V -047 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 982b . B ago r : t h e A r chaeo log ica l S e t t ing , i n B agor a nd T i lwara : L a t e Me so l i th ic C u l ture s o fN or thwe s tI nd ia I :T he H uman S ke le ta lR ema ins ( J .R . L uk ac s , V .N . M i s ra a nd K .A .R .K ennedy E d s . ) , p p . 9 -26 . P une : D eccan C o l lege .

I n ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion s w e r e c a r r ied o u t n ea r D idwana i n N agau r d i s t r ic t ( R a ja s than ) a nd s ubsequen t ly t wo s i te s ( S ing i T a lav a nd I ndo la -k i D han i ) w e r e e xcava ted . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s d i scu s s ion o n Q ua ter n a ry s t ra t ig raphy a nd a s soc ia ted P a laeo l i th ic m a te r ia l i nt h r ee g eo log ica l F o rma t ion s ( D idwana , Ama rpu ra a nd J aya l ) . A rchaeo log ica l m a te r ia l f r om o t he r s i te s s u ch a s S ing i T a lav Q ua r ry ( n=215 ) , Am a rpu ra ( n=41 ) , B angu rC ana l( n= 131 ) ,J ank ipu ra ( n=221) , K o l iya I ( n=258 ) , K o l iya I ( n=63 ) , Manga lpu r a ( n=91) , S hyampu ra ( n= 14 ) , a nd J enana ( n=31) i sb r ief ly d e sc r ibed . W i th t h e h e lp o f n ew a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l a nd f i e ld o b se rva t ion s , t h e a u tho r s h ave p re sen ted ap i c tu r e o fm an land r e la t ion sh ip d u r ing t h e Q ua ter n a ry .

T he s i te o fB ago r i nd i s t r ic t B h i lwa r a ( Ra ja s than ) w a s e xcava ted b y V .N . M i s ra f r om 1 968 t o 1 970 . F ive h um an b u r ia l s w e r e f ound . T he se w e r e e xam ined i n d e ta i l b y K .A .R . K ennedy a nd J .R . L ukac s . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s d e ta i l s o f t h e e xcava t ion , s t ra t ig raphy , c h rono logy , c u l tu ra l s equence a nd h um an b u r ia l s . O n e h uman s ke le ton b e longed t oP ha se I( c a l . 5 400 -5000 BC ) a nd t h r ee w e r e f ound f r om P ha se I ( c a l . 4 600 -3200 BC ) . T h e f i f th s k e le ton w a s f r om t h e L a te H i s to r ic p er iod a nd n o tc onnec ted w i th t h e h ab i ta t ion a tt h e s i te .

G -050 : G a i l la rd , C . , D .R . R a ju , V .N . M i s ra a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 983 . A ch eu l ian O ccupa t ion a t S ing i T a lav i n t h e T ha r D e se r t : aP r e l im ina ry R epo r t o n 1 982 E xcava t ion , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 7 : 12 -130 .

V -048 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 982 . E nv i ronm en t d u r ing t h e Q ua t e rna ry P e r iod i n Wes te rn I nd ia . P roceed ing s o f t h e W ork shop o n P rob lem s o fD e ser t s i nI nd ia p p . 1 29 -140 . J a ipu r : G eo log ica lS u rvey o fI nd ia .

T he A cheu l ian s i te o fS ing i T a lav n ea rD idwana i n t h e T ha rD ese r t o fR a ja s than w a s e xcava ted e a r l ie r i n 1 981 . I t r a i sed a q ue s t ion a bou t v a r iab le p r eserva t ion o f a r tef ac t s ( f r e sh i n l a ye r s 3 -4 a nd r o l led i n l a ye r 5 ) . T o f i nd o u t a n swe r s t o s eve ra l q ue s t ion s r e la ted t oh uman o ccupa t ion , o ccu r r ence o fk anka r b lock s , e vo lu t ion o fl i t h ic t oo l s a nd e nd o f t h e h uman o ccupa t ion t h e s i te w a s e xcava ted a ga in i n 1 982 . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s i n f o rm a t ion o n s t ra t ig raphy , t o o l t y po logy , r aw m a te r ia l u sed f o r m ak ing t oo l s , a nd q uan t i ta t ive i n f o rma t ion g a the red d u r ing s e cond s e a son ' s d i gg ing . I t i s c onc lud ed t h a t t h e A ch eu l ian s i t e o fS ing i T a lav -1 w a s o f t en f l ooded a nd w a s o ccup ied t h r ice . T h e f r e sh a r tef ac t sa r ep e rhap si nt h e i ro r ig ina ll o ca t ion .

T h i s a r t ic le p r e sen t s n ew g eoa r chaeo log ica l e v idence r e la ted t o w e s ter n I nd ian Q ua te rna ry e nv i ronm en t s . F ou r a r ea s f r om t h e s em i -a r id p a r t s o f R a ja s than a nd s ou ther n S au ra sh t ra h ave b een t a k en a s e xamp le s . T he se w e re ( 1 ) t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te s f r om t h e L un i B a s in i n We s ter n R a ja s than , ( 2 ) t h e Me so l i th ic s i t e o f T i lwa r a i n B a rm e rd i s t r ic to fR a ja s than , ( 3 )t h e Me so l ih t ic s i te o f B ago r o n r i ve r K o tha r i i n B h i lwa ra d i s t r ic t o f R a ja s than , a nd ( 4 ) t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te o f Um r e th i i n H i ran V a l ley ( Sau ra sh t ra ) . T he e v idence p o in t s t h a t h um an o ccupa t ion i n t h e se r e g ion s b egan i n t h e m id -P le i s tocene . T he c ompo s i te s t ra t ig raphy o f t h e Q ua te rna ry F o rm a t ion s u p t o4 4 md ep th f r om t h e s u rf ace h a s b een p rov ided . R .N . G ho sh r a i sed aq ue s t ion a bou t t h e c onc lu s ion r ega rd ing w ind b l own s and . T he r e p ly g i ven w a st h a tm ic romo rpho log ica lt e chn iqu e h a sb een u sed t os t udy a eo l ian s ed im en t s .

A -051 : A g r awa l , D .P . , S .K . G up ta , V .N . M is ra , R .K . P an t , S .K . T andon a nd A .B . V o ra 1 983 . A N a t iona l G r id f o r E nv i ronm en ta l R e sea r ch a nd P lann ing , Man a nd E nv ironmen t7 :7 8 -86 . T hough i nr e cen t y ea r s s eve ra l s t ud ie s c once rn ing e nv i ronm en th ave b een d one , t h e r e a r et wo l a cunae -( 1 ) d ea r th o fa ccu ra te d a ta a nd ( 2 ) l a ck o fh o l is t ic a pp roach . F ou r m a in f a c to r s c onnec t ed t o e nv i ronm en ta l c hange a r e c l ima t ic , t e c ton ic , a n th ropogen ic a nd b io t ic , a nd p o l lu t ion . T o o ve rcom e t h e p rob lem s f a ced i n e nv i ronm en ta l

V -049 : M i s ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , D .R . R a ju , H . R aghavan a nd C . G a i l la rd 1 982 . A ch eu l ian O ccupa t ion a nd E vo lv ing L and scape a r ound

4 3

s t ud ies , t h e a u tho r s h ave s ugges ted t o c r ea te a n a t iona l g r id o f r e sea rch c en t res a nd d a ta b ank s . T h is p roposed g r id a l so i n c lude s s ma l l mu seum s a nd a s soc ia ted t e ache r -s tuden t c ommun i t ies t h a t c an s e rve a s t h e m a in c en t res f o r p eop le 's p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t h e e nv i ronmen ta l r e sea rch a nd p l ann ing .

h ypo thes is . H e s ugges ted t h a t t h e c l ima te f l uc tua ted t h roughou t t h e H o locene . T hese f l uc tua t ion s w e re r e la ted t o em ergence o f a gr icu l tu re , i t s e xpan s ion , a nd g row th a nd d ec l ine o fH a rappan c i v i l isa t ion . T h is a r t ic le i sc en t r ed o n t h ree i s sues : r e -exam ina t ion o f a l l a va i lab le d a ta ( a rchaeo log ica l , p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l a nd h yd ro log ica l ) t ot e s t Gu rd ip S ingh 's h ypo the s i s , t h e e v idence f o r d i f fu s ion o f H a rappan s e t t lemen t s i n a nd a r ound R a ja s than , a nd p os s ib le g ap b e tween t h e H a rappan c u l tu r e a nd P a in ted G r ey Wa re c u l tu re . I ti sc onc luded t h a t t h e r e i sn o d a ta f r om n or thwe s t I nd ia t o s uppor t G u rd ip S ingh 's h ypo thes i s t h a t r a inf a l l f l uc tua t ion s p l ayed a d ec is ive r o le i n t h e o r ig in , s p r ead , g row th a nd d ec l ine o ft h e f a rm ing -ba sed c u l tu res i nt h i sr eg ion . I n s tead , i ti s t h e c hanges i n t h e c ou r se s o f t h e D r ishadva t i a nd S u t le j r i ve r s a nd c on sequen t d ry ing u p o f t h e S a ra swa t i r i ve r , a l ong wh ich H a rappan s e t t lemen t s w e re m a in ly l o ca ted , t h a t p l ayed t h e mos t i mpor tan t r o le i nt h e r i se a nd f a l l o ft h i sC iv i l iza t ion .

W-052 : Wa sson , R .J . , S .N . R a ja gu ru , D .P . Ag rawa l , V .N . M is ra , R .P . Dh i r , A .K . S inghv i a nd K . K ameswa ra R ao 1 983 . G eomo rpho logy , L a te Qua te rna ry S t ra t ig raphy a nd P a laeoc l ima to logy o f t h eT ha r Dunef i e ld , Z e i t schr if tf ur G eomorpho log ie ( N .F . )4 5 : 17 -151 . T o u nde r s tand t h e g eomo rph ic e vo lu t ion o f t h e T ha rD eser t d une -f ie ld s , s and d une d ynam ics , t h e i r s t ra t ig raphy a nd p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l s e t t ing w e re s t ud ied . T he f a c to r si n vo lved i nt h e d eve lopmen to f d unes , l i ke s ed imen t s ou r ces , f o rma t ive w ind r eg ime a nd d i s tr ibu t ion o fv a r iou s s and d une t ypes s uch a s p oo r ly o rgan ised d unes , p a rabo l ic d unes , a nd l i nea r d unes h ave b een d escr ibed . Maps o ft h e s t udy a r ea w e re p repa red u s ing LANDSAT i mage ry a nd g round c heck s i ns ou ther na nd e a s ter n p ar t s o ft h e d e se r t . A rchaeo log ica l a nd r ad iome t r ic e v idence f r om s and d une s a t L anghna j ( Gu ja ra t ) , B ago r , T i lwa ra , Ama rpu ra , B udha P u shka r a nd R ang Maha l ( Ra ja s than ) h a s b een u sed . A lso , d a ta f r om B ahawa lpu r i nP ak i s tan a nd o the r s i tes h ave b een d i scu s sed . T he d une s and s w e re l a rge ly d e r ived f r om l o ca l a l luv ia l s ou rces w i th a l i t t le c on t r ibu t ion o f t h e f i ne s and d e r ived f r om t h e A rab ian S ea c oa s t . C omb ined e v idence s howed t h a t t h e d une s w e re a ccumu la t ing f r om a t l e a s t 2 0 ,000 B P . T he d unes g o t s t ab i l ised b y t h e m idd le t o t h e l a te H o locene . T he T ha r s and d unes w e re f o rmed u nde r t h e i n f luence o f s umme r mon soon w ind s . T he c on t inua t ion o f t h e d une b u i ld ing a c t iv i ty f r om t h eL a s t G lac ia l Max imum ( mean a ge 1 8 ,000 B P ) i n to t h e H o locene h a s n o p a ra l le ls i n o t he rd eser t so ft h ew o r ld .

V -054 : M is ra , V .N . 1 985a . T he A cheu l ian S ucces s ion a tB h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i nR ecen t A dvance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c P reh i s tory ( V .N . M is ra a nd P . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 3 5 -47 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH A lmos t a l l t h e P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu ra l m a ter ia l i s f ound i n s e conda ry g eo log ica l c on tex t s s uch a s e r oded r i ve r g r ave ls a nd s u rf aces o fr o ck o u tc rop s . T he t o o l c o l lec t ion s a r e o f ten r andom a nd w i thou t v e r t ica l r e f e rences . I n r e cen t y ea r s ( 1972 -1977 ) e xcava t ion s w e re d one i n t h e r o ck -she l te r s a t B h imbe tka ( 22° 5 0 ' N ; 7 7° 3 7 ' E ) , as ma l l h i l l i n t h e V indhyan r ange o f C en t ra l I nd ia . A cheu l ian d epo s i ts w e re f ound i n r o ck -she l ter s I I F -23 , I I F -24 , I A -29 a nd I I A -30 . O f t h ese I I F -23 p rov ided a c omp le te s equence o f h uman o ccupa t ion f r om l a te A cheu l ian t o l a te Meso l i th ic p er iod s . T h ickness o f t h e h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t w as 3 . 80 m a nd d iv is ib le i n to e i gh t l a ye r s . A t o ta l o f 3 2026 a r tef ac t s w ere e xam ined o f wh ich 1 8721 b e longed t o t h e A cheu l ian c u l tu re o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , 8 505 t ot h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , 2 522

V -053 : M is ra , V .N . 1 984 . C l ima te a s aF ac to r i n t h e R ise a nd F a l l o f H a rappan C iv i l isa t ion : E v idence f r om R a ja s than a nd B eyond , i nF ron t ier s o ft h e I ndus C iv i l i sa t ion ( B .B . L a l a nd S .P . Gup ta E d s . ) ,p p . 4 61-489 .N ew D e lh i : B ook sa nd B ook s .

t o t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd 2 278 t o t h e Meso l i th ic p er iod . A r tef ac t s w e re c l a s s if ied i n to 6 6 c l a sse s a cco rd ing t o t h e t y po logy o f F ranco is B o rde s . Quan t i ta t ive d a ta f o r v a r iou s a r tef ac t c l a sses h ave b een p rov ided i nt a bu la rf o rma t s .

B ased o n a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a bou t f i f ty y ea r s a go i tw a s p roposed t h a tt h e c l ima te i nB a luch is tan a nd S ind d u r ing t h e I ndu s c i v i l isa t ion p e r iod w a s mo r e w e t t h an i t i s a t p resen t . G u rd ip S ingh u sed p a lyno log ica l e v idence a nd p roposed a d i f f e ren t

V -055 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 985b . M ic ro l i th ic I ndu s t r ies o f I nd ia , i n R ecen t Advance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c

4 4

P reh i s to ry ( V .N . M i s ra a nd P .B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 11-122 .N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH .

T h i s a r t ic le p rov ides a g l imp se o f t h e p r eh is to r ic r o ck a r t s i te o f B h imbe tka i n R a i sen d i s t r ic t o f Madhya P rade sh . T he d i scu s s ion a bou t a n t iqu i ty o f r o ck a r t a nd af ew w o r ld -f amou s r o ck a r t s i te s i n S pa in a nd F rance h a s b een i n c luded . T he a u tho r h a s s umma r ised t h e r e su l t s o f e xcava t ion s c onduc ted i n s om e r o ck she l te r s . H e a l so h a s d i scu s sed h un t ing a nd g a the r ing p r ac t ice s o f p r esen t -day t r iba l c ommun i t ies s uch a st h e G ond s t h a tl i ve i nt h ev i c in i ty o ft h ep a in ted s h e l te r s .

T hough m ic ro l i th ic t e chno logy o r ig ina ted f r om t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t r ies o f t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene , i t s d eve lopm en t a nd d i f fu s ion a l o ve r I nd ia t o ok p l ace o n ly d u r ing t h e H o locen e . S eve ra l w e l l -p r e served m ic ro l i th ic s i te s a l ong w i th o rgan ic r em a in s h ave b een f ound . T h i s a r t ic le i sb a sed o n 2 7 e xcava ted m ic ro l i th ic s i t e s . T he a spec t s d i scu s sed c omp r i se s e t t lem en t p a t te rn , g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e s i te s a nd t h e i r d emog r aph ic i mp l ica t ion s , t e chno logy , m a te r ia l c u l tu r e a nd s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies , d i spo sa l o ft h e d ead , a r t a nd r e la t iv e c h rono logy o f t h e m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie s . Mo s t o ft h e m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t r ie s b e long t o av e ry d ev e loped s t age a nd t e chno log ica l d eve lopm en t c an b e s e en a t av e ry f ew s i te s . T he r e i se v idence f o r a ccu l tu ra t ion o ft h e m ic ro l i th ic p eop le t h rough t h e i rc on tac t sw i th mo re a dvan ced c ommun i t ie s .

V -058 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 986 . E nv i ronnem en t e t C u l tu r e d e l ' Homme P r eh i s to r ique d an s l e D e se r t d u T ha r , R a ja s than , I nde .L 'An thropo log ie 9 0 (3 ) : 4 07 -437 . T he T ha r D ese r t i s as pec if ic e n t i ty d ue t o i t s g eog raph ic a nd g eomo rpho log ica l s e t t ing a nd c l ima te ( s em i -a r id t oa r id ) . T he Q ua te rna ry s t ud ie s c a r r ied o u t h e r e a r e i n te r e s t ing f r om p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l p o in t o f v i ew s i nce h uman s h ave o ccup ied t h i s d ry r eg ion f r om t h e A cheu l ian t im es . W i th h e lp o f d e ta i led s t udy o f t h e r eg ion a r ound D idwana ( Ra ja s than , I nd ia ) i tw a s p o s s ib le t o r e con s t ruc t t h e m a in f e a tu r e s o f t h e p a laeoenv i ronmen t . T he s and d un e s w e r e a l r eady f o rm ing w hen L owe rP a laeo l i th ic h uman so ccup ied t h a t a r ea . T he i nhab i tan t s u sed a va i lab le w a te r a nd o the rr e sou rce s . T he p eop le l i ke t oday m a in ta ined a c er ta in d eg r ee o f e qu i l ib r ium w i th t h e i r s u r round ing N a tu r e a nd l i ved i n t h e h a rd a r id c ond i t ion s o f t h e p a s t . T h i s a r t ic le s umma r i se s r e su l t s o f al ong te rm mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry p ro jec t i n vo lv ing f i e ld a nd l a bo ra to ry s t ud ie s r e la ted t o p a laeoenv i ronmen t , c hang ing c l im a t ic c ond i t ion s a nd h uman r e spon se st ot h ese c hange s .

G -056 : G a i l la rd , C . , V .N . M i s ra , S .N . R a jagu ru , D .R . R a ju a nd H . R aghavan 1 985 . A cheu l ian O ccupa t ion a t S ing i T a lav i n t h e T ha r D e ser t : a P r e l im ina ry R epor t o n t h e 1 981 E xcava t ion , B u l le t in o ft h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te & R e sear ch I n s t i tu te 4 4 : 1 4 1-152 . T h e s i te o f S ing i T a lav , l o ca ted n ea r D idwana i n t h e T ha r D e se r t o f R a ja s than , w a s e xcava ted i n 1 981 . At r ench o f 4 x4 m w a s d ug u p t o 1 . 30 m d ep th . T he t r ench y i e lded p r eh i s to r ic i n du s t r ie s a t t h r ee l e ve l s , w he r e t h e u ppe r a nd t h e l owe r o nes c on s i s ted mo s t ly o fr o l led d eb r i s . T he m idd le l e ve l c on ta ined f r e sh t o o ls o fd i ve r se t ype s . O ft h e f i ve l a ye r s e xcava ted , t o o ls f r om l a ye r 3a nd 4 ( 50 cm t h ickne ss ) w e r e s t ud ied a nd p oo led ( n= 148 ) . L ay e r s 3t o 5p robab ly c o r r e spond t o t h e m idd le p a r t o f Ama rpu ra F o rma t ion . T he a r t ic le d e sc r ibes v a r iou s a r tef ac t t ypes , t h e i r f r equenc ie s , r aw m a te r ia l u sed , t e chn iques o f t o o l m anuf ac tu re , w e igh t a nd m ea su rem en t s . B o th t h e h o r izon ta l a nd v e r t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s o ft h e a r tef ac t s w e r e s t ud ied . Mo s t t yp ica l t oo l s w e re h andaxes . T he s ma l l t oo ls w e r e s i de s c r ape r s a nd f r on t e nd s c rape r s . T he a s semb lage c on s i s t ing o f ah igh p ropo r t ion o f r e touched t o o l s s ugges t s t h a t S ing i T a lav w a s a c amp s i te b e s ides b e ing a w o rk shop s i te . T he a s semb lage p o in t s t o a n e a r ly s t age o f t h e A cheu l ian p e r iod .

V -059 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd M .L .K . Mu r ty 1 986 . C u l tu r a l A dap ta t ion s i n I nd ia d u r ing T e rm ina l P le i s tocene a nd E a r ly H o locen e T im e s , i n T he P le i s tocene P er spec t ive s V o l . 2 , p p . 1 36 . S ou thamp ton : Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica l C ong r e s s . T h is r ev iew a r t ic le p r e sen t s t h e s t o ry o f h um an a dap ta t ion s d u r ing t h e t e rm ina l P l e is tocene a nd t h e E a r ly H o locen e i n I nd ia . T he d i scu s s ion i n c lude s t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l , t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce o f t h e Me so l i th ic p ha se a nd t h e v a r ie ty o f e co log ica l n i che s o ccup ied b y h uman sd u r ing t h eE a r ly H o locen e .

V -057 : M i s r a , V .N . 1 986 . B h imbe tka : R e f lec t ion s o fL if ei nC ave A r t . S c ience A ge 4 (6 ) : 1 7 -26 .

H -060 : H ema , R . , D .R . R a ju , S .N . R a jagu ru , V .N . M i s ra a nd V .G . P a ra sha r 1 986 . A N o te o n t h e M ine ra log ica l S tudy o fs om e S and D une s f r om t h e

4 5

T ha r D eser t , B u l le t in o ft h e Deccan C o l lege P os t G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 4 5 : 3 5 -46 .

c o l lec t ion s f r om s i tes n ea r D idwana a r e mo re e vo lved t h an t h ose f r om C h i rk i -Neva sa a nd Hun sg i .

T he p rob lem o f t h e a ge a nd o r ig in o f t h e T ha r D eser t i s t h e b ackg round t o t h is a r t ic le . Two a l ter n a t ive t h eor ies a bou t t h e o r ig in o f t h e s and d unes a r e d i scu s sed . T hese a r e ( 1 ) t h e o r ig in f r om t h e R ann o f Ku tch a dvoca ted b y s cho la r s l i ke D .N . Wad ia ( 1961) , a nd ( 2 ) t h e l o ca l s and s ou rce s ugges ted b y Wa sson e ta l . ( 1983 ) . S and s amp les w e re c o l lec ted f r om n ine s i tes . T he s ou rce o fd une s and w a s d e te rm ined u s ing g ra in s i ze d i ame te r a na ly s i s , h eavy m ine ra l a na ly s is a nd w ea ther ing i ndex . T he l i thos t ra t ig raphy o f t h e l ow d une s i te ( 2 .5 m ) o f L anghna j w a s c ompa red t o t h a t o ft h e h igh d une ( 15 m ) s i te o f D idwana . T he r e su l t s s ugges ted t h a t t h e T ha r D eser t s and h a s l o ca l o r ig in . B a sed o n l ow w ea the r ing i ndex a nd p er s is tence o fu n s tab le m ine ra l s i ti sp os tu la ted t h a t t h e c l ima te w a s e s sen t ia l ly d ry d u r ing t h e ma jo r p ar to ft h eL a te P le is tocene .

V -062 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 987a . E vo lu t ion o f t h e L and scape a nd Human Adap ta t ion i n t h e T ha r D eser t . P res iden t ia l Add re ss , A n th ropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy S ec t ion o f I nd ian S c ience C ong res s , B anga lore , P roceed ing s o ft h e 7 4 th I nd ian S c ience C ongres sP a r tI : 1 24 . T h is p res iden t ia l a dd ress p rov ides a n i n -dep th r e v iew o f p a laeoenv ironmen ta l a nd p reh i s tor ic r e sea rch c onduc ted i nt h eT ha rD e ser to fR a ja s than . I t i n t roduces t h e p r esen t -day g eog raph ic a nd e nv i ronmen ta l s e t t ing o f t h e a r id r eg ion i n R a ja s than a nd e a r l ier r e sea r ches i n a r chaeo logy , p a laeoc l ima te , Qua ter n a ry g eo logy , g eomo rpho logy a nd r e la ted d i sc ip l ines . T he a u tho r b rough t t o l i gh t e v idence o f p r eh is tor ic c u l tu r es ( du r ing 1 961-1971) b y e x ten s ive f i e ld s t ud ies . E vo lu t ion o f t h e d ese r t e nv i ronmen t h as b een d i scu ssed a l ong w i th t h e t h ree m a jo r Q ua ter n a ry g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s ( J aya l , Ama rpu ra a nd D idwana ) . T he a dd ress d i scu s ses t h e n a tu re o f h uman a dap ta t ion s t o t h e c hang ing e nv i ronm en t . E xcep t d u r ing t h e h ype r -a r id U ppe rP l e is tocene ( c . 2 5000 -13000 BP ) s u rf ace w a te r w a s a lway s a va i lab le i nt h e T ha rD eser t . J u s t b ef o re t h e e nd o f t h e P l e is tocene a r ound 1 3000 B P c l i ma te b egan t o am e l io ra te . T he Meso l i th ic h un ter -ga the re r s p e rhaps a ppea red a tt h i s t ime , b u t t h ey s p read i n t h e d eser t o n ly d u r ing t h e m id -Ho locene p e r iod ( 6000 -4000 BP ) .

G -061 : G a i l la rd , C . , D .R . R a ju , V .N . M is ra a nd S .N . R a jaguru 1 986 . H andaxe A s semb lage s f r om t h e D idwana R eg ion , T ha r D eser t , I nd ia : A Me t r ica l Ana ly s is , P roceed ing s o ft h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 5 2 : 1 89 -214 . A tD idwana i nN agau rd i s t r ic t ( Ra ja s than ) a r tef ac t s o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p er iod h ave b een r e cove red f r om s eve ra l l o ca l i t ies . U s ing D e rek R oe 's m ea su remen t s cheme at o ta l o f1 81 h andaxes f r om 1 0 l o ca l i t ies w e re s t a t is t ica l ly e xam ined . T he l o ca l i t ies w e r e I ndo la -k i -Dhan i ( n=8 ) , Ama rpu ra ( n=4 ) , J ank ipu ra ( n=17 ) , J aya l ( n=52 ) , K o l iya H i l l ( n=64 ) , K o l iya s u rf ace ( n= 10 ) , B and lav k i -Ta lav ( n=21) , a nd S u rb i T a lav ( n=5 ) . H andaxes f r om a f ew o ther s i te s w e re a l so i n c luded i n t h e s t udy mak ing at o ta l o f 3 01 p i eces . B es ides t h e p r ima ry v a r iab les l i ke l e ng th , w id th , t h icknes s , L /B r e a t io a nd L /T r a t io , v a r iou s i nd ice s w ere c ompu ted a nd s hape d i ag ram s w e re m ade . F ac to r a na ly s is a nd c l u s ter d i ag ram s w e re c on s t ruc ted t o c ompa re t h e h andaxes . I tw a s f ound t h a t among t h e s i tes n ea r D idwana S ing i T a lav s e em s t ob e t h e o l des t whe re t h e h andaxes a r e l a rge , c rude a nd w i th ma ss ive b u t t s . Ko l iya H i l l s l ope , J aya l a nd J ank ipu ra f o rm o ne g roup . T hese a r tef ac t s , g ene ra l ly o ccu r r ing i n t h e m idd le o f t h e s equence p e rhaps r e p resen t t h e m idd le o rt h e l a te p hase o ft h e A cheu l ian . F rom t h e b ounda ry b e tween t h e Ama rpu ra a nd D idwana F o rma t ion s a t B and lav k i -Ta lav t h e h andaxes a r e s ma l le ra nd b e t te rt r i mmed . T hese m ay b e c a l led a s b i f ac ia l p o in t s r a the r t h an h andaxes . T he

V -063 : M is ra , V .N . 1 987b . M idd le P le is tocene Adap ta t ion s i n I nd ia , i n P le i s tocene O ld W or ld : R eg iona l P er spec t ive s ( O lga S of f e r E d . ) , p p . 9 9 14 .N ew Yo rk : P l enum P res s . A l though r e sea rch o ft h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod b egan i nt h em idd le o ft h en ine teen th c en tu ry , mo re d a ta h ave b een g ene ra ted d u r ing t h e l a s t t h r ee d ecades . S eve ra l n ew p ro jec t s h ave b een c a r r ied o u ti nt h e S on v a l ley , K a shm i ra nd t h eT ha rD ese r t . Due t on ew i n fo rma t ion g a thered f r om g eo log ica l , s ed im en to log ica l , p a laeon to log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s , f o cu s h as n ow s h if ted f r om t ypo log ica l d escr ip t ion t o p a laeoenv i ronmen t a nd h uman a dap ta t ion s . T he o ccu r rence o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu ra l p ha se i sk nown f r om a l l o ve r I nd ia e xcep t t h e G anga P la in , v ery h um id p ar t s o f t h e Wes ter n Gha t s a nd n o r th -ea s t I nd ia . T he c u l tu ra l e v idence o f h uman s d u r ing t h is p ha se i s

4 6

r ev iewed o n ar e g iona l b a s i s . T h e r e g ion s f r om w h ich h uman a dap ta t ion s a r e d i scu s sed i n c lude t h e K a shm i r V a l ley , t h e S iwa l ik H i l l s , t h e s em i -a r id r e g ion o fn o r thwe s tI nd ia , n o r ther np a r t o fG u ja ra t , C en t ra l I nd ia , t h e D eccan P la teau , a nd t h e s ou thea s ter nc oa s ta lr e g ion .

s h ee t s . I nt h e e x t r em e w es ter np a r tt h e r a inf a l l i sa s l ow a s 1 00 mm p e r y ea r . Human s h ave o ccup ied t h e d ese r t s i nce t h e e a r ly A cheu l ian p e r iod . T he d e l ica te b a lan ce b e tween e nv i ronmen t a nd h uman s e s tab l i shed s eve ra l t h ou sand y ea r s a go i s n ow b e ing u p se t . T he a u tho r s h igh l igh t t h e i mpo r tance o fk now ing t h e e nv i ronm en ta l h i s to ry o ft h e d e se r t . T he r e su l t s o f mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry i n ve s t iga t ion s c a r r ied o u t i n l a s t f i ve y ea r s h ave b een s umma r i sed . F if ty p r eh i s to r ic s i te s h ave b een l o ca ted o n s and d un e s a nd i n f l uv ia l s ed im en t s d u r ing i n ten s ive s u rvey s . T he o ccu r r ence o f u nd i s tu rbed P a laeo l i th ic s i tes w a s f ound i n te r e s t ing . E xcava t ion s w e r e c a r r ied o u t a tJ aya l a nd D idwana ( Nagau r d i s t r ic t , R a ja s than ) . B a sed o n t h e r e su l t s o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd g eomo rpho log ica l s t ud ies t h e e nv i ronm en ta l h i s to ry o f t h e T ha r d ese r t a nd t h e h um an p opu la t ion s l i v ing t h e r e f o r l a s t o ne m i l l ion y ea r s o rs oh a sb een t r aced .

V -064 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 987 . H i s to ry o f E nv i ronm en t a nd Man i n t h e T ha r D e se r t ,I ndo log ica J a ipurens ia 1 :1 7 -31 . T h e T ha r D e se r t o f We s ter n R a ja s than h a s v e ry s c an ty r a inf a l l ( 100 -500 mm p e r a nnum ) . F o r t h e p rope r u se o f p r e sen t -day l im i ted r e sou r ces a k now ledge o f t h e p a s t h uman -env i ronm en t i n te r ac t ion i sn ece s sa ry . E x ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t , a nd s eve r a l s i te s n ea r J aya l a nd D idwana w e r e e xcava ted . T he a u tho r s h ave a dd re s sed f o l low ing q ue s t ion s : h ow a nd when d id t h e d ese r t c om e u p , w a s t h e e nv i ronm en t f l uc tua t ing o r w a s i tc on s tan t , h ow d id h uman s a dap tt od e se r tc ond i t ion sa nd h ave t h ey p l ayed a ny r o le i nt h e f o rm a t ion a nd e xpan s ion o ft h e d e ser t . T h e h i s to ry o f a r id i ty a s s e en i n t h e s and d une p rof i le s h a s b een c o r robo ra ted b y t h e s t udy o f s ed im en t s d epo s i ted i n t h e s a l t l a k e a tD idwana . V e ry h a r sh d ry c l ima te o f t h e T ha r D e ser t e nded p robab ly 7 000 y ea r sa go .

V -067 : M i s ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru a nd H ema R aghavan 1 988 . L a te M idd le P l e i s tocene E nv i ronm en t a nd A cheu l ian C u l tu r e a r ound D idwana , R a ja s than , P roceed ing s o f t h e I nd ian N a t iona lS c ience A cademy 5 4A (3 ) : 4 25 -438 . A s ap a r t o f mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea rch b e tween 1 980 a nd 1 985 s eve ra l A cheu l ian s i te s w e r e i nve s t iga ted a r ound D idwana i nN agau r d i s t r ic t o f R a ja s than . T h i s w o rk w a s f o cu s sed o n e xp lo ra t ion a nd e xcava t ion o ft h e s i tes , m app ing o fQ ua ter na ry s ed im en t s , b u i ld ing o f s t ra t ig raph ic s equences , c hem ica l a nd mo rphom e t r ic a na ly s i s , a nd d a t ing o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon s u s ing v a r iou s r ad iom e t r ic t e chn iqu e s . T h r ee m a jo r Q ua ter na ry g eo log ica l f o rma t ion s n o t iced ( J aya l , Ama rpu ra a nd D idwana ) h ave b een d i scu s sed . T he s i te s a r e i n p r ima ry c on tex t . T he t o o l a s semb lage s b e long t o t h e e a r ly s t age o f t h e A cheu l ian t e chno logy . T he c o r e t o o l s a r e mo r e a nd r e touched t o o l s a r e i nl ow p ropo r t ion . T h ese f i nd s b a sed o n l i tho s t ra t ig raphy a nd r a d iom e t r ic d a t ing m e thod s ( C -14 , U /Th a nd T L ) h ave b een d a ted t o l a te M idd le P l e i s tocene . T he a eo l ian m embe r o f D idwana F o rm a t ion r evea led p r e sen ce o f a c id ic s o i l s . I n a l l t h e f o rma t ion s c a lc ium c a rbona te o ccu r s p ro l if i ca l ly a nd g r adua lw eak en ing o ff l uv ia l s y s tem s . A l lt h e se f e a tu r e s i n d ica te t h a tt h e c l ima te d u r ing t h e M idd le P l e i s tocene w a s s em i -a r id t oa r id .

V -065 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 988 . S ign if icance o f V e r teb ra te R ema in s f r om A r chaeo log ica l s i tes i n t h e A r id a nd S em i -A r id Z one s o fN o r thwe s t I nd ia , i n E cophy s io logy o f D e se r t V er tebra te s ( P .K . G ho sh a nd I s hwa r P raka sh E d s . ) , p p . 3 5 -57 . J odhpu r : S c ien t if ic P ub l i she r s . O u t o f s om e 9 0 a r chaeo log ica l s i te s e xcava ted i n t h e a r id a nd s em i -a r id z on e s o fn o r thwe s t I nd ia w e h ave i n f o rm a t ion a bou t f a una l r ema in s f r om 2 8 s i te s . T h i s a r t ic le g i ve s t h e d e ta i l s o f t h e f auna l r ema in s a nd b r ing s t o n o t ice t h e s i gn if icance o f f a una l s t ud ies i n a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion . A t o ta l o f5 1 v e r teb ra te s pec ie s h a s b een f ound f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i te s . T he r e i s a r ema rkab le c on t inu i ty i nv e r teb ra te f a una o ft h e a r id a nd s em i a r id r e g ion s o f I nd ia d u r ing t h e l a s t t e n t hou sand y ea r so rs o . V -066 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 988 . H i s to ry o f E nv i ronm en t a nd Man i n t h e T ha r D e ser t ,J ourna lo fE co log ica lS oc ie ty 1 :7 16 .

H -068 : R aghavan , H em a , S .N . R a jagu ru a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 989 . R ad iom e t r ic D a t ing o f aQ ua ter n a ry

Mo s t o ft h e s u rf ace o ft h e T ha r D e ser t o f Wes ter n R a ja s than i s c ove r ed b y s and d unes a nd s and

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Dune S ec t ion , D idwana , E nv ironmen t 1 3 : 1 9 -22 .

R a ja s than ,

Man

a nd

T he t e rm Meso l i th ic i n I nd ia d eno tes t h e c u l tu ra l s t age r e p resen ted b y m ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t r ies n o t a s soc ia ted w i th c e ram ics a nd g ene ra l ly a n teda t ing f a rm ing ba sed r u ra l c u l tu re s . T h is e ncyc lopaed ic e n t ry d escr ibe s b o th q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive i n f o rma t ion o ft h is c u l tu ra l s t age . T hough i ti sn o t p os s ib le t o s ay whe the r t e chno logy w a s r e spon s ib le , e v idence p o in t s t o p henom ena l e xpan s ion o fh uman p opu la t ion d u r ing t h is p ha se . T he Meso l i th ic m a ter ia l c u l tu re h as b een d escr ibed u s ing i n f o rma t ion f r om v a r iou s s u rf ace s i te s b es ides t h a t f r om n ine e xcava ted s i tes : B ago r , T i lwa ra , L anghna j , L ekhah ia , S a ra i N aha r R a i , B h imbe tka , Adamga rh , B i rbhanpu r , a nd S anganka l lu . T he p o in t s c ove red i n c lude

T h is a r t ic le p r esen t s r e su l t s o f a pp l ica t ion o f r ad iome t r ic d a t ing ( C -14 , U /Th a nd T L )t e chn iques u s ing p edogen ic c a rbona tes a nd q uar tz g ra in s f r om as t ab i l ized s and d une n ea r D idwana i n N agau r d i s t r ic t o fR a ja s than . T he Meso l i th ic t oo ls o ccu r red o n t h e s u rf ace o f l i thoun i t I .U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls w e re w i th in l i thoun i t I ( 5 -6 m d ep th ) a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t oo ls w e r e d i s t r ibu ted r andom ly b e tween 9 a nd 1 3 m . L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t sw e re f ound a t1 7 .20 m a nd 1 8 .40 m w i th in l i thoun i t I I . T he d a te o n p edogen ic c a rbona tes f r om t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic l e ve l w a s 2 6 ,210± 2 200 ( 1700 ) BP . T he T L a ge f o rt h e c oa r se f r ac t ion o f t h e d epos i t s f r om 1 7 t o 1 8 m d ep th s w a s 1 63 ,000± 2 1 ,000 BP . T h ree s amp les ( f rom 1 2 .65 , 1 4 .25 a nd 1 8 .60 m d ep th ) o fp edogn ic c a rbona tes w ere a na ly sed u s ing U /Th s e r ies m e thod . I tw a s c onc luded t h a t t h e a eo l ian p rocesses o n t h e e a s tern ma rg in o f t h e T ha r D ese r t a r e a t l e a s t 2 00 ,000 y ea r s o ld .

s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t , c h rono logy , e nv ironm en ta l s e t t ing , s t one t oo l a s semb lages , t oo l t ypo logy , b io log ica l r ema in s , t h e m e thod o f d i spo s ing t h e d ead a nd d eg ree o fs eden t ism . V -071 : M is ra , V .N . 1 989c . B ana s C u l tu re , i n E ncyc lopaed ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I : S ub jec t s ( A . G hosh E d . ) , p p . 9 6 -98 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l .

V -069 : M is ra , V .N . 1 989a . S tone Age I nd ia : An E co log ica l P e r spec t ive , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 5 (1) : 1 7 -64 .

T h i s e ncyc lopaed ic e n t ry p rov ides a r ev iew o f e v idence o fC ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re o nt h e B anas r i ve r i nt h e Mewa r r eg ion o fR a ja s than . N ea r ly 5 0 s i tes o ft h e B ana s o r Aha r c u l tu re a r e k nown o f wh ich t wo ( Aha r a nd G i lund ) h ave b een e xcava ted . T he e v idence i n t e rm s o f s e t t lemen t s i ze , s t ruc tu ra l r ema in s , c e ram ic a s semb lages , b ead s , a nd t e r raco t ta o b jec t s h a s b een s umma r ised . R e la t ive c h rono logy o fB ana s c u l tu re s how st h a ti ta n teda tes t h e Ma lwa c u l tu re a nd p o s tda tes t h e H a rappan c u l tu re .

T he a u tho r i n t h is r ev iew p aper b eg in s w i th why e co log ica l k now ledge a bou t e a r ly h uman s oc ie t ies i s m eag r e . T he eme rgence o f h uman s i n w o r ld c on tex th as b een a dd re ssed i nr e la t ion t ot h e L ower P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu res i n I nd ia - t h e S ohan ian r e p resen ted b y p ebb le t oo ls a nd t h e A cheu l ian r e p resen ted b y b if aces , p ebb le t oo ls , s c rape r s , f l akes , b l ades a nd c o res . T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s i tes i n E u rope , A f r ica , C en t ra l A s ia a nd N ea r E a s t a r e a s soc ia ted w i th r ema in s o f N eande r tha l h uman s . S tone t oo ls o f t h is p er iod f ound i n t h e I nd ian S ubcon t inen t a r e s im i la r t o t h ose f ound i n E u rope a nd o the r a r ea s . T he e v idence c oncern ing t h e e nv i ronm en t d u r ing t h e t e rm ina l P l e is tocene , Upper P a laeo l i th ic s oc ie t ies a nd t h e h uman a dap ta t ion s h a s b een r e a s sessed . T he h un t ing -ga ther ing c o mmun i t ies o f t h e e a r ly a nd m idd le H o locene a r e c o l lec t ive ly a s s igned t o t h e Meso l i th ic p er iod . A l l e v idence o f t h e se Meso l i th ic s oc ie t ies a va i lab le s o f a r h a s b een c r i t ica l ly r e -exam ined .

V -072 : M is ra , V .N . 1 989d . D eser t , i n E ncyc lopaed ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I : S ub jec t s ( A . G hosh E d . ) , p p . 1 97 -201 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . T he d ese r t o r a r id z one o fI nd ia c ove r s a n a r ea o f 3 17090 km2 o f wh ich 8 2% l i es i n R a ja s than a nd G u ja ra t . F i r s t s i gn if i can t a r chaeo log ica l d i scover ies i nt h e d eser tb egan i nt h e e a r ly 1 940s . E xp lora t ion s a nd e xcava t ion s b rough tt ol i gh t s eve ra l p reh is to r ic c u l tu ra l p ha se s . C r i t ica l e xam ina t ion o f t h e d a ta o b ta ined f r om v ar iou s d i sc ip l ines h a s b een u sed t o o u t l ine a p i c tu re o f t h e p a laeoc l ima t ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l h i s to ry o f t h e d eser t . T h is e ncyc lopaed ic e n t ry n o tes t h a to n ly af ew s e cu re C 1 4 d a tes a r e a va i lab le . A t t h e e nd o ft h e T e r t ia ry a nd t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e Qua terna ry p er iod s ,

V -070 : M is ra , V .N . 1 989b . Meso l i th ic C u l tu res , i n E ncyc lopaed ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I :S ub jec t s ( A . Ghosh E d . ) , p p . 3 7 -43 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh iram Manoha r la l .

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V -075 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 989g . B h imbe tka , i n E ncyc lopaed ia o f I nd ian A r chaeo logy I : A G aze t teer o f E xp lored a nd E xcava t ed S i te s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 6 9 -73 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l .

w e s te rn p a r t o f R a ja s than h ad a d r a inage o r ig ina t ing i n t h e H ima laya s a s w e l l a s t h e A rava l l i s . E v idence f o r t h e a gg r ada t ion ( s ed im en t s u p t o 1 00 m t h ickn es s ) h a s b een f ound . P robab ly d u r ing t h e M idd le P l e i s tocen e t h e d ra inage s t a r ted g e t t ing d i so rgan i sed a nd b y t h e U ppe r P l e i s tocene i tb ecam e t o ta l ly d i sfunc t iona l . T he S tone A ge h um an s ( Ach eu l ian ) a ppea r ed h e re b ef o re t h e d r a inage b ecame c omp le te ly e x t inc t . B yt h e e nd o f t h eA cheu l ian o re a r ly U ppe rP l e i s tocene t h e d e ser t b ecam e e x t r em e ly a r id a nd c on t inu ed t ob e h ype r a r id d u r ing t h e l a te rp a r t o ft h e U ppe rP l e i s tocen e . A t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e H o locen e c l ima te b ecam e w e t .

T h i s e ncyc lopaed ic e n t ry p rov ide s i n f o rma t ion a bou t a r chaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s c a r r ied o u t a t B h imbe tka r ock she l te r c omp lex ( R a i sen d i s t r ic t , Madhya P rade sh ) . T h e s i te w a s d i scove r ed b yV .S . Wakanka r i n 1 957 a nd w a s e xcava ted o n al im i ted s c a le b y K .D . B a jpa i a nd S .K . P andey i n 1 971 . T h i se n t ry c ove r sf i nd ing so fe xcava t ion c a r r ied o u t b y V .N . M i s ra a nd V .S . Wakanka r b e tween 1 974 7 5 . T he d i scu s s ion i n c lud e s b a s ic i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e B h imbe tka h i l l s , t ype s o f r o ck -she l te r s , s t ra t ig raphy o f e xcava ted t r ench es , c u l tu ra l s equence ,t oo la s semb lage s a nd p a in t ing s .

V -073 : M i s ra ,V .N . 1 989e . E co logy a nd S e t t lem en t P a t t er n , i nE ncyc lopaed ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I : S ub jec t s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 2 85 -287 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l .

V -076 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 989h . H uman A dap ta t ion s t o t h e C hang ing L and scape o ft h e I nd ian A r id Z one D u r ing t h e Q ua te rna ry P e r iod , i n O ld P rob lem s a nd N ew P er spec t ive s i nt h eA r chaeo logy o fS ou th A s ia ( J .M . K enoye r E d . ) , I : 3 20 . W i scon s in A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s . Mad i son : U n ive r s i ty o f W i scon s in - Mad ison .

A l though d a ta a r e f a r f r om a dequa te , s om e i n f o rm a t ion a bou t h uman s e t t lem en t s , n a tu r e o f h um an a dap ta t ion s a nd e co log ica l c ond i t ion s s i nce t h e e a r ly P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod o f S tone A ge i s a va i lab le . I n t h i s e ncyc lopa ed ic e n t ry t h e a u tho r h a s s umma r i sed t h e i n f e rence s a bou t s e t t lem en t s a t s ev e r a l s i tes a l l o ve r I nd ia t h a t i n c lude Mahe shwa r a nd B h imbe tka ( Madhya P radesh ) , Khyad ( Ka rna taka ) , K and iv l i ( Maha r a sh t ra ) a nd S a r a i N aha r R a i ( U t ta r P rade sh ) , a nd S o ja t , B ago r , T i lwa ra a nd N aga r i ( R a ja s than ) .A ne xp lana t ion f o r t h e e xpan s ion o f h um an s e t t lem en t s i n to n ew r eg ion s a nd mo r e i n ten s ive e xp lo i ta t ion o fk nown e co log ica lz one sh a sb een p rov id ed .

T he p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s o ft h e I nd ian a r id a nd s em i a r id z one h ave b een r ev iewed . T he r e v iew s howed t h a t p r esen t -day c l ima te , h yd ro logy a nd l a nd scape a r e d i f f e r en t f r om t ho se i n t h e L a te T e r t ia ry a nd E a r ly Q ua terna ry p e r iod s . Many c hange s o ccu r r ed i nt h i s l ong p e r iod s uch a sw eak en ing a nd e ven tua l e x t inc t ion o fH ima layan r i ve r s , t e c ton ic u p l if t ing o f g rave l b ed s o f t h e J aya l F o rma t ion i n R a ja s than , f i l l ing o fb a s in s b y a l luv ia l s ed im en t s , c app ing o f a l luv ia l p l a in s b y a eo l ian d epos i t s a nd i n c r ea se i n a r id i ty . T he d e se r t z one w a s e x ten s ive ly o ccup ied b y h uman p opu la t ion s d u r ing t h e L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p er iod s . Du r ing t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene t h e r eg ion e xpe r ienced e x t r em e a r id i ty . B ecau se o f s h r inkage o f r e sou r ce s , h uman o ccupa t ion b ecam e s pa r se d u r ing t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . T he c l ima te w a s ma rk ed ly h um id d u r ing t h e m id -Ho locene . T he Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the re r s r e sponded d ynam ica l ly t o t h e c hanged c l im a te a nd s p read i nt h e d e se r t . B y 2 000 BC a r id c ond i t ion l i k e t ho se o f t oday c am e i n to e x i s tence . A b sence o fs t r eam s o ve r m any p a r t s o f t h er e g ion i nh ib i ted i n t roduc t ion o fa g r icu l tu r eu n t i l a bou t t wo t hou sand y ea r s a go . B u t a va i lab i l i ty o f p a s tu r es i nr e s t o ft h e d ese r t f a vou r ed p a s to ra l i sm . H oweve r , t h e a nc ien t p a t te rn o f h un t ing a nd

V -074 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 989f . B ago r , i n E ncyc lopaed ia o f I nd ian A r chaeo logy I : A G a ze t teer o f E xp lored a nd E xcava t ed S i te s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 3 4 -37 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . T h i s e ncyc lopaed ic e n t ry c ove r s t h e f i nd ing s o f i n v e s t iga t ion s c a r r ied o u t a tt h e p r eh i s to r ic s i te o f B ago r i n R a ja s than . B ago r ( d i s t r ic t B h i lwa ra ) i s l o ca ted o nt h el e f tb ank o fr i v e rK o tha r i , at r ibu ta ry o f r i ve r B ana s . E xcava t ion w a s c onduc ted o n t h e Maha sa t id une ( 200 x 1 50 m a nd h e igh t 6m ) whe r e 2 0 x1 0 ma r ea w a s d ug . T h e t o ta l t h ickne s s o ft h e d epo s i t w a s 1 . 5 m i n wh ich o ccupa t ion o f t wo p ha se sw a sf ound . P ha se Ih a sb een p l aced b e tween 5 000 a nd 2 500 BC a nd P ha se I b e longed t o 5 00 BC t o AD 2 00 .

4 9

g a ther ing c on t inued a nd i ss i l l s u rv iv ing t o s ome e x ten t .

H un te r -ga the re r c o mmun i t ies a r e l i v ing i n t h e G anga P la in s s i nce t h e Meso l i th ic p er iod f o r s eve ra l t hou sand s o f y ea r s . T i l l t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e B r i t ish r u le h uman g roups l i v ing at r ad i t iona l ly p r e -ag r icu l tu ra l w ay o f l i f e h ad r e la t ive f r eedom . D u r ing t h e g ene ra l l aw a nd o rde r d ec l ine s i tua t ion a t t h e e nd o f t h e Mugha l r u le s ome o f t h ese c ommun i t ies t ur n ed t o c r ime . I n t h e d en se ly p opu la ted a l luv ia l G anga P la in s t h e a bor ig ina l p eop le d o ing h un t ing -f o rag ing a r e e xpec ted t o b e c omp lex ly a s s im i la ted i nt h e n ew s o c ia l o rde r t h a t em e rged a f t e r s e t t led l i f e . B u t t h e p i c tu r e i n t h e u ppe ra nd m idd le G anga V a l ley s how st h a t i ti sn o t a lway s t h e c a se . I n t h is a r t ic le t h e a u tho r s h ave s t ud ied s eve ra l h un te r -ga the re rp eop les s uch a st h e B ahe l iya s , B anga l i s , K an ja r s , B adh ik s , B awa r iya s , B han tu s , H abu ra s , S an s iya s , a nd B er iyas . U s ing h i s tor ica l s ou rces a nd f i e ld o b se rva t ion s v a r iou s s oc ia l -cu l tu ra l a spec t s o f t h ese c ommun i t ie s w e re i n ves t iga ted . T hese i n c lude s e t t lemen t p a t ter n , p opu la t ion d i s t r ibu t ion , o ccupa t iona l h i s tory , s ub s is tence , t e chno logy o fh un t ing , c r im e , a t t i tude o f t h e g ove rnmen t a genc ies a nd i n te rac t ion w i th t h e l a rge r s oc ie ty . T he p roces s o f a s s im i la t ion o f t h e se c on t inuou s ly mov ing p opu la t ion s i n to t h e c a s te s y s tem h a s b een t r aced . S om e s ec t ion s o f t h e se c ommun i t ies w ere a s s im i la ted i n to t h e h i e ra rch ica l c a s te s y s tem a nd w er e a s s igned a s o c ia l r ank a cco rd ing t ot h e s e rv ices t h ey p rov ided H oweve r , t h e a ccu l tu ra t ion o f t h ese p eop le i s a c on t inuou s a nd o ngo ing p roce ss .

V -077 : M is ra , V .N . 1 989 i . V an V ag r is : Nomad ic Hun ter s o f Wes tern R a ja s than , i n C hang ing P er spec t ive s o fA n thropo logy i nI nd ia ( S .C . T iwa r i E d . ) , p p . 2 85 -311 . N ew D e lh i : T oday a nd T omor row ' s . V an V ag r is ( Van V av r is o r V an V ao r is ) a r e a s em i -nomad ic h un t ing p eop le f ound i n t h e s em i -a r id r eg ion o fw es ter n R a ja s than . No th ing i s k nown a bou t t h ese p eop le f r om p ub l ished s ou rces . T he re a r e t wo o the r c ommun i t ies i n R a ja s than B ag r is a nd B aor is w i th n ames s im i la rt ot h a t o ft h e a n V agr is . H oweve r , t h e V an V agr i s a r e t o ta l ly d i f f e r en t f r om b o th o f t h em . T hey l i ve a lmos t e n t i re ly b y h un t ing -ga ther ing , a nd u n l ike many o t he r h un ter -ga the re r s , d o n o t i ndu lge i n c r ime . T h is a r t ic le s umma r ises r e su l t s o f f i e ldwo rk c onduc ted b e tween 1 979 a nd 1 985 t o g a in a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e c u l tu re o f t h is c ommun i ty . T he a u tho r h a s d escr ibed t h e c ommun i ty 's h ab i ta t , d emog raphy , s e t t lem en t p a t ter n , p hys ica l a ppea rance , d r ess , or n amen t s , s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion , ma r r iage c u s tom s , s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ies , h un t ing t e chno logy , r e l ig ion a nd r e la t ion s w i th o the r c ommun i t ies . V -078 : M is ra , V .N . a nd Y a shodha r Ma thpa l 1 989 . R ock A r t , i nE ncyc lopaed ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I : S ub jec t s ( A . Ghosh E d . ) , p p . 2 79 -284 . N ew D e lh i : Mun s lü ram Manoha r la l .

V -080 : M is ra , V .N . a nd S uman P andya 1 989 . Me so l i th ic O ccupa t ion a r ound Dhan su ra , D is t r ic t S aba rkan tha , Gu ja r a t , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 4 (1) : 1 23 -128 .

A .C .L . C a r l ley le w a s t h e f i r s t i n I nd ia t o d i scover ( i n 1 867 -68 ) p a in t ing s o n t h e w a l ls a nd c e i l ing s o f r o ck -she l te r s , a nd t oa s s ign p reh is to r ic a n t iqu i ty t o t h em . A t p resen t 1 50 r ock -a r t s i tes ( g rouped i n to 1 9 a r eas ) a r e k nown o f wh ich a m a jo r i ty a r e s i tua ted i nt h e h i l ly r eg ion s . T h is e s say p rov ides a s umma ry o f r e sea rch f i nd ing s a bou t r ock a r t i n I nd ia . T he t op ics a dd ressed b y t h e a u tho r s a r e g eog raph ic l o ca t ion s , s t a te o f p reserva t ion , c o lou r a nd s t y le , s uper impos i t ion , r e la t ive c h rono logy , c on ten t s , mo t ives b eh ind t h e p a in t ing s a nd s i gn if icance o f t h ese s t ud ies i n I nd ian p r eh is tor ic c on tex t .

T h e a l luv ia l p l a in o fn o r thea s ter nG u ja ra t i sk nown f o r r i ch c oncen t ra t ion o f Meso l i th ic s i tes . T h ree n ew s i tes w e re d i scovered n ea r t h e t own o f Dhan su ra ( 13° 2 0 ' 5 0 " N ; 7 3° 1 5 ' 1 0 " ) i n t h e S aba rkan tha d i s t r ic t . T he e v idence o f t h e Me so l i th ic o ccupa t ion w a s f ound b u r ied i n s and d une s a t t h ree l o ca l i t ies a nd g o t e xposed d ue t o q ua r ry ing a c t iv i ty . T h is a r t ic le p resen t s a p r e l im ina ry r e po r t a bou t l o ca t ion , s t ra t ig raphy a nd a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l f ound a t t h ese l o ca l i t ies ( Dhan su ra I I I I ) . T he s t one a r tef ac t a s semb lages a t t h e t h ree l o ca l i t ie s a r e h omogeneou s w i th r e spec t t o t h e i r s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t , r aw m a te r ia l , t y po logy , s t a te o f p reserva t ion a nd t e chn ique o f m anuf ac tu re .

V -079 : M is ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t iN aga r 1 989 . Hun te r g a the re r s i n a n Ag rar ian S e t t ing : T he N ine teen th C en tu ry S i tua t ion i n t h e G anga P la in s , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 3 : 1 7 -64 .

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w e r e b rough t a ppea rance .

V -081 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 989 . P a laeoenv i ronm en t a nd P r eh i s to ry o f t h e T ha r D ese r t , R a ja s than , I nd ia , i n S ou th A s ian A r chaeo logy 1 985 ( K a r en F r if e l t a nd P e r S o ren sen E d s . ) , p p . 2 96 -320 . C openhagen : S cand inav ian I n s t i tu te o fA s ian S tud ie s .

b ecau se

o f

t h e i r

a t t rac t ive

G -083 : G a i l la rd , C , V .N . M i s r a a nd M .L .K . Mu r ty 1 990 . C ompa ra t ive S tudy o f T h r ee S e r ie s o f H andaxe s -O ne f r om R a ja s than a nd Two f r om A ndh ra P radesh , B u l le t in o f t h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te & R e sear ch I n s t i tu te 4 9 : 1 37 -144 .

T he e a r l ie s t r e co rd o fh um an p r e sence i nt h e T ha r D ese r t c on s i s t s o ft h e e a r ly A cheu l ian a s semb lage s f ound n ea r D idwana ( R a ja s than ) . A s ap a r t o ft h e p ro jec t t o u nde r s tand t h e p r eh i s tor ic s e t t lem en t s a nd t h e e nv i ronm en t , s eve ra l f i e ld a nd l a bo ra to ry s t ud ie s w e r e u nde r tak en . T he se i n c lude i n ten s ive s u rv ey s , r e co rd ing s t r a t ig r aphy o f l a k e s ed im en t s , s t udy o f g eo log ica l F o rma t ion s s uch a s J aya l , Am a rpu ra , a nd D idwana , s y s t em a t ic e xcava t ion s a t J aya l a nd t h r ee o t he r l o ca l i t ie s n ea r D idwana , a nd v a r iou sr a d iom e t r ic d a t ing s t ud ie s . W i th t h eh e lp o f t h e se mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry i n ve s t iga t ion s t h e a u tho r s h av e a t temp ted t o r e con s t ruc t t h e e nv i ronm en t d u r ing t h e L a t e N eogene a nd Q ua te rna ry p e r iod s , a nd h uman r e spon se s t o c hang ing e nv i ronm en ta l c ond i t ion s i n a r id a nd s em i -a r id r e g ion s o f R a ja s than . T h e L a te U ppe r P l e i s tocene w a s t h e p er iod o f m ax imum a r id i ty . Af t e r c . 2 5 ,000 B P c ond i t ion s b ecam e h ype r -a r id a nd t h e r e i s n o e v idence o f h um an o ccupa t ion i nt h e d e ser t . J u s t b ef o re 1 3000 B Pc l ima te b egan t oc hange a nd t h e r e i s e v idence f o r a c l im a te r e g im e o f r ap id ly f l u c tua t ing r a inf a l l . E ven t hough Me so l i th ic h un te r g a the r e r s a ppea r ed a tt h is t ime , t h e i r m a jo r s p r ead i n to t h e d e ser t t o ok p l ace i n t h e m id -Ho locen e p er iod ( 6000 -4000 B P ) .

T he a r t ic le p rov ide s a c ompa ra t ive m e t r ica l a na ly s i s o f t h r ee s e r ies o f h andaxes m ad e b y t h e a u tho r s . T hese s e r ie s a r e c o l lec t ion o f h andaxe s f r om S ing i T a lav n ea r D idwana i n R a ja s than ( n= 126 ) , a nd G u rava ra jupa l l i ( n=34 ) a nd V edu l lacheruvu ( n=46 ) f r om A ndh ra P radesh . T he c o l lec t ion s i n c luded v a r iou s t ypes s uch a sb acked , u n if ac ia l , p i ck h andaxe a nd p ro to -handaxe . T he p a ram e te r s u sed f o r c ompa r i son w e re t h e n umbe r , l e ng th , t h ickne s s , a ng le a nd p rof i le o ff l ake s c a r s . T he b i f ac ia l i ndex c a lcu la ted f r om n umbe r o ff l ake s c a r s o n f a ce s Aa nd B w a s u sed f o r c ompa r i son . S im i la r ly v a r iou s s hape i n d ices w e re c ompu ted . T he s t a t i s t ica l a na ly s i s i n d ica t ed t h a t V edu l lacheruvu l a rge c u t t ing t oo l s w e r e mo r e e vo lved . T he se t oo l s h ad s m a l l s i ze , mo re r egu la r i ty o f o u t l ine a nd b e t t e r s t anda rd i sa t ion o f v o lum e . On t h e o the r h and , t h e S ing i T a lav t oo l s a r e l a rge r , mo re e l onga ted a nd o f ten r ough ly t r imm ed . V -084 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 990a . P a laeo l i th ic P ha se i n I nd ia ,A nc ien tC ey lon 7 (2 ) : 1 0 1-149 . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s c u l tu r e -w ise r e v iew o f p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch c onduc ted i n I nd ia s i nce t h e 1 930 s . T he s e c t ion s a r e a r ranged u nde r f o l low ing h ead ing s : t h e e m e rgence o f m an , L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ( Sohan ian a nd A cheu l ian c u l tu r e ) , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd e nv i ronmen t a nd c u l tu ra l d eve lopm en t d u r ing t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene . S umma ry o f t h e L a te P l e i s tocene f o s s i l f auna a nd r ad iom e t r ic d a tes f r om P a laeo l i th ic s i te s h ave b een g iven i n t h e f o rm o f a ppend ice s .

D -082 : d 'E r r ico , F rance sco , C la i r e G a i l la rd , a nd V .N . M i s r a 1 989 . C o l lec t ion o f Non -U t i l i ta r ian O b jec t s b y Homo e rec tu s i nI nd ia , i n Hom in idae : P roceed ing s o ft h e S econd I n ter na t iona l C ong re s s o fH uman P a laeon to logy ( G iacomo G iacob in iE d . ) , p p .2 37 -239 .M i lan : J a ca B ook s . A tt h e A ch eu l ian s i te o fS ing i T a lav n ea rD idwana i nt h e T ha rD e se r t o fR a ja s than , s i x q uar tz c r y s ta l s w e r e f ound a s ap a r t o f aL owe rP a laeo l i th ic l i th ic i n du s t ry . S ing iT a lav i sa no pen -a i rs i te . T he q ua r tz c r y s ta l sw e re f ound f r om t h em a in o ccupa t ion l e ve l a tt h e b a se o f l a ye r 4 . T he e dge s o f t h e c r y s ta l s w e r e e xam ined u s ing S cann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scopy ( SE M ) . I tr e vea led t h a t e xcep t o ne o t h e r c r y s ta l s d o n o t s how a ny u se -wea r m a rk . T hough t h e se w e r e b rough t i n to t h e s i te b y H omo e r ec tu s t h e se w e r e c on s ide r ed a s n on -u t i l i ta r ian o b jec t s . I tw a sd i ff i cu l tt oe xp la in t h e o ccu r r ence o f s u ch n on -u t i l i ta r ian o b jec t si nt h e s i te . P e rhap st h ey

V -085 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 990b . P r eh i s to r ic C u l tu ra l S t age s i n t h e M idd le S on V a l ley , T he I nd ian H i s tor ica lR ev iew 1 4 ( 1-2 ) : 2 52 -262 . T h i s a r t ic le i sb a sed o nt h e r e su l t s o fi n ve s t iga t ion s c a r r ied o u t d u r ing 1 980 -81 e xped i t ion i n t h e S on v a l ley ( S idh i d i s t r ic t , Madhya P radesh ) . T he mu l t i d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch p ro jec t h eaded b y G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk w a s a im ed t o t r ace t h e

5 1

h i s to ry o f e a r l ies t h uman o ccupa t ion a nd t h e p a laeoenv i ronmen t i nt h e v a l ley . T he s umma ry o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeoenv i ronmen ta l f i nd ing s , c h rono logy a nd g eomo rpho logy o f t h e s t udy a r ea h ave b een p rov ided i nt h is r ev iew .

K an ja r g roup s l i v ing i n F a r rukhabad d i s tr ic t o f U t ta r P radesh . T h is a r t ic le d e sc r ibes m a in ly t h e e t hnog raph ic a nd d e mog raph ic f e a tu res o f t h e K an ja r s s uch a st h e i rh i s to ry , g roup s i ze , s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s , o ccupa t ion s , s ubs is tence , t e chno logy o f h un t ing , c r ime , d i sposa l o ft h e d ead , a nd r e l ig iou s b e l ief s . T he K an ja r s l i ke o the r n omad ic c ommun i t ies h ave b een c hang ing i n r e cen t y ea r s a nd t h e i r a ccu l tu ra t ion i s t ak ing p l ace . T he i n f orma t ion a bou t s uch c ommun i t ies i ss i gn if ican t b ecau se i t p rov ides c l ues t o i n te rp re t ing a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f r om s eve ra l Meso l i th ic s i tes i n U t ta rP radesh wh ich h ave b een e xcava ted i nr e cen t y ea r s . A lso , t h e p rocess o f a s s im i la t ion o f t h e K an ja r s i nt h e l a rge rs eden ta ry s oc ie ty i si mpor tan t f r om s oc ia lh i s to r ica lp e r spec t ive .

V -086 : M is ra , V .N . 1 990c . T he V an V agr is " Los t " Hun ter s o ft h e T ha rD eser t , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 5 (2 ) : 8 9 -108 . V an V ag r is ( Van V av r i s o rV an V ao r is ) a r e as em i n omad ic h un t ing c ommun i ty f ound i nt h e s em i -a r id r eg ion o f w es tern R a ja s than . T he r e i sn o m en t ion o f t h ese p eop le i n c en su s r epor t s , g aze t tee r s o r a n th ropo log ica l w r i t ing s . S ince n o c en su s d a ta a r e a va i lab le . T here e x is ted s ome d oub t whe ther t h e V an V ag r is h ave a s epa ra te e t hn ic i d en t i ty . I ti s p os s ib le t h a t t h e V an V ag r i s , J anga l iya s , Ahe r is , B awa r ia s a nd o the r s a r e d escenden t o f Meso l i th ic h un t ing -ga ther ing c o mmun i t ie s whose c u l tu ra l r ema in s h ave b een f ound i n R a ja s than a nd a d jo in ing a r ea s . T h e a u tho r c onduc ted f i e ldwork b e tween 1 979 a nd 1 985 t og a in a nu nde r s tand ing o f t h is c ommun i ty . H e h as d escr ibed t h e i r h ab i ta t , d emog raphy , s e t t lem en t p a t te rn , p hy s ica l a ppea rance , d ance , or n amen t s , t empe ramen t a nd c ha rac te r , s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion , ma r r iage , s ub s is tence , r e l ig ion , a nd t h e i r r e la t ion s w i th o the r c o mmun i t ies . I n t h e a r ea o f D idwana t h e V an V agr i s oc ie ty i sd iv ided i n to 1 3 e xogamou s c l an s . Mea t o fw i ld a n ima ls a nd b i rd s f o rm st h e p r inc ipa l c omponen t o f t h e i r d a i ly d i e t . T hey u se v a r iou s k ind s o fn e t s a nd t r aps t o c a tch t h e a n ima ls . T he ir r e l ig ion i sc en t red a r ound mo the r g oddes s w o r sh ip t h a t i sr e p resen ted b y am e ta l i mage . T hese p eop le g ene ra l ly k eep a way f r om p e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s a nd h ave v e ry l im i ted i n te rac t ion w i th o the r c o mmun i t ies .

V -088 : M is ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , R .K . G an joo a nd R . Ko r ise t ta r 1 990a . G eoa rchaeo logy o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic S i te a t S amnapu r i n t h e C en t ra l N a rmada V a l ley , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 5 (1) : 1 07 -116 . F o r l o ca t ing P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n t h e f i ne -g ra ined d epos i t s o ft h e C en t ra l N a rmada V a l ley , ar e sea rch p ro jec t b egan i n 1 986 . I n i t ia l ly t h e a r ea a round D evakacha r v i l lage i n N a r s inghpu r d i s t r ic t w a s i nves t iga ted . L a te r f o cu s s h if t ed t o t h e V indhyan f oo th i l ls o n t h e n or the r n s i de o f r i ve r N a rmada a f t e r t h e s i te o f S amnapu r ( 2 3° 0 6 ' 1 7 " N ; 7 9° 0 7 ' 3 0 " E ) w as d i scove red b y S .B . O ta a nd L .K . M i sh ra . T he s i te i s l o ca ted o n t h e h igh ( 23 m ) a l luv ia lt e r race o ft h eN a rmada . T he a r chaeo log ica l h o r izon o ccu r s i nt h e f o rm o f ar ubb le s p read ( 100 x6 0m ) a nd t h e s t one a r tef ac t sw er ee xposed d ue t o e r o s ion o f t h e o ve r ly ing s i l t . T he a r tef ac t a s semb lage a s soc ia ted w i th t h e r ubb le r e p resen t s a s em i -p r ima ry c on tex t . Du r ing t h r ee f i e ld s ea son s ( 1987 -1990 ) a n a r ea 4 4 m2 w a s d ug . A t o ta l o f 3 192 a r tef ac t s a nd a s ma l l n umbe r o f f o ss i l ised b one f r agmen t s w e re r e cove red . P re l im ina ry e xam ina t ion o ft h e a r tef ac t sr evea led t h a tf l akes ( 5 2 0 c m ) p redom ina te . Mos t o f t h e a r tef ac t s w e re m ade f r om l o ca l ly a va i lab le c her ty q uar tz i te a nd l o oked i n f r esh c ond i t ion . On t y po log ica l g round s t h e S amnapu r t oo l a s semb lage h a s b een c l a ss if ied a sM idd le P a laeo l i th ic .

N -087 : N aga r , Ma l t i a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 990 . T he K an ja r s -A Hun t ing -Ga ther ing C ommun i ty o ft h e G anga V a l ley , U t ta r P radesh , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 5 (2 ) : 7 1-88 . I t i s a p opu la r i mp ress ion t h a t t h e h un t ing g a ther ing c ommun i t ies i n I nd ia a r e m a in ly c onf ined t o h i l ly a nd f o res ted t r ac ts . Y e t t h e h un te r -ga there r s h ave c on t inued t h e i r w ay o f l i f e a nd r e ta ined t h e i rc u l tu ra l i d en t i t ies f o r al ong t ime i nt h e l a rge a l luv ia l p l a ins . T he K an ja r s a r e o ne o f t h e l a rges t a nd mos t w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted h un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i t ies i n I nd ia . T he i n f orma t ion p rov ided i nt h is a r t ic le i sd er ived f r om p ub l ished s ou r ces a nd f i e ld o bse rva t ion s made o n

V -089 : M is ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jaguru , R .K . G an joo a nd R . K or ise t ta r 1 990b . F u r the r R esea rch i n t h e P reh is to ry a nd Qua te rna ry G eo logy o ft h eN a rmada V a l ley , i n Adap ta t ion a nd O ther E ssay s ( N .C . G ho sh a nd S . C hak raba r t i E d s . ) , p p . 5 3 -59 . S an t in ike tan : V isva -Bha ra t i .

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r em a in s , r e l ig ion , s c r ip t , s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion a nd c h rono logy . V a r iou s t h eo r ies a bou t d ec l ine a nd d i sappea ran ce o ft h e c i v i l i sa t ion b a sed o n f o r e ign i n va s ion s , t e c ton ic s , c l ima te c hange , e nv i ronm en ta l d e te r io ra t ion , a nd h yd ro log ica lc hange h ave b een r ev iewed .

A s ap a r t o f amu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea rch p ro jec t , t h e s i te o fS amnapu r( 2 3° 0 6 ' 1 7 "N ; 7 9° 0 7 ' 3 0 " E ) w a s e xcava ted d u r ing 1 987 -1990 . T h i s p ape r d e sc r ibe s t h e p r e l im ina ry r e su l t s o f t h e 1 988 e x cava t ion s e a son . A t o ta l a r ea o f 3 1 m2 w a s e xcava ted a nd d i gg ing w a s d on e u p t o ad ep th o f 3 5 cm . T he d en s i ty o f a r tef ac t s w a s f ound t o i n c rea se w i th d ep th . T he a r t ef ac t s ( n=676 ) l o ok ed r ema rkab ly f r e sh . T he se c omp r i sed s haped t o o l s ( 26 .18% ) , mod if i ed t oo l s ( 1 .92% ) a nd d eb i tage ( 7 1 .89% ) . T he s c r ape r s d om ina te ( 94 .35 % ) a mong t h e s haped t oo l s t h a t a r e a l l m ade o n f l ak e s . T he r e touch i sb o ld , mo s t ly u n if ac ia l a nd r e s t r ic ted t o t h e e dge s . T h e p ape r c on ta in s i n f o rm a t ion a bou t g eo log ica l s e t t ing , f o ss i l s , p a laeoenv i ron rn en ta l i n f e r ence s , s t ra t ig raphy , a nd s ugge s t ion s a bou t s i te f o rm a t ion . T he a s semb lage a ppea r s t ob e av a r ian t o f t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a dap ted t o f o re s t e co logy .

A -092 : A lam , M .S . a nd V .N . M is ra 1 992 . Q uan t i ta t ive C ompo s i t ion a nd F unc t iona lA spec to f t h e P a laeo l i th ic A s semb lage s o fR ock S he l te rI IF 2 3 a tB h imbe tka . Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 7 (2 ) : 2 13 4 . T h i s p ape r i s b a sed o n q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s is o f a r tef ac t s c o l lec ted ( n= 11536 ) f r om t r enche s Ea nd Fo fr o ck -she l te r I I F -23 a tB h imbe tka ( 22° 5 0 ' N ; 7 7 ° 3 7 ' E ) e xcava ted b y V . N . M i s ra d u r ing 1 973 7 5 . V a r iab le s a na ly sed i n c lude l e ng th , b r ead th , r e touch a ng le a nd w e igh t o f t h e a r tef ac t s . C h i s qua r e t e s t a nd t wo s amp le t e s t s s uch a s Mann Wh i tney U t e s t a nd ' t 't e s t w e re u sed t o c ompa r e d i f f e r en t c u l tu ra l p e r iod s a nd l a ye r s , T h i s s t udy w a s a im ed t o a s ses s t empo ra l v a r ia t ion i n P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s r e cove r ed f r om p r ima ry c on tex t . A r tef ac t c l a s se s w e r e f ound t o b e c on s i s ten t e xcep t h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . H eav ie r , b roade r a nd l a rge r a r tef ac t s a r e mo r e c ommon i n l a ye r s even o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . L igh te r , n a r rowe r a nd s ma l le r a r tef ac t s d om ina te a l l c l a s se s e xcep t h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . T he h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s a r e m ed ium i ns i ze . B o re r s a r e h eav ie r , b roade r a nd l a rge r i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod t h an t h ee a r l ie rp e r iod s .

V -090 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 992a . A r chaeo logy a nd T r ibe s , i n T har D e ser t i n R a ja s than : L and , Man a nd E nv ironmen t ( A .K . S inghv i a nd Am a l K a r E d s . ) p p . 8 5 -94 . B anga lo r e : G eo log ica l S oc ie ty o f I nd ia . T he p a t te rn o f h uman a dap ta t ion s i n t h e T ha r D e se r t o f R a ja s than i s c l o se ly l i nked t o t h e r e cu r r en t c hange s i n c l ima te , h yd ro logy a nd l a ndf o rm s i n t h i s r e g ion . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s a n o ve rv iew o f f i nd ing s o f t h e mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea rches i n t h e T ha r d e se r t o ve r l a s t t h r ee d ecade s . T he e a r l ie s t r e co rd o fh uman c o lon i sa t ion b eg in sw i th t h eA cheu l ian c u l tu r e . Human s oc ie t ie s i nt h e d e ser t s how av a r ie ty o fa dap t ive s t ra teg ie s t o ah a r sh e nv i ronm en t w h e r e s c a r c i ty o fw a te r i s t h e m a jo r f a c to r a f f ec t ing d eve lopm en t a nd s oc io e conom ic s t ru c tu r e s .

N -093 : N aga r , Ma l t i a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 993 . T he P a rdh i s : A H un t ing -Ga the r ing C ommun i ty o f C en t ra l a nd We s ter n I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 8 ( 1) : 15 -140 . T h i s a r t ic le p rov id es ab r ief a ccoun t o ft h e c u l tu r e a nd l i f e s ty le o f t h e P a rdh i s , ah un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i ty f ound i nc en t ra l a nd w e s ter nI nd ia . T he i n f o rma t ion g i ven h e re w a s g a the r ed d u r ing t h e 1 989 -90 f i e ld s e a son f r om P a rdh i s o fN a r s inghpu r a nd S aga r d i s t r ic t s o f Madhya P rade sh . A l so , d a ta f r om p ub l i sh ed w o rk s h ave b een u sed t o s upp lem en t t h e e t hnog raph ic r e co rd . D u r ing t h e B r i t ish p e r iod t h e P a rdh is w e r e i n c luded i nt h e l i s t o f C r im ina l T r ibe s . L ike m any o the r h un t ing g a the r ing c ommun i t ie s , P a rdh i s t oo a r e e ngaged i n c r im ina l a c t iv i t ie s a s a n a l ter n a te s ou r ce o f l i ve l ihood . T he r ef o r e , t h e a u tho r f a ced s eve ra l d i ff icu l t ie s i n e s tab l i sh ing c on ta c t s a nd c o l lec t ing p e r sona l i n f o rma t ion . T he a u tho r s h ave d e sc r ibed

V -091 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 992b . R e sea r ch o n t h e I ndu s C iv i l iza t ion : A B r ief R ev iew , T he E as tern A n thropo log i s t4 5 ( 1-2 ) : 1 19 . T h e H a rappan o rI ndu s c i v i l i sa t ion w a s d i scove r ed i nt h e e a r ly t wen t ie s o ft h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry . R .D . B an r e j i a nd D aya R am S ahan i c on t r ibu ted t o t h e e a r ly a r chaeo log ica ls t ud ies . S i nce t h en ,k now ledge o f t h i s c i v i l i sa t ion h a s g rown e no rmou s ly . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s ab r ief r e v iew o f t h e e xp lo ra t ion f i nd ing s , e xcava t ion s a nd g ene ra l r e sea r ch c onduc ted a t t h e H a r appan s i t es . T he p o in t s r e v iewed i n c lude g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion , s e t t lem en t p a t te rn , s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l v a r ia t ion , e conomy , e x ter n a l t r ade a nd c on tac t s , h uman

5 3

t h e l i f es ty le , d i s t r ibu t ion , p opu la t ion , s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s , s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion , e conomy , d r es s a nd a ppea rance , f am i ly a nd ma r r iage s y s tem , a nd d i spo sa l o ft h ed ead o ft h e c ommun i ty . T he P a rdh is a r e e x t reme ly p oo ra nd p os se ss v e ry l i t t le p rope r ty . T he i r ma in o ccupa t ion i sh un t ing a nd t h ey u se a v a r ie ty o ft e chn iques t ot r ap a nd k i l l a n ima ls .

T he H a rappan o r I ndu s c i v i l i sa t ion w a s d i scove r ed i nt h e 1 920s . Ou rk now ledge o ft h is c i v i l isa t ion h a s g rown a f te r 1 950s d ue t o d i scover ies a nd e xcava t ion s o f m any H a rappan s i tes . A lso , n ew m e thodo log ies a nd f o cu ssed r e sea rches , e spec ia l ly o nt h e e nv i ronmen ta l s e t t ing , h ave c on t r ibu ted t oa much b e t te ru nder s tand ing a bou tt h e o r ig in , g row th a nd d ec l ine o f t h is m a jo r c i v i l isa t ion o f a nc ien t S ou th A s ia . T h is p ape r d i scu s ses t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n o ft h e H a rappan c i v i l i sa t ion i nt h e G rea ter I ndu s V a l ley ( M .R . Mugha l 's t e rm ) . I tp rov ides s t a t is t ica l s u mma ry o f t h e d i scove red s i tes , m ap s s how ing g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n , s i gn if i cance o f t h e G hagga r -Hak ra r i ver a nd i t b e ing t h eR igved ic S a ra sva t i , a nd t h ep roces s o ft h e s h if t ing o ft h e c ou r ses o fS u t le j a nd Y amuna . L e s s t h an 5 0 s i tes a r e l o ca ted o n t h e I ndu s r i ve r a s o pposed t o n ea r ly o ne t hou sand s i te s o n t h e G hagga r -Hak ra r i ve r . T h is a na ly s is s howed t h a tt h e I ndu s c i v i l isa t ion w a s c en t red o n t h e Ghagga r H ak ra r i ve r a nd n o t o n t h e I ndu s r i ve r . B a sed o n mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry e v idence i t i s c onc luded t h a t G hagga r -Hak ra r i ve r r ep resen t s t h e r emnan t o f

V -094 : M is ra , V .N . , V .S . S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty a nd L a l i t P andey 1 993 . T e r raco t ta B u l l F igu r ines f r om Ma rm i : A C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t i n C h i to rga rh D i s t r ic t , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 8 (2 ) : 1 49 -152 . Du r ing 1 993 f i e ld s e a son as y s tema t ic s u rvey o ft h e B ana s a nd B e rach r i ver s i nR a ja s than w a s c a r r ied o u t t o f i nd o u t a n Aha r c u l tu re s i te s u i tab le f o r e xcava t ion . T he s i te o f Ma rm i ( 25° 0 6 ' N ; 7 4 ° 2 5 ' ) l o ca ted o n t h e B ana s r i ve r i n C h i to rga rh d i s t r ic t a nd l o ca l ly k nown a s P u ran i ( o ld ) Ma rm i w a s o ne o ft h e s evera l k nown s i tes wh ich w e re e xam ined . S u rf ace f i nd s i n c luded a v a r ie ty o f c e ram ics , t e r raco t ta b u l l f i gu r ines a nd b ead s o f s he l ls a nd t e r raco t ta . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage s howed t h a tt h e s i te w a s o ccup ied f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic p er iod u p t o t h e Med ieva l p er iod . T h is a r t ic le d esc r ibes 5 8 t e r raco t ta b u l l f i gu r ines c o l lec ted d u r ing t h e e xp lo ra t ion . T he b u l l f i gu r ines w e re p e rhaps v o t ive o b jec t s .

V ed ic S a ra sva t i , c i v i l isa t ion .

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N -97 : N aga r , Ma l t i a nd V .N . M is ra 1 994 . S u rv iva l o f t h e Hun t ing -ga ther ing T rad i t ion i n t h e G anga P la in s a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , i n L iv ing T rad i t ions : S t ud ie s i n t h e E thnoarchaeo logy o f S ou th A s ia ( Br idge t A l lch in E d . ) , p p . 1 69 -192 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd a nd I BH .

V -095 : M is ra , V .N . 1 994a . P a t te r n s o f Human Adap ta t ion i n t h e S em i -a r id a nd A r id Z one o f R a ja s than , i n L iv ing T rad i t ions : S tud ie s i n t h e E thnoarchaeo logy o fS ou th A s ia ( Br idge t A l lch in E d . ) ,p p . 1 01-124 .N ew D e lh i : O xf ord a nd I BH .

T he a n t iqu i ty o f h un t ing -ga ther ing w ay o f l i f e i n I nd ia g oes b ack t o t h e M idd le P l e is tocene a nd p os s ib ly e ven e a r l ie r . T hese c o mmun i t ies s t ar ted c hang ing w i th t h e s p read o fa g r icu l tu re d u r ing t h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC T hey c on t inued t h e i rw ay o f l i f e a nd r e ta ined t h e i r c u l tu ra l i d en t i t ies f o r al ong t im e i nt h e l a rge a l luv ia l p l a in s . T h is p aper g ives a b r ief e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t o f h un t ing -ga ther ing c ommun i t ies i n t h e G anga P la in a nd i n C en t ra l I nd ia . T he i n f o rma t ion a bou t K an ja r s a nd o t he r p eop le s uch a s t h e B ahe l iya s , B anga l is , B adh ik s , B awa r iya s , B han tu s , H abu ra s , S an s iya s , a nd B er iya s h a s b een c o l lec ted f r om p ub l ished a ccoun t s , a nd t h a t a bou t t h e K an ja r s , P a rdh is a nd Kuchbandh iyas f r om f i e ldwo rk . T he d emog raph ic f e a tu res o ft h ese p eop le , t h e i r h i s to ry , g roup s i ze , s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s , o ccupa t ion s , s ubs is tence , t e chno logy o fh un t ing , c r ime , d i spo sa l o ft h e d ead , a nd r e l ig iou sb e l ief sh ave b een d escr ibed .

T h i s b r ief e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t o f t h e h uman p opu la t ion f ound i n R a jas than s how s h ow p eop le a dap t t o e co log ica l c ond i t ion s . T he c ommun i t ie s d eve lop a v a r ie ty o f c u l tu ra l a nd e conom ic a dap ta t ion s t o s u i t t h e h a r sh e nv i ronmen t a r ound t h em . T he s t ra teg ies a dop ted b y t h e d eser t c ommun i t ies h ave b een e xemp l if ied g iv ing e t hnog raph ic o b se rva t ion s o n c ommun i t ies s uch a s t h e B an ja ras ,B ishno is , V an V ag r is , R a ika s , T hor is , a nd B h i ls . V -096 : M is ra , V .N . 1 994b . I ndu s C iv i l iza t ion a nd t h e R igved ic S a ra sva t i , i nS ou th A s ian A rchaeo logy 1 993 V o l . I( A sko P a rpo la a nd P e t ter i K o sk ika l l io E d s . ) , p p . 5 11-525 . H e ls ink i : S uoma la inen T iedeaka tem ia .

V -98 :

5 4

M is ra ,

V .N .

1 995a .

E vo lu t ion

o f

E nv i ronmen t a nd C u l tu r e i nt h e R a ja s than D e ser t d u r ing t h eL a te Q ua te rna ry , i nA nc ien tP eop le sa nd L and scape s ( E i leen J ohn son E d . ) , p p . 7 7 -103 . L ubbock ,T exa s : T exa sT ech Un ive r s i ty P r e s s .

f r om wh ich i td e r ive s i t s n am e . L e s s t h an 5 0 s i te s a r e l o ca ted o n t h e I ndu s r i ve r whe r ea s a bou t 1 000 s i tes a r e l o ca ted o nt h e G hagga r -Hak r a r i ve r . T ob e a b le t o s uppo r t t h e v a s t p opu la t ion r e p re sen ted b y t h e l a rge n umbe r o f H a rappan s i te s , t h e G hagga r -Hak ra r i ve rh ad t oc a r ry w a te rp e r enn ia l ly i n i t s l a rge a nd w ide b ed . T he c umu la t ive muf t i d i sc ip l ina ry e v idence ( g eomo rph ic , s ed im en to log ica l , r emo te s en s ing , a r chaeo log ica l , h i s to r ica l a nd f o lk lo r i s t ic ) s uppo r t s t h e h ypo the s i s t h a tt h e p r e sen t G hagga r -Hak r a r i ve rr e p r e sen t st h e r emnan t o f V ed ic S a ra sva t i , t h e l i f e l ine o f t h e I ndu sc i v i l i sa t ion .

Mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch i nR a ja s than d u r ing t h e l a s t t wo d ecade s h a s a dded s ub s tan t ia l ly t o t h e k now ledge o f t h e e vo lu t ion o f t h e d e ser t e nv i ronm en ta nd h um an a dap ta t ion st oi td u r ing t h e l a te r p a r t o f Q ua te rna ry . T he r e sea r ch i n c luded m app ing o f Q ua te rna ry f o rm a t ion s , r a d iom e t r ic d a t ing o f s ed im en ta ry u n i t s , e xp lo r ing a nd e xcava t ing a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , a na ly s i s o fc u l tu ra l m a t e r ia l a nd c o l lec t ing e t hnog r aph ic i n f o rma t ion . T h i s p ape r t r ace s t h e c hange s t h a t o ccu r red i n h um an c u l tu r e a nd t h e e vo lu t ion o f d e se r t e nv i ronm en t f r om t h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic t ime s u p t o2 000 y ea r sa go .

V -10 1 : M i s ra , V .N . , V a san t S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty , Ku ru sh D a la l , A nup M i sh ra , L a l i t P andey a nd J e evan K ha ra l cwa l 1 995 . E xcava t ion s a tB a la tha l : T he i rC on t r ibu t ion t ot h e C ha lco l i th ic a nd I r on A ge C u l tu r e s o f Mewa r , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 0 ( 1) : 5 7 -80 .

V -99 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 995b . G eoa r chaeo logy o ft h e T ha r D e se r t , N o r thwes t I nd ia , i n Q ua t ernary E nv ironmen t s a nd G eoar chaeo logy o f I nd ia : E s say s i n Honour o fP rof e s sor S .N . R a jaguru ( S . Wad ia , R . K o r i se t ta ra nd V .S . K a le E d s . ) , p p . 2 10 2 30 .B anga lo r e : G eo log ica lS oc ie ty o fI nd ia .

N ea r ly 9 0 C ha lco l i th ic s i tes w e r e d i scove r ed d u r ing f o r ty y ea r s o fr e sea r ch i nt h e Mewa rr eg ion o f R a ja s than . B a la tha l ( 24 ° 4 3 N ; 7 3° 5 9 E ) i s l o ca ted i n t h e U da ipu r d i s t r ic t . T h i s a r t ic le d e sc r ibes r e su l t s o f t h e e xcava t ion s a t t h e s i te d u r ing 1 994 -95 a nd t h e m a jo rf i nd ing st h a t i n c lude c e ram ic s , b ead s , c oppe r a nd i r on o b jec t s , s t ruc tu r e s , t e r raco t ta o b jec t s , g l a s s b ang les , a nd a r i ng w e l l . T he e xcava t ion y i e lded e v idence o ft wo c u l tu r a l p e r iod s : t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod ( l aye r 1 4 t o 2 2 ) a nd t h e l i on A ge ( l aye r s 1 12 ) . T he C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod a tB a la tha l ( 2 350 -1800 BC ) i s c ha rac te r ised b y t h e p r e sence o f l a rge r e c tangu la r a nd s qua r i sh s t ruc tu r e s t h a t s e rved v a r ied f unc t ion s . I nt h e I r on A ge c on tex t( 5 th c en tu ry BC 3 rd c en tu ry AD ) a mud r ampa r t o f r e c tangu la r s hape ( 30 x 1 5 m ) w a s f ound . T h e r ampa r t h a s a s t one r e ve tm en t . A n umbe r o f i r on s m e l t ing f u rnace s a nd s eve ra l i r on i mp lem en t s w e re f ound . T he se s how t h a t B a la tha l p l ayed a n i mpor tan t r o le i nt h e s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion o f R a ja s than d u r ing t h e I r on A ge .

T h i s a r t ic le s umma r ise s r e su l t s o f ad ecade o f r e sea rch o n p a laeoenv i ronm en t a nd g eoa r chaeo logy o f t h e T ha r D e ser t i n n o r thwe s t I nd ia . T he r e sea r ch s how ed t h a t t h e p r e sen t l a nd scape , c l ima te a nd h yd ro log ica l s e t t ing o ft h e a r id a nd t h e s em i -a r id r e g ion a r e m a rk ed ly d i f f e r en t f r om w ha t t h ey w e r e d u r ing t h e N eogene a nd E a r ly Q ua te rna ry . Mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry i n ve s t iga t ion d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h e p ow er f u l a nd w e l l in teg ra ted d r a inage s y s tem o pe r a t ing i n t h e p a s t s t ead i ly d ec l ined a nd e ven tua l ly d i sappea r ed . F rom t h e M idd le t ot h e L a te P l e i s tocene t h e re w a s e x t en s ive h uman o ccupa t ion o f t h e D e se r t . T he c l ima te w a s h um id d u r ing t h e M id -Ho locene . T h e Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s w ho w e r e p r e sen t b ef o r e s p r ead i n t h e d e se r t d u r ing t h e m id H o locene p e r iod . B y t h e L a te H o locene t h e a r id c ond i t ion ss im i la rt ot ho se o ft h ep r e sen t -day b egan t os e ti n .

V -102 : M i s ra V .N . 1 996 . Me so l i th ic I nd ia : H i s to ry a nd C u r r en t S t a tu s , i n T he P r eh i s tor y o fA s ia a nd O cean ia ( G .E . A f ana sev , S .C leuz iou , J .R . L ukac s a nd M . T o s iE d s . ) ,p p . 3 21 -328 . ABACO E d iz ion i .

V 100 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 995c . I ndu s C iv i l iza t ion a nd t h e R igved ic S a ra sva t i , S e cond I n terna t iona l C ong re s sP roceed ing s ,p p . 1 25 142 . Mumba i : H .R . C ama O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te .

T h i s b r ief r ev iew p rov ides d i scu s s ion a bou t s a l ien t f e a tu r e s o ft h e Me so l i th ic A ge i nI nd ia s uch a st h e h i s to ry o f r e sea r ch , p o s i t ion o f t h e Me so l i th ic p ha se i n I nd ian p r eh i s to ry , g eog r aph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e Me so l i th ic s i te s i n I nd ia ,

T he d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn o ft h e I ndu s o r H a rappan c i v i l isa t ion s i te s s howed t h a t i tw a s c en t r ed o nt h e G hagga r -Hak r a r i ve r a nd n o t o n t h e I ndu s r i ve r

5 5

s e t t lem en t p a t te rn , t e chno logy , s ubs i s tence p a t te rn , d we l l ings , d i sposa l o f t h e d ead , m a te r ia l c u l tu re , Meso l i th ic a r t , t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t , c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion , a nd c h rono logy .

em e rgence o f a gr icu l tu re d i scu ssed i nd e ta i l .

a nd

s e t t led

l i f e

a r e

V -105 : M is ra , V .N . 1 997b . B a la tha l : A C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t i n Mewa r , R a ja s than , I nd ia : R esu l t s o fF i r s t T h ree S eason s E xcava t ion s , S ou th A s ian S tud ie s 1 3 : 2 51-273 .

V -103 : M is ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 996 . P a laeoenv i ronmen t a nd P r eh is to ry o f t h e T ha r D eser t , R a ja s than , I nd ia , i n F ace t s o f a Marwar H i s tor ian : A spec t s o fI nd ia ' s S oc ia l a nd E conom ic H i s tory ( B .L . B hadan i a nd Dw i jend ra T r ipa th i E d s . ) ,p p . 9 9 -133 . J a ipu r : P ub l ica t ion S cheme .

T h i s p aper d e scr ibe s t h e r e su l t s o f t h ree s e a son ' s e xcava t ion s ( 1994 -1997 ) c onduc ted a t B a la tha l ( 24 ° 4 3 N ; 7 3° 5 9 E ) i n Uda ipu rd i s t r ic t , R a ja s than . D igg ing h a s b een d one i n a n a r ea o f 1 400 m2 i n n ea r ly s i x ty t r enches . Twen ty two l a ye r s w e r e i d en t if ied i nt r ench F 4 . T he d epos i to ft h e u ppe r 1 2 l a ye r s c on s is ted o f h igh ly b u rn t a nd v i t r if ied a sh . L aye r s 6t o 1 3 f ound i nt r ench F 4 w ere a b sen t i n o t he rt r enches . T he h ab i ta t ion o ft h e s i te r e s t s o n a t h in l a ye r o f b l ack s o i l t h a t w a s f o rmed o ve r t h e n a tu ra l g ran i te a nd g ne iss ic b ed rock . T he a r t ic le d ea ls o n ly w i th t h e s t ruc tu re s , c e ram ics ,

S ince 1 987 at e am o fs c ien t i s t s a nd a r chaeo log is t s h as b een i n ve s t iga t ing n ea r D idwana ( Nagau r d i s t r ic t , R a ja s than ) t o u nde r s tand t h e g eo log ica l r e co rd o f p a laeoenv i ronmen t , a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o fh uman h ab i ta t ion i nt h e T ha rD ese r t . T h is a r t ic le p resen t s as yn thes is o f r e su l t s o b ta ined t i l l 1 985 . I t c on ta in s a d escr ip t ion o f s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion s c a r r ied o u t a t J aya l , S ing i T a lav , I ndo la k i Dhan i a nd 1 6R , e nv i ronmen t d u r ing t h e L a te N eogene a nd Q ua te rna ry , G eo log ica l F o rma t ion s a nd h uman r e spon se t o c hang ing e nv i ronm en t .

s ubs is tence e conomy a nd c h rono logy C ha lco l i th ic p er iod ( 2 500 -1600 BC ) .

o f t h e

V -106 : M is ra , V .N . , V . S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty , L a l i t P andey a nd J eevan K ha rakwa l 1 997 .

V -104 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 997a . E a r ly Man a nd H is E nv i ronmen t i n C en t ra l I nd ia , J ourna l o f t h e P a laeon to log ica lS oc ie ty o fI nd ia 4 2 : 1 18 .

E xcava t ion s a t B a la tha l , D i s t r ic t Uda ipu r , R a ja s than ( 1995 -97 ) , w i th S pec ia l R ef e rence t o C ha lco l i th ic A rch i tec tu re , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 2 2 (2 ) : 3 5 -59 .

T h is r ev iew t r aces t h e h i s to ry o fh uman s i nC en t ra l I nd ia f r om t h e e a r l ies tt im es t ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h e c oppe r -u s ing p ha se . C en t ra l I nd ia i s a n a r ea o f s pec ia l c u l tu re -h is tor ica l i n te r es t s i nce t h r ee o ft h e S ubcon t inen t 's c u l tu ra l s t ream s a r e f ound h e re . T he a r t ic le p rov ide s i n f orma t ion a bou t t h e g eog raph ic a nd e nv i ronm en ta l s e t t ing , t h e d iver s i ty o fp eop le a nd h i s tory o f p r eh is tor ic r e sea rch c onduc ted i n t h is r eg ion f r om t h e m id -n ine teen th c en tu ry . T he

T h i s p ape r d escr ibes ma jo r f i nd ing s o f f u r the r e xcava t ion s c onduc ted a tB a la tha l ( 24° 4 3 N ; 7 3° 5 9 E ) b e tween 1 995 a nd 1 997 . T hough i n f o rma t ion a bou t p o t tery , o the r m a ter ia l o b jec t s a nd s t ra t ig raphy h a s b een g iven , t h e m a in f o cu s o ft h i s p ape r i st o p rov ide a d e ta i led d e scr ip t ion o f t h e C ha lco l i th ic a r ch i tec tu re . T he C ha lco l i th ic p er iod a tB a la tha l ( 2800 -1500 BC ) i sc ha rac ter ised b yt h e p resence o ft h r ee r e s iden t ia l c omp lexes d iv ided b y aw ide s t ree t a nd a n a r row l a ne . T he h ou ses a r e made o f s t one a nd mud b r ick . A t o ta l o f 1 5 r ad ioca rbon d a tes w e re o b ta ined . T hese r ange f r om 1 820+70 t o 5 770+100 BP ( ba sed o n h a lf l if e o f 5 730 y ea r s ) . B a sed o n i n -dep th e xam ina t ion o ft h e c e ram ics , t h e o r ig in a nd d eve lopmen t o f t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re a tB a la tha lh a sb een t r aced .

a u tho r h a s r ev iewed p a laeon to log ica l , c u l tu ra l a nd o t he r ma te r ia l e v idence r e la ted t o t h e p reh is tor ic m an f r om t h e e a r l ies t h un te r -ga ther ing s t age ( t he L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ) t o t h e b eg inn ing o f s e t t led v i l lage l i f e s t age ( t he C ha lco l i th ic ) . T he L owe r P a laeo l i th ic e v idence f r om t h e N a rmada , B e lan , a nd S on v a l ley s i sd i scu ssed . T he h uman c u l tu ra l a t t r ibu tes d u r ing t h e M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd Meso l i th ic p er iod s a r e t h o rough ly r e v iewed . E xcep t d u r ing t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p ha se t h e r e g ion w a s i n ten s ive ly i nhab i ted . T he e nv i ronmen t d u r ing t h e H o locene s e em s t o h ave

V -107 : M isra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , R .J . Wa s son , G . S ingh a nd D .P . A g rawa l 1 997 . F u r the rL igh t o n L owe r P a laeo l i th ic O ccupa t ion a nd P a laeoenv i ronmen t i n S em i -A r id Z one o f R a ja s than , i nI nd ian P reh i s tory 1 980 ( V .D . M is ra a nd J .N . P a l E d s . ) , p p . 5 1-60 . A l lahabad : Un ive r s i ty o fA l lahabad .

b een c onduc ive a s t h e re w a s ar ap id i n c r ea se i n h uman p opu la t ion a nd s eden t ism d u r ing t h e Meso l i th ic p ha se . A bou t4 500 y ea r s a go a gr icu l tu re b egan i nC en t ra l I nd ia . T he ma te r ia l r ema in s a f te r

5 6

B and is , G andh i la s , B adh ik s .

A n e xcep t iona l ly r i ch L owe r P a laeo l i th ic s i t e n ea r J aya l ( 27 ° 1 3 ' N ; 7 4 ° 1 ' E ) i nN agau r d i s t r ic t o f R a ja s than w a s d i scove r ed i n 1 979 . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s d e sc r ip t ion o f v a r iou s t r enche s a t D idwana , S ing i T a lav , Am a rpu ra q ua r r ie s , a nd I ndo la k i Dhan i . T he f l ak ed a r tef ac t s ( n= 130 ) c on ta in ed h andaxe s , s c rape r s a nd c hoppe r s a sw e l l a s d eb i tage . A l l t h e a r tef ac t s w e r e f r e sh i n c ond i t ion . Me t r ica l a na ly s i s a nd q uan t i ta t ive i n f o rm a t ion a bou tt h ea r tef ac t sa r ep rov ided .

B awa r iya s ,

B han tu s

a nd

V -110 : M i s ra , V .N . 1 999 . P o t te ry , i n C hem i s try a nd C hem ica l T echn ique s i n I nd ia ( B .V . S ubba rayappa E d . ) , p p . 2 23 -244 . N ew D e lh i : C en t r e f o rS tud ies i nC iv i l iza t ion s . P o t te ry a ppea r s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o n ly a f t e r t h e e m e rgen ce o f a g r icu l tu r e a nd s e t t led l i f e d u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod . T h i s c hap te ro np o t te ry p rov ide s ac ompac t i n t rodu c t ion t ov a r iou s c e ram ic f o rm s f ound f r om t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e s i te s u p t o t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic s i te s . T he d i scu s s ion i sr e la ted t o t h e m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s , N eo l i th ic p o t te ry f r om v a r iou s p a r t s o fI nd ia , t h e e a r ly , m a tu re a nd l a te H a rappan p o t te ry , C ha lco l i th ic p o t te ry ( Ma lwa a nd J orwe c u l tu re ) , P a in ted G r ey Wa r e , No r ther n B lack P o l i shed Wa r e , R ou le t ted Wa r e a nd A r r e t ine Wa r e .

V -108 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 997 . F rom T r ibe t o C a s te : An E thnoa r chaeo log ica l P e r spec t ive , i nF rom T r ibe t oC as te ( Dev N a than E d . ) , p p . 1 36 -166 . S h im la : I nd ian I n s t i tu te o f A dvanced S tudy . T h i s a r t ic le p rov ide s a n o u t l ine o f t h e p roce s s o f i n co rpo ra t ion o f t r iba l s oc ie t ie s i n to t h e c a s te s oc ie ty w i th h e lp o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog r aph ic d a ta . I tf u rn ishe s d ef in i t ion s o fc a s te a nd t r ibe , d i s t inc t ive f e a tu r e s o fc a s te s y s tem a nd t h e t r iba l s oc ie t ie s , t h e t r ibe -ca s te c on t inuum a nd t h e p roces s o ft r an s i t ion f r om t r ibe t oc a s te , S tone A ge h uman p opu la t ion e xpan s ion s , o r ig in a nd s p r ead o fa g r icu l tu r e a nd i t s i n t en s if i ca t ion d u r ing t h e I r on A ge . A ga in s t t h i s a r chaeo log ica l b ackg round t h e a u tho r s t r ac e t h e o r ig in o f c a s te s y s tem , f a c to r s c on t r ibu t ing t ot h e i n co rpo r a t ion o f t r iba l p eop le i n to t h e c a s te s oc ie ty a nd t h e p roce s s o f a s s im i la t ion . T he K an ja r s , ah un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i ty o fn o r th I nd ian p l a in sh a sb een t a k en t o i lu s t ra te t h ep o in ta bou tt h et r ibe -ca s te i n te rac t ion .

V -111 : M i s ra , V .N . 2 001a . A r chaeo log ica l E v idence o f E a r ly Moder n Hum an O ccupa t ion i n S ou th A s ia , i n Human i ty f rom A f r ican N a i s sance t o C om ing M i l lenn ia ( P .V . T ob ia s , M .A . R aa th , J . Mogg i -Cecch i a nd G .A . D oy le E d s . ) , p p . 2 23 -230 . F i r enze : F e r enze . S ign if i can t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r c o lon i sa t ion o f S ou th A s ia s t a r t s a ppea r ing f r om t h e A cheu l ian s t age o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , w h ich m ay d a te t o c . 7 00 ,000 y ea r s a go . Two p ha se s o ft h eA cheu l ian c u l tu re c an b e r e cogn i sed a n e a r l ie r o ne c ha rac te r i sed b y h igh p ropo r t ion o f c o r et oo l s , l ow p ropor t ion o fc rude ly m ade c l eave r s a nd f l ake t oo l s a nd a b sence o fL eva l lo i st e chn ique . T he l a te r p ha se i sm a rk ed b y l ow p ropor t ion o f b i f ace s , u se o fl a rge f l ak e s , ah igh r a t io o fc l eave r s t oh andaxe s a nd v e ry h i gh p ropo r t ion o ff l ake t o o l s l i ke s c rape r s . T h i s p ape r s umma r i se s t h e e v idence o fh um an o ccupa t ion d u r ing t h e s ub sequen tM idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic p ha se s . A mo r e s i gn if ican t s h if ti nt e chno logy a nd t y po logy c an b e s e en b e tween t h e e a r l ie ra nd l a te rA ch eu l ian s t age s t h an b e tween t h e l a te r p ha se o fA cheu l ian a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . T he U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic o ft h e S ubcon t inen t s e em s t ob e a so ld a st h a t o fE u rope a nd t h eN ea rE a s t .

N -109 : N aga r , Ma l t i a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 998 . H un te r G a the r e r s i n G anga P la in s , i n P er spec t ive s i n T r iba lD eve lopmen t :F ocu so n U t tar P rad e sh ( H .S . S ak sena , B .R .K . S huk la , P .K . T ewa r i a nd P .N . S ha rm a E d s . ) , p p . 1 4 1 -147 . L ucknow : E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu r e S oc ie ty . I nd ia h a s at r iba l p opu la t ion o f o ve r 4 0 m i l l ion . Mo r e t h an 3 00 d i s t inc t c ommun i t ie s h ave b een c l a s s if i ed a s S ch edu led T r ibe s f o r f a vou r ed t r ea tm en tb yt h eg ove rnm en t . I ti se xpec ted t h a tt h e o r ig ina l h un t ing -ga the r ing c ommun i t ie s w ou ld h ave c omp le te ly a s s im i la ted i n to t h e n ew s oc io c u l tu r a l o rde r . B u t t h i s i s n o t t r ue e ve rywhe re . Many c o mmun i t ie s f ound i nt h e u ppe r a nd m idd le G anga V a l ley s how t h a t t h e se h ave c on t inued t h e i r w ay o fl i f e a nd r e ta ined t h e i rc u l tu ra l i d en t i t ies f o r al o ng t ime . T he c ommun i t ie s i n c luded i n t h i s s t udy a r e Ah e r iya s , B ahe l iya s , K an ja r s , B anga l i s ,

V -112 : M i s ra , V .N . 2 001b . P r eh i s to r ic Human C o lon iza t ion o f I nd ia , J ourna l o f B io sc ience s 2 6 (4 ) : 4 91-531 .

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T h is a r t ic le g ives a n e xhau s t ive a ccoun t o f p r eh is tor ic h uman c o lon isa t ion i nI nd ia c ove r ing a s pan o fa tl e a s t p a s t h a lf am i l l ion y ea r s . I tb eg in s w i th i n t roduc t ion t op e r iod isa t ion . Ma in f e a tu res o f t h e e a r l ies t c u l tu res s uch a s t h e S ohan ian , A cheu l ian , t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h ave b een d esc r ibed t h a t i n c lude p a laeoenv i ronmen t , c h rono logy , g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e s i tes , f o ss i l e v idence a nd d eve lopm en t o f t e chno logy . A c hange i n s ubs is tence t ook p l ace i nt h e Meso l i th ic p ha se w i th i n ten s if ied f ood c o l lec t ing a nd s h if tt owa rd s s e t t led l i f e . O the r i mpor tan t p o in t s d i scu ssed i n c lude t h e s p read o f a g r icu l tu re , e v idence f r om Meh rga rh , C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu res , I ndu s c i v i l isa t ion , eme rgence o ff a rm ing c ommun i t ie s o u t s ide t h e z one o fI ndu s c i v i l isa t ion , N eo l i th ic c u l tu res o fK a shm i r V a l ley , t h e V indhya s a nd G anga V a l ley , e a s te rn I nd ia a nd s ou th I nd ia . S ign if ican t d eve lopmen t s t ook p l ace d u r ing t h e C ha lco l i th ic p er iod t h a t i n c lude i n t roduc t ion o fc oppe r -b ronze f o rm ak ing t oo ls a nd w eapon s , i mp roved a r ch i tec tu re , a nd whee l -made p o t te ry . T he C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu res s uch a s Aha r c u l tu r e , Ma lwa c u l tu re , a nd J orwe c u l tu re h ave b een d escr ibed . T he i n t roduc t ion o f i r on t e chno logy w a s c ruc ia l ly i mpor tan t t o t h e e xpan s ion o f a g r icu l tu re -based s e t t led l i f e . T he p r inc ipa l f e a tu res o f t h e I r on A ge , Mega l i th ic monumen t s , s p read o f i r on t e chno logy t o s ou th I nd ia , a nd d emog raph ic c ompos i t ion o fI nd ia h ave b een d escr ibed .

P reh i s tory ( S . S e t ta r a nd R av i K o r ise t ta r E d s . ) , p p . 11-125 . New D e lh i : I CHR a nd Manoha r . T h is c omprehen s ive r ev iew p rov ides a d i scu ss ion o f v a r iou s i s sues r e la ted t o u nde r s tand ing s i gn if i cance o f t h e Meso l i th ic A ge i n I nd ia . I t b eg in s w i th ab r ief h i s tory o fr e sea rch a nd p o s i t ion o ft h e Meso l i th ic p ha se i n I nd ian p reh is to ry . T he o t he rm a jo rp o in t s c ove red a r e g eog raph ica l s p read o ft h e Meso l i th ic s i tes i nI nd ia , s e t t lemen t p a t ter n , t e chno logy , s ubs is tence p a t ter n , d we l l ing s , d i sposa l o f t h e d ead , ma ter ia l c u l tu r e , c h rono logy , Me so l i th ic a r t , t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t s a nd c u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion . V -115 : M isra , V .N . 2 002b . E xcava t ion s o f Human B u r ia l s , i n B io log ica l A n thropo logy o f Human S k e le ta l R ema ins f rom B h imbe tka , C en tra l I nd ia ( K .A .R . K ennedy , J .R . L ukac s a nd V .N . M is ra E d s . ) , p p . 7 -26 . P une : I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic a nd Qua ter n a ry S tud ies . T h ree r o ck -she l te r s ( I I I F -13 , I I F -23 a nd I B -33 ) w e re e xcava ted b y V .N . M i s ra a t B h imbe tka ( Ra isen d i s t r ic t , Madhya P rade sh ) b e tween 1 973 a nd 1 977 . S he l te r I I F -13 h ad t wo b u r ia ls a nd I B -33 h ad f i ve b u r ia ls . T he h uman s ke le ton s e xcava ted f r om B h imbe tka r o ck -she l te r c omp lex w e re e xam ined b y t wo p a laeoan th ropo log is t s , K .A .R . K ennedy a nd J .R . L ukacs . T h is a r t ic le p rov ides b as ic i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e B h imbe tka h i l l , r o ck -she l te r s , c on tex t o f h uman b u r ia l s a nd d e ta i ls o fs t ra t ig raphy o fe xcava ted t r enches .

V -113 : M i s ra , V .N . 2 001c . T he R o le o f t h e R igved ic S a ra sva t i i nt h eR ise , G row th a nd D ec l ine o ft h e I ndu sC iv i l iza t ion ,A nna l so ft h eB handarkar O r ien ta lR e search I n s t i tu te 8 2 : 1 65 -191 .

V -116 : M is ra , V .N . 2 002c . Me so l i th ic C u l tu r e i n I nd ia , i n Me so l i th ic I nd ia ( V .D . M i s ra a nd J .N . P a l E d s . ) , p p . 1 66 . A l lahabad : Un ive r s i ty o f A l lahabad .

T h is p ape r i s t h e p r in ted v er s ion o f t h e l e c tu re g iven o nt h e o cca s ion o ft h e 7 3rd d ea th a nn ive r sa ry o fS i rR .G . B handa raka r . T he a u tho rh a s c o mpa red t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fH a rappan s i tes o nt h e I ndu sr i ve r a nd o n t h e d ry c hanne l o f Ghagga r -Hak ra r i ve r . B a sed o n l i t era ry , f o lk lor is t ic , a r chaeo log ica l , g eomo rpho log ica l , s ed imen to log ica l a nd r emo te s en s ing d a ta , t h e a u tho rh a s s ugges ted t h a tb o th t h e S u t le j a nd Y amuna f l owed i nt h e S a ra sva t i c hanne l i nt h ep a s t . T he d escr ip t ion o ft h e l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd d es icca t ion o ft h e S a rasva t i r i ve ri nt h e V ed ic , e p ic a nd c l a ss ica l I nd ian l i t e ra tu re m a tche s w i th t h e f e a tu re s a nd h i s to ry o ft h e Ghagga r -Hak ra r i ve r .

T he Meso l i th ic p er iod , e ven t h ough i tc ove r so n ly a f ew t hou sand y ea r s i n t h e l o ng h i s tory o f h umank ind , h a s e normou s c u l tu re -h i s tor ica l i mpor tance . E qu ipped w i th t h e i n t ima te k now ledge o ft h eb i o log ica l w o r ld a round t h em ,t h e Meso l i th ic p eop le b egan t o d omes t ica te p l an t s a nd a n ima l a r ound n ine t hou sand y ea r s a go . T h is k eyno te a dd res s t o t h e s em ina r o rgan ised i n 1 996 a t A l lahabad f ur n ishes a n e xhau s t ive r ev iew o f r e sea rch c onduced s o f a r r e ga rd ing t h is v e ry i mpor tan t c u l tu ra l p ha se i n I nd ian p reh is to ry . I t i n c lude s ab r ief h i s tory o f r e sea rch c over ing t h e p e r iod f r om 1 867 t o 2 000 . O the r m a jo r a r ea s o f r e sea rch r ev iewed a r et h eg eog raph ica ld i s tr ibu t ion , d emog raph ic i mp l ica t ion s , s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s ,

V -114 : M is ra , V . N . 2 002a . T he Meso l i th ic Age i n I nd ia , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy i n R e t rospec t , I :

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C on tempo r a ry I nd ian s oc ie ty h a s e no rmou s b io c u l tu ra l d i ve r s i ty a nd c omp lex i ty . I th a s v a r iou s b io log ica l , s oc ia l , e conom ic a nd l i ngu i s t ic a spec t s . T he se c an b e e xp la ined o n ly w i th h e lp o fd a ta f r om s eve ra l f i e ld s s uch a s a r chaeo logy , a n th ropo logy , h i s to ry , l i ngu i s t ic s . I nt h i s p ape r , wh ich i st h e t e x t o ft h e D .N . Ma jumda r Memo r ia l l e c tu re d e l ive r ed u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o f t h e I nd ian S oc ia l S c ience A s soc ia t ion , t h e a u tho r h a s m ade a n a t temp t t o e xp la in t h e d i ve r s i ty i n t h e p r esen t -day I nd ian p opu la t ion , p a r t icu la r ly t h e c ompo s i t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f S chedu led T r ibe s a nd S ch edu led C a s tes , p r eva lence o f d i f f e ren t e conom ic modes , d i ve r s i ty o fs oc ia l i n s t i tu t ion s , c u s tom s , v a r ie ty o f l a nguage s a nd d i a lec t s i n t h e l i gh t o f a n th ropo log ica l , a r chaeo log ica la nd l i ngu is t ic d a ta .

p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l s e t t ing , t e chno logy a nd m a te r ia lc u l tu re ,s ub s is tence p a t ter n ,d i spo sa lo ft h e d ead , b i o log ica l a n th ropo logy o f h uman s k e le ta l r ema in s , a r t , a nd c h rono logy . D e ta i l s o fd a te s a nd l i s t o fe xcava ted Me so l i th ic s i te s a r e g iven i nt h e t a bu la r f o rma t . T he a r t ic le c on ta in s t ho rough d i scu s s ion a bou t t e chno log ica l d eve lopm en t s , c u l tu r a l e vo lu t ion a nd a s s im i la t ion o f h un te r f o rage r si n to t h eH indu c a s te s o c ie ty . V -117 : M i s ra , V .N . a nd R .K . Mohan ty 2 002 . A R a re C ha lco l i th ic P o t te ry C ach e f r om B a la tha l , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 6 (2 ) : 6 7 -74 . Du r ing t h e e xcava t ion s a t B a la tha l ( Uda ipu r d i s t r ic t , R a ja s than ) as e t o f p o t s w a s u nea r thed f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic c on tex t . T h i s s e t h ad s even p o t s : t h r ee p a in ted B lack -and -Red w a r eb ow l s , t wo m ed ium -s ized p o t s , a nd o ne s m a l l G r ey w a r e p o t . O ne o f t h e m ed ium s ized p o t s c on ta ined a l a rge q uan t i ty o fs t ea t i te d i sc b ead s ,a nd J ob ' st e a r s( Co ix l a chrymajob i )o rt h e s e ed so fc o ix . A l lt h e s i xp o t s w e r e c a r efu l ly k ep t i n s id e al a rge G r ey w a r e j a r a nd p l aced n ea r a f i r ep lace . A t o ta l o f 3 0 r ad ioca rbon d a te s a r e a va i lab le t o d a te t h e C ha lco l i th ic d epo s i t . T he d a te s r a nge f r om 3 700 t o 1 800 BC ( c a l ib ra ted ) a nd t h e d a te o ft h e l a rge j a r f ound n ea r af i r ep lace i t se lf i s 2 880 -2462 BC ( c a l ib ra ted ) .

V -120 : M i s ra , V .N . 2 005 . A rchaeo logy o fP ak i s tan a nd No r th a nd C en t ra l I nd ia d u r ing F ou r th -F i r s t M i l lenn ia BC a nd I t s B ea r ing o n t h e D i spe r sa l o f I ndo -A ryan s , i n A D i scour se o n I ndo -European L anguage s a nd C u l ture ( D .N . T r ipa th i E d . ) , p p . 1 75 -189 .N ew D e lh i : I CHR . O f t h e s eve ra l l i ngu i s t ic a nd c u l tu ra l s t r eam s , wh ich h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h e f o rm a t ion o fI nd ian s oc ie ty a nd c u l tu r e , t h e A ryan s t r eam i sw i thou t d oub t t h e d om inan t o ne . A bou t 7 3 p e r c en t o f I nd ian p opu la t ion s peak s I ndo -A ryan l a nguage s . T he e a r l ie s t f o rm o fA ryan c u l tu r e i sr e p r e sen ted i n t h e R igveda , w h ich i st h e o ldes t d ocum en t o ft h e e n t i r e h umank ind . T he o r ig ina l h om e o ft h e I ndo A ryan s w i th in I nd ian S ubcon t inen t c an b e i d en t if i ed b a sed o n r i ve r s m en t ioned i n t h e R igveda . I ti sc l ea rt h a tt h e a u tho r so ft h eH a rappan c i v i l i sa t ion a nd R igved ic A ryan s c am e i n to c on tac t w i th e ach o t he ro nt h eb ank s o fr i ve rS a r a swa t i a nd t h e t wo c u l tu re s i n f luenced e ach o t h e r . S eve ra l c u l tu re s f l ou r i shed i n P ak is tan a nd n o r thwe s te rn I nd ia b e tween t h e f ou r th a nd f i r s t m i l lenn ium BC s uch a s t h e G andha ra G rave c u l tu r e , t h e L a te H a r appan c u l tu r e , OCP c u l tu r e , PG W c u l tu re , Aha r /Bana s c u l tu r e , C em e te ry ' H ' c u l tu r e , a nd Ma lwa c u l tu r e . T h e a u tho r h a s e va lua ted t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence a nd c onc lud ed t h a t a l l t h ese C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e s a ppea r t o b e long t o I ndo -A ryan l a nguage s peake r s . P e rhap s t h e se p eop le e n te r ed I nd ia a s d i f f e r en t g roup s w i th t h e i r d i s t inc t ive c u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion sa td i f f e r en tt im es o ve r al o ng p e r iod o f4 000 t o1 500 BC

K 118 : K anungo ,A .K . a nd V .N . M is ra 2 003 -2004 . E xcava t ion a t K op ia : A P r e l im ina ry R epor t , P ura ta t t va 3 4 : 16 -126 . T h i s a r t ic le d e sc r ibe s p r e l im ina ry f i nd ing s o f t h e e xcava t ion c ondu c ted a tt h e s i t e o fK op ia ( 26 ° 5 2 ' N ; 8 3° 0 4 ' 5 0 " E ) i n S an t K ab i r N aga r d i s t r ic t o f U t ta r P radesh . I t c on ta in s v a r iou s s e c t ion s d e sc r ib ing o b serva t ion sm ade b yo the rs cho la r s :t h e g eomo rph ic o b serva t ion s ( S .G . D eo a nd S .G ha te ) , p o t te ry ( V . S h inde a nd o the r s ) , s t ruc tu r e s , a n ima l b one s ( P .P . J og leka r ) , t e r raco t ta f i gu r ine s ( M .K . D hava l ika r ) , c o in s ( S . An sa r i ) , s e a l s a nd s t amps , b ead s , s t one o b jec t s , c ru c ib le s , a nd g l a s s o b jec t s . S t r a t ig raphy a nd c h rono logy a r e n o t c onc lu s ive , b u t t h e s i te s e em s t od a te b e tw een t h e 6 t h c en tu ry BC a nd S unga -Ku shana p e r iod . V 119 : M is ra , V .N . 2 004 . C on t r ibu t ion o f A n th ropo logy a nd A rchaeo logy t o Unde r s tand ing t h e E vo lu t ion o f I nd ian S oc ie ty , T he E as ter n A n thropo log i s t5 7 (1) : 1 -2 7 .

5 9

SECTION I I ndex t op lace s ,s i te s ,c o -au t hor sa nd s ub jec t s 1 6R ( s i t eo f ) V 103 V -00 1 A bbev i l lean A ccu l tu ra t ion V -079 A cheu l ian V -027 , V -034 , V -037 , V 0 38 , V -039 , V -046 , V -049 , G -050 , V -054 , G -056 , V 0 57 , V -058 , G -06 1 , V -062 , V -063 , V -064 , V -066 , V 0 67 , V -069 , V -072 , V -081 , D -082 , V -083 , V -090 , V 0 98 ,V 107 ,V 111 ,V 112 Adamga rh V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 A eo l ian e ven t s W-052 Ag rawa lD .P . V -038 , V -039 , A -040 , A 0 4 1 ,A -051 , W-052 ,V 107 Ag r icu l tu re ,o r ig in o f V -053 ,V 104 Aha r V -071 Aha rc u l tu r e V -0 12 , V -0 14 , V -074 , V 0 74 , V -094 , V 10 1 , V -105 , V 106 ,V 117 ,V 120 A jme rd i s t r ic t V -006 ,V -035 A lam M .S . A -092 Ama rpu ra V 107 ,G -056 Ama rpu ra F o rma t ion V -038 ,V -098 A nangwad i V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 A ndh ra P rade sh V -083 A n t iqu i t ie s ,o fB a la tha l V 106 A r chaeo log ica le xped i t ion V -A r chaeo logy a nd E du ca t ion V -026 A r ch i tec tu re a tB a la tha l V 105 ,V 106 A r re t ine Wa re V 110 A r rowhead s V -0 13 A shmound s V -024 A s s im i la t ion o ft r ibe s V 108 B ago r V -0 11 , v -0 13 , V -0 14 , v 0 15 , V -0 18 , V -020 , V -023 , V -045 , V -047 , V -048 , V 0 74 B ago r Wa re V -023 B ag r i s V -077 B a la tha l V 10 1 , V 105 , v 106 , v 17 V -053 B a lu ch i s tan V -071 ,v 120 B ana sc u l tu re B ao r i s V -077 B ead s V -0 18 V -027 , v -033 , V -034 , V B h imbe tka 0 36 , V -037 ,V -043 , K -043 , v -046 , v -054 , v -057 , v 0 75 ,A -092 ,V 115 B io -cu l tu ra ld ive r s i ty V 119 B io log ica la n th ropo logy V 115 ,V 116 B io log ica lr ema in s V -024 B udha P u shka r K -044 B u l lf i gu r ine s V -094 B u r ia lp ra c t ice s V 114 C a s te s y s tem V 108 C eme te ry H c u l tu r e V 120

C en t ra l I nd ia

C e ram ic s C ha lco l i th ic /B ronze A ge

C hha jo l i C h i rk i -Neva sa C h rono logy C la s s if i ca t ion C l ima t ec hange C o ix s e ed s C on se rva t ion C oppe ro b jec t s C r im ina lt r ibe s C u l tu ra la dap ta t ion s D a la l , Ku ru sh D a ta b ank s D a t ing

D a t ta P .S . D en ta l Mu t i la t ion s D e se r t e co sy s tem D e se r t v e r teb ra te s D han su ra D h i rR .P . D idwana

Dune lake c o r re la t ion E a r ly H i s to r ic E a r ly S t one Age E a r ly V i l lage C ommun i t ie s E a s t er nG ha t s E a s t er nR a jpu tana E co log ica la dap ta t ion s E co logy E nv i ronmen t E nv i ronmen ta lp l ann ing E nv i ronmen ta lr e sea r ch E thnoa r chaeo logy

E thnog raphy

6 0

V -0 17 , V -030 , V -033 , V 0 36 ,V -037 , V -042 ,V -046 , V -057 , V -063 , V -075 , V 0 85 ,V -088 ,V -089 ,N -093 , N -097 ,V 104 V -07 1 ,V -105 V -0 12 , V -0 14 , V -0 17 , V 0 24 ,V -031 , V -032 ,V -036 , V -07 1 , V -074 , V -075 , V 0 94 ,V 10 1 ,V 104 ,V 105 , V 106 , V 110 , V 112 , V 17 ,V -119 V -039 V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 V -039 , V -075 , V 105 , V 12 V -003 A -04 1 V 117 V -033 V -0 13 ,V -0 18 N -093 V -028 ,V -095 ,V 119 V 10 1 A -051 V -007 , V -0 12 , V -0 16 , V 0 2 1 , V -022 , V 102 , V 114 , V 116 V -039 ,A -040 K -043 V -072 V -065 V -080 A -04 1 , W-052 V -038 , V -049 , G -056 , V 0 58 ,H -060 , G -06 1 ,V -062 , V -064 , V -066 , V -067 , H 0 68 , V -072 , V -08 1 ,D -082 , V -083 , V -086 , V -098 , V 1 03 ,V 107 W-052 V 105 , V 106 , V 110 , K 18 V -0 10 V -0 12 V -063 V -00 1 ,V -005 V -028 V -069 A -051 A -051 A -051 V -024 , V -025 , V -077 , V 0 79 , V -086 , N -087 ,N -093 , V -095 , N -097 , V 108 , N 1 09 ,V 119 V -057

F auna l R ema in s F ood p roduc t ion F o s s i le v iden ce F o s s i lf a una G a i l la rd C . G andha ra G rave c u l tu r e G anga p l a in s G an joo R .K . G eoa r cha eo logy G eomo rpho logy G i lund G ov indga rh G rav eg ood s /Of f e r ing s G u ja ra t

G up ta S .K . G u rava ra jupa l l i H af t ing H andaxe s H a rappan a r tef a c t s H a rappan e conomy H a rappan s c r ip t H a rappan t r ade H a ryana H is to r ic p e r iod H i s to ry a nd A r cha eo logy H is to ry o fr o ck a r t R e sea r ch H o lo cene

H uman a dap ta t ion s

H uman b u r ia l s /r ema in s

H uman e vo lu t ion H uman s e t t lemen t s H un sg i H un te r -ga the re r s

H u sa in Z . I ndo -A ryan s I ndo -A ryan l a nguag e s I ndo -Eu ropean l a nguage s I ndo la k iD han i I ndu s /Ha rappan c i v i l i sa t ion

V -0 16 , V -0 18 , V -022 , 0 65 V -032 V 104 V -059 ,V -085 V -049 , G -050 , G -056 , 0 6 1 ,V -083 V 120 V -079 , N -087 , N -097 , 1 09 V -088 ,V -089 V -088 ,V -089 W-052 V -07 1 V -006 V -0 18 V -02 1 , V -028 , V -032 , 0 48 , W -052 , H -060 , 0 63 ,V -072 , V -080 A -051 V -083 V -025 G -06 1 ,V -083 V -0 13 V -09 1 V -09 1 V -09 1 V -032 V -036 ,V -075 V -009 ,V -026

I ndu sc i v i l i sa t ion , d ec l ine o f I ndu sc i v i l i sa t ion , o r ig in o f I ndu sc i v i l i sa t ion , r e v iew o f I r on A ge

V -

G -

N -

J a ipu rd i s t r ic t J aya l

K ame swa ra R ao K . K an ja r s K anungo A .K . K a rna taka K a shm i r K ha rakwa lJ e evan K op ia K o r i se t ta rR . K o ta K r i shnamu r thy R .V . K u l iana L a l i tpu r L anghna j L a te H a rappan c u l tu r e L a te G lac ia l Max imum L a te Q ua ter na ry L a te S tone A ge L eva l lo i st e chn ique L ingu i s t ic d a ta L i tho s t ra t ig raphy L owe rP a laeo l i th ic

V V -

V -078 V -028 , V -030 , W-052 , V 0 55 , V -058 , V -059 , V -062 , V -066 , V -069 , V -073 , V 0 76 , V -072 ,V -081 ,V -099 V -030 , V -032 , V -055 , V 0 58 , V -059 , V -062 , V -063 , V -064 , V -065 , V -066 , V 0 69 , V -072 , V -073 , V -076 , V -08 1 , V -090 , V -095 , V 0 98 V -0 13 , K -043 , V -0 18 , V 0 19 , V -022 , V -047 , V -09 1 , V 115 V -0 19 V -073 V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 V -077 , V -079 , V -086 , N 0 87 , N -093 , V -095 , N -097 , N 109 V -039 V 120 V 120 V 120 V 103

Madhya P rade sh

Mahadeo P ipa r ia Maha ra sh t ra Man land r e la t ion sh ip Ma rm i Ma te r ia lc u l tu r e Ma thpa lY . Mega l i th ic Me so l i th ic

V -024 , V -031 , V -053 , V 0 9 1 , V -096 , V 100 , V 110 , V 112 , V 113 , V 120

6 1

V -053 ,V -09 1 V -055 ,V -091 V -09 1 V -030 ,V -032 , V 10 1 , V 110 ,V 112 V -035 V -038 , V -039 , A -04 1 , V 0 64 , V -066 , V -098 , V 103 , V 107 W-052 N -087 ,V 108 K 118 V -027 , V -034 ,V -037 V -063 V 106 K 118 V -088 ,V -089 V -004 A -040 , A -04 1 V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 V -027 , V -034 ,V -037 V -02 1 ,V -045 ,H -060 V 120 W-052 W-052 V -0 11 , V -028 ,V -030 V 111 V 119 H -060 ,V -064 V -004 , V -006 , V -008 , V 0 19 , V -024 , V -027 , V -031 , V -034 , V -037 , V -038 , V 0 39 , V -046 , G -050 , V -054 , G -056 , G -06 1 , V -062 , V -063 , V -066 , V -069 , V 0 76 , D -082 , V -085 , A -092 , V 103 , V 104 , V -098 , V 1 07 ,V 111 , V 112 ,V 119 V -0 17 , V -027 , V -028 , V -034 , V -037 , K -042 , V 0 7 1 , V -085 , V -088 , V -089 , N -093 ,V 115 V -027 , V -034 ,V -037 V -027 , V -034 , V -037 , N 0 93 V -049 , W-052 V -096 V -070 ,V -07 1 V -036 V -024 V -004 , V -007 , V -008 , V 0 13 , V -0 14 , V -0 15 , V -0 16 , V -0 18 , V -020 , V -02 1 , V 0 22 , V -023 , V -024 , V -025 , V -028 , V -030 , V -031 , V 0 32 , V -035 , V -036 , K -043 , V -046 , V -054 , V -057 , V -

Me so l i th ic a r t Me so l i th ic p o t te ry Me thodo logy Me t r ica la na ly s i s Mewa r M ic ro l i th ic i ndu s t ry M ic ro l i th ic t e chno logy M ic ro l i th s

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic

M idd le P le i s tocene M idd le S tone Age M i sh ra A nup Mohan ty R .K . Mu r ty M .L .K . N aga r Ma l t i N agau rd i s t r ic t N anda S .C . N a rmada V a l ley N a t iona lg r id N avda to l i NBP Wa re N eogene N eo l i th ic N ine teen th c en tu ry Nomad i sm No r th I nd ia No r thwe s tI nd ia OCP O r i s sa P a in ted G r ey Wa re P a in t ing s t y le s P ak i s tan P a laeo c l ima te

P a laeoeco logy

0 58 , V -062 , V -069 , V -070 , V -074 , V -075 , V -076 , V 0 80 , V -081 , V -090 , V -098 , V -099 , V 102 , V 104 , V 11 , V 112 , V - 15 , V 16 ,V 119 V -055 ,V 102 V -007 ,V -022 V -003 V -0 17 , V -046 , G -06 1 , V 0 83 ,A -092 V -071 V -045 V 102 V -004 , V -007 , V -008 , V 0 11 ,V -0 15 , V -0 16 , V -0 18 , V -020 , V -021 , V -030 , V 0 55 , V -070 , V 102 , V 114 , V 116 V -004 , V -008 , V -0 19 , V 0 24 ,V -031 , V -032 , V -046 , V -054 , V -063 , V -069 , V 0 76 ,V -083 , V -084 , V -088 , A -092 , V -098 , V 104 , V 11 ,V 112 ,V 119 V -067 ,V -072 V -0 10 V 10 1 V -094 , V 10 1 , V 106 , V 17 V -059 ,V -083 V -031 , V -079 , N -087 , N 0 93 ,N -097 ,V 108 ,N -109 V -038 , V -039 , A -04 1 , V 1 03 ,V 107 A -04 1 V -088 ,V -089 A -051 V -0 17 V 110 V -081 ,V 103 V -024 , V -025 , V 104 , V 10 ,V 112 ,V 119 V -079 V -095 V 108 V -053 V -024 ,V 120 V -027 ,V -034 ,V -037 V -024 , V -053 , V 110 , V 1 20 V -036 ,V -075 W-052 ,V -053 V -021 , V -028 , V -029 , V 0 32 , V -035 , A -040 , K -044 , V -049 , W-052 , V -053 , V 0 55 ,H -060 , V -062 , V -066 , V -067 , V -072 , V -073 , V 0 76 ,V -08 1 V -021

P a la eoenv i ronmen t

P a la eo l i th ic c u l tu re s P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t ry P a lyno logy P andey L a l i t P andya S uman P an tR .K . P a r a sha rV .G . P a rdh i s P avaga rh P edogen ic C a rbona t e s P edo logy P l e i s to cene

P o t t e ry P r eh i s to r ic a r t P ub l ic A r chaeo logy Q uan t i ta t ive d a ta Q ua r tz c r y s ta l s Q ua te rna ry

Q ua te rna ry F o rma t ion s Q ua te rna ry g eo logy R ad iome t r ic d a t ing

R aghavan H . R a i sen d i s t r ic t R a jagu ru S .N

R a ja D .R . R awa tbha ta R e la t ive c h rono logy R ev iew

R ev iew /Commen t s R ive rB ana s

R iv e rB e ra ch R ive rC hamba l R ive rG hagga r -Ha l c ra

6 2

V -029 , V -037 , V -038 , V 0 39 , V -048 , V -053 , V -058 , V -059 , V -064 , V -066 , V 0 69 , V -076 , V -084 , V -085 , V -09 1 , V -098 , V -099 , V 1 02 , V 103 , V 107 ,V 112 , V 114 ,V 116 V -0 19 V -00 1 V -029 V -094 ,V 10 1 ,V 106 V -080 A -05 1 H -060 N -093 V -021 K -044 V -029 V -055 , V -059 , H -060 , G 0 6 1 , V -062 , V -066 ,V -069 , V -073 , V -076 , V -081 , V 0 84 ,V -099 ,V 103 V -007 , V -0 18 , V -022 , V 0 23 ,V 110 ,V 117 V -024 ,V -042 V -026 V -054 ,A -092 D -082 ,A -04 1 V -049 , V -055 , V -058 , V 0 66 , V -069 , V -076 , V 0 8 1 ,V -098 A -040 ,V -048 V -062 ,V -099 K -044 , W-052 , V -067 , H -068 , V -070 , V 0 85 , V -099 , V 105 , V 106 , V 117 V -049 , G -056 , H -060 , H 0 68 K -043 V -038 , V -039 , A -040 , A 0 4 1 , V -049 , G -050 , G -056 , H -060 , G -06 1 , H -068 , V 0 81 , V -088 , V -089 ,V 103 , V 107 V -049 , G -050 , G -056 , H 0 60 ,G -06 1 V -004 V -07 1 ,V -078 V -070 , V -07 1 , V -072 , V 0 73 , V -078 , V -085 ,V 112 , V 114 ,V 102 ,V 116 V -007 ,V -024 V -00 1 , V -005 , V -0 12 , V 0 15 ,V -022 , V -047 , V -074 , V -094 V -005 ,V -008 ,V -094 V -004 V -053 , V -096 , V 100 , V 13 ,V 120

R ive rK o tha r i R ive rL un i

R ive rS aga rma t i R ive rS a ra swa t i R ive rS u t le j R ive rY amuna R ock a r t R ock she l te r

R ou le t t ed Wa re S EM s t ud ie s S amnapu r S and d une

S and d une mo rpho logy S a t e l l i te i mage ry S chedu led C a s te s S chedu led T r ibe s S ed en t ism S em i -a r id Z one S e t t lemen tp a t t er n S h inde V .S . S idh id i s t r ic t S ign if icance o fr o ck a r t S i nd S i ngh G u rd ip S i nghv iA .K . S i ng iT a lav S i t ed i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n S iwa l ik H i l l s S ohan ian S on V a l ley S ou th A s ia , c o lon i sa t ion o f S ou th A s ian P reh i s to ry

S ou th R a ja s than S tone A ge S tone o b jec t s S ub s i s tence p a t te rn

V -0 14 , V -0 15 , V -0 16 , V 0 20 ,V -047 ,V -074 V -002 , V -0 14 , V -0 15 , V 0 16 , V -0 18 , V -029 , V -035 , V -045 V -006 V -006 ,V -035 V -053 , V -096 , V 100 , V 13 V -053 , V -096 , V 100 , V 13 V -033 , V -036 , V -042 , V 0 57 ,V -075 ,V -078 V -027 , V -033 , V -034 , V 0 36 , V -037 , V -042 , K -043 , V -046 , V -054 , V -057 , V 0 75 ,V -078 ,A -092 ,V 115 V 110 D -082 ,A -04 1 V -088 ,V -089 V -0 15 , V -0 16 , V -0 18 , V 0 20 , V -02 1 , V -022 , V -023 , V -029 , V -035 , V -038 , V 0 39 , A -040 , K -044 , W0 52 , H -060 , V -064 , V -080 , V 103 ,V 107 W-052 W-052 V 119 V -077 , V -079 , V -086 , N 0 87 ,N -093 ,N 109 ,V 119 V -070 V -038 V -052 , V -09 1 , V -095 , N 0 97 ,V 10 1 ,V 109 ,V 112 V -094 ,V 10 1 ,V 106 V -085 V -078 V -053 V -038 ,V 107 W -052 V -038 , G -050 , G -056 , D -082 ,V 103 ,V 107 V -096 ,V 100 ,V 113 V -063 V -069 ,V 112 V -063 ,V -085

T an Wa r e T andon S .K . T echno logy T e rm ino logy T e r ra co t ta b ead s T e r ra co t ta f i gu r ine s T e r t ia ry T ha rD e se r t

T homa sP .K . T i lwa ra T oo l u se T r iba l s oc ie ty T r ibe -ca s te i n te r ac t ion U da ipu rd i s t r ic t Um re th i U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic

U ppe rP l e i s tocene U t ta rP rade sh

V an V ag r i s V ed ic S a ra sva t i V edu l lacheruvu V e r teb ra te r ema in s V o ra A .B . Wa s son R . J . We s te rn I nd ia We s ter nR a ja s than We s ter nR a jpu tana Wo r ld P reh i s to ry

V 111 V -009 , V -0 10 , V -024 , V 0 29 ,V -036 ,V -009 , V -024

6 3

V -0 14 V -073 ,V -084 ,V 112 V -0 17 V 102 , V 112 , V I05 , V 14 ,V 116 V -07 1 A -051 V 112 ,V 114 V -002 , V -003 ,V -009 V 117 V -094 V -076 V -038 , V -039 , K -044 , V 0 48 , V -049 , G -050 , W0 52 , G -056 , V -058 , H -060 , V -062 , V -063 , V -064 , V 0 65 , V -066 , V -067 , H -068 , V -072 , V -076 , V -08 1 , D 0 82 , V -090 , V -095 , V -099 , V 103 ,V -098 ,V 107 V -039 , A -040 V -0 11 , V -0 15 , V -0 16 , V 0 21 ,V -047 ,V -048 V -027 V 108 V 108 V -005 , V 10 1 , V 105 , V 1 06 ,V 117 V -048 V -0 19 , V -024 , V -032 , V 0 46 , V -054 , V -059 , V -069 , V -085 , A -092 , V -098 , V 11 ,V 112 , V 119 V -072 , V -076 V -037 , V -027 , V -028 , V 0 34 , V -079 , N -087 , N -097 , N - 1 09 ,K 118 V -077 , V -086 V -096 , V 100 , V 113 , V 1 20 V -083 V -065 A -051 V -038 , W-052 ,V 107 V -030 , V -048 , V -063 , N 0 93 V -006 , V -039 V -002 V -025

SECTION II L i s to fo ther c on tr ibu t ions b y P rof . V .N . M i sra

M i s ra , V .N . 1 976 . Me so l i th ic H ab i ta t ion P a t t e rn s i n We s ter n a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , A b s t rac t s o f t h e I X I n t erna t iona l C ong re s s o fP reh i s to r ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic S c ience s ,N ice . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976 . R o le o fF ood -ga th e r ing i nt h e T r iba l E conomy o fB h imbe tka R eg ion , C en t ra l I nd ia ,A b s t rac t s o ft h e S econd A nnua l C onf e rence o fE thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l ture S oc ie ty . L ucknow . M i s ra ,V .N . 1 976 .B a rkhe ra - An O pen -a i rA cheu l ian S i te i n C en t ra l I nd ia , A b s t rac t s o f t h e S econd A nnua l C onf e rence o fE thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l ture S oc ie ty . L u cknow . M i s ra , V .N . 1 977 . T he M ic ro l i th ic I ndu s t ry o f R ock S h e l te rI IF -23 a tB h imbe tka ,C en t ra lI nd ia ,A b s t rac t so f t h e T h i rd A nnua l C onf erence o fE thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tur eS oc ie ty ,L u cknow . M i s ra , V .N . 1 977 . T r iba l A r t o f C en t ra l I nd ia a nd i t s A ff in i t ie s w i th P reh i s to r ic C ave A r t , A b s t rac t s o f t h e T h i rd A nnua l C onf e rence o f E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l ture S oc ie ty ,L u cknow . M i s ra , V .N . 1 992 . C h rono logy , P a laeoenv i ronmen t a nd G eoa r chaeo logy o f aF o s s i l D une ( 16R ) , D idwana , R a ja s than , i nI n terna t iona l S ympo s ium o n E vo lu t ion o f D e ser t s -A b s trac t s( V .S . K i shan K uma r ,R . R ame sh a nd A .K . S i nghv i E d s . ) , p p . 2 00 -202 . A hmedabad : P hy s ica l R e sea r ch L abo ra to ry .

I IA .B ook s M i s ra , V .N . a nd M .S . Ma te ( Ed s . ) 1 965 . I nd ian P reh i s tory : 1 964 . P oona : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . 1 967 . P re a nd P ro to -h i s tory o ft h e B erach B a s in , S ou th R a ja s than . P une : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . , Y . Ma thpa l a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 977 . P reh i s tor ic Man a nd H i s A r t a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia . P une : S aka lP re s s . L ukac s , J .R . , V .N . M i s ra a nd KA .R . K ennedy 1 982 . B agor a nd T i lwara : L a te Me so l i th ic C u l ture s o f N or thwe s t I nd ia . V o l . I :T he Human S ke l e ta l R ema ins . P une : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . a nd P e te r B e l lwood ( Ed s . ) 1 985 . R ecen t A dvance si nI ndo -Pac if i cP reh i s tory . D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . M i s ra , V .N . ( Ed . ) 1 992 . I ndu s C iv i l i za t ion , aS pec ia l N umbe r o f t h e E a s t ern A n thropo log i s t . L u cknow : E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu re S oc ie ty . M i s ra , V .N . ( T ran s la t ed i n to Ma ra th i b y P .P . J og leka r ) 2 00 1 . V i shnu S hr idhar W akankar . P une : B ha ra t iya I t iha s S anka lana S am i t i . K ennedy ,K .A .R . ,J .R . L ukac sa nd V .N . M i s ra 2 002 . T he B io log ica l A n thropo lo gy o f Human S k e le ta l R ema ins f rom B h imbe tka , C en t ra lI nd ia . P une : I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P r eh i s to r ic a nd Qua ter n a ry S tud ie s . M i s ra , V .N . a nd M .D . K a ja le ( Ed s . ) 2 003 . P reh i s tor ic C on tac t s b e tween S ou th A s ia a nd Af r ica : D i sper sa l o f Af r ican C u l t ivar s a l ong t h e N or th I nd ian S ea B oard . P une : I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P r eh i s to r ic a nd Q ua te rna ry S tud ie s .

H ID .R esearch p aper si nH ind i M i s ra , V .N . 1 969 . U t ta r P a shanka l in B ago r a u r R a ja s than k e P rag i th iha s men u ska S than , A nve shna 1 ( 3 ) : 1 73 184 . M i s ra ,V .N . 1 97 1 . B ago r men U tkhanan k aT r i t iya V a r sh a u r u sk e dwa ra Mewad k e I t iha s p a r N aya P raka sh , Ma j jham ika 1 :2 3 -54 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 973 . R a ja s than k i P raga i t iha s ik P ra s thabhum i , Manav 1 :6 4 -92 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 977 . Manav n e A gn i k a U pyog k ab S ikha , Manav 5 ( 1) : 1 8 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 978 . B h imbe tka , Madhya P rad e sh m en P a shanka leen Manav , Manav 6 ( 3 ) : 1 511 63 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma l t i N aga r 1 978 . P rag i t iha s : P a r ibha sha , V i shayava s tu e vam A dhyayan V idh i , Manav 7 ( 1) : 5 9 -74 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 995 . S indhu S abhya ta p a r N av in tam S hodhka rya , i n B ha ta t_men Manav V igyan ( A .R .N . S r iva s tava E d . ) ,A l lahabad : G yand eep P raka shan .

UM .R e search p aper si nE ng l i sh M i s ra , V .N . 1 970 . E xcava t ion i n R a ja s than , T he Q uar te r ly J ourna lo ft h e My th ic S oc ie ty 5 8 ( 1-4 ) : 9 16 . Ag rawa l , D .P . , R .V . K r i shnamu r thy , R .P . D h i r , V .N . M i s ra a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 980c . Q ua te rna ry S tud ie s i n R a ja s than -P r e l im ina ry R e su l t s , R ecen t R e sear che s i n G eo logy 9 :1 86 189 D e lh i . M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 984 . E vo lu t ion o f E nv i ronmen t a nd Human S e t t lemen t i nt h e T ha r D e se r t , I nd ia : A R ev iew o f t h e E v id en ce , P roceed ing s o ft h e I ndo -US W ork shop o n t h eA r id Z one R e search ,p p . 1 17 . J odhpu r : C en t ra lA r id Z one R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te M i s ra , V .N . 1 996 . L o s t S a ra swa t i : t h e C rad le o f H a rappan C iv i l iza t ion , Man than 1 5 (4 ) 16 ( 1) : 9 8 116 . MR .S hor tc o mmun ica t ion s M i s ra , V .N . 1 965 . R e sume o ft h ep ape r s a nd d i scu s s ion s a t t h e S em ina r o n I nd ian P reh i s to ry h e ld a t D eccan C o l lege , P oona i n 1 964 , C ur r en t A n thropo logy 6 ( 3 ) : 3 30 -331 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 969 . N ew L igh t o n t h e L a te S tone A ge i n R a ja s than , P roceed ing s o f t h e 5 6 th I nd ian S c ience C ong re s s ,P a r tI I ,A b s t rac t s ,p p . 5 53 , C a lcu t ta . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976 . A cheu l ian C u l tu re i n I nd ia i n t h e L igh t o f N ew D i scove r ie s , A b s t rac t s o f t h e X I I n te rna t iona l C ong re s s o fP reh i s tor ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic S c ience s ,N ice .

H IE .P opu lar a r t ic le si nE ng l i sh M i s r a , V .N . 1 969 . F rom S tone t o Me ta l , T he T ime s o f I nd ia , S unday , 2S ep tembe r . M i s r a , V .N . 1 973 . T he S to ry o fF i re , T he T ime so fI nd ia , S unday , 1 F ebrua ry . M i s ra , V .N . 1 973 . L if e i n I nd ia a Hund r ed T hou sand Y ea r sA go ,S unday S tandard Magaz ine , 1 6S ep tembe r . M i s ra , V .N . 1 973 . A r t i n P reh i s tor ic I nd ia , S unday S tandard Magaz ine ,2 3 S ep tembe r . M i s r a , V .N . 1 988 . T he N omad s o ft h e D e se r t , t h e V an V ag r i s , T he I nd ia Magaz ine 8 (4 ) :4 6 -51 .

6 4

M i s ra , V .N . 2 002 . T emp le s o ft h e K a lachur i P er iod , b y Ame rand ra Kuma r S i ngh , D e lh i : P ra t ibha P raka shan , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t2 7 (2 ) : 1 27 128 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 002 . G od -Ape s a nd F o s s i l Men : P a l eoan thropo lg y i n S ou th A s ia , b y K enne th A .R K ennedy . A nn A rbo r : M ich igan U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 7 (2 ) : 1 29 139 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 003 . AR e -exam ina t ion o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo log ica l R ecord o fN or thern T am i l N adu , S ou th I nd ia , b y S han t i P appu , O xf o rd : BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 8 ( 1) : 1 03 105 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 004 . T he A rchaeo logy o fM idd le G anga P la in :N ew P e r spec t ive s , b yP r ru sho t tam S ingh a nd A .K . S i ngh , S h im la a nd N ew D e lh i : IAS a nd A ryan B ook s I n te rna t iona l , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 9 (2 ) : 1 26 127 .

M is ra , V .N . 1 995 . AM i s s ing L ink : T ra ce so fN ew -f ound I ndu sC u l tu re i nR a ja s than ,F ron t l ine 1 2 ( 14 ) : 6 5 -73 . H IP .P opu lar a r t ic le si nH ind i M is ra , V .N . 1 970 . R a ja s than -P a shan K a i s e L oh K a i T ak ,D harmayug , 2 8J une . M is ra , V .N . 1 970 . R a ja s than -P a shan K a i s e L oh K a i T ak ,D harmayug , 5J u ly . M is ra , V .N . 1 970 . R a ja s than -P a shan K a i s e L oh K a i T ak ,D harmayug , 1 2J u ly . M is ra , V .N . 1 972 . P aanch H a ja r S aa l s e P ya s i D ha r t i , D harmayug , 1 J une . M is ra , V .N . 1 973 . B h imbe tka k iG uphaon k e R aha shya , D harmayug , 2 2 May . M is ra , V .N . 1 973 . P raga i t iha s ik Manav k a A va s B h imba i thka ,D inman , 2S ep tembe r .

I I I . Ob i tuar ie sa nd r em in i scence s M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . V i shnu S h r idha r Wakanka r ( 19 19 1 988 ) , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 3 : 1 0 1103 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . H a smukh D h i ra j la l S anka l ia ( 1908 1 989 ) : AK a rmayog i , E a s tern A n thropo log i s t4 2 ( 1) : 7 9 1 25 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . H a smukh D h i ra j la l S anka l ia ( 1908 1 989 ) -aT r ibu t eI nd ian B ook C hron ic le 1 4 (6 ) : 1 28 130 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . H a smukh D h i ra j la l S anka l ia : S cho la r a nd Man , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 4 (2 ) : 1 4 1 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 99 1 . H a smukh D h i ra j la l S anka l ia ( 1908 1 9890 A s ian P er spec t ive s3 0 (2 ) : 1 7 1175 . M i s ra ,V .N . 1 993 . K r i shna D u t tB a jpa i ( 19 17 1992 ) Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 8 (2 ) : 1 57 -59 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 993 . P rof e s so rS .M . K a t re a s Ik new h im i n t h eD eccan C o l lege ,B u l le t in o ft h eD eccan C o l lege P o s t G radua t e &R e search I n s t i tu t e5 1 -52 : 3 1-38 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 993 . G eo rge F rank l in D a le s , J r . ( 1927 1 992 ) Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 8 (2 ) : 1 6 1-64 . M i s ra , V .N . ( w i th K . P addayya ) 1 996 . S i r G rahame C la rk ( 1907 1995 ) Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 2 1( 1) : 1 2 11 25 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 997 . S ha sh i P rabha A s thana ( 1947 1997 ) Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 2 (2 ) : 1 1113 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1 . K r i shna D eva ( 1914 -200 1) Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 6 (2 ) : 1 33 134 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 002 . B inde shwa r i P ra sad S inha ( 19 17 2 002 ) , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 7 (2 ) : 1 2 1122 . M i s ra , V .N . ( w i th K . P addayya ) 2 003 . P rof . J .D e smond C la rk ( 19 16 -2002 ) a nd B e t ty C la rk ( d . 2 002 ) , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t2 8 ( 1) : 1 07 112 .

H IG .P opu lar a r t ic le i n Mara th i M is ra , V .N . , V a san t S h inde a nd R .K . Mohan ty 1995 . Mewadch i P ra ch in S an sk ru t i , S aka l , S unday , 1 7 S ep tembe r . H ILL B ook r ev iew s M i s ra , V .N . 1 963 . A pp l ica t ions o fQ uan t i ta t ive m e thod s i nA rchaeo logy b y R .F . H e ize r a nd S .F . C ook , E a s t ern A n thropo log i s t 1 6 (2 ) : 1 53 156 . M is ra , V .N . 1 963 . T he P reh i s to r ic B ackg round o fI nd ian C u l ture b y D .H . G o rdon , I n t erna t iona l J ourna l o f C ompara t ive S oc io logy 5 ( 1) : 4 4 -52 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 965 . A nc ien t I nd ia , N o s . 1 8 19 , E a s te rn A n thropo log i s t 1 8 ( 1) : 4 4 -52 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 97 1 . E a s ta nd W e s t ( New s e r ie s ) , V o l . 1 9 , N o s . 3 -4 ( 1969 ) ,P oona U n iver s i ty J ourna l( Human i t ie s ) 3 5 : 1 76 179 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 982 . P a laeoh i s to ry o f I nd ia b y V idu la J aya swa l ,H i s tory a nd A rchaeo log y , IA l lahabad . M i s ra , V .N . 1 982 . A r ta nd C u l ture o fT am i lN adu b y R . N aga swamy ,I nd ian B ook R ev iew 1 ( 3 -4 ) . M i s ra , V .N . 1 983 . T he N or th I nd ian P ea san t g oe s t o Mark e tb yL . S wa r tzbe rg ,B u l le t in o ft h eD eccan C o l l ege P o s t -G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu t e4 2 : 1 86 -87 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 984 . T he R i se o fC iv i l i za t ion i nI nd ia a nd P ak i s tan b y Ba nd F .R . A l lch in , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 8 :9 6 -98 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 987 . P reh i s to ry a nd P a laeoenv ironmen to f t h e S on V a l ley , b y G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk , L 'An thropo log ie 9 1(3 ) : 8 17 -822 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . R ura l L if e a nd F o lk C u l tur e i n A nc ien t I nd ia , b y U .N . R oy , V .D . M i s ra a nd J .N . P and ey , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 4 ( 1) : 1 39 140 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1 . T he V ed ic P eop l e : T he i rH i s to ry a nd G eog raphy , b y R a je sh K ocha r . B anga lo r e : O r ien t L ongman . Man a nd E nv i ronmen t2 6 ( 1) : 1 29 134 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1 . T he S ara sva t iF low so n t h e C on t inu i ty o fI nd ian C u l ture , b y B .B . L a l . D e lh i : A ryan B ook s I n t er na t iona l . Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 6 (2 ) : 1 23 126 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1 . R ock A r t i n O r i s sa , b y S ada sh iba P radhan . N ew D e lh i : A ryan B ook s I n ter na t iona l , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 6 (2 ) : 1 27 128 .

6 5

S i tua t ing V .N . Mi sra i nI nd ian A rchaeo logy : AH i s tor iograph ica lA ccoun t K isho rK . B a sa M i rzapu r wh ich h ad b o th ' p igmy s t ones ' i . e . m ic ro l i th s a nd e v idence o f r ock a r t . H oweve r , o n a r r iva l a t D eccan C o l lege i n 1 958 , S anka l ia s ugge s ted t oM is ra t h a tR a ja s than i st e r ra i n cogn i ta a s f a r a s p reh is tory i sc once r n ed a nd h ence M i s ra s hou ld t ake u p t h a t a r ea f o r h i s r e sea rch . M is ra a g r eed a nd c omp le ted h i s P h .D . i n 1 961 o n S t one Age C u l tu res o f R a jpu tana . H e w a s f o r as ho r t p e r iod al e c tu re ri nL ucknow Un ive r s i ty . H oweve r , a f te rt h e d em ise o f Ma jumda rh ej o ined t h eD eccan C o l lege a s af a cu l ty i n 1 962 a nd c on t inued t o r ema in i nD eccan c o l lege t i l l h i sr e t ir emen ti n2 000 a s D i r ec to r , e xcep t f o r ay ea r ( 1983 -84 ) when h e w a s a p rof esso r o f a n th ropo logy a t L ucknow Un ive r s i ty . H e a c ted i n v a r iou s c apac i t ies i n D eccan C o l lege , H ead o f t h e D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy , P oona Un ive r s i ty ( l oca ted a tD eccan c o l lege ) , J o in t D i rec to r a nd D i rec to r . I tw a s d u r ing h i s t im e t h a t D eccan C o l lege s t a r ted f unc t ion ing a s aD eemed Un ive r s i ty .

T he s t udy o f a r chaeo logy - a m ean s o f r e con s t ruc t ing t h e p a s t o n t h e b a s is o f ma ter ia l r ema in s -h a s b o th a n emp ir ica l a nd a t h eo re t ica l d imen s ion , a l though t h e t wo a r e i n te r re la ted . H is tor iog raphy i nvo lves a n a na ly s is o f t h e t r end s a nd t r a jec tor ies a d i sc ip l ine t akes i n b o th i t s emp ir ica l a nd t h eo re t ica l f i e ld s . S uch a s t udy o n t r end s a nd t r a jec tor ies c an b e made i n g ene ra l t e rm sb yt ak ing ap er iod u nde rr ev iew ( i . e . c o lon ia l o r p o s t -co lon ia l o r ac en tu ry e t c . ) ; i tc an b e d one a l so b y a na lyz ing t h e c on t r ibu t ion o fa n i nd iv idua l . R ecen t ly , empha s i s h a s b een p u t o n h i s tor iog raphy o f I nd ian a r chaeo log ica l w r i t ing s d u r ing c o lon ia l p er iod ( Chak rabar t i 1 988a , 1 997 ; B a sa 1 998 ) o ro n i nd iv idua l a r chaeo log is t s d u r ing c o lon ia l p er iod ( S ingh 2 004 ) . F o r t h e p os t -co lon ia l p er iod ( Chak raba r t i 2 003 ) g ene ra l s u rvey s h ave b een made i n r e la t ion t o a pp l ica t ion o f p roces sua l ( Paddayya 1 990 ; F u l le ra nd B o iv in 2 002 ) a nd p os t p rocessua l ( Bo iv in a nd F u l le r 2 002 ) a pp roaches i n I nd ian a r chaeo logy . H oweve r , e xcep t p e rhaps o n Whee le r a nd S anka l ia , n o t much s t res s h a s b een g iven o n e va lua t ing t h e w o rk s o f i nd iv idua l a r chaeo log is t s i n ah i s tor iog raph ica l s en se , u n les s o ne i n c ludes a n umber o f f e l ic i ta t ion v o lumes a s soc ia ted w i th ' v a lor iza t ion ' o f i nd iv idua l a r chaeo log is t s . And y e t s uch c r i t ica l s t ud ies o n i nd iv idua l a r chaeo log is t s a r e e s sen t ia l f o r u nde r s tand ing a nd a pp rec ia t ing t h e c omp lex a nd s ub t le a spec t s o f t h e d i sc ip l ine o f I nd ian a r chaeo logy . T he p resen t p ape r i s a modes t a nd h umb le a t temp t f i r s t ly t o r ev iew t h e w o rk o f P rof es so r V .N . M is ra who h as made s i gn if i can t c on t r ibu t ion t o I nd ian a r chaeo logy d u r ing t h e l a s t

Ma r r ied t o Mr s . T a ra M is ra i n 1 955 , M is ra h a s o ne s on a nd o ne d augh te r . H e h a s s eve ra l a cadem ic d i s t inc t ion s - Hom i B habha F e l low , L eve rhu lme V is i t ing F e l low a t ANU , C anbe r ra , S en io r F u lbr igh tF e l low a t UC , B e rke ley ,N a t iona lF e l low , I nd ian C ounc i l o fH is tor ica l R esea rch , e t c . H e w a s P re s iden t o f t h e I ndo -Pac if ic P reh is to ry A ssoc ia t ion a nd An th ropo logy a nd A r chaeo logy S ec t ion o f t h e I nd ian S c ience C ong re ss a nd S ec re ta ry G ene ra l o f t h e Wo r ld A r chaeo log ica l C ong re s s -3 ( De lh i 1 994 ) . H e h a s d e l ive red a n umbe r o f l e c tu res i n c lud ing t h e P a ramananda A cha rya C en tena ry L ec tu re a tU tka l Un ive r s i ty . H e i s af ound ing f a ther o f t h e I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is tor ic a nd Qua ter na ry S tud ie s a nd i se d i t ing i t s j our n a l Man a nd E nv ironmen t w h ich h a s b ecom e t h e mos t i mpor tan t I nd ian j our n a l i n a r chaeo logy . Af t e rh i s r e t i remen t , M is ra i sl i v ing i n P une a nd c on t inues t o p u r sue a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch .

f i ve d ecades a nd s e cond ly , t o s i tua te h im i n t h e c on tempo ra ry a r chaeo log ica lt r ad i t ion so fI nd ia . B r ief L if eH i s tory B orn o n 1 7 th Augu s t , 1 935 a nd s on o fR a jeshwa r D aya l a nd S hakun ta la M i s ra i n Khandau l i v i l lage o f F a r rukhabad d i s t r ic t o f U .P . , V i rend ra N a th M is ra s t ud ied MA i n An th ropo logy f r om Un ive r s i ty o fL ucknow a nd w a s as t uden t o fP rof . D .N . Ma jumda r . S ince Ma jumda r w an ted t o d eve lop t h e p reh is tor ic a r chaeo logy s e c t ion o fh i s d epa r tmen t , h e r e commended V .N . M is ra t o b e t r a ined u nde r P rof . H .D . S anka l ia a t D eccan c o l lege , P une . Wh i le a n M .A . s t uden t M is ra h ad r e ad V incen t Sm i th 's p ape r o n p igmy s t ones a nd G rahame C la rk 's w o rk s o n Meso l i th ic E ng land a nd E u rope . H e w as k een t ow ork o n t h e p reh is tory o f

F ie ldwork A w o r thy s t uden t o f S anka l ia a nd t r ue t o t h e D eccan C o l lege t r ad i t ion , V .N . M is ra h a s m a in ta ined a l lt h rough ak een i n ter e s ti nf i e ld w o rk s i nce f i e ld d a ta f o r h im h ave e ndu r ing v a lue . O n t h eb a s i s o fh i s s u rvey i nR a ja s than ( t hen k nown a s R a jpu tana ) ( 1958 -60 ) , h e r epor ted t h e d i scove ry o f L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic a r tef ac ts i n h i s P h .D . t h es is . Af t e r h i s

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H i s to ry S oc ie ty , a nd B ombay V e te r ina ry c o l lege ; ( b ) p u r cha s ing s om e s k e le ton s f r om c omm e rc ia l p rov ide r s , a nd ( c ) p r epa r ing s om e i n hou se . Wh e reve r h e a nd T homa s w ou ld c om e a c ros s a d ead a n ima l , t h ey w i l l g e t i tt ot h e D epa r tmen t a nd b u ry i ti nt h e c ompound f o r s i x mon th s o r s o a nd t h en d i g i t u p a f t e r i n sec t s a nd o th e r n a tu ra l a genc ies h ad t h o rough ly c l ean ed t h e b on e s . A t B h imbe tka M i s r a f ound aj a cka l f a ta l ly i n ju r ed b y b e ing c augh t i n a n i r on t r ap l a id b y ah un te r . H e b u r ied i ti nt h e e xcava t ion c amp a nd d ug o u t t h e b one s n ex t y ea r . H e g o t a n a lmo s t c omp le te d ee r s k e le ton f r om ad eep p i t i nt h e c r a te rc r ea ted b yt h e a t om ic b l a s t a tP okha ran i n 1 974 . L a te r , T hom a s d eve loped t h e l a b f u r the r a nd t oday i ti st h e b es t e qu ipped a r chaeozoo logy l a b i n t h e c oun t ry i n r e spec t o f r e sou r ce s a s w e l l a s p rof e s s iona l e xpe r t i se .

P h .D . , h e c on t inued h i s s u rvey w o rk i n s ou th R a ja s than w ho se r e su l t s w e re p ub l i shed a s a D eccan C o l lege monog raph P re -and -P ro to -H i s tory o f t h e B erach B as in , S ou th R a ja s than ( 1967 ) . A round 1 965 t h e G e rm an a r chaeo log i s t L .C . L eshn ik w an ted t o c o l labo r a te w i th M i s ra . I n f lu enced b y B ra idwood 's w o rk a tJ a rmo i nw e s t A s ia , L e shn ik w an ted t os u rv ey t h e f oo th i l l s o ft h e A rava l l i st ou nde r s tand t h e t r an s i t ion t o /eme rgence o fa g r icu l tu re . T h ey c onduc ted a ne x ten s ive s urvey i n s ou thwe s t R a ja s than , n o r th e rn G u ja ra t , a nd S au r a sh t ra b u t d i d n o t f i nd a ny e a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lem en t i n t h e f oo th i l l s o f t h e A rava l l i s . T hey l o ca ted a n umbe r o f p o t te ry s c a t te r s i nt h e l owe r L un i v a l ley wh ich , h oweve r , a ppea red t o b e o f r e cen t a ge . T hey a l so f ound a n umbe r o f t n ic ro l i th ic s i te s , t wo o f wh ich , T i lwa ra i nB a rm e r d i s t r ic t , a nd B ago r i nB h i lwa ra d i s t r ic t t ur n ed o u t t ob ei mpor tan t . L e shn ik d i dn o tc on t inue t h ew o rk , b u t M i s ra e xcava ted T i lwa r a i n 1 967 a nd B ago r d u r ing 1 967 -70 , t h e l a t te r b e ing s o f a r t h e b igge s t e xcava t ion o f aMeso l i th ic s i te i nI nd ia . T he r e w a s u n in te r rup ted e xcava t ion o f mo r e t h an 9 0 d ay s i n e ach s e a son , a nd o ft h e e xcava ted m a te r ia l n o th ing w a s d i sca rded a t t h e s i te , i n c lud ing t h e e n t i r e a n im a l b one r e l ic s . B ago r w a s e x t r em e ly r i ch i n b on em a te r ia l . I tw a st h e f i r s ta r chaeo log ica l s i te i n I nd ia f r om wh ich t h e e n t i r e b one m a te r ia l w a s s y s t em a t ica l ly c o l le ted , w e ighed a nd s t o r ed .

M i s ra i nv i ted D r . A .T . C la son , a l e ad ing a r chaeozoo log i s t f r om t h e A rchaeo log isch B io log i sch I n s t i tu t a tG ron ingen , T he N e the r land s , w hom h e h ad m e t i n 1 970 d u r ing h i s v i s i t t o t h e I n s t i tu te , t o v i s i t t h e D eccan C o l lege a nd t r a in T homa s i n a r chaeozoo log ica l t e chn iqu e s . C la son s pon taneou s ly a ccep ted t h e i n v i ta t ion , e xpec t ing o n ly f r ee a ccommoda t ion , a nd s p en t s i x mon th s i n t h e c o l lege i n 1 972 . S he g ave as ound t r a in ing t o T homa s , a nd t oday h e i st h e b es t a r chaeozoo log i s t i n I nd ia . T homa s h a s p roduced s eve ra l P h .D .s , i n c lud ing o ne f r om J apan , a nd t wo o ft h em , P . P . J og leka r , a nd A ra t i -Deshpande - Mukhe r jee a r e h i s c o l leagu es . T he t r io , a l ong w i th t h e i r s t uden t s , a r e a lway sb u sy b ecau se t h ey s t udy t h e f a una l m a te r ia l n o to n ly r e cove r ed f r om t h e e xcava t ion sc a r r ied o u t b y t h e D eccan C o l lege b u t a l so t h a t s en t b y a n umbe ro fo th e ri n s t i tu t ion sl i k et h eA r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia ( AS I ) , S t a te A r chaeo logy D epa r tm en t s a nd u n ive r s i t ie s l i ke t h o se o f A l lahabad a nd B ana ra s H indu U n ive r s i ty ( BHU ) . A round t h i s t im e b ecau se o fS ank a l ia 's v i s ion l a b s i np a laeon to logy a nd p a laeobo tany a l so d eve loped w i th M .D . K a ja le a nd G .L . B adam , r e spec t ive ly b e ing i n cha rge o ft h em .

M i s ra w a sv e ry k een t h a tt h i sr i ch c o l lec t ion s hou ld b e p rope r ly s t ud ied b y ap rope r ly q ua l if i ed p e r son , b u ta st h e r ew a sn o o ne a tt h eD eccan C o l lege t od o t h is ,h es en tt h em a te r ia l , o n ea f t e rt h eo t he r , t ot wo o u t s ide s pec ia l i s t s , n am e ly D r . D o l ly S hah o ft h e M .S . U n ive r s i ty , B a roda , a nd D r . K . R . A lu r o f Dha rwad , b u tb o th o ft h em w e r eu nab le t os t udy i t . F or tuna te ly , a r ound t h e s am e t im e P rof . K .T .M . H egde o f B a roda Un ive r s i ty , s en t o ne o f h i s s t uden t s ,P .K .Thom a s , t od oP h .D .u nd e rM i s ra . A s T hom a s h ad s t ud ied z oo logy a tB .Sc . l e ve l , M i s ra a dv i sed h im t os t udy t h e B ago rb one c o l lec t ion f o r h i s P h .D . F o r t h i s p u rpose a r e p r e sen ta t ive r e f e r ence c o l lec t ion o ft h eb one so fl i v ing a n ima l sb o th w i ld a nd d om es t ic -t h a t a r e r e p r esen ted a t a r chaeo log ica l s i te s , w a s a b so lu te ly n ece s sa ry . On ly b yc ompa r ing t h e f r agm en ta ry b one s f ound i n e xcava t ion s w i th t h e c omp le t e b one s o f l i v ing a n ima l s , c an a n a r chaeozoo log i s t i d en t if y t h e a n ima l s r e p r e sen ted i nt h e b one c o l lec t ion f r om a n a r chaeo log ica l s i te . M i s ra , l a te rh e lped b yT hom a s , b u i l t s uch a c o l lec t ion b y ( a ) o b ta in ing s ke le ta l s pec im en s o f s om e a n ima l s o n l o an f r om t h e Z oo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia , B ombay N a tu ra l

M is ra w a s i n f luenced b y F ranco i s B o rdes , who se e xcava t ion a t P ech d e l 'Aze h e h ad a t tended i n 1 970 , a nd o the rF r ench p reh i s to r ian s , i nd ev e lop ing p a laeo l i th ic a nd m ic ro l i th ic t y po log ie s f o r I nd ian a s semb lages , a nd wh ich h e h a s a pp l ied t o t h e c o l lec t ion s f r om B ago ra nd B h imbe tka . A s ar e su l t o f h i s p a r t ic ipa t ion i n B o rde s ' a nd D e L um ley 's e xcava t ion s a nd v i s i t s t o a n umbe r o f o th e r e xcava t ion s a nd c ave a r t s i t es i n F rance , M i s ra

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r e a l ized t h e i mpor tance o f c aves i n s t one a ge r e sea rch . L a te r , o nt h e i nv i ta t ion o fV .S . Wakanka r , who h ad d i scove red t h e r ock a r t s i te o fB h imbe tka i n 1 957 , a nd t h e a dv ice o f H .D . S anka l ia , M i s ra e xcava ted t h ree r ock s he l ter s a t B h imbe tka f r om 1 973 t o 1 977 , a nd f ound e xce l len t e v idence f o r h uman o ccupa t ion f r om t h e L a te A cheu ian t o l a te Meso l i th ic . R ecen t ly , B h imbe tka h as b een d ec la red aWo r ld H er i tage S i te b y UNESCO .

E a r ly a nd Ma tu r e H a rappan c i v i l iza t ion s , a nd i st h e o l des tk nown v i l lage s e t t lem en ti nI nd ia . Mo re r e cen t ly M is ra h a s b een h e lp ing A .K . K anungo i n e xcava t ing t h e s i te o f K op ia i n S an t K ab i r N aga r d i s t r ic t o f U .P . , k nown a s am a jo r g l a s s p roduc ing a nd m anuf ac tur ing c en t re o f t h e e a r ly h i s to r ic p er iod . B e s ides c oo rd ina t ing f i e ldwo rk i n p r e -and -p ro to h i s tory , M is ra h a sw o rked o nt h e r o ck a r to fc en t ra l I nd ia i n g ene ra l a nd B h imbe tka i n p a r t icu la r . H e h a s a l so c onduc ted e t hnog raph ic f i e ldwo rk among v a r iou st r iba l g roups o fR a ja s than a nd c en t ra l I nd ia t oa dd f l esh t ot h e b ones o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta . I n s ho r t , M is ra h a s d one e x ten s ive a nd i n ten s ive f i e ldwo rk i n p reh is tory , p ro toh is to ry ( a lso e a r ly h i s tory ) , r ock a r t , a nd e t hnoa rchaeo logy . I n t e rm s o f g eog raph ica l a r ea s , h i s f i e ldwo rk w a s i n R a ja s than , Madhya P radesh , Gu ja ra t a nd G anga v a l ley . Wi th t h is g ene ra l b ackg round , v a r iou s i s sues r a i sed a nd a pp roaches f o l lowed b y M i s ra w i l l b e d i scu ssed u nde r f ou r h ead ing s : P reh is to ry , P ro toh is tory ,R ock a r ta nd E thno -a rchaeo logy .

F rom 1 977 t o 1 985 M is ra wo rked w i th a mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry t e am c ompr is ing S .N . R a jaguru , an umbe r o f r e sea rch s cho la r s , a nd , a t d i f f e ren t s t ages , D .P . Ag rawa l a nd A .K . S inghv i o f PRL , Ahm edabad , R .P . Dh i r o f CAZR I , J odhpu r , a nd R .J . Wa sson a nd Gu rd ip S ingh o f ANU , C anbe r ra , o n t h e p reh is tory a nd N eogene -Qua ter n a ry e nv i ronmen t o f w es ter n R a ja s than , w i th s pec ia l emphas is o n t h e a r ea a r ound t h e D idwana t own i n N agau r d i s t r ic t . H e c onduc ted e x ten s ive e xp lo ra t ion s , d i scove red a n umbe r o f s t one a ge s i tes , a nd e xcava ted t h e p r ima ry c on tex t P a laeo l i th ic s i tes o f S ing i T a lav , I ndo la -k i -Dhan i a nd B anga rc ana l n ea rD idwana . T he e xcava t ion o f a2 0 md eep t r ench i n af o s s i ld une a tB angu rc ana l , e xpos ing mu l t ip le h o r izon s o f d une a ccumu la t ion a nd s t ab i l iza t ion , p resence o f p a laeo l i th ic a s semb lages o f d i f f e ren t s t ages i nt h em , a nd t h e i r d a t ing b y r ad ioca rbon , TL , a nd U /Th d ecay s e r ies , h a s m ade a v ery s i gn if ican t c on t r ibu t ion t o o u r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e e vo lu t ion o ft h e e nv i ronm en t i nt h e T ha rd eser t a nd h uman a dap ta t ion st oi t .I ti s am a jo rl a ndma rk i nS ou th A s ian p r eh is to ry .

P reh is tory M i s ra 's m a jo r c on t r ibu t ion h a s b een i nt h e f i e ld o f p reh is tory . ( i ) T erm ino logy i nI nd ian P reh is tory An i mpo r tan t i s sue M is ra ( 1962a ) r a ised d u r ing e a r ly 1 960s r e la tes t o t h e p rob lem o ft e rm ino logy i n I nd ian p reh is to ry . A t t h a t t im e , t h ree s e t s o f t e rm ino logy w e re u sed t o d esc r ibe t h e I nd ian p reh is to r ic s equence . T he f i r s t w a s a f te r t h e E u ropean f a sh ion i . e . L owe r , M idd le , U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic . T he s e cond w a s a f te rt h e S ou th A f r ican f a sh ion , E a r ly , M idd le , a nd L a te S tone Age , a nd N eo l i thc . T he t h i rd c on s is ted S er ies I ,I , I I , e t c . , a nd w a s u sed b y S anka l ia t o d escr ibe t h e c u l tu re s equence a t N eva sa . M is ra w a s i n f a vou r o f t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy . I n o rde r t o s ubs tan t ia te t h is h e f o l lowed t wo m ean s -( i ) h e p o in ted o u t t h e l im i ta t ion o ft h e o the r t wo s e t s , a nd ( i ) r e sponded t o t h e c r i t ic ism a ga in s t E u ropean t e rm ino logy . A s r ega rd s t h e S ou th A f r ican s y s tem o fE a r ly M idd le a nd L a te S tone Age , M is ra p o in ted o u t t h a t i n a r chaeo log ica l l i t era tu re t h e E u ropean t e rm s P a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic " have b ecom e p ar t o ft h et hough tp a t ter no fs c ien t is t" a nd e duca ted l a yman a l ike : a nd h ence t h e n ew t e rm ino logy ( of E a r ly , M idd le , a nd L a te S tone Age s ) " w i l l c r ea te much c onfu s ion" ( 1962a : 1 21) . S econd ly , M is ra a dded , t h et e rm M idd le S tone Age

Du r ing 1 988 -90 , M is ra , j o in t ly w i th R a jagu ru , e xcava ted a p r ima ry c on tex t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i te a t S amnapu r o n t h e N a rmada r i ve r i n N a r s inghpu rd i s t r ic to f Madhya P radesh . F rom 1 994 t o 2 000 M is ra l e d a l a rge mu l t id isc ip l ina ry t e am t oe xcava te t h e C ha lco l i th ic a nd E a r ly H is tor ic s i te o f B a la tha l i n Uda ipu r d i s t r ic t o f R a ja s than wh ich h e h ad d i scove red i n 1 963 . T h is e xcava t ion h a s a dded c on s ide rab ly t o wha t w a s k nown a bou t t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re o f Mewa r f r om t h e e a r l ie r e xcava t ion s a tG i lund a nd Aha r , a nd h a s a l so s hown t h a t i tw a s am a jo r i r on wo rk ing c en t re d u r ing t h e e a r ly h i s tor ic p er iod . F o r ty -f ive r ad ioca rbon d a tes —t h e l a rges t s e r ies f o r a ny a r chaeo log ica l s i te i n I nd ia — s how t h a t t h e C ha lco l i th ic B a la tha l f l ou r ished b e tween 3 700 a nd 1 800 BC , a nd t h e e a r ly h i s tor ic b e tween 4 00 BC a nd 3 00 AD . B a la tha l w as t hu s c on tempo ra ry t o

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t r ad i t ion , ( i )t h e f l ak et o o l c u l tu r e sm a in ly f ounded o n t h e L eva l lo i s t e chn ique o ri t s v a r ian t s , a nd ( i i ) t h e b l ade t o o l c u l tu r e . T he se t h r ee s t age s c ou ld b e d i s t ingu i shed a s L owe r , M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . T hu s a r chaeo log ica l ly , t wo s t age s o f I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic h ad , M i s ra a r gued , " c lo se s im i la r i ty t o t h e t wo s t age s ( Lowe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ) o f E u rope" ( 1962a : 1 22 ) . O n ly t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i nI nd ia , M i s ra c onf e s sed , w a s ' p oo r ly k nown ' a t t h a t t im e ( 1962a : 19 ) . H oweve r , t h e E u ropean t e rm s o f Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic c ou ld b e u sed , M i s r a f u r the r a dded , " i n I nd ia w i thou tr a i s ing a ny p rob lem "( 1962a : 19 ) .

" i sE ng l i sh t r an s la t ion o f Me so l i th ic a nd i sl i ke ly t o b ec onfu sed w i th t h el a t te r "( 1 962a : 1 2 1) . A cco rd ing t oM i s ra u n t i l 1 950 s o u r k now ledge o f I nd ian P a laeo l i th ic w a s , w i th a f ew e xcep t ion s , c onf ined t o o ne p ha se , i . e . t h e h andaxe -c leave r s t age o fp en in su la r I nd ia a nd i t s e qu iva len t E a r ly S ohan ian i n t h e P un jab . T h i s w a s u sua l ly d es igna ted a s L owe r P a laeo l i th ic . H oweve r , i n 1 956 , S anka l ia r e po r ted a s equen ce o ft h ree l i th ic i n du s t r ies a tN eva sa i n Maha ra sh t ra . T he s equen ce c on s i s ted o f( 1 ) ah andaxe -c leave r i n du s t ry a tt h e b o t tom a s soc ia ted w i th aM idd le P l e i s tocene f auna , ( 2 ) af l ak ei n du s t ry o fs c rape r sa nd p o in t s , a nd ( 3 ) a b l ade i n du s t ry w i th a m ic ro l i th ic t e ndency . S ank a l ia d e s igna ted t h et h r ee i n du s t r ie s a sS e r ie s I , I ,a nd I I .

T hu s , f o rM i s ra t h eu se o fE u ropean t e rm ino logy i n I nd ian p r eh i s to ry w a s t o b e a cco rded p r ef e r ence s i nce t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy w a s ' mo r e p r ec i se a nd e a s i ly i n t e l l ig ib le" . T h r ee p o in t s n eed t o b e m en t ioned a s r ega rd s M i s ra 's d i scu s s ion o n t e rm ino logy f o r I nd ian p reh i s to ry . F i r s t , a l though M i s ra i n g ene ra l a ccep ted t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy f o r I nd ian p r eh i s to ry , h e w a s n o t a r educ t ion i s t a nd h ence h e a dvoca ted f o r ' t e rm ino log ica l r e cogn i t ion ' o fw ha t h e c a l led " t he c u l tu r a l i n d iv idua l i t ie s o f d i f f e r en t a r ea s" ( 1 962a : 1 22 ) . S econd , d esp i te M i s ra 's c l a im t h a t E u ropean t e rm ino logy w a s ' mo re p r ec i se ' , i t s a pp l ica t ion t o I nd ian P r eh is to ry d u r ing l a te 1 950 sa nd e a r ly 1 960 s w a s n o t f r ee f r om p rob lem s a s h e h im se lf h ad a ccep ted t h a t U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i nI nd ia t h en w a s ' p oo r ly k nown ' . I nt h e a bsence o ft h e r e cogn i t ion o f aw e l l e s tab l i shed U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s equence i n I nd ian p r eh i s to ry a t t h a t t im e , t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy a s a pp l ied t o I nd ia w a s L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic , t hu s w i th a g ap o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . H ence , d e sp i te M i s ra 's c l a im , t h e p rob lem w a s n o t o ve ra l toge the r .

M i s ra f ound t wo m a in p rob lem s w i th t h e s chem e . F i r s t ly , i tw a s c onf u s ing . H e r i gh t ly p o in ted o u t t h a t , " suppo se a n i nve s t iga to r f i nd s i n a n a r ea a P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t ry s im i la r t ot h a t o f S e r ie s Io f N eva sa . H e i mm ed ia te ly r e po r t s i ta s S e r ie s Io f h i sa r ea .N ow s t r ic t ly s peak ing t h i si n du s t ry w i l lb e S e r ie s Ii n i t s o wn a r ea . T he p r e sen t u sage i s t h e r ef o r ec onfu s ing" ( 1962a : 15 -6 ) . S econd ly , t h e se t e rm s , M i s ra a rgu ed , d i d n o t e xp r e s s t h e s t a tu s o f ap a r t icu la r c u l tu r e i nw ide ly i n te l l ig ib le t e rm s s uch a s L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , e t c . H ence b y a dop t ing t h e se t e rm s ,t h ep rob lem w a sn o tf u l ly s o lved . M i s ra a l so r e sponded t o t h e o b jec t ion s r a i sed a ga in s t t h e E u ropean t e rm ino logy w h ich w e r e t wof o ld . T he f i r s t o b jec t ion w a s t h a t i n I nd ia a d equa te p a laeon to log ica l e v idence w a s n o t a va i lab le f o r d ef in ing t h e se t e rm s . H e s a id t h a t t o t h ink t h a t d i v i s ion s o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic a r e c h rono log ica l p e r iod s t o b e d ef in ed b y p a laeon to log ica lc r i te r ia w a s' m i s lead ing ' .

T h i s p rob lem w ou ld b e r ed r es sed l a te r w hen w o rk i n d i f f e r en t p a r t s o f I nd ia d u r ing l a te 1 960 s o nwa rd s w ou ld e s tab l ish U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a s a d i s t inc t s t age ( Mu r ty 1 979 ; R a ju a nd V enka ta subba iah 2 002 ) . T h i rd , a l though M i s ra t ook a ccoun t o fS anka l ia 's S e r ie s I ,I a nd I I i n to c on s id e ra t ion , h ed i dn o td i scu s s S e r ie s I ,I ,I Ia nd I V a sd e l in ea ted b y B u rk i t t a nd C amm iade ( 1930 ) . M i s ra 's o therw i se c omp r eh en s ive p ape r w ou ld h ave b een f u r th e r s t r eng then ed i fh e h ad i n c luded a nd c r i t ica l ly d i scu s sed P iggo t t 's a ccoun t i n h i s d i scu s s ion o nt e rm ino logy .

O n t h e o th e r h and , " t hey a r e e s sen t ia l ly d i v i s ion s o f a r chaeo log ica l t im e a nd n eed t o b e d ef ined s t r ic t ly a nd s o le ly b y c u l tu ra l a nd t e chno log ica l c r i te r ia" ( 1962a : 1 21) . T he s e cond c r i t ic i sm a ga in s tE u ropean t e rm ino logy w a s t h a t t h e I nd ian a r chaeo log ica l d a ta d i d n o t f i t i n to E u ropean f r am e . M i s ra r e spond ed b y a r gu ing t h a t t h e r e w e r e t h r ee b road t e chno log ica l s t age s i n t h e P a laeo l i th ic r e p r e sen ted b y ( i ) t h e c o r e t oo l c u l tu r e s w h ich h ad t wo t r ad i t ion s — a n e a r l ie r p ebb le t o o l t r ad i t ion a nd a l a te r h andaxe -c leave r

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( i )P a laeo l i th ic A n i mpo r tan t a spec t o fM i s ra 's p r eh i s to r ic s t ud ie s i n g ene r a l a nd o n R a ja s than i n p a r t icu la r i s h i s e mpha s i s o n e co log ica l b ackg round o f t h e s t one a ge c u l tu r e s ( M i s ra 1 976c , 1 987a , 1 987b , M i s ra a nd R a jagu ru 1 982 , 1 987 ) . F o r r e con s t ruc t ion o f s u ch b ackg round h e e i the r l e d , o rb ecam e p a r t o f , a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry t e am . A g ood e xamp le i st h e U .G .C . s pon so r ed i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry p ro jec t o n T ha r d e se r t i n w h ich M i s ra a nd R a jagu ru ( 1 987 ) w er e t h e k ey m embe r s a i ded b y o t he r f a cu l t ie s o f i n s t i tu t ion s l i ke P hy s ica l R e sea rch L abo ra to ry ( PRL ) , Ahm edabad , C en t ra l A r id Z one R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te ( CAZR 1 ) , J odhpu r , a nd A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty ( ANU ) , e t c . T h e m a in a spec t s o ft h ew o rk o nt h e T ha rd e se r tw e r es umma r ized b y M i s ra a nd R a ja gu ru ( 1 987 ) :

p a lyno log ica l a nd r a d iom e t r ic a na ly ses f o r t h e p e r iod b ef o r e 1 0 ,000 y ea r s . A cco rd ing t o M i s r a a nd R a jagu ru ( 1 987 ) , a bou t o n e m i l l ion y ea r s a go t h e T ha r w a s w a t e r ed b y p owe rf u l s t ream s . T he r e l ic t b ou ld e ry b ed s , b es t d eve loped n ea rJ aya l i nN agau rd i s t r ic t , p rov ide t h e g eomo rph ic e v iden ce f o r s uch p owe rf u l s t r eam s . D u r ing t h e f o rma t ion o ft h e se g r ave l st h e T ha rw a s r e ce iv ing a much h i ghe r r a inf a l l t h an t oday . A round h a lf -a -m i l l ion y ea r s a go t h e p owe r f u l d r a inage s y s tem g o t d i so rgan ized , g i v ing w ay t o t h e e m e rgence o f l e s s p owe rf u l a nd m eand e r ing s t r eam s . I t i s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod t h a t t h e f i r s t e v idence o f t h e a ppea rance o f m an i nt h e a r ea i s a va i lab le i n t h e f o rm o f t h e c amp s i te s o f L owe r P a laeo l th ic m an d i scove r ed a t an umbe r o fp l ace s a r ound D idwana i nN agau r d i s t r ic t . A r tef ac t s l i k e h andaxe s , c l eave r s , c hoppe r s , c hopp ing t o o l s , p o lyh ed ron s , e t c . w e r e f ound e mbedded i nt h e s of t l o amy s ed imen t s o f l a k e s a nd p oo l s a nd s c a t te r ed o n t h e s u rf ace o f t h e b ou lde ry b ed s o f a n e a r l ie r a ge . N o b one h a s b een r e cove r ed . H oweve r , o nt h e b a s i s o f a n ima l r em a in s f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th l i t h ic r ema in s o fc ompa rab le t e chno log ica l s t age i n t h eN a rmada a nd G odava r i a luv ium , M i s ra a rgu ed t h a t t h e A cheu l ian d en izen s o ft h e T ha r mu s t a l so h ave r e so r ted t o h un t ing o f l a rge h e rb ivo r e s a nd p o s se s sed a s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion s u i tab le f o r g roup h un t ing . E xcava t ion a tS ing i T a lav n ea r D idwana y i e lded e v idence o f o ne o f t h e e a r l ie s t u se s o f s em i -p r ec iou s s t one s b yp r eh i s to r ic m an i nI nd ia i n t h e f o rm o f af ew q ua r tz c r y s ta l s i n a s soc ia t ion w i th l i t h ic A r tef ac t s . D u r ing t h e l o ng p e r iod o f o ccupa t ion o ft h e A cheu l ian p eop le l a s t ing s eve r a l h und r ed t h ou sand y ea r s , t h e t e chn ique o fl i t h ic t o o l m ak ing b ecam e r ef ined d u r ing L a te A cheu l ian p e r iod . T hu s t o o l s b ecam e m o re s ymme t r ica l i n o u t l ine , t h inne r a nd h ad mo r e e v en s u rf aces a nd w e r em ade o ns ma l l f l ak es .

( 1 ) E x ten s ive r e conna i s sance s o ft h e T ha r d e se r t w e re u nde r taken t oc o l lec t a r chaeo log ica l a nd g eo log ica l d a ta , a nd s t ud ie s o f s and d une s w e r e m ade t o u nde r s tand t h e i r mo rpho logy , d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n , a nd w ea the r ing p rof i les . Mo reove r , w e l l s , t a nk s a nd q ua r r ies w e r e s t ud ied t od e te rm ine t h e n a tu r e o ff l uv ia l s ed im en t sa nd f o rl o ca t ing a r chaeo log ica l s i te si nt h em . ( 2 ) E xcava t ion s w e r e c a r r ied o u ta tJ aya l a nd D idwa ra i n N agau r d i s t r ic t wh ich b ecam e " t he f i r s t e xcava t ion o f p a laeo l i th ic s i t e s c a r r ied o u t i n t h e d e se r t" e spec ia l ly i n ap r ima ry c on tex t ( M i s ra a nd R a jagu ru 1 987 ) . nt h eb a s is o f an ea r ly 2 0md eep t r ench t h rough a ( 3) O f o s s i l s and d une a tD idwana , t h e s t r a t ig r aphy o f v a r iou s s and d un e p ha se s h a s b een r e vea led i nt h e f o rm o f t h r ee m a jo r l i thoun i t s a nd a t l e a s t f ou r p a laeo so l s s pann ig ap e r iod o f7 0 ,000 y ea r s . Wha t i s mo r e i mpo r tan t i s t h e r e cove ry o f s t one i mp lem en t so nt wo h or izon s . ( 4 ) ' Fo r t h e f i r s t t ime a nywhe r e i n t h e w o r ld ' , t h e rmo lum in e scence d a t ing t e chn iqu e w a s u sed f o r d a t ing s and d une s b y A .K . S inghv i a nd D .P . A g rawa l o f PRL .

B y a r ound 1 00 ,000 y ea r s a go e nv i ronm en ta l c hange s i n t h e T ha r o ccu r r ed w i th d ec l in e i n r a inf a l l a nd s h if t ing o f r i ve r c ou r se s t o t h e w e s t ( po s s ib ly a s ar e spon se t o t e c ton ic m ovem en t s i n t h e i r h eadwa te r r e g ion ) . T he w e l l i n teg r a ted d r a inage s y s tem b ecam e c omp le t e ly d efunc t b y a r ound 7 0 t o 6 0 t h ou sand y ea r s a go . Wh i le t h e r edu ced r a inf a l l a f f ec ted t h e v eg e ta t ion g row th , s t rong w ind s b l ew s and a nd s i l t p a r t ic le s f r om t h ick ly a luv ia ted s u rf ace s a nd d epo s i ted t h em o n t h e l a nd s u rf aces o fw e s ter nR a ja s than wh ich l e dt o t h e f o rm a t ion o f t h ick a nd l a rg e s a nd d une s a nd s and s h ee t s . H oweve r , t h e c l ima te w a s n o t

o reove r X r ay d i f f rac t ion a na ly s i s a nd S cann ing ( 5) M E lec t ron ic M ic ro scopy a s w e l l a s m echan ica l a nd p e t ro log ica l a na ly se s f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e f o rma t ion o fs ed im en t sw e r e a l so d on e . ( 6 ) B y d i gg ing a w e l l i n t h e d eepes t p a r t o f t h e D idwana s a l t l a k e , a n a t temp tw a s m ade t or e cove r t h e s t ra t ig r aphy a nd s amp le s f o r s ed im en to log ica l ,

7 0

w ea the r ed p roduc t -t h e mo t t led c l ay - a nd u nde r ly ing e i the r as i l t d epo s i t a si nt h eB e rach a nd t h e G ambh i r i o r as e cond mo t t led c l ay a s i n t h e Wagan a nd t h e K adma l i . B ecau se o ft h e a b sence o f p a laeon to log ica l e v idence i nt h e i mp lem en t if e rou s g r ave ls o ri no t he rd epo s i t s , t h e r e la t ive c h rono logy o ft h e f ou r i n du s t r ies , M i s ra a rgued , c ou ld n o t b e e s tab l i shed o n t h a t g round . H e f ound a s t r ik ing h omogen e i ty i n t y po logy among t h e f ou r i ndu s t r ies . H oweve r , t h e r e w a s c on s ide rab le h e te rogene i ty a mong t h e t h r ee m a jo r i n du s t r ie s ( Be rach , G ambh i r i a nd t h e Wagan ) i nt e rm s o fs i ze a nd s hape o f t h e h andaxes . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e d i f f e rences w e r e s i gn if ican t b e tween t h e G ambh i r i i n du s t ry o n t h e o ne h and , a nd t h e B e rach a nd Wagan i n du s t r ie s o nt h e o t he r . A cco rd ing t oM i s ra , " whe the rt h i s v a r ie ty r ef l ec t s d i f f e r ence s i nt ime o r i n c u l tu r a l t r ad i t ion c anno t b e d e te rm ined i n t h e a b sence o f a mo r e p r ec i se c h rono log ica l f r am ewo rk" ( 1967 : 2 00 ) . M i s ra f u r the rp o in ted o u t t h a tt h e f o cu so ft h eA cheu l ian c u l tu r e i nR a ja s than l i e s i n t h e s ou thea s ter n p a r t o f t h e s t a te w i th t h e B e rach b a s in f o rm ing t h e w es ter n l im i t o f t h e A cheu l ian p rov ince .

u n if o rm ly a i dt h roughou t . On t h e o t he rh and , t h e r e w e re s eve ra l o cca s ion s o f s ho r t p e r iod s o f i n cr ea sed r a inf a l l w hen m an r e appea r ed i nt h e a r ea w i th t h e g row th o f v ege ta t ion a nd f l ou r i sh ing o f a n im a l l i f e . Wh i le t h e o n se t o f a r id i ty f o r ced t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p eop le t o m ig ra te t o t h e s ou th e rn p a r to ft h eT ha r , i nt h eL un i v a l ley ( wh ich r e ce iv ed g ood r a inf a l l f r om t h e A rava l l i h i l l s ) , h un te r -ga the r e r b and s r e appea r ed w heneve r c ond i t ion s am e l io ra ted i nt h e n o r the rn p a r t o ft h e T ha r .I nt h is r ega rd ,M i s ra r e f e r r ed t ot h ef i nd ing o f s t one a r tef ac t s a tt wo h o r izon s , a td ep th a bou t 1 0 a nd 6m f r om t h e s u r f ace , f r om t h e e xcava t ion o f t h e f o s s i l d une a tB anga r C ana l . B e s ide s s c rape r s a nd c a r efu l ly s t ruck t h in f l ak e s , s ymm e t r ica lb l ade s w e r e a l so f ound . A n i mpo r tan t d i scove ry f r om t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h o r izon w a s t h e r e cove ry o f a v e ry s ma l l , t h in a nd s ymm e t r ica l ly s haped o va l h andaxe a nd o f a no the r f r e sh ly m ade l a rge r h andaxe . T he se f i nd s , a cco rd ing t o M i s ra , s how t h a t much e l em en t s o f A cheu l ian t e chno logy s u rv ived i n t h i s c u l tu ra l ly b ackwa te r z one t i l l t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . T h i s h o r izon h a s b een d a ted t oa bou t 2 6 ,000 y ea r s b y r a d ioca rbon d a t ing . T h e s ma l le r h andaxe ' am a s te rp iece o f s t one a ge m an 's c r af tman sh ip ' -w a s " t he y ounges tt o o lo ft h e k ind i nt h e w o r ld a nd p robab ly t h e o n ly o ne t ob e f ound i n as and d une" ( M i s ra a nd R a jagu ru 1 987 : 2 7 ) .

T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( M i s ra u sed t h e t e rm M idd le S tone A ge , MSA , i nh i s 1 967 monog raph ) i s l e s s w id e ly d i s t r ibu ted i n t h e B e rach b a s in . S t ra t ig r aph ica l ly , t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s o ccu r red i nt h e s andy g r ave l s s epa ra ted f r om t h e b ou lde ry g r ave l s o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic b y a mo t t led c l ay d epo s i t . Ac u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i s d i scer n ed f r om t h e p r e sence o fL owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s i n t h e s am e g r ave l s . S om e e l em en t s o f A cheu l ian l i ke h andaxes a nd c o r e s c rape r s n o d oub t c on t inued i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ' i n a n e vo lved f o rm a nd i n r educed m ea su re ' . B u t c l eave r s a nd d i sco id s a r e a b sen t . T h e p r inc ipa l t o o l t y pe o f t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic w a s s c rape r , f o l lowed b y p o in t . T he L eva l lo i s e l em en t w a s a l so mo r ep ronounced i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t h an i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic . S t a t i s t ica l ly t h e r e w a s s i gn if i can t d i f f e r ence b e tween M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd L owe r P a laeo l i th ic i ndu s t r ie s i n r e spec t o f p ropor t ion o fv a r iou s t o o l t ypes , o fc o r e a nd f l ake t o o l s , a nd o fs haped a nd u n shaped t o o l s . A cco rd ing t o M i s ra , " t he d eve lopm en t o f t h e MSA ( M idd le S tone A ge ) c u l tu re i n t h e B e rach b a s in w ou ld a ppea r t o b e i n sp i r ed p a r t ly b y t h e i nd igenou s c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion a nd p a r t ly b y e x ter n a l s t imu l i . I n wha tm ea su r ep r ec ise ly t h et wo s ou r ce sc on t r ibu ted c anno t b e s a id d ef in i te ly , f i r s t b ecau se t h e MSA c u l tu r e i t se lf i s i n adequa te ly k nown , s e cond ly

An i mpo r tan t a spec t o f t h e s t udy i s t h e c o r robo ra t ion o f t h e h i s to ry o f a r id c l ima te p re served i nt h e d une s b y t h e s ed im en t s d epo s i ted i nt h e s a l t l a ke a tD idwana . O n t h e b a s i s o f d a ta f r om D idwana a nd s eve ra l o t he r l a ke s , M i s ra a r gu ed t h a t t h e se l a k es c am e i n to e x i s tence d ue t o t h e d i so rgan i sa t ion o f t h e d r a inage s y s tem o f t h e T ha r . H oweve r , t h ep e r iod ica lf i l l ing a nd d ry ing u p o ft h e l a k e i sk nown f r om l a k e s ed imen t s d a ted t o b ef o r e 1 0 ,000 y ea r s i n t h e f o rm o f a l ter n a t ing b and so fs and s ,c l ay a nd e vapo r i te s . I n s ou th -ea s t R a ja s than , o n t h e b a s i s o fh i s s urvey M i s ra r e por ted " an a lmo s t u n in te r rup ted o ccupa t ion o ft h e B e rach b a s in f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p r im i t ive h un t ing a nd f ood g a the r ing a t s om e t im e d u r ing M idd le P l e i s tocene t o t h e e m e rgence o ff u l l -f l edged f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BC" ( M is ra 1 967 : 2 00 ) . E v idence o fA cheu l ian c u l tu r e w a s r e co rded f r om a l l t h e f ou rr i ve r v a l ley s i nt h e b a s in - B e rach , G ambh i r i , Wagan a nd K adma l i . T h e g ene ra l s t ra t ig raphy c omp r i sed t h e b ou lde ry g r ave l o ve r ly ing e i the r t h e b a sa l r o ck o r i t s

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b ecau se t h e s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence b ea r ing o n t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f t h e t wo c u l tu r e s i s a t p r e sen t i n adequa te , a nd t h i rd ly b ecau se e ven i n t h e n e ighbou r ing a r ea s t h e MSA c u l tu r e i si mper f ec t ly k nown" ( 1 967 : 2 03 ) .

c hopp ing t o o l s ( M i s ra 1 976a ) . M i s ra c on s ide r ed t h e B h imbe tka A cheu l ian i n du s t ry r e p r e sen t ing t h e t e rm ina l p ha se o ft h e A ch eu l ian t r ad i t ion , b ecau se l a y e r 5 wh ich o ve r lay t h e A cheu l ian d epo s i t w a s s t r a t ig r aph ica l ly a nd c u l tu ra l ly a c on t inu a t ion o f t h e A cheu l ian c u l tu r e e xcep t f o r t h e d i sappea rance o ft h e b i f ace e l em en t a nd a c e r ta in d ec l ine i nt h e s t anda rd o fw o rkman sh ip .

M is ra ( 1976a , 1 978 , 1 980 ) a l so r e po r ted M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes f r om t h e c en t ra l L un i b a s in , w es ter n R a ja s than ( M i s ra 1 962a ) . T he c ompos i te s t ra t ig raphy i n t h e m idd le r e ache s o f L un i c omp r i sed ( f rom t o p t ob o t tom ) ( 1 ) s i l ty s and ( 1t o 3m t h ick ) s how ing a s ha rp c on tac t w i th ( 2 ) c em en ted p ebb ly g r ave l ( 1 t o 2m t h ick ) s how ing s ha rp c on tac t w i th ( 3 ) wh i t i sh c l ayey s i l t r e s t ing u nconf o rmab ly o n b ed r o ck . M idd le P a laeo l i th ic f a c to ry s i tes w e r e r e por ted f r om t h e c en t ra l L un i b a s in w he r e r aw m a te r ia l s l i k e c h e r t , c ha lcedony , f l in t , q ua r tz i te a nd s i l ic if i ed w ood w e r e a va i lab le i n p l en ty . M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s w e r e f ound i nt h e r i ve r b ed s a s w e l l a s i n s t ra t if i ed g r ave l s . T hey i n c lud e v a r ie t ie s o f s c rape r s , p o in t s , f l ake k n ive s , f l ak es , b l ade s a nd d im inu t ive h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . O nt h e b a s i s o ft h e p r e sence o fh andaxe s a nd c l eave r s , e ven t h ough i ns ma l l n umbe r s , M i s ra i n f er r ed t h a t t h e P a laeo l i th ic L un i c u l tu re s hou ld b e long e i the r t o t h e e nd o f A ch eu l ian o r t o t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p ha se ( M i s ra 1 962 ) .

A t B h imbe tka , t h e s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence s how s t h a t t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu r e d eve loped o u t o f t h e A ch eu l ian c u l tu r e w i th t h e s l ow d i sappea rance o fc l eave r s a nd h andaxes , r e duc t ion o ft h e s i ze o ft o o l sa nd o ccu r r en ce o f aw ide v a r ie ty o fs i de s c rape r s , L eva l lo i s f l ak e s a nd b l ade s a st h e m a in a r tef ac t s . T he a va i lab i l i ty o f an umbe r o f t o o l s m ade o n f l a t n a tu ra l s l ab s o fs t one i n s tead o f f l ak e s f r om t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic l e ve l a t B h imbe tka w a s au n ique f e a tu r e( M is ra 1 985 ) M i s ra a l so e xcava ted aM idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i t e i n t h e c en t ra l N a rmada v a l ley a t S amnapu r i n a p r ima ry c on tex t ( M i s ra e ta l . 1 990 ) wh ich y i e lded mo r e t h an 3 000 a r tef ac t s a nd a s ma l l n umbe r o f f r agm en ta ry f o s s i l ized a n ima l b ones . C h er ty q ua r tz i te , q ua r tz i te a nd d o le r i te w e r e t h e r aw m a te r ia l s wh ich w e r e a va i lab le l o ca l ly o ri nn ea rby p l ace s a nd w e r e u sed i nm ak ing t o o ls . T he i n du s t ry w a s f l ak e b a sed w i th t h e o ccu r rence o f s om e b l ade s . D e sp i te t h e r e cove ry o f s om e f a ce ted p l a tf o rm f l ak e s , n o t r ace o f L eva l lo is f l ak e s h a s b een f ound . M i s ra a r gued t h a t i t w a s a m anuf ac tu r ing s i te s i nce a l a rge n umbe r o fc o r e s , f l ak es a nd c h ip s a l ong w i th s haped t o o l s w e r e f ound i n ap r im a ry c on tex t . T h e s haped t o o l s i n c lude s i ng le o r d oub le s i de s c rape r s , e nd s c r ape r s , d en t icu la te s , n o tche s , p o in t s , b o r e r s , r e touched f l ake s a nd k n ives .

T a lk ing a bou t t h e e xcava ted A cheu l ian s i te s i n I nd ia , M i s ra r e cogn ized t wo c l ea r p ha ses ( M i s r a 2 001a ) . T he f i r s ta nd t h ee a r l ie rp ha se t h a ti n c lud ed t h e i n du s t r ie s f r om L a l i tpu r , A damga rh , K u l iana , Mahad eo P ipa r ia , C h i rk i -Neva sa , A nagwad i a nd H ung s i w a s c ha rac te r ized b y a l l o r m os t o f t h e f o l low ing f e a tu re s : h i gh p e r cen tage o f c hoppe r c hopp ing t o o l s a nd b i f ace s , l ow p e r cen tage o fn on b i f ace t oo ls m ade o n f l ak es , h igh r a t io o fh andaxe s t o c l eave r s , l ow i n c id en ce o fb l ade s a nd L eva l lo i s f l ak es a nd p r edom inance o fs t one h amm e r f l ak ing t e chn ique . T he s e cond a nd l a te rp ha se i sa s soc ia ted w i th r o ck she l te r s I IF -23 a nd I IF -24 a tB h imbe tka a nd c l if fg r ave la t Mahadeo P ipa r ia .

Ar e f e r ence t ot h e r e cove ry o fU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s h a s b een m ade f r om t h e e xcava t ion a tr o ck s he l te rI IF 2 3 a tB h imbe tka . A ni mpor tan t a spec t o fM i s ra 's p r eh i s to r ic r e sea rch i s h i s e mpha s i s o n q uan t i ta t ive m e thod s . F o r e xamp le , a s r e ga rd s , t h e P a laeo l i th ic r e cove r ie s f r om T r enche s Ea nd F o ft h e R ock s he l te rI I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C h i squa r e a nd t wo s amp le t e s t s s uch a s Mann -wh i tney U l i s t a nd ' t 'l i s t w e r e u sed t o e xam ine t h e t empo ra l v a r ia t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s f r om t h e p r ima ry c on tex t ( A lam a nd M i s ra 1 992 ) .

M i s ra a l so w o rk ed o n t h e A cheu l ian c u l tu r e o f c en t ra l I nd ia b y e xcava t ing r o ck she l te r I IF -23 a t B h imbe tka . A cco rd ing t oh im , t h e c ha rac ter i s t ic o f t h e B h imbe tka A cheu l ian i n du s t ry i s av e ry l ow p e rcen tage o fb i f aces , h i gh p ropor t ion o f c l eave r s t o h andaxe s , a r ema rkab ly h i gh s t anda rd o f w o rkm an sh ip i n b i f ace s , e spec ia l ly c l eave r s , p r edom inance a nd g r ea t d i ve r s i ty o f n on -b if ace t o o ls , h igh p e r cen tage o f e nd s c rape r s , a nd L eva l lo is f l ake s , a nd c omp le te a b sence o fc hoppe r -

7 2

b ank d une s . I nt h ew ood land z one so ft h eV indhya s a nd t h e K a imu r R ange t h ey o ccup ied c ave s a nd r ock s he l te r s a s w e l l a s o pen -a i r l o ca t ion s . T he l im e s tone c aves i nt h e Ku rnoo l d i s t r ic t o fA ndh ra P rade sh w e r e a l so o ccup ied d u r ing t h e p e r iod . I n t h e w ooded e co sy s tem s o f t h e i n te r io r P en in su la t h e r e a r e n um e rou s s i te s r i gh t i nt h e h ab i ta t o ft h e s h if t ing c u l t iva t ion o f t h e p r e sen t d ay . A long t h e We s t C oa s t , n ea r B ombay , t h e Meso l i th ic g roup s s e t t led o n t h e t op o f t h e h i l l s a nd r o ck o u tc rops n ea rt h e s e ac oa s t . N ea rt h et i p o ft h eP en in su la , o n t h e e a s tc oa s t ,t h e re a r e o ccupa t ion so nc oa s ta l s and d une s ( Te ns ) . T he se c oa s ta l o ccupa t ion s a r e s ugges t ive o f m a r in e f ood e xp lo i ta t ion . L ik ew i se , t h e o ccupa t ion s o nt h e s ho re s o fo xbow l a ke s i nt h e G anga v a l ley ( e .g . S a ra iN aha rR a i , Mahadaha a nd D amdama ) , t ho se c l o se t o w a te rf a l l s i n t h e T e lengana p l a teau ( e .g . G au r i G undam a nd P ocha ra ) , a r ound C h i t rako t F a l l s i nB a s ta r , a nd i n t h e r i ve r ine n i che s o f t h e E a s ter n G ha t s i n d ica te c on s ide r ab le d ependence o n a qua t ic f ood r e sou r ce s" ( 1989a : 2 5 ) .

( i i ) Me so l i th ic V .N .M is ra i s t h e b es t a u tho r i ty o n Me so l i th ic C u l tu r e o f I nd ia . R igh t s i nce h i s p ape r o n Meso l i th ic i nI nd ian P reh i s tory 1 964 e d i ted b yh im a nd Ma te ( 1965 ) , M i s r a h a s w r i t ten s eve r a l r ev iew p ape r so n Meso l i th ic c u l tu r es ( M i s ra 1 989b , 2 00 1a , 2 002a , 2 002b ) . A cco rd ing t oh im , f o r av a r ie ty o f r e a son s , e v idence s f o r t h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod i n I nd ia , d e sp i te i t s d u ra t ion o fo n ly a f ew t hou sand y ea r s , " i s f a r r i che r t h an o f t h e p reced ing P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod w h ich l a s ted f o r mo r e t h an a m i l l ion y ea r s" ( M i s ra 2 002a : 4 ) . F i r s t , a l l t h e d a ted Me so l i th ic s i te s b e long t o t h e H o locene a nd a r e w e l l p r e served s i nce n o s i gn if i can t g eomo rph ic c hange s h ave o ccu r r ed d u r ing t h i s p e r iod . S econd , mo r et h an t wo t h ou sand t n ic ro l i th ic s i te sh ave b een d i scove r ed a l l o ve r t h e c oun t ry b a r r ing t h e g r ea te r p ar t o f t h e G anga p l a in s , n o r thea s te rn I nd ia o r much o ft h e We s te rn G ha t s . T h i rd , o ve rt h i r ty s i te s h ave b een e xcava ted y i e ld ing g ood i n f o rma t ion o n t h e t e chno logy , m a te r ia l c u l tu r e , s ub s i s tence a nd d i sposa l o f t h e d ead . F ou r th , t h e r e i s g ood p e r cen tage o fh uman s k e le ta l a nd a n ima l r ema in s i n an umbe r o f s i te s . E xcep t ing t h e P l e i s tocene h um an f i nd f r om H a thno ra i nt h e N a rmada v a l ley , t h e se c ompr i se t h e e a r l ies t h uman s k e le ta l r ema in s i n I nd ia . S ix th , a t an umbe r o f s i te s , t h e re i s a bundance o f r o ck p a in t ing s , a s soc ia ted w i th Me so l i th ic s i tes . F ina l ly , a bou t f i f ty r a d ioca rbon d a t e s a va i lab le h e lp u si nd e te rm in ing t h e a n t iqu i ty a nd t h ep roces se so fe vo lu t ion o f Me so l i th ic s i te s .

M i s ra f u r the r s t a ted t h a t ad r ama t ic i n c r ea se i nt h e n umbe r o f o ccupa t ion s i te s i n d i f f e r en t p a r t s o f I nd ia i s a p o s i t ive i nd ica t ion o f s i gn if ican t d emog raph ic i n c rea se d u r ing e a r ly H o locene t im es . H e v i sua l ized s ev e ra l f a c to r s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e d r ama t ic p opu la t ion g row th . A cco rd ing t oh im , " Seve ra l f a c to r s c ou ld b e r e spon s ib le f o r t h i s d rama t ic p opu la t ion g row th . F i r s t ly , i ti sk nown f r om s eve ra l p a r t s o ft h e O ld Wo r ld t h a tt n ic ro l i th s w e r e u sed a s c omponen t s o f a r rowhead s , s pea rhead s a nd o the r t oo ls l i k e k n ive s , d agge r s , s i ck le s a nd h a rpoon s . A l so , m any p a in t ing s i n r o ck she l te r s i nc en t ra l I nd ia s how t h e u se o fb ow a nd a r row a nd t h e u se o f m ic ro l i th s a s t i p s a nd b a rb s o fa r row s . T he r egu la ru se o fb ow a nd a r row mu s t h ave g r ea t ly i mp roved i n h un t ing e ff ic iency o f Me so l i th ic p opu la t ion s a nd t h e r eby c on t r ibu ted t o a mo r e a s su r ed f ood s upp ly . S econd ly , q uer n s a nd r ubbe r s a ppea r f o r t h e f i r s t t im e i nt h i s p e r iod a nd t h ey h ave b een f ound a tm any s i te s , s how ing t h a t f ood w a s p roces sed b ef o r e c on sump t ion . T h i s w ou ld h ave i n c r ea sed t h e n u t r i t ive v a lue o f a va i lab le f ood a nd t h e r eby c on t r ibu ted t o ab e t te r h ea l th s t a tu s . F ina l ly , t h e r e i s c l ea r e v idence o f i n c r ea sed r a inf a l l a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e H o locene f r om l a k e s ed im en t s a nd b u r ied s o i l s i ns and d unes i nR a ja s than a nd c l ayey d epo s i t s i nr o ck sh e l te r s i n c en t ra l I nd ia . T h i s i n c r ea sed r a inf a l l mu s t h ave c on t r ibu ted t og r ea te rp l an t g row th a nd i n c r ea se i n a n ima l p opu la t ion w h ich i n t u rn w ou ld i mp ly

M i s ra ( 2002b : 14 ) a s c r ibed e co log ica l r e a son s f o r t h e a b sence o r s pa r sene s s o f l i t h ic s i te s i n s om e p a r t o f I nd ia . F o r e xamp le , l a ck o f s t one f o r m ak ing t o o l s i s t h e c au se f o r t o ta l a b sence o f Me so l i thc s i te s o ve r much o f t h e G anga p l a in ( e xcep t t h e s ou th -cen t ra l r e g ion ) . B e s ides , h eavy r a inf a l l a nd c on sequen t d en se v ege ta t ion c ou ld b e t h e r e a son f o r t h e s pa r sene s s o fs i te s i nn o r th -ea s t I nd ia a nd t h e We s ter nG ha t s . R ev iew ing t h e s t one a g e c u l tu r es f r om a n e co log ica l p e r spec t ive , M i s ra ( 1989a ) s a id t h a tt h e Me so l i th ic f o lk n o t o n ly mo r e i n ten se ly i nhab i t ed t h e p r ev iou s ly c o lon ized h ab i ta t s , b u t a l so e x tended t h e i r c o lon iza t ion i n to v a r iou s a r ea s l i k e t h e G anga v a l ley , D amoda r v a l ley , t h e h i l ly t r ac t o fG u ja r a t , t h e K e ra la c oa s t a nd t h e s ou ther nT am i lN adu c oa s t . Mo r eove rt h ey e xp lo i ted a g r ea te r v a r ie ty o f h ab i ta t s t h an t h e i r p r edece s so r s .F o re xamp le ,M i s ra s t a ted , "I nt h e G u ja ra t p l a in s t h ey s e t t led o n s and d une s o nt h e s ho re so fi n te r -duna ll a k e s a nd i nt h e Mewa r p l a in o n e l eva ted r o cky g round a sw e l l a so n r i ve r

7 3

i n c r ea sed a va i lab i l i ty o f f ood p opu la t ion s" ( 2002b : 17 ) .

t o t h e

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r e la t ive ly c on t inuou s o ccupa t ion o f t h e r e g ion o f r o ck sh e l te r s a nd o pen -a i rs i te s .

R ega rd ing t e chno logy , M i s r a s t a ted t h a t t hough m ic rob lade s w e r e u sed i n v a ry ing d eg r ees i n m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie s a l o ve r t h e c oun t ry , t h e h ighe s t p er f ec t ion i nt h e t e chno logy w a s a ch ieved i nw e s te rn a nd c en t ra l I nd ia . H e a l so m en t ion ed t h e p r edom inan t ly g eom e t r ic t y pe o f m ic ro l i th s f r om B ago r i n R a ja s than a nd B h imbe tka i n Madhya P r ade sh . T he s ub s i s tence p a t ter n o ft h e Me so l i th ic p eop le i sk nown f r om t h er e cove ry o fa n im a lb one s f r om an umbe r o f s i te s wh ich i ss upp lem en ted b y d ep ic t ion o f h un t ing , t r app ing , f i sh ing a nd p l an t f ood c o l lec t ing i n r o ck -pa in t ing s . A s r e ga rd s d we l l ing a nd m a te r ia l c u l tu r e o f t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le , o u r k now ledge i sl im i ted b ecau se o f t h e p oo r s u rv iva l o f o rgan ic m a ter ia l . E v idence s o f c i r cu la r h u t s w e r e f ound i n s om e r o ck p a in t ing s , a nd f r om s ome e xcava ted s i te s s uch a sB ago r a nd T i lwa ra . B e s ide s , t h e e a r l ie s t e v idence o f i n ten t iona l d i spo sa l o ft h e d ead i nI nd ia i sk nown f r om t h e Meso l i th ic p e r iod f r om s i te s s uch a s S a ra i -Noha r R a i , Mahadoha a nd D amdam a i nt h e G anga v a l ley , B h imbe tka i n Madhya P rade sh , B ago r i n R a ja s than , L anghna j i n G u ja ra t a nd L ekhah ia a nd Mo rhana P aha r i nM i rzapu r d i s t r ic t o fU t ta rP rade sh .

W i th t h is g ene ra l r e v iew , i t i s i mpor tan t t o s umm a r ize t h e r e su l t s o f e xcava t ion s o f t h r ee Me so l i th ic s i tes b yM i s r a . ( i v ) E xcava ted Me so l i th ic S i te s ( a )B agor L y ing o n a l a rge a nd p rom in en t s and d une o ve r look ing t h e l e f t b ank o f t h e K o tha r i r i ve r B ago r i s t h e l a rges t e xcava ted Meso l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s i t e i n I nd ia . Wh i le i n e a r l ie r p ub l ica t ion s , M i s r a h a s d i v ided t h e o ccupa t ion i n t h r ee p ha se s ( 1971 , 1 973a , 1 973b ) b u t l a te r ( M i s ra 1 989c ) h e d i v ided i ti n to t wo p e r iod s i n w h ich P ha ses Ia nd I o ft h e e a r l ie r s equence b e longed t o P e r iod I a nd P ha se I I I t o P e r iod I . I n P e r iod I , P ha se I d a ted t o b e tween c . 5 000 a nd 2 500 BC t h e r e w e r e p rof u se m ic ro l i th s a nd a n ima l b on e s i mp ly ing a n e conomy b a sed o n h un t ing -ga the r ing a nd h e rd ing . 7 2 .2% o ft h e i d en t if i ed b ones b e long t oP e r iod I . T he a n ima l s i n c lud e , s h eep , g oa t , p i g , h umped c a t t le , e t c . S t one p aved f l oo r s i mp l ied t h a t p eop le l i ved i n h u t s w i th p robab ly w a t t le w a l l s . E xcava t ion o f s k e le ta l r em a in s r evea led b u r ia l o f t h e d ead i na n e x tended p o s i t ion . D u r ing P ha se - I ( c . 2 500 -1000 BC ) t h e r e w a s d ec l ine o fm ic ro l i th ic t o o l s a nd a n ima l b one s . O n t h e o t h e r h and , c oppe r t oo l s a nd h andmade p o t te ry w i th i n c ised d eco r a t ion w e r e r e cove red . E v idence o f f l exed b u r ia l w a s f ound a nd t h e a s soc ia ted g r ave g ood s i n c lude p o t s , m e ta l t o o l s , or n am en t s a nd f ood o f f e r ing s . T hu s , d u r ing t h i s p ha se s t ab le e conomy i sv i sua l ized i n t h e f o rm o fp l an t a g r icu l tu r e a nd ag r ea te r r e l ian ce o na n im a ld om e s t ica t ion .

B o th i nt h e r o ck she l te r s o fc en t ra l I nd ia a nd a tt h e o pen a i r s i te s o fR a ja s than , G u ja ra t a nd t h e G anga v a l ley , t h e d ead w e r e b u r ied i n t h e h ab i ta t iona l a r ea . O n ly i n af ew c a se s , g r ave o f f er ing sh ad b een f ound . F o r e xamp le , a tB h imbe tka , p i ece s o f r ed o ch re , b one p o in t s , d eco ra ted b one p i ece s , s ha rp ly c u t a nd p o l i shed a n t le rp i ece sw e re p l aced w i th t h e b ody , a nd b one a nd a n t le r e a r r ing s a nd n eck lace s w e re f ound o nt h e s k e le ton so f Mahadaha .

P e r iod I I( c . 5 00 BC t o AD 2 00 )h a s y i e lded av e ry p oo r m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry w h ich i sp e rhap s d er ived f r om P ha se I I . Wh i le a n im a l b ones b ecam e s c a rce , t h e r e w a s e v idence o f i r on t o o ls , mo r e p l en t if u l p o t te ry ( b a s ica l ly w hee lm ade ) , g l a s s b ead s a nd t h e u se o fb r ick s a nd t o o l s a l ong w i th d r e s sed s t on e i n s t ruc tu r e s .

M i s ra a l so r e v iewed t h e s t ud ie s m ade b y s cho la r s o n t h e b i o log ica l a n th ropo logy o f h uman s ke le ta l r ema in s w h ich h ave s i gn if i can t b ea r ing o n t h e p hy s ica l c ompos i t ion , p a tho logy a nd d i e ta ry h ab i t s o f t h e Meso l i th ic p opu la t ion ( 2002a : 1 8 -26 ) . I n g en e ra l t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le o ft h e G anga v a l ley w e r e t a l le r a nd w e r e m e r e s t u rd i ly b u i l t t h an t h ose o f M i rzapu r r o ck she l te r s , B ago r , L anghna j a nd B h imbe tka . M i s ra a l so s t a ted t h e t wo m a in c onc lu s ion s d r awn b y L uka s a nd K ennedy ( 2002 : 1 0 1-107 ) r e ga rd ing t h e B h imbe tk a s ke le ta l r em a in s . T he se a r e t h e f o l low ing : ( 1 ) t h e r e i s c on s ide rab le b i o log ica l d i ve r s i ty p r esen t i n t h e b ones a nd t e e th ; a nd ( 2 ) a r chaeo log ica l a nd s t ra t ig raph ica l d a ta t e s t if y t o a n a nc ien t a nd

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C our te sy : V .N .M i s ra b lun ted b l ade s , l una tes , t r iang le s , p o in t s , a nd af ew t r apezes o f f i ne w o rkm an sh ip . T he r aw m a te r ia l s w e r e q ua r tz , q ua r tz i te , c he r t a nd r hyo l i te . A r rangem en t o f s t one s i mp ly ing t h e o u t l ine o f a c i r cu la r h u t w a s a l so f ound . Whee l m ade g r ey a nd r ed w a r e w e r e a l so r e cove r ed . R ema in s o f d om e s t ica ted c a t t le , a nd s heep /goa t a nd mo l lu scan s he l l s w e re a l so u nea r thed . T h e p auc i ty o f b one m a te r ia l a tT i lwa r a w a s i n te rp r e ted e i the r b ecau se o f t h e d ecay o f b one s c ou r se t ime o r b ecau se

t e chno logy , t h e v i r tua l a b sen ce o f t h e c r e s ted r i dge -gu id ing t e chn ique w a s ad i s t inc t ive f e a tu re . ( b )T i lwara M i s ra ( 1971 , 1 973a , 1 989d ) e xcava ted t h e m ic ro l i th ic s i te o fT i lwa ra , D i s t B a rm e r , R a js than , o n t h e l e f t b ank o ft h e r i ve rL un i . T he l owe r l e ve l h a sb een a s soc ia ted w i th t h e Me so l i th ic p ha se ,w i th t h eg r ea te s t c oncen t ra t ion o f m ic ro l i th s u nea r thed b e tween 2 0 a nd 3 5 cm b e low t h e s u rf ace . S uch m ic ro l i th s i n c luded b ack ed b l ade s , o b l iqu e ly

7 5

o ft h e p robab le c on sump t ion o f mo r e m i lk p roduc t t h an t h ef l e sh o ft h e i rb one s( M i s ra 1 989d : 2 66 ) .

c omp r i se r e s iden t ia l o ne s o n t h e o u te r s i d e s o ft h e m ound a nd af o r t if i ed e nc lo su r e i nt h e c en t r e , s how i n c ip ien tp l ann ing . S t one , mud b r ick a nd mud w e r e t h ep r inc ipa l m a te r ia l s f o rc on s t ruc t ion . T he r ew e r e e i gh t s t ruc tu ra l p ha se s i n t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod . O f t h e se f ou r b e longed t o P ha se I A o r p r e f o r t if i ca t ion , a nd f ou r t o P ha s e I B o r p o s t f o r t if i ca t ion . R e s iden t ia l s t ruc tu r e s , a pa r t f r om i s o la ted o nes o n t h e e a s ter n a nd n or ther n p a r t s o f t h e m ound , a r e g rouped i n to t h r ee c omp lexe s , w h ich a r e d iv ided b y o ne s t r ee t a nd o ne l a ne . I n P ha se I B I s t ruc tu r e 1 0 w a s t h e ' mo s t c omp le te a nd c omp lex ' w i th a t l e a s t e l even r oom s . T he p r e sen ce o f s t o rage b in p l a tf o rm s , f i r e p l ace s , q uer n s , p o t te ry , c ha r r ed g r a in s a nd a n ima l b one s i mp l ie s , M i s ra i n f e r r ed , t h a t t h i s w a s ar e s iden t ia l c omp lex , p robab ly b e long ing t o t h e c h ief o f t h e c ommun i ty . F rom P ha se V I I , e v idence o f t wo p o t te ry k i ln s w a s f ound . O n e o ft h ese h ad s e ve ra l e l onga ted a nd i n te r connec ted c hanne l s f o r l e t t ing o u t g a se s f r om w i th in , a nd a l a rge s t one q ue rn n ea rby wh ich w a s ' a lmo s t c e r ta in ly ' u sed f o r p ound ing a nd k n ead ing t h e c l ay u sed f o r p o t m ak ing . T he m o s t s p ec ta cu la r C ha lco l i th ic s t ru c tu r e i s am a s s ive f o r t if i ed e n c lo su r e mud a nd s t on e s t ruc tu r e , l o ca ted a lmo s t i nt h e c en t r e o ft h e s e t t lem en t ( M i s ra 1 997 : 2 61) . R ough ly r e c tangu la r i ns h ape , i tc omp r i sed f ou rr ampa r t s o rw a l l s m ade o f r amm ed mud a nd r e ve t ted w i th s em i -d r e s sed s t one s b o th o n t h e i n ne r a nd o u te r f a ce s a nd e n c lo s ing a n a r ea o fa bou t 6 00 s q . m . T he a ve rage l e ng th o ft h e E -W r unn ing w a l l s i s3 5 m a nd t h a t N -S r unn ing w a l l s2 7m .

( c )B h imbe tka T he h ab i ta t iona l d epo s i t o ft h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod a t B h imbe tka r o ck she l te r ( M i s ra 1 985 ,1989e ) v a r ied f r om 0 . 20 m t o 1 . 50 m i n d i f f e r en t c aves . M ic ro l i th s r e cove red f r om B h imbe tka e xcava t ion i n c luded b lun ted b ack b l ade s , o b l ique ly t r unca ted b l ade s , p o in t s , c r e scen t s , t r i ang le s , t r apeze s , a nd t r an sve r se a r rowhead s . C h e r t a nd c ha lcedony w e r e t h e m a in r aw m a te r ia l s . Wh i le d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r p ha se o ft h e Me so l i th ic , b l ade s w e r e l o nge r , w ide r a nd t h ick e r , w i th t h e p a s sage o ft im e t h ey b ecam e s m a l le r a nd mo r e s ymm e t r ic . B e s ides , t h e p ropo r t ion o fg eom e t r ic m ic ro l i th sw a s s m a l le r . A n i n te re s t ing a spec t w a s t h e r e cove ry o fq ue rn s a nd r ubbe r s f o rt h e p r epa ra t ion o ff ood . T he d ead w e r e b u r ied e i th e r i na n e x tended o r c r ouch ed p o s i t ion w i th t h eh ead g ene ra l ly t ot h e e a s t , b u ts om e t im et o t h e w e s t . T h e g r ave g ood s i n c luded s t one q ue rn s , r ubbe r s , a n t le r s , b one t o o l s a nd h aema t i te n odu le s . T he p re sence o f a sh , c ha rcoa l a nd c ha r r ed b on e s a nd a n t le r s i mp l ied t h e u se o ff i re r egu la r ly b y t h e Me so l i th ic m en . P ro toh i s tory B a la tha l I n p ro toh i s to ry ( M i s ra 1 992 ) m ade a r e v iew o n r e sea r ch o n I ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion , B e s ide s am a jo r c on t r ibu t ion b y M i s ra ( a nd h i s t e am ) i s t h e e xcava t ion o f t h e C ha lco l i th ic s i te o f B a la tha l ( M i s ra 1 997 , M i s ra e ta l . 1 995 , 1 997 ) i ns ou thea s t R a ja s than . M i s ra c i ted t wo m a jo r r e a son s f o r e xcava t ing B a la tha l . S ince b o th A ha r a nd G i lund t h e t wo mo s t w e l l -known s i t e s o f A ha r c u l tu re i n t h e Mewa r r e g ion -w e re e xcava ted d u r ing 1 960 s , t h e c u l tu r a l a ff in i t ies b e tween t wo s i t es a nd t h e H a rappan c i v i l iza t ion s o f G u ja ra t , e spec ia l ly i n r e spec t s o fa r ch i tec tu r e a nd c e ram ics , c ou ld n o t b e r e a l ized . B e s ide s , b o th t h e se e xcava t ion s w e r e o n a s m a l l s c a le . H ence ab igge r e xcava t ion o f as i te o f t h e A ha r c u l tu r e w a s n eeded . B a la tha l w a s e xcava ted f r om 1 994 t o2 000 j o in t ly b yt h e D eccan C o l lege , P une a nd t h e I n s t i tu te o f R a ja s than S tud ie s , U da ipu r . T he e xcava t ion h a s y i e lded e v idence o ft wo c u l tu r a lp e r iod s —I .C ha lco l i th ic o r A ha r c u l tu r e a nd I . E a r ly H is to r ic . T h e C ha lco l i th ic o ccupa t ion c ove r ed t h e e n t i r e s i t e , b u t t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic o ccupa t ion w a s c onf ined t o a s ma l l a r ea i nt h e c en t ra l a nd s ou the rn p a r t o f t h e m ound . O ve r f o r ty s t ruc tu r e s o fb o th p e r iod s h ave b een e xpo sed . T he C ha lco l i th ic s t ruc tu r e s , w h ich

R ega rd ing t h e f un c t ion o f t h e f o r t if i ed e nc lo su r e , M i s ra s ugges ted t h r ee p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion s . F i r s t ly , i tc ou ld h ave b een u sed f o rs om e ' i ndu s t r ia l a c t iv i ty ' s i nce t h e e nc lo su re c on ta ined l a ye r s o f b u rn t c owdung , b ur n t e a r th a nd a sh . S econd ly , i t c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r s h e l te r ing o l d p eop le , c h i ld r en a nd c a t t le d u r ing a n a t tack b y e x ter n a l e n em ie s . T h i rd ly , t h e e nc lo su re c ou ld h ave h ou sed t h e c h ief o ft h e c ommun i ty . M i s ra s t a ted , " Th e s t one a nd mud b r ick s t ruc tu r e s u ncov e r ed a t B a la tha l a r e u n ique i nt h e s en se t h a ts u ch s t ruc tu r e s a r e u nknown i nt h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e s o fc en t ra l I nd ia , t h eD eccan o rt h e G anga p l a in s . O nt h e o t he r h and , i nt h e i rs i ze , c omp lex i ty a nd u se o fs t one a nd b r ick s ,t h ey b ea rs t r ik ing s im i la r i ty t ot h e s t ruc tu r e s f ound a tt h e ` Ha r appan s i tes o fR o jad i , S u rko tada , D ho lav i ra a nd Kun ta s i i nG u ja r a t" ( 1 997 : 2 63 ) .

7 6

S umma r iz ing t h e i mpo r tance o f B a la tha l , M i s r a s a id :

B a la tha l c e r am ic s c on s is t o f t wo c a tego r ie s o f w a r e : f i ne a nd c oa r se . T he f i ne v a r ie ty c omp r i sed T h in R ed w a r e , T an w a re , B lack -and -Red w a r e , B uf fw a r e a nd R e se rved S l ip w a r e . O nt h eb a s i s o f t h e p r e sence o fm ica i nt h e c l ay u sed f o rR e se rved S l ip s h e rd s , M i s r a a rgued t h a t t h i s w a r e w a s p roduced a t B a la tha l . G og te 's XRD a na ly s i s o f s uch s he rd s h a s c onf i rm ed t h i s . T h e c oa r se w a r e c omp r i sed T h ick B r igh tR ed s l ipped w a r e( u sed f o r s t o rage ) , c oa r se R ed w a r e , B u rn i shed G r ey w a re a nd P l a in G r ey w a r e .

" Ba la tha l w a s ap rospe rou s a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lem en t . I tp roduced e nough a g r icu l tu ra l s u rp lu s t o m ake l a rge m an -powe r a va i lab le f o r c on s t ru c t ing t h e m a s s ive f o r t if ied e n c lo su re a nd r e s iden t ia l s t ruc tu res o fs t one , mud b r ick a nd mud . Un l ike i n o the r c on tempo r a ry C ha lco l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic c u l tu re s , t h e t e chno logy o f t h e i nhab i tan t s w a s p r ima r i ly b a sed o n c oppe r t oo l s r a the r t h an o n t ho se o f s t one . T he p r e sence o f i mp r es s ive p ub l ic a r ch i tec tu r e a nd a l a rge mu l t i room ed r e s iden t ia l c omp lex s ugge s t s ac h ief dom s oc ie ty . V a r ia t ion s i n t h e s i ze a nd q ua l i ty o fr e s iden t ia l s t ru c tu r es s ugge s t a n e conom ic a nd s oc ia l h i e ra r chy . T he c l o se s im i la r i ty o f t h e l a te r ( I B ) p ha se o f B a la tha l i n a r ch i tec tu r e a nd c e ram ic s w i th t h e H a rappan c u l tu r e o f G u ja ra t s ugge s t s t h a t t h e p eop le o f B a la tha l h ad c l ose r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e l a t te r a nd p robab ly d e r ived t h e i n sp i ra t ion o f i mp res s ive p ub l ic a r ch i tec tu re , r e s iden t ia l c omp lexe s , a nd T an Wa re f r om t h em " ( 1997 : 2 72 ) .

T he t o o l s a nd w eapon s o f B a la tha l C ha lco l i th ic p eop le w e r e m a in ly m ade o fc oppe r . O n t h e b a s i s o fp l an ta nd a n ima lr ema in s , M i s ra i n f e r r ed t h a tt h e p eop le p rac t i sed a m ixed e conomy , b a sed o n f a rm ing , s t ock ra i s ing , h un t ing , f ow l ing a nd f i sh ing . C a t t le ( 7 3% ) w e r e t h e p r edom inan t d om e s t ic a n im a l , f o l lowed b y s heep -goa t ( 19% ) , b uf f a lo ( 3 .10% ) , a nd p ig . W i ld a n ima l s w e r e h un ted . T he r e cove ry o f c ha r r ed b on es i mp l ie s t h a t f l e sh w a s r oa s ted o no pen f i r e . A s r ega rd sp l an t s , c e r ea l s a nd l e n t i l s a ppea r t o h ave b een p rodu ced i n c on s ide rab le q uan t i t ie s , a nd w e r e s t o red i ns t o rage b in s . B ead s o fs em ip r ec iou s s t one s a nd t e r r aco t t a , a nd b ang les o fc oppe r , s he l l a nd t e r raco t ta w e r et h e m a in t ype so fo rnam en t so ft h e C ha lco l i th ic p eop le . T e r raco t ta b u l l so fs ma l l s i ze i mp l ied t h e i rw o r sh ip . O n t h e b a s i s o f f i nd ing s o f s im i la r b u l l f i gu r ine s f r om Ma rm i i n C h i t tau rga rh d i s t r ic t M i s ra ( M i s ra e ta l . 1 993 )p ropo sed t wo h ypo th ese s . T he f i r s tw a s t h a t t h e se b u l l f i gu r ines m igh t h ave b een m ade a t t h a t s i te a nd e xpo r ted t o o the r p l ace s . T h e s e cond p o s s ib i l i ty w a s t h a t t h e r e c ou ld h ave b een as h r ine o f b u l l c u l t a t Ma rm i whe r e t h e f i gu r ine s w e r e o f f e r ed t o t h e d e i ty b y p eop le f r om Ma rm i a nd a d jacen tv i l lage s .

D i l ip C hak raba r t i h a s m ade a n i n te r e s t ing o b serva t ion o nB a la tha l . A cco rd ing t oh im , " The p ro toh i s to r ic c h rono logy o f B a la tha l h a s a dded an ew , i fn o tr evo lu t iona ry , d im en s ion t oo u r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e A ha r c u l tu r e . T he e xcava to r s r i gh t ly p o in t o u t c .2 600 BC ( unca l ib ra ted ) a s t h e g ene ra l p e r iod o f i t s b eg inn ing , w i th t h e g ene ra l d a te s o f i t s m idd le a nd l a te l e ve l s b e ing c .2 400 / 2 300 BC ( unca l ib ra ted ) a nd c . 1 800 BC ( unca l ib ra ted ) , r e spec t ive ly . Wha t t h ey c u r iou s ly f a i l t oc on s ide r i st h e i mp l ica t ion o ft h e c a l ib ra ted r ange o ft h ese t h r ee c h rono log ica l p o in t s : c . 300 2 900 BC ( c a l ib ra ted ) , 2 900 -2600 BC ( c a l ib ra ted ) a nd c .2 200 -2000 BC ( c a l ib ra ted ) . T h e re s hou ld n o t b e a ny d oub t a bou t t h e b eg inn ing o fp ro toh is to r ic o ccupa t ion a t B a la tha l t owa rd s t h e c l o s ing c en tu r ies o f t h e f ou r th m i l lenn ium BC . T h i s h a s t h r ee m a jo r i mp l ica t ion s . F i r s t , t h i s i sa s e a r ly a s t h e b eg inn ing o fe a r ly H a rappan o ccupa t ion a tK o t D i j i , a mong o t he r s i tes , a nd s e cond , t h i s i sa l so a s e a r ly a s t h e b eg inn ing o f G ane shwa r -Jodhpu ra c u l tu r e o fn o r th -ea s tR a ja s than . T h i rd , t h e n on i ron p ha se o f t h e p ro toh i s to r ic o ccupa t ion o f t h e a r ea c on t inued t i l l c . 2 000 BC o r a l i t t le l a te r" ( Chak raba r t i 1 999 : 2 19 ) .

F o r ty -f ive r ad ioca rbon d a te s a r e a va i lab le f r om B a la tha l -3 0 f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s a nd 1 5 f r om t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic . O f t h e f o rm e r , 2 5 ( c a l ib ra ted ) , wh ich a r e s t ra t ig r aph ica l ly c on s i s ten t , r ange f r om 3 700 -3620 BC t o 2 200 -1800 BC , m ak ing t h e e a r l ie r p a r t o fB a la tha l o l de r t h an t h e E a r ly H a rappan , a nd t h e l a te r p a r t c on tempo ra ry w i th Ma tu r e H a r appan c u l tu r e s a nd t h e o l des t k nown f a rm ing -ba sed s e t t lemen ti nI nd ia . O ft h e 1 4 ( c a l ib ra ted ) d a te s f r om t h e E a r ly H i s to r ic p e r iod , 1 0a r es t ra t ig raph ica l ly c on s i s ten t . T hey r ange f r om 7 60 -400 BC t o 1 30 -380 AD T he E a r ly H i s t ro ic s e t t lem en tp robab ly f l ou r i shed f r om 4 00 BC t o3 00 AD .

C l ima te a s af a c tor F o l low ing a n e co log ica l a pp roach i sa n i mpo r tan t a spec t o f M i s ra 's w o rk , b e i ti n P r eh i s to ry o r

7 7

P ro toh i s to ry ( M i s ra 1 976b , 1 976c , M i s ra e t a l . 1 979 -80 ) . I n c a se o f p ro toh is to ry , h e q ue s t ioned p a lyno log i s t G u rud ip S ingh 's o ve r a l l h ypo the s i s ( S ingh 1 971 ; S ingh e ta l . 1 974 ) t h a t f l uc tua t ion s i n r a inf a l l p l ay ed a d ec i s ive r o le i n t h e e m e rgence , d i f fu s ion , p ro sper i ty a nd d ec l ine o f H a rappan C iv i l iza t ion i n n o r th -we s t I nd ia ( M i s ra 1 984 ) . T rac ing t h e i n te l lec tua l p ed ig r ee o f S ingh 's h ypo the s i s t oA u r e l S t e in a nd Ma r sha l l -w ho h ad p ropo sed , o n t h e b a s i s o fa r chaeo log ica l e v idence i n B a luch i s than a nd S ind , t h a t c l ima te i n t h o se r eg ion s d u r ing I ndu s c i v i l iza t ion w a sw e t te rt h an a t p re sen t . M i s ra a l so n o ted t h e d i f f e r ence b e tween S ingh 's t h eo ry o n t h e o ne h and a nd A u re l S t e in 's a nd Ma r sha l l 's o n t h e o t he r , o n t h r ee i mpo r tan t a spec t s . F i r s t , S ingh 's e v idence o f c l ima te w a s b a sed o n p a lyno log ica l r a the r t h an a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . S econd , c l im a t ic c hange c on s i s ted o fs eve ra l f l uc tua t ion s c ove r ing t h e a lmo s t e n t i r e H o locene p er iod i n n or th -wes t I nd ia r a the r t h an b e ing c onf ined t o t h e H a rappan p e r iod . T h i rd , t h e f l uc tua t ion s i n r a inf a l l w e r e r e la ted n o t o n ly t o g row th a nd d ec l ine o f t h e H a rappan c u l tu r e , b u t a l so t o t h e e me rgence o f a g r icu l tu r e -ba sed l i f e f r om t h e 8 t h m i l lenn ium BC a nd i t s e xpan s ion i n t h e4 th a nd 3 rd m i l lenn ium BC i nn o r th -we s tI nd ia .

c u l tu r e w a s t h e s e cond h ypo th e s is o fS ingh . I nt h i s r e ga rd M i s ra d i scu s sed f ou r p ha ses o f H a rappan c u l tu r e , E a r ly , Ma tu re , L a te , a nd D egen e ra te o r OCP . I fo n e w ou ld a ccep t S ingh 's h ypo the s i s , o n e w ou ld e xpec t , M i s ra a r gued , t o f i nd a g r ea te r d en s i ty o f N eo l i th ic -Cha lco l i th ic a nd H a rappan s i t e s i nt h e r e la t ive ly l e s s h a r sh w e s t R a ja s than a nd n o r th G u ja ra t p l a in s t h an i n t h e h ype r -a r id C ho l i s tan . B u t t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i sq u i te t o t h e c on t ra ry . T he re i s ah i gh c oncen t r a t ion o f H a r appan s i te s o f t h e f i r s t t h ree p ha se s i n t h e H ak ra -Ghagga r s y s tem a nd t o ta l a b sence a way f r om i ti nt h e d e se r t . H ence i n c rea sed r a inf a l l w a s n o t ad ec i s ive f a c to r i n t h e r i se a nd g row th o f H a rappan c u l tu r e . R a th e r a ny e xp lana t ion f o r r i se a nd f a l l o f H a rappan c u l tu r e s hou ld t a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e f l uc tua t ion s i nt h e w a te rr eg im e o ft h e G hagga r -Hak ra r i ve r . S ingh 's t h i rd h ypo th e s i s w a s t h a t ad ec rea se i nr a inf a l l a r ound 1 800 BC l e d t oa d ec l in e o f t h e I ndu s c i v i l iza t ion . M is r a a c cep ted t h a t t h e r e w a s u nden iab le d ec l ine i n m a te r ia l p ro spe r i ty a nd c i v ic s t anda rd s . H ow eve r , s u ch d ec l ine d id n o t r e su l t i n ad ec r ea se i np opu la t ion . O nt h e c on t ra ry , w ha t h appened w a s am ig r a t ion o f p opu la t ion f r om t h e l owe r I ndu s v a l ley i n to S au ra sh t ra a nd f r om H ak ra -Ghagga r v a l ley i n to n o r th P un jab , H a ryana a nd t h e u ppe r Y amuna G anga d oab . T he s udden p ro l if e ra t ion o ft h e L a te H a r appan s i te s i n t h e l a t te r a r ea s i mp l ie s s u ch m ig ra t ion . M i s ra p o in ted o u t t h a t a t l e a s t i n t h e c a ses o f n o r th P un jab a nd t h e u ppe r Y amuna G anga d oab , r a inf a l l w a s n o t s i gn if ican t ly h i ghe r t h an i nt h e a d jo in ing p a r t s o fP un jab a nd H a ryana w h ich w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th d en se h uman s e t t lem en t s d u r ing E a r ly a nd Ma tu re H a r appan t im e s . T he r ef o r e t h e se n ew r e g ion s o fc o lon iza t ion , M i s ra i n f e r r ed , c ou ld n o t h ave c onf e r r ed a ny s i gn if i can t a dvan tage s t o t h e i mm ig r an t s . A cco rd ing t oh im ,

M i s ra e xam ined t h e f ou r h ypo the se s p ropo sed b y S ingh a ga in s t t h e b ackd rop o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . T he f i r s t h ypo the s is v i sua l ized a n i n c r ea se i nr a inf a l li nt h e s em i -a r id a nd a r id b e l t so f R a ja s than a r ound 8 000 BC , l e ad ing t o t h e em e rgence o fc e rea l a g r icu l tu r e i nn or th -we s t I nd ia s oon a f te r . M i s ra p o in ted o u t t h e t o ta l a b sence o f a r chaeo log ica le v idence o fp r e I ron A ge a g r icu l tu r e o ve rt h ev a s te xpan se o fw es ter nR a ja s than , o u t s ide t h e G hagga r v a l ley . S ingh h ad g i ven t wo r e a son s f o r t h i s a b sence : o ne , l a ck o fa dequa te f i e ld w o rk , a nd t wo , t h e mound s o rs i t e s m igh th ave g o tb u r ied u nde r a eo l ian s and . M i s ra r e jec ted b o th t h e se e xp lana t ion s . R ega rd ing i n adequa te f i e ldwo rk , h e r e f e r r ed t oh i si ndependen tw o rk s i nce 1 959 a sw e l l a s t h a t w i th L e shn ik a nd R a jagu ru e ta l . i nn o r th G u ja ra t , L un i v a l ley , a nd o ve r al a rge a r ea f u r the r n or th , a nd a s w e l l a s t h a t o f A l lch in a nd h e r c o l league s ( A l lch in e t a l . 1 978 ) w h ich h ave n o t g i ven a ny e v idence i n s uppor t o f S ingh 's h ypo thes i s . A bou t S ingh 's s e cond e xp lana t ion , M i s ra a r gued t h a tt h e re w a sn oe v idence o fm a s s ive a eo l ian a c t iv i ty a f te r 2 000 BC t h a t w ou ld h ave b u r ied a l lo l d mound su nde rs and .

" On t h e o the r h and , t h e s h if t o ft h e c ou r se s o ft h e Y amuna a nd S u t le j t o t h e e a s t a nd w e s t , r e spec t ive ly , w ou ld h ave c on s ide rab ly r e duced t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fb o th s u rf ace a nd s ub su rf ace w a te ri n t h e G hagga r v a l ley . T h i s w ou ld , i n d ue c ou r se , h av e a dve r se ly a f f ec ted b o th n a tu ra lv ege ta t ion a nd a g r icu l tu r e , a nd f o r ced t h e p opu la t ion t o s h if t t o a r ea s l i ke n or th P un jab , H a ryana a nd t h e u ppe r Y amuna -Ganga d oab w he r e s e a sona l s t r eam s o r ig ina t ing i nt h e S iwa l ik sp rov ided a dequa te w a te r f o r a g r icu l tu r e a nd p a s tu r e . I ti s , t h e ref o r e , q u i te u nn ece ssa ry t oi n voke t h e d e te r io r a t ion o fc l im a te t o e xp la in t h i s m ig ra to ry p h enomenon" ( 1984 : 4 81) .

I n c rea sed r a inf a l l a r ound 3 000 BC b e ing a c au sa t ive f a c to r i n t h e d eve lopm en t o f H a rappan

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T h e f ou r th h ypo the s i s o f S ingh w a s t h a t a r id i ty b e tw een 2 000 a nd 1 000 BC w a sr e spon s ib le f o rt h e c u l tu ra l g ap b e tween t h e H a r appan a nd t h e PG W c u l tu r e s . R ef e r r ing t o t h e a r chaeo log ica l e x cava t ion s a tB hagwanpu r a i nH a ryana , D adhe r i , N aga r a nd K a tpa lon i n P un jab , a nd Manda i n J ammu , M i s ra p o in ted o u t t h a tt h e PG W c u l tu r e a t t h ese s i te so ve r lapped w i th t h eL a te H a rappan . And h ence t h e r e w a s n o h i a tu s . T he e v idence s f o r s uch o ve r lap , M i s r a a s se r ted , " ef f ec t ive ly k nock s t h e b o t tom o u t o ft h e d e s icca t ion h ypo the s i s o fS ingh" ( 1 984 :4 82 ) .

o fs upe r impo s i t ion a nd s ub jec t m a t te r a nd s t y le o f t h e p a in t ing s , Ma thpa l a nd M i s r a h ave g rouped t h em i nn ine p ha se s . T he p a in t ing s o fP ha ses I -V b e long t o t h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod w i th h un t ing g a the r ing a s p r ima ry mode o f s ub s i s tence wh i le t ho se o fP ha se V I b e long t ot h e t r an s i t iona l p e r iod when t h e h un te r -ga the r e r s h ad t a k en t o d om es t ica t ion o f a n im a l s u nde r t h e i mpac t o ft h e C ha lco l i th ic a g r icu l tu r i s t s o f t h e p l a in s . T he p a in t ing s o fP ha se s VH IX b e long t ot h e H i s to r ica l p e r iod . A cco rd ing t o M is ra , B h imbe tka p a in t ing s o ft h ep r eh i s to r ic p e r iod a r e t e chn ica l ly s upe r io rt o , a e s the t ica l ly mo r e p l ea s ing , a nd e t hnog raph ica l ly mo re i n f o rma t ive t h an t h e p a in t ing s o ft h e H i s to r ic p er iod . T he mos t c ommon s ub jec t s o f t h e se p a in t ing s a r e w i ld a n ima l s , a nd s c enes o fh un t ing , f i sh ing , a nd f ood g a the r ing a c t iv i t ie s . T he se p a in t ing s g r ea t ly s upp lemen t t h e k now ledge d er ived f r om t h e e xcava t ion s , t h row ing l i gh to nt h e e conom ic ,t e chno log ica l , r e l ig iou sa nd s oc ia ll i f e o f t h e c ave d we l le r s . T he p r eh i s to r ic a r t o f B h imbe tka , M is ra a rgu ed , i sc ha rac te r ized b y i t s c l o senes s t o n a tu r e , d om inan ce o f a n im a l f i gu re s a nd h un t ing s c ene s , n a tu ra l i sm a nd v i ta l i ty o f a n ima l b ody a nd r e p r e sen ta t ion o fv a r iou s a spec t s o fh un t ing -ga the r ing w ay o fl i f e .

R ock A r t O ne o ft h e a im so fM i s ra 's w o rk a tB h imbe tka w a s t o r e la te t h e r o ck a r t t r ad i t ion s o f C en t ra l I nd ia ( M i s ra 1 981 ; M i s r a a nd Ma thpa l 1 979 , 1 989 ) w i th a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s . A long w i th h i s e xcava t ion a tI I F -23 r o ck s he l te r , h e a l so s t ud ied t h e m a in f e a tu r es o fp r eh i s to r ic r o ck a r t o fB h imbe tka a nd s upe rv i sed t h e P h .D . t h e s i s o fY . Ma thpa l ( 1984 ) w ho m ade ac omp r eh en s ive s t udy o ft h e a r t . M i s ra ( 1981) p o in ted o u tt h r ee r e a son s a st ow hy r o ck a r t s t udy h a s n o t b een e mpha s ized b y m a in s t ream a r chaeo log i s t s .T hese i n c lude f i r s t ly ,t h el o ca t ion o f p r eh i s to r ic r o ck a r t s i te s i n acces s ib le h i l ly a nd f o r e s ted c oun t ry a nd c on sequ en t ly d i f f icu l ty o f a cce s st ot h em ;s e cond ly t h e d i ff icu l ty o fd a t ing t h e p a in t ing s a nd p rov id ing t h em a r e l iab le c h rono logy ; a nd t h i rd ly , t h e l a ck o f t h e k ind o f v a r ied c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l o ne e xpec t s t o f i nd i n a n a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion . T he r e a son f o r t h e c on cen t ra t ion o f c ave p a in t ing s i n c en t ra l I nd ia , a cco rd ing t oM i s ra , i s' p u r e ly g eo log ica l ' , s i nce t h e V indhyan r o ck s i n c en t ra l I nd ia a r e f o rm ed o f s and s tone wh ich w ea th e r s e a s i ly t o f o rm s he l te r s . P a in t ing s i n B h imbe tka a r e f ound o n c ave w a l l s a nd c e i l ing s a s w e l l a s i ns ma l l h o l low s o r n i che s f o rm ed b y n a tu ra l w ea the r ing o fr o ck . Mo s t o ft h e p a in t ing s a r e i n r e d a nd w h i te c o lou r s . H oweve r , g r een a nd y e l low c o lou r s a r e a l so o cca s iona l ly u sed . T he o l de s tp a in t ing s a r e t h e g r een o ne s s i nce t h ey a r e p r e se rved o n ly i nf r agm en t s a nd o ccu r a t t h e b a se o f p a in t ing s equence . T he r e cove ry o f h aema t i te n odu le s w i th g round f a ce t s i n mo r e t h an t wen ty h ue s f r om e xcava ted h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t s i mp l ies t h e i r u se i n p a in t ing . T he p a in t ing s w e r e m ade b y t h in b ru she s , p robab ly m ade o ft w ig s . I n t h e e a r l ie r p ha se t h e a n ima l b ody w a s u sua l ly s hown o n ly i no u t l ine . H ow eve r , i nt h e l a te r s t age s i tw a s d eco ra ted w i th g eom e t r ic p a t te rn s . A l though a n ima l a nd h uman f i gu r es a r e u sua l ly d r awn i n p rof i le , g r ea te rr e a l i sm i ss hown i nt h e d ep ic t ion o f a n ima l f i gu r es t h an t h o se o fh uman s . O n t h e b a s i s

L ack o f p a in ted r o ck p i eces i n s t ra t if ied d epo s i t s a nd o f a s soc ia ted o rgan ic m a te r ia l s s u i tab le f o r r ad iom e t r ic d a t ing a r e t h e t wo i mpo r tan th and icap s i n e s tab l i sh ing a n a bso lu te c h rono logy o f t h e p a in t ing s . H oweve r , s om e a t temp t s a r e b e ing m ade b y R ober t B edna r ik a nd h i s A u s t ra l ian s c ien t i s t c o l leagu e s t o d a te p igm en t s amp les f r om B h imbe tka . E thnoarchaeo logy T a lk ing a bou t t h e p a t ter n o fh uman a dap ta t ion s i n t h e s em i a r id a nd a r id z one o f R a ja s than , M i s ra ( 1994a ) e xp la ined t h e p r eva lence o f t h e d eep r oo ted t r ad i t ion s d ue t o ' c er ta in e nv i ronm en ta l a s w e l l a sh i s to r ica l f a c to r s ' . A cco rd ing t oh im , wh i le " t he f euda lb ackg round h a sc on t r ibu ted a pp r ec iab ly t ot h e p e r s i s tence o ft r ad i t iona l w ay s o fl i f e i nt h e d eser t r eg ion s" ( 1994a : 1 03 ) , e nv i ronm en ta l c ond i t ion s " impose s eve r e c on s t ra in t s o n e conom ic g row th a nd c hange w h ich i nt ur nc on t r ibu te st ot h e p e rpe tua t ion o f t r ad i t iona l a dap t ive p a t ter n s" ( 1994a : 1 01 ) . M i s ra s t a ted t wo f e a tu r e s a bou tt h e c ommun i t ie s i n t h e d e se r t z one . F i r s t , a l l t h e c o mmun i t ie s a r e i n te r l ink ed b y a n i n t r ica te w eb o f s ymb io t ic e conom ic a nd s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s . S econd , t h e

7 9

d e se r t r e g ion i s l a rg e ly f r ee f r om c a s t e -ba sed t e n s ion s a nd c onf l ic t s , u n l ik e m o s t o t h e r p a r t s o f I nd ia . A s r e ga rd s t h e s e t t lem en t p a t te rn , i t i s m a rk ed b y s ma l l n uc lea t ed v i l lag e s w i th an umbe r o fw id e ly d i spe r sed s a te l l i t e h am le t s o rh om e s t ead c l u s te r s ( d han i s ) . I nM i s r a 's v i ew , " t h ep a t ter ni sa p rodu c t o f h i gh p e r c ap i ta r e qu i r em en t o f a r ab le l a nd w h ich i s d i c ta ted b y l ow a g r icu l tu ra l p rodu c t iv i ty d u e t ot h e p oo r q ua l i ty o fs andy s o i l s a nd s c a r c i ty o fw a t e r "( 1 994a : 1 0 5 ) .U sua l ly p eop le o fo ne c a s te o rl i n eage r e s id ei n ad han i . R ega rd ing t h e n a tu r e o fh ou s ing , w h i le i nt h e c o r e o rp a r en t v i l lage r i ch e r f a rm e r s a nd t r ade r s l i ve i n h ou se s m ade o fs t on e ,b r ick a nd mud , i nt h ed han i sp oo r e r f a rm e r s l i v e i n c i r cu la r w a t t le h u t s w i th c on ica l r oof s .

a n th ropo log ica l l i t e r a tu r e o r i n c en su s r e po r t s . T h ey l i ve e n t i r e ly b y h un t ing w h ich i n c lud e s a n im a l s s u ch a s b l ackbu ck , c h ink a r a , n i lga i , w i ld b oa r , f o x , j a ck a l , p o r cup in e , a nd m on i to r l i za rd . T h ey a l so t r ap a nd k i l l b i rd s l i ke p a r t r idge , d ov e , a nd p i g eon . T h eh un t ing a nd t r app ing e qu ipm en to f t h e V an V ag r i s c on s i s t s o f am uzz le load ing g un , r anp i o r k u so ( aw ooden s t u f fw i th ar e c tangu la r i r on b l ad e ) , s p ea r , k udk o ( m e t a l t r ap ) ,j aa l ( n e t ) , p an sa ( n oo se t r ap ) a nd b ow a nd a r row . T h ey a l so u se d og s . T h e i r m a t e r ia l p o s se s s ion s a r e v e ry f ew a nd i n c lud e af ew a l um in ium a nd e a r th en p o t s f o r c ook ing , e a t ing a nd s t o rage o fw a t e r , t h e i rh un t ing g ea r , af ew d onk ey s f o r c a r ry ing t h e i r b e long ing s , a nd o n e o rt wo g oa t s w h ich a r e u su a l ly s a c r if iced t ot h e i rg odd e s s .

A sr e ga rd se conom ic a dap ta t ion s ,t h ek ey f e a tu r ei n t h e a r id z on e ,M i s r aa r gu ed , i st h e a cu t e s c a r c i ty o f w a te r . A g r icu l tu r e i s a p r im a ry o ccupa t ion , a l though b ecau se o f l ow a nd u n ce r ta in r a inf a l l , c u l t iva t ion i sl a rge ly c onf in ed t oo n eh a rve s tg rown d u r ing t h e mon soon . T h e m a in c r op s a r e b a jr a o r p ea r l m i l le t ,j owa r o rg r ea t m i l le t , m o th a nd t i l . I n t h e e a s te rn p a r t o ft h e d e s se r t w h e r e w e l l w a te r i s a va i lab le f o ri r iga t ion , t h e w in t e r c r op s c u l t iva t ed c omp r i se w h ea t , b a r ley , g r am , p ea , e t c . B ecau se o f t h e e xce l len t f o dd e r g r a s se s i n t h e d e se r t , e v en t h o se w ho a r e p r im a r i ly c u l t iva to r s k eep s s om e l i v e s tock , wh i le c ommun i t ie s l i k e t h e R eba r i s o r R a ika s a nd B an ja r a s a r e p r edom inan t ly l i v es tock b r eede r s . R ega rd ing c r af t s , t h e C ham a r s w o rk i n l e a th e r , as e c t ion o ft h e B a la i s a r e e ngaged i nt h e s p inn ing o fw oo l a nd w eav ing o fc a rpe t s , b l ank e t s a nd s h aw l s , a nd G ado l iya L oha r s a r e i tn e r an t b l ack sm i th s . T h e B an ja r a s a t o n e t im e w e r e t h e t r ad i t iona l t r ad e r s a nd t r an spo r t e r s b u t w i th t h e d eve lopm en t o f m od er n m ean s o f t r an spo r t h ave b een r e duced t ot r ad ing i nb u l lock s a nd w o rk ing a s l a bou r e r s . A s r e ga rd s t h e c ommun i t ie s p rov id ing e n te r ta inm en t , t h e K a lbe l iya s a r e s n ak e c h a rm e r s , s i nge r s a nd d an ce r s . B hopa s a r e p r ie s t s a nd mu s ic ian s , a nd as e c t ion o ft h e B h i l s s p ec ia l ize i n n a r ra t ing t h e b a l lad o fP abu j i , ah i gh ly v en e r a t ed R a jpu th e ro . B e s id e s , t h e r e a r em embe r s o fs e ve ra l c a s t e so f f e r ing p rof e s s iona ls e rv ice st oo t he rc a s t e s . T h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een s e rv ice c a s t e a nd o t h e r c a s t e si sg ove rn ed b yt h ea a ts y s t em i nw h ich e a ch f am i ly o f as e rv ice c a s t e s e rve s ag r oup o ff am i l ie s b e long ing t oo t h e rc a s te s .

A s r e ga rd s g a th e r ing , t h e w i ld p l an t f ood s a r e c on sum ed i n amuch l a rg e rm ea su r e b y t h e s e t t led p ea san t ry t h an b yt h e n om ad ic g r oup sl i k et h eV an V ag r i h un t e r s , s i n ce m o s t o ft h e s e f ood s r e qu i r e , M i s ra e xp la in ed , e l abo r a t e p roc e s s ing a nd c ook ing wh ich t h e V an V ag r i s f i nd t o o t e d iou s t o u nd e r tak e . B e s id e st h eV an V ag r i s , n om ad i sm -a n i n t eg r a l a s pec t o ft h e r u r a l l i f e i nt h e d e se r t -i s p a r t icu la r ly c ha r ac t e r i s t ic o fp a s to r a l c ommun i t ie s , t r ad e r s a nd c e r ta in s e rv i ce c a s te s . H owev e r , t h e d eg r ee o fm ob i l i ty v a r ie sa c co rd ing t ot h en a tu r eo f t h e o ccupa t ion . T hu sM i s r a 's a c coun t" ex emp l if i e s t h e c apa c i ty o ft h e d e se r t p opu la t ion t od eve lop a v a r ie ty o fe conom ic a nd c u l tu ra l a dap ta t ion st ot h e e co log ica l n i ch e s c ha r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e r e g ion " ( 1 994 : 1 24 ) . M i s r a a l so s t ud ied t h e s u rv iva l o f t h e h un t ing g a the r ing t r ad i t ion si nt h e G ang ap l a in sa nd c en t r a l I nd ia ( Naga r a nd M i s r a 1 990 , 9 93 , 1 994 ) . F o rt h e G anga p l a in , d a ta h av e b een g a the r ed f r om p ub l i sh ed , p r ima r i ly c o lon ia l , s ou r ce s e xcep tt h o se o n t h e K an ja r s . O n t h e b a s i s o fW i l l iam C rook e 's T r ibe sa nd C a s t e so ft h eN or th - W e s t ern P rov ince s a nd O ud h ( 1 896 ) , t wo g r oup s r e levan t f o rM i s ra 's s t udy , w e r e ( 1 ) H un t e r s , F ow le r s e t c . a nd ' M i sce l lan eou sa nd D i s r epu tab le L ive r s" . C rook e 's l i s t i n c lud ed a mong h un t e r s a nd f ow le r s , g r oup s s u ch a s A h e r iya , B ah e l iya , B and i , B anga l i , G andh i la , G id iya a nd K an ja r . T h e m i sce l lan eou s a nd d i s r epu tab le l i ve r s w i th s om e d eg r ee o f h un t ing -f o r ag ing a c t iv i t ie s w e r e t h e B adh ik , B awa r iya , B han tu , H abu r a , S an s iya a nd S i ya rm a r . B o th t h e g r oup sp r ac t i sed h un t ing -f o r ag ing a nd , i n s om e c a se s , f i sh ing b u t t h e s e cond g roup h ad a cqu i r ed an o to r ie ty f o rt h e i r i n du lgen ce i nc r im e . F o r e xamp le , t h e A h e r iya s c a t ch s n ak e s a nd r o a s t

V an V ag r i so r' dwe l le r so ft h ef o r e s t ' ( M i s r a 1 990 ) a r e t h e p r in c ipa l h un t ing c ommun i ty o ft h e d e se r t . T h i s g roup h a s n o t b een m en t ioned e a r l ie r i na ny

8 0

b a l lam ( s pea r ) , p hand i o rt a n t la ( al a rge t r ap m ade u p o f mu l t ip le n oo se s ) , m ang r i , k handa r i , k udka , e t c . T ra ined d og s a r e a l so u sed i nh un t ing . Sm a l l b a l l s o fe xp lo s ive p owde r a r e u sed f o rk i l l ing w i ld b oa r .

a nd e a tt h em , wh i le t h e o ccupa t ion o ft h e B ahe l iya i sd e sc r ibed a sh un t ing ,b i rd t r app ing a nd c o l lec t ion o fj ung le p roduce . T he B and i , l i k e t h e B ahe l iya , a r e b a s ica l ly b i rd c a tche r s . T h e B anga l i e a t t h e f l e sh o fc l oven o ru n c loven f oo ted a n im a l s , f ow l s , f i sh a nd c r ocod i le s . T he G andh i la e a t s qu i r re l s , q ua i l s , t o r to i se , d og s , e t c . T he K an ja r s ub s i s t b y h un t ing j a cka l s , w o lve s , e t c . , t r app ing b i rd s a nd s qu i r r e l s , d i gg ing o u t s nake s , e t c . F rom c o lon ia l e t hnog raph ic s ou r ce s , n o t much i n f o rm a t ion i s a va i lab le o nt e chno logy a nd t e chn ique s o fh un t ing . H oweve r , t h e m a jo rt o o l a nd w eapon o ft h e K an ja r i sK han t i o r Khan ta wh ich s e rve s a s ad agge r o r s ho r t s pea r f o r k i l l ing w o lve s a nd j a cka l s , a s a s pade f o r d igg ing s nake e t c . o u t o ft h e i r h o le s , f o r d i gg ing e d ib le r oo t s , a nd a s ah a t che t f o r c hopp ing w ood . T he K an ja r h a rd ly u se b ow a nd a r row . R a the r t h ey u se g u le l ( p e l le t b ow o r s l ing ) wh ich r equ i r e s much g r ea te r s k i l l . T h e B ahe l iya u se a v e ry i n gen iou s mode o ft r app ing b i rd sw i th as e r ies o ft h in b amboo s , l i k e af i sh ing r od , o n w h ich b i rd l im e l a sa i s s m ea r ed . A l l t h e c ommun i t ie s a l so e xp lo i t w i ld p l an t s , a nd s om e o ft h em l i k e K an ja r a l so c o l lec th on ey .

S i tua t ing V .N .M i sra i nI nd ian A rchaeo logy I ti s s u rp r i s ing , r a the r d i sappo in t ing , t h a t d esp i te mo r e t h an 2 00 y ea r s o f h i s to ry o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , I nd ia 's c a se i s h a rd ly e mpha s ized i n g ene ra l d i scou r se o f a r chaeo log ica l t h eo ry . Y e t , r i gh t s i nce c o lon ia l p e r iod t h e r e a r e i n te r e s t ing t h eo r e t ica l i s sues i n I nd ian a r chaeo logy . V e ry b r ief ly o ne c ou ld s t a te t h a tt h e c o lon ia l a pp roache s h ad v a r iou s s t rand s -s uch a s O r ien ta l ism ( f o r e xamp le S i r W i l l iam J ones ) , U t i l i ta r ian i sm ( i . e . J am e s M i l l ) , R oman t ic i sm , a nd H ege l ian i d ea l i sm ( M i t te r 1 977 ) s om e t im e s c omp lem en t ing a nd s om e t ime s c ompe t ing w i th o ne a no the r . Wh i le t h e O r ien ta l i s t a nd r om an t ic i s t a pp roache s l a uded I nd ia 's p a s t , M i l l h ad a d i spa r ag ing a t t i tude t o I nd ia 's h e r i tage . T hu st h e c o lon ia l a pp roache sw e r e n o t a mono l i th . T he n a t iona l i s t s choo l o f h i s to r iog raphy g r ew f r om t h e l a te 1 9 th c en tu ry . H oweve r , i t i s i n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t t h e n a t iona l i s t h i s to r ian s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e i r f r am ewo rk t h e s ympa the t ic a t t i tude o f O r ien ta l i s t a nd r oman t ic i s t s cho la r s o n t h e o n e h and , a nd t h e p e r iod iza t ion o f I nd ian h i s to ry b y J am e s M i l l o n t h e o t h e r . T he m a in d i f f e rence b e tween t h e c o lon ia l a nd n a t iona l i s t a pp roache s w a s t h e f o l low ing : D e sp i te d i f f e r en ces , t h e c o lon ia l a pp roache s a s a w ho le , g ave l e g i t imacy t ot h e c o lon ia l r u le e i the r i na n e xp l ic i t o r i mp l ic i t m anne r . O n t h e o t h e r h and , t h e n a t iona l i s t h i s to r iog r aphy i n g ene ra l p rov ided a n i n te l lec tua l b ackg round t o c ha l lenge t h e c o lon ia l r u le i n I nd ia . Du r ing t h e p o s t -co lon ia l p e r iod , a r chaeo logy h a s b een t a ugh t i n a n umbe r o f u n ive r s i t ie s a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch h a s b een c a r r ied o u ti nt h ese c en t r e s , i na dd i t ion t ot h e w o rk o fA r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia -t h e l a t te r s a id t o b e t h e b igge s t s t a te f unded a r chaeo logy d epa r tm en ti nt h ew o r ld .

F rom c en t ra l I nd ia , N aga r a nd M i s ra ( 1994 ) d i scu s sed t wo s em i -nom ad ic c ommun i t ies , t h e P a rdh i s a nd K u chbandh ia s w ho u sua l ly h ave a p e rmanen t h om e b a se a way f r om p ea san t v i l lage s w h e r e t h ey l i ve d u r ing r a iny s e a son . T he se s e t t lem en t s c on s i s t o f s m a l l h u t s m ade o f s t one w a l l s w i th t h a tch ed r oof s . D u r ing t h e r e s t e i gh t m on th s o f d ry p e r iod , t h ey a r e o n t h e m ove a nd c amp i nt h e f o r e s t e i the r i nt h e o pen o r i n s ma l l , f l im sy h u t s . T h e d i v i s ion o fl a bou r i sk nown f r om t h ef a c tt h a tm en a nd g rown u pb oy sg o f o rh un t ing w h i le w om en g o t o t h e v i l lage s t o s e l l v a r iou s i t em s t o v i l lage w om en . A bou t 5t o 1 0 f am i l ie s , r e la ted t oe ach o t he rb yb lood o rm a r r iage , l i ve i na t empo ra ry c amp w h ich i s moved e ve ry f ew w eek s . T h e P a rdh i c a r ry t h e i r g ood s e i the r o n b u l lock s o r b u l lock c a r t s wh i le mov ing t h e c amp wh i le t h e K u chbandh ia u se p ub l ic t r an spor t . A s r e ga rd s s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , b o th P a rdh i a nd K uchbandh ia a r ed i v ided i n to an umbe ro fe xogamou s c l an sw i th n uc lea r f am i ly a s t h e t yp ica l t y pe . P o lygamy i s f a i r ly c ommon a nd t h e p an chaya t o r c ommun i ty c ounc i l i ss t rong . B o th t h e c ommun i t ie s b u ry t h e i r d ead .

An i mpor tan t f a c tt ob e b o rne i nm ind i st h a t wh i le a r chaeo logy i s p r ima r i ly a p a r t o f h i s to r ica l t r ad i t ion i nB r i ta in a nd o fa n th ropo log ica l t r ad i t ion i nt h e U n i ted S t a te s , I nd ia p rov ide s ac o mb ina t ion o f b o th t h e t r ad i t ion s . F rom 1 940 s o nwa rd s , e spec ia l ly a f te r I nd ia 's i ndependence i n 1 947 , much e mpha s i s w a s g i ven t o t h e s t udy o f p reh i s to ry . Empha s i s o nt h e d i scove ry o fH a rappan s i tes i nI nd ia w a s a no the r i mpo r tan t f e a tu re d u r ing

H un t ing i st h e p r im a ry o ccupa t ion o ft h e m a le s o f b o th t h e c ommun i t ies . T hey h un t aw ide v a r ie ty o f a n im a l ss uch a sw i ld b oa r , c h i ta l ,a nd s ambha r .T he h un t ing i mp lem en t s o f t h e t wo g roup s i n c lude

8 1

t h ep o s t -co lon ia lp e r iod s i nce t h e mo s tw e l l -known H a rappan s i tes l i k e H a rappa , Mohen joda ro a nd C hanhuda ro , w en t t o P ak i s tan . One b a s ic p u rpo se o f l a y ing s t r e s s o n p r eh i s to r ic r e sea r che s a f t e r i ndepend ence c ou ld b et h ea t temp tt ot r ace b ack t h e a n t iqu i ty o f h uman c u l tu r e o n as c ien t if ic b a s i s c o inc id ing w i th t h e N eh ruv ian s c ien t if i c t empe r . T hu s , empha s i s o n e co logy a nd r e con s t ruc t ion o f p a s t e nv i ronm en t a s ab ackg round f o r s t udy ing p r eh i s to ry b ecam ea ni mpo r tan ta spec t .

( 1988b : 5 2 ) . A b road g eog raph ica l a pp roach h a s a l so b een f o l lowed b y v a r iou s s cho la r s i nw r i t ing t h e a r chaeo logy o f t h e s ubcon t inen t . I tw a s S i r Mo r t im e r Wh ee le r who i n 1 946 l am en ted t h a t " t h e r e h ave b een a r chaeo log i s t s a nd a n th ropo log i s t s i n t h i s c oun t ry , b u t n o c oh e r en t s c ience o fa r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy h ad e ve r b een e s tab l i sh ed" ( 1946 : 1 25 ) a nd h ence m ade a p a s s iona te p l ea t o emp loy n a tu ra l s c ience s a s a r egu la r c omponen t o f r e sea r ch . I n a n a pp rop r ia te m anne r , F .E . Z eune r o f t h e I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy , L ondon w a s i n v i ted b y H .D . S anka l ia o f D eccan C o l leg e , " t o s t udy t h e i mp lem en t -bea r ing s t ra ta , wh ich h ad b een f ound m a in ly i nt h ev a l ley so ft h er i ve r s ,t oe s tab l i sh t h e i r t opog r aph ica l a ff in i t ies a nd t h e i r g eo log ica l c on tex t , a nd , i fp o s s ib le , t oa r r ive a t ac h rono logy o ft h e e a r l ie s t e v idence o ft h e p r e sence o fm an i n t h i s p a r t o f I nd ia" ( Zeune r 1 950 : 1 , 1 951 , 1 963 ) . H oweve r , p r io r t oZ eun e r , i nt h e f i r s t P a laeo l i th ic e x cava t ion i n I nd ia a t Ku l iana i n O r i s sa b y t h e C u lcu t ta Un ive r s i ty , B o se a nd S en ( 1948 ) t r i ed t o r e con s t ruc t t h e e nv i ronm en t a nd g eo -ch rono logy o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e o ccu r r ence o f p a laeo l i th s i n a s soc ia t ion w i th l a te r i te , a na spec tf u r the re x tended b yA .K . Gho sh ( 1966 ,1970 ) . R econ s t ruc t ion o fp a s t e nv i ronm en t a nd i t s r e la t ion sh ip w i th p r eh i s to ry h a s b een t h e f o cu s o f s om e i mpo r tan t i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry r e sea r che s i nt h e l a s t t wo d ecade s -i nR a ja s than ( M i s ra 1 987a , 1 987b ) , R a ja s th an a nd G u ja ra t ( A l lch in e t a l . 1 978 ) , K a shm i r v a l ley ( Ag rawa l 1 992 ) a nd t h e S on v a l ley , Madhya P rade sh ( Sha rma a nd C la rk 1 983 ) . Mo r eove r , f o r r e con s t ruc t ion o f e nv i ronm en t e mpha s i s h a s b een g iv en o n g eomo rpho logy a nd p a laeoenv i ronm en t ( J o sh i 1 970 , R a jagu ru a nd K o r i se t ta r 1 987 ; P appu 1 974 , 1 985 ; P appu a nd D eo 1 994 ) , p a laeon to logy ( Badam 1 979 ) , a n im a l r em a in s ( Thom a s 1 974 ) , p l an t r ema in s ( Fu l le r 2 002 ; K a ja le 1 996 ; V i shnuM i t t r e 1 990 ) a nd p a lyno log ica l s t ud ie s ( S ingh 1 97 1) .

A l though t h e r e a ro se a g ene ra l a wa r ene s s a bou t e nv i ronm en ta l r e con s t ruc t ion f o r I nd ian a r chaeo logy o n ly d u r ing t h e s econd h a lf o f t h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry , a t ten t ion w a s p a id t o g eog raph ica l f a c to r s b y s om e n ine teen th c en tu ry a r chaeo log i s t s wo rk ing i n I nd ia ( Chak raba r t i 1 988b : 5 0 -64 , f o r g ene ra l r ev iew s e e P addayya 1 994 ) . Wh i le C unn ingham a dop ted at o pog raph ica l a pp roach , R obe r t B ruce F oo t e , t h e f a the r o fI nd ian p r eh i s to ry , s ough t t o c o r r e la te t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l s i te s w i th g eog r aph ica l f e a tu r e s a nd S i r Au r e l S t e in c o l lec ted much i n f o rma t ion a bou t n a t ura lf e a tu r e so fs i te sa nd a r ea s s t ud ied b yh im i n t h e n o r th -we s ter n p a r t o f t h e s ubcon t inen t . S ub sequen t ly , F . J . R icha rd s w ro te o n t h e g eog raph ica l f a c to r s i nI nd ian h i s to ry f o l lowed b y S pa te 's f amou s b ook o n r eg iona l g eog raphy o f I nd ia whe r e h e t a lked a bou t ' ma jo r g eog raph ica l l i neam en t s o f I nd ian h i s to ry ' ( i . e . D e lh i -A rava l l i C ambay a x i s a nd t h e V indhyan d i v ide ) a nd t h e ' p e r enn ia l n uc lea r r eg ion s ' ( s uch a s t h e P e shwa r a nd P o twa rv a l ley , P un jab p l a in s , a nd t h e P ancha la r eg ion i nt h e G anga Y amuna d oab ) . I n f luenced b y C y r i l F ox 's w o rk i n B r i ta in a nd i mp rov ing u pon R icha rd s a nd S pa te , S ubba rao ( 1958 ) d i v ided t h e I nd ian s ubcon t inen t i n to t h r ee r eg ion s i nt e rm s o f t h e i r r e la t ive i mpo r tance i n I nd ian h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy ; ( a ) n uc lea r r eg ion s o r a r ea s o f a t t rac t ion ( t he P un jab , t h e I ndo -Gange t ic d iv ide , Ma lwa , Maha ra sh t ra , K a rna taka a nd T am i l N adu ) , ( b ) a r ea s o f r e la t ive i s o la t ion ( S indh , Ma rwa r , G u ja ra t , S au ra sh t ra , K onkan , K era la a nd A s sam ) , a nd ( c ) a r ea s o f i s o la t ion o r c u l d e s a c ( t h e A r ava l l i s , t h e h igh land s o fc en t ra l I nd ia a nd o the r h i l ly a nd f o r e s ted a r ea s n ow i nhab i ted b y t r iba l p opu la t ion s ) . A l though s ub sequen t f i e ldwo rk h a s s om ewha t a l te r ed t h e r e la t ive p o s i t ion s o f s om e r eg ion s t o a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , S ubba rao 's d i v i s ion b road ly h o ld s g ood . T he b a s ic v a lue o f S ubba r ao 's p o s tu la te , a cco rd ing t o C hak raba r t i " i s t h a t i t g i ve s a g eog raph ica l f r am ewo rk t o u nde r s tand t h e mu l t i l inea l p roce s s o f c u l tu ra l d eve lopm en t i n I nd ian h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy"

S een a ga in s t t h i s b ackg round , M i s ra 's i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry w o rk f o r r e con s truc t ing t h e c l im a t ic h i s to ry o fR a ja s than i s ac on t inuum . T he r e a r e f ou r a spec t s o fM i s r a 's e co log ica l a pp roache s . F i r s t , a s h a s b een s t a ted , e co log ica l b ackg round w a s a n i mpor tan t a spec t o f M i s ra 's p reh i s to r ic r e sea r ch . S econd , f o r r e con s t ru c t ing t h e p a s t e nv i ronm en t , h e d epended o n mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch , s uch a s g eomo rpho logy , s ed im en to logy , p a la eon to logy , a r chaeozoo logy a nd a r chaeobo tany . T h i rd , M i s ra e mpha s ized a dap ta t ion t o l o ca l e nv i ronm en t i n h i s s t udy o f p r eh i s to r ic c u l tu r e s .

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a r chaeo logy a nd e t hnog raphy a r e t wo b r anche s o f s c ience a nd a r e c omp lem en ta ry t o e ach o the r ( M i t ra 1 979 : 1 41) . H e t hough t t h a t t h e A ndaman ese whose s t one i mp lem en t s c ou ld h a rd ly b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om p r eh i s to r ic i mp lem en t s , p e rhap s p e rpe tua te d i r ec t ly a c u l tu re p r edom inan t i nt h e I nd ian p en in su la i nP l e i s tocene a nd p o s s ib ly e a r l ie rt im e s ( 1979 : 1 4 -15 ) . H oweve r , i tw a s F u r e r H a im endo r fw ho c a tego r ica l ly m en t ion ed t h a t" i ti s t h e k now ledge a ccumu la ted t h rough t h e d e ta i led s t udy o f c on tempo ra ry p r im i t ive c u l tu r e s , wh ich s upp lem en t s t h e d a ta a nd b r ea the s l i f e i n to f r agm en t s b rough t t o l i gh t t h rough t h e s padewo rk o ft h e a r chaeo log i s t" ( Fu r e r - H a im endo r f 1 943 : 1 ) . L a te r , h e w en t f u r the r i ns t a t ing t h a t t h e C h enchu s a r e s t i l l l i v ing i n` p a laeo l i th ic s t y le ' , t h e R edd ie s i n t h e ` n eo l i th ic ' a nd t h e B ondo s a nd G adaba s i nt h e l a te ` n eo l i th ic ' s t age ( Fu r e r -Ham endo r f 1 948 ) . S ubba rao p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e a r chaeo log i s t d r aw s h eav i ly o n e t hno logy a nd u se s t h e k now ledge g a ined b y t h e s t udy o f t h e l i f e a nd b ehav iou r o f l i v ing c ommun i t ie s -p a r t icu la r ly o fp eop le who a r e h i s to r ica l ly b ackwa rd a nd i n e a r l ie r s t ages o f c i v i l iza t ion ( 1962 : 1 27 ) . S peak ing o f t h e u rgency o f e t hno -a r cheo log ica l r e sea rch i n g en e ra l , L ongac r e h a s o p ined t h a t " i fw e a nd o u r s t uden t s d o n o t u nde r tak e e t hno -a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch s oon , f u tu r e a r chaeo log i s t s w ou ld w ond e r h ow w e c ou ld h ave b een s o s ho r t s i gh ted" ( 1991b : 1 0 ) . F o r T homp son ( 1991) t h e k ey f e a tu r e o f a n e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l w o rk i st h a t i ti sd one f o r ' a n a r chaeo log ica l p u rpose ' . H oweve r t a k ing ' a v e ry b road d ef in i t ion o ft h e f i e ld ' S inopo l ii nh e rr ev iew o fS ou th A s ian e t hnoa r chaeo logy i n c luded n o to n ly e xp l ic i t ly e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s , b u t a l so " e thnog raph ic s t ud ies t h a th ave f o cu sed o nm a te r ia l c u l tu r e , w i thou t n ece s sa r i ly b e ing c once rn ed w i th i t sa r chaeo log ica li mp l ica t ion s" ( 1991 : 1 78 ) .

L a s t b u t n o t t h e l e a s t , d e sp i te h i s e mpha s i s o n e co logy , M i s r a ,u n l ik e Dhava l ika r , d i dn o tr e so r tt o w ha t m ay b e c a l led t h e e co log ica l d e te rm in i sm . I n c id en ta l ly , D hava l ika r h a s u sed e nv i ronm en t a s t h e d e te rm in ing f a c to r f o r t h e r i se a nd f a l l o ft h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e a tI namgaon ( f o r ac r i t ique , s e e P addayya 1 994 ) . F o r M i s ra , h oweve r , e co logy c on s t ra in sb u td oe sn o td e te rm ine c u l tu r e s .B e s ide s , M is ra , l i k e G raham e C la rk , e mpha s ized o n Meso l i th ic c u l tu re , a nd l i ke G raham e C la rk , a dop ted t h e e co log ica l a pp roa ch t o Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e . T he r e a r e f ou r m a in a spec t s o f h i s s t udy o n p ro toh i s to ry . F i r s t , l i k e p reh i s to ry , h e c r i t ica l ly d i scu s sed t h e r o le o fc l ima te a s af a c to r i nt h e r i se a nd f a l l o f H a rappan c i v i l iza t ion . S econd , o n t h e b a s i so fh i se xcava t ion a tB ago r ,h e c ou ld s how t h e i n te r ac t ion b e tween m e ta lu s ing a g r icu l tu ra l i s t sa nd l i th ic t oo lu s ing h un te r -ga the r e r s . T hu s ,t h e c u l tu ra l u nevenne s s o f t h e c omp lex h e r i tage o f I nd ia i s t r aced t o ar emo te p a s t . T h i rd , h i s e xcava t ion a t B a la tha l h a s t h rown i mpo r tan t l i gh t o n t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re i n g ene ra l a nd o f n o r thwe s t I nd ia i n p a r t icu la r . F ou r th , h e a l so d i scu s sed t h e r o le o fR igved ic S a ra sva t i i nr e la t ion t ot h e I ndu s C iv i l iza t ion ( 1994b , 2 00 1b ) . I n t h i s r e ga rd , h e h igh l igh ted t wo a spec t s . F i r s t ly , h e c ompa r ed t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f H a rappan s i te s o n t h e I ndu s r i ve r a nd o nt h e d ry c hann e lo ft h eG hagga r -Hak r ar i ve r . S econd ly , o n t h e b a s i s o f a r chaeo log ica l , g eomo rpho log ica l , s ed im en toog ica l , r emo te s en s ing , l i t e ra ry a nd f o lk lo r i s t ic d a ta , M i s ra i n f e r r ed t h a t b o th t h e S u t le j a nd t h e Y amuna f l owed i n t h e S a ra sva t i c hann e l i n t h e p a s t . H e p o in ted o u t t h a t t h e l i t e ra ry r e f e r ence s i n c lud ing t ho se i nt h e R igveda w i th r e ga rd t o t h e l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd d e s icca t ion o ft h e S a r a sva t i r i ve r c l o se ly m a tch w i th t h ef e a tu r e s a nd h i s to ry o ft h eG hagga r H ak ra r i ve r .

R ega rd ing h un te r -ga the r e r s i n a n th ropo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e , B e t t inge r ( 1991) r e f e r r ed t ot wo g ene ra l mode l s . T h e f i r s t , t h e d eve lopm en ta l mode l r ega rded h un te r -ga the r e r s a s p r im i t ive s a nd , c u l tu ra l ly b ackwa rd g roup s c apab le o n ly o f s imp les t u nder tak ing . T he h ea r t o f t h e mode l i s p rog re s s ive s oc ia l e vo lu t ion f r om l e s s t o mo r e a dvanced f o rm s . H un t e r -ga th e r e r s a r e p o r t rayed a s d i sadvan taged a nd b ackwa rd f o lk , i n e s sen ce , f o s s i l s f r om a n e a r l ie r s t age o f h uman e vo lu t ion . T h e s e cond ,t h e e co log ica l mode lr e ve r se st h e l o g ic o f t h e e a r l ie r mod e l o f h un te r -ga the r e r s a s u nde rp r iv i ledged . O n t h e o t he r h and , l a y ing s t r e s s o n a dap ta t ion a nd h om eo s ta s i s , t h e s e cond mode l t r ea t s t h e h un te r -ga the r e r s a sa n a dvan taged a nd , i n

L e t u s n ow t r y t o s i tua t e M i s r a i n t h e e th noa r chaeo log ica l r e sea r che s i n I nd ia . T he i mpo r tance o f e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s o n t h e b ew i lde r ing d i ve r s i ty o f t r iba l s i n t h e I nd ian s ubcon t inen t f o r a r chaeo logy w a s r e a l ized b y s cho la r s l i k e J am e s F e rgu s son a nd A lexande r C unn ingham f r om t h e n ine teen th c en tu ry ( A l lch in 1 994b : 5 ) . T he t r ad i t ion w a s c on t inu ed i nt h e e a r ly p a r t o ft wen t ie th c en tu ry b y Ma r sha l l , Mackay a nd Ananda C ooma ra swamy . T hu s a r chaeo log i s t s i n S ou th A s ia g ene ra l ly r e so r tt ow ha tB r idge tA l lch in c a l l s s pon taneou s e t hnoa r chaeo logy . Wr i t ing i n 1 923 , P . M i t ra m en t ioned t h a t p r eh i s to r ic

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t h e i r o wn w ay , s oph i s t ica ted f o lk w ho m ad e t h e l e ap t o a g r icu l tu r e o n ly w h en c i r cum s tan ce s b eyond t h e i r c on t ro l i r r evocab ly u p se t t h e i r t r ad i t iona lw ay so fl i f e .

s i n ce t h ee n c roachm en to ft h ec a s t e -ba sed e conomy a nd e x ten s ive d ef o r e s ta t ion f o r ced m any o f t h e t r iba l s w idd en c u l t iva to r s o f t h e h i l l s l ope s i n c en t ra l -ea s t I nd ia ( f o r e xamp le , t h e B i rho r s a nd H i l lK had ia s )t os p ec ia l ize i nh un t ing a nd g a th e r ing ( 1 969 : 1 64 ) . I no t h e rw o rd s ,h un t ing a nd g a th e r ing , w h ich w a s as ub s id ia ry m ode o f s ub s i s t en ce , b ecam e t h e p r im a ry o n e i n c ou r se o f t im e ( Adh ik a ry 1 989 : 1 5 ) . U nde r s tood i n t h i s p e r spec t ive , M i s r a 's v i ew i sc on t r a ry t o t h a t o f S u r a j i t S i nha w i th r e ga rd t ot h eh un te r -ga th e r e r so f t h eI nd ian m a in land .

C on s id e r ed f r om t h eb r oad p e r spec t ive o fS i nopo l i , M i s ra 's e t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s i nR a ja s than , G anga v a l ley a nd c en t r a lI nd ia m ay a l so b er e ga rd ed u nd e r e t hnoa r ch aeo logy . T h e r e a r e s i x a s pec t s o fM i s r a 's e t hnoa r ch aeo log ica l r e sea r ch . F i r s t , a s r e ga rd s m e thod s , h e d i d f i e ldwo rk a mong v a r iou s e t hn ic g r oup s , i np a r t icu la r h un te r -ga th e r e r s , r e so r t ing t o a n th ropo log ica l m e thod s o fp a r t ic ipan t o b se rva t ion a nd q u e s t ionn a i r e . H e a l so f o l low ed t h e a r ch iva l m e thod s b y s t udy ing c o lon ia l w r i t ing s o n t h e h un te r -ga th e r e r s o f t h e G anga p l a in . S econd , h e r e ga rd ed t h e c on t empo r a ry h un t e r -ga th e r e r s i n I nd ia a s d e scend en t s o f p r eh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s a nd i nt h a t s en se , h e f o l lowed t h e d i r ec t h i s to r ica l a pp roa ch i ne t hnoa r cha eo logy . T h i rd , h e a l so d r ew o u r a t t en t ion t o s e ve r a l e t hnog raph ic e xamp le s o f h af t ing o fm ic ro l i th si ns u i tab le s h af t sf r om v a r iou s p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld a nd t h u s , e mpha s iz ing t h e i mpo r tan ce o f e t hnog r aph ic s t ud ie s i n t h e f un c t ion a li n t e rp r e ta t ion o fp r eh i s to r ic t o o l s . I nt h a t s en s e , h e f o l lowed t h e g en e ra l c ompa r a t iv e a pp roach i n e t hnoa r ch aeo logy . F ou r th , h e a l so d i scu s sed t h e p roce s s o f i n co rpo r a t ion o f t r iba l s o c ie t ie s i n to c a s t e s o c ie ty w i th t h e h e lp o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog r aph ic d a ta ( M i s ra a nd N aga r 1 997 ) . F if th , M i s ra n o t o n ly d i scu s sed t h e h un te r -ga th e r e r c ommun i t ie s i n t h e h i l ly r e g ion w h ich i su sua l ly d on e b y e t hnoa r chaeo log i s t s , b u t a l so l a id s t r e s s o nt h e i rs u rv iva l e ven i nt h e p l a in s b y h i s s t udy i n t h e G anga p l a in s . S i x th , t h e p e r s i s t en ce o f t r ad i t iona l c ommun i t ie s i s , M i s r a a r gu ed , b ecau se o f b o th e co log ica l a d ap ta t ion a s w e l la sh i s to r ica lf a c to r s .

T h eo r e t ica l ly , d i f f u s ion i sm w a sa ni mpo r tan tm ode o fe xp la in ing c u l tu r e c hange i nI nd ian a r ch aeo logy e v en af ew d ecad e s a f t e ri n d ep end en ce . O n e c ou ld t a lk o ft wo k i nd so fd i f f u s ion i sm . T h e f i r s tw a st h e I r ano -cen t r ic ( o r We s t A s ia -cen t r ic ) d i f f u s ion i sm o fH .D . S anka l ia ( 1 974 , 1 975 -76 ) w ho a r gu ed t h a t j u s t a s i nh i s to r ica l t im e s , I nd ia w a s c o lon ized i n p r eh i s to r ic t im e s a s w e l l . S u ch p r oc e s s o f c o lon iza t ion w a s i n i t ia t ed , a c co rd ing t o S ank a l ia , f r om t h e r e g ion o f I r an a nd c ount ie s f u r th e r w e s twa rd s t h ough h e a l so m en t ion ed S ou th ea s t A s ia a s a no th e r r e g ion i nf lu en c ing t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e o f n o r th ea s t I nd ia b y i t s p o l i sh ed a nd g r ound a xe s a sw e l l a sr i ce ( 1 974 : 3 ) . T h e s e cond w a s t h e mod if i ed d i f f u s ion i sm o f S i r Mo r t im e r Wh ee le r w ho e mpha s ized t h a t " i d ea s h ave w ing s a nd m o r el i ab le t of l i ta i r i ly a bou to u rp r eh i s to r ic a s a bou t o u r h i s to r ic l a nd scape , w i th a b aff l ing i n tang ib i l i ty o r d i sgu i se" ( Wh ee l e r 1 9 52 : 1 85 ) , b ecau se " i t t a k e s am i l l ion y ea r s t o d ev e lop a s p e c ie s , p e rhap s am i l l ion s e cond s t o d ev e lop a n i d ea" ( 1 952 : 1 87 ) . T hu s Wh ee le r a r gu ed f o r d i f f u s ion o f i d ea s a nd n o t n ece s sa r i ly m a s s m ig r a t ion . A ga in s t t h i s d i f f u s iona ry f r am ewo rk C h ak r aba r t i ( 1 976 ) a r gued f o r ac a se o fi n d igenou s e vo lu t ion e s pec ia l ly f o r t h e i r on a g e . F rom l a te 1 960 s o nwa rd s N ew o r P roce s su a l A r ch a eo logy , w h ich h ad d ev e loped i nU n i t ed S t a t e s a nd We s t er n E u rope p r ima r i ly b yt h e ' B in -C la rk e ' s c hoo lh ad i t s i mpac to nI nd ia . H oweve rs u ch a pp l ica t ion o fN ew o r P roce s su a l A r ch aeo logy i n I nd ia w a s n o t n ece s sa r i ly a r e p l ica o f t h e We s t er n v i ewpo in t s . T h i s b ecom e s e xp l ic i t w h en o ne c ompa r e s a nd c on t ra s t st h ew o rk so ft h r ee I nd ian a r cha eo log i s t s S .C . Ma l ik ,H .D . S anka l ia a nd K .P addayya .

I ti sr e l evan t h e r e t o m en t ion t wo g en e r a l p o in t s m ade b y t h e s o c ia l a n th ropo log i s t S u ra j i t S i nh a a bou t h un t e r -ga th e r e r s . F i r s t ly , w h i le d i scu s s ing t h e ' Mu l t ip le s c a le s a nd n e two rk s ' o f I nd ian c i v i l iza t ion , S i nha ( 1 978 ) d i scu s sed t wo l e ve l s o f h un te r -ga th e r e r s i n I nd ia . T h e h un t e r s o f t h e A ndam an I s land r em a in ed i s o la t ed u n t i l r e cen t ly , a nd h en ce w e r e b r and ed b y S inha a sp r im i t iv e . O n t h e o t h e rh and , h un t e r s o nt h e I nd ian m a in land a r e a t a' s ymb io t ic ' l e ve l , s i n ce t h ey m a in ta in ar e gu la r c on tac t w i th t h e s e t t led p ea san t ry i n t h e n e ighbou rhood ( 1 978 : 1 2 5 ) . S econd ly , t h e h un t ing a nd g a th e r ing m ode o fs ub s i s ten ce b yt h et r iba l so f t h e I nd ian m a in land , a c co rd ing t oS i nh a , i s ac a se o f ' s econda ry p r im i t iv iza t ion ' o r ' d evo lu t ion ' ,

Ma l ik i sp o s s ib ly t h e f i r s t I n d ian a r ch aeo log i s t t o t a lk i nt e rm s o f ap roce s su a l a r ch aeo logy i nI nd ia i nf lu en ced b y R adc l if f e -B rown 's s t ru c tu r a l i sm a nd R ob e r t R edf ie ld 's a n th ropo log ica l w o rk s o n I n d ia . Ma l ik 's c oncep t o f p roce s su a l a r cha eo logy i s

8 4

i mpo r tan td im en s ion o fh i s f i e ldwo rk i st h a th e h a s s pen t mo s t o f h i s l i f e i n o n e s i ng le r eg ion t o u nde r s tand t h e a r chaeo log ica l c omp lex i t ie s i n a mu l t i -d i sc ip l ina ry m anne r . H i s a pp l ica t ion o f s e t t lem en t s y s tem p e r spec t ive f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e A cheu l ian c u l tu r e o f Hung s i v a l ley i sc e r ta in ly am i les tone i n I nd ian p r eh i s to ry . I n h i s s ma l l b u t u sef u l monog raph ( 1990 ) h e r e fu ted t h e a l lega t ion s a ga in s t p roce s sua l i sm . B u t u n l ike B inf o rd , h i s o p t im i sm w a s n o t e upho r ic , r a the r c au t iou s s i nce h e h igh l igh ted t h e ' l im i ted b u t f undam en ta l t a sk ' a ch ieved b yt h eP roce s sua lA rchaeo logy . H oweve r , w h i le Ma l ik a nd S anka l ia empha s ized t h e s pec if ic i ty o f I nd ian s i tua t ion o r t r ad i t ion e ven i n t h e i r g ene ra l a ccep tance o ft h e P roce s sua l o rN ew A rchaeo log ica l f r am ewo rk , f o r P addayya t h e a dop t ion o f t h e ' r ecen t t r end s ' i n t h e We s t , i mp ly ing P roce s sua l A r chaeo logy ' i st h e o n ly w ay ' t o o ve r com e t h e s ho r tcom ing s i n I nd ian a r chaeo logy .

d i f f e r en t f r om t h a t o f B in f o rd i n an umbe r o f a spec t s . F i r s t ly , u n l ik e B inf o rd who t a lk ed o f h ypo the t ico -deduc t ive m e thod , Ma l ik d i dn o tr e jec t i nduc t ive m e thod . R a the r h e s e em s t o h ave a ccep ted i t ( 1968 : 5 4 , 6 1 ) . S econd ly , u n l ik e B inf o rd , Ma l ik a ccep ted t h el im i ta t ion o ft h en a tu re o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T h i rd ly , h e a l so a ccep ted t h e r e la t ive n a tu re o f a r cha eo log ica l k now ledge w hen h e a rgued t h a t e ve ry s o c ie ty i n te rp r e t s t h e p a s t i n t e rm s o f i t s ' p e r cep tua l , c oncep tua l a nd m e taphy s ica l r e p roduc t ion o ft h e e x te rna l w o r ld ' . F ou r th ly , a n i mpo r tan t l i m i ta t ion o f P roces sua l a r chaeo logy i st h e i gno r ing o rm ak ing ac a r ica tu r e o f h i s to ry b y o ve r empha s iz ing a dap ta t ion a nd n eoevo lu t ion . Ma l ik n o d oub t e mpha s ized a' s oc ia l s c ience ' o r ' a n th ropo log ica l ' a pp roach t o a r chaeo logy , b u t h e d id n o t i g no r e h i s to ry . O n t h e o th e rh and , h e c on s ide red i t' mo r e f r u i tfu l ' t oh ave ' a c omb ined h i s to r ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l a pp roach ' . A l though Ma l ik c a l led f o r ap roce s sua l a r chaeo logy i nI nd ia , h e a ppea r st oi n c lude t h em e s wh ich w e r e t o b e r a ised l a t e r b y p o s tp roce s sua l a r chaeo log i s t si nt h e We s t . I nt h i s s en se , s om e t ime i tb ecom e s d i ff icu l t t o l a be l h im f o r s om e th ing a t t h e c o s t o ft h e o t h e r . F o r e xamp le , h e c on s id e r ed s t ru c tu ra l i sm i n h i s d i scu s s ion o n I nd ian c i v i l iza t ion . Wh i le h e s poke o n t h e i mpo r tan ce o f e t hnoa r chaeo logy ( 1968 : 3 4 -35 ) a nd t hough t o ft h e ' r eg iona l c u l tu ra l c on t inu i t ie s ' i n t e rm s o f ' t he c u l tu ra l -eco log ica l a nd p roce s sua l e xp lana t ion ' ( 1968 : 1 64 ) , h e a l so v i sua l ized t h e p r eva len ce o f t h ec a s te s y s tem i nH a rappan s o c ie ty b ya r gu ing f o r ' a v e ry e a r ly b eg inn ing ' o f o ne o f t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t s oc ia l i n s t i tu t ion s o f l a te r I nd ia ' t ha t c ha rac te r ize I nd ian s t y le ' ( 1968 : 1 07 ) .

W i th t h i s b ackg round , l e t u s n ow s i tua te V .N . M is ra who h a sb een a ne c lec t ic a sf a ra st h eo ry w a s c once rned . F o r e xamp le , h e c on s ide r ed b o th d i f fu s ion a nd e vo lu t ion a s f a c to r s o f c u l tu r e c hange . A s f a r a sN ew o rP roce s sua l A r chaeo logy i sc once rned h i s p e r cep t ion w a s c l o se r t oS anka l ia t h an t o Ma l ik o r P addayya . T h ree f e a tu r e s c ha rac te r ize M i s ra 's a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch w i th r ega rd t oN ew A r chaeo logy . F i r s t , h e e mpha s ized o n a dap ta t ion t o c on tempo ra ry e nv i ronm en t b y p r eh i s to r ic m an . S econd , h e c ondu c ted e t hnog raph ic r e sea rch t o p rov ide f l e sh t o t h e d ry b one s o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . T h i rd , h e a l so u sed q uan t i ta t ive m e thod s i n h i s p r eh i s to r ic s t ud ie s . S uch a n th ropo log ica l p e r spec t ive i sp a r t ly b ecau se o fh i s b ackg round i na n th ropo logy f r om L ucknow Un ive r s i ty a nd p a r t ly b ecau se o ft h e e m e rgence o f P roce s sua l A r chaeo logy wh ich c on s ide r ed a r chaeo logy a sa n th ropo logy .

T hu s Ma l ik e mpha s ized r e in te rp r e ta t ion o f a r chaeo logy i na n a n th ropo log ica l p e r spec t ive , b u t h e d i d n o t u se i t a ny f i e ldwo rk . F o r S anka l ia ( 1977 ) , o nt h eo t he rh and ,N ew A rchaeo logy w a sa s e to ft e chn ique sa nd m e thod st ot a ck le p rob lem si n t h e f i e ld . S anka l ia w a s n o t , e spec ia l ly wh i le d i scu s s ing N ew A r chaeo logy , t h eo r e t ica l ly a s much r i gu rou s a s w a s Ma l ik . T hu s o ne c ou ld s ay t h a t t h e s t r eng th o f Ma l ik w a s t h e w eakne s s o f S anka l ia a nd v i ce -ve r sa . I t i s t o t h e c r ed i t o f P addayya t h a t h e c omb ined a s t rong t h eo r e t ica l o u t look ( l ike Ma l ik ) w i th a n i n ten s ive f i e ld w o rk ( l ik e S anka l ia ) i n s ou th I nd ia . H e h a s m ade s i gn if i can t c on t r ibu t ion n o t o n ly w r i t ing o n P roce s sua l A r chaeo logy a s aw ho le , b u t a l so i n t e rm s o f m ak ing c omp rehen s ive r ev iew s o n t h e i r a pp l ica t ion i n I nd ia - e t hnoa r chaeo logy , s i te f o rm a t ion p roce s se s , m idd le r a nge t h eo ry , e t c . An

H oweve r , t h e re i sa n i mp r in t o fh i s to r ica l t r ad i t ion i n M i s ra 's w o rk a l so . F o r e xamp le , h i s w o rk o n B e rach b a s in c ou ld b e b road ly c a tego r ized u nde r c u l tu r e h i s to ry i n f r amewo rk . H e h a s a l so e xcava ted e a r ly h i s to r ic r em a in s f r om B a la tha l a nd K op ia . A cco rd ing t oM i s ra , h i s to ry i st h e " s to ry o f e n t i r e p eop le i nhab i t ing ac oun t ry o r ar eg ion . I ti s t h e s t o ry o ft h e i rs t rugg le a ga in s tt h e i re nv i ronm en t t ol i be ra te t h em se lve s f r om i t s h o ld a nd c onque r i t f o r t h e i r m a ter ia l , s oc ia l a nd mo ra l u p l if t . I n t h i s n o t ion o fh i s to ry i n d iv idua l f i gu r e sw he the rt h ey b e k ing s o r m i l i ta ry h e roe s , p r ie s t s o r p h i lo sophe r s , r e l ig iou s l e ade r s o r s c ien t i s t s , b ecom e l e s s

8 5

i mpo r tan t ,f o rt h e se f i gu r e sa r ea f t e ra l c r ea t ion so f t h e c u l tu r a l c ond i t ion s p r eva i l ing i nt h e s o c ie ty a t a ny g i ven p e r iod . T he se c ond i t ion s a r et h ec r ea t ion o f t h e s o c ie ty a s aw ho le . I ti so n ly a ga in s t t h e b a ckg round o f t h e c u l tu r e o f t h e s o c ie ty t h a t t h e a ch ievem en t s o r c on t r ibu t ion s o f i n d iv idua l p e r son s , h ow eve rg r ea t , c an b eu nde r s tood . T hu s i t i st h e s o c ie ty o r , m o r e p r ec i se ly , t h e c u l tu r e o ft h e s o c ie ty w h ich b ecam e t h e p rope r s ub jec t o f h i s to r ica l s t udy . T h i s c hang e i n t h e s c ope a nd m ean ing o fh i s to ry i si n ag r ea tm ea su r e d ue t ot h e i mpo r tan t r o le w h ich a r cha eo logy i si n c r ea s ing ly p l ay ing i nt h er e con s t ru c t ion o ft h ep a s t" ( 1 974 : 8 9 ) .

T h eo r e t ica l ly e c lec t ic , h e f o l lowed e co log ica l , e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l a nd q uan t i ta t ive a pp roa ch e s a s f a r a s a n th ropo log ica l t r ad i t ion o f I nd ian a r cha eo logy i s c on ce rn ed . H ow ev e r , h e h a s n o t i g no r ed h i s to ry e i th e r , a nd i n t h a t s en se , h e h a s b een c on sc iou s o f b o th t h e a n th ropo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l t r ad i t ion s o f I nd ian a r cha eo logy . H e i s n o t p a roch ia l a t a l l . F o r e xamp le , w h i le e mph a s iz ing p r eh i s to r ic r o ck a r t o fB h imbe tk aa nd o t h e rs i t e so fc en t ra lI n d ia ,M i s r as t a t ed , " I t i sn o t t h e h e r i tage o f ap a r t icu la r c ommun i ty , r a c e o r r e l ig ion . I tb e long s t o as t age o f c u l tu r a l e vo lu t ion w h en t h e a n ce s to r s o fa l p eop le s i no u r c oun t ry w e r e l e ad ing ah un t ing -ga th e r ing w ay o f l i f e . I ti s , t h e r ef o r e , t h e c ommon h e r i t ag e o f t h e e n t i r eI nd ian s o c ie ty" ( 1 981 : 1 6 ) .

M i s r a a l so c ompa r ed a nd c on t r a s t ed b e tween h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy . I n c ompa r i son t o t h e w r i t t en r e co rd s o f h i s to ry , a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd , a cco rd ing t oM i s r a , i s' e s sen t ia l ly i mpe r f ec t ' s i n ce i tc on s i s t s o ft h e s u rv iv ing m a te r ia l r em a in s o ft h e p a s t . O n t h e o t h e r h and , t h e a dvan tag e s o f a r chaeo logy o ve r h i s to ry a r e , M i s r a a r gu ed , t wof o ld - t h e o b jec t iv i ty a nd a nonym i ty o f t h e f o rm e r s i nce a r chaeo logy " con ce rn s i t se lf w i th t h e a ch iev em en t sa nd f a i lu r e so ft h e s o c ie ty a s awho le a nd t h e r ef o r ep rov id e su sw i th t h em o s td emoc r a t ic f o rm o fh i s to ry "( 1 974 : 1 2 ) .

P e r ce iv ed i n t h i s l i gh t , M i s r a a ppea r s t o b e a s e cu la r n a t ion a l i s t . T hu s , i nt h i s p ape r , am od e s t a t t emp t h a s b een m ad e t o s i tu a t e V .N . M i s r a i n I nd ian a r chaeo logy i n ah i s to r iog r aph ica l m ann e r . S im i la r s t udy o n o t h e r I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t s , b o th b e long ing t ot h ec o lon ia la nd p o s t -co lon ia lp e r iod s , i s an eed o ft h eh ou r .T h i sw ou ld e nab le u sn o to n ly t o e xp lo r e t h e c r ea t iv e e ngagem en t o f I nd ian a r chaeo log i s t s w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l t h eo ry a nd d a ta , b u t a l so w ou ld , h opef u l ly , s t r eng th en t h e c au se o fa r cha eo log ica l d i scou r se i no u rc oun t ry i n s u ch am ann e r t h a t , l i k e t h e I n d ian m a rk e t i nt h e p r e sen t i n ter n a t ion a l e conomy , I n d ian a r ch aeo logy w i l l n o t r ema in p e r iph e r a l t o t h e g en e r a l a r cha eo log ica l d i scou r se i nt h e w o r ld i na n e r a o f g l oba l iza t ion .

T o c on c lud e , M i s r a c on t r ibu t ed s i gn if i can t ly t o p r eh i s to ry , p ro toh i s to ry , e t hnoa r cha eo logy a nd r o ck a r t s t udy . L ik e S anka l ia , f i e ldwo rk h a s r ema in ed a h a l lm a rk o f h i s c a r ee r a nd l i k e G r aham e C la rk h e a pp l ied e co log ica l a pp roach t o p r eh i s to ry i ng en e r a l a nd Me so l i th ic i np a r t icu la r . R ef erence s A dh ika ry , A .K . 1 989 . H un te r s a nd g a the r e r s i nI nd ia : a p r e l im ina ry a pp ra i sa l o f t h e i r s t ru c tu re a nd t r an sf o rma t ion ,i n Man a nd E nv i ronmen t :B io log ica la nd C u l tura lP e r spec t ive sw i th S pec ia lR ef erence t oI nd ia ( S . S inha , e t a l . E d s . ) , p p . 8 16 . C a lcu t ta : I nd ian A n th ropo log ica lS oc ie ty . Ag rawa l D .P . 1 992 . Man a nd E nv i ronmen t i n I nd ia T hrough A ge s : a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry s t udy o ft h e I nd ian Q ua ternary w i th F ocu s o n t h e N or th W e s t . N ew D e lh i : B ook sa nd B ook s . A lam , M .S . a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 992 . Q uan t i ta t ive C ompo s i t ion a nd F unc t iona l A spec t o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic A s semb lage so fR ock S he l te rI IF -23 a tB h imbe tka , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t1 7 (2 ) :2 1-34 . A l lch in ,B . ( Ed . ) 1 994a .L iv ing T rad i t ion s :S tud ie si nt h e E thnoarchaeo log y o fS ou th A s ia . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd & I BH P ub l i sh ing C o . P v t . L td . A l lch in ,B . 1 994b . S ou th A s ia 's L iv ing P a s t , i nL iv ing T rad i t ions : S tud ie s i n t h e E thno -archaeo log y o fS ou th

A s ia , ( B . A l lch in E d . ) , p p . 1 12 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd & I BH P ub l i sh ing C o . P v t . L td . A l lch in , B . , A . G oud ie a nd K .T .M . H egde 1 978 . P reh i s tory a nd P a laeog eog raphy o f t h e G rea t I nd ian D e ser t . L ondon : A cad em ic P re s s . B adam , G .L . 1 979 . P le i s tocene F auna o fI nd ia . P une : D eccan C o l lege . B a sa , K .K . 1 998 . I nd ian Wr i t ing s o n t h e e a r ly h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy o fS ou th e a s tA s ia : Ah i s to r iog raphh ica l a na ly s i s ,J ourna lo ft h eR oya lA s ia t ic S oc ie ty . B e t t inge rR .L . 1 991 . Hun ter —Ga the re r s :A rchaeo log ica l a nd E vo lu t ionary T heory .N ew Y o rk : P l enum P re s s . B o iv in N . a nd D .Q . F u l le r 2 002 . L ook ing f o r P o s t P ro ce s sua l T heo ry i n S ou th A s ian A r chaeo logy , i n A rchaeo log y a nd I n te rac t ive D i sc ip l ine s , i nd ian A rchaeo log y i n R e t ro spec t V o l . 3( Se t ta r S . a nd R av i K o r i se t ta rE d s . ) ,p p . 1 9 1-216 .N ew D e lh i : I nd ian C ounc i l o fH i s to r ica lR e sea r ch a nd Manoha r . B o se , N .K . a nd D . S en 1 948 . E xcava t ions i n Mayurbhan j . C a lcu t ta : U n ive r s i ty o fC a lcu t ta .

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L onga c r e , W .A . 1 991b , I n t rodu c t ion , i nC e ram ic E thno a rchaeo logy (W . A . L ongac r e E d . ) , p p . 110 . T u c son : U n iv . o fA r izona P re s s . L uka c s , J .R . a nd K .A .R . K ennedy 2 002 . T he p l ace o f B h imbe tka s ke le ta l r e co rd i n S ou th A s ian P a laeo a n th ropo logy , i nt h e B io log ica lA n thropo log y o f Human S k e le ta lR ema in sf rom B h imbe tka , C en t ra lI nd ia ( K .A .R . K ennedy , J .R . L ukac s a nd V .N . M i sh ra E d s . ) , p p . 1 0 11 07 . P une : I SPQS . Ma l ik , S .C . 1 968 , I nd ian C iv i l i sa t ion : t h e F orma t ive p er iod . S h im la : I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fA dvanced S tudy . M i s ra , V .N . 1 962a . P rob lem s o fT e rm ino logy i nI nd ian P r eh i s to ry ,E a s te rn A n thropo log i s t 1 5 (2 ) : 12 124 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 962b . P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu r e o f We s tern R a jpu tana , B u l le t in o f t h e D eccan C o l l ege P o s t G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu t e2 1 :86 156 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 965 . Me so l i th ic P ha se i nt h e P r eh i s to ry o f I nd ia , i nI nd ian P reh i s to ry : 1 964 ( V .N . M i s ra a nd M .S . Ma te E d s . ) ,p p . 5 7 -85 . P une : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . 1 967 . P re a nd P r eh i s to ry o f t h e B erach B a s in . P une : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra ,V .N . 1 970 . C u l tu ra l S ign if i cance o fT h r ee C oppe r A r row -Head s f r om R a ja s than , I nd ia , J ourna l o fN ear E a s te rn S tud ie s2 9 (4 ) : 2 2 1-232 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 97 1a . Two m ic ro l i th ic s i te s i nR a ja s than A P re l im ina ry I nve s t iga t ion , E a s tern A n thropo log i s t 2 4 (3 ) : 2 37 -288 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 97 1b . S tone O b jec t s f r om N avda to l i , i n C ha lco l i th ic N avda to l i ( H .D . S anka l ia , S .B . D eo a nd Z .D . A n sa r iE d s . ) ,p p . 3 23 -350 . P une : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . 1 973a . P rob lem s o fP a laeo -eco logy , P a laeo c l ima te a nd C h rono logy o f t h e M ic ro l i th ic C u l tu r e s o f We s ter n I nd ia , i nR ad iocarbon a nd I nd ian A rchaeo logy ( D .P . Ag rawa l a nd A . G ho se E d s . ) , p p . 5 8 -72 . Mumba i : T a ta I n s t i tu te o fF undamen ta lR e sea r ch . M i s ra , V .N . 1 973b . B ago r - AL a te Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen t i nN or th - We s tI nd ia , W or ld A rchaeo logy 5 ( 1) : 9 2 110 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 974a . A r cha eo log ica l a nd E thnog raph ic E v idence f o r t h e H af t ing a nd U se o f M ic ro l i th s a nd R e la ted T oo l s ,P ura ta t t va 7 :3 12 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 974b . H i s to ry a nd A r chaeo logy -N eed f o r aN ew U nde r s tand ing ,P rachya P ra t ibha 2 ( 1) : 8 14 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976a . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock s he l te r I I F -23 a tB h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , P ura ta t t va 8 :1 3 -36 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976b . E co log ica l A dap ta t ion D u r ing t h e T e rm ina l S tone A ge i n We s te rn a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , i n E co log ica l B ackg round o f S ou th A s ian P reh i s to ry ( K .A .R . K ennedy a nd G . P o s seh l E d s . ) , p p . 2 8 -51 . I t ha ca : C or n e l lU n ive r s i ty . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976c . P reh i s to ry a nd P a la eo -env i ronmen t i n R a ja s than i nA rchaeo log y a nd P a laeoenv ironmen t i n W e s tern I nd ia ( D .P . A g rawa l a nd B .M . P ande E d s . ) , p p . 3 1-54 .N ew D e lh i : C oncep t . M i s ra , V .N . 1 978a . P reh i s to ry C ave a r t o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i n C onser va t ion o fR ock A r t ( C . P ea r son E d . ) , p p . 6 9 -70 . C anbe r ra : I n s t i tu te f o rt h e C on serva t ion o fC u l tu ra l Ma te r ia l .

B u rk i t t , M .C . a nd L .A . C amm iade 1 930 . F re sh l i gh t o n t h es t one a ge i nS ou th e a s t ,I nd ian A n t iqu i ty 4 :3 27 -9 . C haka rba r t i , D .K . 1 976 . T he b eg inn ing o fi r on i nI nd ia , A n t iqu i ty 5 0 : 14 124 . C haka rba r t i , D .K . 1 988a . A h i s tory o f I nd ian A r chaeo log yf rom t h eB eg inn ing t o1 947 . D e lh i . C haka rba r t i , D .K . 1 988b . T heor e t ica l I s sue s i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy . D e lh i . C haka rba r t i , D .K . 1 997 . C o lon ia lI ndo log y :S oc iopo l i t ie s o ft h eA nc ien tI nd ian P a s t . D e lh i . C hak raba r t i , D .K . 1 999 . I nd ia : A n A rchaeo log ica l H i s tor y . D e lh i : O xf o rd . C hak raba r t i , D .K . 2 003 . A rchaeo logy i n t h e T h ird W or ld : A h i s tory o f I nd ian A r chaeo logy s i nce 1 947 . U pda t ing I nd ian A r chaeo logy , N o . 3 .N ew D e lh i : D .K . P r in two r ld ( P )L td . F u l le r , D .Q . 2 002 . F if ty y ea r s o fA r chaeo log ica l S tud ie s i nI nd ia : L ay ing as o l id f ounda t ion , i nA rchaeo logy a nd I n terac t ive D i sc ip l ine s , I nd ian A rchaeo logy i n R e t ro spec t V o l . 3( Se t ta r , S . a nd R av i K o r ise t ta r E d s . ) , p p . 2 47 -364 . N ew D e lh i : I nd ian C ounc i l o f H i s to r ica l R e sea r ch a nd Manoha r . F u l le r , D .Q . a nd N . B o iv in 2 002 . A H i s to ry o f P roce s sua l T heo ry i nt h e A r chaeo logy o fS ou th A s ia , i n A rchaeo logy a nd H i s tor iog raphy : H i s to ry , T heo ry a nd Me t hod ,I nd ian A rchaeo logy i nR e t ro spec tV o l . 4( Se t ta r , S . a nd R av i K o r i se t ta r E d s . ) , p p . 1 59 190 . N ew D e lh i : I nd ian C ounc i lo fH i s to r ica lR e sea r ch a nd Manoha r . F u r e rH a imendo rf . C . v on . 1 943 . T he C henchu s -J ung le F o lk o ft h eD eccan . L ondon : Ma cm i l lan . F u r e r H a imendo rf . C . v on . 1 948 . C u l tu re S t ra ta i n t h e D eccan , Man 4 8 : 8 7 -90 . Whee le r , R .E .M . 1 946 . A r chaeo log ica l P lann ing f o r I nd ia : s ome o ft h ef a c to r s ,A nc ien tI nd ia 2 :1 25 133 . G ho sh , A .K . 1 966 . I mp lemen t if e rou s L a ter i te i nE a s te rn I nd ia , i nS tud ie s i nP r eh i s tory ( D . S en a nd A .K . G ho sh E d s . ) . C a lcu t ta . G ho sh , A .K . 1 970 . T he P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu r e s o f S i ngbhum , T ransac t ion o ft h e Amer ican P h i lo soph ica l S oc ie ty 6 0 : 1 68 . J o sh i , R .V . 1 970 . T he C ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f P l e i s tocene C l ima t ic E ven t s i nt h e I nd ian S ub -con t inen t : T he l a nd o f Mon soon C l ima te , i n I nd ian A n t iquary 4 : P rof H .D . S anka l ia F e l ic i ta t ion V o lume ( S .B . D eo a nd M .K . D hava l ika r E d s . ) , p p . 5 3 -63 . B ombay : P opu la r P raka shan . K a ja le , M .D . 1 996 . P l an tR e sou r ce sa nd D ie t Among t h e Me so l i th ic H un t e r s a nd F o rage r s , i nB ioa r chaeo logy o f Me so l i th ic I nd ia : A n i n teg ra ted A pp roach . C o l loqu ium ) 00 [ I I I o f t h e I n te rna t iona l U n ion o fP reh i s tor ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic S c ience s ( G .E . A f an s 'ev S .C leuz iou , J .R . L ukac s a nd M . T o s i E d s . ) p p . 2 5 1-53 . F o r l i : ABACO E d iz ione . K anungo , A .K . a nd V .N . M is ra 2 003 -2004 . E x cava t ion a tK op ia : AP re l im ina ry R epo r t ,P u ra ta t t va 3 4 : 16 126 . K ennedy , K .A .R . , C .B . B u r row a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 98 1 . D en ta l Mu t i la t ion s f r om P r eh i s to r ic I nd ia , C ur ren t A n thropo logy 2 2 (2 ) : 2 85 -86 . L onga c r e , W . A . ( Ed . ) 1 99 1a . C e ram ic E thno a r chaeo logy . T u c son : U n iv . o fA r izona P re s s .

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M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1a . P reh i s to r ic H uman C o lon iza t ion o f I nd ia ,J ourna lo fB io sc ience s2 6 (4 ) :4 9 1 -531 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 00 1b .T he R o le o ft h e R igved ic S a ra sva t i i n t h e R ise , G row th a nd D e c l ine o f t h e I ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion , A nna l s o f t h e B handarkar O r ien ta l R e sear ch I n s t i tu t e8 2 : 1 65 191 . M i s ra , V .N . 2 002a . Me so l i th ic C u l tu re i n I nd ia , i n Me so l i th ic I nd ia ( V .D . M i s ra a nd J .N . P a l E d s . ) , p p . 1 6 6 .A l lahabad : U n ive r s i ty o fA l lahabad . M i s ra , V .N . 2 002b . T he Me so l i th ic A ge i n I nd ia , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy i n R e t ro spec t , 1 : P reh i s to ry ( S . S e t ta r a nd R av i K o r i se t ta r E d s . ) , p p . 11125 . N ew D e lh i : I CHR a nd Manoha r . M i s ra ,V .N . a nd M . N aga r 1 976 . P r eh i s to r ic B a ckg round o f R a ja s than , i n S oma sekhara S arma C ommemora t ion V o lume ( R . S ub ramanyam a nd N . R ame shan E d s . ) , p p . 3 45 -59 . H yde rabad : G ove rnmen to fA ndh ra P rad e sh . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Ma i t i N aga r 1 989 . H un te r -ga the re r s i n a nA g ra r ian S e t t ing : T he n ine teen th C en tu ry S i tua t ion i n t h eG anga P la in s , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 3 : 1 7 -64 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Y . Ma thpa l 1 979 . R ock A r t o f B h imbe tka R eg ion , C en t ra l I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 3 :2 7 -33 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 982 . E nv i ronmen t d u r ing t h e Q ua ter na ry P e r iod i n We s te rn I nd ia , P roceed ing s o ft h e W ork shop o nP rob lem s o fD e ser t s i n I nd ia ,p p . 1 29 140 .J a ipu r : G eo log i ca l S u rvey o fI nd ia . M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 987 . H i s to ry o f E nv i ronmen t a nd Man i n t h e T ha r D e se r t , I ndo log ica l J a ip u ren s ia 1 :1 7 -31 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd Y . Ma thpa l 1 989 . R ock A r t , i n E ncyc loped ia o f I nd ian A rchaeo logy I : S ub jec t s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 2 79 -284 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . M i s ra , V .N . a nd M . N aga r 1 997 . F rom T r ibe t o C a s te : A n E thno -a r chaeo log ica l P e r spec t ive i nF rom T r ibe t o C a s te ( Dev N a than E d . ) , p p . 1 36 166 . S h im la : I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fA dvanced S tudy . M i s ra , V .N . a nd M . N aga r 1 997 . F rom T r ibe t o C a s t e . A n e t hno -a r chaeo log ica l P e r spec t iv e , i nF rom T r ibe t o C a s t e ( Dev N a than E d . ) , p p . 1 36 166 . S h im la : I nd ian I n s t i tu te o f Advanced S tudy . M i s ra ,V .N . a nd R .K . Mohan ty 2 002 : Ar a re C ha lco l i th ic P o t te ry c ache f r om B a la tha l , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t2 6 (2 ) : 6 7 : 7 4 . M i s ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , R .J . Wa s son , G . S ingh a nd D .P . Ag rawa l 1 979 -80 . F u r the r L igh t o n L owe r P a la eo l i th ic O ccupa t ion a nd P a la eoenv i ronmen ti nS em i a r id Z one o fR a ja s than ,P ura ta t t va 1 : 1 18 . M i s ra , V .N . , S .N . R a jagu ru , R .K . G an joo a nd R . K o r i se t ta r 1 990 . G eoa r chaeo logy o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic S i te a tS amnapu r i n t h e C en t ra l N a rmada V a l ley , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t1 5 ( 1) : 1 07 116 . M i s ra , V .N . , V .S . S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty a nd L a l i t P andey 1 993 . T e r ra co t ta B u l l F igu r ine s f r om Mann i : A C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen ti nC h i to rga rh D i s t r ic t ,R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 8 (2 ) : 1 49 152 . M i s ra , V .N . , V .S . S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty , Ku ru sh D a la l , A nup M i sh ra , L . P andey a nd J . K ha rakwa l 1 995 . E xcava t ion s a t B a la tha l : T he i r C on t r ibu t ion t o t h e

M i s ra , V .N . 1 978b . A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , B u l le t in o f t h e I ndo P ac if i c P r eh i s to ry A s soc ia t ion 1 :1 30 173 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 980 . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock s he l te r I IF -23 a t B h imbe tka . C en t ra l I nd ia - A P re l im ina ry S tudy ,A u s t ra l ian A rchaeo logy 8 :6 3 106 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 981 . T he P reh i s to r ic R ock A r t o f B h imbe tka ,C en t ra lI nd ia ,J ourna lo ft h eN a t iona lC en t r e f or t h eP erf orm ing A r t s 1 0 ( 1) : 1 16 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 984 . C l ima te a s aF a c to r i nt h e R i se a nd F a l l o fH a rappan C iv i l i sa t ion E v iden ce s f r om R a ja s than a nd B eyond , i nF ron t ier so ft h eI ndu s C iv i l i sa t ions ( B .B . L a l a nd S .P . Gup ta E d s . ) , p p . 4 61-489 . N ew D e lh i . B ook sa nd B ook s . M i s ra V .N . 1 985 . T he A cheu l ian s u cce s s ion a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i nR ecen t A d vance s i nI ndo P ac if i c P r eh i s tory ( V .N . M i s ra a nd B . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 3 5 -47 .N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . M i s ra , V .N . 1 987a . E vo lu t ion o f t h e L and scape a nd Human A dap ta t ion i n t h e T har D e se r t . P re s iden t ia l Add re s s , A n th ropo logy a nd A r chaeo logy S ec t ion o f I nd ian S c ience C ong re s s , B anga lo re , P roceed ing s o ft h e 7 4t hI nd ian S c ience C ong re s s , P a r tI : 1 24 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 987b . M idd le P le i s tocene A dap ta t ion s i n I nd ia , i nP le i s tocene O ld W or ld R eg iona l P er spec t ive s ( O lga S of f ed E d . ) ,p p .9 9 114 .N ew Y o rk : P l enum P re s s . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989a . S tone A ge I nd ia : A n E co log ica l P e r spec t ive , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 5 ( 1) : 1 7 -64 . M i s ra ,V .N . 1 989b . Me so l i th ic C u l tu re s ,i nE ncyc loped ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo logy I :S ub jec t s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 3 7 -43 .N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989c . B ago r , i n E ncyc loped ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo lo gy I :AG aze t teer o fE xp lored a nd E xcava t ed S i te s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 3 4 -37 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989d . T i lwa ra , i nE ncyc loped ia o fI nd ian A rchaeo log y I : AG aze t teer o fE xp lored a nd E xcava ted S i t e s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 2 66 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989e . B h imbe tka , i n E ncyc loped ia o f I nd ian A rchaeo logy I : A G aze t teer o fE xp lored a nd E xcava ted S i te s ( A . G ho sh E d . ) , p p . 6 9 -73 . N ew D e lh i : Mun sh i ram Manoha r la l . M i s ra , V .N . 1 990 . T he V an V ag r i s "Lo s t" Hun te r s o f t h eT ha rD e se r t , R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 5 (2 ) : 8 9 -108 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 992 . R e sea r ch o nt h e I ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion : A B r ief R ev iew , T he E a s t ern A n thropo log i s t4 5 ( 1-2 ) : 1 19 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 994a . P a t ter n s o f Human A dap ta t ion i nt h e S em i -a r id a nd A r id Z one o f R a ja s than i n L iv ing T rad i t ion s : S tud ie s i n t h e E thnoar chaeo logy o f S ou th A s ia ( Br idge t A l lch in E d . ) , p p . 1 0 1124 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd a nd I BH . M i s ra , V .N . 1 994b . I ndu s C iv i l i sa t ion a nd t h e R igved ic S a ra sva t i , i n S ou th A s ian A rchaeo logy 1 993 1 1 ( A sok P a rpo la a nd P e t te r i K o sk ika l l io E d s ) , p p . 5 11-525 . H e l s in ik i S uoma la inen T iedeaka tem ia . M i s ra , V .N . 1 997 . B a la tha l , S ou th A s ian A rchaeo logy 1 7 : 2 51-272 .

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C ha l co l i th ic a nd I r on A ge C u l tu re so f Mewa r ,R a ja s than , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 0 ( 1) : 5 7 -80 . M is ra , V .N . , V .S . S h inde , R .K . Mohan ty , L .P andey a nd J . K ha rakwa l 1 997 . E xcava t ion s a t B a la tha l , D i s t r ic t U da ipu r , R a ja s than ( 1 995 -97 ) , w i th S pec ia l R ef e r ence t o C ha lco l i th ic A r ch i tec tu re , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 2 2 (2 ) : 3 5 -59 . M i t te r , P . 1 977 . Much Ma l igned Mons t er . O xf o rd : O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 979 . R ecen t r e sea r ch o n t h e u ppe r P a la eo l i th ic p ha se i nI nd ia ,J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 6 :3 0 1-20 . N aga r , M . a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 990 . T he K an ja r s -A H un t ing -Ga the r ing C ommun i ty o f t h e G anga V a l ley , U t ta rP rade sh , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 5 (2 ) : 7 1 -88 . N aga r , M . a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 993 . T he P a rdh i s : A H un t ing -Ga the r ing C ommun i ty o f C en t ra l a nd We s te rn I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 8 : 15 140 N aga r , M . a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 994 , S u rv iva lo ft h eH un t ing G a ther ing T rad i t ion i n t h e G anga P l a in s a nd C en t ra l I nd ia , i n L iv ing T rad i t ions : S t ud ie s i n t h e E thno a rchaeo log y o fS ou th A s ia ( B r idge t A l lch in E d . ) , p p . 1 69 192 .N ew D e lh i . O xf o rd a nd I BH . P addayya , K . 1 990 . T he N ew A r chaeo logy a nd I t s A f t e rma th : A V i ew F rom O u t s id e t h e A ng lo Amer ican W or ld ,P une : R av i sh P ub l i she r s . P addayya , K . 1 994 . I nve s t iga t ion o f Man -Env i ronmen t r e la t ion sh ip i n I nd ian A r chaeo logy : S ome t h eo re t ica l c on s ide ra t ion s , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 9 : 1 28 . P appu ,R .S . 1 974 . P le i s tocene S t ud ie s o f t h e U ppe r K r i shna B as in . P une : D eccan C o l leg e . P appu , R .S . 1 985 . G eomo rpho logy a nd P r eh is to r ic E nv i ronmen t s i nt h e G ha tap rabha - Ma lap rabha V a l ley s , K a rna taka , i nP roceed ing s i nS ympo s ium o n Q ua ternary E p i sode s i n W e s te rn I nd ia ( S .S . Meh ra E d . ) , p p . 2 29 -39 . V adoda ra : M .S . U n ive r s i ty o fB a roda . P appu ,R .S . a nd D eo , S .G . 1 994 . Man land R e la t ion sh ip s Du r ing P a laeo l i th ic T ime s i n t h e K a ladg i B a s in , K ar na taka . P une : D eccan C o l leg e . R a jagu ru , S .N . a nd R . K or i se t ta r 1 987 . Q ua te rna ry G eomo rph ic E nv i ronmen t a nd C u l tu ra l S u cce s so r i n We s te rn I nd ia ,I nd ian J ourna lo fE ar th S c ience s 1 4 (3 -4 ) : 3 49 -6 1 . R a ju , D .R . a nd P .C . V enka ta subba ia t i 2 002 . T he a r cha eo logy o ft h e u ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p ha se i nI nd ia , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy i nR e t ro spec t V o l . 1( S . S e t ta r a nd R . K o r ise t ta r E d s . ) , p p . 8 5 109 . N ew D e lh i : I nd ian C ounc i lo fH is to r ica lR e sea r ch a nd Manoha r . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 974 . P reh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s to ry o f I nd ia a nd P ak i s tan . P oona . D eccan C o l lege . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 975 -76 P reh i s to r ic c o lon i sa t ion i nI nd ia : a r chaeo log ica l a nd l i t e ra ry e v idence , P ura ta t tva 8 : 7 2 8 6 . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 977 . N ew A rchaeo logy : I t s S cope a nd A pp l ica t ion t oI nd ia . L u cknow : E thnog raph ic a nd F o lk C u l tu r e S oc ie ty . S ha rma , G .R . a nd J .D . C la rk ( Ed s . ) 1 983 . P a laeo e nv ironmen ta nd P r eh i s to ry i nt h eM idd le G anga V a l ley ( M ad hya P rad e sh , N or th C en t ra l I nd ia ) . A l lahabad : A v ina sh P raka shan .

S ingh G . 1 97 1 . T he I ndu s V a l ley C u l tu r e s e en i n t h e c on tex t o fp o s tg lac ia l c l ima t ic a nd e co log ica l s t ud ie s i n No r thwe s t I nd ia , A rchaeo logy a nd P hy s ica l A n thropo log ica lo fO cean ia 6 :1 77 -89 . S ingh , G . , R .D . J o sh i , S .K . C hop ra a nd A .B . S ingh 1 974 . L a te Q ua te rna ry h i s to ry o fv ege ta t ion a nd c l ima t e o ft h e R a ja s than D e se r t , I nd ia ,P h i lo soph ica lT ransac t ion o ft h e R oya lS oc ie ty o fL ondon S er ie s2 67 : 4 67 -50 1 S inha , S .C . 1 969 . U rgen t p rob lem s o fr e sea r ch i ns oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l a n th ropo logy i n I nd ia : P e r spec t ive s a nd s ugge s t ion s , i nU rgen tR e search i nS oc ia lA n thropo log y ( B .L . A bb i a nd S . S abe rwa l E d s . ) , p p . 1 62 -9 . S im la : I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fA dvanced S tudy . S inha , S .C . 1 978 . C o -ex i s tence o f mu l t ip le s c a le s a nd n e two rk s o f c i v i l iza t ion : I nd ia , i n S ca le a nd S oc ia l O rgan i za t ion ( F . B a r th E d . ) , p p . 1 22 -32 . O s lo : U n ive r s i te t sf o r lage t . S ingh , U . 2 004 . T he D i scovery o fA nc ien t I nd ia : E ar ly A rchaeo log i s t s a nd t h e B eg inn ing s o f A r chaeo logy , D e lh i : P e rmea te B la ck . S inopo l i , C .M . 1 99 1 . S eek ing t h e p a s t t h rough t h e p re sen t : R ecen t E thnoa r cha eo log ica l R e sea r ch i n S ou th A s ia .A s ian P er spec t ive s3 0 (2 ) : 1 77 192 . S ubba rao , B . 1 958 . T he p e r sona l i ty o fI nd ia . B a roda : M .S . U n ive r s i ty . S ubba rao , B . 1 962 A r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy i n I nd ia , i nI nd ian A n thropo logy : e s say s i nm emo ry o fD .N . Ma jumdar ( T .N . Madan a nd G . S a ran E d s . ) , p p . 1 05 -31 . L ondon : A s ia P ub l i sh ing H ou se . T homa s P .K . 1 974 . Z oo log ica le v idence f r om P reh i s to r ic I nd ian w i th s pec ia l r e f e r en ce t od ome s t ica t ion , B u l le t in o f t h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 3 4 : 1 95 -210 . T homp son , R .H . 1 99 1 . T he a r chaeo log ica l p u rpo se o f e t hnoa r chaeo logy , i n C eram ic E thno -archaeo log y . (W .A . L ongac r e E d . ) , p p . 2 31-45 . T u c son : U n iv . o f A r izona P re s s . V i shnu M i t t re 1 990 . F o r ty Y ea r s o f A rchaeo -bo tan ica l R e sea r ch i nS ou th A s ia , i nA dop ta t ion a nd O ther E s say s ( N .C . G ho se a nd S . C hak rabo r t i E d s . ) , p p . 1 33 . S an t in ike tan .V i sva -Bha ra t iR e sea r ch P ub l ica t ion s . Whee le r , R .E .M . 1 946 . A r chaeo log ica l P l ann ing f o r I nd ia : S ome o ft h ef a c to r s ,A nc ien tI nd ia 2 :1 25 133 . Whee le r , R .E .M . 1 952 . A r chaeo logy a nd t h e t r an sm i ss ion o fi d ea s ,A n t iqu i ty 2 6 : 1 80 -92 . Z eune r , F .E . 1 950 . T he S t one A ge a nd P le i s tocene C hrono logy i nG u jara t .P oona : D e ccan C o l lege . Z eune r , F .E . 1 951 . P r eh i s tory i nI nd ia . P oona : D eccan C o l lege . Z eune r , F .E . 1 963 . E nv ironmen t o f E ar ly Man w i th S pec ia lR ef er ence t ot h e G eog raph ica lR eg ions . B a roda : M .S . U n ive r s i ty .

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A Morphome tr ic S tudy o ft he P a laeo l i th ic I ndus tr ie s o fB h imbe tka , C en tra l I nd ia . Md . S haf iqu lA lam I n troduc t ion P reh is to r ic r e sea rch i n I nd ia b egan a lmos t s imu l taneou s ly w i th t h e e poch -mak ing d i scove r ies i n E u rope when a N eo l i th w a s p i cked u p b y Medow s T ay lo r f r om L ing sua r i n 1 840 ( Va rma 1 997 ) . B u t t h i s r e sea rch g o t i t s s t rong f ounda t ion w i th t h e d i scove ry o f ac l eaver , a n A cheu l ian i mp lem en t , i n al a ter i te g rave l p i t a t P a lava ram n ea r Mad ra s i n 1 863 b y R obe r t B ruce F oo te o f G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia ( Foo te 1 866 ) . E ncou raged b y t h is o u t s tand ing d i scove ry F oo te made a s t renuou s e xp lo ra t ion s i n v a r iou s p a r t s o f P en in su la r I nd ia d u r ing t h e f o l low ing f ou r d ecades d u r ing wh ich t ime h e d i scovered al a rge n umbe ro f p reh is to r ic s i tes a nd c o l lec ted h uge l i th ic a r tef ac t s . Mo reove r , h e h a s c a ta logued t hose f i nd s a nd p ub l i shed d e ta i led r e por t s i n t wo v o lumes ( Foo te 1 914 , 1 916 ) . F oo te w a s f o l lowed b y h i s c o l leagues a nd o ther s cho la r s l i ke R ive t t -Carnac ( 1884 ) , C ockbum ( 1888 ) a nd C og in B rown ( 1917 ) who r epor ted s t one t oo ls f r om v a r iou sp a r t s o fI nd ia .

u n ive r s i t ies l i ke P oona , A l lahabad , C a lcu t ta , G uwaha t i , B ana ra s , V ik ram ,U j ja in , S aga r , Andh ra , e t c . T hese s t ud ies p rov ided a c l ea r p i c tu re o f t h e g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion , s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ion , e nv i ronmen ta l s e t t ing a nd f auna l a s soc ia t ion o ft h e v a r iou s P a laeo l i th ic , N eo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic c u l tu res t h roughou tt h e c oun t ry . I na dd i t ion s ever a l o ff i c ia ls n o tab ly L a l , J osh i , S a rke r , S ab ramanyam , B ana r jee , D a sgup ta , o ft h e A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia c a r r ied o u t p reh is tor ic i n ve s t iga t ion s i n v a r iou s p a r t s o f I nd ia . S ome o f t h e s t a te D epa r tm en t s o fA rchaeo logy a l so c on t r ibu ted t h e i r s ha re , a nd s pec ia l m en t ion m ay b e made o f R a ja s than , Madhya P radesh , U t ta r P radesh a nd We s tB enga li nt h is c onnec t ion . B u t t h e e a r ly p reh is tor ic w o rk s w e re l a rge ly c onf ined t o t h e e xp lo ra t ion o f g eo log ica l c on tex t s l i ke c oa r se a l luv ia l s ed imen t s , s t ream b ed s a nd s u rf ace o ccu r rences a nd t h e i rm a in o b jec t ive w a st o d i scove r t h e s t one a ge r ema in s i nv a r iou s p a r t s o f t h e c oun t ry wh ich u n t i l t h en w e re l a rge ly t e r ra i n cogn i ta . B y t h e m id s i x t ies , t h e s equence o f p reh is to r ic c u l tu res , t h e i r g eog raph ica l d i s tr ibu t ion a nd s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ion h ad b ecome c l ea r ly k nown . T he empha s is t h en w as s h if ted t o t h e d i scove ry a nd e xcava t ion o fr e la t ive ly u nd i s tu rbed o r p r ima ry s i tes i n o rde r t o r e cove r t h e h omogenou s s t one i ndu s t r ie s a nd u nde r s tand t h e t y po log ica l c ompos i t ion a nd t e chno log ica l c hange s i n t im e a nd s pace , r e con s truc t t h e n a tu re o f h om in id a c t iv i t ies , s t udy t h e s t ra teg ie s f o r t h e u t i l iza t ion o f l a nd w a te r , p l an t a nd a n ima l r e sou rces , r e con s t ruc t p a laeo -env ironmen t o f p reh is tor ic s oc ie t ies a nd e s tab l i sh r e gna l o f s t one a ge s i tes b y r ad iom e t r ic m e thod s i no rde r t ob u i ld u p af i rm c h rono logy . C on s ide rab le p rog r ess h a s b een m ade i na l lt h ese a r ea si nl a s tf ew d ecades .

B u t t h e e n thu s ia sm w i th wh ich F oo te h ad s t a r ted t h e w o rk c ou ld n o t b e k ep t u p b y h i s s uccesso r s a nd w en t o n s l ugg ish ly t i l l 1 930 when i tr e ce ived a n ew i mpe tu s . C amm iade , R icha rd s a nd B u rk i t t w e re e ngaged i n S ou th I nd ia , wh i le T odd , Wad ia a nd D e T e r ra w o rked i nt h e P ind i Gheb r eg ion a nd t h e H ima layan f oo th i l ls . I n 1 935 t h e Y a le C amb r idge m iss ion v i s i ted I nd ia u nder t h e l e ade r sh ip o f D e T er ra a nd H . P a t te r son . I tw a s a no the r l a ndma rk i n I nd ian P reh i s tory . T he i r e x ten s ive e xped i t ion i n t h e H ima layan f oo th i l ls , C en t ra l I nd ia a nd P en in su la r I nd ia r e vea led an ew P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re k nown a s t h e ' S oan ' a t t h e P a twa r r eg ion o fR awa lp ind i i nt h e n o r th -wes te rn p a r t o f t h e I ndo -Pak is tan s ubcon t inen t . I t a l so p rov ided ag eo log ica lb a se a nd f o rt h e f i r s tt ime p u t t h e a r chaeo log ica l m a ter ia l i ni t s p rope r g eo log ica l p er spec t ive ( De T e r ra a nd P a t ter son 1 939 ) . T he c l ues l e f t b y F oo te a nd t h e Y a le -Camb r idge E xped i t ion w e re t a ken u p b y V .D . K r ishna swam i , H .D . S anka l ia , T odd , B ose a nd S en , V .N . M is ra ( 1978 ,1982 ) , S .N . R a jaguru , M .L .K . Mu r ty a nd K . P addayya , S ha rma a nd C la rk a nd s o o n I ti s i n te res t ing t on o te t h a t b ef o re 1 940 t h e p r eh i s to r ic i nves t iga t ion s w e re i n t h e h and s o f g ove rnmen t a genc ies l i ke t h e G eo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia a nd t h e A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia . B u t a f te r f o r t ies t h e s i tua t ion w a s c hanged . T he m a jo r i nves t iga t ion s w e re c a r r ied o u t b y s eve ra l

H oweve r , t h e a pp roach o f mos t o ft h e t ypo log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l s t ud ies o fs t one i n du s t r ies c a r r ied o u t h a s b een s ub jec t ive . O b jec t ive q uan t i ta t ive a pp roach wh ich i s e s sen t ia l f o r a ccu ra te m easu r emen t o f v a r iab i l i ty i n s pace a nd t ime h a s b een a pp l ied o n ly i n af ew s t ud ies ( Ghosh a nd R oy 1 964 ; G hosh 1 966 ; Ghosh a nd C houdhu ry 1 989 ; M is ra , V .N . 1 967 ; M is ra , V .N . e t a l . 1 987 ; J aya swa l a nd P a l 1 973 ; J aya swa l 1 978 ; J o sh i 1 976 ; J o sh i a nd Ma ra the 1 977 ; S eman s 1 981 ; R a ju 1 981 , 1 985 , 1 988 ; M is ra , V .D . e t a l . 1 983a , 1 983b ;

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K enoye r a nd P a l 1 983 ; B lum en sch ine , B r and t a nd C la rk 1 983 ; S inha 1 984 ; Ma r a th e 1 985 ; G a i l la rd e t a l . 1 985 , 1 986 ; P an t 1 985 ; G a i l la rd a nd Mu r ty 1 988 ; Kum a r 1 989 ) . S econd ly , mo s t o f t h e a s semb lage s s o f a r s t ud ied a r e f r om s e conda ry g eo log ica l c on tex t s s uch a sg r ave l d epo s i t s o rf r om r i ve r b ed s a nd s u r f ace e xpo su r e s wh ich m ay h ave b een d i s tu rbed b y n a tu ra l a nd /o r h um an a genc ies . O n ly a f ew a r e f r om p r ima ry o r s em i -p r ima ry c on tex t s . T h i rd ly , t h e a s semb lage s h ave b een d ef ined o n s ma l l s amp le s a nd i n mo s t o ft h e c a se s o n af ew t oo l t y pe s o r s i ng le c u l tu r e s . T h e r e a r e h a rd ly a ny e xcava ted s i t e s w i th s ucce s s ive P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e sw h ich c an g ive a n i n s igh t i n to t h e p r ec i se n a tu re a nd t r end o f t empo ra lv a r ia t ion i nt h ea s semb lage s .

o n ly . T hough e qua l i mpo r tance h a s b een g iven t o a l l t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s , y e t t h e s ma l l s i ze o f s amp le i nt h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic r e s t r ic t s t h e s cope o f s t udy o f v a r iab i l i ty i n a r tef ac t s i n t h i s p e r iod . T he o b jec t ive so ft h es t udy a r ea sf o l low s : i . T o m ea su r e t h e d e ta i led t y po log ica l v a r iab i l i ty w i th in a nd b e tw een t h ec u l tu ra lp e r iod s . i . T o a s se ss t h e d e ta i led t e chno log ica l v a r iab i l i ty w i th in a nd b e tween t h ec u l tu ra lp e r iod s . i i . T o u nde r s tand t h e d e ta i led f unc t iona l v a r iab i l i ty w i th in a nd b e tween t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . i v . T o j udge t h e s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion w i th in a nd b e tween t h e c u l tu ra lp e r iod s . v . T o u nde r s tand t h e f o rma t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a tt h es i te .

A l though a M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu r e h a s b een r e cogn ized i n I nd ia a t l e a s t f o r t h i r ty y ea r s ( Sanka l ia 1 956 ) , i t s d ef in i t ion i sb a sed l a rge ly o n t y po logy r a the r t h an o n s t ra t ig raphy ( Co rv inu s 1 968 ) . I t h a s t o b e b a sed o n mo re p rec i se mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s , m e t r ica l v a r iab les a nd o n s t ra t ig raphy . A l so t h e t e chno log ica l d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h eL owe ra nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s n eed st ob e mo r ec l ea r ly d ef ined . I nt h i s s i tua t ion t h e c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l s r e cove r ed b y V .N . M is ra f r om r o ck s h e l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia i n a s t r a t if i ed a nd p r ima ry c on tex t w i th s ucce s s ion f r om L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o Me so l i th ic p ha se o f f e r a n i d ea l o ppo r tun i ty t oc a r ry o u t ad e ta i led a na ly s i s o ft o o l k i t s f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e t empo ra l c hange s i n v a r iou s a spec t s o f l i th ic a s semb lage s f r om o ne s t age t oa no the r( M i s ra ,V .N . 1 978a , 1 978b , 1 985 ) . T h e l o ca t ion o f t h i s r o ck s he l te r l e nd s a n u n ique i mpo r tance t ot h e s i te . T he g eomo rph ic s e t t ing o f t h e s i te o n ah i l l t op , a bou t 6 50 m a bove MSL p r ec lude s t h e o pe ra t ion o fa ny f l uv ia l a gency i ni t s f o rma t ion . T hu sn o s i gn if i can td i s tu rbance wh ich i s v e ry c ommon i n mo s to ft h e s i t e si nI nd ia h a st a ken p l ace h e r e . T h i s i st h e o n ly e xcava ted s i te i nI nd ia w h ich h a s y i e lded a l ong c on t inuou s s ucces s ion f r om L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod t o Me so l i th ic p e r iod i n ap r ima ry c on tex t . I nv i ew o ft h e se f a c t s a nd t h e l a rge v o lum e o f d a ta f r om t h e s he l te r , i t w a s d ec ided t o c a r ry o u t ad e ta i led s t udy o f t h e mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s a nd m e t r ica l v a r iab le s o f t h e l i th ic a r tef ac t s f r om t h e s h e l te r b y q uan t i ta t ive a pp roach .

F ig . 1 :B h imbe tka a nd i t se nv iron s( af te rM is ra 1 985 )

T he s i te B h imbe tka ( 22 ° 5 5 ' - 2 2° 5 6 ' N : 7 7 ° 3 6 ' 77° 3 7 ' E ) i st h e n am e o f as ma l l h i l l o n t h e n or the rn m a rg in o ft h e V indhya s i nt h e R a i sen d i s t r ic t o f Madhya P rade sh . I ti ss i tua ted 2km s ou thwe s t o fB h ianpu r , at r iba l h am le t 4 5 km s ou th o fB hopa l a nd 3 0 km n or th o fH o shangabad b e tw een O ba idu l l a gan j a nd B a rkhe ra s t a t ion s o n t h e C en t ra l R a i lway ( M i s ra 1 978 ) . T he h ighway f r om I t a r s i t o B hopa l r un s p a r a l le l t o t h e r a i lway l i ne a nd p a s se s c l o se t o B h ianpu r( F ig . 1 ) . T he B h imbe tk a h i l l i sc onnec ted t ot h e h ighway b y al i nk r oad f r om B h ianpu r . O n

T h e s t udy i sc onf ined t o t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod

9 1

N a rmada i nt h e s ou th a nd t h eB e twa i nt h en o r th .

t h e t o p a nd s l ope s o ft h i s h i l l t h e r e a r e o ve r 2 00 s he l te r s o f v a ry ing s i ze s . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e se s he l te r s c on ta in o n t h e i r w a l l s a nd c e i l ing s p a in t ing s d ep ic t ing s c ene s i nt h e l i f e o fp r eh i s to r ic h un te r -ga the r e r s a nd l a te r a g r icu l tu ra l s o c ie t ie s a s w e l l a s s c a t te r s o f m ic ro l i th s o n t h e f l oo r s a nd o u t s ide t h e m ou th s o f t h e se s he l te r s . A s ma l l n umbe r o fs h e l te r s a l so c on ta in h ab i ta t ion d epo s i t s o nt h e i rf l oo r s .

G eo logy G eo log ica l ly t h e b a sem en t c omp lex o f t h e h i l l i s r e p r e sen ted b y V indhyan s and s ton e a nd a s soc ia ted r o ck s . T he s ed im en ta ry s and s ton es s how r i pp le m a rk s , s un c r ack s a nd c u r r en t b edd ing o r c r o s s l am ina t ion s a s e v idence o f s h a l low w a te r d epo s i t ion (Wad ia 1 966 ) . T he s and s tone i ss l igh t ly m e tamo rpho sed a nd i s d e s igna ted a s o r tho q ua r tz i te . T he c ommon c o lou r o ft h e r o ck i sm i lky c r im son , b u t t h e r e a r e b and s o fm any s had es f r om C la rk p u rp le t h rough l i gh t b rown t om i lky wh i t e . T h e o u te r c o lou r o f t h e r o ck i s c hanged i n to b l ack i sh t e r ra -ve rm i l ion d ue t og row th o f mo s s o n i t s e xposed s u rf ace s . Wea the r ing a nd a ccumu la t ion o fd u s t h ave c hanged t h e e r oded s u rf ace o fr o ck t o s i enna a nd o r ange . T he h or izon ta l ly b edded l a y e r s a r ei n te r spe r sed w i th w h i te b and s .

P hy s iograpy B h imbe tka h i l l r i se s o ve r 6 00 m a bove t h e MSL a nd o ve r 1 00 m a bove t h e v a l ley f l oo r( M i s ra , V .N . 1 978a , 1 978b ) . I tr un s e a s t -we s t f o r al e ng th o f 1 km a nd r ough ly 0 . 5 km n or th sou th . I t se a s te rn a nd s ou the rn s l ope s a r e s t eep wh i le n or the rn a nd w e s te rn s l ope s a r e g en t le . T he h i l l i st o pped b y a c ha in o f d i s sec ted mono l i th ic b lock s w h ich a r e e r oded r emnan t so f af o rm e rc on t inuou s r o ck m a s s . F rom a d i s tan ce t h e se r o ck s l o ok l i k e am ed ieva l f o r t a nd f o rm t h e mo s t p rom inen t l a ndma rk i nt h e l o ca l t opog r aphy . A s m any a s 1 81 r o ck s h e l te r s h ave b een f o rm ed a tt h eb a se o ft h ese r o ck s a sw e l l a s o n t h e s l ope s o f t h e h i l l . Two o t he r a d jo in ing h i l l s k nown a sL akha J ua ra nd B haun rewa l i , t ot h e w e s t a nd e a s t o f B h imbe tka r e spec t ive ly , a r e e qua l ly r i ch i n r o ck s he l te r s . T he se t h r ee h i l l s t o ge the r c on ta in 6 42 r o ck s h e l te r s i n as t r e tch o f a bou t 1 0 km b e tween t h e v i l lage s o f K a r i ta la i i n t h e n or th -ea s t a nd J ond ra i n t h e s ou th -we s t . T he s h e l te r s h ave b een d i v ided i n to s even g roup s , I ,I , I , e t c . f r om e a s t t ow e s t . E ach o ft h e se g roup s h a s b een f u r the r d i v ided i n to s ub -g roup s l i ke A , B , C . W i th in e ach s ub -g roup t h e s he l te r s h ave b een n umbe r ed i n A rab ic n um e ra l s . T he se t h ree t i e red n umbe r s ( f o r i n s tance I I F -23 ) h ave b een p u t i n I nd ian b l ack i n ko nt h ew a l l so ft h e s he l te r .

T h rough t h e c ou r se o fg eo log ica l t im e t h e r o ck h a s s uf f e r ed e x ten s ive e r o s ion . S un , r a in , w ind , c hange s i n t empe ra tu r e , p e r co la t ion o f a c id s i n to t h e r o ck s a nd p ene t ra t ion o f t r ee r oo t s h ave c on t r ibu ted t o t h e l o o sen ing a nd b r eakup o f t h e r o ck s . T he d i f f e r en t ia l w ea the r ing o f t h e se s and s t ones h a s l e d t o t h e f o rma t ion o f a n a r ray o f n a tu ra l c av i t ies a nd r o ck s he l te r s o fv a r iou s s hape s a nd s i ze s wh ich w e r e i d ea l f o rh om in id o ccupa t ion . C l ima te C l ima t e o f t h i s a r ea i so f t r op ica l m on soon t y pe . T h e a r ea r e ce ive s a n a ve rage a nnua l r a inf a l l o f 1 200 mm wh ich i sm a in ly c on t r ibu ted b yt h e s ou th w e s t m on soon d u r ing J u ly t o S ep tembe r . I n t h e r em a in ing mon th s i tr a in s o n ly 3 0 t o 7 0 mm . W in te r s t a r t s i n O c tobe r a nd e nd s i n F eb rua ry . J anua ry i st h e c o ldes tm on th c ha rac te r i sed b yc h i l ly w ind s . F rom F eb rua ry t empe ra tu r e b eg in s t o r i se a nd r e ache s i t s p eak i n May . S umm e r d ay s a r e h o t a nd d ry .

B h imbe tka a nd t h e v a l ley o n i t s s ou ther n s i de a r e t h ick ly c ove r ed b y d ec iduou s f o re s t . B u t o n t h e n o r ther ns i de w he r e s eve ra lv i l lage s a r e l o ca ted ,t h e h i l l s l ope s a r e c omp le te ly b a r r en , d ue l a rge ly t ot h e p ro longed a nd c on t inua l c u t t ing o ft r ees f o rt imbe r a nd f u e l . T h i s d ef o r e s ta t ion h a s l e d t o e x ten s ive d ef la t ion o f s u r f ace s o i l r e su l t ing i n b a r e r o cky s l ope s .

F lora B h imbe tka a nd i t s a d jo in ing h i l l s a r e c ove r ed w i th d en se d ec iduou sv ege ta t ion . A bou tt h i r ty s pec ie so f h e rb s , s h rub s a nd t r ee s i n t h e f o r e s t h ave e d ib le f l owe r s /f ru i t s a nd s e ed s a nd s om e s pec ie s h ave r oo t s a nd t u be r s ( M i s ra , V . N . 1 978a , 1 978b , 1 985 ) . Among t h e f o rm e r , t h e mo r e i mpo r tan t a r e : Mahua ( M adhuca l a t if o l ia R oxb ) , A cha r ( B i ic l ian .nn ia l a t if o l ia R oxb ) , T endu ( D io spyro t omen to sa L am ) , B e l ( Aeg le m arme los C o r r ) , B handa ra ( E ry ther ina i nd ica L am ) , J amun ( Eugen ia f ambo laha L am ) , Am ( M ang if era i nd ica

A t t h e n or ther n f oo t o f t h e h i l l t h e r e a r e t h r ee p e r enn ia l s p r ing s k nown a s B an G anga , G up ta G anaa a nd P andapu r . T he se p robab ly s e rved a s w a te rh o le s d u r ing p r eh is tor ic t im e sj u s t a st h ey d o t oday . T he r e a r e n o p e r enn ia l s t ream s i n a nd a r ound B h imbe tka . S eve r a l e phem e ra l s t r eam s o r ig ina t ing o n e i the r s i de o ft h e h i l l d r a in i n to t h e

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h ab i ta t ion d epos i te ncoun te red w a s 3 . 80 m , b u tt h is o ccu r red o n ly i nt r enches E a nd F o u to ft h et o ta lo f 8t r enches e xcava ted i n t h e s he l te r . A l toge the r e i gh t l a ye r s w ere r e cogn ized . L aye r s 1 , 2a nd 3 r ep r esen t t h e Meso l i th ic p er iod , l a ye r 4t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , l a yer 5 t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd l a yer s 6 , 7a nd 8t h e L ower P a laeo l i th ic . F rom t h is e xcava t ion mo re t h an 1 , 00 ,000 s t one a r tef ac t s f r om

L inn ) , Gu la r ( F icus g lomera ta R oxb ) , Ano la ( Phy lan th i i s . e mb l ica L inn ) , B e r ( J izyph i i sf u j i ibn L amk ) I m l i ( T amar indus I nd ica L inn ) , Kha ju r ( Phoen ix s y lve s t r i s R oxb ) , S i tapha l ( Anona s quamosa L inn ) . Among t ube r s mo re c ommon a r e S af ed Mu s h i( Ch lorophy tuns a rud ie sacum B aker ) , P o t ia K and , K a raha r i k and a nd Kha lu lua . E ven t oday t h e l o ca l a bor ig ina l p eop le e x ten s ive ly e xp lo i t t h ese f o r es t f oods , s pec ia l ly Mahua a nd A cha r ,p ar t icu la r ly d u r ing s umm e r mon th s .

f ou r c u l tu ra l p er iod s w e re r e cove red . F rom t h e P a laeo l i th ic l a ye r s at o ta l o f2 9 ,748 a r tef ac t s w e re f ound . O f t h ese 1 8 ,721 ( 62 .93 % ) b e long t o t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ( f ig . 2 ) , 8 , 505 ( 28 .59% ) t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( f ig . 3 ) a nd 2 , 522 ( 8 .48% ) t o t h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic ( f ig . 4 ) . M is ra c l a ss if i ed t h e P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s u s ing t h e t ypo log ica l s chem e o fF ranco is B o rdes e l abo ra ted i nh i s T ypo log ie d u P a ieo t i ih ique A nc ien e l Moyen ( Bo rdes 1 961) .

F auna Many s pec ies o fw i ld a n ima l s w e re n o t iced b y t h e e xcava to r s (M is ra , V .N . 1 978a , 1 978b , 1 985 ; Ma thpa l 1 978 ) d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion p er iod . T hey a r e s amba r ( C ervusu l in ico lour K en ) , c h i ta l ( Ax i s a x i s E r leben ) , b l ackbuck ( An t i lope c er v icapra L inn ) , n i lga i ( Bose laphus t r agocame lus P a l la s ) , w i ld b oa r ( S us s c rof a c r i s ta tu s Wagne r ) , h yena ( H yaena h yaena L inn ) , l e opa rd ( Pan thera p ardus L inn ) , wo lf ( Can i s l upus L inn ) , s l o th b ea r ( M e luru i su r s inus S haw ) ,p o rcup ine ( H y s tr ix i nd ica K e r r ) , h a re ( Lepus n igr ico l l i s F . C uv ie r ) , f ox ( V u lpe s b enga lens i s S haw ) , j a cka l ( Can i s a ureus L inn ) , a nd c o mmon l a ngu r ( Pre sby t i s e n te l lus Duf r esne ) . Many k ind s o fb i rd s , r ep t i les , i n c lud ing p y thon ( E ryx j ohn i i ) a nd i n sec ts a r e f ound . E lephan t , l i on , g au r / a nd w i ld b uf f a lo a r e d ep ic ted i nt h er ock p a in t ing s wh ich i nd ica tes t h a tt h ey w e r e i nt h e f o res tb u th ave s i nce d i sappea red . S he l te r , w a te r , f ood ( bo th a n ima l a nd p l an t ) a nd r aw m a ter ia l , f o r mak ing t o o l s , wh ich a r e b a s ic n eed s o f h un t ing a nd f o rag ing c ommun i t ies w ere a l l a va i lab le a t B h imbe tka . T ha t i s why h un te r g a the rer s r i gh t ly s e lec ted t h is p l ace a nd o ccup ied t h e s he l te r s f r om A cheu l ian t imes u p t o E a r ly H is to r ic p er iod . H i s tory o fR e search T he s i te w a s d i scove red b yt h e l a te V .S . Wakanka r i n 1 957 (Wakanka r 1 975 ) . I n t h e f o l low ing y ea r s h e c on t inued t o e xp lo re t h e r e g ion a nd l o ca ted a t o ta l o f 7 54 r o ck s he l te r s o u t o f wh ich o ve r 5 00 c on ta in p a in t ing s . B e tween 1 972 a nd 1 977 e xcava t ion s w e re c onduc ted i n mo re t h an ad ozen o f t h ese s he l te r s b y V .S . Wakanka r ( V ik ram Un ive r s i ty , U j ja in ) , V .N . M i s ra ( Poona Un ive r s i ty , P une ) a nd S u sanne H aa s (Mu seum f u i r V o ikc rkunde , B a s le ) . One o ft h ese s he l te r s I I F -23 wh ich w a s e xcava ted b y M is ra p roduced a c on t inuou s c u l tu ra l s ucces s ion f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o t h e Meso l i th ic i n as t ra t if i ed a nd p r imary c on tex t . T he max imum t h ickness o f t h e

F ig . 2 :L owe rP a laeo l i th ic A r t if ac t s

Me thodo logy T h is s t udy i s b ased o n ac o l lec t ion o f 1 ,536 a r tef ac t s r e cove red f r om t r enches E a nd F . T hese t r enches w e re s e lec ted b ecau se t h ey p rodu ced t h e t h icke s t c u l tu ra l d epos i t a nd p rov ided a c omp le te c u l tu ra l s equence . T he s t udy f o l low s t h e c l a ss if i ca t ion o f t h e a r tef ac ts a l ready m ade b y M i s ra ( 1985 ) .

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m ea su rem en t s a nd t a k ing a c tu a l m ea su r em en t s o f t h e a r tef ac t s , ( b ) d e s ign ing ad a ta b a se s t ruc tu r e f o r f e ed ing mo rphom e t r ic d a ta t o b e a b le t o u se c ompu te r s of twa r e s a nd ( c ) t h e emp loym en t o f s eve r a l s t a t is t ica l t e chn ique s f o r t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e se d a ta . S ince t h e t h ru s t o f t h e d i s se r ta t ion c oncer n s t h e v a r iab i l i ty i nt h e P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s i nt e rm s o f mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s a nd m e t r ica l v a r iab les , d e ta i led mo rpho log ica l a nd m e t r ica l d a ta o f t h e a r tef ac t s a r e g en e ra ted . T he m e thodo logy f o r t h is s t udy h a s b een d eve loped o nt h e b a s i s o fa va i lab le l i t e ra tu r e o nt h i s s ub jec t . T he s cheme sp ropo sed b y D .A . R oe ( 1964 , 1 968 , 1 973 ) , a nd G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk ( 1 983 ) h ave b een mod if ied t o s u i t t h e a s semb lage s c on s ide r ed f o r t h e s t udy . T e rm ino logy , d ef in i t ion s a nd p rocedu r e f o l lowed i n t h i s s t udy a r e d e r ived m a in ly f r om B o rde s ( 1961 ) , R oe ( 1964 , 1 968 , 1 973 ) , C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t ( 1974 ) . O the r w o rk s w h ich h ave b een c on su l ted i n c lud e K le ind ien s t ( 1962 ) , Ma son ( 1967 ) , Mov iu s ( 1 968 ) , C rab t r ee ( 1972 ) , T r inghum e t a l . ( 1974 ) , K a rnm inga ( 1978 ) , K ee ley ( 1 980 ) , D ibb le a nd B er n a rd ( 1980 ) a nd S al im ( 1986 ) . A s t h e r e a r e d i f f e r ence s i n t h e d ef in i t ion s o f t h e a t t r ibu tes a nd v a r iab le s a nd p rocedu r es s ugge s ted b y d i f f e ren t w o rke r s , I d e sc r ibe b e low t h e t e rm ino logy , d ef in i t ion s a nd p rocedu r e a s a dap ted f r om a bove m en t ioned s t ud ie s f o ra pp ly ing t h em t o t h ed a ta f r om B h imbe tka .

F ig . 3 :M idd le P a laeo l i th ic A r t if ac t s

F o r t h e p u rpo se o f t h i s s t udy t h e a r tef ac t s h ave b een g rouped i n to t wo b road c a t ego r ie s : ( i ) S haped t oo l s a nd ( i ) S imp le a r tef ac t s . S haped t o o l s a r e t hose a r tef ac t s wh ich s how d e l ibe ra te h um an w o rkman sh ip i n c lud ing s e conda ry r e touch o r e dge t r imm ing wh ich m ay o rm ay n o t a l te r t h e p r ima ry f o rm o f t h e a r tef ac t . S imp le a r tef ac t s a r e t h o se p i eces wh ich a r e b y -p roduc t s o rr emnan t s o f i n ten t iona l f l ak ing wh ich m ay o r may n o t s how e v id en ce o f u t i l iza t ion a nd /o r m ino r mod if i ca t ion a nd t h e se d o n o t f i t i n a ny t o o l c l a s s . T hough L eva l lo i s ian f l ak e i sc l a s s if ied a s at oo l i nB o rde s s ch em eb u t i nt h i s s t udy i th a sb een i n c luded i nt h e c a tego ry o f f l ak e s . T he t oo l t y pe s a l te rna te t h ick a brup t r e touch a nd a l ter n a te t h in a b rup t r e touch a nd d eb i t a ge h ave n o t b een c on s ide r ed f o r t h e s t udy . Morpho log ica lA t tr ibu te s F o l low ing a t t r ibu te s h ave b een c on s ide r ed t h ough a l l o ft h em a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly a pp l icab le t oe ve ry a r tef ac tt y pe .

F ig .4 :U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic A r t if ac t s

T h e r e sea rch h a s b een c a r r ied o u t i nt h r ee s t age s : ( a ) d ef in ing t h e a t t r ibu te s a nd v a r iab les f o r

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R aw Ma ter ia l : T he r aw m a te r ia l u sed f o r f a b r ica t ing a r tef ac t s h a s b een c l a s s if i ed i n to s and s tone /o r tho -qua r tz i te , q ua r tz , c he r t , a ga te a nd c ha lcedony .

s c rape r s a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ade o n f l ak e s b u t o n n a tu ra l r o ck p i ece s . H oweve r , t h ey b ea r o t he r t y po log ica l c ha rac ter i s t ic s o f d e je te s c r ape r s a nd h en ce h ave b een g rouped i nt h a tc a tego ry .

P hy s ica l C ond i t ion : B y p hy s ica l c ond i t ion i s m ean t t h e o ve ra l l s t a te o f p r e se rva t ion o f t h e o b jec t s . I n a dd i t ion t os u rf ace m od if ica t ion o ft h e s pec im en , t h e e dge s a r e o f p a r t icu la r i n te r e s t i n d ef in ing t h e p hy s ica l c ond i t ion . O n t h e b a s i s o f d eg r ee o f w ea the r ing o n t h e a r tef ac t s t h ey h ave b een c l a s s if ied a s f r e sh , s l igh t ly w ea the r ed , mod e ra te ly w ea the r ed , a nd h eav i ly w ea the r ed i n t h e i n c r ea s ing o rde r . F o r e xamp le T re sh r e f e r s t o t h o se a r tef ac t s wh ich a r en o tw ea the r ed a ta l l .

R e touch : B road ly , r e touch a l ong t h e m a rg in s c an b e d ef in ed a s i n ten t iona l mod if ica t ion o f a n e dge t h rough f l ak ing f o r t h e p u rpo se o f e i the r r e juvena t ing , b lun t ing o r s hap ing t h e m a rg in o f a s t one a r tef ac t ( Kamm inga 1 978 ) . T oo l s f r om B h imbe tka a r e f ound t o b e r e touched t o v a ry ing d eg r ee s a nd s i nce B o rde s ' t ypo log ica l s ch em e i s b a sed o n d i f f e r en t c ha rac t er i s t ic t r a i t s o fr e touch , i t h a sb een g iven d ue i mpo r tance i n mo rpho log ica l a s w e l la sm e t r ica la na ly s i s .

C omp le tene s s : C omp le tene s s o f a n a r tef ac t h a s b een a d judged e i the r ( i ) c omp le te o r ( i ) b rok en . T h i s d i s t inc t ion h a s b een m ade o n t h e b a s i s o f b r eakage o n a ny s i de o r e nd o ft h e a r tef ac t e i the r d ue t om anuf ac tu r e o ru se o r d epo s i t iona l o rp o s t d epo s i t iona lp roce s se s .

Charac ter o fR e touch : I th a sb een r e co rd ed o nt h e b a s i s o f c on t inu i ty o f r e touch a l ong t h e w o rk ing e dge ( s ) o ft h e t oo l a nd h a s b een g rouped i n to ( i ) c on t inuou s a nd ( i ) d i scon t inuou s . I ns om e c a ses i t i si nde te rm ina te o w ing t ow ea the r ing o ra b ra s ion . R e touch N a ture : Mo s t o f t h e a r tef ac t s f r om B h imbe tka s how a d i s t inc t t y pe o f r e touch s c a r p a t ter n wh ich d oes n o t f i t i n a ny o f t h e s c a r p a t ter n s d e s igna ted b y B o rde s , C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t ( 1974 ) , S ha rm a a nd C la rk ( 1 983 ) a nd o th e r s l i k e Mov iu s ( 1968 ) , T r inghum e ta l . ( 1974 ) , K amm inga ( 1978 ) a nd S a l im ( 1986 ) . T o s om e e x ten t i tr e semb le s t h e s c a la r r e touch p a t ter n o f B o rde s b u t t h e s c a le s d o n o t o ve r lap w i th o ne a no the r . Ih ave d e sc r ibed t h i s v a r ie ty o fr e touch a s ' s ca la r i n o ne r ow o n ly ' . T he o th e r s c a r p a t ter n s r e su l t ing f r om r e touch h ave b een c l a ss if i ed a s p a ra l le l , s ub -pa ra l le l , s t ep , a r id s c a led a nd t h ey h ave b een r e co rded e dgew i se . T h e d i s t inc t ive f e a tu r es o ft h e se s c a rp a t ter n sa r e a sf o l low s : i . P a ra l le l : R e touch ing i s n a r row , s ha l low , e l onga ted a nd p a ra l le l . i . S ub -pa ra l le l : I t i s l e s s r egu la r t h an p a ra l le l r e touch . i i . S t ep : R e touch i sl i ke t h e s t ep so f as t a i r ca se . i v . S ca led : B road a nd s ho r t ,w ide ra tt h ed i s ta le nd t h an a tt h e b a se , i tr e semb les t h e s c a le s o f a f i sh ( s ee B o rde s 1 961 : 8 -9 ) . v . S ca la r i no ne r ow o n ly : S am e a ss c a led b u t i n o ne r ow o n ly .

P lan F orm : P lan f o rm i st h e s hape o ft h e a r tef ac t w hen s e en i n p l an v i ew , i . e . w hen t h e a r tef ac t i s o r ien ted i n t h e h o r izon ta l p l ane ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . I n t h e c a se o f h andaxe s i th a s b een c a tego r ized i n to l a nceo la te , s ub t r iangu la r , a mygda lo id , e l onga ted c o rd if o rm , s ub -eo rd if o rm , o va l a nd l imand e . F o rc l eave r s i th a s b een g rouped i n to r ounded b u t t t r an sve r se e dge , r ounded b u t t o b l ique e dge , r ounded b u t t -convex e dge , p o in ted l ong b u t t o b l iqu e e dge , p o in ted l o ng b u t t c onvex e dg e , p o in ted s ho r t b u t t t r an sve r se e dge , p o in ted s ho r t b u t t o b l iqu e e dge , t r unca t ed c onve rgen t b u t t t r an sve r se e dge , t r unca ted c onve rgen t b u t t o b l ique e dge , t r unca ted c onve rgen t b u t t -convex e dge . I n e a se o fn on -b if ace t oo ls , f l ake s a nd b l ade s i th a s b een c a tego r ized i n to s ho r t q uad r i la te ra l , l ong q uad r i la te ra l , s ho r tt r iangu la r , l o ng t r iangu la r , s ho r t i r r egu la r ,l ong i r r egu la ra nd e l l ip t ica l P r imary F orm : I ti st h e f o rm o f t h e b l ank / rock p i ece o n wh ich t h e a r tef ac t w a s f a sh ioned . I th a s b een c a tego r ized i n to s i de s t ruck f l ak e , e nd s t ruck f l ake , i n de te rm ina te f l ake , p rox ima l e nd o f f l ake , d i s ta l e nd o f f l ak e , m id sec t ion o f f l ak e a nd c hunk /na tu ra lr o ck p i ece .

R e touch C la s s : I t h a s b een c a tego r ized i n t h e f o l low ing w ay b a sed o nB o rde s( 1961) : i . U n if ac ia lN o rma l : R e touch ing i sd one f r om t h e v en t r a lo nt ot h e d o r sa lf a ce o ft h e i . Un if ac ia l I nve r se : R e touch ing i sm ade f r om t h ed o r sa l f a ce o nt ot h ev en t ra lf a ce .

T hough B o rde s ( 1961) h a s d ef ined d e je te s i de s c rape r a s c onve rgen t r ac lo i r ( s ide s c rape r ) o f w h ich t h e a x i s o ft h e t oo l i sc l ea r ly i n c l ined o nt h e a x i s o f t h e f l ake , a r t ef ac t s o f B h imbe tka a s semb lage s wh ich a r e c l a ss if i ed a s d e je te s i de

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i . i v .

B if ac ia l : R e touch i s d one b o th d o r sa l ly a nd v en t ra l ly o nt h e s am ee dge o ft h et o o l . A l te rna te -N o rm a l a nd I nve r se : R e touch i s d one p a r t ly f r om t h e v en t ra l a nd p a r t ly f r om t h e d o r sa l f a ce o n t h e S ca t te r ed a nd /o r d i f f e ren te dge ( s ) .

a pp l ied a no the rr u le o fs imp le d om inan ce b a sed o n " r a r i ty " / i n f r equency : t h e c oncave t r a i t i s mo r e d om inan tt h an t h e s t ra igh t ,w h ich i s mo r e d om inan t t h an c onvex . F o r i n s tance , a c onve rgen t s i de s c rape rw i th o ne s t r a igh te dge a nd o ne c onvex e dge h a s b een c l a s s if i ed a s s t ra igh t c onve rgen t s i de s c rape ra cco rd ing t ot r ue r u le o fd om inance . B u ti t s e dge f o rm h a s b een r e co rded a s t h e e dge s a r e i . e . s t r a igh t -convex .

L oca t ion o fR e touch : T o d e te rm ine t h el o ca t ion o f r e touch , a r tef ac t s w h ich p r e serve t h e s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s h ave b een o r ien ted b y p l ac ing t h em p rox ima l ly . Whe re e v idence o fs t r ik ing p l a tf o rm i s n o t p r e served o r t h e a r tef ac t s a r e m ade o n r o ck p i ece /chunk , t h e s pec im en s h ave b een o r ien ted b y p l ac ing t h e i r b roade r e nd s p rox ima l ly . T h en l o ca t ion o fr e touch h a s b een d e te rm ined a s o n l e f t o r r i gh t l a te ra l s i de s o r p rox ima l o r d i s ta l e nd s . Whe r e mo r e t h an o ne e dge i sr e touched ( e .g . , i n c a se o f e nd a nd s i de s c rape r ) i t s l o ca t ion i s r e co rded i n ac omb ined f o rm e . g . , o ne s i de e dge a nd o ne e nd e dge ( s ee A ppend ix B ) .

C ros s S ec t ion : I ti st h e s e c t ion a c ro s s t h e s ho r t a x i s o f t h e a r tef ac t m idway d own a nd a t r i gh t a ng le s t o t h e l o ng a x i s ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . I t h a s b een c l a s s if ied a s b i convex ; l e n t icu la r , c i r cu la r , p l ano -convex h igh -back , p i ano c onvex l ow -back , t r i angu la r , s ub t r iangu la r , t r apezo id , r hombo id , p a r a l le log ram , i r r egu la r q uad r i la te ra l , p o lygon , c on cavo -convex a nd i r r egu la r . P re sence o fC or tex /O ld Wea thered S urf ace : T he r e duc t ion o fc o r t ica l a r ea o ro l d w ea the r ed s u rf ace o f t h e a r tef ac t h a s b een e xp r es sed i n t e rm s o f p e r cen tage s uch a s 1 00% c o r t ex / o l d w ea the red s u rf ace m ean ing n o f l ak e s c a r , 5 0% m ean ing t h e r emova l o f 5 0% c o r tex a nd s o o n . T h i s d oes n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly ad i r ec t r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e n umbe r o f f l ak e s c a r s a nd t h e c o r t ica l o r o ld w ea the r ed a r ea r emoved . H oweve r , r e cogn iz ing c o r t ica l / o ld w ea the red a r ea o n a s ub s tan t ia l n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s ( wh ich u nd e rgone w ea the r ing d u e t op o s t d epo s i t iona l p roce s se s ) h a s b een f ound d i ff icu l t .

R e touch /U t i l iza t ion E dge F orm ( P lan V iew ) : T h i s i s t h e f o rm o f t h e e dge o f a r tef ac t a f te r mod if ica t ion b y r e touch o ru t i l iza t ion w hen s e en i n t h e p l an v i ew ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . E dge f o rm s h ave b een c l a s s if ied a s s t ra igh t , c onvex , c oncave , n o tched , d en t icu la te a nd t h e i r v a r iou s c omb ina t ion s ( s ee A ppend ix B ) . A r tef ac t s w ho se o ne e dge i s mod if i ed b y r e touch ing o ru t i l iza t ion , t h e i r e dge f o rm s h ave b een r e co rded s imp ly e i the r s t ra igh t , c onvex o rc oncave o rw ha teve ri st h e f o rm o f t h a t e dge . B u t w he r e t wo o r m o r e e dge s a r e mod if ied , t h e f o rm o f e ach r e touched e dge h a s b een j udged s epa ra te ly a nd r e co rded i n t h e i r c omb ined f o rm s . F o ri n s tan ce , ad e je te s i de s c rape r w h ich h a s t h r ee r e touched /u t i l ized e dge s o f s t ra igh t , c onvex a nd c on cave f o rm r e spec t ive ly , t h e e dge f o rm o f t h i s t o o l h a s b een r e co rded a s s t ra igh t -convex -concave .

P la tf orm T ype : I th a s b een c l a s s if i ed i n to t wo c a tego r ies ( i ) n a tu r a l a nd ( i ) p r epa r ed . I f t h e p l a tf o rm r e ta in s c o r tex o r p o r t ion o f as imp le f r ac tu r e i th a s b een c a l led n a tu ra l , a nd i f t h e p l a tf o rm i sf o rm ed b y f l ak e s c a r s wh ich i n d ica te s t h e e v idence o fp r ev iou s p r epa ra t ion o fp l a tf o rm i n t h e c o r e i th a s b een t e rm ed p r epa r ed . Wh en t h e p l a tf o rm i sn o t p r e served i n ab rok en f l ak e i th a s b een r e co rded a sb rok en . Whe r e o n ly b u lb o rc on e o f p e r cu s s ion r em a in s w i thou t a ny p o r t ion o f t h e s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm i t h a s b een t e rm ed p o in ted p l a tf o rm . I n c a se o fp o in ted p l a tf o rm i t s t y pe h a s b een r e co rded a s i n de te rm ina te . T he a t t r ibu te a nd v a r iab le r e la ted t op l a tf o rm h ave b een a na ly sed i n b l ad e s a nd a l l t y pe s o f f l ak es e xcep t i n i n de te rm ina te w he r ep l a tf o rm sd on o te x i s t .

I n p rac t ice t h e e dge f o rm , i n mo s t c a se s , i sn o t u n if o rm ly s t ra igh t , c onvex o r c oncave ; r a the r i ti s w avy . I nt h e se c a se s i no rde rt or e duce t h e n umbe r o f s ub -ca tego r ie s B o rde s ( 1 961) ' p r inc ip le o f d om inan ce o ft r a i t ' h a s b een a pp l ied . F o r e xamp le , as i ng le s i de s c r ape r h a s aw avy e dge w ho se mo r e t h an 5 0% i sc onvex a nd l e s s t h an 5 0% i ss t ra igh t , t h e e dge f o rm o ft h i s a r tef ac t h a s b een c on s ide r ed t ob ec onvex . I n s tead o fd i s t ingu i sh ing m any c a tegor ie s a si nt h e c a se o fd oub le s i de s c rape r , B o rde s h a s m ade o n ly t h r ee h omogeneou s t y pe s o f c onve rgen t s i de s c rape r s : s t ra igh t , c oncave a nd c onvex . H e r eh e h a s

S car P a t tern : T he p a t ter n d eve loped o n t h e s u r f ace ( s ) o ft h e c o r e d ue t or emova l o ff l ak e s f r om v a r iou s d i r ec t ion s h a s b een g rouped i n to t h e

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L inear Mea suremen t s : D .A . R oe ' s ( 1973 ) s ugge s t ion made f o r l a rge c u t t ing t oo l s f r om K a lambo F a l l s h a s b een a dap ted f o r t h e m ea su r em en t s o f h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . T he s ugges t ion t o m ea su r e h andaxe a nd c l eave r f r om t h e a c tua l l i ne d r aw ing s o ft h e a r tef ac t s h a s b een c on s ide r ed h e r e in . F o r n on -b if ace t o o l s , f l ake s , b l ades , c h ip s a nd c o r e s l e ng th , b read th a nd t h ickne s s h ave b een m ea su red u s ing a m ea su r ing r e c tang le . T he m ea su r em en t sa r ea sf o l low : 1 . L eng th : Max imum l e ng th o ft h e a r tef ac t a l ong i t sl ong a x i s . 2 . B read th : Max imum b r ead th m ea su r ed a tr i gh t a ng le st ot h el ong a x i so ft h e a r tef ac t . 3 . T h ickne ss : Max imum t h ickne s s w hen t h e a r tef ac ti ss e en s i deway s . 4 . L I : D i s tance f r om t h e b u t t e nd t ot h e p o s i t ion o ft h ea r tef ac t ' sm ax imum b r ead th . 5 . B l : B read th a t ap o in t o f 1 / 5t h o ft h e a r tef ac t 's l e ng th f r om t h et i pe nd . 6 . B 2 : B r ead th a t ap o in t o f 1 / 5t h o ft h e a r tef ac t ' s l e ng th f r om t h eb u t te nd . 7 . T i : T h ickne s sa t ap o in to f1 5t h o ft h ea r tef ac t 's l e ng th f r om t h et i pe nd . 8 . C leave r E dge L eng th ( CEL ) : L eng th o f t h e s t ra igh t l i ne b e tween t h e e x t r em i t ie s o f t h e c l eave re dge o rb i t . 9 . C leave r E dge A ng le ( CEA ) : T he a ng le b e tween t h e c l eave r e dge ( i n t h i s c a se t h e s t ra igh tl i ne b e tween e x t r em i t ie s o ft h e c l eave r e dge ) a nd t h e l ong a x i s o ft h e a r tef ac t i np l an v i ew .

f o l low ing c a tego r ie s a nd h a sb een r e co rded o ne ach f a ce s epa ra te ly . T he c onvex s u rf ace o ft h e c o re h a s b een c on s ide r ed d o r sa l f a ce a nd t h e c ompa ra t ive ly f l a to rc oncave s u r f ace av en t ra lf a ce . i . Un id i r ec t ion : T he f l ak ing h a sb een d one o nt h e c o re i n o ne d i r ec t ion o n ly . T h e se a r e ( a ) i r r egu la r , ( b ) c onve rgen t a nd ( c ) p a ra l le l . (Whe re o n ly o ne f l ak e i s r emoved f r om a s u rf ace i ti sr e co rded a su n id i r ec t ion i r r egu la r ) . i . B id i r ec t ion : T h e r emova lo ff l ak e s i sf r om t wo d i r ec t ion s . T hey a r et wo t y pe s( a ) i r r egu la ra nd ( b )o pposed . i i . Mu l t id i r ec t ion : F lak es h ave b een s t ruck o f fi n mo r e t h an t wo d i rec t ion s . T h ey a r e f ound i n r a d ia la nd i r r egu la rp a t ter n . L a tera l E dge F orm ( Prof i le V iew ) : T h i s i st h e s hape o ft h e l a te ra l e dge o ft h e a r tef ac t w hen s e en a t r i gh t a ng le s t o t h e p l an v i ew ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . I t h a s b een c l a s s if ied i n to s t ra igh t , s i nuou s r egu la r a nd s i nuou s i regu la r . I t h a s b een r e co rded s epa ra te ly f o r l ef t a nd r i gh t l a te ra l e dge s . I th a s , b een a pp l ied t oh andaxes a nd c l eave r so n ly . T ran sver sa l E dge F orm ( P lan V iew ) : T h i s i st h e s hape o ft h e t r an sve r sa l e dge o ft h e a r t ef ac t w hen s e en i n p l an v i ew ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . T h i s h a s b een c on s ide r ed i nc a se o fh andaxe s a nd c l eave r s o n ly . I th a sb een c a t ego r ized i n to s t ra igh t , o b l ique r i gh t ( no r th -we s t -sou th -ea s t ) , o b l ique l ef t ( no r th -ea s t -sou th -we s t ) , c onvex , c on cave , a nd p o in ted ,

F rom t h ese m ea su r em en t s f o l low ing i n d ice s h ave b een d e r ived ( d epend ing u pon t h e t o o l t ype s ) b y c omb in ing p a i r sa sf o l low s : i . T h icknes s u pon B read th ( T /B ) , ( f o r a l l a r tef ac t st ype se xcep tc o re s ) . i . T i u pon L eng th ( T 1 /L ) , ( f o r h andaxe s a nd c l eave r so n ly ) . i i . B r ead th u pon L eng th ( B /L ) , ( f o r a l l a r tef ac t t ype se xcep tc o r e s ) . i v . B i u pon B 2 ( B1/B2 ) , ( f o r h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s ) . v . L Iu pon L ( L l /L ) ,( f o rh andaxe sa nd c l eave r s ) . v i . C leave r e dge l e ng th u pon B r ead th ( CEL /B ) , ( f o rc l eave r so n ly ) .

B u t t P lan : T h i s i st h e s hape o f t h e b u t t o f t h e a r tef ac t when s e en i np l an v i ew . T h i s a t t r ibu te t oo h a s b een c on s ide r ed i n c a se o f h andaxe s a nd c l eave r so n ly . I th a sb een c a tego r ized i n to r ounded , p o in ted l ong ,p o in ted s ho r t , t r an sve r se , o b l ique a nd c onve rgen t . Me tr ica lV ar iab le s An umbe r o fm e t r ica l v a r iab le s h ave b een d ef ined a nd s t ud ied t o d e l inea te o b jec t ive ly t h e v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e p a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s . T h i s q uan t i ta t ive a s ses sm en t h a s e nab led c ompa r i son b e tween t h e t wo a s semb lage s . V a r iou s v a r iab le s h ave b een c on s ide red f o r t h i s p u rpo se . B u t i n t h i s c a se t oo ( l ike mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s ) a l l o ft h e v a r iab le s a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly a pp l icab le t o e ve ry a r tef ac t t y pe .T he v a r iab les a r ea sf o l low s : We igh t : We igh t o f a l l a r t ef ac t s m ea su r ed t ot h e i rn ea r es tg r am s .

h ave

Number o f F lake S car s o n E ach S urf ace : Numbe r o f f l ake s c a r s h a s b een c oun ted o n e ach s u r f ace o f t h e s haped t o o l s a nd c o r e s . B u t i n t h e c a se o f f l ak es , b l ade s a nd c h ip s t h i s h a s b een r e co rded o nt h ed o r sa ls u rf ace o n ly .

b een

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Number o f P lane s Worked : T h i s v a r iab le h a s b een c on s ide r ed o n ly i nt h e c a se o fc o r e s . I ff l ake s h ave b een s t ruck o f ff r om o n ly o n e s u rf ace o ft h e c o re , i th a s b een r e co rded a sw o rk ed o n o ne p l ane . I ft h e r emova l i sf r om b o th s u r f ace s i th a s b een r e co rded a sw o rked o nt wo p l ane s .

R e touch Ang le : I ti st h e a ng le f o rm ed a tt h e e dge o f at o o l b e tween t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce s w he re o n e o r b o th f a ce s o f t h e t o o l i sr e touched ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . Wh en a n e dge i s r e touched t h e a ng le i sc a l led s imp ly ' e dge a ng le 'b y T r inghum e ta l . ( 1974 ) , a nd ' s pec if ic e dge a ng le 'b y K amm inga ( 1978 ) . A l so t h i s a ng le i s k nown a s ' i n c luded a ng le ' ( CLU W . 1 971) a nd ' d amage a ng le ' ( Knud son 1 979 ) . Ih ave a pp l ied t h e t e rm u sed b y C la rk a nd K le ind ien s tf o rt h i sp u rpo se .

P la tf orm L eng th : I t i s t h e m ax imum l e ng th b e tween t h e t wo s hou lde r s o ft h e s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . I th a sb een m ea su r ed t o t h e n ea r e s t m i l l ime te r . V a r iab le s r e la t ing t o p l a tf o rm l i k e l e ng th , b r ead th , a ng le h ave b een a na ly sed f o rf l ak e s ( e xc lud ing i n de te rm ina te f l ak e ) b l ad es a nd m ic rob lad e s .

S eve r a l m e thod s a r e u sed b y r e sea rche r s t o t a k e r e touch /edge a ng le m ea su r em en t s . T he se a r e : c a rpen te r ' s t emp la te m e thod ( C ro sby 1 967 ) , p o la r c oo rd ina te g raph m e thod ( Mov iu s e t a l . 1 968 ; W i lm sen 1 970 ; D ibb le a nd B er n a rd 1 980 ) , c l ay m e thod ( Bu rge s s a nd K vamm e 1 978 ;D ibb le a nd B er na rd 1 980 ) , p os te r p u t ty m e thod ( Fe rgu s s ion 1 980 ) , c a l ipe r m e thod ( D ibb le a nd B er n a rd 1 980 ) a nd g on iom e te r m e thod ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ; K amm inga 1 978 ; K ee ley 1 980 ) . H e r e Ih ave u sed t h e g on iom e te r m e thod . S in ce r e touch a ng le v ery o f ten c on s ide rab ly v a r ie s a l ong t h e e dge o ft h e t o o l , m in imum 3t o 5m ea su r em en t s , d epend ing o n t h e e dge l e ng th , h ave b een t a k en a nd t h e i r a ve r age h a s b een c a lcu la ted . F o l low ing t h e g en e r a l a g r eem en t o f t h e F i r s t CLU W o f 1 977 ( Hayden 1 979 : 7 ) t h e m ea su r em en t h a s b een t a ken 1mm b ack f r om t h e j unc tu r e o f t h e d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce s .

P la tf orm B read th : I t i s t h e m ax imum m ea su r em en t a c ro s s t h e p l a tf o rm l e ng th a ti t s r i gh t a ng le ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . P la tf orm A ng le : I ti s t h e a ng le f o rm ed b y t h e i n te r sec t ion o ft h e s u rf ace o ft h e p l a tf o rm a nd t h e p rox ima l e nd o f t h e v en t r a l s u rf ace o f t h e f l ake ( C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t 1 974 ) . I th a sb een m ea su r ed u s ing g on iom e te r . N umber o fR e touch S car s o n E i ther F ace : I th a s b een r e co rded f a ce -w i se a nd e dge -w i se . F o r i n s tance , i nt h ec a se o f as i de s c r ape rw i th a l te rna te r e touch w he r e r e touch ing h a s b een d one o n b o th f a ce s a nd b o th e dge s , r e touch s c a r s o n d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce a sw e l l a so n l e f t a nd r i gh t s i de s h ave b een r e co rded s epa r a te ly . T hen t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f r e touch s c a r sh a sb een c oun ted .

I nva s ivene s s o f R e touch : C la rk a nd K le ind ien s t ( 1 974 ) , a nd S ha rm a a nd C la rk ( 1983 ) h ave c l a s s if i ed t h e i n va s iven es s o f r e touch i n to t h r ee c a tego r ie s : Ma rg ina l , s em i inva s iv e a nd i n va s ive . A s p e r t h e i r d ef in i t ion a l t h e a r tef ac t s f r om B h imbe tka a r e f ound t ob e i nt h e f i r s tc a tego ry . B u t t h i s i n va s ivene s s v a r ie s f r om 1 mm t o 2 0 mm d epend ing o n t h e s i ze a nd t y pe o f t h e t o o l . T h e r ef o r e i n s tead o f d esc r ib ing i ts ub jec t ive ly I h av et a ken t h ea c tua lm ea su r emen t so ft h ee x ten to f r e touch s c a r s o n t h e s u r f ace o ft h e t o o l f r om t h e e dge . A n a ve rage o f 3 5 r e ad ing s h a s b een r e co rded s i nce r e touch s c a r s d o n o t u n if o rm ly e x tend a l ong t h e e dge o ft h et oo l .

R e touch L eng th : T he l e ng th o fr e touch h a s b een m ea su r ed w i th t h e h e lp o f as yn the t ic s t r ing p l aced a ga in s t t h e r e touched e dge ( s ) o ft h e t oo l T hen t h e l e ng th o f t h e S t r ing h a s b een m ea su red i n m i l l im e te r s . T he m ea su r em en t h a s b een t a k en s epa ra te ly a cco rd ing t o t h e p o s i t ion ( s ) o f t h e r e touched e dge ( s )o ft h et o o li . e . l e f to rr i gh ts i de o r p rox ima l o r d i s ta l e nd . T hen a l l t h e m ea su r em en t s h ave b een a dded t oge the r . S o f i na l ly a na ly s i s h a s b een m ade o n t h e t o ta l r e touched l e ng th o f at o o l . S im i la r ly , o t he r v a r iab le s r e la t ing t o r e touch l i ke r e touch a ng le a nd i n va s ivene s s o f r e tou ch h ave a l so b een r e co rded e dge -w ise a nd a na ly s i sh a sb een c a r r ied o u to nt h eb a s i so ft h e i ra ve rage .

L eng th a nd B read th o fB igge s t S car : I th a s b een c on s ide r ed f o rc o r e s o n ly . T he l e ng th o ft h eb i gge s t f l ak e s c a ro nt h e c o r e h a s b een m ea su r ed b y t a k ing t h e m ax imum l e ng th o f t h a t s c a r f o l low ing a n i mag ina ry l i ne w h ich d i v ides e qua l ly t h e p o in t o f i mpac t i . e . n ega t ive b u lb o f p e r cu s s ion . T he b r ead th i st h e m ax imum m ea su r em en tb e tween t wo r i dge s a tr i gh t a ng le s t ot h a t l i n e . T hey h ave b een

I n as ma l l n umbe ro ft o o l s , p o r t ion ( s ) o fr e touched e dge s a r e s o b ad ly d amaged t h a t c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f r e touch c ou ld n o t b e d e tec ted . S o t h e se h ave b een r e co rded f r om t h e d e tec tab le p o r t ion so n ly .

9 8

m ea su r ed s epa ra te ly f o r d o r sa l a nd v en t ra l f a ce o f t h e c o r e .

T he t o ta l n umbe r o fa r tef ac t s f r om t r ench e s Ea nd Fw a s 1 ,536 . A d e ta i led q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s o f t h e a s semb lage s h a sb een c a r r ied o u t . T he a r tef ac t s h ave b een g rouped i n to t wo b road c a tego r ies : ( 1 ) s haped t o o l s a nd ( 2 ) s imp le a r tef ac t s . F r equen c ie s a nd p e rcen tage s o ft h e a na ly sed a r tef ac t s f r om t h e t wo t r enche s a r es hown i nt a b le 1 .

Chord L eng th : T h i s v a r iab le h a s b een c on s ide r ed f o r n o tch a nd n o tch e nd . I ti st h e l e ng th o f t h e s t ra igh tl i ne b e tween t h e e x t rem i t ie s o ft h e n o tched e dge . I th a s b een m ea su r ed u s ing m i l l im e te r g r aph p ape r .

T he q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i so ft h ea r tef ac t s s how st h a t t h e r e a r e v a r ia t ion s i nt h e a r tef ac t t y pe s a mong t h e t h r ee c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . T h i s v a r ia t ion i s l e s s b e tween t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t h an b e tween t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . I n a l l t h e r e a r e 6 3 a r tef ac t t ypes i nt h e t h r ee p e r iod s . O f t h e se 2 2 t ype s a r e c ommon i na l l t h e t h r ee p e r iod s , 2 2 o ccu r o n ly i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , 1 7 o ccu r i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , 1o ccu r si nt h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd 1 o ccu r s o n ly i n t h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic .

D ep th o fN o tch : I ti st h e d i s tance f r om t h e s t ra igh t l i ne , b e tween t h e e x t r em i t ies o ft h e n o tched e dge , t ot h e m ax imum p o in t o fc oncav i ty o ft h e n o tched e dg e . T h i s t oo h a s b een m ea su r ed w i th t h e h e lp o f m i l l im e te rg raph p ape r . S ta t i s t ica l Ana ly se s T he h uge b ody o f d a ta t hu s g ene ra ted h ave b een c ompu te r i sed u s ing d Ba se I I+ , B a s ic , ' M in i tab ' ' S ta tg r aph ic s ' a nd ' Harva rd G raph ic s ' s of twa r e s i n o rde r t o c a r ry o u t t h e q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s o n mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu tes a nd m e t r ica l v a r iab le s . T he s t a t is t ica l t e chn ique s t h a t h ave b een e mp loyed f o rt h i s p u rpo se a r e D i s t r ibu t ion o fF r equency a nd P e r cen tage , Mean , S t anda rd D ev ia t ion , C oeff i c ien t o f V a r ia t ion , Mann Wh i tney U T e s t , tT e s t , C h i S qua r e T e s t , a nd C lu s te r A na ly s i s a cco rd ing t o t h e i rs u i tab i l i ty f o rs pec if ic s i tua t ion s .

V a r ia t ion i sa l so s e en i n t e rm s o f f r equency a nd p e rcen tage o f a r tef ac t t y pe s . I n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic 2 8 .97% a r tef ac t s a r e s haped t oo l s a nd 7 1 .03% a r e s imp le a r tef ac t s i . e . t h e p ropo r t ion o f s haped t oo l s t o s imp le a r tef a c t s i s1 : 2 .47 . Among s haped t oo l s b i f ace s c on s t i tu te o n ly 1 . 76% a nd t h e p ropo r t ion o f c l eave r s t o h andaxe s i s 1 . 75 :1 . Among h andaxes t h e o va l s haped h andaxe i st h e mo s t c ommon t y pe ( 3 1 .25% ) . O the r t y pe s a r e l imande ( 18 .75% ) , l a n ceo la te ( 12 .50% ) , s ub t r iangu la r ( 12 .50% ) , s ub -co rd if o rm ( 12 .50% ) , amygda lo id ( 6 .25% ) , a nd e l onga ted c o rd if o rm ( 6 .25% ) . Among c l eave r s t h e r ounded b u t t w i th c onvex e dge a nd t h et r un ca ted c onve rgen tb u t tw i th o b l ique e dge ( e ach 2 1 .42% ) a r e t h e c ommone s t t y pe s . T runca ted c onve rgen tb u t tw i th c onvex e dge , p o in ted s ho r t b u t t w i th o b l ique e dge a nd r ounded b u t t w i th o b l ique e dge , e ach c on s t i tu te s 1 0 .71 % . T he r ound ed b u t t t r an sve r se e dge a nd t h e p o in ted l ong b u t t o b l ique e dge e ach c on s t i tu te s 7 . 14% . O f t h e o the r t h r ee t y pe s -p o in ted l ong b u t t c onvex e dge , p o in ted s ho r t b u t t t r an sve r se e dge a nd t r unca ted c onve rgen t b u t t t r an sve r se o b l iqu e e dge c on s t i tu te 3 . 57% .

F o r mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s w ho le a s semb lages h av e b een c on s ide r ed a nd d i s t r ibu t ion s o f f r equency a nd p e r cen tage h ave b een c ompu ted . T h e se h ave b een d one c u l tu ra l p e r iod -w i se a sw e l l a sd ep th -w i se t oa s se s s t h e v a r iab i l i ty b e tween a nd w i th in t h e c u l tu ra lp e r iod s . T hey h ave b een w o rked o u ta r tef ac tt ype -w i se t os e et h ev a r iab i l i ty b e tween a nd w i th in t h e a r tef ac t t ypes . T he r e su l t s h ave a l so b een e xp r es sed t h rough h i s tog r am s a nd f r equ ency c u rve so fs om eo ft h ei mpo r tan tf e a tu r e s . RESULTS T h e a na ly se s s how d i f f e r ence s , e i the rs i gn if i can to r i n s ign if ican t , w i th in a nd b e tween t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . T he d i f f e r ences a r e s i gn if ican t i nt h e c a se o fq uan t i ta t ive c ompo s i t ion o ft h e a s semb lage s o f t h r ee p e r iod s , n am e ly L ow e r , M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic * .

t a b le s .

'T he s t a t is t ica l a na ly ses o fq uan t i ta t ive c ompo s i t ion o ft h e a s semb lage s h ave

S om e o f t h e f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion s h ave b een p r esen ted i n 4 0

h i s tog r am sa nd f r equency c u rve s . Mu l t ivar ia te a na ly ses h ave b een p lo t ted i n8 0

p roduced 4t a b le s . T he a na ly se s o f mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s o fa r tef ac tt ype s i n

s c a t te r d i ag ram s . S o i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o p r esen t a l t h e r e su l t i n t h i s p ape r .

r e la t ion t o s t ra tum ( dep th ) a nd c u l tu ra l p er iod s how ing d i s t r ibu t ion o f

O n ly t h e s a l ien t f e a tu re s o f t h e s i gn if ican t r e su l t a nd t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f

f r equency a nd p e r cen tage h ave p roduced 5 40 t a b le s . Ou t o f t h em 2 70 t a b le s

a na ly s is h ave b een p r esen ted i nt h is p ape r .

h ave b een c omb ined i n to 1 5t a b les b a sed o n c u l tu r a l p er iod o n ly . T he a na ly se s

T hough t h e L eva l lo is f l ake i sc l a s s if ied a s as haped t oo l i nB o rder , s chem e , i n

o fm e t r ica l v ar iab les o fa r tef ac t c l a s se s s how ing d i s t r ibu t ion o ff r equency a nd

t h i ss t udy i th a sb een i n c luded i nt h ec a tegory o fs imp le a r tef a c t s .

p e r cen tage a nd d e scr ip t iv e s t a t i s t ics h ave p rodu ced 3 10 t a b les . R esu l t s o f v a r iou s s i gn if icance t e s t s ( two s amp les a na ly s i s ) h ave b een c omp i led i n 3 2

9 9

T ab le 1 :D is t r ibu t ion o fF requency a nd P e rcen tage A r tef ac t s i nT renche s Ea nd Fo fR ock S he l te rI I F -23 , B h imbe tka L .P

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4 0 .30% s l igh t ly w ea the r ed , 8 . 18% mod e r a te ly w ea the r ed a nd 1 . 24% h eav i ly w ea the r ed . T he h i ghe s tp e rcen tage ( 54 .21) o fw ea the r ed a r tef ac t s i s f ound i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage f o l lowed b yt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( 37 .44 ) a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ( 32 .10 ) . T he d eg r ee o f w ea the r ing a l so d ec rea ses f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t ot h eU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic . F o re xamp le , t h e p e r cen tage o fh eav i ly w ea the r ed a r tef ac t i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic i s 1 . 6 , i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic 0 . 17 a nd n one i n t h e U ppe r

U nf or tuna te ly d i f f e r ence s i n t e rm s o f m o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s c ou ld n o t b e t e s ted i n r e spec t o f t h e i r s i gn if i can ce . H oweve r , f r om t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ff r equency a nd p e r cen tage si ta ppea r s t h a t e xcep t i n r e spec t o f p hy s ica l c ond i t ion , c omp le tene s sa nd p r ima ry f o rm , a l lo the ra t t r ibu te s , i . e . c r o s s s e c t ion , p l an f o rm a nd c o r tex m ay n o t h av e a ny s i gn if i can t d i f f e r ence w i th in a nd b e tween t h ec u l tu ra lp e r iod sa nd d ep th s . O ft h et o ta la s semb lage 5 0 .28% a r tef ac t sa r ef r e sh ,

1 0 1

P a laeo l i th ic . R eve r se i st h e s i tua t ion i nt h e c a se o f f r e shne s s o f t h e a r tef ac t s . T h i s p a t ter n , f r e sh a r tef ac t s mo re a tt h e t op a nd w ea the r ed a r tef ac t s mo re a t t h e b o t tom , a l so i n d ica te s t h e p r ima ry n a tu r eo ft h e s i te .

( 20 .98% i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod , 1 8 .45 % i nt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd 1 3 .95% i nt h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p er iod ) a nd s hor t t r iangu la r ( 7 .79% i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod , 9 . 30% i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd 4 . 65% i n t h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ) .

I ts e em s t h a t t h e w ea th e r ing o f t h e a r tef ac t h a s o ccu r r ed p a r t ly d u e t ow a te r l o gg ing i nt h e s he l te r ( M i s ra , V .N . 1 985 ) a nd p a r t ly t o o t he r f a c to r s . I f o n ly w a te rl o gg ing w e re r e spon s ib le f o rw ea th er ing t h en a l l t h e a r tef ac t s o fs am e r aw m a te r ia l i n a ny l e ve l w ou ld h ave b een w ea the red . O nt h e c on t ra ry , t h e s am e l e ve l s how s f r e sh a s w e l l a s w ea the r ed a r tef ac t s . O th e r f a c to r s r e spon s ib le f o r t h is v a r ia t ion m ay b e m ic ro e nv i ronm en t o f s o i l . F o r i n s tance , a r tef ac t s b u r ied i nf i ne t e x tu r ed c l ay s o i l w he r e mo i s tu r e w a s mo r e m igh t h ave b een w ea the r ed i n ag r ea te r p ropo r t ion a nd d eg ree . O n t h e o t he r h and , a r tef ac t s b u r ied i n c oa r se -g ra ined s andy s o i l w he r e p e r cen tage o f mo i s tu r e w a s l e s s m igh th ave b een w ea the red t o al e s sp ropo r t ion a nd d eg r ee ( S .N . R a jagu ru , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) . A m ic ro l e ve l s t udy o f s ed im en t s , o f t h e s h e l te r m ay t h row s om e l i gh t t o d e te rm ine t h e c au se s f o r w ea the r ing .

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A s ub s tan t ia l p o r t ion o f a r tef ac t s w e r e b roken i n v a r iou s a s semb lage s . B r eakage i nt h e a r tef ac t m ay b e c au sed ( 1 ) d u r ing m anuf ac tu r e , ( 2 ) d u r ing u se a nd ( 3 )b yn a tu ra lp roce s se si . e . d epo s i t iona l a nd /o r p o s t d epo s i t iona l f a c to r s ( t ramp l ing , r o ck f a l l a nd o ve r b u rden ) ( Pe t rag l ia 1 987 ) . T he p e r cen tage s o f b roken a r tef ac t s a r e mo r e i nt h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ( 4 3 .73 )f o l lowed , b yt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ( 29 .43 ) a nd t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ( 2 8 .93 ) . I ti nd ica te st h a tt h e s ma l l , t h in a nd d e l ica te o b jec t s o f t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod w e re b rok en w i th h i ghe r f r equen cy t h an l a rge a nd t h ick a r tef ac t s o ft h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . W i th in t h e c u l tu ra l p er iod sn o d ef in i te a nd r egu la rp a t ter ni so b served .

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7 r 11

F ig . 7 : D i s t r ibu t ion o f F r equency o f L eng th o f S ide S c r ape r s ( Lay e r -W i se )

F r equency d i s t r ibu t ion o fm e t r ica l v a r iab les s how s t h a t l a rge ly t h e a s semb lage w i th in t h e c u l tu r a l p er iod i sh e te rogeneou s ( F ig s . 6a nd 7 ) . I n o t he r w o rd s t h e a s semb lage i n e ach p e r iod c on s is t s o f b o th s ma l le r a nd l a rge r , b road e r a nd n a r rowe r , t h ick e r a nd t h inne r v a r ie t ie s o f a r tef ac t s . I n c ompa r i son t o e ach c u l tu ra l p e r iod , t h e h e te rogene i ty i na s semb lage p r eva i l s , r e su l t ing i n to h omogene i ty t h roughou t t h e c u l tu r a l s equence f r om L owe r t o U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . H oweve r , t wo s amp le s a na ly se s ( Mann Wh i tney U t e s t a nd tt e s t ) r e vea l t h a t i n s p i te o f h omogene i ty , i n g ene ra l , b e tween t wo c on t iguou s p e r iod s t h e r e a r e d i f f e rences , s i gn if ican t o ri n s ign if ican t , i nt e rm s o f i n d iv idua l v a r iab le s o f a r tef ac t c l a s se s ( f o r i n s tance , s e e T ab le s 4 . 333 a nd 4 . 364 A lam 2 00 1) . S im i la r ly , d i f f e r ence sa l so p r eva i lw i th in t h eL owe r

T he p l an f o rm o rs hape o ft h et o o li sp r ede te rm ined b y t h e t oo l -make rb ef o re i n i t ia l f r ac tu r e o ft h e r aw m a ter ia l ( Crab t r ee 1 972 ) . A c l ea r p r ef e r ence w a s m ade b y t h e s t one a ge c r af t sm en o fB h imbe tka i n m anuf ac tu r ing t h e t oo l s . S ho r t i regu la r f o rm ( 3 7 .28% i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod , 3 .62% i nt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd 4 4 .18% i nt h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ) i st h e d om inan t i n a l l t h e p e r iod s f o l lowed b y l o ng i r r egu la r ( 2 3 .11 % i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic p er iod , 2 5 .45% i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd 3 2 .55% i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ) , s hor t q uad r i la te ra l

1 02

( 2 ) Med ium : ( a ) R aw Ma ter ia l : A t B h imbe tka o n ly q ua r tz i te w a su sed a sr aw m a te r ia l t h roughou t t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . T he n eg l ig ib le p e r cen tage ( 0 .032 ) o fn on -quar tz i te m a te r ia l h a sp robab ly b een i n t ruded f r om t h e u ppe rmo s t l e ve l . T h e o n ly l i t t le v a r ia t ion i s i n t h e q ua l i ty o f q ua r tz i te u sed f o r b i f ace a nd n on -b if ace t o o l s . B u t t h e b i f ace s amp le i st o o s m a l lt oi nf lu ence t h e s i gn if i can tv a r ia t ion i n s uch ah uge a s semb lage .

P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod , i . e . b e tween l a ye r s 8 , 7a nd 6 . C lu s t e r a na ly s i s i n d ica t es r e gu la r s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence b e tween t h e t h r ee c u l tu ra l p e r iod s i n r e spec t o f 7a r tef ac t t ypes ( s ee A lam 2 001) . T he r e a r e s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence s i n o t he r a r tef ac t t ype s t o ob u tn o tr egu la ra sp e rc u l tu r a lp e r iod a nd l a ye r . Wha t a r e t h e f a c to r s t h a tp roduce t h ese d i f f e r ence s o r v a r ia t ion s i n a r tef ac t s a nd wha t i s t h e s i gn if icance o ft h e se v a r ia t ion s ? H e r e i ti sw o r th m en t ion ing t h a t mo rphom e t r ic a na ly s i s a r e c oncer n ed p r ima r i ly w i th t h e q uan t if ica t ion o f v a r ia t ion a nd o n ly t h e i nd i r ec t e xp lana t ion o ft h e se v a r ia t ion s ( Roe 1 973 ) . H ence i ti sq u i te d i ff icu l t t o p r e sen t a ny u n con t rove r s ia l e xp lana t ion f o r t h e v a r ia t ion a mong a r tef ac t s . R a th e r t h e r e h a s b een c on s ide rab le c on t rove r sy r e ga rd ing t h e e xp lana t ion o fv a r iab i l i ty i nl i th ic a s semb lage o ve rt h e l a s t f ou r d ecade s . T he m o s t i mpo r tan t c on t rove r sy a r o se f r om t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f f e r ed f o r o b served v a r ia t ion s i n t h e Mou s te r ian o f s ou thwe s t F rance o ve r f unc t iona l v a r iab i l i t ie s a nd c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s ( f o r d e ta i l s s e e B o rde s 1 961 ; B o rde s a nd S onnev i l le B o rd e s 1 970 ; C o l l in s 1 969 , 1 970 ; Me l la r s 1 970 ; B inf o rd a nd B inf o rd 1 966 ; a nd B inf o rd 1 969 , 1 972 , 1 975 , 1 977 , 1 978 , 1 982 ) .

( b ) T echno logy : I n t h e s am e c u l tu r e w hen s am e r aw m a te r ia l i su sed , t h e f a c to r s i nf luenc ing t h e a r tef ac t v a r ia t ion m ay b e t e chno logy a nd /o r f unc t ion . B e tween t h e t wo c u l tu ra l p e r iod s t h e f a c to r s m ay b e t e chno logy , f unc t ion a nd c u l tu r e t r ad i t ion . T he v a r iab le s o f t h ickn es s , T /B , n umbe r o f f l ak e s c a r s , a nd r e touch l e ng th h ave b een c on s ide r ed a s t e chno log ica l i n d ice s . A l l n on -b if ace t oo l c l a s se s ( e xcep t b o r e r s a nd n o tches ) a s w e l l a s f l ak e s a nd c h ip s s how s i gn if ican t d i f f e rence b e tween l a ye r s 8 , 7a nd 6 i n r e spec t o f 1t o 3o f t h e se v a r iab le s ( d epend ing o n a r tef ac t c l a s s ) ( s ee T ab le s 4 . 332 4 . 359 i nA lam 2 001) . B u tt h e se d i f f e r ence s a r e n o t r egu la r i na l l t h e l a ye r s a nd i na l l a r tef ac t c l a s se s . I nr e spec t o fc u l tu ra l p e r iod t oo t h e r e su l t i s mo r e o rl e s s s im i la r . T h icknes s , T /B a nd n umbe ro ff l ak e s c a r s s i gn if ican t ly d ec r ea se f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n a l l n on b i f ace t o o l s e xcep tf o rk n ive s . I nc a se o ff l ake s a nd c h ip s t h ickne s s a nd T /B s i gn if ican t ly d ec rea se a nd n umbe ro ff l ak e s c a r s i n c r ea ses . O nt h e o t he rh and , r e touch l e ng th s i gn if i can t ly i n c r ea se s f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n e nd s c rape r s , b o r e r s , t r unca ted f l ak e s a nd n o tche s . A r tef ac t sb ecom e s i gn if i can t ly t h inn e ri nt h eU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i nk n ive s , t r unca ted f l ak es , f l ake s a nd c h ip s . Numbe ro ff l ak e s c a r s s i gn if i can t ly i n c r ea se s i n f l ak e s a nd c h ip s i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . I n o t he r a r tef ac t c l a s se s t h e v a lue e i the r i n c r ea se s o r d ec r ea se si n s ign if ican t ly .

T h e v a r iab i l i ty r e vea led i nr o ck s he l te r I I F -23 i s p robab ly d ue t of o l low ing f a c to r s : ( 1 ) P e r sona l i ty o f i . e . mo to r h ab i t s o f i nd iv idua l a r t if i ce r s( 2 ) Med ium i . e . ( a )r aw m a te r ia lu sed a nd ( b ) t e chno logy e mp loyed f o r m anuf ac tu r ing t oo l s ( 3 )F unc t ion a nd ( 4 ) c u l tu r e . T h i sv a r iab i l i ty c an b e e xp la ined i nt h ef o l low ing w ay s . ( 1 ) Mo tor H ab i t s o f I nd iv idua l : A n e no rmou s n umbe r o f a r tef ac t s w e r e p roduced i n t h e s he l te r t h rough t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod b y g roups o f i n d iv idua l s . I nd iv idua l s a r e a lway s s omewha t d i f f e r en t f r om o ne a no th e r i nt h e i r mo to r h ab i t s o r m o to r p e r f o rm ance s . T he a r tef ac t s t h ey m ak e o r u se e xh ib i t s l igh t d i f f e r ence s i n e xecu t ion o r u se w ea r . E ven i n d iv idua l s o ft h e s am e c u l tu r e i ft h ey a r e g iven s am e t a sk u nde r s im i la r p hy s ica l c ond i t ion a nd u s ing s im i la r m a te r ia l s a nd t e chn iques w i l l p roduce s l igh t ly d i f f e r en t r e su l t s ( C legg 1 977 ) . T h i s d i f f e r en ce i sd ef ined a ss t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion ( H i l l a nd G unn 1 977 ) . A t B h imbe tka t h e i n s ign if ican t v a r ia t ion s o b se rved a tv a r iou s l e ve l s i . e . i n t r a a nd i n te r l a ye r a nd p e r iod m ay b e r e la ted i n s om e m ea su r e t o t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f d i f f e r en t i n d iv idua l si . e . s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion .

T h e mo s t i mpo r tan t f e a tu r e , h oweve r , i s t h a t v a r iab le s l i ke t h ickn e s s , T /B a nd n umbe r o f f l ake s c a r s a r e c on t ro l led b y t h e p r ima ry f o rm o f t o o l ( A lam a nd M i s ra n . d . 1 992 ) . T h e a na ly s i s r e vea l s t h a t ah i ghe r p e r cen tage o f t o o l s w e r e m ade o n n a tu ra l r o ck p i ece s ( w i thou t f l ak ing ) i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic c ompa red t o t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic . S o t h e a r tef ac t s s how s i gn if ican t ly l e s s n umbe r o f f l ak e s c a r s i nt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic T h inn e rt o o ls w i th mo r e f l ak e s c a r s a r e c on s ide r ed a s i n d ica to r s o f r ef inem en t ; h ence d eve lopm en t i n t oo l

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t e chno logy . T hough t h ickne s s a nd T /B v a lue s r e a sonab ly d ec r ea se f r om t h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic d ue t op r e sence o f h i ghe r p e r cen tage o f a r tef ac t s m ade o n t h in n a tu ra l r o ck p i ece s b u t d u e t o t h e s am e r e a son t h e n umbe r o f f l ak e s c a r s t o o d ec rea se s . S in ce t h e r o ck p i ece s w e r e n a tu ra l ly t h in t h e a r t if i ce r s d i d n o t n eed t o r emove f l ake s f r om t h em t o m ak e t h em t h in a nd t hu s t h ey w e r e a b le t o m ake t o o l s w i th m in imum i n ves tm en t o f e ne rgy a nd t im e ( A lam a nd M i s ra n . d . , 1 992 ) . T h is p rac t ice w a s c ommon i n a l t h e p e r iod s b u t i tw a s mo re p ronounced i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . T ha t i s w hy i n t h i s p e r iod t h ough t h ickne s s o f a r tef ac t s r e duce s s i gn if i can t ly , t h e n umbe r o f f l ak e s c a r s t o o r e duce s i n s t ead o f i n c r ea s ing .

t e chn ique s w e r e a pp l ied f o r s p ec if ic t o o l t y pe s . T h ey a r e b lock -on -b lock t e chn ique a nd h a rd h amm e r t e chn ique f o r r emov ing f l ake s f r om c o r es a nd s o f th amm e rt e chn ique w a su sed f o r s e conda ry t r imm ing o r r e touch ing t h e e dg e s o f t o o l s . F o r i n s tan ce , n o c hange i so b served i nm anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique o fb l ade s i nt h e t h r ee p e r iod s . I n a l t h e p e r iod s b l ade s s e em t o h ave b een p r epa r ed b y h i t t ing t h e p l a tf o rm o n t h e c o rne r o f c o r e a nd a n e l onga ted f l ak e c am e o f f f o l low ing t h e e dge o r r i dge o f t h e c o r e / rock ( J ian L eng , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) . I n t h e a na ly s i s o f b l ade s a nd m ic rob lade s f r om t h e e n t i r e e x cava ted a r ea o ft h e r o ck s h e l te r V .N . M i s ra ( 1982 ) o bserved t h a t t h e b l ade s w e r e n o t p r epa r ed f r om s p ec ia l ised b l ade c o r e s .

Mu l t iva r ia te a na ly se s c a r r ied o u t b y c omb in ing t h ese 3 t o 4t e chno log ica l v a r iab le s s ugge s t t h a t t h e r e w a s ar e gu la r a nd s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence b e tween t h e l a ye r s a nd t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . T h i s m ay b e e xp la ined b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v a r iab le s e xe r c i sed l e s s i n f luence i nd iv idua l ly t h an c o l lec t ive ly o n a r tef ac tv a r ia t ion . B e s ide s , a na ly se s h ave b een c a r r ied o u t o nt h eb a s i s o fa r t ef ac tt y pe s . I n t h e se a na ly se s t h e d i f f e r ence i s r e gu la r a nd d i s t inc t a t l e a s t i n s even a r tef ac t t y pe s . T he se a r tef ac t t ype s a r e : ( 1 ) s imp le c onvex s i de s c r ape r , ( 2 ) s i de s c r ape r w i th v en t ra l r e touch , ( 3 ) s i de s c rape r w i th s t eep r e touch , ( 4 ) e nd s c rape r , ( 5 ) t r unca ted f l ak e , ( 6 ) n o tch a nd ( 7 ) s i de f l ak e . O u t o f t h a t f o rm e r s i x t y pe s c on s t i tu te 5 4 .53% o fs haped t o o lc a tego ry a nd t h el a s to ne c on s t i tu te s 1 0 .52% o f s imp le a r tef ac tc a tego ry .

3 . F unc t ion : F o r u nde r s tand ing f un c t iona l v a r iab i l i ty t wo a spec t s o f a s semb lages h ave b een c on s ide r ed . T h ey a r e : ( 1 ) v a r iab i l i ty i n t h e q uan t i ta t ive c ompo s i t ion o f t h e a s semb lage s , a nd ( 2 ) v a r ia t ion i nc e r ta in v a r iab le sw h ich a r e a s sum ed t oe f f ec tt h ef unc t ion o ft h ea r tef ac t s .

T he L eva l lo i s i n dex g radua l ly i n c r ea se s f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ( 0 .19 ) t h rough t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( 0 .51) t ot h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic ( 0 .60 ) . P e r cen tage o f d i sco id c o r e i n c rea se s f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ( 0 .09 ) t o t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ( 0 .30 ) . T h i s a l so i n d ica te s a d ev e lopm en ti nt e chno logy t h rough t im e .

H oweve r , o n t h e b a s i s o f e xpe r im en ta l w o rk ( Sem enov 1 964 ; K ee ley 1 976 , 1 977 , 1 980 ) ; u se w ea r a na ly s i s ( K ee ley 1 976 , 1 977 , 1 980 ) ; e dge a ng le a na ly s i s ( Kamm inga 1 978 ; F e rgu s s ion 1 980 ) ; e t hnog r aph ic p a ra l le l s( Gou ld 1 968 , 1 971 ; C am e r io 1 979 ) a nd c on s ide r ing t h e e nv i ronm en to ft h es i te i t c an b e t e n ta t ive ly s a id t h a t b u tcher ing , m ea t c u t t ing , w ood c u t t ing , w ood w h i t t l ing , w ood p l ann ing , w ood s h ap ing , w ood w edg ing , h i de s c rap ing , s k in c l ean ing , s l i c ing , b o r ing a nd t h row ing ( m i s s i le ) m igh t h ave b een t h e p r inc ipa l a c t iv i t ie sp e rf o rm ed b yt h e se t o o l s .

( 1 ) V ar iab i l i ty i n t he Quan t i ta t ive C ompos i t ion o f t he A s semb lage : T he l a rge v a r ie ty o f a r tef ac t t y pe s i n e ach p e r iod i n d ica te s t h a t t hough t h ey w e r e u sed f o rd i f f e r en t s u i t s o fa c t iv i t ies a tt h e s i te , i t i s d i ff icu l t t o a s s ign p o s i t ive f unc t ion s t o a r tef ac t s . Mo s tl i ke ly o ne t ype w a sn o tu sed f o ro n e p u rpo se . R a the r a g r ea t d ea l o f o ve r lapp ing b e tween t h e f unc t ion s o fa r tef ac t t y pe s m igh t h ave t a k en p l ace ( Bo rde s a nd B o rde s 1 970 ; P addayya 1 982 ) .

C on s ide r ing a l l t h e se f e a tu r e s i tc an b e s t a t ed t h a t i ng ene ra l t h e re w a s at r end t owa rd s t e chno log ica l d eve lopm en t f r om t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t o t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . T h is t r end w a s mo r e p ronounced i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , s p ec ia l ly i n r e spec to ft h e a cqu i s i t ion o fs u i tab le r o ck p i eces f o r t o o lm ak ing .

I ti sm o re d i ff icu l tt oa t t r ibu te f unc t iona l v a r ia t ion s b e tween t wo p er iod s , b ecau se t h e a ppea rance o f n ew a r tef ac t t y pe s o r d i sappea r an ce o f o ld o ne s m ay n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly a c h ange i n a c t iv i t ie s . R a th e r , t h e s am e a c t iv i ty m igh t h ave b een p er f o rm ed b y c l ea r ly d i f f e r en t t o o l t y pe s ( Me l la r s

H oweve r , t h i s t r end d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly a c hange i n t e chn ique s o f t o o l m ak ing . R a the r i t s e em s t h a t i n a l t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s s am e

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1 970 ) . T hu s t h e t y po log ica l v a r iab i l i ty o b served b e tw een t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s m ay b e e xp la in ed i n t wo w ay s . E i the r i ti sd ue t ot h e i nf luence o ft wo d i f f e r en t c u l tu r a l t r ad i t ion s o r i tm ay b e d ue t o c hanges i n a c t iv i t ies . F o r i n s tan ce , d i sappea rance o fh andaxes a nd c l eave r si nt h eM idd le P a laeo l i th ic m ay b e d ue t o t h e i nf luence o f t wo c omp le te ly d i f f e r en t c u l tu r e s . I ft h i s a s sump t ion i sv a l id t h en o ne h a s t o a ccep t t h a t t h e t a sk s w h ich w e re b e ing p e rf o rm ed b y h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s i nt h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic w e r e p e r f o rm ed b y o t he r t oo l t ype s s u ch a s l a rge a nd h eavy s c r ape r s i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . I n t h i s c on tex t i t i s p a r t icu la r ly r e levan t t o r e ca l l G ou ld ' s ( 1968 : 4 7 ) o b serva t ion t h a t t h e We s te rn A u s t ra l ian a bo r ig ines e f f ec t ive ly b u tche red l a rge a n im a l s ( k anga roo s , e u ro s , emu s ) b y s imp le w ooden w edge s a nd s t one f l ak es . I n a no the r o b se rva t ion o n t h e A u s t ra l ian A bo r ig ine s h e n o tes t h a t " t h e l a rge w ood w o rk ing s c rape r s a r e h and led a nd a r e u sed a s h andaxes o r s c rape r p l an es " ( Gou ld 1 971 : 1 60 -161 ) . I ft h i s a s sump t ion i s n o t v a l id t h en a l ter n a t iv e a s sump t ion , i . e . a c hange i na c t iv i ty , c ou ld b e c on s ide r ed , t h ough t h is s e em sr a th e rw eak .

i nf luence o fd i f f e r en tc u l tu re s .

A s t h e re i s n o i n d ica t ion o f d r a s t ic c hange i n c l im a te d u r ing t h e P l e i s tocen e i np en in su la r I nd ia ( S .N . R a jagu ru , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) i t i s a s sum ed t h a t f l o ra a nd f a una s im i la r t o t h a t o f t o day e x is ted i nt h e B h imbe tka r e g ion t h roughou t t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . S o P a laeo l i th ic p eop le p robab ly e xp lo i ted s im i la r p l an t a nd a n ima l f ood s . B e s id es h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s , s i x o t he r t ype s ( a l t er n a te b u r ina te b eak , b i f ac ia l r e touch , p o in t , L eva l lo i s f l ak e c o r e , p r i sma t ic c o r e a nd p y ram ida l c o r e ) a r e a b sen t i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . B u t e ven i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic t h e se s i x t ypes o ccu ri n an eg l ig ib le p ropor t ion ( Tab le 1 ) . B e s ide s , o u t o ft h e se s i x , f ou r t ype s a r e c o r e w h ich a r e n o t i mpo r tan t t ype s f r om t h e f un c t iona l p o in t o fv i ew . T h eo the rv a r ia t ion b e tween t h e se t wo p e r iod s i si n t e rm s o f f r equen cy a nd p e rcen tage o n ly . I n t h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic 2 1 t y pe s ( b e s ide s h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s ) a r e a b sen t . B u t t h e , a r tef ac t c l a s se s l i ke s i d e s c rape r s , e nd s c r ape r s , b o re r s , k n ives , d en t icu la te s a nd n o tche s c on t inue i n t h i s p e r iod . T h e m a jo r d i f f e r ence s b e tween t h i s p e r iod a nd t h e p r eced ing o ne i si nt h e a b sence o f 1 3 t y pe s o fs i de s c rape r s a nd i n t h e p ropo r t ion o f o the r a r tef ac t t y pe s ( Tab le 1 ) . T h is v a r ia t ion m ay b e r e la ted t o c u l tu ra l i n f luence s . S o i tc an b e i n f e r r ed t h a t t h e p r e sence o fd i f f e r en t a r tef ac tt y pe s i n ap e r iod m ay b e r e la ted t o d i f f e ren t s u i t s o f a c t iv i t ie s a nd v a r ia t ion b e tween t wo p e r iod s m ay b e d u e t o t h e

T he a na ly se s o f t wo s amp les r evea l s i gn if ican t d i f f e rences b e tween l a ye r s 8 , 7a nd 6 i n s i de s c rape r s , n o tches , f l ak e s a nd c h ip s i nt e rm s o fo ne t o t h r ee v a r iab les o f d im en s ion ( Tab le s 2a nd 3 ) . T h i s v a r ia t ion w i th in t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic m ay b er e la ted t of unc t ion .

( 2 ) V ar ia t ion i n T erms o f Me tr ica l V ar iab le s o f A r tef ac t s : D im en s ion i . e . w e igh t , l e ng th a nd b r ead th ; a nd r e touch a ng le a r e a s sum ed t o b e i n f luenc ing t h e f unc t iona l v a r ia t ion i n5 0 a r tef ac t s , ( t hough t h ickne s s i s o n e o f t h e c omponen t s o f d im en s ion , i th a s b een t r ea t ed a s a n i n d ica to r o f r ef inem en t , i . e .t e chno logy ) . T he f r equ ency d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t sa cco rd ing t o w e igh t , l e ng th a nd b r ead th s how s t h a t t h e a s semb lage s i n e ach p e r iod a r e d om ina ted b y l i gh te r , s m a l le ra nd n a r rowe rt oo l s i nt e rm s o fe ach a r tef ac t c l a s s e xcep t f o r h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s . H andaxes a nd c l eave r s a r e d om ina ted b y m ed ium s i zed t oo l s . I n o t he r t o o l c l a s ses m ed ium -s ized t oo l s f a l l i n to t h e s e cond c a tego ry . H eav ie r , l a rge r a nd b roade r t oo l s a r e l e ss i n a l l t h e p e r iod s , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . T h i s v a r ia t ion w i th in t h e p e r iod s , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . T h i s v a r ia t ion w i th in c u l tu ra l p er iod m ay b e e xp la ined a sb e ing d u et of unc t iona l i nf luence .

B e tween t wo c on secu t ive p er iod s ( Lowe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , a nd M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ) s i ze v a r ie s s i gn if i can t ly i n s i de s c rape r s , k n ive s a nd t r unca ted f l ak es i nr e spec to fa n umbe ro fv a r iab le s( Tab le s 4a nd 5 ) . I nt h e c a se o f s i de s c r ape r s a nd t r unca ted f l ak e s t h i s v a r ia t ion s e em s t o b e d ue t o mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te ( p r ima ry f o rm ) o ft h e t o o l . F o r i n s tance , t r unca ted f l ake s wh ich s how s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence w i th r e spec tt oa l l t h e t h r ee v a r iab les o fs i ze b e tween a l l t h e p e r iod s a r e m ade o n 2 0 .00% o fr o ck p i ece s i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic O n t h e o t h e r h and i n t h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic a nd t h eU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic n o ta s i ng le p i ece o f t h i s t y pe i sm ade o n r o ck p i ece . Kn ive s s how s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence b e tween t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . I n t h eU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic s amp le s i ze i nt h i s c l a s se s i s t oo s m a l l( on ly 3 )t od r aw a ny s t a t is t ica li n f e rence . V a r ia t ion i ss e en i nt h e c a se o fr e touch a ng le t o o whe r e i tv a r ie s f r om 4 0 ° t o> 100 ° i nd i f f e r en t t o o l c l a s se s i n d i f f e r en t p e r iod s . T he l owe s t r e touch

1 05

o fa r t ef ac t s .

a ng le ( 40 ° -45° ) i ss e en i nc l eave r s a nd t h e h ighe s t ( > 100 0)i ns i d e s c rape r sa nd e nd s c rape r s . B a sed o n e xpe r im en ta l w o rk a nd o n e t hnog raph ic a na logy , F e rgu s s ion ( 1 980 : 6 6 -68 ) s t a te s " Each s c rap ing i mp lem en tw i l l h ave a n e dge a ng le o fo ve r 5 5° a nd e ach c u t t ing e dge w i l l h ave a n e dge a ng le b e low 6 0 ° " . T hough tt e s t s s how s i gn if ican t d i f f e r ence i n r e touch a ng le b e tween s om e l a ye r s a nd p e r iod s i n s i de s c rape r s , e nd s c rape r s , t r unca ted f l ake s , d en t icu la te s a nd n o tche s , t h e v a r ia t ion i sn o t s o e x t rem e a s t o m ake t h e r e touch a ng le s o f t wo d i f f e ren t l a ye r s /per iod s f a l l i n to d i s t inc t c a tego r ie s i . e . > 55° o r < 60 ° . F o r i n s tance , i n s i de s c rape r s d i f f e r ence i s s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t b e tween t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . T he m ed ian r e touch a ng le i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic i s 7 9 ° w he r ea s i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i ti s 8 2° . S im i la r ly , i n e nd s c rape r s m ed ian r e tou ch a ng le i s 8 0 ° i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd 7 8° i nt h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . O n t h i s b a s i s a n i n f e rence c an b e d er ived t h a t b o th s c rap ing a nd c u t t ing a c t iv i t ie s w e r e c a r r ied o u t i n a l t h e p e r iod s a nd s o t h e r e m ay n o t h ave b een s i gn if i can t c hange i nt h e a c t iv i t ies d u r ing t h e t h ree P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s . H ow eve r , u se w ea r a na ly s i s m ay t h row s om e mo r e l i gh t o n t h i s a spec t o f P a laeo l i th ic m an ' sb ehav iou r .

( 1 ) Wea the r ing : A r tef ac t s h ave b een w ea the r ed i n v a ry ing d eg ree s i n a l l t h e l e ve l s d ue m a in ly t o w a te rl o gg ing i nt h er o ck s he l te r . T he p e r cen tage o f w ea th e r ed a r tef ac t s g r adua l ly i n c r ea ses f r om t o p t o b o t tom . T he o t h e r f a c to r s m ay b e t h e t y pe o f q ua r tz i te u sed ( C la rk g r ey q ua r tz i te i s m o r e r e s is tan t t o w ea the r ing t h an y e l low i sh q ua r tz i te ) a nd m ic ro e nv i ronm en to fs o i l( f o rd e ta i l ss e eA lam 2 00 1) . ( 2 ) B r eakage o fA r tef ac t s : E ven t h ough t h i s s t udy d oe s n o t a t temp t t of i nd o u t t h e c au se o fb r eakage , t h rough o b serva t ion i t a ppea r s t h a t a g ood p ropo r t ion o f a r tef ac t s a r e t r an sve r sa l ly b rok en . T h i s m ay b e d ue t o t r amp l ing b y t h e a r t if ice r s a nd /o r o ve r b u rd en ( Sch if f e r 1 976 ; S u t ton 1 985 ; P e t rag l ia 1 987 ) . Ah igh p e rcen tag e o fa r tef ac t s a r e l o ng i tud ina l ly b rok en wh ich m ay b e r e la ted t o m anuf ac tu r ing p roce s s ( Su t ton 1 985 ; P e t rag l ia 1 987 ) . ( 3 ) V e r t ica l D i sp lacem en t o f A r tef ac t s : T h is i s i n d ica ted b y t h e p r e sence o f as ma l l p e r cen tage ( 0 .032% ) o f n on -qua r tz i te a r t ef ac t s i n t h e P a laeo l i th ic l e ve l s . I ti s a l so q u i te p o s s ib le t h a t q ua r tz i te a r tef ac t s ( p a r t icu la r ly s ma l l o ne s ) t o o w e r e d i sp laced b o th h o r izon ta l ly a nd v e r t ica l ly . T h e e x ten t o f d i sp lacem en t c an b e a ccoun ted b y c on jo in ing t h e a r tef ac t s . I ta l so s e em s t h a t as m a l l q uan t i ty o fa r tef ac t sm igh th ave b een b rough tt ot h e s h e l te r b y r a in w a te r o r o the r n a tu ra l o r h um an a genc ie s f r om t h e h i ghe r s u rf a ce , p a r t icu la r ly w e s te rn s i de o f t h e s h e l te r . T h i s a s sump t ion i s b a sed o n t h e p r e sence o f v e ry f ew ( n eg l ig ib le a moun t ) mode ra te ly a b raded a r tef ac t s i n t h e s he l te r .

4 . Cu l ture : T he v a r ia t ion s i na r tef ac t sb e tween t h e p er iod s m ay b e d ue p a r t ly t o d eve lopmen t o f t e chno logy a nd p a r t ly t o s ome c u l tu ra l e l em en t s . S ince t h e se p e r iod s r e p r e sen t t h r ee d i f f e r en t c u l tu r es ( Lowe r , M idd le a nd U ppe r ) t h e v a r ia t ion s c ou ld b e s e en a s c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f p a r t icu la r c u l tu ra lp e r iod st oo . T hu s f r om t h e d i scu s s ion i tb ecom e s i n c r ea s ing ly c l ea rt h a tn o s i ng le f a c to ri sr e spon s ib le f o ra r tef ac t v a r ian t s b u t ac omb ina t ion o fa l l f ou r f a c to r s ( s ee C legg 1 977 ) .

F u ture R e search T he s t udy w a s c a r r ied o u tl o ng a go a nd i th ad t ob e c omp le ted w i th in ap r e sc r ibed t im e . S o a l lt h ei d ea s w h ich w e r e i nm ind c ou ld n o t b e m a ter ia l ized d ue t o m any f a c to r s . S o t h i s r e sea r ch w o rk h ad s om e d r awback s wh ich m ay b e s umma r iz ed a sf o l low s :

S i te F orma t ion : A pa r t f r om t h e i nd iv idua l , t e chno log ica l , f unc t iona l a nd c u l tu ra l v a r ia t ion o f t h e a s semb lage s s om e i n f e r ence c an b e d r awn o n t h e f o rma t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i n t h e r o ck s he l te rt h rough t h e a na ly s i s o fs om e mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s . T he se a t t r ibu te s a r e : p hy s ica l c ond i t ion , b r eakage a nd r aw m a te r ia l s .

1 .

T he a na ly s i s o f t h e se a t t r ibu tes h a s r e vea led t h a t t h e s i te i sp r im a ry i nn a tu r e . B u t n o s i te i si nm in t c ond i t ion . I nt h i s r o ck s he l te rt oo s om e d i s tu rbance h ad b een n o t iced . T h i s s e em s t o b e d ue t o ( 1 ) w ea the r ing , ( 2 ) b r eakage , a nd ( 3 ) v e r t ica l i n t ru s ion

2 .

1 06

T hough t h e o b jec t ive o ft h e s t udy i st of i nd o u t v a r ia t ion s i n a l t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s f o r e a ch a r tef ac tt y pe b u td ue t oa b sence o fc e r ta in a r tef ac t t y pe s i nt h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod i tc ou ld n o tb em ade f o rt h em . D ue t o v e ry s m a l l s amp le s i ze i n e i gh teen a r t ef ac t t y pe s t h e i n te rp re ta t ion m ade f o rt h em o n t h e b a s i s o f d i s t r ibu t ion o ff r equency a nd

3 .

4 .

5 .

t y pe s . T h i s w i l l b e u sef u l f o r c ompa r ing t h e r e su l t sw i th t ho se o f mu l t iva r ia te a na ly s i s . 5 . C lu s te r a na ly s i s c an b e c a r r ied o u t w i th t h e a c tua l o b serva t ion s o ft h e a r tef ac t s f o r t h e 2 1 a r tef ac t t y pe s wh ich c ou ld n o t b e d one o n t h e p e r sona lc ompu te rd ue t ol a rge s amp le s i ze . 6 . F o r m ea su r ing t h e m e t r ica l v a r iab le s l i k e r e touch a ng le , mo r e a dvan ced t e chn iques m ay b eu sed i nf u tu r e s t udy . 7 . A s i ti sa l r eady m en t ioned t h a tc e r ta in t y pe s o f U ppe r P a leo l i th ic t o o l s w e r e a bsen t i n t h e t r enche s E & Fa nd n umbe r o fo t he r t y pe s o f t o o l s w e r e a l so v e ry f ew c ompa r ed t ot h o se o f t h e L ow e r &M idd le P a leo l i th ic p e r iod s s ot h e r e su l t s o f t h e c ompa ra t ive s t udy w a s l e s s r e l iab le . I tc an b e c on s ide red f o r c a r ry ing o u t f u r the r s t udy w i th t h e U ppe r P a leo l i th ic a r t if ac t s o f a l lt h et r enche st h er o ck s he l te r . 8 . We m ea su r ed o n ly t h e l e ng th o fw o rk ing e dge o ft h e a r t if ac t . R ema in ing p o r t ion w a sl e f to u t . B u tt om ea su r et h e w o rk ing p o r t ion o ft h et oo l o ne c an m ea su r e t h e u nwo rked / u n r e touched p o r t ion a l so . T h i s w ay o u r r e sea r che r c an m ea su r e t h e p ropor t ion o f e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n a r t if ac tb yt h et o ok m ak e r s /u se r s . 9 . T o k now t h e t y pe t e chno log ica l c hanges o ft h e a r t if ac t s i n t e rm s o f t im e a nd s pace c ompa r a t ive a na ly s i s c an b e c a r r ied o u t w i th t h o se o f o the r s im i la r a r chaeo log ica l s i te s i n I nd ia . 1 0 . O u t o ff ou r teen r o ck s he l te r s e xcava ted i nt h e a rea o n ly f ou r h ave y i e lded t h e L ow e r P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu r a l m a te r ia l . I nt h r ee o ft h em t h e r e a r e l ong g ap s i n t h e c u l tu ra l s equence . D epo s i t s o f t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a r e m i s s ing a nd t h e Me so l i th ic d epo s i t s d i r ec t ly o ve r l ie t h e L ow e r P a laeo l i th ic d epo s i t s i nt h ese s he l te r s . O n ly i n s he l te r I I F -23 a c on t inuou s s ucces s ion i s s e en . Why w a s t h i s p a r t icu la r r o ck s he l te r s e lec ted f o r o ccupa t ion a l l t h rough t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod ? T h i s c an b e s t ud ied f r om t h e s e t t lem en ts y s tem p e r spec t ive .

p e r cen tage i sl e s sr e l iab le . T he r e i so n ly o ne l a ye r i ne a ch o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . S o t h e r e i s l i t t le s cope t o s e e t h e v a r iab i l i ty w i th in t h e se p e r iod s . R a the r t h is s cope i sw ide ri nt h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod o n ly . I nt h e c a se o fp u rpo s ive ( non random ) s amp le i ti sn o t g ene r a l ly p o s s ib le t og e t s t r ic t ly v a l id e s t ima te s o f t h e s amp l ing e r ro r o r s t anda rd e r ro r ( Mu r thy 1 977 ; M ian a nd M iyan 1 984 ; K o tha r i 1 986 ) . S o t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e t e s t s c ou ld n o tb em ade . S ign if i cance t e s t b e tween a nd w i th in t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod h a s b een m ade w i th r e spec t t o m e t r ica l v a r iab le s o n ly . S im i la r t e s t ( i . e . A na ly s is o f v a r iance , C h i squa r e t e s t ) f o r mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s c ou ld n o t b e d one a s b ecau se t h e i r a s sump t ion s d o n o t f i t h e r e . F o r i n s tance , i n m any a r tef ac t t y pe s o ccu r r ences a r e v e ry f ew ( l e s st h an 3 )a nd i ns om e c e l l s o f t h e f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion t a b le t h e r e i s n o o b serva t ion . I n t h e c a se o f q ua l i ta t ive ( mo rpho log ica l ) d a ta ' p oo l ing ' c an n o t b e a pp l ied .

B u t t h e a u tho r b e l ieve s t h a t t h e r e i sa mp le s cope f o r f u r th e r r e sea r ch a nd d eve lop t h e d i sc ip l ine . T he f o l low ing a spec t s m any b e c on s ide r ed f o r b e t t e r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e d eve lopm en t o f t h e P a leo l i th ic i n du s t ry o f B h imbe tka i n t im e a nd s pace : 1 . T h e a na ly s i s o f t h e m o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s a nd m e t r ica l v a r iab le s o ft h e t oo l s a l one i sn o t e nough t o r e con s t ruc t t h e p a s t c u l tu ra l s y s tem s . E xpe r im en ta l a nd u se w ea r s t ud ies o f t h e a s semb lage s w i l l b e h e lpfu l i n r e con s t ruc t ing t h e p r eh i s to r ic b ehav io ra l p a t te rn . 2 . T o d e l inea te t h e n a tu r a l a nd c u l tu ra l f o rm a t ion p roce s se s o pe ra t ing a t t h e s i te i tw ou ld b e n ece s sa ry t o i d en t if y g eo log ica l a nd g eomo rpho log ica l f a c to r s , s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e a s semb lage s a nd a t temp t t oc on jo in t h e s t one a r tef ac t s . T o k now t h e g eo log ica l o r g eomo rpho log ica l f a c to r c e r ta in a na ly s i s l i ke s e rv ing m ay b ec a r r ied o u t . 3 . S ign if i cance t e s t s f o r m o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s u s ing s om e a dvanced s of twa r e s w i l l h e lp i n a s s ign ing t h e i n t ra a nd i n te r p e r iod v a r iab i l i ty i n mo r ed e ta i l . 4 . Two s amp le s a na ly se s ( Mann Wh i tney U t e s t a nd tt e s t ) c an b e d on e o nt h e b a s i s o fa r tef ac t

C onc lu s ion B h imbe tka , l o ca ted i nt h e V indhya H i l l s 4 5 km s ou th o fB hopa l , c on ta in s t h e m ax imum n umbe r o fr o ck s he l te r s o ft h e a r ea . Ou t o f2 43 s h e l te r s , 1 33 h ave p a in t ing s . E co log ica l s e t t ing o f B h imbe tka s u i t s t h e h un t ing g a the r ing w ay o f l i f e . T h e c l ima te o f B h imbe tka i st r op ica l mon soon a nd t h e h i l l s a r e c ove r ed w i th d en se d ec iduou s

1 07

e l ephan t s a nd u s ing m e ta l w eapon s . T he f i r s t a r e c on s ide r ed p r eh i s to r ic wh i le t h e s e cond a r e o f t h e h i s to r ic p e r iod . T he Me so l i th ic h un te r g a the r e r s o f r o ck s he l te r s c am e i n c on tac t w i th t h e s e t t led a g r icu l tu r i s t s o f t h e p l a in s . T h i s c on tac t b rough t t o a n e nd n o t o n ly t h e u se o f s t on e t e chno logy a nd t h e h un t ing -ga the r ing w ay o f l i f e b u t a l so t h e c ave d we l l ing a mong t h e p eop le o fB h imbe tka .

f o r e s t a nd s he l te r much w i ld l i f e . A ga in m any t r ee s a nd p l an t si nt h e f o r e s th ave e d ib le f l owe r s , f r u i t s , s e ed s , r oo t s a nd t u be r s . T he re a r e t h r ee p e r enn ia l s p r ing s a nd s eve ra l c r eek s i nt h e a r ea . B h imbe tka t hu s h a s a mp le p rov i s ion f o r a l l t h e b a s ic r equ i r emen t s o fm an — s he l te r , f ood a nd w a te r . T he r e i sn o e v idence t h a tt h e e nv i ronm en t i nt h e p a s t w a s s i gn if i can t ly d i f f e r en t f r om wha t i st oday . P r eh i s to r ic m an t hu sh ad av e ry s u i tab le e nv i ronm en t i n a nd a r ound B h imbe tka . I t i s t h e r ef o re n o s u rp r i se t h a t p r eh i s to r ic m an t ook f u l l a dvan tage o f t h e se f a c i l i t ies a nd i n hab i ted t h e se s he l te r s i nl a rge n umbe r s o ve r ap e r iod o f mo re t h an 1 00 ,000 y ea r s .

T h e p r e sen t s t udy c onf ines t o o n ly P a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage s o f r o ck s he l t e r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka . T h i s i st h e f i r s t a t temp t t oa s se s s t h e t empo ra lv a r ia t ion i nP a laeo l i th ic a s semb lage si n ap r ima ry c on tex t i nI nd ia . I th a s d ea l t w i th t h e a r tef ac tua l m a te r ia l l e f t b y t h e P a laeo l i th ic p eop le i nr o ck s he l t e rI I F -23 B h imbe tka . I th a s c ove r ed t y po techno log ica l , f unc t iona l , c u l tu ra l a nd s t y l i s t ic , a spec t s o f a r tef ac t v a r ian t s . I th a s a l so t r ea ted t o s om e e x ten t t h e f o rma t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a t t h e s i t e . H oweve r , t e chno log ica l a spec t o f t h e l i t h ic i n du s t r ie s h a s b een e mpha s i sed . T he a pp roach h a s b een q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i s o fm o rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s a nd m e t r ica l v a r iab le s o f a r tef ac t s . S imp le s t a t i s t ic s c anno t a na ly se a l l t h e a t t r ibu te s a nd v a r iab le s a t at im e . T hey g i ve ab road v i ew o f t h e a s semb lage s . V a r iou s t e s t s r e vea l t h e d eg r ee o f v a r ia t ion i n t h e a r tef ac t s w i th in ( b e tween l a ye r s ) a nd b e tween t h e c u l tu ra l p e r iod s , i . e . i n t r a a nd i n te r c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . C lu s te r a na ly se s f o cu s t h e c omb ined e f f ec t o f a l t h e m e t r ica l v a r iab le s a nd af ew s e lec ted v a r iab les w h ich a r e a s sum ed t ob e i n f luenc ing t h e t e chno logy o ft h e a r tef ac t s .

T he a n t iqu i ty o fm an ' s o ccupa t ion i nB h imbe tka h a s b een w e l l a t te s ted b y a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l r e sou r ce s . E xcava t ion s i n an umbe r o f r o ck s he l te r s h ave r e vea led t h e o ccupa t iona l h i s to ry o fm an h e r e f r om L a te A cheu l ian t ot h e b eg inn ing o f h i s to r ica l t im e s . A r t if ic ia l ly m ade s t one f l oo r s w e r e t r aced i n a l l t h e p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion . B e s ides t h e se , A cheu l ian p eop le m ade e nc lo su r e s a l so b y a r rang ing l a rge b ou lde r s o u t s ide t h e s h e l te r a nd Me so l i th ic p eop le b u i l t w a l l s o fs t one b ou lde r s i nt h e c ave p robab ly f o r p a r t i t ion ing t h e c ave i n to c ompa r tm en t s . T he A cheu l ian p ha se i sv e ry w e l l d ef ined , t h e b e s t e v iden ce o f wh ich c om es f r om t h er o ck s he l te rI IF -23 . M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu r e s a r e n o t s o w e l l r e p r esen ted a s o b se rved i n t h e i r p r eced ing a nd s ucceed ing p ha se s . Du r ing t h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod m ax imum n umbe r o f r o ck s h e l te r s w e re o ccup ied , c l ea r ly s how ing t h a t t h e r e w a s a p henom ena l i n c r ea se i np opu la t ion p robab ly d ue t oi n c r ea se i nf ood r e sou r ce s o rn ew i n nova t ion s i nt e chno logy a nd mo r e e ff i c ien t e xp lo i ta t ion o f f ood r e sou rce s o r b o th . T he Me so l i th ic p eop le i n t roduced ac omp le te ly n ew t e chno logy a sw e l l a sn ew t ype o fr aw m a te r ia l i . e . c r yp toc ry s ta l ine s i l ica . T he t e chno logy c on s i s t s e s sen t ia l ly o f m ic ro l i th ic t o o l s w h ich w e r e m ade o n s l ende r m ic rob lade s d e tached f r om c y l ind r ica l c o r e s b y p re s su r et e chn ique . T he m ic ro l i th sw e r em ade b y b lun t ing o ne o r m o r e m a rg in s . T he Me so l i th ic p eop le b u r ied t h e i r b od ie s w i th in t h e r o ck s he l te r s i n t h e l i v ing a r ea s . T he Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s i n t roduced t h e p a in t ing s o n t h e w a l l s a nd c e i l ing s o f t h e r o ck s h e l te r s , w h ich c on t inued t ot h e h i s to r ic p e r iod . T he p a in t ing s a t B h imbe tka m ay b e c l a s s if ied b road ly i n t wo g roup s : o ne d ep ic t ing s c ene s o fh un te r -ga the r e r s a nd t h e o t he r f i gh te r s , r i d ing o n h o r ses a nd

T h e i n f e rence s d e r ived f r om d i f f e r en t a na ly se s a r e b y n o m ean s t ob e t r ea ted a s f i na l c onc lu s ion b u t r a th e r a s i n te rp r e ta t ive s ugge s t ion s . T hese c an b e s umm a r i sed a sf o l low s : 1 .

1 08

T h e r e a r e v a r ia t ion s i na r tef ac t t y pes b e tween t h r ee c u l tu ra l p e r iod s . T he v a r ia t ion b e tw een t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i s l e s s a nd b e tween t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i s m o r e . E xcep t f o r h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s a nd s i x o t he r m ino r t y pe s t h e r e i sc on s is tency i n a r tef ac t t y pe s b e tween t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic . I n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic b e s ide s h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s , 2 1 o t h e r t y pe s a r e a b sen t . T h e s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion i s s e en i n t e rm s o f f r equency a nd p e r cen tage i n a r tef ac t t y pes i n d i f f e r en t

6 .

T hough t h e o b jec t ive o ft h e s t udy i st of i nd o u t v a r ia t ion s i n a l l t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s f o r e ach a r tef ac tt ype b u td ue t oa b sence o fc e r ta in a r tef ac t t y pe s i nt h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic p e r iod i tc ou ld n o tb em ade f o rt h em . 7 . Due t ov e ry s ma l l s amp le s i ze i ne i gh teen ( s ee t a b le 4 . 1) a r tef ac tt y pe st h ei n te rp r e ta t ion m ade f o r t h em o n t h e b a s i s o f d i s t r ibu t ion o f f r equency a nd p e rcen tage i sl e s sr e l iab le . 8 . T he r e i so n ly o ne l a ye r i ne ach o ft h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod a nd t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod . S o t h e r e i s l i t t le s cope t o s e e t h e v a r iab i l i ty w i th in t h e se p e r iod s , R a the r t h is s cope i sw ide ri nt h eL owe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod o n ly . 9 . I nt h e c a se o fp u rpos ive ( non random ) s amp le i ti sn o t g ene ra l ly p o s s ib le t og e t s t r ic t ly v a l id e s t ima te s o f t h e s amp l ing e r ro r o r s t anda rd e r ro r ( Mu r thy 1 977 ; M ian a nd M iyan 1 984 ; K o tha r i 1 986 ) . S o t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f t h e t e s t s c ou ld n o tb em ade . 1 0 . S ign if i cance t e s t b e tween a nd w i th in t h e c u l tu r a l p e r iod h a s b een m ade w i th r e spec t t o m e t r ica l v a r iab le s o n ly . S im i la r t e s t ( i . e . a na ly s i s o f v a r iance , C h i -squa r e t e s t ) f o r mo rpho log ica l a t t r ibu te s c ou ld n o t b e d one a s b ecau se t h e i r a s sump t ion s d o n o t f i t h e re . F o r i n s tance , i n m any a r tef ac t t y pe s o ccu r r ence s a r e v e ry f ew ( l e s s t h an 3 )a nd i ns om e c e l l s o f t h e f r equen cy d i s t r ibu t ion t a b le t h e r e i s n o o bserva t ion . I n t h e c a se o f q ua l i ta t ive ( mo rpho log ica l ) d a ta ' p oo l ing ' c an n o t b e a pp l ied . 1 . T h e s i te i sp r ima ry i nn a tu r e . S om ed i s tu rbance t ook p l ace b y t h e w ea the r ing o fa r tef ac t s d ue t o w a te r l o gg ing i n t h e s h e l te r a nd m ic ro e nv i ronm en t o ft h e s ed im en t s ; b y b r eakage o f a r tef ac t s d ue t ot r amp l ing a nd /o r o ve rb u rden ; b y v e r t ica l a nd p robab ly h o r izon ta l d i sp lacem en t o f a r tef ac t s a nd p e rhap s b y t r an spo r ta t ion o f af ew a r tef ac t s f r om t h e n ea rby h igh e rs u rf ace .

p e r iod s . B u t c on s i s tency i sp r e sen t i na l l t h r ee p e r iod s i n t e rm s o f a r tef ac t c l a s se s e xcep t h andaxes a nd c l eave r s( Tab le 1 ) . 2 . T he a s semb lage s a r e h e te rogeneou s i n a l l t h e l a ye r s a nd i n a l l t h e p e r iod s . T hey a r e d om ina ted b y l i gh te r , s m a l le r , n a r rowe r a nd t h inne r a r tef ac t s i n a l l a r t ef ac t c l a s ses e xcep t h andaxes a nd c l eave r s . H andaxes a nd c l eave r s a r e d om ina ted b y m ed ium -s ized a r tef ac t s . I n g en e ra l , h eav ie r , l a rge r , b roade r a nd t h ick e r a r tef ac t s a r e mo r e i n l a ye r 7o f t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic . S im i la r ly , s u ch a r tef ac t s a r e mo r e i n t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t h an i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n a l a r tef ac t c l a s se s e xcep t b o re r s . B o r e r s a r e h eav ie r , l a rge r a nd b roade r i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t h an i nt h ep r eced ing t wo p e r iod s . 3 . S t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion ( i n s ign if i can t d i f f e r ence ) p r eva i l s i n a l t h e a r tef ac t c l a s se s w i th in ( b e tween l a ye r s 8 , 7a nd 6 )a nd b e tween a l lt h e c u l tu ra lp e r iod s . 4 . T he r e w a s as l igh t d eve lopm en t i nt e chno logy w i th in t h e L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ( b e tween l a ye r s 8 , 7a nd 6 )w h ich h a s t h e l o nges t d u ra t ion o f a l t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod s . S ign if i can t d i f f e r ence i ns even a r tef ac t t y pe s w i th r e spec t t o t e chno log ica l v a r iab le s i s s ugge s t ive o f t e chno log ica l d eve lopm en t i nt h e P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s i nt im e . I n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic t h e t r end o f d eve lopm en t s e em s t o b e mo re c oncen t ra ted t owa rd s t h e a cqu i s i t ion o f s u i tab le r o ck p i ece s wh ich i s ac omponen t o f l i th ic t e chno log ica ls y s tem . 5 . D if f e ren t s u i t s o f a c t iv i t ie s l i k e b u tche r ing , m ea t c u t t ing , w ood c u t t ing , w ood wh i t t l ing , w ood p l ann ing , w ood s hap ing , w ood w edg ing , h i de s c rap ing , s k in c l ean ing , s l ic ing , b o r ing a nd t h row ing ( m i s s i le ) m igh t h ave t a ken p l ace a tt h e s i te . S im i la r t y pe o f a c t iv i t ie s p e rhap s t ook p l ace i n a l l t h e p e r iod s . T h e r e d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een a ny m a jo r c hange i n a c t iv i t ie sb e tween t h ep e r iod s .

T ab le 2Ma im Wh i tney U T e s to fS i de S c rape r s S how ing D if f e r ence sB e tween L aye r s . V ar iab le s

L ayer 8&7

6&5

7&6

5&4

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R e touch L eng th N umbe ro fF l ake s S ca r s N umbe ro fR e touch S ca r s

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1 09

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I nva s ivene s s o fR e touch

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References A lam , M .S . a nd V .N . M i s ra ( n .d . ) . L ower a nd M idd l e P a laeo l i th ic T ypo -T echno logy o f B h imbe tka : A Morphome t r ic S tud y , P ape r p r e sen ted a tt h e 1 3t h A nnua l C onf e r ence o f I nd ian S o c ie ty f o r P r eh i s to r ic a nd Q ua ter na ry S tud ie s h e ld a t N aga r juna U n ive r s i ty , N aga r juna K unda , D ecembe r2 2 -25 , 1 989 . A lam , M .S . a nd V .N . M i s ra 1 992 Q uan t i ta t ive C ompo s i t ion a nd F unc t iona l A spec t o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic A s semb lage s o f R ock S he l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka . Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 7 (2 ) : 2 1-34 . A lam , M .S . 2 00 1 . P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t r ie s o fB h imbe tka C en t ra l I nd ia : A Morphome t r ic S tudy . D haka , B ang la A cademy . A lam , M .S . 1 990 . A Mo rphome t r ic S t udy o fP a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t r ie s o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , u npub l i shed P h .D .d i s se r t a t ion ,D eccan C o l leg e ,P une . A ldende rf e r , M .S . a nd B la shf ie ld , R .K . 1 984 . C lu s t er A na l y s i s S er ie s : Q uan t i ta t ive A pp l ica t ion i n t h e S oc ia l S c ience s : a S AGE U n iver s i ty P aper . L ondon : S age P ub l ica t ion s . A ldende rf e r , M .S ( Ed . ) 1 985 . Q uan t i ta t ive R e search i n A rchaeo logy : P rog r e s s a nd P ro spec t s . N ew Y o rk : S age A cadem ic P re s s . A nde rbe rg , M .R . 1 973 . C lu s te r A na l y s i s f or A pp l ica t ions . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . B inf o rd , L .R . a nd S .R . B inf o rd 1 966 . A P re l im ina ry A na ly s i s o fF unc t iona l V a r iab i l i ty i nt h e Mou s te r ian o f L eva l lo i s F a c ie s , Amer ican A n thropo log i s t : R ecen t S tud ie s i nP a laeoan thropo logy p a r t 2 , v o l . 6 8 (2 ) : 2 38 2 95 ( C la rk a nd H owe l lE d s . ) . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 968 . V a r iab i l i ty a nd c hange i nt h e N ea r E a s te rn Mou s te r ian o f L eva l lo i s F ac ie s , N ew P er spec t ive si nA rchaeo logy ,p p .4 9 -60 . C h icago . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 969 . C ommen t s o n " Cu l tu ra l T rad i t ion s a nd E nv i ronmen t o f E a r ly Man " , b y D e smond C o l l in s . C ur ren tA n thropo log y 1 0 (4 ) : 2 97 -299 . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 972 . C on tempo ra ry Mode l B u i ld ing : P a rad igm s a nd t h e C u r r en t S t a te o f P a laeo l i th ic R e sea r ch , i n Mod e l s i nA rchaeo logy , ( D .L . C la rke E d . ) , p p . 1 09 -66 . L ondon : Me thuen . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 973 . I n te ra s semb lage V a r iab i l i ty : T he Mou s te r ian a nd t h e ' F unc t iona l A rgumen t ' , i n T he E xp lana t ion o f C u l ture C hang e : Mod e l s i n P reh i s tory ( Co l in R enf rew E d . ) ,p p . 2 27 -254 . L ondon : D uckwo r th . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 977 . O lo rge sa i l ie D e se rve s Mo r e t h an t h e U sua l B ook R ev iew , i n W ork ing a tA rchaeo logy . ( L .R . B inf o rd E d . ) ,p p . 1 57 -67 . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 978 . H i s to r ica l A r chaeo logy : I s i t H i s to r ica l o r A r chaeo log ica l? i n N unam in t E t hnoarchaeo logy ( L .R . B inf o rd E d . ) , p p . 1 4 . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . B inf o rd , S .R . 1 983 . Wo rk ing a t A r chaeo logy : T he

D eba te , A rgumen t s o f R e levance , a nd t h e G ene ra t ion G ap , i n W ork ing a tA rchaeo logy ( L .R . B inf o rd E d . ) p p . 1 57 -67 ,N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . B lumen sch ine , J . , S t even A .B . a nd J .D . C la rk . 1 983 . E xcava t ion a nd A na ly s i s o fM idd le P a laeo l i th ic A r t if a c t s f r om P a tpa ra , Madhya P rade sh , i n P a laeoenv ironmen t s a nd P reh i s tory i n t h e M idd le S on V a l l ey ( M adhya P rade sh , N or th C en t ra l I nd ia ) ( G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk E d s . ) ,p p . 3 9 100 . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan . B o rde s , F . 1 96 1 . T ypo log ie Du P a laeo l i th ique A nc ien E t Moycn . B o rdeaux : I mp r imer ie sD e lam s . B o rde s , F .a nd d e S .B o rde s , D . 1 970 . T he S ign if i cance o f V a r iab i l i ty i n P a laeo l i th ic A s semb lage s , W or ld A rchaeo logy 2 ( 1) : 6 1 7 3 . B u rge s s , R .J . a nd K .L . K vamme 1 978 . A N ew T echn ique f o r t h e Mea su remen t o f A r t if a c t A ng le s , Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 4 3 (3 ) : 4 82 -486 . C ame r io , R .L . 1 979 . T ree F e l l ing w i th t h e S tone A xe : A n E xpe r imen t C a r r ied O u t a mong t h e Y anomamo I nd ian s o f S ou the rn V enezue la , i n E thnog raphy f or A rchaeo log y ( C . K rame r E d . ) , p p . 2 1-58 . N ew Y o rk : C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C la rk , J .D . a nd M .R . K le ind ien s t 1 974 . T e rm ino logy , T ypo logy a nd R aw Ma ter ia l , i n K a lambo F a l l s P reh i s tor ic S i te V o l . I I . C ambr idge : U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C legg . J .K . 1 977 . T he F ou r D imen s ion s o f A r t if a c tua l V a r ia t ion , i n S t one A ge C u l tu ra l Marker s : C hange , E vo lu t ion a nd C omp lex i ty ( R .V .S . Wr igh t E d . ) , p p . 6 0 6 5 . C anbe ra : A u s t ra l ian I n s t i tu te o fA bo r ig ina l S tud ie s . C o l l in s , D .M . 1 969 . C u l tu ra l T rad i t ion s a nd E nv i ronmen t o f E a r ly Man , C u r ren t A n thropo logy 1 0 : 2 67 -316 . C o l l in s , D .M . 1 970 . S tone A r tef a c t s A na ly s is a nd R ecogn i t ion o f C u l tu ra l T rad i t ion s , W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 ( 1) : 1 7 -27 . C o rv inu s , G .K . 1 968 . S t ra t ig raphy a nd G eo log ica l B a ckg round o f a n A cheu l ian S i te C h i rk i -on -P rava ra , I nd ia ,A n thropo s6 3 -64 : 9 21-940 . C rab t ree , D .E . 1 972 . A n I n t rodu c t ion t o F l in t Wo rk ing , i nO cca s iona lP ape r s o ft h eI daho U n ive r s i ty - 2 8 ( E .H . S wan son ,J r . a nd B .R . B u t le r . E d s . ) . P oca te l lo : I d aho . D ibb le , H .L . a nd M .C . B er na rd 1 980 . A C ompa ra t ive S tudy o f B a s ic E dge A ng le Mea su remen t T echn ique , Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 4 5 (4 ) : 8 57 -865 . E ver i t t , B .S . 1 980 . T he A na ly s i s o fC on t ingency T ab le s . L ondon : C hapmann & H a l l . F e rgu s s ion , W .C . 1 980 . E dge A ng le C la s s if i ca t ion o ft h e Q u in inup B rook I mp lemen t s : T e s t ing t h e E thnog raph ic A na logy , A rchaeo log y a nd P hy s ica l A n thropo logy i n O cean ia 1 5 ( 1) : 5 6 -72 . G a i l la rd , C . , V .N . M i s ra , S .N . R a jagu ru a nd H . R aghavan 1 985 . A cheu l ian O ccupa t ion a tS i ng i T a lav i n

11

t h e T ha r D e se r t : A P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n 1 981 E xcava t ion , B u l l e t in o f t h e D eccan C o l leg e P o s t G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu t e4 4 : 1 41-152 . G a i l la rd , C . , D .R . R a ju , V .N . M i s ra a nd S .N , R a jagu ru 1 986 . H andaxe A s semb lage s f r om D idwana R eg ion , T ha r D e se r t , I nd ia : A Me t r ica l A na ly s i s , P roceed ing s o f t h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 5 2 : 1 89 -214 . G a i l la rd , C . a nd M .L .K . Mu r ty 1 988 . T ypo T echno log ica l C ompa r i son o f Two A cheu l ian A s semb lage s a t R en igun ta , S ou th I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t1 2 : 1 23 132 . G ho se , R . a nd G . R oy 1 964 . AT echno log ica l S tudy o f t h eC leave r so f Mayu rbhan j . Man i nI nd ia 4 0 ( 1) : 5 0 -74 . G ho sh , A .K . 1 966 . T he S tone A ge C u l tur e s o f W e s t B enga l . P h .D .D i s se r ta t ion ,P oona U n ive r s i ty . G ho sh , A .K . a nd D . C haudhu ry 1 989 . O n F lake -B lade E lemen ti nI nd ia .P ura ta t t va 1 9 : 3 1-37 . G ou ld , R .A . 1 968 . C h ipp ing S tone s i n t h e Ou tba ck , N a tura lH i s tory 7 7 (2 ) :4 2 -48 . G ou ld , R .A . 1 97 1 . T he A r chaeo log i s t a s E thnog raphe r : A c a se f r om t h e We s ter n D e se r t o f A u s t ra l ia , W or ld A rchaeo logy 3 :1 43 177 . H ayden , B . ( Ed . ) 1 979 . L i th ic U se -wear A na ly s i s . L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s . H i l l , J .N . a nd G unn , J .( Ed s . ) 1 977 . T he I nd iv idua l s i n P reh i s tory : S tud ie s o fV ar iab i l i ty i nS t y le i nP reh i s tor ic T echno log ie s . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s . I AR : I nd ian A r chaeo logy -A R ev iew . A nnua l B u l le t in o ft h eA rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia ,N ew D e lh i . J aya swa l , V . 1 978 . P reh i s tory o fI nd ia : AS tudy o ft h e P repar ed C ore T echn ique . D e lh i : A gam K a la P raka shan . J aya swa l , V . a nd P .C . P an t 1 973 . S t a t i s t ica l S tud ie s w i th R ef e rence t o T echn ique o f Manuf a c tu r e o fP a laeo l i th ic A r t if a c t s i n R ad iocarbon a nd I nd ian A rchaeo logy ( Ag rawa l a nd G ho sh E d s . ) , p p . 3 8 -53 . B ombay : T a ta I n s t i tu te o fF undamen ta lR e sea rch . J o sh i , R .V . 1 976 . Me t r ica l A na ly s i s o f H andaxe s a nd C leave r s f r om C h i rk i -on -P rava ra (We s te rn Maha ra sh t ra , I nd ia ) ,P ura ta t t va 8 :3 12 . J o sh i ,R .V . a nd A .R . Ma ra the 1 977 . C o r r e la t ion A na ly s i s o f H andaxe s a nd C leave r s a nd t h e F unc t iona l I n te rp r e ta t ion , B u l le t in o ft h e D eccan C o l l ege R e sear ch I n s t i tu te 3 7 :4 8 -60 . J o sh i , R .V . a nd A .R . Ma ra the 1 985 . A C ompa ra t ive S tudy o f Me t r ica l D a ta o n H andaxe s a nd t h e i r C u l tu ra l I n te rp re ta t ion s , i n R ecen t A d vance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c P r eh i s tory ( V . N . M i s ra a nd P .B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 7 7 7 9 .N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . K amm inga , J . 1 978 . J ourney i n to t h e M ic roco sms : A F unc t iona l A na ly s i s o f C er ta in C la s se s o fP reh i s tor ic A u s t ra l ian S tone T oo l s . P h . D . D i s se r t a t ion , S ydney U n ive r s i ty . K ee ley , L .H . 1 976 . M ic rowea r o n F l in t : S ome E xpe r imen ta l R e su l t s , i n 2 nd I n terna t iona l S ympo s ium o nf l in t , S t a r ing ra 3 :4 95 1 . K ee ley , L .H . 1 977 . T he F unc t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic F l in t T oo l s ,S c ien t if i c Ame r ican 2 37 (5 ) : 1 08 126 . K ee ley ,L .H . 1 980 . E xper imen ta lD e t erm ina t ion o fS tone T oo l U se s : A M ic ro -W ear A na ly s i s . C h icago : T he C h icago U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

K enoye r , J .M . a nd J .N . P a l 1 983a . R epo r t o n t h e E x cava t ion a nd A na ly s i s o f a n U ppe r A cheu l ian A s semb lage f r om S ihawa lI ,i nP a laeoenv ironmen t sa nd P reh i s tory i n t h e M idd le S on V a l ley ( M ad hya P rad e sh , N or th C en tra lI nd ia ) ( G . R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk E d s . ) , p p .2 3 -38 . A l lahabad :A b ina sh P raka shan . K enyo r , J .M . , D . Manda l , V .D . M i s ra a nd J .N . P a l 1 983b . P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n E x cava t ion s a tt h e L a te P a laeo l i th ic O ccupa t ion S i te a t B ago r IL oca l i ty , i n P a laeoenv ironmen t s a nd P r eh i s to ry i n t h e M idd l e S on V a l ley ( M adhya P rad e sh , N or th C en tra l I nd ia ) ( G . R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk E d s . ) , p p . 17 142 . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan . K o tha r i , C .R . 1 986 . R e sear ch Me thodo lo gy : Me thod s a nd T echn ique s . N ew D e lh i : W i ley E a s ter nL im i ted . K nud son , R . 1 979 . D i scu s s ion : F ra c tu re s a nd A ng le s , i n L i th ic U se W ear A na ly s i s( B . H ayden E d . ) , p p . 1 37 14 1 . L ondon : A cadem ic P r e s s . K uma r , A . 1 989 . A Me t r ica l Ana ly s i s o fH andaxe s a nd C leave r s f r om t h e A cheu l ian S i t e a t G angapu r , N a s ik D i s t r ic t , Maha ra sh t ra , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 3 ( 1) : 4 9 6 3 . Ma ra the , A .R . 1 980 . A Me thod f o r D i sc r im ina t ion o f H andaxe A s semb lage s , B u l le t in o ft h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu t e4 0 : 12 116 . Ma son , R .J . 1 967 . A na ly t ica l P rocedu re s i nt h e E a r l ie r a nd M idd le S tone A ge C u l tu r e s i n S ou the rn A f r ica , i n B ackg round t o E vo lu t ion i n Af r ica ( B i shop a nd C la rk E d s . ) , p p . 7 37 -764 . C h icago : T he U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s . Ma thpa l , Y .D . 1 977 . P reh i s to r ic A r t o f B h imbe tka , i n P reh i s tor ic Man & H i sA r ti nC en t ra lI nd ia ( V .N . M i s ra E d . ) ,p p . 1 7 -22 . P une : P oona U n ive r s i ty S ouven i r . Ma thpa l , Y .D . 1 978 . P reh i s to r ic R ock P a in t ing o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia . P h . D . D i s se r ta t ion , P oona U n ive r s i ty Ma thpa l , Y .D . 1 984 . T he P reh i s tor ic R ock P r in t ing s o f B h imbe tka , C en t ra lI nd ia . D e lh i : A bh inav P raka shan . Ma thpa l , Y .D . 1 985 . H un te r -ga the re r Way o f l i f e a s D ep ic t ed i n Me so l i th ic R ock P a in t ing s o fC en t ra l I nd ia , i n R ecen t A dvance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c P r eh i s tory ( V .N . M i s ra a nd P . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 1 77 183 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . Me l la r s , P .A . 1 970 . S ome C ommen t s o n t h e N o t ion o f F un c t iona lv a r iab i l i ty i nS tone T oo lA s semb lage s , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 2 ( 1) : 7 4 -89 . M ian , M .A . a nd M iyan , M .A . 1 984 . A n I n t roduc t ion t o s t a t i s t ic s . D haka : I d ea lL ib ra ry . M i s ra , V .D . , R .S . R ana , J . D . C la rk a nd R .J . B lumen sch ine 1 983a . P re l im ina ry E x cava t ion sa tt h eS on R ive r S ec t ion a tN ak jha r K hu rd , i nP a laeoenv ironmen t s a nd P r eh i s tory i n t h e M idd le S on V a l ley ( M adhya P rad e sh , N or th C en t ra l I nd ia ) ( G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk E d s . ) ,p p . 1 0 1115 ,A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan . M i s ra ,V .D . ,D . Manda l ,P .S inha a nd J .N . P a l 1 983b . An U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic S u r f a ce C o l lec t ion f r om R ampu r , i n P a laeoenv i ronmen t s a nd P reh i s tor y i n t h e M idd le S on V a l l ey ( M adhya P rad e sh , N or th C en t ra l I nd ia ) ( G .R . S ha rma a nd J .D . C la rk E d s . ) , p p . 1 43 160 . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan .

12

R oe , D .A . 1 964 . T he B r i t i sh L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic : S ome P rob lem s , Me thod s o f S tudy a nd P re l im ina ry R e su l t s , P roceed ing s o f t h e P r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty ( New S e r ie s )3 0 : 2 45 -267 . R oe , D .A . 1 968 . B r i t i sh L owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic H andaxe G roup s , P roceed ing s o ft h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 4 : 1 82 . R oe , D .A . 1 973 . T he K a lambo F a l l s L arge C u t t ing T oo l s : A Me t r ica lA na ly s i s . Manu sc r ip t . R ub in , J .a nd H .P . F r iedman 1 967 . A C lu s ter A na ly s i s a nd T axonomy S y s tem f or G roup ing C la s s if y ing D a ta . N ew Y o rk : I n t e rna t iona lB u s ine ss Ma ch ine s . S a l im , M . 1 986 . T he M idd le S tone A ge C u l ture s o f N or thern P ak i s tan . I s lamabad : Q ua id i -Azam U n ive r s i ty . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 956 . A n ima l F o s s i ls a nd t h e P a laeo l i th ic I ndu s t r ie s f r om t h e P rava r a B a s in a t N eva sa , D i s t r ic t A hmednaga r ,A nc ien tI nd ia 1 2 : 3 52 . S ch if f e r , M .B . 1 976 . B ehav iora l A rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . S eman s , C .A . 1 98 1 . A na ly s i s o f A cheu l ian C o l lec t ion f r om P ee ra Nu l lah , N a rmada V a l ley , I nd ia , Man a nd E nv ironmen t5 :1 3 -31 . S emenov , S .A . 1 964 . P reh i s tor ic T echno log y( T ran s la ted b y M . W . T homp son ) . L ondon : C o ry ,A dam s & Ma ckay . S ha rma , G .R . a nd J .D . C la rk ( Ed s . ) 1 983 . P a laeoenv i ronmen t s a nd P reh i s tor y i n M idd le S on V a l ley , ( M adhya P rad e sh , N or th C en t ra l I nd ia ) . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan . S i ege l , S . 1 956 . N onparame t r ic S t a t i s t ic s f or t h e B ehav iora l S c ience s . T okyo : I n te rna t iona l S tuden t E d i t ion . S inha , P . 1 984 . S tone A ge C u l ture s o fS a tna D i s t r ic t ( M adhya P rad e sh ) . P h .D . D is se r ta t ion , A l lahabad U n ive r s i ty . S u t ton , S .A . 1 985 . W ar r ragar ra S tone : AT echno log ica l A na ly s i s o fAS tone A r t if ac t A s semb lage sf rom C en t ra l T a sman ia . B .A . ( Hon s . ) T he s i s , N ew E ng land U n ive r s i ty . T r inghum , R .E . , G . C oope r , G . O de l l a nd B . V oy iek 1 974 . E xper imen ta t ion i n t h e F o rma t ion o f E dge D amage : AN ew A pp roa ch t oL i th ic A na ly s i s ,J ourna lo f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 :1 86 197 . Wad ia , D .N . 1 966 . G eo logy o f I nd ia . L ondon : T he E ng l ish L anguage B ook S oc ie ty a nd Ma cm i l lan & C o . L td . Wakanka r , V .S . 1 973 . B h imbe tka E xcava t ion s . J ourna l o fI nd ian H i s tory , L 1 ( 1 ) : 2 3 -32 . Wakanka r , V .S . 1 975 . B h imbe tka T he P reh i s to r ic P a rad i se .P rachya P ra t ibha 3 (2 ) : 7 29 . W i lm sen , E . 1 970 . L i th ic A na ly s i s a nd C u l tu ra l I n f e r ence s : A P a laeo I nd ian C a se . A n thropo log ica l P aper s o f t h e U n iver s i ty o f A r i zona , 1 6 . T uc son : U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P r e s s .

M i s ra , V .N . 1 967 . P re a nd P ro toh i s to ry o ft h e B erach B a s in , S ou th R a ja s than . P oona : D eccan C o l lege . M i s ra , V .N . 1 977a . B h imbe tka a nd I t s C ave s , i n P reh i s tor ic Man a nd H i s A r t i n C en t ra l I nd ia ( V .N . M i s ra E d . ) ,p p . 5 9 . P oona : P oona U n ive r s i ty S ouven i r . M i s ra , V .N . 1 977b . P reh i s to r ic C u l tu re S equence o f B h imbe tka , i nP reh i s tor ic Man a nd H i s A r t i n C en t ra l I nd ia ( V .N . M i s ra E d . ) , p p . 1 0 16 . P oona : P oona U n ive r s i ty S ouven i r . M i s ra , V .N . 1 978a . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R o ck S he l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia - A P r e l im ina ry S tudy ,A u s t ra l ian A rchaeo logy 8 :1 3 -36 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 978b . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock S he l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia - A P re l im ina ry S tudy ,P ura ta t t va 8 :1 3 -36 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 982 . The Evo lu t ion o fB lade E le men t i nt he S tone I ndus tr ies o f Bh i mbe tka , C en tra l I nd ia , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy : N ew P er spec t ive ( R . K . S ha rma E d . ) ,p p . 7 13 . D e lh i : A gam K a la P raka shan . M is ra , V .N . 1 985 . T he A cheu l ian S ucce s s ion a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , i nR ecen t A d vance s i nI ndo P ac if i c P reh i s tory ( V .N . M i s ra a nd P . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 3 5 -48 .N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . Muh s in , S .M . 1 985 . F undamen ta l S t a t i s t ic s f or t h e B ehav iora lS c ience s . D e lh i : Mo t i la lB ana ra s ida s . Mov iu s , H .L . J r . , N .C . D av is , H .M . B r icke r a nd R .B . C lay 1 968 . T he A na ly s i s o f C e r ta in Ma jo r C la s se s o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic T oo l s . P eabody Mu seum , H arvard U n iver s i ty B u l l e t in 2 6 . Mu r thy , M .N . 1 977 . S amp l ing T heo ry a nd Me thod s . C a lcu t ta : S t a t i s t ica lp ub l i sh ing S oc ie ty . N aga r , M . 1 983 . E thnoa r chaeo logy o f t h e B h imbe tka R eg ion , Man a nd E nv ironmen t 1 :6 1 -69 . P addayya , K . 1 982 . T he A cheu l ian C u l ture o ft h e Hunsg i V a l l ey ( Pen insu lar I nd ia ) : A S e t t l emen t P er spec t ive . P oona : D eccan C o l lege P o s tg radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . P an t , P .C . 1 985 . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t r ie s o f U t ta r P rade sh , i nR ecen t A d vance s i nI ndo -Pac i f ic P reh i s tory ( V . N . M i s ra a nd P . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 6 6 -72 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . P e t rag l ia , M . 1 987 . S i te F orma t ion P roce s s a tt h e U pper P a laeo l i th ic R ock she l te r a nd H i l l s l ope D epo s i t s i n S ou thern F rance . P h .D . D i s se r ta t ion , N ew Mex ico U n ive r s i ty . R a ju D .R . 1 981 . E ar ly S e t t l emen tP a t tern s i nC uddapah D i s t r ic t , A ndhra P rade sh : A P a laeoan thropo log ica l S t ud y . P h .D . t h e s i s ,P oona U n ive r s i ty . R a ju D .R . 1 985 . H andaxe A s semb lage s f r om t h e G un jana V a l ley , A ndh ra P rad e sh : A Me t r ica l A na ly s is . B u l le t in o ft h eI ndo -Pac if i cP reh i s to ry A s soc ia t ion 6 :1 0 2 6 . R a ju D .R . 1 988 . S tone A ge H un te r -Ga the rer s :A nE thno A rchaeo logy o f C uddapah r eg ion . S ou th -ea s t I nd ia . P oona : R av i sh P ub l i she r s .

13

E ar ly Hun ter -Ga therer Adap ta t ions i nt he T irupa t i Va l ley , S ou th I nd ia J a cob S .J aya R a j &S ha ik A bdu l Munaf 1 977b , 1 979a , 1 982a ) , Kor i se t ta r ( 1979 ) h ave c a r r ied o u t p reh is tor ic r e sea rch i n S ou th I nd ia . I n A ndh ra P rade sh , S ounda ra R a jan ( 1952 , 1 958 ) , I s sac ( 1960 ) , Mu r ty ( 1966 , 1 974 , 1 975 , 1 979 , 1 981) , R ao ( 1966 ) , R eddy ( 1968 , 1 976 , 1 978 , 1 980 ) , Mu r ty a nd R eeddy ( 1976 ) , R am i R eddy ( 1968 ) , P inga le ( 1970 ) , R ao ( 1979 ) , S uda r sen ( 1976 ) , J osh i ( 1979 ) , S ingh ( 1979 ) , R ao ( 1979 ) S ingh ( 1979a , 1 979b ) , P raka sh ( 1981 , 1 981a ) , R a ju ( 1981) , N a seem ( 1981) , a nd K a s tu rba i ( 1982 ) h ave d one s i gn if ican t wo rk s .

I n troduc t ion T he o r ig in s o f p reh is to r ic r e sea r ch i n I nd ia d a te b ack t o 1 863 when R obe r t B ruce F oo te d i scove red t h e f i r s t P a laeo l i th a t P a l lava ram n ea r Mad ra s ( Chenna i ) ( Foo te 1 866 ) . S ince t h en a n umbe r o f s cho la r s : - F oo te ( 1984a , 1 984b , 1 985 , 1 914 , 1 916 ) ; C amm iade ( 1924 , 1 926 , 1 927 ) , C a tnm iade a nd B u rk i t t ( 1930 ) , K r ishna swamy ( 1938 , 1 947 , 1 953 ) , J osh i ( 1955 ) , S eshad r i ( 1956 ) , An sa r i ( 1970 ) , Swam i ( 1976 ) , P appu ( 1974 , 1 981) , S ub rahmanyam ( 1975 ) , P addayya ( 1976 , 1 977a , T he S tudy A rea T IRUPAT

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e a s ter n t o t h e n o r the r n b o rde r . G eo log ica l f o rma t ion s ( f ig . 3 )o ft h is a r ea c on s is t o fA rchean s , E pa rchean u nconf o rm i ty , P u rana s a nd Qua ter n a ry d epos i t s wh ich a r e c on s ide red t o b e t h e a nc ien t mo s t l a nd f o rma t ion s i n t h e w o r ld . T he m a in s o i l t ype i sr ed s andy l o am . T he v a l ley i sd ra ined b yt h e Swar n amukh i ( o r ig ina t ing i n t h e Ad ineyapa l l i r e served f o r es t a t 7 50 m AMSL ) a nd f l ow ing i n n o r thea s ter ly d i rec t ion i n to t h e B ay o f B enga l a nd i t s t r ibu tar ies t h e K a lyan i , t h e Konamadugu , t h e R a l laka lava , t h e I s ukaka lava , B h ima ,

T he r e sea rch w ork h a s b een c a r r ied o u t i n t h e T irupa t i V a l ley ( f ig . 1 )o fC h i t too r d i s tr ic t , Andh ra P radesh a nd s ubm i t ted t ot h e P oona Un ive r s i ty f o r t h e a wa rd o fP h .D . D eg ree i n 1 983 ( J aya ra j 1 983 ) . T irupa t i V a l ley l i es b e tween 1 3° 3 0 ' a nd 1 3 ° 4 5 ' N l a t i tude a nd 7 9° 1 6 ' 7 9° 4 5 ' El ong i tude a nd c over s a n a r ea o f 8 00 s q . km . I t i s b o rde red b y t h e S eshacha lam o r P a lakonda h i l l r ange s ( popu la r ly k nown a st h eT irupa t i h i l ls , ( f ig . 2 )t ot h e n o r th a nd t h e V e l ikonda s t o t h e w es t . T he S anamba t la ; t h e N aga r i a nd t h e S r ika laha s t i r anges e x tend f r om t h e

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T he Me thodo logy E xp lo ra t ion s w e r e c a r r ied o u t a l ong t h e f oo th i l l s , s t r eam s , l a ke s , a nd t h e p l a in a r ea s t o l o ca te t h e S t one A ge s i t es . P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s i te s l o ca ted i nt h e a r ea a r e m apped a cco rd ing t o t h e i r t o pog raph ica ll o ca t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . S tone A ge c u l tu r a l a r tef ac t s a r e a na ly sed i nt e rm s o f t y po techno log ica l m e thod s . T h i s i sp r e sen ted q ua l i ta t ive ly a nd q uan t i ta t ive ly b y r e so r t ing t o d e sc r ip t ive , s t a t i s t ica la nd g r aph ica lp r e sen ta t ion s . E thnog raph ic a na logy h a s b een u sed f o r t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f S t one A ge h un te r -ga the r e r s e conomy . D a ta o n t h e e t hnog r aphy o ft h e Y anad i s l i v ing i n t h e r e g ion h a s b een c o l lec ted b y p a r t ic ipan t o b serva t ion s , i n t e rv iew s a nd g roup d i scu s s ion s . A l o t o f e t hnog raph ic d a ta o n t h e

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T he a im s o ft h i sw o rk a r e t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic c u l tu r a l e vo lu t ion i n t h eT irupa t iv a l ley w i th t h eh e lp o ft h e l o ca t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic s i te s

15

Y anad i sh a sb een c o l lec ted f o rm s e conda ry s ou r ce s ( Raghav iah 1 962 ) . S i te sa nd S tra t igraphy P r ev iou s a r chaeo log ica l i nve s t iga t ion s i n C h i t too r d i s t r ic t ( Mu r ty 1 966 , 1 968 , 1 970 ) h ad b rough t t o l i gh t s t one a ge o ccupa t ion s —b o th s u r f ace a nd s t r a t if i ed — b e long ing t oL owe r , M idd le a nd U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e s . T he r aw m a te r ia l su sed f o rt h ea s semb lage so ft h e se c u l tu r e s a r e c oa r se t o m ed ium g r a in ed q ua r tz i te f o r t h e L owe rP a laeo l i th ic , c oa r se t of i ne g ra ined q ua r tz i te f o r t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd f i ne g ra ined q ua r tz i te a nd t os om ee x ten tl y d ian i te f o rt h eU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic . T he Me so l i th ic a s semb lage s a r e p r edom inan t ly o nq ua r tz , wh ich i s a l so t h e c h ief r aw m a te r ia l a t s eve ra l s i te s e l sewhe r e o n t h e s ou th -ea s t c oa s t o fI nd ia ( Mu r ty 1 966 ; R eddy 1 968 ; a nd R a ju 1 981) . T he e v idence f r om t h e T irupa t i v a l ley c o r robo ra te s t h e se e a r l ie r o b se rva t ion s .

F ig . 6 : P a laeo l i th ic o ccu r r ence G u rava ra jupa l l i , C h i t too rd i s t r ic t

E xp lo ra t ion s c a r r ied o u t d u r ing t h i s s t udy r e su l t ed i n t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f p r ima r i ly s u rf ac ia l P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic o ccupa t ion s i n t h e T i rupa t i v a l ley . 1 6 L owe r P a laeo l i th ic , 1 M idd le P a laeo l i th ic , t h r ee U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , t wo E p i P a laeo l i th ic a nd f i ve Me so l i th ic o ccu r r en ce s h ave b een l o ca ted ( f ig . 1 ) . B a sed o n t h e l o ca t ion a nd o ccu r r ence o f t h e s i te s t h ey a r e d i v ided i n to ( 1 ) F oo th i l l s i tes ( f ig . 5 )( 2 ) L ak e s ide s i tes ( F ig . 6 )( 3 ) S t r eam s ide s i te s ( f ig . 7 )( 4 ) H i l l s lope S i te s ( f ig . 8 ) ( 5 )P la in land s i tes ( f ig . 9 ) .

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T o a s ce r ta in t h e s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion o f t h e i n du s t r ies a s e c t ion h a s b een t ak en a t t h e P adm ava th i Wom en 's C o l lege ( f ig s . 7 ,1 0 ) a nd a

F i g . 8 : Me so l i th ic o ccu r r ence a t L ocu s I V . 1 , n ea r O t t imanugu t ta ,4 km S ou thwe s to fR en igun ta ,C h i t too rd i s t r ic t

s m a l l e xcava t ion w a s c onduc ted a t S i ta rampe t ( F ig s . 1 , 1 2 ) , aL owe r a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic w o rk shop -cum -hab i ta t ion s i te .

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F ig . 1 2 : L ocus I . 1 , A l a te A cheu l ian a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic o ccur r ence a tS i ta rampe t , 5km f r om R en igun ta , C h i t too rd i s tr ic t

T he L owe rP a laeo l i th ic ( f ig s . 1 3 , 1 4 ) i sr ep re sen ted a t 1 8 l o c i a nd 2 2 s c a t te r s b y 2 300 ( 23 .34% ) s pec im en s . T hese a r e c l as s if i ed a s s haped ( 5 37 :23 .34% ) a nd s imp le ( 1763 :76 .65 % ) a r tef ac t s . T he s haped a r tef ac t s c omp r ise h andaxe s ( 70 -10% ) ,

, n ea r T TD , D a iry f a rm , F i g . 1 0 : S t ra t ig raphy a t L ocu s 15 T irupa t i

s i de s c raper s ( 1 1 .35 % ) a nd e nd sc rape r s ( 2 .97% ) . T he s imp le a r tef ac t s a r e c o res ( 10 .55 % ) , f l akes ( 89 .45 % ) a nd s t one h ammer s ( 7 ) wh ich a r e n o t i n c luded w i th in t h e f r equency a nd p e rcen tages . T he r aw m a ter ia l i s a c oa r se t o m ed ium -g ra ined q ua r tz i te wh ich i sa bundan t ly a va i lab le i nt h e f o rm o fp ebb les a nd n odu les i nr i ve r a nd s t ream b ed s a s

P a laeo l i th ic Cu l tures T he L ower P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion o ccu r s i nv a r ied t o pog raph ica l s e t t ing s : t h e f oo t h i l l z ones , a nd i n t h e v i c in i ty o fn a tu ra l p ond s , l a k es ides a nd s t ream s i de s , a nd o n t h e l ow p l a in a r eas w i th as c rub a nd t h o rny t h icke tc ove r .

17

w e l l a s i n q ua r tz i te o u t c rop s . T h e t o o l s a r e b a s ica l ly w o rk ed w i th c y l ind e r h amm e r t e chn iqu e h ave s ymm e t r ica l o u t l in e s , s t r a igh t p rof i le s a nd b i convex t ol e n t icu la r c r o s s s e c t ion s . T h e m a jo r i ty o fh andax e s a r e o va l s h aped a nd s om e o ft h em a r e p o in t ed w i th s ha rp c u t t ing e dg e s a l a l ong t h e p e r iph e ry . T h in b u t t s w e r e p r obab ly m ean t t o f a c i l i ta t e t h e h af t ing o f h andaxe s a s s p ea rh ead s ; p o in ted t i p s b u t t h ick p ebb le b u t t s w e r e p robab ly u sed f o rd i gg ing r oo t s a nd t u be r s . T echno log ica l ly t h e A cheu l ian i n du s t ry o f t h e T i rupa t i V a l ley i s m o r e a dvan ced t h an t h e i n du s t r ie s o f C h i rk i N eva sa a nd H un sg ia nd c an b e a s c r ibed t ot h eL a t e A ch eu l ian o f t h e T i rupa t i -R en igun ta -Gun jana C omp lex .

s ugge s t ive o fd if e r en ta c t iv i t ie sa st h ey c om e f r om t h e s am e s i t e i nt wo d i f f e r en tm ic ro -env i ronm en ta l n i ch e s , r e f lec t ing t h e m od e s o f e xp lo i ta t ion a nd p r ocu r em en to fp l an ta nd m ea tf o od s .

F ig . 1 3 : H andaxe s

F ig . 1 5 : B lade ( 1 ) , B lad e S c rape r( 2 ) , B a ck ed b lade ( 3 ) , P o in ted b l ade ( 4 ) , B lade t oo l ( 5 ) , B lade p o in t s ( 6 ) , B u r in ( 7 ) , C o r e s ( 8 ) , B rok en b l ad es ( 9 ) ,b a ck ed b l ade ( 10 )

T he M idd le P a la eo l i th ic o ccu r r en ce s ( F ig . 1 5 ) b e long t o 1 l o c i a nd 1 5 c l u s t e r s a nd a moun t t o 1 471 s p ec im en s , t h e s e a r e c l a s s if i ed a s s h aped ( 3 62 :24 .61 % ) a nd s imp le ( 1 109 :7 1 .39% ) a r t ef a c t s . T h e s h aped a r tef a c t s c omp r i se m in ia tu r e h andaxe s ( 1 .63% ) , c l eave r s ( 0 .40% ) , s i d e s c rape r s ( 1 4 .62% ) , d en t i cu la te s ( 1 .76% ) , e nd s c r ape r s ( 0 .88% ) , e nd c um s id es c rape r s( 0 .63% ) ,n o tch e s( 0 .67% ) ,p o in t s ( 0 .33% ) , b o r e r s ( 0 .67% ) . T h e s imp le a r tef ac t s a r e f l ak e s ( 5 4 .53% ) , a nd c h ip s ( 1 1 .09% ) . T h e f l ak e b l ank s a r e p rodu ced f r om p r epa r ed c o r e s ( 9 .80% ) , w i thou t f a ce ted p l a tf o rm a s w e l l a s f r om s imp le c o r e s . M in ia tu r e h andaxe s a nd p o in t s o n c o r e s

F ig . 1 4 : C leave r s

Me t r ica l a na ly s i s o f h andaxe s f r om e i gh t l o c i s ugge s t s t wo d i s t in c t A ch eu l ian c l a s se s : T h e f i r s t o n e h a s ap r edom inan ce o fo va l shaped h andaxe s w i th c u t t ing e dge s a l l a r ound t h e p e r iph e ry a nd i s r e p r e sen ted b y L ak e s id e a nd s t r eam s id e s i t e s . T h e s e cond c a tego ry i s d i s t ingu i sh ed b y b o th o va l s h aped h andax e s a nd i mp lem en t s w i th h eavy b u t t s a nd b road w o rk ing e nd s , a nd i s r e p r e sen ted a t f o o th i l l s i t e s ( f ig . 1 4 ) . T h e se t wo c l a s se s a r e

18

r e vea l t h in a nd s ha l low s c a r s a nd b i f ac ia l r e touch , s ugge s t ing t h e c on t inu i ty o f L a te A cheu l ian b i f ac ia l t e chn ique s i n ar ef ined f o rm . T he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t ry i nt h e T irupa t i v a l ley d i sp lay s c l o se a ff in i ty t o q ua r tz i te b a sed i ndu s t r ie s i n d i f f e r en tr i ve rb a s in s o ft h e s ou thea s t c oa s t l i ke t h e S ag i le ru , t h e P enne r , t h e Gun jana , t h e P a leru a nd t h eG und lakamma . Cu

T h e e v iden ce f o r t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ( f ig . 1 6 ) a nd E ip -Pa laeo l i th ic c om e s f r om f i ve l o c i a nd 1 3 s c a t te r s . T he i n du s t ry c omp r i se s 2 342 s pec im en s w h ich i n c lude s ( 4 12 : 1 5 .59% ) s haped a nd ( 1930 : 8 2 .41 % ) s imp le a r tef ac t s . T he s haped a r tef ac t s i n c lude n i ne t y pes , s i de s c r ape r s ( 4 1 .09% ) , d en t icu la te s ( 2 .18% ) , n o tche s ( 5 .82% ) , k n ive s ( 24 .25% ) , b ack b l ade s ( 9 .45% ) , c r e scen t s ( 17 .03% ) , b ur in s ( 7 .76% ) , b o r e r s ( 0 .97% ) , a nd p o in ted b l ade s ( 1 .45% ) . T he s imp le a r tef ac t s a r e c o r e s ( 1 5 .44% ) , b l ade s ( 3 3 .38% ) , i n c lud ing c omp le te b l ade s ( 12 .12% ) , a nd b roken b l ade s ( 2 3 .16% ) , a nd m ic rob lades ( 1 .54% ) , wh ich a l so i n c lude c omp le te t y pe ( 0 .25% ) , a nd b roken t ype ( 1 .29% ) , f l ake s ( 37 .56% ) , a nd c h ip s( 10 .15% ) . T he i ndu s t ry i s b a sed o n b l ade t o o l t e chno logy a nd c on s i s t s p r edom inan t ly o f s c rape r s a nd b ack ed v a r ian t s m ade o n f i ne -g r a in ed q ua r tz i te a nd l y d ian i te .

60

:

F ig . 1 6 : M ic rob lade p o in t( 1 ,2 ) , B lade t o o l( unnumbe r ed )

V a r iou s t ypes o f s c rape r s a r e l i ke ly t o h ave b een u sed f o r p roce s s ing w ood , h ide a nd b one f o r m ak ing h af t s a nd w ooden i mp lem en t s . T h e b ack ed t ypes w e re p robab ly u sed a s c ompo s i te t o o l s f o r b a rbed a r rowhead s , h a rpoon s , s l ice r k n ives a nd i n ser t s f o rf i sh h ook s . T he p r edom inance o fb acked p o in t s i nU ppe r P a laeo l i th ic , v i ewed i nt h e c on ten t o f c en t ra l I nd ian Me so l i th ic r ock p a in t ing s , c o r robo ra tes t h e a bove m en t ioned o b serva t ion .

Me so l i th ic Cu l ture s T he e v idence f o r Me so l i th ic ( f ig . 1 7 ) c om e s f o rm f i ve l o c i a nd 1 4 s c a t te r s . T he se a r e l o ca ted o n t h e

h i l l s l ope s a s w e l l a s t h e p l a in s o ft h e v a l ley a nd a r e c l o se r t ot h e S wa rnamu ldü r i ve r t h an t h e s i tes

2 C

F i g . 1 7 : M ic ro l i th s

19

3

4

o f v a r iou s P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re s . T hey o ccu r o n p a tche s o fu ncu l t iva ted l a nd i nt h e t ho rny t h ick e t j ung le w i th g ra s s c ove r a nd o n s t r e tche s o fb a r r en r o ck s u rf aces .

h ook s . T h e Y anad i s a r e a dep t a tg a the r ing r oo t s , t u be r s , y am s , d i f f e r en t e d ib le l e ave s a nd av a r ie ty o f f r u i t s . T h ey a l so e ar n m oney b y s e l l ing m ino r f o r es t p roduce a nd n ow a nd t h en t h ey a l so b a r te r t h e se i t em s f o rr i ce .

T h e i n du s t ry c omp r i se s at o ta l o f2 297 s pec imen s o f wh ich 3 22 ( 14 .32% ) a r e s haped t o o l s a nd 1 975 ( 8 5 .98% ) a r e s imp le a r tef ac t s . T h e s haped a r tef ac t s o f m ic ro l i th s i n c lude r e touched b l ade s ( 5 .74% ) , t r unca ted b l ades ( 3 .68% ) , b lun ted b ack b l ade s ( 47 .14% ) , b lun ted a nd o b l iqu e r e touched b l ade ( 4 .92% ) , p o in t s ( 14 .34% ) a nd c r e scen t s ( 24 .17% ) . S im i la r ly s haped t o o l s o nf l ake si n c lude s i ng le s i de s c rape r( 56 .40% ) , d oub le s i d e s c rape r ( 7 .69% ) a nd s c rape r ( 10 .25% ) , d en t icu la te ( 7 .42% ) , n o tch ( 5 .13% ) , k n if e ( 6 .42% ) a nd b ur in ( 7 .69% ) . T he s imp le a r tef ac t s i n c lude c o r e s ( 2 3 .53 % ) , f l ak e s ( 14 .31 % ) ,b l ade s( 3 3 .99% )a nd c h ip s( 28 .16% ) . T he Me so l i th ic i n du s t ry i sp r edom inan t ly o f an on g eome t r ic t ype a nd i s s t r ik ing ly s im i la r t o t h e q ua r tz m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie so ft h es ou thea s tc oa s t .

F i g . 1 8 : T he Y anad i s e t t lemen t s i n f r on t o f t h e P a la eo l i th ic o ccu r r en ce n ea rY e rpedu ,C h i t too rd i s t r ic t

E thnoarchaeo logy o fY anad i E thnoa rchaeo log ica l w o rk h a s b een c a r r ied o u t o n t h e Y anad i s i nhab i t ing i n a nd a r ound T iruap t i v a l ley i n as im i la r m anne r t o Mu r ty ( 1978 -79 , 1 981) , Mur ty a nd S on the im e r ( 1980 ) a nd R a ju ( 1981 ) . T he i r s e t t lem en t s a r e l o ca ted j u s t i n a nd a r ound t h e s am e s i te s wh ich m igh t h ave b een o ccup ied b y t h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic h un te r -ga the re r s ( f ig s . 1 8 , 1 9 ) . T h is e t hnog raphy f o r a r chaeo logy h e lped al o t i nu nde r s tand ing t h e e t hnog raph ic p a r a l le l s a nd a na log ie s w i th t h e p r eh i s to r ic s ub s i s tence a nd a dap ta t ion p a t ter n s o f t h i s r eg ion . T he Y anad i s o f t h i s r eg ion p r ac t ice t r ad i t iona l h un t ing , g a the r ing , f i sh ing a nd f ow l ing a c t iv i t ie s . B ecau se o f c on tac t s w i th t h e n e ighbou r ing v i l lage s a nd u rban a r ea s Y anad i s a r e a l so w o rk ing a s a g r icu l tu r a l l a bou r e r s a nd a s w a tchm en i n t h e f i e ld s o f a g r icu l tu r i s t s . Y anad is l i ve i n t r ad i t iona l c i rcu la r h u t s ( f ig . 1 9 ) w i th c on ica lr oof sm ad eo fp l an tm a te r ia l s .

F ig . 1 9 : Y anad i s t and ing i nf r on to f ac on ica l h u tn ea r Y e rpedu , C h i t too rd i s t r ic t

T he Y anad i s a r e v e ry f am i l ia r w i th d i f f e r en t v a r ie t ie s o fm ed ic ina l p l an t s a nd t h e i r a pp l ica t ion s . T he Y anad i m ed ic ine m an t r ea t s v a r iou s d i sea se w i th t h ea va i lab le m ed ic ina lp l an t si nt h e i rh am le t s . T hey h ave a c omp le te k now ledge o f t h e f l o r a , f auna a nd e nv i ronm en ta l c hange s o f t h i s r eg ion . T he e t hnog raph ic s t udy o ft h eY anad i s g ive s av e ry g ood u nde r s tand ing o f h ow t h e P r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s i nhab i t ing t h e T i ruap t i v a l ley a r ea w a s e xp lo i t ing t h e f l o ra a nd f a una o f t h e r eg ion . E thnoa r chaeo logy o f t h e Y anad i s p rov ide s e xce l len t a na log ie s f o rp r ed ic t ing t h e w ay o fl i f e a t l e a s t d u r ing t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic t im e s .

T he Y anad i s l i v ing i n t h i s a r ea h ave v e ry g ood l o ca l k now ledge a bou t t h e i r s u r round ing s p a r t icu la r ly o fm ed ic ina l p l an t s a nd a n ima l s w h ich a r e i mpo r tan t f o r t h e i r s ub s i s tence . E ven t h ough h un t ing i s p roh ib i ted Y anad i s h un t s ma l l g am e p a r t icu la r ly r abb i t s , s qu i r re l s , p o r cup ine s , w i ldca t s , r a t s , mon i to r l i za rd s , b and icoo t s a nd l a ngu r monk ie s . T hey a l so c a tch a v a r ie ty o f b i rd s . Y anad i s f i sh f o r av a r ie ty o ff r e sh w a te r f i sh u s ing d i f f e r en t m e thod s l i k e f i sh t r ap s , w i r e s , n e t s a nd

1 2 0

i n t r in s ic i n te rp r e t ive p o ten t ia l t h a t l a rge ly h a s g one u nexp lo r ed . S u r f ace a r chaeo log ica l p henom ena n e i the r d epend s u pon n o r d e r ive s f r om c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f s ub su rf ace a r chaeo log ica l p henom ena ( Ebe r t 1 992 ) . My s t if y ing s ub su rf ace a r chaeo log ica l p a t ter n s c an b e c l a r if i ed o n ly a f t e r a n e xhau s t ive s t udy o f t h e s u rf ace ma te r ia l . I n te rp re t ive p o ten t ia l o f s u rf ace p h enom ena i s a f f ec ted b yt h e d eg r ee t o wh ich t h e i ro r ig in s c an b e a s cer ta ined r e l iab ly ( Lewa r ch a nd O 'B r ien 1 981 :298 ) . I fi ndeed t h e r e a r e l im i ta t ion s i n t h e i n te rp r e t ive v a lue o f s u rf ace a r chaeo log ica l p henom ena , t h en t h o se l im i ta t ion s n eed t o b e d emon s t r a ted a na ly t ica l ly r a the r t h an s imp ly a s sum ed .

S cope f o rf ur ther R e search w ork i nt he T irupa t i V a l ley : B yk eep ing i nm ind t h e n a tu r e a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fp r eh i s to r ic s i te s i nt h e T irupa t i V a l ley o ne c an c a r ryou t f u r the r r e sea r ch w o rk b y f o l low ing mu l t id i sc ip l ina ry a pp roache s a nd b y a pp ly ing a dvanced a r chaeo log ica l ( Loy 1 993 ; F i ede l 1 996 ; H a rdy 1 997 ; H iscock a nd C la rk son 2 000 ; R enf rew a nd B oy le 2 000 ; F ann ing a nd H o ldaway 2 00 1 , McNabb e t a l . 2 004 ) a nd e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l ( Dav id a nd K ram e r 2 00 1 ; K imu ra e t a l . 2 001 ) r e sea r ch m e thod si n c lud ing t h ew o rk d one o ns e to f a r tef ac t v a r iab le ( i . e . a r tef ac t s i ze , d i s t r ibu t ion , a r tef ac t r ound ing , p a t ina t ion , w ea th e r ing ) ( Paddayya a nd P e t rag l ia 1 993 ) . A r tef ac t r ef i t t ing w o rk c an b e c a r r ied o u tt oe xam in e t h e m ean ing o f p a t te rn s o n h o r izon ta l s u rf ace s a nd s equen ce s o f l i th ic r e duc t ion.

I ti sb e l ieved t h a t a r chaeo log ica l s i te s n ow b u r ied w e r e o nce s u rf ace s c a t te r s ( Dunne l l a nd D ancey 1 983 ) . A s e t hnoa r chaeo logy o f h un te r -ga the r e r s p roved t h a tt h e i rc amp sa r e s pa t ia l ly e x ten s ive e ven t hou sand s o f s qua r e m e te r s ( Ye l len 1 977 ; O 'Conne l l 1 987 )a nd e xcava t ion so ft h i sm agn i tude a r e b eyond t h e s cope o f mo s t a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch ( Fann ing a nd H o ldaway 2 001) . I n t h i s s i tua t ion a r chaeo log i s t s a r e t u rn ing t o s u rf ace a r t if ac t s c a t te r s a s aw ay o f a s se s s ing h um an i mpac t a tt h e l a nd scape l e ve l b ecau se s uch s c a t te r s a r e t h e mo s t u b iqu i tou s p a r t o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i nm any p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld ( Su l l ivan 1 998 ; R o s s igno l a nd Wand sn ide r 1 992 ) . I n t h i s c on tex t S u rf ace A r chaeo logy i st h e a l te rna te w ay f o ry oung s cho la r s p u r su ing P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i n t h e 2 1' c en tu ry i nI nd ia .

M ic rowea r a na ly s i s wh ich w i l l h e lp t o k now t h e a spec t s o f t oo l f unc t ion , s ub s i s t ence a nd a c t iv i ty c an b e a pp l ied , t o u nde r s tand ing P l e i s tocene p a la eoeco logy a nd h om in id b ehav iou rw o rk c an b e c a r r ied o u t a s w a s d one b y M i s ra a nd R a jagu ru ( 1989 ) . E xcava t ion s o ft h e C ave s i t e s d i scove r ed i n t h i s a r ea c an b e c onduc ted f o r d e ta i led s t ud ie s l i ke t h a t o f ( M i s ra 1 973 , 1 978b ; Mu r ty 1 974 ; R eddy 1 976 ) . S i te f o rma t ion r e sea r ch c an b e d one , a sh a s b een e x ten s ive ly d one b y S . P appu ( 1 997 , 1 999 , 2 00 1a ,2 001b ,2 004 )a tA t t i r ampakkam . I fw e s e e t h e n a tu r e t ype o f S t one A ge s i t e s i n A ndh ra P rade sh ( Mu r ty 2 003 ) , mo s t o f t h e p a laeo l i th ic a nd m e so l i th ic s i t e s a r e s u r f ace s i te s ( 3 60 , 8 1% ) . S t ra t if ied s i te s a r e f ew ( 69 , 1 5% ) ( Lowe rP a laeo l i th ic : S u rf ace s i t e s -103 , S t ra t if i ed — 2 4 , R ive r b ed -5 , R ive r b ank 1 , T e r race -7 s i te s ; M idd le P a laeo l i th ic : S u r f ace s i t e s -139 S t ra t if i ed — 2 6 s i te s ; U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic : S u rf ace s i t es -61 , S t ra t if i ed -13 s i te s ; Me so l i th ic : S u rf ace s i te s -57 , S t ra t if ied -6 ) . Among t h e se v e ry f ew h ave b een e xcava ted .

A cknow ledgemen t s We a r e v e ry g ra tefu l t o P rof . V .N . M i s ra f o r h i s g u idance a nd c on t inuou se ncou ragem en t . We t h ank P rof s . M .L .K . Mu r ty a nd D .R . R a ju f o r t h e i r s ugge s t ion s ; t o D r . A lok K anungo , D r . S hah ida An sa r i , S t af f a nd L ib r a r ian o f D eccan C o l lege , P une f o rt h e i rc oope ra t ion .

I nt h i sc on tex tw ec an o p tf o r' s u r f ace a r chaeo logy ' a sa na l ter n a t ive a si ti sr i gh t ly p o in ted o u tb yA lan P . S u l l ivan I I ( 1998 ) t h a t " B ron i s law Ma l inow sk i 's ( 1926 ) h igh -qua l i ty f i e ldwo rk , o r " Open -a i r a n th ropo logy" b oo s te r i sm w ou ld s e em a pp rop r ia te t oday f o r t h e s t udy o f s u rf ace s i tes ( a rchaeo logy ) a nd i t s i n te rp r e t ive p o ten t ia l . A n th ropo log ica l A rchaeo log i s t s t y p ica l ly e xam ine v a r iab i l i ty i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd a nd a s se si t s i mp l ica t ion s f o r i n f e r r ing a s pec t s o f t h e c u l tu ra l p a s t . S u rf ace a r chaeo log ica l p henom ena h ave

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T ab le 1 :T ab le s how ing c l a s s if i ca t ion o fs i te s , L ocu s , S ca t te r s , L oca t ion o fl o c i o r s i te s , T ype s , o fa r t ef a c t s c o l le c ted f r om T i ru a t iV a l l : P reh i s tor ic Cu l ture s( ar t if ac t s ) S l . C la s s if ica t ion L ocu s S ca t ter L oca t ion o ft he S i te N o . o fs i te s L ocu s I S .V . Med ica l C o l lege , L PC , C hoppe r s , A ch eu l ian T i rupa t i H andaxe s , C leave r s , D i sco id s , F lake s , S c rape r s , S .V .A r t sC o l lege ,T i rupa t i L PC , C hoppe r s ,A cheu l ian L ocu s -I H andaxe s , C leave r s , D i sco id s , F lake s ,C o r e s L ocu s I I I S-I S .V . U n ive r s i ty C o l lege , a nd L PC , Mo s t ly F a lk e s A -B lo ck ,T i rupa t i S-I S .V .U . G i r l sH o s te l L PC ,F lake s 1 . F oo th i l ls i te s S-I I S .V .U . L ib ra ry L PC , A cheu l ian H andaxe s , F l ak e s a nd C o re s S-I V S .V .U . A r t sB lo ck L PC ,F lake sa nd C o r e s S-V D .D .E . B u i ld ing L PC C hoppe r s , H andaxe s , C o re s , F lake s L PC , C hoppe r s , A cheu l ian S r i P admava t i Women 's L ocu sIV H andaxe s ,C leave r s ,F lake s ,C o r e s C o l lege ,T i rupa t i T TD D a i ry F a rm ,T i rupa t i L PC ,A cheu l ian H andaxe s L ocu s -V L ocu s -V I L ocu s- V I I L-I L-I 2 .

L ake s i t e s

s i de

L_ I l

S t r eam s i t e s

L PC , A cheu l ian H andaxe s , C leave r s ,F lake sa nd C o re s L PC , C hoppe r s , A cheu l ian H andaxe s ,F lake s

I g i t ima la L ake , n ea r R en igun ta V adama lape t L ak e , n ea r G a ju lamandyam V i l lage V adama lape t L ake , n ea r G a ju lamandyam V i l lage

L PC , C hoppe r s , A cheu l ian H andaxe s ,C leave r s , No tched f l ake s L PC a nd MPC , A cheu l ian H andaxe s ,F lake s

L- I V

K a rakambad i V i l lage L ake , n ea rR en igun ta

L-V

P apana idupe ta P apana idupe ta

L-V I

V ankaka lava , n ea r S i ta rampe ta S i ta rampe ta - V enka tapu ram l a ke , n ea r Y e rpedu 1 5 km f r om R en igun ta A i rpo r t , n ea r R en igun ta , T i rupa t i

L-V I I 3

P ud ipe t la V i l lage n ea r T i rupa t i S anamba t la h i l l s l ope , n ea r T i rupa t i

s i de L-V I I I

l a ke ,

n ea r

L-I X

S ca t te r s ( 1 -5 )

I s ukaka lava , E lec t r ic S ub s ta t ion n ea rR en igun ta

L-X

S ca t t e r s ( 1 -5 )

G u rava ra jupa l l i , R en igun ta

1 22

n ea r

L a t eA cheu l ian a r t if ac t s , a nd M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f l ak e s L a t eA cheu l ian a r t if a c t s , a nd M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f l ake s L a te A cheu l ian a r t if a c t s , a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic f l ake s L PC , H andaxe s , C leave r s , C o re s , F lake sa nd MPC MPC ,F lake s ,F lake t o o l s ,C o r e s

L PC , C hoppe r s , A cheu l ian h andaxe s , C leave r s , S c rape r , Ma s s ive f l ake s MPC , M in ia tu r e b i f a ce s , S c rape r s , F lake s ,C hunk s , c o re s , S hou lde r ed P o in t ( Tang ed p o in t ) ,L eva l lo i sp o in t s L PC , C hoppe r s , A cheu l ian h andaxe s , MPC , F lake s , S c rape r s , UPC ,B lade s , M ic ro l i th s -F lake s , L una t es ,P o in t s , S c rape r s ,F lu ted c o re s ,B lade s L PC , A cheu l ian h andaxe s , M idd le P a la eo l i th ic f l ake s , UPC , B lade s , S c rape r s , No tched s c rape r ,C o re s

4 .

5 .

H i l l s lope s i te s

P l a in land s i te s

L-I

S ca t te r s ( 1 -3 )

Me r lapaka l a ke , Y e rpedu L ep ro sy C en t re ,Y e rpedu

L-I

S ca t te r s ( 1 -4 )

Y e rpedu K onamadugu Y e rpedu

L -I I

S ca t te r s ( 1 -3 )

L ep ro sy C en t re , n ea r V empedu V i l lage ,Y e rpedu O t t imanuga t tu , S ou twe s t o f S war namukh i r i ve r , 4 km f r om R en igun ta Madhavama la , n ea r R en igun ta K obaka V i l lage , n ea r R en igun ta

L-I

L- I L-I I L- I V

Y e rpedu

A sh ram , g o rge ,

L PC , C hoppe r s , H andaxe s , C o re s , MPC , F l ake t o o l s , B lad e t o o l s , M ic ro l i th s L a te A cheu l ian a r t if a c t s , MPC , F ake s , F lake t o o l s UPC , B lade s , K n ive s , B lade -Sc rape r s , n o t che s , C o re s , M ic ro l i th s -f l ake s ,b l ade s ,L una te s , UPC , B lade s , B lade t o o l s , M ic ro l i th s M ic ro l i th s -F l ake s , F lake s c rape r s , L una te s ,P o in t s ,M ic robu r in ,C o re s M ic ro l i th s - F lake s , S c rape r s , B lade s ,L una te s ,B a cked b l ade s M ic ro l i th s -B lade s , B acked b l ade s , P o in t s ,C o re s M ic ro l i th s - F lake s , S c rape r s , B lade s , L una te s , C o r e s

L PC =L owe rP a laeo l i th ic C u l tu r e , MPC = M idd le P a laeo l i th ic C u l tu re , UPC =U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic C u l tu r e Ref erences A n sa r i , Z .D . 1 970 . P ebb le T oo l s f r om N i t tu r ( My so r e S t a te ) ,I nd ian A n t iquary 4 ( 1-4 ) : 1 7 . C amm iade , L .A . 1 924 . P ygmy I mp lemen t s f r om t h e L owe rG odava r i , Man i nI nd ia 4 ( 1-2 ) : 5 7 -74 . C amm iade , L .A . 1 926 . N o te s o n t h e e xp lo ra t ion o ft h e K u rnoo lB one C ave s , Man i nI nd ia 6 :1 74 18 1 . C amm iade , L .A . 1 927 . P reh i s to r ic Man i n I nd ia a nd K u rnoo l B one C ave s : AN eg lec ted f i e ld o fI nqu i ry , Man i nI nd ia 7 ( 1) : 1 12 . C amm iade , L .A . a nd M .C . B u rk i t t 1 930 . F re sh L igh t o n t h e S t one A ge si nS ou th -ea s tI nd ia ,A n t iqu i ty 4 :3 27 -39 . D av id , N icho la s a nd C a ro l K rame r 2 00 1 . E thnoarchaeo logy i n A c t ion . C ambr idge : C ambr idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . D unne 1 1 ,R . , a nd W . D ancey 1 983 . T he s i te le s s s u rvey : A r eg iona l s c a le d a ta C o l lec t ion s t ra t egy , i nA dvance s i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , 6 :2 67 -287 . E be r t , J . I . 1 992 . D i s t r ibu t iona l A rchaeo logy . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s . F ann ing , P . a nd S . H o ldaway 2 00 1 . S tone A r tef a c t S ca t t e r s i n We s ter n NS W A u s t ra l ia : G eomo rph ic C on t ro l s o n A r t if ac t s S i ze a nd D i s t r ibu t ion G eoar chaeo logy 1 6 (6 ) : 6 67 -686 . F i ede l , S . J . 1 996 . B lood f r om S t one s? S ome Me thodo log ica l a nd I n te rp re t ive P rob lem s i n B lood R e s idue s A na ly s i s , J ourna l o fA r chaeo log ica l S c ience 2 3 : 1 39 147 . F oo te , R .B . 1 866 . O n t h e O ccu r rence o f S t one I mp lemen t s i n L a te r i t ic F o rma t ion s i n V a r iou s P a r t s o f t h e Mad ra s a nd N o r th A r co t D i s t r ic t s , Mad ra s , J ourna l o fL i t era ture a nd S c ience s 3rd s e r ie sP a r tI : 1 35 , w i th a n a ppend ix b yW i l l iam K ing ,p p . 3 6 -42 . F oo te , R .B . 1 884a . R ough N o t e s o n B i l la S u rgam a nd O the r C ave s i nK u rnoo l D i s t r ic t , R ecord s o fG eo log ica l S ur vey o fI nd ia 1 7 ( 1) : 2 7 -34 . F oo te , R .B . 1 884b . M r . H .B . F oo te 's Wo rk a tt h e B i l la S u rgam C ave s , R ecord s o fG eo log ica l S ur vey o fI nd ia 1 7 (4 ) : 2 00 -208 .

F oo te , R .B . 1 885 . N o te s o n t h e R e su l t s o f M r . H .B . G oo te 's F u r the r E xcava t ion s i nt h e B i l la S u rgam C ave s , R ecord so fG eo log ica lS urvey o fI nd ia / 8 (4 ) : 2 27 -35 . F oo te , R .B . 1 9 14 . T he F oo t e C o l lec t ion o f I nd ian P r eh i s tor ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic A n t iqu i te s . Mad ra s : G ove rnmen t Mu seum . F oo te , R .B . 1 9 16 . T he F oo te C o l l ec t ion o f I nd ian P reh i s tor ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic A n t iqu i t ie s : N o t e s o n t h e ir A ge sa nd D i s t r ibu t ion . Mad ra s : G ove rnmen t Mu seum . H a rdy , B .L . ,V . R aman a nd R .A . R af f1 997 . R ecove ry o f DNA f r om M idd le P a laeo l i th ic S tone T oo l s , J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica lS c ience 2 4 (7 ) : 6 0 1-6 11 . H i scock , P .a nd C . C la rk son 2 000 . A na ly s ing Au s t ra l ian S tone A r tef a c t s : A na genda f o rt h e Twen ty F i r s tC en tu ry , A u s t ra l ian A rchaeo logy 5 0 : 9 8 108 . I s sac , N . 1 960 . T he S tone A ge C u l tu re s o f K urnoo l . P h .D . t h e s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . J aya R a j , J a cob S . 1 975 . AN o te o n P r eh i s to r ic C u l tu ra l E v idence f r om T i rupa t i , A ndh ra P rade sh , C ur r en t S c ience 4 4 (9 ) : 3 27 . J aya R a j , J a cob S . 1 98 1 . A N o te o n F o s s i l a nd S t ra t ig raph ic B r eak , T irupa t i V a l ley , A ndh ra P rade sh , I nd ian A n thropo log i s t 1 (2 ) : 1 3 1134 . J aya R a j , J a cob S . 1 983 . E ar ly H un t e r -Ga there r s A dap ta t ions i n t h e T r iupa t i V a l ley , S ou th I nd ia . P h .D . T he s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . J aya R a j , J a cob S . 1 987 . E thnoa r chaeo logy o f T r iba l Y anad i . T irupa t i : S .V . U n ive r s i ty . J o sh i , R .V . 1 955 . P le i s tocene S tud ie s i nt h e Ma lap rabha B a s in , P oona : D eccan C o l lege a nd D ha rwa r : K a rna taka U n ive r s i ty . J o sh i , R .V . , R . S ub rahmanyam a nd V .V .M . R ao 1 979 . L a te A cheu l ian C u l tu r e o f t h e P a le ru R ive r V a l ley , C oa s ta l A ndh ra P rade sh , B u l le t in o ft h e D eccan C o l l ege P o s t -G radua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 3 9 : 4 9 -89 . K a s tu r i B a i , M . 1 982 . T he S t one A ge C u l tur e s o fE l eru V a l ley i nE a s tG odavar iD i s t r ic t , A nd hra P rad e sh . P h .D . t h e s i s . V i sakhapa tnam : A ndh ra U n ive r s i ty .

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P a laeo l i th ic P ha se i nI nd ia ,J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo lo gy 6 ( 3 ) : 3 0 1-20 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 2 003 . P r e a nd P ro toh i s to r ic A ndhra P rad e sh u pt o5 00 BC . C henna i : O r ien tL ongman . Mu r ty , M .L .K . a nd K .T . R eddy 1 976 . T he S ign i f icance o f L i th ic F ind s i n t h e C ave A rea s o f K u rnoo l , I nd ia , A s ian p er spec t ive s 1 8 : 2 14 -26 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . a nd G .D . S on the ime r 1 980 . P r eh i s to r ic B a ckg round t oP a s to ra l i sm i nt h eS ou the rn D e ccan i nt h e L igh t o f O ra l T rad i t ion s a nd C u l t s o f s ome P a s to ra l C ommun i t ie s ,A n thropo s7 5 : 1 63 -84 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 981 . Hun te r -ga the r e r E co sy s tem s a nd A r cha eo log ica l P a t t er n o fS ub s i s tence B ehav iou r o n t h e S ou thea s t C oa s t o f I nd ia : A n E thnog raph ic Mode l , W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 3 ( 1) : 4 7 -58 . N a seem , A . 1 981 . N eo l i th ic o f V i sak hapa tnam : A n E thnoarchaeo log ica l S tud y . P h .D . T he s i s . Wa l ta i r : A ndh ra Un ive r s i ty . O 'Conne l l , J . 1 987 . A lywa ra s i te S t ru c tu r e a nd i t s A r chaeo log ica l i mp l ica t ion s , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 2 : 7 4 1 08 . P addayya , K . 1 976 . E xcava t ion s o fa n A cheu l ian S i te a t H un sg i , S ou th I nd ia , C ur ren tA n thropo log y 1 7 : 7 60 -761 . P addayya , K . 1 977a . An A cheu l ian O ccupa t ion S i te a t H un sg i , P en in su la r I nd ia : AS umma ry o ft h e R e su l t s o f Two S ea son 's E x cava t ion ( 1975 -76 ) , W or ld A rchaeo logy 8 ( 3 ) : 3 44 -355 . P addayya , K . 1 977b . T he A cheu l ian C u l tu r e o f t h e H un sg i V a l ley , S ho rapu r D oab , P en in su la r I nd ia , P roceed ing s o ft h e Ame r ican P h i lo soph ica lS oc ie ty 1 21 : 3 83 -406 . P addayya , K . 1 979a . E xcava t ion s o f aN ew A cheu l ian O ccupa t ion S i te a t Hun sg i ,P en in su la rI nd ia , Q uar te r2 9 3 0 : 1 34 155 . P addayya , K . 1 982a . T he A cheu l ian C u l ture o f Hunsg i V a l l ey ( Pen in su lar I nd ia ) : A S e t t lemen t S y s t em P e r spec t ive . P une : D eccan C o l lege . P addayya . K . a nd M .D . P e t r ag l ia 1 993 . F o rma t ion P roce s se s o f A cheu l ian L oca l i t ie s i n t h e H un sg i a nd B a ichba l V a l ley s , P en in su la r I nd ia i n F orma t ion P roce s se s i nA r chaeo log ica l C on t ex t( P . G o ldbe rg , D .T . N a sh a nd M .D . P e t rag l ia E d s . ) , p p .6 1-82 . Mad i son : P reh i s to ry P re s s . P appu , R . S . 2 00 1 . A cheu l ian C u l tu r e i n P en in su la r I nd ia .N ew D e lh i : D .K . P r in two r ld ( P )L td . P appu , R . S . 1 974 . P le i s tocene S tud ie s i n t h e U ppe r K r i shna B a s in .P oona : D eccan C o l lege . P appu , R . S . 1 981 . R ecen t G eoa r chaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s a r ound B adam i , D i s t r ic t B i japu r , K a rna taka , B u l le t in o ft h eD eccan C o l leg eP o s tg radua t e a nd R e search I n s t i tu t e3 9 -40 : 1 70 179 . P appu ,S .1 997 .P le i s tocene E nv ironmen t sa nd S tone A g e A dap ta t ions i nt h eK or ta l layar B a s in , T am i lN adu , P h .D . T he s i s .P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . P appu , S . 1 999 . A S tudy o f N a tu ra l S i te F o rma t ion P roce s se s i n t h e K o r ta l laya r B a s in , T am i l N adu , S ou th I nd ia ,G eoarcheo logy 1 4 (2 ) : 1 27 150 . P appu , S . 2 00 1a . M idd le P a la eo l i th ic S t one T oo l T echno logy i n t h e K o r ta l laya r B a s in , S ou th I nd ia , A n t iqu i ty 7 5 : 1 07 117 .

K imu ra , B . B ru ce L . H a rdy a nd W i l l iam W . H au sw i r th 2 00 1 . A na ly s i s o f DNA f r om E thnoa r chaeo log ica l S t one S c rape r s ,J ourna lo fA r chaeo log ica lS c ience 2 8 :4 5 -53 . K o r i se t ta r , R . 1 979 . P reh i s to ry a nd G eomo rpho logy o f t h e M idd le K r i shna , K a rna taka . P h .D . T he s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . K r i shna swam i , V .D . 1 938 . E nv i ronmen ta l a nd C u l tu ra l C hange s o ft h eP r eh i s to r ic Man n ea r Mad ra s ,J ourna lo f Mad ra s G eog raph ica lA s soc ia t ion 1 3 : 5 8 -90 . K r i shna swam i , V .D . 1 947 . S tone A ge I nd ia , A nc ien t I nd ia 3 :1 -57 . K r i shna swam i , V .D . 1 953 . P rog r e s s i n P reh i s to ry , A nc ien tI nd ia 9 :5 3 -79 . L ewa r ch , D .E . , a nd M .J . O 'Br ien 1 98 1 . T he E xpand ing R o le o f S u rf ace A s semb lage s i n A r chaeo log ica l R e sea r ch , i n A d vance s i n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory V o lume 4 ( M .B . S ch if f e rE d . ) ,p p .297 -342 . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s . L oy , T .H . 1 993 . T he A r t if a c t a s aS i te : A n e xamp le o f B iomo lecu la r Ana ly s i s o f O rgan ic R e s idue s o n P r eh i s to r ic T oo l s , Wor ld A r chaeo log y2 5 ( 1) : 4 4 -63 . Madhu sudhana R ao 1 979 . S tone A ge C u l ture s o fP a le ru V a l ley , P raka sam D i s t r ic t , A ndhra P rad e sh . P h .D . T he s i s .G un tu r :N aga r juna Un ive r s i ty . McNabb , J . , F . B inyaon , a nd L . H aze lwood 2 004 . T he L a rge C u t t ing T oo l s f o r t h e S ou th A f r ican A cheu lean a nd t h e Que s t ion o f S oc ia l T rad i t ion s , C ur ren t A n thropo lo gy 4 5 (5 ) : 6 53 -677 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 973 . B ago r : AL a te Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen t i n No r thwe s tI nd ia , W or ld A rchaeo log y5 ( 1) : 9 2 110 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 978b . T he A cheu l ian I ndu s t ry o f R ock S he l te r I I F -23 a tB h imbe tka , C en t ra l I nd ia , Au s t ra l ian A r chaeo logy 8 :6 3 106 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd S .N . R a jagu ru 1 989 . P a laeoenv i ronmen t s a nd P reh i s to ry o ft h e T ha r D e se r t , R a ja s than , I nd ia , i nS ou th A s ian A rchaeo lo gy 1985 ( K . R r if e l t a nd R . S o ren sen E d s . )p p . 2 96 -320 . C openhagen : S cand inav ian I n s t i tu te o fA s ian S tud ie sO cca s iona lP ape r N o .4 ,L ondon : C u rzon P re s s . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 966 . S tone A ge C u l ture s o f C h i t toor D i s tr ic t ,A nd hra P rad e sh . P h .D .T he s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 968 . B lad e a nd B u r in I ndu s t r ie s n ea r R en igun ta o nt h e S ou th -Ea s tC oa s to fI nd ia ,P roceed ing s o fP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 4 : 8 3 -10 1 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 970 . B lad e a nd B u r in a nd L a t e S tone A ge i ndu s t r ie s a r ound R en igun ta , C h i t too r D i s t r ic t , I nd ian A n t iquary 4 ( 1-4 ) : 1 06 -28 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 974 . A L a te P le i s tocene C ave S i t e i n S ou the rn I nd ia , P roceed ing s o f t h e Amer ican P h i lo soph ica lS oc ie ty 18 (2 ) : 1 96 -230 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 975 . L a te P le i s to cene F auna o fK u rnoo l C ave s , S ou th I nd ia , i nA rchaeo -zoo log ica lS tud ie s ( A .T . C la son E d s . ) , p p .132 -38 . Am s te rdam : No r th H o l land P ub l i sh ing C o . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 978 -79 . S ymb io s i s a nd T rad i t iona l B ehav iou r i n t h e S ub s i s tence E conom ie s o f t h e K unchapu r i Y e ruku la s o f S ou th I nd ia : A P r ed ic t ive Mode l ,P u ra ta t t va 1 0 : 5 0 -6 1 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 979 . R ecen t R e sea r ch o n t h e U ppe r

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C ave S i te i nS ou th I nd ia ,A s ian P er spec t ive s 2 0 (2 ) : 2 06 2 27 . R enf rew , C . a nd K . B oy le 2 000 . A rchaeog ene t ic s : DNA a nd t h e P opu la t ion P reh i s tory o fE urope . C amb r idge : McDona ld I n s t i tu te o fA r cha eo log ica lR e sea r ch . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 974 . P reh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s tory o f I nd ia a nd P ak i s tan . P une : D eccan C o l lege P o s tG radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . S e shad r i , M . 1 956 . T he S t one -U s ing C u l ture s o f P reh i s tor ic a nd P ro toh i s tor ic My sor e . My so re : U n ive r s i ty o f My so r e . S ingh ,T .R a ja R am 1 979a . P r eh is to r ic a nd E a r ly H i s tor ic S i te s i n K a r imnaga r R eg ion , A ndh ra P rade sh , A ndhra P rad e sh J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 1 ( 1) : 1 12 . S ingh , T . R a ja R am 1 979b . S ome U n ique D i scove r ie s i n S tone A ge A r chaeo logy Ii nT e langana R eg ion , A ndhra P rad e sh J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 1 ( 2 ) : 3 2 -33 . S ounda ra R a jan , K .V . 1 952 . S tone A ge I ndu s t r ie s n ea r G idda lu r ,D i s t r ic tK u rnoo l ,A nc ien tI nd ia 8 :6 4 -92 . S ounda ra R a jan , K .V . 1 958 . S tud ie s i nt h e S tone A ge o f N aga r junakonda a nd i t sN e ighbou rhood ,A nc ien tI nd ia 4 : 4 9 113 . S ub rahmanyam , R . 1 975 . N aga r junakonda ( 1954 -60 ) , V o l .1 Memo ir s o ft h e A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty o fI nd ia N o . 7 5 .N ew D e lh i : A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia . S uda r sen , V . 1 976 . E nv ironmen t a nd A rchaeo logy o f N e l lor e D i s t irc t . P h .D . T he s i s . V i sakhapa tnam : A ndh ra U n ive r s i ty . S uda r sen , V . 1 976 . P r eh i s tor ic I nve s t iga t ion s i nN e l lo r e , J ourna l o f T he A ndhra P rad e sh H i s to r ica l R e search S oc ie ty 3 6 . S uda r sen , V . a nd K . T h imma R eddy 1 977 . T he C oncep t ' Cu l tu ra l E co lo g y ' - i t s P robab le A pp l ica t ion i n P reh i s to ry , Man i nI nd ia 5 7 : 1 2 1126 . S u l l ivan , A .P . 1 998 . S urf ace A rchaeo logy . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s . Swam i , A . 1 976 . A r cha eo logy o f C h ing lepu t D i s t r ic t ( P reh i s to r ic P e r iod ) . P h .D . T he s i s . Mad ra s : U n ive r s i ty o f Mad ra s . Y e l len , J . 1 977 . A r chaeo log ica l A pp roache s t o t h e P re sen t : Mode l s f o r r e con s t ruc t ing t h e P a s t . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s .

P appu , S .2 00 1b .AR e -exam ina t ion o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic A rchaeo log ica l R ecord o fN or thern T am i l N adu , S ou th I nd ia . O xf o rd : B r i t i sh A r cha eo log ica l R epo r t s I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 003 . P appu , S . 2 004 . P re l im ina ry R epo r t o n E xcava t ion s a t t h e P a laeo l i th ic S i te o f A t t i rampakkam , T am i l N adu ( 1999 -2004 ) , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 9 (2 ) : 1 17 . P inga le , U . 1 970 . P re l im ina ry R epo r to n M idd le a nd l a te S t one A ge s i t e s i nA d i labad D i s t r ic t o fA ndh ra P rade sh , Man i nI nd ia 5 0 : 2 98 -308 . P raka sh , P .V . 1 98 1 . L i th ic C u l ture s a nd P a laeoenv ironmen t o f G ambheeram R iver V a l ley , V i skhapa tnam C oa s t . P h .D . t h e s i s . V i sakhapa tnam : A ndh ra U n ive r s i ty . P raka sh , P .V . 1 98 1a . P reh i s to r ic A r chaeo logy o f G ambhee ram R ive r V a l ley , V i sakhapa tnam C oa s t , P ura ta t t va 2 :1 09 113 . R aghav iah , V . 1 962 . T he Y anad i s . N ew D e lh i : B ha ra t iya A d im ja t i S evak S angh . R a ju , D .R . 1 98 1 . E ar ly S e t t l emen tP a t terns i nC uddapah D i s t r ic t , A nd hra P rad e sh : A P a laeoan thropo log ica l S t udy .P h .D . T he s i s .P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . R am i R eddy , V . 1 968 . P re a nd P ro toh i s to ry o fS ou th W e s t ern A nd hra P rad e sh . P h .D . t h e s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . R ao , S .N . 1 966 . S t one A g e C u l tur e s o f N a lgonda D i s t r ic t , A ndhra P rad e sh . P h .D . t h e s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . R ao , V .V .M . 1 979 . S tone A ge C u l ture s o fP raka sam D i s t r ic t , A ndhra P rad e sh . P h .D . t h e s i s . V i sakhapa tanm : A ndh ra U n ive r s i ty . R a s s igno l , J . ,a nd L . Wand sn ide r 1 992 . S pace , T ime a nd A rchaeo log ica ll a nd scape s . N ew Y o rk : P l enum P re s s . R eddy , K .T . 1 968 . P reh i s tory o f C uddpah D i s t r ic t . P h .D . t h e s i s . P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . R eddy , K .T . 1 976 . Me t r ica l A na ly s i s -A B a s i s f o r C la s s if i ca t ion o fH andaxe G roup o fT oo l s , Man i nI nd ia 2 9 (3 ) : 2 8 1-285 . R eddy , K .T . 1 978 . Madu rawada : AN eo l i th ic -Mega l i th ic C omp lex ,J ourna lo fA ndhra H i s tor ica lR e search S oc ie ty 3 7 :4 5 -48 . R eddy , K .T . 1 980 . B i l la su rgam : A n U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic

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E ar ly S e t t lemen tP a t tern si n Cuddapah D is tr ic t , Andhra P rade sh D .R . R a ju T h is p ape r s umma r ises t h e i nves t iga t ion s o n P a laeo l i th ic s i tes a nd e t hnog raphy i n t h e Gun jana v a l ley , C uddapah D is t r ic t c a r r ied o u tb e tween 1 976 a nd 1 980 . T h is r e sea rch f o rmed t h e b a s is f o r my P h .D . d i sse r ta t ion s ubm i t ted t o Un ive r s i ty o fP oona ( Ra ju 1 981) .

whe re P a laeo l i th ic s i tes p resen t a mp le e v idence i n t h e f o rm o fP a laeob io log ica l r ema in s a nd dwe l l ing s t ruc tu res s o e s sen t ia l f o r r e con s t ruc t ion o f p a s t b ehav iou ra l p a t ter n s , e ven t h e f ew e xcava ted p r ima ry P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n I nd ia a r e d evo id o f h uman s ke le ta l r ema in s a nd i n mos t c a ses e ven o f a n ima l f o s s i ls . D esp i te t h ese l im i ta t ion s , I nd ian p reh is to r ian s a r e i n ves t iga t ing p r ima ry s i tes a nd e ndeavou r ing t o i n te rp re t s e t t lemen t s y s tem s , s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies a nd p a leodemog raphy o f S tone Age s i tes ( Paddayya 1 982 ; Mu r ty 1 985 ; M is ra a nd Mu r ty 1 986 ) .

R igh t f r om t h e t ime o fR ober t B ruce F oo te ( 1916 ) I nd ian p reh is tor ian s h ave c oncerned t h em se lves w i th t h e b u i ld ing o f s t ra t ig raph ic s equences a nd e s tab l ish ing t ypo techno log ica l p a ram e te r s f o r l i th ic a s semb lages . A s ar e su l t , t h e b road o u t l ines o f P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu re s equence a r e f a i r ly a ccu ra te ly k nown f o r mo s t p a r t s o f t h e c oun t ry ( Sanka l ia 1 974 ; M is ra a nd B e l lwood 1 985 ) .

One i mpor tan t a pp roach t o g a in i n s igh t s i n to t h e p r eh is to r ic l i f e p a t ter n s i st o s t udy t h e p resen t d ay n on indu s t r ia l p opu la t ion s ( S tan is law sk i 1 974 : 1 8 ; Y e l len 1 977 ) o ft h e a r ea u nde r i n ves t iga t ion a s a n a i d t o g e t c l ues a s t o t h e p robab le u se o f t h e e co sy s tem b y t h e S t one Age h un te r -ga the rer s . T h is h a s b een v a r iou s ly t e rmed a s P a laeoan th ropo logy (Wooda l 1 978 ) . L iv ing A rchaeo logy ( Gou ld 1 980 ) a nd E thno -a rchaeo logy ( S t i les 1 977 ) . An umbe r o f s t ud ies h ave b een u nde r taken w i th t h is a pp roach i n A f r ica , Nor th Ame r ica a nd Au s t ra l ia . Ab eg inn ing i nt h is f i e ld h a s a l so b een made i nI nd ia ( Leshn ik 1 964 ; N aga ra ja R ao 1 965 ; N aga r 1 967 , 1 975 ; Mu r ty 1 981 ,1985 ; Mu r ty a nd S on the imer 1 980 ; P addayya 1 982 ) a l though m a jor i ty o ft h e s t ud ies s o f a r u nder taken a r e c oncer n ed m a in ly w i th t h e l a te s t ages o fp reh is tory .

A l though an umber o f Meso l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s h ave b een e xcava ted s i nce 1 940 , ma jo r i ty o f t h e P a laeo l i th ic s i te s i nves t iga ted w e re a r chaeo log ica l o ccu r rences i n g eo log ica l c on tex t s l i ke r i ve r a l luv ia , l a ter i te , a nd l o ess ic d epos i t s o r o pen a i r f a c to ry s i tes . V ery f ew p r ima ry s i tes whe re d a ta o n l i v ing p a t te rn s o f S tone A ge p opu la t ion s c an b e e xpec ted h ad b een e xcava ted . Howeve r , a n a wa reness o f t h is s hor tcom ing h as d eve loped a nd s eve ra l a r chaeo log is t s a r e n ow i n ves t iga t ing p r ima ry P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i n d i f f eren t p a r t s o f t h e c oun t ry . Among t h e s t ud ie s i n t h is c a tego ry m en t ion s hou ld b e made o f t h e e xcava t ion s o f mu l t i -cu l tu re d epos i t s i n t h e r ock s he l te r s o f Adamga rh ( J o sh i 1 966 , 1 977 ) , a nd B h imbe tka (Wakanka r 1 973 ; M is ra 1 976 , 1 978 ; M isra , Ma thpa l a nd N aga r 1 977 ) , o pen a i rA cheu l ian s i tes a t C h i rk i ( Co rv inu s 1 981 , 1 983 ) a nd Hun sg i ( Paddayya 1 982 ) a nd t h e s t udy o f s u rf ace A cheu l ian o ccupa t ion s i n C en t ra l I nd ia ( J acob son 1 985 ) . I nves t iga t ion s i n to t h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic o pen a i r o ccupa t ion s i tes o f R en igun ta ( Mu r ty 1 985 ) , t h e o pen a i r s i te a tP a tne i nJ a lgaon d i s t r ic t o f Maha rash t ra ( Sa h i1 985 ) a nd l a ke s i de L a te U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s i n A l lahabad a nd P ra tapga rh d i s t r ic t s o fU t ta rP radesh ( Sha rma e ta l . 1 980 ) a r e n o tewor thy . T hu s , t h e empha s i s i sn ow s h if t ing f r om g ene ra l ised s u rvey s o fl a rge a r ea s t o e xcava t ion o ri n ten s ive s t ud ies o fp r ima ry b u r ied o r s u rf ace s i tes .

A s ap a r t o f t h is a pp roach , Ih ave u nder taken a n i nve s t iga t ion o f ar e s t r ic ted a r ea i nt h e C uddapah r eg ion i n s ou thea s t I nd ia t o b u i ld a p red ic t ive mode l f o r t h e s e t t lemen t p a t ter n a nd s ubs is tence a dap ta t ion s o fP a laeo l i th ic h un te r -ga the re r s o n t h e b a s is o f a r chaeo log ica l , e co log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic d a ta . Ih ave d i scove red e x ten s ive P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion s i tes wh ich a l though s u rf a ic ia l y i e lded e v idence r e levan t t o a n u nde r s tand ing o f s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s . F o r i n te rp re t ing s e t t lemen t a nd s ubs is tence p a t ter n s , I c onduc ted a n e t hnog raph ic s t udy o f t h e Y anad i s , who a r e t r ad i t iona l h un te r -ga the r e r s l i v ing i n t h e s ame a r ea . T he e t hnog raph ic d a ta f r om ap r im i t ive g roup who c on t inue t o e xp lo i t t h e s ame e cozones t h a t w ere i nhab i ted d u r ing t h e S tone A ge h a s b een u sed f o r i n te rp re t ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . I am , h oweve r , a wa re o f c er ta in l im i ta t ion s i n t h e p re sen t w o rk . P auc i ty o f f und s a nd t o ac er ta in e x ten t c on s t ra in t o f t im e p reven ted m e f r om

T he g oa l o f P a laeo l i th ic a r chaeo logy i s t o u nde r s tand t h e b ehav iou ra l p a t te r n s o f t h e P l e i s tocene h uman g roups . H oweve r , u n l ike i n A f r ica , p a r t s o f C en t ra l A s ia a nd M idd le E as t

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R emnan ts e t t lemen tp a t tern s T h i s i st h e s t udy o ft h er e con s t ruc t ion o fs e t t lem en t p a t ter n s w i th t h e h e lp o f t h e t r ace s o f m a te r ia l r ema in s wh ich s u rv ived t h e r a vage s o ft im e . T he se a r e f ound i n t h e f o rm o f s i tes a nd t r aces o f a c t iv i t ie s p e rf o rm ed o n t h em . I f o n ly a s i ng le a c t iv i ty w a s p e rf o rm ed a t as i te i tm ay b e r e f e r r ed t oa sa na c t iv i ty l o cu s . I fs eve ra l d i f f e r en t a c t iv i t ies t o o l p l ace a t t h e s i te a s i sn o rma l ly t h e c a se a t h ab i ta t iona l s i te s , t h e s i te c an b e d i v ided i n to s eve ra l a c t iv i ty l o c i ( B inf o rd 1 964 : 4 24 ) . H ence a n a c t iv i ty l o cu s m ay b e d ef ined a s a ny s po t whe r e a m in imum n umbe r o f a c t iv i t ie s t o ok p l ace ( Rou se 1 972 : 1 52 ) . T o r e cove r t h e s u rv iv ing t r ace s o f a n a c t iv i ty p a t ter n , ap r eh i s to r ian mu s t f i r s t f i nd l o c i c ove r ing t h e e n t i r e r ange o f ap eop le s ' a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h en c o l lec t r ema in s f r om r ep r e sen ta t ive l o c i . T he r ema in s o b ta ined f r om e ach l o cu s may b e r e f e r r ed t o a s a n " ac t iv i ty a s semb lage" ( Rou se 1 972 : 1 52 ) . T hu s , an e two rk o f a c t iv i ty l o c i a r e o b ta ined i n t h e f o rm o f p reh i s to r ic s i tes . T h e c omb ina t ion o f a c t iv i ty l o c i t oge the r w i th a n a c t iv i ty a s semb lage f r om e ach l o cu s c on s t i tu tes a r emnan t a c t iv i ty p a t ter n . T he r emnan t s e t t lemen t p a t ter n c on s i s t s o ft h e l o ca t ion o ft h e e n t i r e r ange o f ap eop le ' a c t iv i ty l o c i , c o l lec t ion o f r ema in s f r om r e p r e sen ta t ive l o c i a nd a s se s sm en t o f t h e p o s s ib le r e levan ce o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip s w i th in a nd b e tween t h e s i te s i n ag i ven g eog raph ica l z one i na d e l ineab le t im e p e r iod . I ti st h e r emnan t s e t t lem en t p a t ter n st h a ta r ep e r t inen tt ot h e a r chaeo log i s t s who h ave t od ea l w i th r u in s o fs e t t lem en t s a nd r ema in s o fp a s t a c t iv i t ie s t h a t a ccumu la ted d u r ing ap e r iod o ft im et h a tm ay b el o ng o rs hor t .

u nder tak ing al a rge e xcava t ion o fo ccupa t ion s i te s . As m a l lt r ia l d i gw a s , h oweve r , m ade a to ne o ft h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s i te s t o c onf i rm t h e c u l tu ra lc h rono logy . I n t h e a r ea s t ud ied b y m e t h e e v idence f o r t h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic p e r iod i s mo r e p ro l if i c t h an f o r o the rp e r iod s . T he e mpha s i s o ft h ep r esen ts t udy i s , t h e r ef o r e , m a in ly o n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd i t i s p r ima r i ly c once rn ed w i th r e con s t ruc t ion o f s e t t lem en t p a t te rn s o f t h e T e rm ina l P l e i s tocene h un te r -ga the r e r s . T he c oncep t o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn a nd i t s a pp l ica t ion i n a r chaeo logy i s e s sen t ia l ly o f Am e r ican o r ig in a l though i ti sd i ff i cu l tt oa s ce r ta in t h ef i r s tu se o ft h et e rm ( Chang 1 972 : 1 ) . Ame r ican e t hno log i s t s l i k e L ew i s H . Mo rgan ( 1 881 ) a nd M inde lef f( 1900 )w e r ei n te re s t ed i nt h es t udy o ft h e a bo r ig ina l h ab i ta t ion a nd a r ch i tec tu r e a nd t h e p ueb lo r u in s i nt h e Am e r ican s ou thwe s t a nd t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion o ve r t h e l a nd scape a s f a r b ack a s a c en tu ry a go . H oweve r , a s a f o cu s sed m e thodo log ica l c oncep t o fa r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch t h e s e t t lem en t p a t ter nw a s b rough t t ot h e f o r ef ron t b y t h e c omb in ed e f f or t s o f J u l ian H . S t ewa rd , a n e t hnog raphe ra tt h eB u r eau o f Am e r ican E thno logy a t t h e Wa sh ing ton D .C . a nd h i s a r chaeo log i s t c o l league G o rdon R . W i l ley ( 1 953 ) i n as t udy o f t h ea r chaeo logy o ft h eV i ry v a l ley ,P eru . S ince t h en a nd e spec ia l ly o ve r t h e l a s t t wo d ecad e s , t h is c on cep t w a s a pp l ied b y s ev e ra l a r chaeo log i s t s . A n th ropo log i s t sd i s t ingu i sh t wo t y pe s o fs e t t lem en t p a t ter n s n am e ly , ( 1 ) c omp le te s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s a nd ( 2 ) r emnan t s e t t lem en t p a t t er n s ( Rou se 1 972 : 9 7 ) .

I n t e chno log ica l ly s imp le s oc ie t ie s t wo b road c l a s ses o f a c t iv i t ie s n am e ly e x t rac t ion a nd m a in tenance c an b e d i s t ingu i shed . T he f o rm e r i n vo lve s t h e d i rec t p rocu r em en t o ff ood s , f u e l s a nd r aw m a te r ia l s f o rt o o l s a nd t h e l a t te rc on s i s t s o ft h e p r epa ra t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f f ood s a nd f u e l s a l r eady o n h and a nd i n t h e p roces s ing o f r aw m a te r ia l s i n to f ood s . T he c amp s whe re t h e se a c t iv i t ie s a r e p e rf o rm ed a r e t h e " s e t t lem en t t y pe s" . T he se a r e c l a s s if i ed i n to t h r ee b a s ic c a tego r ie s ( B inf o rd a nd B inf o rd 1 969 ) .

C omp le te s e t t lemen tp a t tern s T h i s e ncompa s se s t h e s t udy o ft h e p l acem en t a nd s pac ing a nd t h e a r rangem en t o f t h e d we l l ing s t ruc tu r es o f ah um an s oc ia l g roup i n r e la t ion t o o t he r a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu r e s l i k e t emp le s a nd c e r emon ia l c en t r e s , t h e i r m a te r ia l c u l tu r e , t h e r e sou r ce b a se , t e chno logy a nd e xp lo i ta t ive p a t ter n , s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd i d eo logy o r t h e b e l ief s y s tem a nd t h e i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s o fa l lt h e se t ot h e i mm ed ia te p hy s ica l e nv i ronm en t . W i th r e ga rd t o t h e i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s o f d i f f e r en t s e t t lem en t s a nd c omponen t s o f s e t t lem en t s , t h e p eop le a r e t h e c en t r e o f a t ten t ion , " peop le" w ho se a c t iv i t ies a t t h e se l o c i g i ve m ean ing t o t h e i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s . T h i s t ype o f s t udy i s p o s s ib le o n ly i n l i v ing c ommun i t ie s w he r e t h e " peop le" i s ag iven a nd a r e s t ud ied b ys oc ia la n th ropo log i s t sa nd g eog raphe r s .

B a se C amp s T he se a r e c ho sen m a in ly f o r l i v ing s pace , p ro tec t ion f r om t h e e l em en t s a nd c en t ra l l o ca t ion w i th r e spec tt or e sou r ce s .

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Work C amps T he se a r e s i te s o ccup ied b y s ma l le r s oc ia l u n i t s f o r c a r ry ing o u t e x t r ac t ive t a sk s . A r chaeo log ica l ly t h e se w ou ld a ppea r a sk i l l s i te s , c o l lec t ing s t a t ion s a nd q ua r r ie s f o re x t rac t ing r aw m a te r ia l s t ob eu sed i n t o o l m ak ing . T he a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s f o rm t h e se s i te s w ou ld b e d om ina ted b y t h e t o o l s u sed i n s p ec if ic e x t rac t ive t a sk s . I f aw o rk c amp w e r e o ccup ied f o r ar a the r l o ng p e r iod a nd b y a f a i r ly l a rge g roup , s om e m a in tenance a c t iv i t ie s w ou ld a l so b e r e f lec ted i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s .

t o pog raph ica l s e t t ing , w a te r s ou r ce s , r aw m a te r ia ls , f l o ra a nd f auna , a nd b y d r aw ing i n f e r ence s f r om t h e s ub s i s tence s t r a teg ie s a nd s e t t lem en tp a t ter n so f t h e p r e sen t d ay h un te r -ga the r e r s l i v ing a t a nd a r ound t h e se s i te s ( f ig . 2 ) . E xp lo ra t ion s f o r s t one a ge s i t es a nd e t hnog raphy w e r e c a r r ied o u t f o r ap e r iod o f t h i r teen mon th s . T hey r e su l ted i nt h e d i scove ry o f n ine A ch eu l ian , t wo M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t e n U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic s i t e s . A r tef ac t c o l lec t ion s w e r e m ade f r om s even A cheu l ian , t wo M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h r ee U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i tes . T he n umbe r o f s i t e s f o r c o l lec t ion o f a r tef ac t s w a s i n t en t iona l ly r e s t r ic ted b ecau se t h e s i t e s , e spec ia l ly t h o se o f h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic w e r e u nu sua l ly r i ch a nd i tw ou ld h ave b een u nmanageab le t o h and le t h e a r tef ac t c o l lec t ion s f r om a l t h e d i scove red s i te s . A l so , w hen m a ter ia l f r om s eve ra l s i t es a ppea r ed t o b e h omogeneou s , i tw a s c on s ide r ed u nnece s sa ry t o m ak e c o l lec t ion s f r om a l l s uch s i t e s . T he c o l lec t ion o fm a te r ia l f r om A cheu l ian a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s w a s s e lec t iv e a st h e a r tef a c t s f r om t h e se s i tes w e r e n o t t o o n um e rou s a nd a l so s p r ead r a ndom ly o ve r w ide r a r ea s . A r tef ac t s f r om t h r ee U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s i te s w e r e c o l lec ted b y m ak ing g r id s a nd a na ly sed i n t e rm s o f ' a c t iv i ty l o c i ' a nd ' a s semb lage s ' . I n f e r en ces f r om t h e s t udy a r ee x tend ed t oo t h e rs im i la rs i te st oa s se s sp o s s ib le r e la t ion sh ip s w i th in a nd b e tween t h e s i tes ( c on s t i tu t ing r emnan t s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s ) . A t r ia l d i g w a s m ade a t Wod ika lu ' , o ne o f t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h ab i ta t ion s i te s t oc onf i rm t h e c u l tu ra l c h rono logy e s tab l i shed o n t h e b a s is o f s u r f ace c o l lec t ion s .

T ran s ien tC amp s T he se s i te s c on ta in m in ima l e v idence o f m a in tenance a c t iv i t ie s s uch a sm igh tb eu nde r taken b y at r ave l l ing g roup i nt h e c ou r se o fa n o ve rn igh t s t ay . T he w ay t h e se c l a s se s o f c amp s a r e u sed b y a ny s oc ie ty d ef ine s i t s " s e t t lemen t s y s tem" . I nt h e l i gh t o ft h e f o r ego ing , a t temp t s a r e m ade t oe va lua te t h e S t one A ge o ccupa t ion s c a t te r s f o r a n a pp ra i sa l o f s e t t lem en tp a t ter n s . Ab r ief a ccoun t o ft h e p r ev iou s w o rk i nt h e a r ea , t h e p r esen t s t udy a r ea , m e thod s a dop ted f o r t h i s s t udy a nd t h ep r e sen te nv i ronmen to ft h e r eg ion a r e g i ven i nt h ep age st h a tf o l low . P re sen tI nve s t iga t ion s S y s tema t ic i n ve s t iga t ion o f t h e p r eh i s to ry o f C uddapah r e g ion b egan o n ly i n l a te s i x t ie s w hen K .T . R eddy ( 1968 ) e xp lo r ed S ag i leru v a l ley a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s a nd a g en e ra l s u rvey o f o t he r r i ve r v a l ley s a nd r e por ted s eve ra l S tone A ge s i te s ( f ig . 1 ) . B ef o re t h a t o n ly i s o la ted d i scove r ie s o f p r eh i s to r ic a r tef ac t sh ad b een m ade ( R a ju 1 981 ) .

Me thodo logy T he f o l low ing m e thod s h ave b een u sed f o r t h e p r esen ts t udy : 1 .N ew ly d i scove r ed , S t one A ge s i tes h ave b een m apped t os how t h e i rl o ca t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . 2 .S t one A ge c u l tu ra l m a ter ia l h a s b een a na ly sed i n t e rm s o f t y po logy a nd t e chno logy a nd t h e m o rphom e t r ic a na ly s i s h a s b een p r esen ted i nt h e f o rm o ft a b le s , a nd f r equency p o lygon s . 3 .T o r e con s truc t U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s , t h ree h ab i ta t ion s i te sw e r ec hosen f o ra n a na ly s i s o f v a r iab i l i ty w i th in t h e s i te s . E ach o f t h e se s i te s h a s b een d i v ided i n to s eve ra l l o c i b a sed o n s pa t ia l d en s i ty a nd e x ten t o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef ac t s . E ach l o cu s h a s b een d i v ided i n to s eve ra l s qua re s a nd a l l t h e a r tef ac t s w e r e c o l lec ted f r om r andom ly s e lec ted s qua r e s . T he v a r iab i l i ty i st h en a s se s sed b yc ompa r ing t h e

T he p r esen t s t udy i sc onf ined t oG un jana v a l ley , a t r ibu ta ry o ft h e C ehyye ru i nt h e c uddapah r eg ion . T he r i ve r G un jana o r ig ina te s i n t h e S e shacha lam r e serve f o r e s t ( 1 3° 4 7 ' N ; 7 9 ° 1 7 ' E ) a t 1 035 m a bove s e a l e ve l a nd f l ow s t h rough a l o ng i tud ina l v a l ley ( l egh th a bou t 8 5 km ) i nt h e V e l ikonda h i l l r a nge s d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f wh ich i ti sj o ined b y s eve ra l a f f luen t s a nd h i l l s t r eam s a nd u l t ima te ly m e rges i n to t h e r i ve rc heyye ru ( 14 ° 5 1 ' N ; 7 9° 1 6 ' Ea t9 5 ma bove s e al e ve l ) . T h is w o rk a im s a tt h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e S tone A ge s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s i n t h e C uddapah r e g ion w i th t h eh e lp o fl o ca t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te s o f t h e d i f f e r en t s t ages o ft h e P a laeo l i th ic a ga in s t t h e i r

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d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef ac t t ypes a nd d i f f e r ences i n t h e i rd im en s ion s . 4 .F un c t iona l a t t r ibu te s a r e a s s igned t os pec if i c t oo l c a tego r ie s o n t h e b a s i s o f d ocum en ted e t hnog raph ic e v idence ( Mu lvaney 1 976 : 8 4 ) , e xpe r im en ta l r e su l t s , a nd m ic row ea r a na ly s i s o f s t one t o o l s c a r r ied o u ti no t h e rp a r t s o ft h e w o r ld ( Kee ley 1 979 : 1 02 -109 ) . I ti sn ece ssa ry f i r s t t o r e la te s t one t oo l s oh uman a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h en t o d e te rm ine h ow t h ese t oo l s w e r e d i s t r ibu ted a t d i f f e r en t s i te s i no rde rt oa s se s s t h e r e levance o f t h e s e t t lem en t s y s tem f o r P a laeo l i th ic h un te r g a the r e r s ( B inf o rd a nd B inf o rd 1 969 : 9 4 -95 ) . I t i sp r e sum ed t h a tt h ev a r iab i l i ty i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f s t one t oo l s r ef l ec t s t h e v a r iab i l i ty i n h um an a c t iv i t ies . 5 .E thnog raph ic e v idence h a s b een u sed t o r e con s t ruc t P a laeo l i th ic s e t t lem en tp a t te rn s . D a ta o n t h e e t hnog raphy o f t h e Y anad i h un te r g a the r e r s h a s b een c o l lec ted b y t h e f o l low ing m e thod s : i ) I n terv iew ing t h e Y anad i m en a nd w om en , e spec ia l ly o ft h e o lde rg en e r a t ion sw ho w e r e e xper t h un te r s a nd g a the r e r s d u r ing t h e i r a c t ive l i f e . i ) P a r t ic ipa t ing i n h un t ing a nd f i sh ing e xped i t ion s o f t h e Y anad i s a nd c o l lec t ing f i r s t h and i n f o rma t ion o n t h e i r s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s . i i ) U se o fh i s to r ica l d ocum en t s , c en su s r e po r t s , d i s t r ic t g aze t tee r s , d i s t r ic t m anua l s a nd s t a t i s t ica la b s t rac t s . i v ) U se o f p ub l i shed a nd u npub l i shed e t hnog raph ic a ccoun t s , monog raph s a nd f i e ld r e po r t s o n t h e p r im i t ive p eop le s o ft h e r eg ion .

P l a in s , t h e E a s te rn V a l ley a nd S ou ther n P l a teau ( f ig . 1 ) . T he m a in p hy s ica l f e a tu r e s o f t h e r eg ion a r e d e te rm ined b yi t sh i l lr anges . B a r r ing t h eT r iba l o r A gency t r ac t s i n S r ikaku lam , V i sakhapa tnam , G odava r i , Khammam a nd Wa ranga l D i s t r ic t s , C uddapah i s h e mo s t h i l ly r e g ion i n A ndh ra P r ade sh ( f o rd e ta i ls s e e R a ju 1 981) . G eo log ica l ly i t i s as t ab le l a nd m a s sh av ing s om e o ft h e o l d e s tr o ck f o rma t ion s o n E a r th — A r chaean s , P u r ana s , C uddapah a nd Ku rnoo l s upe r g roup s ( f ig . 3 ) . L i tho log ica l ly , t h e m a in r ock f o rma t ion s a r e q ua r tz i te a nd s ha le . T he o th e r r ock s a r e S ha le a nd L im es tone c onf ined t o as m a l l a r ea i nt h e n o r ther n p a r t , at i ny p a tch o fo l de rt r ap i nt h e n o r th -we s ter n p a r t a nd G ne i s s ic c omp lex i nt h e m id -we s ter np a r t o ft h e r eg ion ( f ig . 4 ) . T he a bundance o fq ua r tz i te wh ich i so ne o f t h e b e s t r aw m a te r ia l s f o r s t one t o o l s i s ak ey f a c to r f o r i t s s e lec t ion b y S t one A ge h uman g roup s . 1 0 00lOC KA t MAPCO

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E nv ironmen t T o u nde r s tand t h e c u l tu r e h i s to r ica l p roce s se s t h a t h ad g one o n i n t h e s t udy r e g ion i n i t s p rope r p e r spec t ive , i t i s n ece s sa ry t o u nde r s tand i t s e co log ica l s e t t ing t ok now t h e p o ten t ia l a nd u se o f r e sou rce s a nd h uman -b io sph e r e i n te rac t ion . T he a va i lab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n s o f t h e r aw m a te r ia l s f o rt o o l s , w i ld p l an ta nd a n ima l f ood s f o r s ub s i s tence , t h e v aga r ie s o fw ea the ra nd t h e e f f ec t s o ft h e f l uc tua t ing c l ima te d u r ing t h eP l e i s tocen ea r e c r uc ia lf o ru nd e r s tand ing e a r ly h uman a dap ta t ion s . T he C uddapah r eg ion i s l o ca ted i n t h e h ea r t o f R aya la seem a o f Andh ra P r ad e sh , S ou th E a s t I nd ia , b e tween 1 3° 4 3 ' a nd 1 5° 1 4 ' Nl a t i tude a nd 7 7° 5 5 ' 7 9 ° 2 9 ' El o ng i tude . P hy s io -g raph ica l ly i tc an b e d i v ided i n to t h r ee n a tu ra l d i v i s ion s —t h e Wes ter n

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1 31

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T he s o i l s o ft h i s r eg ion c on s i s t o f r ed s andy s o i l ( 27% ) ,r e dl o am ( 2 5% ) ,b l ack c l ay ( 24% ) a nd b l ack l o am ( 18% ) ( f ig . 5 ) . T h i s r e g ion i sd r a ined b y t h e P enneru a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s n am e ly t h e C h i t rava t i , t h e Kunde ru , t h e P apaghn i , t h e S ag i leru a nd t h e C heyye ru . G un jana v a l ley , w h ich i st h e m a in f o cu s o ft h e p r esen t s t udy i sa ni mpo r tan tt r ibu ta ry o ft h e r i ve rC h eyye ru .

h i l l s o f t h e V e l ikonda s a nd w i th a s weep t o t h e n or thea s t m e rge s w i th C h eyyeru n ea r P o t tap i v i l lage ( 94 m a bove s e a l e ve l ) . T he K odu ru a nd C h i tve l v a l ley s o ft h e K odu ru T a luk a r e d r a ined b y t h i sr i ve r . C l ima te T h e a nnua l c l ima te c yc le o ft h e C uddapah r e g ion c on s i s t s o f f ou r s e a son s . T he p e r iod f r om D ecembe r t o F eb rua ry i sd ry a nd c ompa ra t ive ly c oo l . T he s umm e r s e a son i sf r om Ma r ch t o May a nd i sf o l lowed b y t h e s ou thw es t mon soon s e a son f r om J une t o S ep tembe r . O c tobe r a nd N ovembe r c on s t i tu te t h ep o s t mon soon s e a son .

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T h e a ve rage a nnua l r a inf a l l i n t h e r eg ion i s7 00 mm . T he r a inf a l l g ene ra l ly i n c r ea se s f r om n o r thwe s t t o s ou th -ea s t p a r t o f t h e r e g ion . T he r a inf a l l i s mo s t ly c onf ined t oh e m on th s o f May t o N ovembe r . H ighe s t r a inf a l l o ccu r s i n S ep t embe r . T h e a nnua l r a inf a l l s how s v a r ia t ion s f r om y ea r t o y ea r . I nt h e f i f ty y ea rp e r iod f r om 1 901 t o1 950 ,t h e h i ghe s t a nnua l r a inf a l l a moun t ing t o 165 p e rc en t o f t h e n o rm a l o ccu r r ed i n 1 903 . I nt h e v e ry n ex t y ea r 1 904 , t h e r eg ion h ad t h e l owe s t r a inf a l l i nt h e f i f ty y ea r p er iod w h ich a moun ted t o4 9 p e r c en t o ft h e n o rm a l . I n t e n y ea r s o u t o f t h e f i f ty , t h e a nnua l r a inf a l l w a s l e s s t h an 8 0 p e r c en t o f t h e n o rm a l . T h er a inf a l l w a sb e tween 4 00 a nd 9 00 mm i nf o r ty t wo y ea r so u to ft h ef i f ty .

E g . 5 :S o i lm ap o fC uddapah D i s t r ic t

T he Gun jana T he n am e i s ac o r rup ted f o rm o f ` Kun ja r e ru ' . ` Kun ja ra ' i n S an sk r i t m ean s ' e lephan t s ' . T he l o ca l i ty w h e r e i t s t a r t s w a s i n t h e e a r l ie r t h e h ab i ta t ion o fw i ld e l ephan t s , a nd h ence t h e n am e . T h i s r i ve r r i se s i nt h e s ou the s te rn c o rn e r o fK odu r t a luk n ea r Mog i l ikuppa ( 1052 m a bove s e al e ve l ) i n t h e S e shaha lam h i l l s . I tc ou r se s t h rough t h e h i l l s b eyond N e t ik-u ppa a nd f a l l s d own 7 8m . T h e se f a l l s a r e a bou t 7km t ot h e w e s t o fS e t t igun ta . A bou t 5 km t o t h e w e s t o f S e t t igun ta r a i lway s t a t ion t h e G un jana d e scend s d own t h e S eshacha lam s a nd t h e V e l ikonda s i n t h e K odu r v a l ley . Meande ing n o r thwa rd s i tc o l lec t s t h e G und lavanka o n i t s r i gh t b ank a nd c on t inu ing b eyond K odu r i tr e ce ive s Mu sh t iye ru o n i t s l ef tb ack . F low ing f u r the r n o r th , t h er i ve rc o l lec t s o ni t sl e f tf l ank i t sb i gge s a f f luen t , t h e G unda le ru t o t h e n o r thea s t o f Anan ta r a jupe ta . T hen i ts weep s n or thwa rd s i n to t h e f e r t i le C h i tve l v a l ley b e tween t h e V e l ikonda s a nd t h eC h i tve lh i l l s c o l lec t ing m any h i l l s t ream s l i k e G o t t iman ikona n ad A luguvanka . T he E l lama ra jucheruva i sf o rm ed b y d amm ing G unda lakona a nd o t he r h i l l s t r eam s . A pp roach ing C h i tve l , t h e G un jana o r P a tagun jana t u rn s n o r thwe s t a nd w ind s a l ong s om e p ro jec t ing

O n a n a ve rage t h e r e g ion h a s 4 3 r a iny d ay s ( w i th r a inf a l l o f2 . 5 mm t o l Omm o rm o r e ) i n ay ea r . A s i nt h e c a se o ft h e a moun t o fr a inf a l l , t h e n umbe ro f r a iny d ay s d ec rea se s f r om t h e s ou thea s ter np a r t o f t h er e g ion t ot h en o r thwe s ta nd w e s t . T he p e r iod f r om a bou t t h e l a te r h a lf o fN ovembe r t ot h e m idd le o fF ebrua ry i st h e c oo le s t p a r t o ft h e y ea r . I n D ecembe r w hen t h e m ean d a i ly t empe ra tu r e i st h e l owe s t ,t h em ean d a i ly m ax imum t empe ra tu re i s 2 9 .9° C . A f te r t h e m idd le o f F ebrua ry t empe ra tu r e b eg in s or i se r a p id ly a nd b y May , t h e h o t tes t m on th , t h e m ean d a i ly m ax imum t empe ra tu r e i s4 0 .8 ° C . T he w ea the r i so pp r e s s ive i n t h e s umme r s e a son . W i th t h e o n se t o f t h e s ou thwe s t mon soon e a r ly i n J une t empe ra tu r e s b eg in t od ec l ine . T he h i ghe s t m ax imum t empe ra tu r e r e co rded a t C uddapah w a s 4 6 .1° C o n May 1 8 , 1 906 a nd t h e l owe s t m in imum t empe ra tu re w a s 1 .7 ° C o n J anua ry 71 912 a nd D ecembe r 1 2 , 1 945 .

1 32

I n t h e s umme r s e a son t h e r e la t ive h um id i ty i s g ene ra l ly 5 0 -60 p e rc en ti nt h em o rn ing s a nd 3 5 -40 p e rc en t i nt h e a f t er noon s . I nt h e r e s t o ft h e y ea ri t v a r ie sf r om 5 0 -75 p e rc en t .

( Ka ja le e ta l . 1 976 ) . L a te P l e i s tocen e f a una f r om t h eK u rnoo lc ave si sr i che ra nd c on s i s t s o f av a r ie ty o f v er teb ra te s ( Lydekk a r 1 886 : 1 20 -122 ; Mu r ty 1 074 : 2 22 -228 , 1 975 : 1 34 -135 , 1 979 : 3 18 -319 ; R a ju 1 988 : 8 9 -90 ) .

I n O c tobe r a nd N ovembe r , s t o rm s o r ig ina t ing i n t h e B ay o fB enga l s om e t im e s c r o s s t h e E a s t c oa s t o fI nd ia a nd mov ing i n aw e s te r ly t on or thwe s te r ly d i r ec t ion a c ro s st h ep en in su la a f f ec tt h i sr eg ion a nd i t s n e ighbou rhood , c au s ing w ide sp read r a in . T hund e r s t o rm s o ccu r i n t h e s umm e r a nd p o s t mon soon mon th s . T he v ege ta t ion ( f o r e s t s ) o f t h e r e g ion i st r op ica l d ry d ec iduou s a nd t hor ny t h ick e t n a tu r e .

T he m amma l ian s pec ie s , e spec ia l ly t h e h e rd a n ima l s o f t h e o rd e r s P e r i ssodac ty la a nd A r teodac ty la , i n d ica te a f o r e s ted a nd g r a s s land e co sy s tem w i th p e r enn ia l s ou rce s o f w a te r . T he o ccu r r ence o f H exapro todon p a lae ind icu s i n t h e n o r ther n D eccan a nd R h inoce ro s k ur nu l ien s i s in i n t h e Ku rnoo l c aves i nt h e s ou th er n D eccan d u r ing l a te P l e i so tcene t im e p o in t t o t h e p r e sence o f p e r enn ia l p oo ls a nd s wamp s i nt h e r i ve r ine , h i l ly a nd f o r es ted z one s ( Mu r ty 1 979 : 3 18 ) . A l though H exapro todon a nd R h inoce ro s b ecam e e x t inc t i n t h e D eccan , mo s t o f t h e o the r w i ld s pec ie s e spec ia l ly m embe r s o f An t i lop inae a nd C e rv inae s u r ive t ot h i s d ay i nt h e d ry d ec iduou s z one s o ft h e h ighe r moun ta in r ange s i n c lud ing t h e V e l ikonda s . T he P a laeo l i th ic s i te s u nde r d i scu s s ion a r e s i tua ted a tt h e f oo t o ft h e V e l ikonda h i l l s . T he r eg ion t oday h a s d ry d ec iduou s f o re s t s w i th w ood land , s avanna w ood land , s h rub s avanna , d eg raded s avanna a nd d i scon t inuou st ho rny t h icke tt y pe s o fv ege ta t ion . I n r e cen t y ea r s , h oweve r , t h e v ege ta t ion c ove r h a s b een much d ep le ted d ue t o h uman i n te rf e r ence i n t h e f o rm o f r e c lama t ion o f l a nd f o r a g r icu l tu r e , f e l l ing o ft r ee s f o rf u e l a nd t imbe r a nd o ve rg raz ing b y l i ve s t ock . W i ld l if e h a s a l so b een d e s t royed i nd i sc r im ina te ly t hu s d i s tu rb ing t h e b io t ic e qu i l ib r ium . A cco rd ing t oo ld i n f o rman t s e ven 5 0 y ea r s a go t h e f o r e s t s h ad at h icke rv ege ta t ion c ove r a nd a bundan t w i ld l i f e . D e sp i te t h e se f a c to r s e ven t oday t h e f o r e s t p rov ide a mp le f ood r e sou rce s i n t h e f o rm o fl a nd a n im a l s , b i rd s , a qua t ic f a una a nd v ege ta l f ood s f o r t h e l i v ing h un te r -ga the r e r s . A t l e a s t 3 0 s pec ie s o fb i rd s , 1 3 s pec ie s o fy am s , w i ld r oo t s a nd t u be r s , 1 0 s pec ies o f e d ib le l e aves , a nd 2 5 s pec ie s o f f r u i t s a r e a va i lab le i n t h e f o r e s t . P a laeo l i th ic s e t t lem en t s a r e l o ca ted i n s em i -a r id t o pog raph ica l s e t t ing s o f f e r ing t h e se r i ch s ub s i s tence r e sou rce s . T h i s w ou ld s how t h a t t h e C uddapah r eg ion w a s a n i d ea l h un te r -ga th e r e r e co sy s tem d u r ing p r eh is to r ic t im e s . On t h eb a s i s o f a n e xam ina t ion o f t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n o f a r tef ac tua l a s semb lage s , t h e i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s a mong t h e se o ccu r r ence s , a nd t h e l i v ing h un te r g a the r e r -f i she r w ay o f l i f e i nt h e s am e r eg ion t h e f o l low ing p red ic t ive mode ls f o r t h e S tone A ge h un te r -ga the r e r sc an b e s ugges ted .

T he C uddapah r eg ion h a s e v idenced h ab i ta t ion s o f h un te r -ga the r e r s f r om l a te M idd le P l e i s tocene ( c a . 1 50 , 0 0 y ea r s B .P . ) t h rough t h e H o locene t o t h e p r e sen t d ay . T he c a tchm en t a r ea s o f t h e r i ve r P enn eru a nd a l l i t s m a jo r t r ibu ta r ie s — t h e C h i t rava t i ,t h eK unde ru ,t h e S ag i leru , t h e C heyyeru a nd t h e G un jana a r e h ab i ta t s o ft h e A cheu l ian a nd M idd le P a laeo l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s — H omo e r ec tu s a nd H omo n eander ta len s i s . H oweve r , H omo s ap ien s s ap ien s r e p r e sen t ing t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e Me so l i th ic w e r e c onf ined m o s t ly t o t h e e a s ter n v a l ley , t h e a r ea s d r a in ed b y t h e G un jana a nd t h e S ag i le ru ( f ig . 1 ) . T he re s e em t ob e f l uc tua t ion s i nt h e h ab i ta t ion p a t ter n s a nd t h e p opu la t ion d en s i ty i nv a r iou sp e r iod s . B a sed o nt h e d e sc r ip t ion a nd a na ly s i s o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic d a ta a s a l so t h e p r ev iou s d i scove r ie s i nt h er eg ion u nde rs t udy a nd t h ea d jo in ing r e g ion s , a t temp t s a r e m ade h e re t oe va lua te t h e S tone A ge h un te r -ga the r e r h ab i ta t ion p a t t er n s i n t im e a nd s pace . F o r a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e S t on e A ge h un te r g a the r e r s i t i s n ece s sa ry t o d e l inea te t h e p a laeoeco logy o ft h er eg ion d u r ing t h eP le i s tocene . P a laeoeco logy A s a l r eady s t a ted a bove , n o b i o log ica l r ema in s a s soc ia ted w i th P a laeo l i th ic c u l tu ra l m a te r ia l i nt h e r e g ion h ave s u rv ived . H oweve r , o n t h e b a s i s o f l im i ted e v idence f r om t h e D eccan ( o f wh ich t h i s r e g ion f o rm s ap a r t ) a nd f r om Kur noo l c ave s ( i n t h i s g eog raph ica l z one ) ag en e ra l p i c tu r e o f t h e P a laeoeco logy o ft h er eg ion c an b e a t temp ted . F auna l r ema in s f r om t h e L a te P l e is tocene a l luv ium a tI namgaon i nt h e G hod V a l ley i nP un e d i s t r ic t o f Maha r a sh t ra i n c lude H exapro todon p a lae ind icu s , E quu s n amd icu s , E lepha s s p . , a nd C er vu s s p .

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L ower P a laeo l i th ic T he L owe r P a laeo l i th ic i n t h e C uddapah r e g ion b e long s t o t h e A cheu l ian . B a sed o n t e chno t y po log ica l a nd m e t r ica l a na ly s i s i n c ompa r ison w i th o the r k nown I nd ian A cheu l ian i n du s t r ie s , a nd e spec ia l ly t h o se f r om t h e n or the rn D eccan , t h e A cheu l ian o f t h e C uddapah r e g ion i s s hown t o b e long t o al a te p ha se ( f ig . 6 ) . T he e a r ly A cheu l ian f r om t h e T ha r d eser t i n n o r th -we s t I nd ia , a nd Um r e th i d am s i te a nd o t h e rs i t e si nS au ra sh t ra h ave b een r ad iom e t r ica l ly d a ted b y U /Th s e r ie s d ecay m e thod o n p edogen ic c a rbona te s a nd m i l io l i te l im e s tone r e spec t ive ly u nde r ly ing t h e a r tef ac t b ea r ing l a ye r s t oa bove a nd a r ound 2 00 , 0 00 y ea r s B .P . I n l i gh t o f t h ese d a te s , t h e H omoe r ec tu s p opu la t ion s m ay b e p r esum ed t oh ave o ccup ied h e C uddapah r e g ion i n t h e l a te M idd le P l e i s tocene a r ound 1 50 , 0 00 B .P . B u t f o r t h e r e cen t i s o la ted d i scove ry o f t h e p o s t -c r an ia l r ema in s o f H omoe r ec tu s a t H a thno r a i n t h e N a rmada v a l ley , n owhe r e e l se i n t h e s ub -con t inen t a ny p hy s ica l r em a in s o ft h e a r tef i ce r s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e l i th ic s h ave b een u nea r thed . T he r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e l i f e w ay s o f t h e se p eop le a r e t h e r ef o r e b a sed o n t h e n a tu re o ft h e l i th ic s , t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s a nd t h el o ca t iona la na ly s i so ft h es i t e st h em se lve s .

t o o l . Ma jo r i ty o ft h em a r e o fo va te s hape . S om e o f t h e h andaxe s w i th s ha rp c u t t ing e dge s a l l o ve r t h e p er iphe ry w e r e p robab ly h af ted i n w ooden s haf t s l i ke H a rdw ick ia b ina ta a nd u sed a ss pea rhead s a nd l a nce s f o r h un t ing . T he p o in ted h andaxe s w e r e p robab ly u sed f o r d i gg ing y am s , r oo t s a nd t u be r s . H andaxes w i th u n t r immed b u t t s w e re p robab ly u sed a s a l l p u rpo se t o o l s b u t w e r e c e r ta in ly n o t h af ted . O n t h e w ho le t h e p r edom inance o f h andaxe s i nt h e A cheu l ian m an 's t oo l k i t s ugge s t s h i s r e l iance m a in ly o n a v ege ta l d i e t . L iv ing h un te r -ga the r e r s i nt h e C uddapah r eg ion a s a l so i n v a r iou s o th e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld r e ly m a in ly o n p l an t f ood s . Wh i le s ma l l g am e h un t ing w ou ld b e r e gu la r t o s upp lem en t p ro te in , l a rge g am e w ou ld h ave p robab ly b een o b ta ined b y o ppo r tun i s t ic s c aveng ing .

F ig . 7 :A cheu l ian s u rf a ce s c a t te ra tN e t iva r ipa l l i

T h e p er f ec t s ymm e t ry a nd v e ry f i ne w o rkman sh ip o f s om e o f t h e h andaxe s c ompa rab le t o t h e v e ry b es t a nywhe r e e l se i nt h e w o r ld a nd i n d ica te s a pa r t f r om u t i l i ta r ian f un c t ion s t h e s en se o fp u rpo se a nd a e s the t ic a pp rec ia t ion o n t h e p a r t o f A cheu l ian h un t e r -ga the r s( f ig s . 6 ,8 ) .

F i g . 6 :A cheu l ian c l eave r s

L oca t iona l a na ly s i s o f t h e s i t e s i n t h e G un jana v a l ley a nd o t he r v a l ley s s how s t h a t t h e se h um an g roup s o ccup ied p l ace s a l ong e phe rm e ra l s t r eam s a nd b ra ided r unne l s o ne t ot wo km a way f r om t h e m a in r i ve r c hanne l i n s c rub t hor ny t h icke t h i n te r land e co sy s tem ( f ig . 7 ) . T he i r t o o l k i t c on s is ted m a in ly o f h andaxe s a nd c l eave r s , t h e l a t te r o ccu r r ing i ns m a l le rp ropo r t ion s ( f ig . 6 ) . T he r aw m a te r ia l i sc oa r se o m ed ium -g ra ined q ua r tz i te a bundan t ly a va i lab le i nC uddapah f o rma t ion s . T he t o o l s a r e b i f ac ia l ly w o rked w i th c y l inde r h amme r t e chn ique , h ave s ymm e t r ica l o u t l i ne s , s t r a igh t p rof i le s a nd b i convex t o l e n t icu la r c r o s s s e c t ion s . H andaxes h ave a n a ve rage o f 2 4 f l ake s c a r s p e r

T he a na ly s i s o f h andaxe a s semb lage s f r om t h e G un jana v a l ley c l ea r ly e s tab l i she s d i s t inc t v a r iab i l i ty i n d i f f e r en t p a r t s o f t h e r e g ion r e p r e sen t ing d i f f e r en tg roup so rs im i la rg roup sw i th d i f f e r en t s k i l ls o r d i f f e r ing f unc t iona l n eed s f o r e xp lo i ta t ion o ff ood a nd o t he rr e sou r ces . Me t r ica l a na ly ses o ft h e h andaxe s s ugge s t t h a t t wo d i s t inc t A cheu l ian i n du s t r ie s o ccu r i nt h e G un jana v a l ley . G roup 1 o ccu r s a t t h e s i te s o f V enka ta ra jupa l l i , N e t iva r ipa l l i , S idda r edd ipa l l i a nd K on e t i r a jukand r ika , a l u p s t r eam o fC h i tve l , a nd i s

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. ! = I>

F ig . 8 :A cheu l ian h andaxes

p o in ted i mp lemen t s , m any w i th u n t r imm ed b u t t s ( f ig . 9 ) .

c ha rac te r ized b yo va te h andax e s w i th c u t t ing e dge s a l l a r ound t h e i r p e r iphe r ie s . G roup 2 o ccu r s a t T ummache t lapa l l i ,N a rayanan e l lo r e , Ma lemapu ram a nd K a s tu r iva r ipa l l i , a nd c on ta in s b o th o va te s a nd

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d i s t r ic t ( a bou t 5 0 km . S ou th ) p e rhap s s e rved a s h om eb a se sf o rt h ese s i t e s .

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F i g . 9 : S hape d i ag ram f o r h andaxe s f r om N e t iva r ipa l l i , V enka ta r a jupa l l i , T umma che t lapa l l i a nd N a rayanane l lo r e p oo led ( af t e rD .A . R oe 1 976 )

T h e A cheu l ian h un te r -ga th e r e r s o ccup ied t h e c a tchm en t a r ea s o f a lmo s t a l l t h e r i ve r v a l ley s i n t h e r e g ion — t h e e a s te rn v a l ley , t h e w e s te rn p l a in s a sa l so t h e s ou the rn p l a teau . H oweve r ,t h ey s e em t o h ave p r ef e r r ed t h e v a l ley r eg ion a ss hown b y m any s i te s i nt h e G un jana a nd t h e S ag i le ru v a l ley ( f ig .1) . T he C udaphah r e g ion i sa bou t 1 40 km f r om n o r th t os ou th a nd a bou t9 0t o 10 km f r om e a s tt ow e s t . I ti sq u i te p o s s ib le t h a t s ma l lg roup s o fp eop le w e r e s p r ead o ve r w ide r a r ea s a nd t h e re w e r e i n te r -camp m ig ra t ion s . E ven t h e a d jo in ing a r ea s b eyond t h e C uddapah r e g ion — N e l lo r e , K u rnoo l , A nan tapu r a nd C h i t too r h ave r e vea led e v iden ce o fA cheu l ian o ccupa t ion .

F i g . 1 0 : M idd le N a r ayanane l lo r e

P a laeo l i th ic

o ccupa t ion

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Ap o s t -m idd le P a laeo l i th ic h o r izon a tN and ipa l l i i n t h e C uddapah r e g ion h a sb een r e d ioca rbon d a ted t o 2 5 ,000 y ea r s B .P . R ad iom e t r ic d a te s f o r t h i s p ha se i n t h e n o r ther n D eccan a nd o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e s ubcon t inen tr ange b e tween 4 0 , 0 00 y ea r s B .P . a nd 2 5 ,0 00 y ea r sB .P .

M idd le P a laeo l i th ic T he r e a r e o n ly t wo M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s i tes i nt h e g un jana v a l ley , a t T ummach e t lapa l l i a nd N a rayanane l lo r e ( f ig . 1 0 ) . T he i n du s t ry c omp r i se s p o in t s , s c rape r s , m in ia tu re h andaxe s , f l ak e s a nd b l ades . T he t o o ls a r e m ade o n af i ne g r a ined q ua r t i te a nd a r e c ha r ac ter ized b y s ha l low t h in f l ak e s c a r s , s t ep f l ak ing , m a rg ina l s e conda ry r e tou ch a nd s ha rp e dge s ( f ig . 1 ) . T he g ene ra l c ha rac te r o ft h e i n du s t ry c onf o rm s w i th t h a t o f t h e o t he r M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s o f t h e s ou th -ea s t c oa s ta l r e g ion o fI nd ia .

T h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic r e p r e sen t s H omo s ap ien s n eande r ta len s i s , a l though n o p hy s ica l r em a in s o f t h e a r t if ice r s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e a r tef ac t s h ave a s y e t b een r e cove r ed . T he t o o l k i t o f t h e M idd le P a leo l i th ic h uman s i nC uddapah r e g ion c on s i s t s o f d i f f e r en t v a r ie t ie s o f s c rape r s , p o in t s , b o re r s a nd m in ia tu r e h andaxe s o r r a the r b i f ac ia l p o in t s . T he r aw m a ter ia l i s f i ne g r a ined q ua r tz i te . T he o ccu r r ence o fb i f ace s t h ough i ns ma l le r p ropor t ion a nd t h e u se o f q ua r tz i te ( t hough o f f i ne -g ra ined v a r ie ty ) a sr aw m a ter ia l i n d ica te st h ep e r s i s ten ce o f L a te A cheu l ian t r ad i t ion . T he m in ia tu r e h andaxes c ou ld h ave b een h af ted a s s pea rhead s a nd l a n cehead s . S om e o f t h e b i f ac ia l p o in t s s t r ik ing ly r e ca l l Mou s te r ian p o in t s a nd t h e i r t h inned b u t t s c l ea r ly i n d ica te t h a tt h ey w e r eh af ted .

I nv i ew o ft h e l ow a r tef ac tua l y i e ld t h e se t wo s i t e s a r e c on s ide r ed t oh ave b een t r an s ien t c amp s . R ich M idd le P a laeo l i th ic s e t t lemen t si nt h en e ighbou r ing S ag i leru v a l ley ( a bou t 6 0 km . N o r th ) a nd a t R a l laka lava i nt h e S wa rnamukh i v a l ley i nC h i t too r

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F i g . 1 : M idd le P a la eo l i th ic a r t if a c t s

a ppea r st h a tt h e r e i sn o c on s ide r ab le i n c r ea se i nt h e p opu la t ion f r om t h eA cheu l ian t im e s .

T h e l a rge n umbe r o f s c rape r s w i th e dge d amage , e s pec ia l ly t h e c oncave , n o tched a nd c onvex o ne s w e r ep robab ly u sed f o rw o rk ing o nw ood ,b one a nd h i de . L ik e t h e A cheu l ian h un te r -ga the r e r s , t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic p eop le a l so o ccup ied a l l t h e t h r ee z one s . H oweve r , mo s t s i t e s o f t h i s p ha se c l u s te r a r ound S ag i leru b a s in i nt h e n or th -ea s ter n p a r t( f ig . 1 ) . I ti si n t r igu ing a st ow hy t h e re a r eo n ly t wo s i te s i n t h e G un jana v a l ley . T he se t wo s i te s p robab ly r e p r e sen t t r an shumance f r om t h e h om e b a se s i nt h e S ag i leru v a l ley a bou t 5 0 km n o r th a nd S wa rnamukh iv a l ley a bou t5 0 km s ou th .

Upper P a laeo l i th ic T he e v idence f o rt h e U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic i sp ro l if i c , a nd c om es f r om t e n s i te s . T he i n du s t ry i sb a sed o n ab l ade t e chno logy , a nd c on s i s t s p r edom inan t ly o f b ack ed b l ade s a nd s c r ape r s m ade o n f i ne -g ra in ed q ua r tz i te a nd l yd ian i te ( Ra ju 1 985 ; Ma thpa l 1 985 ) . O n t h e b a s i s o fr ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om N and ipa l l i i n t h e C uddapah r eg ion , a nd o th e r s i te s i n t h e n o r ther n D eccan a s a l so a T L d a te f r om t h e Ku rnoo l c ave s , t h e a ge o ft h i s c u l tu r e i sa s c r ibed t o b e tween c .2 0 , 0 00 y ea r s a nd 1 0 , 0 00 y ea r s B .P . T he a u tho r s o f t h i s c u l tu ra l p ha se a r e H omo s ap ien s s ap ien s .

A s m any mu l t i c u l tu r e s i te s i n d ica te , t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a ppea r s t o b e o n ly a c on t inua t ion o f t h e A cheu l ian t r ad i t ion , t h e d i f f e r ence b e ing t h a t t h e t o o l s a r e s ma l le r , l i gh te r a nd b e t te r m ade t h an t h e A cheu l ian o ne s . D own s t r eam o fP enne ru i nt h e N e l lo re d i s t r ic t a r e s co re s o f M idd le P a laeo l i th ic a nd A cheu l ian s i tes . H en ce , l i k e t h e A cheu l ian h um an g roup s t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic h un te r g a the re r s w e r e a l so s p read i n s m a l l g roup s o ve r l a rge a r ea s . F rom t h e n umbe r a nd n a tu r e o fs i te s i t

T he v e ry l a rge s i ze o ft h e s i te s ( up t o 2s q . km ) a nd t h e h igh d en s i ty o f t oo l s ( 5 t o 6 7 p e r s q . m ) s ugge s t s t h em t o b e h om e b a se s . O n ly o ne s i t e n am e ly ` Vemu la ' i sk nown f r om e l sewhe re i nt h e r e g ion a nd t h e i ndu s t ry h e r ec on s i s t ing m a in ly o f

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1 35 s p l i t p ebb le s , a l s ugge s t ing t h e p roce s s ing o f v ege tab le f ood s a t t h e s i t e . T h i s e v id en ce i si n c on f o rm i ty w i th t h a t f ound i ns u r f ace c on t ex t s a t R en igun ta . T h e se o b jec t s p r ov id e f u r th e r e v id en ce t ot h e f a c t t h a t Me so l i th ic t r ad i t ion s i nw h ich t h ey b ecam e mo r e c ommon a r e r o o t ed i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic .

F i g . 1 2 :U pp e rP a la eo l i th ic b l ade s

f l ak e -b lad e , b l ad e s a nd s c rape r s o f c r ud e v a r ie ty r e p r e sen t s a n i n c ip ien t f a c ie s . T h e G un jana i n du s t ry , o n t h e o t h e r h and , i s mu ch a dvanced c omp r i s ing p r edom inan t ly b ack ed b l ad e v a r ian t s a nd s c r ape r s w h ich r e ca l l i t s c oun t e rpa r t s i n t h e b l ad e a nd b u r in i n du s t r ie so fR en igun ta i nC h i t too r d i s t r ic t ( f ig s . 1 2 , 1 3 ) . T h e o n ly d i f f e r en ce b e tw een t h e t wo i si np oo r r e p r e sen ta t ion o fb u r in s i nt h e G un jan a i n du s t ry . T h e b ack ed b l ad e t e chno logy i s v e ry h i gh ly d eve loped i nt h e G un jana i n du s t ry a nd i t sp rodu c t s c an b e c ompa r ed t ot h o se o ft h e f m e s t c r af t sman sh ip a nywh e r e i nt h ew o r ld . T h e i n du s t ry c on s id e r ed a s aw ho le a nd c ompa r ed t o o t h e r k nown b l ade t o o lb a s ed i n du s t r ie s e l sewh e r ei nt h e c oun t ry t e nd s t owa rd s m ic ro l i th iza t ion a nd w ou ld r e p r e sen t al a t e U ppe r p a laeo l i th ic o r e ven E p i P a la eo l i th ic s t age . T h e v a r iou s b ack ed b l ad e v a r ian t s w e r e p robab ly u s ed a sc ompo s i te t o o l ss u ch a sb a rb ed a r rowh ead s , h a rpoon s , s l i ce r k n ive s , a nd i n se r t s f o r f i sh h ook s . V a r iou s t y pe s o fs c rape r s a r e l i k e ly t oh av e b een u s ed f o r p roce s s ing w ood , h i d e a nd b on e a nd f o r m ak ing h un t ing , f i sh ing a nd o t h e r t o o l s . T h e p r edom inan ce o f b ack ed p o in t s i n U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic m an 's t o o l k i t a nd t h e i r d ep ic t ion i n Me so l i th ic r o ck p a in t ing s a s e l em en t s o f a r row s a nd s p ea r si mp l ie st h a tb ow sa nd a r row sa nd s p ea r s w e r ep r in c ipa lh un t ing w eapon s .

F i g . 1 3 : U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic b acked b l ad ev a r ian t s

T h ee x t en s ion o ft h eo b se rva t ion sd e r iv ed f r om t h e a n a ly s i s o ft h e a r t ef ac tua l a s semb lage s f r om t h r ee b a se c amp s , V od ika lu , B ee l lu a nd R a l la ch enu . Wh en a pp l ied t oo t h e r s i t e sr e v ea l st h a tt h e r e w e r e t wo h om e b a se s i n t h e G un jana v a l ley : ( i ) V enk a ta r edd ipa l l ii nt h eu p s t r eam o fK odu r( f ig . 2 ) w i th Mek a lagun t e ru a st h e t r an s ien tc amp , a nd ( i ) V od ik a lu , d own s t r eam o f K odu r w i th — B ee l lu , R a l lach enu , G adda la r evupa l l i a nd N agava r am a s b a se c amp s a nd N agava r am — V odd ipa l l i , N agava r am ch eruvu a nd G o l lapa l l i a s t r an s ien t c amp s . T h e se w ou ld r e p r e sen t t wo m ax imum b and s , o n ea tV enka ta r edd ipa l l ia nd a r ound a nd t h e o t h e ra tV od ik a lu a nd t owa rd sn o r th .T h e i rt o o lk i t s d o n o t s how a ny a pp r ec iab le v a r ia t ion i nt y po logy o r t e chno logy . S i n ce t h e d i s r ib tu ion p a t t er n s o f a r tef ac tua l o ccu r r en ce s a tR en igun ta a nd G un jana

T h e t r i a l e x cava t ion a tV od ik a lu r e v ea led t h e i n s i tu n a tu r e o ft h e s u r f ic ia l a r t ef ac t s f o und e a r l ie ra t t h i s s i t e ( f ig . 1 4 ) . T h e a l luv ium c on ta in ing t h e a r cha eo log ica l h o r izon i s af i n e al o am w h ich w a s d epo s i t ed b y as l ugg i sh s t r eam a nd c ov e r ed t h e c u l tu r a l m a t e r ia l s , l y ing e xpo sed o n t h e a d ja cen t l a nd s u r f a ce , w i thou t t r an spo r t ing i t . T h e e x cava t ion y i e ld ed , a l ong w i th f l ak ed a r t ef ac t s , 8 4 p i ece s o ff l a t g r ind ing s t on e s l ab s , 1 9 r u bbe r s a nd

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t h e s am e t o pog raph ica l s e t t ing s a nd d o n o t c hange t h e i r s e t t lem en t s s e a sona l ly a st h e ! Kung S an w ho e s tab l i sh s ma l l w ide ly s c a t te r ed a nd s ho r t l ived c amp s d u r ing t h e r a iny s e a son a nd b u i ld l a rge r m o r ep e rmanen to n e s d u r ing t h e d ry s e a son ( Ye l len 1 978 : 4 8 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h and G ou ld ( 1969 ) r e por t s t h a t t h e a bo r ig ine s o f t h e Wes te rn D e ser t o f A u s t ra l ia c ong r ega te i nl a rge c amp s w hen s t and ing w a te r i s mo s t p l en t if u l a nd d i spe r se i n to s ma l le r g roup sd u r ing d r ie rp e r iod so ft h ey ea r .

v a l ley b ea r s t r ik ing s im i la r i ty , a nd o ccu r rence s w i th l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f a r tef ac t s s p r ead ing f o r s eve ra l k i lom e t r e s a r e n o t e ncoun te r ed e l sewhe r e , i tc an b e i n f e r r ed t h a t o ccupa t ion s b y m ax imum b and s o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s a r e u n ique t o t h i s g eog raph ica l z one . T hese t wo o ccupa t ion s a r e s epa r a ted b y ad i s tance o fo n ly 5 0 km t h a t c ou ld b e c ove red b y 8t o 1 0 h ou r s w a lk . T h e re w ou ld , t h e r ef o r e , h ave b een r egu la r c ommun ica t ion a nd e xch ange o f i d ea s , i nnova t ion s , a nd m a te r ia l e qu ipm en t b e tween t h e t wo c amp s .

F ig . 1 5 : Ad eep p e r enn ia l w a te rp oo l i nt h e G un jana V a l ley n ea r V od ika lu U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic s i te

T he i n t ra s i te v a r iab i l i ty a t V od ika lu , B ee l lu a nd R a l lachenu i n d ica tes s pec if i c a c t iv i ty a r ea s s uch a s t o o l m ak ing , b u tche r ing , w ood w o rk ing a nd f ood p roce s s ing a r ea s . F u r the r , t h e e x ten s ive d i s t r ibu t ion s o ft h e a r tef ac t s a tV od ika lu , B ee l lu a nd R a l lachenu ( up t o 3km . i n l e ng th ) a nd t h e i r h i gh d en s i t ies ( 5t o6 0 p e r s q m ) s ugge s t t h a t t h e se s i tes m ay h ave s e rved a s h om e b a se s . T hey a r e l o ca ted o n a l luv ia l f l a t s o ve r look ing p e renn ia l p oo l s i n t h e G un jana r i ve r ( f ig . 1 5 ) . T h i s r e la t ion sh ip s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f a qua t ic r e sou r ces . Mo r eove r , t h e l o ca t ion s o f t h ese s i te s a r e s uch t h a t t h ey n eve r b ecom e i n unda ted , e ven w hen t h e Gun jana i sa tt h e p eak o f i t s m on soona l s pa te . A l so , t h e a b sence o f b a se c amp s i nt h e f oo th i l l s o r i n ter io r f o r es t s m ay s ugges t t h a t t h e se a l luv ia l s i tes w e r e a lsea son c amps w i th p ro longed o ccupa t ion s .

F i g . 1 4 : D i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef a c t s i n l a ye r 3 a t V od ika lu e xcava t ion t r ench

T h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic c amp s i n t h e G un jana v a l ley a ppea r t o b e a l l s e a son c amp s f o r t h e f o l low ing r e a son : T h e c amp s a r e s i tua ted c l o se t or i ve rb ank s a nd d o n o t g e t i nunda ted e ven d u r ing t h e h e igh t o f m on soon w hen t h er i ve ri si ns p a te ( f ig . 1 5 ) . R aw m a ter ia l f o r t oo l s i sa va i lab le a s p ebb le s o n t h e r i ve rb ed a nd c hunk s a nd n odu le s i nt h e n ea rby V e l ikonda h i l l s .

A t V od ika lu t h e a r tef ac tua l a s semb lage s a r e d i s t r ibu ted i nc l u s te r s , e ach c l u s te r s e pa ra ted f r om t h e o t he r b y 5 10 m I n r e spec t o f s pac ing , t h e se c l u s te r s r e ca l l t h e p r esen t d ay Y anad i o ccupa t ion p a t ter n s . I fw e a s sum e e ach c l u s te r o f a r tef ac t s t o b e t h e h and iwo rk o f an uc lea r f am i ly , au n i t o f a

L oca t ion i sc en t r a lw i th r e spec tt of ood r e sou r ces . A b sence o fs i te s i nt h e f oo t h i l l s a nd i n te r io r o ft h e s c rub j ung le . T he p r esen t d ay Y anad i s a l so i n hab i t

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m in imum b and , t h en t h e r e w ou ld h ave b een a d we l l ing h u t a s soc ia ted w i th e a ch c l u s te r . T he Y anad i sm anuf ac tu r e a nd m a in ta in i mp lem en t s a nd p e r f o rm mo s t o f t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s i n c lud ing p roce s s ing o f f ood o u t s ide t h e h u t , u sua l ly u nde r t h e s hade o ft r ee s . T he se c l u s te r s t h en a r e h e w o rk a r ea s o u t s ide t h e h u t s . T he U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic b and s c ou ld a l so h ave t a k en s he l te ru nde rt h e t r ees wh ich i s ap rac t ice o ft h e Y anad i s o ft h e a r ea ( f ig . 1 7 ) .

c a tch ing f i sh w i th b a re h and sb yd i v ing i n to muddy w a te r s a nd h i t t ing f i sh w i th s t ones ( f ig s . 1 8 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 8 ) . V a r iou s s c rape r s a nd b acked b l ade s i n t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic m an s t o o l k i t w e r e p robab ly u sed t om ake p ro to type s o fn e t s a nd t r ap s . Wh i le i t i sh aza rdou s t oc o r re la te t h e y anad i l i f e w ay s w i th t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene h un te r -ga the r e r s , i td oe s d emon s t ra te t h e r e sou r ce s p o ten t ia l o f t h e r e g ion a nd i t s c a r ry ing c apac i ty t o s uppo r t c on s ide rab le h un te r -ga the r e r p opu la t ion s . T he C uddapah r e g ion c on s i s t s o f at e c ton ica l ly s t ab le l a nd m a s s a nd h e re i sn o e v idence t os how a ny a pp r ec iab le c hange i n t h e e co logy o r p hy s ica l e nv i ronm en t f r om t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene t h rough t h e p r e sen t . I f a ny th ing , t h e b i oma s s h a s b een d ep le ted t o a c on s id e rab le e x ten t d u r ing t h e l a s t c en tu ry d ue t o t h e s p r ead o fm oder nc i v i l i sa t ion . T he Y anad i h u t s a r e s os imp le a nd f l im sy t h a tt h e S tone A ge h un te rg a the r e r s w ou ld h ave e a s i ly b u i l t s uch s imp le d we l l ing s . T ak ing c l ues f r om t h e f ood h ab i t so ft h e Y anad i s , i t i sr e a sonab le t op r ed ic t t h a t t h e u ppe r P a laeo l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s r e l ied o n a qua t ic f ood r e sou rce s f o rt h e i r s ub s i s tence a s much a so n g am e a nd w i ld v ege ta l f ood s . A l l t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s t ie s a r e l o ca ted c l o se t op e r enn ia l w a te r s ou r ce s ( f ig . 1 5 ) . F u r th e r , c on sump t ion o fr oo t sa nd t ube r s mu s th ave b een a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o f t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic d i e t a st h e Y anad i s a r e k nown t oh ave l i ved d u r ing s even y ea r s ( 1950 -57 ) o f c on t inuou s d rough t m a in ly o n w i ld y am s l i ke D io scorea o ppo s i t if o l ia , D io scorea b u lb if era , D io scror ea p en taphy l la a nd D io scor ea s y lva t ica s upp lem en ted t o s om e e x ten t b y r oo t s , h oney , f i sh a nd g am e . S uch h ab i t s a nd p rac t ice s p o s s ib ly h ave a h i gh a n t iqu i ty a nd i n d ica te t h e t r ad i t iona l s ub s i s t ence p a t ter n s a mong t h el a te P le i s tocene h un te r -ga th e r e r s .

F ig . 1 6 : U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic s u r f a ce s c a t te r n ea r t h e e xcava t ed t r ench a tV od ika lu

F i g . 1 7 : At empo ra ry e ncampm en t o f D a sa r i , an omad ic t r ibe u nde rt h es had eo f at r ee

T he re a r e s eve ra l i n s tan ce s i nt h e Y anad i l i f e s t y le w h ich c an b e t a k en t os ugges t t h e p l au s ib le mod es o fa c t iv i t ie s o ft h et e rm ina l l a te P l e i s tocene h un te rg a the r e r s . S om e o ft h em a r e : u se o fb o t t le g ou rd s f o rs t o rage o fw a te rd u r ing h un t ing e xped i t ion s ,u se o f v a r iou s n e t s , t r ap s a nd o the r h un t ing a i d s f o r h un t ing , f ow l ing a nd b i rd c a tch ing , e x t rac t ion o f h oney , c o l lec t ion o fm ino rf o r e s tp roduce , f o rag ing f r u i t s , r oo t s , t ube r s a nd g r een l e aves , t h e u se o f d i gg ing s t i ck s , h un t ing b i rd s b y p e l t ing s t ones ,

F i g . 1 8 : Y anad i s e to u t f o rf i sh ing w i th D indu af l oa t a nd n e t s

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Me so l i th ic N o s i te so ft h eM id -Ho locene m ic ro l i th ic i n du s t r ie s h ave b een e ncoun te r ed i n t h e G un jana v a l ley . H oweve r ,K .T . R eddy h ad r epo r ted f ou rs i te si nt h e S ag i le ru b a s in . T h i s a ga in p o se s ap rob lem . T he q ue s t ion r em a in s a s t o w ha t h appen ed t o t h e l a te P l e is tocene a nd e a r ly H o locene h uman g roup s . Swar n amukh i v a l ley i nt h e s ou th a nd Ku rnoo l a nd A nan tapu r r eg ion s i n t h e n o r th a nd w e s t o f t h i s s t udy r e g ion h ave e v idenced Me so l i th ic s i t e s . S eve ra l s i te sa l so h av eb een r e po r ted r e cen t ly i nt h e V isakhapa tnam c oa s t b y t h e D epa r tm en t o f An th ropo logy , Andh ra Un ive r s i ty .

An a t temp t a t t h e e s t ima t ion o f p opu la t ion a t V od ika lu a nd n e ighbou r ing c amp s b a sed o n a pp rox im a te f l oo r a r ea a nd s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s o f d ocum en ted e x tan te t hnog raph ic p opu la t ion sw ou ld i n d ica te t h a t V od ika lu s uppo r ted 1 90 p eop le d iv ided i n to s i xm in imum b and se ach c omp r i s ing 5 t o 6n uc lea r f am i l ie s o f 5m embe r s e ach . B ee l lu w ou ld h ave s uppor ted t wo m in imum b and s c on s i s t ing o f s i x n uc lea r f am i l ie s ( a t o ta l o f 6 0 p eop le ) a nd R a l lach enu w ou ld h ave s uppo r ted 3 0 p eop le — o ne m in imum b and w i th 6 n uc lea r f am i l ies . T he se f i gu r e s , h oweve r , a r e b y t h e i r v e ry n a tu r e h igh ly s pecu la t ive . Y e t t h ey s e rve t og ive a r ough i d ea o f i n c r ea se i n p opu la t ion w i th t h e p a s sage o ft im e .

T o s um u p , t h e p r e sen t s t udy h a s r a i sed s om e i n te r e s t ing q ue s t ion s wh ich w i th t h e p re sen t s t a te o fo u rk now ledge c anno tb ea n sw e r ed . T he se a r e :

V od ika lu i st h e l a rges t o f t h e t h r ee c amp s . T he d i s tance b e tween a ny t wo o ft h e c amp s i sl e s s t h an 2km T he r ew ou ld ,t h e r ef o r e ,h av eb een c on t inuou s c ommun ica t ion , s oc ia l i n te ra c t ion a nd e xchange o f m a te r ia li t em s sw e l la sp eop le a mong t h em .

I st h e A cheu l ian i ns ou th -ea s t I nd ia i n d igenou s? I f s ow hy o n ly l a te A cheu l ian? Wha th appened t ot h e e a r ly A cheu l ian ? H ad t h e A cheu l ian p opu la t ion s m ig ra ted f r om t h e n o r ther nD eccan w he r e a r e s uch s i te sr e po r ted?

F rom t h el o ca t iona lp o in to fv i ew , i ti si n t r igu ing a s t o w hy t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene h un te r -ga the r e r s i te s a r e c onf ined o n ly t ot h e s ou th -ea s ter np a r t o f t h e r e g ion n am e ly Gun jana V a l ley . We m ay n eed t o l o ok a t a b roade r r e g iona l p e r spec t ive t o u nde r s tand t h i s . D u r ing r e cen t e xp lo ra t ion s , Ih ave d i scove r ed a tl e a s t 1 4 v e ry r i ch U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic o ccu r rences w i th a r tef ac t s p r ead s e x tend ing t o a f ew h ec ta r e s i n t h e K a l le t ivagu v a l ley i n at h ick f o r e s ted e nv i ronm en t i n t h e C uddapah -Ne l lo r e b o rde r a r ea . F u r the r a tl e a s t 8 4 P a laeo l i th ic s i tes s om e o f w h ich a r e p o s s ib ly U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic w e r e r e po r ted i nt h e c a tchm en t a r ea s d own s t r eam o f t h e r i ve r P enne ru a c ro s s t h e V e l ikonda s a nd c l o se t ot h e c oa s t o ft h e B ay o f B enga l . A lso t h e r i ch U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s i nt h e S wa rnamukh i v a l ley a r e a bou t 5 0 -60 km s ou th o f t h e G un jana s i te s . T h i sp r e sen t sa ni n t e r e s t ing p i c tu r e . A l though U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s a r e r e por ted f r om m any p a r t s o fI nd ia d u r ing t h e l a s t t h r ee d ecade s , t o my k now ledge t h es i te sr e po r ted i nt h i ss t udy a nd t ho se o fR en igun ta a ppea rt ob es om eo ft h er i ches ti nt h e s ubcon t inen t a nd a r e v e ry i mpo r tan t f o r u nde r s tand ing t h et r an s i t ion o fh un t ing -ga the r ing t o a g r icu l tu ra l a nd a g ro -pa s to r a l e conom ies . B u t u nf o r tuna te ly n o t as i ng le h ab i ta t ion s i t e h a s b een s ub jec ted t ol a rge s c a le h o r izon ta le xcava t ion i nt h e e n t i re s ou th er n D eccan , t h e r e su l t o f wh ich i st h a t n o f a una l r ema in s a r e f o r thcom ing f o r r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e i re conomy .

Wha t h appened t ot h e Meso l i th ic i nt h e C uddapah r eg ion ? I n t h e n o r ther n D eccan , c en t ra l a nd n o r th -we s t I nd ia , s i te sr e p r e sen t ing t h eM id a nd L a te H o locene i ndu s t r ie s a r e i n num e r ab le c ompa r ed t o t ho se o f t h e t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene i nd ica t ing a lmo s t s udden p opu la t ion g row th . T h e s ou ther n D eccan o n t h e o t he rh and p re sen t s ac on t ra s t ing p i c tu re . Why? E thnograph ic e v idence E thnog raph ic d a ta o n Y and i s , as imp le s oc ie ty l i v ing i n t h e s am e r eg ion h a s b een c o l lec ted t o e l ic i t i n f o rma t ion o n t h e i r s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s a nd s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies t og a in i n s igh t s i n to t h e p a s t . As umma ry o ft h es am e i sg iven b e low : As t udy o ft h e w ay o fl i f e o ft h e Y anad i f i she r a nd h un te r -ga the r e r p eop le who i n hab i t t h e G un jana v a l ley t oday , v e ry o f t en l i v ing o n t h e s am e s i t e s a s w e r e o ccup ied b y U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic p eop le , w a s u nde r tak en w i th av i ew t og a in a n i n s igh t i n to t h e s ub s i s tence a nd s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s o f t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic . T h e Y anad i s w e r e u n t i l r e cen t ly p u r e h un te r -ga the re r s , b u t n ow m any g roup s h ave s e t t led n ea r f a rm ing v i l lage s w he r e t h ey w o rk a s m anua l l a bou r e r s o r w a tchm en i n t h e f i e ld s o f a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s . T rad i t iona l ly , t h ey l i ved i n b and s o f 3t o2 0 f am i l ie s i nr a the r h aphaza rd s e t t lem en t s o fc i r cu la rh u t sw i th c on ica lr oof s , m ade e n t i r e ly o f

1 4 1

T he Y anad is h un t a tl e a s t 1 4 s p ec ie s o ft e r r e s t r ia l g am e w i th s na r e s , n e t s a nd o t he r m e thod s . T he p r ey i n c ludes h a r e s , l i za rd s , s qu i r r e l s , p o rcup in es , w i ldca t s , r a t s , b and icoo t s a nd l a ngu r monk ey s ( f ig . 2 1 ) . T hey a l so c a tch a tl e a s t 4 5 s pec ie s o f f r e sh w a te r f i sh b y a s m any a s 1 2 d i f f e r en t m e thod s , u s ing f i sh t rap s , w e i r s , n e t s , h ook s a nd p o i son s ( f ig s . 2 3 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 8 ) .

p l an t m a te r ia l s . S uch h u t s a r e s t i l l b u i l t a nd a r e g en e ra l ly 3t o 4m . i nd i am e te rw i th w a l l s0 . 5 t o1 . 5 mi nh e igh t . E n t rance s a r e v e ry s ma l l ( 0 .95 t o 1 . 10 m h igh ; 0 . 70 t o 0 . 95 m . w ide ) a nd a r e c l o sed b y d oo r so fl e ave sa nd t w ig s( f ig s . 1 9 , 2 0 ) .

F i g . 1 9 : Y anad i s e t t lem en t a tR a l la chenu s how ing c i r cu la r a nd o b long h u t s

T he Y anad i s h ave a n e xpe r t k now ledge o f t h e i r e nv i ronm en t . T hey a r e i n t ima te ly f am i l ia r w i th a l l a n ima l s , b i rd s , f i sh a nd u sef u l p l an t s i n t h e i r h ab i ta t , a nd t h e se p l ay i mpor tan t r o le s i n s ub s i s tence . Y anad ih un t ing e xped i t ion s c on s is t s o f 3t o1 0p e r son s ,w ho t r ave r se t h ef o r e s tf o ru pt o2 0 km a nd s t ay a way f o rm t h e i rs e t t lem en t s f o r 3t o4 d ay s , o re ven u pt o1 0 d ay si fg am e i ss c a r ce . T hey e r ec t s ma l l t empo ra ry h u t s f o r s h e l te r i nt h e f o r es t o r u se c ave s a nd r o ck she l te r s w hen a va i lab le . Af t e r ak i l l i sm ade , ap o r t ion o fi ti sc ooked a nd e a ten o nt h e s po t , a nd t h er e s ti ss un -d r ied o nr o ck s a nd t a ken b ack h om e f o r l a te ru se , t oge th e r w i th b one s , h o rn s a nd a n t le r s r equ i r ed f o r o the r p u rpo se s . Q ua r tz a nd q ua r tz i te f l ake sa r eo f t en u sed f o rb u tche r ing .

F ig .2 1 : Two Y anad ib oy sc a tch ing f i e ld r a t si nt h eo pen s c rub n ea rB ee l lu ,U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic s i t e

F ig . 2 2 : Y anad id emon s t ra t ing t h ep roce s so fh oney c o l lec t ion

I na dd i t ion , t h ey c an i d en t if y 6 8 s pec ies o fb i rd s , o f w h ich 6 a r e r egu la r ly c augh t i n n e t s , s na re s a nd c ages ( f ig s . 2 6 , 2 7 ) . T hey c on sum e a t l e a s t 1 3 s pec ie s o f y am s , w i ld r oo t s a nd t u be r s , 1 0 l e af y

F ig . 2 0 : Ah ea r th o u t s id e Y anad ih u tp ro tec ted b y as em ic i r cu la r a l ignm en to fs t one sa sw ind b r eak

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g r een s , a nd 2 5 s pec ies o f e d ib le f r u i t s ( f ig . 2 9 ) . T hey c o l lec t 2 2 o t he r i t em s o f m ino r f o r e s t p roduce , a nd a f te r u s ing s om e o f t h e se f o r s ub s i s tence t h ey e xchange t h e r e s tw i th f a rm e r s f o r g r a in o rc a sh

F i g . 2 6 : C age f o rb i rd c a t ch ing

F i g . 2 7 : P ad i , a mu l t ip le n oo se b i rd c a t ch ing t r ap l a id i nt h e o pen s c rub f o rp a t r idge s

F i g .2 3 : AY anad i b oy s hoo t ing f i sh w i th b ow a nd a r row

F i g . 2 4 : Y anad i w oman c o l lec t ing t h e m id v e in s o f c o conu t l e ave sf o r af i sh t r ap

F i g . 2 8 : Y anad ib oy h i t t ing f i sh w i th ap ebb le

I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a t t h e v a r iou s l o ca l n am es f o rs p ec ie s i nt h e f l o r aa nd f a una , a nd m any o ft h e i r f ood a nd m ed ic ina l u ses , a r e k nown o n ly t o t h e Y anad i s a nd n o t t o a ny o t h e r f u l ly a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s i n t h e r e g ion . T he i r i n t ima te k now ledge s ugge s t s al o ng t r ad i t ion o f e x ten s ive e xp lo i ta t ion o f f l o ra a nd f a una . T he p hy s ica l

F i g . 2 5 : Y anad i f i sh ing b y am e thod k nown a sD inde ta

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c or respondences b e tween t h e l o ca t ion s o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i tes a nd Y anad i s e t t lemen t s a r e t o o c l o se t o b e p u re ly c o inc iden ta l . I ndeed , i ts e em s v ery l i ke ly t h a t Y anad is a r e t h e c u l tu ra l a nd b i o log ica l d escendan t s o f t h e S tone A ge h un ter g a the re r s o f t h e r e g ion ( f ig . 3 0 ) , w ho p robab ly l i ved a l i f es ty le n o t v e ry d i f f e ren t i n t e rm s o ft h e n a tu re o ft h e i rs e t t lemen t s a nd s ubs is tence p a t tern s .

t y po log ica l a spec t s a nd t ime -space s y s tema t ics ( Mu r ty 2 002 ) . T o k now mo re a bou t t h e l i f e w ay s , a nd r e con s t ruc t ion o f c u l tu r e p rocess , i t i s n ecessa ry t oe xcava te p r ima ry s i t es o n al a rge s c a le t or e cove r h uman s ke le ta l r ema ins a s soc ia ted w i th l i t h ics a nd f auna l a nd o t he r b i o log ica l r ema in s . T o u nde r s tand b e t te r i ti s n eces sa ry t o u ncove r a nd s t udy t h e p a t ter n o f d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r tef ac t s , e cof ac ts a nd o t he r f e a tu r es o ve r a c t iv i ty a r ea s . T he s u rf ace i t se lf n eed st ob e e xcava ted o ve rw ide a r ea s s o t h a t a l l t h ese c an b e p l o t ted t o s e e t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween d i f f e ren t k inds o f t o o ls , d eb i tage a nd b one s . T he s i tes n eed t ob e l o oked a t n o t i ni s o la t ion b u t i nr e la t ion t oo ne a no the r . A t a g i ven t ime p er iod i t mu s t b e p o ss ib le t o c onnec t s i tes t o ge the rt os how t h e p a t ter no fr e sou r ce u se i n t h e p reh is tor ic p a s t . A l though a r tef ac t s a r e i mpo r tan t a s make r s o ft h e l o c i o fa c t iv i t ies o fe a r ly h uman s , i n fo rma t ion o n t h e s pa t ia l c onf igu ra t ion s o fa r tef ac t s i sj u s ta si mpo r tan t a st h et e chn ica l d a ta o n t h e mo rpho logy o f t h e o b jec t s t h em se lves ( Se t ta ra nd S e t ta r2 000 ) .

F i g . 2 9 : Y anad i c h i ld ren o u t i n t h e o pen s c rub g a ther ing t h e y oung s hoo t so fC ar i s sa s p inarum

Du r ing t h e l a s t t wen ty f i ve y ea r s , t h e re h ave b een s i gn if i can t c hanges i n m e thod a nd t h eo ry i n a r chaeo logy . Mu l t i a nd i n te r -d i sc ip l ina ry s t ud ies i n vo lv ing g eomo rpho logy , t a phonomy , s i te f o rma t ion p roces ses , s i te c a tchm en t a na ly s is , b i o a r chaeo logy a nd p a laeodemog raphy a r e b e ing c a r r ied o u t ( Hodde r 1 995 ; S . P appu 1 996 ; R a ju 1 988 ; S e t ta r a nd S e t ta r 2 002 ; J ones 2 002 ; P addayya 2 002 , 2 002a ) . F u r the r r e sea rch i n co rpo ra t ing l a te s t m e thod s a nd t h eo ry , a nd mu l t i -d isc ip l ina ry a pp roach w i th s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion o fp r ima ry s i tes a nd s t udy o f s u r f ace s c a t ter s s hou ld t h row c on s iderab le l i gh t o n t h e l i f e w ay s o ft h e e a r ly h un te r -ga the rer s . T h is i s u rgen t ly c a l led f o r a s s t one A ge s i tes a r e b e ing i n c r ea s ing ly d i s tu rbed a nd d e s t royed u nde r t h e i mpac t o f a gr icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ies e nc roach ing e ven i n to m a rg ina l a r ea s , i r r iga t ion a nd h yd ro -e lec t r ic p ro jec t s , c ons t ruc t ion o f r oads a nd r a i l t r ack s a nd i n ten s if i ed i ndu s tr ia la c t iv i t ies . A cknow ledgemen t s Iam v e ry g ra tefu l t o P rof esso r V .N . M is ra , my r e sea rch s uperv iso r , f o r h i s t h o rough a nd c a r efu l g u idance d ur ing t h e c ou r se o f my r e sea rch . Ia l so w ish t or e co rd my g r a t i tude t ot h e a u thor i t ies o ft h e D eccan C o l lege P os t G radua te a nd R esea rch I n s t i tu te , t h e An th ropo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia a nd t h eU n ive r s i ty G ran t sC omm iss ion f o rp rov id ing a l f a c i l i t ies a nd f und ing t h is r e sea rch .

F i g . 3 0 : Y anad i h un te r so n t h e m ove f o r p r ey

P rospec t s T o d a te , v e ry f ew P a laeo l i th ic s i tes h ave b een e xcava ted i n t h e r eg ion t h a t t oo o n as ma l l s c a le a nd mos t o f t h e s t ud ies f r om s u rf ace s c a t ter s a nd s t ra t if ied c on tex ts a r e d evo ted t o t e chno -

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Ref erences B inf o rd , L .R . 1 964 . A c on s ide ra t ion o f A r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch d e s ign , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 2 9 :4 25 -4 1 . B inf o rd , L .R . a nd S .R . B inf o rd 1 969 . S tone t o o l s a nd h uman b ehav iou r ,S c ien t if i c Amer ican 20 : 9 2 10 1 . C hang , K .C . 1 972 . S e t t lemen t p a t t e rn s i n a r chaeo logy , A d i son -W e s ley Modu l e2 4 : 1 26 . C o rv inu s , G . 1 981 . As ur vey o ft h eP ravara r i ver s y s tem i n W e sern Mahara sh t ra , I nd ia . V o lume 1 : T he s t ra t ig raphy a nd g eomorpho log y o ft h e P ravara r i ve r s y s tem . T ub inge : V e r lag A r chaeo log ica , I n s t i tu t f u r U rge sch ich te d e rU n ive r s i ta tT ub ingen . C o rv inu s , G . 1 983 . As ur vey o ft h eP ravara r i ve rs y s tem i n W e sern Mahara sh t ra , I nd ia . V o lume 2 : T he e xcava t ion s o ft h e a cheu l ian s i te o fC h i rk i -on -P ravara , I nd ia . T ub inge : V e r lag A r cha eo log ica , I n s t i tu t f u r U rge sch ich te d e rU n ive r s i ta tT ub ingen . F oo te , R .B . 1 916 . T he F oo te c o l l ec t ion o f I nd ian p reh i s tor ic a nd p ro toh i s tor ic a n t iqu i t ie s : N o te s o n t h e ir a g e s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . Mad ra s : Mad ra s G ove rnmen t P r e s s . H odde r , I . 1 995 . I n t erpre ing A r chaeo logy : F ind ing m ean ing i nt h eP a s t .N ew Y o rk : R ou t ledge . G ou ld , R .A . 1 980 . L iv ing A r chaeo logy . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . J a cob son , J . 1 985 . " A cheu l ian s u r f a ce s i te s i n c en t ra l I nd ia " i n R ecen t A d vance s i n I ndo -Pac if i c p r eh i s tory ( V .N . M i s ra a nd P . B e l lwood E d s . ) , p p . 4 9 -57 . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd a nd I BH . J one s , A nd rew 2 002 . A rchaeo log ica l t h eo ry a nd s c ien t if i c p rac t ice . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . J o sh i , R .V . 1 966 , A cheu l ian s u cce s s ion i nC en t ra l I nd ia , A s ian P e r spec t ive s 8 :1 50 -63 . J o sh i , R .V . 1 977 . C o r re la t ion a na ly s i s o fh andaxe s a nd c l eave r s a nd t h e f unc t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion . B u l l e t in o ft h e D eccan C o l lege P o s t -Gradua te & R e search I n s t i tu te 3 7 : 4 8 -60 . L e shn ik , L .S . 1 964 . S oc io log ica l i n terpre ta t ion t o a rchaeo logy . P h .D . t h e s i s ,U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago . M inde leef , C . 1 900 . L oca l iza t ion o f T u savan c l an s . N ine teen th A nnua l R epor t o ft h e B ur eau o f Ame r ican E thno logy P a r t2 :6 35 -53 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 976 . T he a cheu l ian i n du s t ry o fr o ck s he l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka . C en t ra l I n d ia : A p r e l im ina ry s t udy ,P ura ta t t va 7 :1 3 -36 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 978 . T he a cheu l ian i n du s t ry o fr o ck s he l te r I I F -23 a t B h imbe tka , C en t ra l I n d ia : A p r e l im ina ry s t udy ,B u l le t in o ft h eI ndo -Pac if i cp reh i s to ry A s soc ia t ion 1 :6 3 106 . M i s ra , V .N . a nd P . B e l lwood . ( Ed s . ) 1 985 . R ecen t a d vance s i nI ndo -Pac i f ic P reh i s tor y . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd a nd I BH . M i s ra ,V .N . ,Y . Ma thpa la nd M .N aga r 1 977 .B h imbe tka p reh i s tor ic m an a nd h i s a r t i n c en t ra l I nd ia . P oona : E xh ib i t ion s ouven i r . M i s ra , V .N . a nd M .L .K . Mu r ty 1 986 . C u l tu ra l a dap ta t ion s i n I nd ia d u r ing t e rm ina l P l e i s tocene a nd e a r ly H o locene t ime s . W or ld A r chaeo log ica l C ong re s s , t h eP le i s tocene P er spec t ive , V o l . 2 :2 3p age s .

Mo rgan , L .H . 1 881 . Hou se s a nd h ou se l i f e o f t h e Amer ican a bor ig ine s . C h icago : C h icago U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 966 . S tone A ge c u l tu re s o f C h i t toor d i s t r ic t , A ndhra P rad e sh . P h .D . t h e s i s , P une : D eccan C o l lege . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 98 1 . H un te r -ga the r e r e co sy s tem s a nd a r chaeo log ica l p a t ter n s o f s ub s i s ten ce b ehav iou r o n t h e s ou thea s t c oa s t o fI nd ia : A n e t hnog raph ic mode l , W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 : 4 7 -58 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 985 . T he u se o f p l an t f ood s b y s ome h un te r -ga the rc ommun i t ie s i nA ndh ra P rade sh , i nR ecen t A dvance s i nI ndo -Pac if ic p reh i s to ry ( V .N . M i s ra a nd P . B e l lwo E d s . ) ,p p .49 -57 .N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd IBH . Mu r ty , M .L .K . a nd G .D . S on the ime r 1 980 . P reh i s to r ic b a ckg round t op a s to ra l i sm i nt h e s ou the rn D eccan i nt h e l i gh t o f o ra l t r ad i t ion s a nd c u l t s o f s ome p a s to ra l c ommun i t ie s ,A n thropo s7 5 : 1 63 -84 . N aga r , M . 1 967 . T he A har C u l ture : A n a rchaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic s t udy . P h .D . t h e s i s , P une : D eccan C o l lege . N aga r , M . 1 975 . R o le o f e t hnog raph ic e v idence i n t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , T he E a s te rn A n thropo log i s t2 9 : 1 3 -22 . P addayya , K . 1 982 . T he a cheu l ian o ccupa t ion s i t e a t H unsg i , ( p en in su lar I nd ia ) : A s e t t l emen t s y s tem p e r spec t ive . P oona : D eccan C o l lege P o s t g radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . P addayya , K . 2 002 . AR ev iew o ft h eo re t ica lp e r spec t ive s i n I nd ian A r chaeo logy , i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy i n R e t ro spec t( S . S e t ta ra nd R .K . S e t ta rE d s . ) , V o . I V : 17 1 57 .N ew D e lh i : I CHR a nd Manoha r . P addayya , K . 2 002a . R ecen t s t ud ie s i n I nd ian A rchaeo logy .N ew D e lh i : I CHR a nd Mun sh i ram . P appu , S . 1 996 . P l e i s tocene e nv ironmen t a nd S tone A ge a dap ta t ions i nt h e K or ta l layar B a s in , T am i l nadu . P h .D . t h e s i s ,P une : U n ive r s i ty o fP oona . R a ju , D .R . 1 98 1 . E a r ly S e t t lemen t p a t te rn i n C uddaph d i s t r ic t , A ndh ra P rade sh : Ap a laeoan th ropo log ica l s t udy . P h .D . t h e s i s , P une : D eccan C o l lege P o s t g r adua te a nd R e sea rch I n s t i tu te . R a ju , D .R . 1 988 . S tone A g e H un ter -Ga there r s : A n E thnoarchaeo logy o f t h e C uddapah R eg ion , S ou thea s t I nd ia . P une : R av i sh P ub l i she r s . R eddy , K .T . 1 968 .P reh i s tory o fC uddapah . P h .D . t h e s i s , S aga r : S auga rU n ive r s i ty . R ou se , I .1 972 . I n t roduc t ion t op reh i s tory : As y s tema t ic a pproach . Y a le U n ive r s i ty : K ing spo r tI n c . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 974 . P reh i s tory a nd p ro toh i s to ry o f I nd ia a nd P ak i s tan . P oona : D eccan C o l lege P o s t g r adua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . S e t ta r , S . a nd R .K . S e t ta r ( Ed s . ) . 2 002 . I nd ian A rchaeo logy i nR e t ro spec t I IV . N ew D e lh i : I CHR a nd Manoha r . S ha rma , G .R . , V .D . M i s ra , D . Manda l , B .B . M i s ra , a nd J .N . P a l . 1 980 . B eg inn ing s o f a g r icu l ture ( Ep ipa laeo l i th ic t o N eo l i th ic : E xcava t ion s a t C hopan i Mando , Mahadaha a nd Mahagara ) . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan .

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S t an i s law sk i , M .B . 1 974 . T he r e la t ion sh ip o f e t hnoa r cha eo logy ,t r ad i t iona la nd s y s tem sa r chaeo logy i n E thnoarchaeo log y Monog raph 4 . ( C .B . D onnan a nd C .W . C lew low E d s . ) . C a l if or n ia : I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy , UCLA . S t i le s , D . 1 977 . E thnoa r chaeo logy : A d i scu s s ion o f m e thod sa nd a pp l ica t ion s , Man 1 2 : 8 7 103 . Wakanka r , V .S . 1 973 . B h imbe tka e xcava t ion ,J ou rna lo f I nd ian H i s tory 5 1 : 2 3 -32 .

W i l ley , G .R . 1 953 . P reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen tp a t t er n s i nt h e V im V a l ley , P e ru , B u l le t in 1 55 . W a sh ing ton : B ureau o f Ame r ican E thno logy , Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion . Wooda l l , J .N . 1 978 . I n t roduc t ion t o mod ern a r chaeo logy . C amb r idge : S chenkman p ub .c o . Y e l len , J . E . 1 977 . A rchaeo log ica l a pproache s t o t h e p r e sen t : Mod e l sf or r econ s truc t ing t h ep a s t . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s .

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M icro l i th ic s i te si nT araf en iv a l ley ,M idnapur d i s tr ic t , We s tB enga l : Av i ew i nh inds igh t B i shnup r iya B a sak r aw m a te r ia l p rocu r em en t , m anuf ac tu r e , u se , m a in tenance a nd d i sca rd o f t oo l s f r om t h e a s semb lage . T hese p roce s se s t h row l i gh t o n t h e p a s t s t r a teg ie s a nd p l an s o f l a nd u se a dop ted t o c ope w i th t h e e nv i ronm en t i n ap a r t icu la r c on tex t . T h i s i sk nown i n a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu r e a s t h e s t udy o f " o rgan iza t ion o f t e chno logy" a nd i s d i f f e r en t f r om t h e s t udy o f as e t o f o b jec t s o r " t oo l s" , a n i n du s t ry o r ap a r t icu la r p roduc t ion t e chn ique t h a t a r e t h e p roduc t s o ft h i s a dap ta t ion . T he m e thodo logy a dop ted h e r ew a sb u i l to ns im i la r s t ud ie s o f l i th ic s c a r r ied o u t i n o t he r p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld . E thnoa rchaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic c a se s t ud ie s o f moder n d ay h un te r -ga the re r s w e r e u sed a s c oncep tua l t oo l s t o g a in a n i n s igh t i n to p a s t h uman b ehav iou r .

M ic ro l i th ic s i te s i nt h e T a raf en i v a l ley , ar e g ion i n n o r th -we s t M idnapu r w i th a n a r ea o f4 50 s q . km , h ad f o rm ed t h e s ub jec tm a t te ro f my P h .D .r e sea r ch ( 1 992 -97 ) . A f te r a g ap o f n ea r ly e i gh t y ea r s r e th ink ing a bou t t h e t o p ic l e ad s t o ar e app ra i sa l . H e re Ia mg iv ing as umm a ry o f my t h e s i s , f o l lowed b y ab r ief d i scu s s ion o fh ow Iw ou ld h ave l i ked t o s e e i tn ow i nt e rm so fr e cen tr e sea r ch . T o e l abo r a te t h e l a t te r Ia m i n c lud ing as umm a ry o f my c u r r en t p ro jec t , wh ich i si np rog r es s . M icro l i th ic s i te s i n t he T araf en i V aley : A s ummary P r eh i s to r ic r e sea r ch i n We s t B enga l w a s m a in ly c on cen t ra ted i n t h e w e s te rn u p land c ove r ing a n a r ea o f3 000 s q km o fP u ru l ia a nd t h ew e s te rn p a r t s o f B anku ra , B i rbhum , B u rdwan a nd M idnapu r . S cho la r s w o rk ing i nt h i s f i e ld h ad u nde r taken o n ly s po r ad ic s u rvey s t ol o ca te s t on e t o o l s a nd b u i ld a g ene ra l s t ra t ig raphy f o r t h e r e g ion . T h i s f e l l s hor t o f a h o l i s t ic a nd s y s tema t ic s t udy o f t h e a r ch aeo log ica l r e co rd o f an a tu ra l u n i t . K eep ing t h i sl a cuna i nm ind t h eT a raf en iv a l ley ( c ove r ing a n a r ea o f4 50 s q km ) i nn o r thw e s tM idnapo r e d i s t r ic t w a s c ho sen a s a n a r ea o f r e sea r ch . F o r ty -n ine t n ic ro l i th ic s i te sw e r e l o ca ted o f wh ich t wen ty -f ou r w e r e d i scove r ed b y p r ev iou s s cho la r s . I n s tead o f t a k ing u p i s o la ted s i te s f o r i n ve s t iga t ion t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f b o th s i te s a nd s c a t te r s a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape w a s t a k en i n to a ccoun t . S i te s , h e r e w e r e d ef ined a s d i sc r e te c l u s te r s o fa r tef ac t s o ccupy ing n oda lp o in t si nt h el a nd scape , a sd i s t ingu i shed f r om o ccu r rence s o f i s o la ted a r tef ac t ( s ) o r d i f f u se s c a t te r s ( 'o f f -s i te ' o r ' n on -s i te ' ) c on t inu ing b e tween s i te s a nd d i s t r ibu ted t h rough o u t t h e l a nd scape . A mu l t id isc ip l ina ry a pp roach w a s a dop ted t o s t udy t h e c on tex t o f t h e s i te s t h a t r e vea led n ew i n f o rma t ion o n t h e l a te Q ua te rna ry p a laeoenv i ronm en t a nd a c h rono logy o f T e rm ina l P l e i s tocen ew a sp ropo sed f o rt h e s i te s .

Ma jo r s ou r ce s o f r aw m a ter ia l u sed i n t h e m anuf ac tu r e o f t h e m ic ro l i th s w e re a b sen t i n t h e r eg ion . I n i t ia l s t age s o ft r imm ing w e r e a l so a b sen t i n t h e a s semb lages a s s e en f r om t h e n om ina l p r e sence o f c o r t ica l f l ak es a nd t h e n eg l ig ib le n umbe ro fr aw m a te r ia l b lock s . T he n umbe ro fr aw m a te r ia l b lock s w a s v e ry l ow a s c ompa r ed t o t h e n umbe ro fc o r es p r e sen t . T hu s i tw a s s u rm i sed t h a t o n -p lace r educ t ion o fb l ade c o r es f r om n odu le s i s n on -ex i s ten t i nt h e r eg ion . P o s s ib ly p a r t ia l ly m ade c o r e sw e r e b rough th e r e a nd t h e c o r t ica l f l ak e st h a t w e r e p r e sen t f o rm ed b ip roduc t s o ft h e p os t in i t ia l t r imm ing p ha se . S uch e v idence s a r e p r eva len t i n a r chaeo log ica l a nd e t hnog raph ic c a se s t ud ie s . S ub sequen t ly , It r i ed t o s e e h ow t h e p o s t in i t ia l t r imm ing p ha se w a s r ef lec ted a tt h e v a r iou s s i te s , w he the r t h e r e w a s a ny d i f f e r ence i n t h e w ay t h a t d i f f e r en t p a r t s o f t h e l a nd scape w e r e u sed i n t h e p a s t . C e r ta in s t re tche s o f t h e l a nd scape s howed a g r ea te rc oncen t ra t ion o fs i te s . Ad i f f e ren t ia ld i sca rd o f d i f f e r en t a r tef ac t g roup s w a s a l so s e en a t d i f f e r en t p l ace s . T he se p a ram e te r s p o in ted t o a d i f f e r en t ia l p l ace u se . No d ef in i te a n swe r s w e re g iven a s t o w hy t h e r eg ion w a s i mpo r tan t t o p reh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s , o n ly p l au s ib le r e a son s w e r e s ugge s ted . U l t im a te ly w ha te m e rged f r om t h i s w o rk w a s t h e d i ve r s i ty a nd c omp lex i ty o f h uman b ehav io ra nd t h e my r iad p rob lem s o fd ef in ing t h em i nm a te r ia lc u l tu r e .

S tud ies i n p r eh i s to ry i n I nd ia a nd p a r t icu la r ly i n B enga l u sua l ly l o ok a ts t on e t o o l s a s d i agno s t ic f o rm s o fp a r t icu la rc u l tu r e s a nd a r et hu sr e duced t o a s t e r eo typed c a ta logu ing o f " f in i shed t oo l s" f o l lowed b y at e chn ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e t e chn ique s o fp roduc t ion . O n t h e o th e r h and , h e re , t h e e n t i r e a s semb lage w a st a k en a st h e u n i to fa na ly s i st os e e h ow t h e b road s t age s o f r e du c t ion w e r e r e f lec ted t h e r e in . T he a im w a s t o l o ok a tt h e p roce sse s o f

N ew V i s ta s I n t h e p a s t o ne d ecade o r s o l a nd scape a s a c u l tu ra l ly c on s t ruc ted p henomenon h a s e m e rged a s

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a d i s t inc t ly i mpor tan t a r ea i n a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , m any o f t h e se i d ea s h av ing b een b o r rowed f r om s oc ia l a nd c u l tu r a l a n th ropo logy a nd c u l tu ra l g eog raphy . H en cef o r th d i scu s s ion s o n l a nd scape c r y s ta l l ized i n to t wo p o la r ized v i ew s : a p r ev iou s ly -ex i s t ing e co log ica l o ne , wh ich s ub sum ed l a nd scape u nde r t h e b road r ub r ic o f e nv i ronm en t t o wh ich h uman b e ing s a dap t ; a nd a c u l tu ra l o ne , w h ich v i ew s l a nd scape a s ' m ean ingf u l ly ' c on s t ruc ted . L and scape b ecam e o ne o f t h e i mpor tan t i t em s o f t h e p roce s sua l /pos t p roce ssua l d eba te . A n ece s sa ry c omponen t o f t h e p roce ssua l a pp roach i s ar e g iona l o r ien ta t ion t ot h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . A r e g ion i s d ef ined a s a n a tu ra l g eog raph ica l u n i t w i th r e f e r en ce t o o ne o r mo r e n a tu ra l f e a tu r e s . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p eop le a nd l a nd scape i ss e en a s o ne o ff un c t iona l d ependence a l ong ' a dap t ive p a r am e te r s ' w he r e i s sue s l i ke r ange o f e nv i ronm en ta l r e sou r ce s e xp lo i ted , r e sou r ce -acqu i r ing t e chno log ie s , d eg ree o f mob i l i ty , s e a sona l i ty a nd s chedu l ing i nr e la t ion t o s e t t lem en t s i ze a s sum ed s up r em e i mpo r tance ( T i l ley 1 994 ) . I n c iden ta l ly t h i s i st h e a pp roach t h a t Ih ad a dop ted wh i le l o ok ing a t p a s t h um an b ehav io ri nT a raf en iv a l ley .

w h ich g i ve a n i n s igh t i n to h ow a nd w ha t p eop le t h ink /pe r ce ive o ft h e e nv i ronm en t . T he s am e r e l ief a nd d r a inage a s sum e a d i f f e r en t s i gn if i cance . C ho ice o f p a r t icu la r l o ca t ion s f o r h ab i ta t ion o r e r ec t ion o f m onum en t s a cqu i r e s a c u l tu ra l m ean ing , a s d i s t inc t f r om s imp le e co log ica l c onno ta t ion . T h i s i sn o t t od i spu t e o rd i s r ega rd t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e l a t te r . P eop le d o n o t o ccupy i n ho sp i tab le l o ca les o n ly o n t h e b a s i s o f as e t o f m ean ing s a nd s ymbo l i sm s . B u tw i th t h e p a s sage o f t im e t h e l o ca le s c ho sen f o rt h e i rh ab i ta t iona l u t i l i ty b ecom e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e se m ean ing s a nd s ymbo l i sm s , w h ich b ecom e t o o i mpo r tan t t o b e i g no r ed . A s c a se s t ud ie s T i l ley s e lec ted o ne c oa s ta l a nd t wo i n land r e g ion s i n Wa le s a nd D o r se t , d i s t in c t ive ly d i f f e r en t i n r e l ief f r om e ach o t h e r , w h ich s how a s ub s tan t ia l p r e sen ce o f Me so l i th ic f l in t s c a t te r s a nd N eo l i th ic m onum en t s . T i l ley a rgue st h a t d u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic , i na l t h r ee a r ea s , a nces t ra l c onnec t ion s b e tween p eop le a nd l a nd scape w e r e m an if e s t i np a th s o f movem en t a nd c e r ta in p l ace s a l ong t h e se p a th s a s sum ed a p a r t icu la r s i gn if icance t o w h ich t h ey r e tur n ed r egu la r ly i n t h e i r s e a sona l a c t iv i ty r ound s . H oweve r , t h e se Me so l i th ic p opu la t ion s m ade v e ry l i t t le i mpac t o n t h e l a nd a nd w ha t s u rv ive s a r e s om e f l in t s c a t te r s . I nt h eN eo l i th ic t h e monum en t s r e s t ru c tu r ed t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een p eop le a nd l a nd scape a si tb ecam e m o r e ' a ncho r ed ' . A l though d i f f e r ence s e x i s ted a mong t h e t h r ee r eg ion s , t h e c u l tu ra l m emo ry o f a' p lace ' a nd t h e c onnec t ion s b e tween s uch m any p l aces w e r e s t ab i l ized b y t h e c on s truc t ion o f m onum en t s a t t h e se s i gn if ican t p o in t s . I n aw o rd , t h el a nd scape w a s ' a pp rop r ia t ed ' . T i l ley r e la te s t h i s t o s ub s i s tence p rac t ices a nd s how s h ow t h e se c hange f r om s imp le s e a sona l movem en t s o fa n ima l s i nt h e Me so l i th ic t o am o r e m ean ingf u ld om e s t ica t ion i nt h eN eo l i th ic .

Ia mw o rk ing w i th in t h e p e r spec t ive t h a t l a nd scape i s ac u l tu ra l ly c on s t ruc ted p henom enon ( A shmo r e a nd Knapp 1 999 ) . T h rough p h enom eno log ica l a pp roach es u sed b y c u l tu ra l a nd s oc ia l a n th ropo log i s t s l a nd scape h a s e m e rged a s c on s t i tu ted b y h uman d we l l ing , s haped b y h um an c ho ice a nd p r ef e r ence s . I tf o l low s f r om t h i s t h a t i t i s n o t u n ive r sa l a nd o b jec t ive ( Thoma s 1 993 ; A shmo r e a nd K napp 1 999 : 1 4 ; B ende r 1 993 ) . T he r e a r e v a r iou s r e ad ing s o fl a nd scape , t h e r e su l t o f d i f f e r en t s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c on tex t s . R ecen t r e sea r che s i n e t hnog raphy a nd c u l tu ra l a n th ropo logy h ave l e d t o a n ' u npack ing ' o f t h e w e s ter n i d iom a nd e ncou raged o ne t ol o ok b eyond a n E u ropean c on s t ruc t . A rchaeo log i s t s , w h i le d ev ia t ing f r om t h et r ad i t iona l c oncep to f' s i te ' h ave s t a r ted f o cu s ing mo re o n n a tu ra l p l ace s o f s i gn if icance i nt h e l a nd scape w h ich y i e ld r e s idue s o f a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu r e , i n d o ing s o , t h ey h ave d r awn h eav i ly o nt h e se s t ud ie s .

S uch s t ud ie s t r yt ob r eak l a nd scape f r ee f r om ad ry e nv i ronm en ta l a pp roach . H oweve r , f o r ah o l i s t ic u nde r s tand ing o f l a nd scape a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a pp roa ch i s r equ i r ed , i n vo lv ing p a laeo -eco logy , e nv i ronm en ta l s c ience , h i s to ry , h um an g eog raphy , c u l tu ra l a n th ropo logy a nd a r chaeo logy . P eop le s ' p e r cep t ion s o f l a nd a r e e x t r em e ly i mpor tan t , i ti s e qua l ly i mpor tan t t o u nde r s tand t h e p a laeo l a nd scape , wh e the r o ne i s d ea l ing w i th o ne l a nd scape o r mo r e ; t h e c on tex t o f s i t e s , w he the r t h ey c an b e r e la ted t o t h e s am e c h rono log ica l p e r iod . T h is i sa l lt h e m o r et r ue f o rE th ic s c a t te r s , a N eo l i th ic o r Mega l i th ic monum en t o n t h e o t he r h and i s mo r e e a s i ly i d en t if iab le w i th a p a r t icu la r t im ef r am e .

A s h if t f r om t h i s e co log ica l ly d e te rm in is t ic a pp roach i ss e en a mong s cho la r sl i ke T i l ley ( 1994 ) , B ende r( 1993 ) , T homa s( 1993 )a nd B rad ley ( 2000 ) . ( The r e i sv o lum inou s l i t e r a tu re o n t h is , f o r i n i t ia l r e ad ing s s e e A shmo r e a nd K napp 1 999 ; B ende r 1 993 ) . T i l ley ( 1994 ) a r gue s t h a t t h e l a nd scape i s s uf f u sed w i th my th s , c osmo log ie s a nd s ymbo l i sm s

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I n my o ngo ing p ro jec t I a m d ea l ing w i th m ic ro l i th ic s c a t te r s , s i t es i n t h e r e g ion a r ound A yodhya h i l l s , P u ra l ia Wes t B enga l . Ad i scu s s ion o ft h i sp ro jec tw i l l s how h ow a nd t o wha t e x ten t i t d i f f e r s f r om my P h .D d i s ser ta t ion . Maybe t h i s i s h ow Iw ou ld l i ke t os e eT a raf en iv a l ley n ow .

A yodhya h i l l s , w he re s i f t ing o u t ap a r t icu la r l e ve l o fp e r cep t ion h a sb een ac omp lex t a sk s om e t im e s . T he m ic ro l i th ic s c a t te r s a r e a pp rox im a te ly d a ted t o t h e T e rm ina l P l e is tocene t h rough a n a na ly s i s o ft h e c on tex t a nd s t r a t ig raphy , a nd c ompa r ing t h em w i th t h o se o f T a raf en i v a l ley w h e r e t h e s i te s c ou ld b e r e la t ive ly d a ted t ot h e T e rm ina l P l e i s tocene . T he se a r e c h ie f ly c oncen t ra ted a r ound p rom inen th i l l sa nd r o cky o u tc rop s , wh ich e m e rge a s ' s ign if i can t n a tu ra l m a rke r s ' i nt h e l a nd scape . Ad e ta i led s t udy o f t h e a s semb lage s how s t h a t m a jo r z one s o f a c t iv i ty w e r e a r ound t h e se n a tu ra l m a rk e r s . O ve r t im e t h e se m a rk e r s h ave g a the red s t o r ie s , l e gend s a nd my tho log ica l a s soc ia t ion s a sr e f lec ted i ns om e o ft h e l o ca l c e r emon ie s a nd f e s t iva l s c en ter ing o n t h em . A f ew s c a t te r s s i tua ted a way f r om t h e se m a jo r z one s w e r e e phem e ra l ly u t i l ized , t h i s i sn o t t os ugge s tt h a tt h ey w e r e l e s ss i gn if ican tp l ace s , t h e mo re ' f r ag i le e l em en t s ' i n a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a r eo f t en l o s tt ou s .

L i th ic s ca t ter s a nd p ercep t ion s o f l and scape : A yodhya h i l l s ,P uru l ia , We s tB enga l U s ing m ic ro l i th ic s c a t te r s i n A yodhya h i l l s a s a c a se s t udy Ia mt r y ing t os e eh ow f a rp e r cep t ion so f l a nd scape c an b e s e en f r om t h e l o ca t ion s o ft h e se s c a t te r s a nd a s t udy o f t h e i r a s semb lage . A r i ch , v i b ran t b ody o f r i tua l s , c e r emon ies , my th s a nd s ymbo l i sm s u r round ing t h e h i l l s a nd o the r n a tu ra l f e a tu r e s i n t h e l a nd scape e x i s t s a mong t h e l o ca l i n d igenou s c ommun i t ie s . U s ing t h i s a s at o o l t o w o rk w i th I a m a l so t r y ing t o s e e h ow f a r e t hnog raphy c an b e u sed t o of e r i n s igh t s i n to p a s t p e r cep t ion s . Ia m w o rk ing w i th in t h e p e r spec t ive t h a t l a nd scape i s a c u l tu r a l ly c on s t ruc ted p henom enon , h e r e I a m r e ly ing o n r e cen t a r chaeo log ica l , a n th ropo log ica l a nd c u l tu r e g eog raph ica la pp roach es t ol a nd s cape .

My e t hnog raph ic s t udy i s n o t s ugge s t ing a ny u nb rok en c on t inu i ty o fw o r sh ip o ft h e se h i l l s a nd n a tu r a l f e a tu r e s ; i ti s o n ly o f f e r ing m e w i th a n a l ter na t ive v i s ion o f l a nd scape . B y s e e ing t h e se s c a t te r sa s' s ign if ican tp l ace s ' i nt h el a nd scape Ia m s ugge s t ing t h a t al o t l i e s b enea th a nd b eyond a m e r ec oncen t ra t ion o fa r t if ac t s .

I nI nd ian p r eh i s to ry l a nd scape h a s e m e rged i nt wo w ay s —a s ag eog raph ica l r e g ion , p rov id ing t h e b ackd rop t o ar e con s t ru c t ion o fp a s t l i f e w ay s a nd a s ' e nv i ronm en t ' w h e r e e x i s t ing f e a tu r e s a r e u sed t o r e con s t ruc t t h e p a laeo -env i ronm en t . L and scape a s a c u l tu ra l ly c on s t ruc ted p henom enon h a s r em a ined o u t s ide t h e b ounda ry o f t h e se s t ud ie s . U n l ike monum en t s , wh ich h ave a mo r e s o l id , a ncho r ed p o s i t ion i nt h e l a nd scape , l i th ic s c a t te r s a r e l e s s ' imp r e s s ionab le ' ; t h e r ef o r e d ecod ing t h e i r m ean ing s a nd s ymbo l i sm i sm o re c ha l leng ing a nd p e rhap s mo r e d i ff i cu l t . Ia m s how ing t h a t , d esp i te l im i ta t ion s , s t one sd o s peak o u tt ou s . T h i sh a s a l so b een ap e r sona l j ou rney t h rough t h e l a nd scape o f

T h i s i s as h if tf r om af unc t iona l i s t a pp roach whe r e t h e e mpha s i s i s o n ly o n u nde r s tand ing p a s t s t ra teg ie s o fu se a nd r eu se o fl a nd scape f r om l i t h ic s c a t te r s . A l though t h e m e thodo logy o f s t on e t oo ls a na ly s i s a dop ted i n t h e e a r l ie r w o rk h a s b een m a in ta ined i nt h e c u r r en t p ro jec t t h e e mpha s i s h a s b een mo r e o n u nde r s tand ing p a s t p e r cep t ion s t h rough l i th ic s c a t te r sa nd t h e i rl o ca t ion .

R ef erence s A shmo r e , W . a nd A .B . K napp 1 999 . A rchaeo log ie s o f L and scape , C on t emporary P e r spec t ive s . O xf o rd : B la ckwe l l . B ende r , B . 1 993 . L and scape : P o l i t ic s a nd P e r spec t ive s . O xf o rd : B e rg . B rad ley , R . 2 000 . A n A rchaeo logy o fN a tura l P lace s . L ondon : R ou t ledge .

T homa s , J . 1 993 . T he P o l i t ics o f V i s ion a nd t h e A r chaeo log ie s o fL and scape , i nL and scape : P o l i t ic s a nd P er spec t ive s( B . B ende rE d . ) ,p p . 1 9 -48 . O xf o rd : B e rg . T i l ley ,C . 1 994 . AP henomeno logy o fL and scape :P lace s , P a ths a nd Monumen t s . O xf o rd : B e rg .

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AR e -exam ina t ion o ft he Upper P a laeo l i th ic ' Dam in I ndus tr ie s ' , B ans lo i R iver B as in , J harkhand K um a rA kh i le sh I n troduc t ion T h i s p ap e r f o cu se s o n ad e sc r ip t ion o fc o r e s f r om t h e U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic ' Dam in ' i n du s t r ie s o f t h e B an s lo i r i v e r b a s in , J h a rkhand . T h i s w o rk f o rm s p a r t o f ab road e r s t udy w h ich a im s a t t h e r e e xam ina t ion o ft h e se i n du s t r ie si nt h ew id e rc on t ex t o ft h e I nd ian U ppe rP a la eo l i th ic . S p ec if i c g oa l s o f t h i s s t udy i n c lud e e xam in ing t h e s t r a t ig r aph ic c on tex t o f s i te s a nd t h e c on tex t o f a r tef ac t s ; t h e n a tu r e o f a s semb lage s , i n t e r s i t e v a r iab i l i ty a nd l i th ic t e chno logy ; i n o rd e r t o p u t f o rwa rd s om e m ode l s o f p r eh i s to r ic l a ndu se p a t ter n s i n t h e r e g ion .

a f f i l ia t ion t h e p r e sen ce o fm ic ro l i th s c a l led f o r a n U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic s t a tu s ( Ch ak r aba r t i 1 993 : 1 08 ) . H i s w o rk , a l though l im i t ed t o ab r ief s u rv ey y i e ld ed n ew i n f o rm a t ion a nd e s tab l i shed t h eo ve r a l l p r e sen ce a nd n a tu r e o f i n du s t r i e s i n t h e r e g ion . N a rayan ( 1 996 ) i n h i s s umma ry o f t h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic o fB iha r a nd J ha rkhand , b e l ieved t h a t t h i s i n du s t ry d i f f e r ed f r om t h e e a r ly U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s o f S i nghbu rn , a s a l so f r om t h e d ev e loped U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s w i th b a ck ed b l ad e s ,C ha t e lpe r ron a nd G rave t t ian k n iv e s , p o in t s , b l ad e le t s , e t c . ; f r om P a lamau , a nd t h e a mo rphou s n a tu r e o f i n du s t r ie s f r om H aza r ibagh a nd G i r idh . H e n o t ed a s t r ik ing c on t ra s t b e tween t h e t h ick b road b l ad e s s t ru ck f r om c r ud e p r i sm a t ic c o r e s i n S inghbum a nd t h e p a ra l le l s i ded b l ad e s a nd s t anda rd iz ed p r i sm a t ic c o r e s o f t h e D amü i r e g ion ( Na rayan 1 996 : 2 64 ) . T h e l im i ted n a tu r e o f t h es t ud ie sc ondu c t ed ,i n t r igu ing d e sc r ip t ion so ft h e n a tu r e o f t h e b l ad e i n du s t ry d e sc r ibed r e qu i r ed f u r th e r r e -exam ina t ion o f i t ' s p o s i t ion w i th in t h e I n d ian U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic , a nd c on s t i tu t ed t h e s ub jec t o f r e sea r ch i n t h e a u tho r ' s d oc to r a l d i s se r ta t ion .

T he d i scov e ry o f ap o s s ib le U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n B iha r c an b e t r aced b a ck t ot h e w o rk o fA nd e r son ( 1 9 17 ) . S ub sequen t s t ud ie s ( Na r ayan 1 996 ; C hak r aba r t i 1 993 ) , l e d t o t h e e s tab l i shm en t o f v a r ied f l ak e a nd b l ad e a nd b l ade b a s ed i n du s t r ie s o ve r p a r t s o f m od e rn B iha r a nd J h a rkhand . T h e Dam in ' i n du s t r ie s w e r e f i r s t s t ud ied a nd c a tego r i sed a ss u ch b yD .K . C hak r aba r t i ( 1 993 ) a s p a r t o f h i s b roade r s u rv ey o f t h e p r eh i s to r ic a r cha eo logy o f e a s t er n I nd ia . T h e r e g ion w h e r e t h e se i n du s t r ie s o ccu rc omp r i se s p a r t o ft h e S an ta l P a rgana s ( c u r r en t ly p a r t s o fD umk a , P aku r , G odda a nd S ah ebgan j d i s t r ic t s o fJ h a rkhand ) . T h i s r e g ion w a sr e f e r r ed t oa sD am in i -koh o r" t h e s k i r t so ft h e h i l l s" b yB r i t i sh a dm in i s t r a to r s i nt h e 1 9t h c en tu ry ; h ence C hak r aba r t i c l a s s if i ed t h e i n du s t r ie s w h ich f e l l w i th in t h i s r e g ion a s t h e D am in i n du s t r ie s ( Chak r aba r t i 1 993 ) . H e d e sc r ibed t h e D am in i n du s t ry a s a n " .Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic i n du s t ry w i th m ic ro l i th ic e l em en t s , w h ich o ccu r s i n a w e l l d ef ined s t r a t ig r aph ic s i tu a t ion a nd i sm a rk ed b yt h e a lmo s te x c lu s ive u se o f ap a t ina ted b r own i sh c h e r ty m a te r ia l a sr aw m a te r ia l" ( Chak r aba r t i 1 993 :102 ) . I n t h i s i n du s t ry , r e tou ch ed f l ak e s , c o r e s a nd s c r ape r s c on s t i tu t e m o r e t h an 7 0% o f t h e t o o l c o l lec t ion . S c r ape r s a r e p r edom inan t . B lade s a r e f ew e ri nn umbe ra sc ompa r ed t oo t h e rt y pe s . O ft h e 3 6 s i t e s d i s cov e r ed b y C hak r aba r t i , m ic ro l i th s a r e n o t ed a l ong w i th U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o o l s a t 1 5 s i t e s . H e s ugge s ted t h a tt h eD am in i n du s t ry w a s a n i n c ip ien t b l ad e i n du s t ry w i th a n e l em en t o fb u r in s ( Chak r aba r t i 1 993 :102 ) . H e a t t r ibu t ed i tt o t h e U ppe r P a la eo l i th ic b a s ed o n t h e p r e sen ce o ft o o l s i n s t ra t if i ed c on t ex t s , a nd t h e o ccu r r en ce o f a n i n c ip ien t b l ad e i n du s t ry w i th b u r in s . H e n o t ed t h a t a l though s c r ape r s s ugge s t ed aM idd le P a laeo l i th ic

T he R eg ion T h e s t udy r e g ion ( F ig . 1 ) c omp r i se s a n a r ea o f 1 95 .6 km2 ( 24 °30 't o2 4 °45 ' Na nd 8 7 °34 't o8 7 °45 ' E ) , a nd l i e s i n ap a r to ft h e ' D amm ' a r ea , f a l l ing i n t h eb a s in o ft h e r i v e rB an s lo i . I ti sb ound ed b yt h e R a jm aha l h i l l s i n t h e w e s t ; w h ich r i se t o a m ax imum e l eva t ion o f 4 23 m a t T ong i P ah a r ( 2 4 °38 'N : 8 7 °34 'E ) . O u t l ie r s o ft h eR a jm aha lh i l l s a r e n o ted t owa rd s t h e e a s t , w h ich r a nge i n e l ev a t ion f r om 1 0 5 m ( Cha rk a p aha r , 2 4 °42 ' N : 8 7 °32 ' E ) t o 1 85 .4 m ( Dham s i p aha r , 2 4 °44 ' N : 8 7 °40 ' E ) . T h e r e g ion i sd r a in ed b yt h e r i v e rK i r la w h ich d r a in s i n to t h e r i v e r T o r a i a nd e ven tu a l ly i n to t h e G anga . T o t h e s ou th o ft h e r e g ion l i e s t h e r i v e r B an s lo i . N um e rou s f i r s t a nd s e cond o r d e r s t r eam sa r e n o t ed . T h e se o r ig ina t e i nt h e R a jm aha l h i l l s a nd t h e i ro u t l i e r s . S eve r a l n a tu ra l w a t e rt a nk s a r e a l so n o t iced n ea rK a r iod ih , K a r angha t i , R anga , J h en aga r ia ,T a l jha r i ,a nd L i t ipa r a . A ni n t en s ive f i e ld s u rv ey o ft h ea r ea w a sc ondu c t ed ( 2 00 1 -2004 ) , w i th t h e a im o f s amp l ing d i f f e r en t g eog r aph ic / g eomo rph ic z on e s . W i th in e a ch b road e r l o ca l i ty , s i t e s ( a r ea w i th h i gh d en s i ty o f

1 50

8 13 0 '

p roces ses a sa l so o n s i te f o rma t ion p roce s se s i nt h e r eg ion . T he L i th ic A s semb lage At o ta l o f 1 430 a r tef ac t s w e re s t ud ied f r om at o ta l o f 2 0 s i te s a nd o f f -s i te s . O f t h i s 10 c omp r i sed c o re s o fv a r iou s t ype s . P a ram e te r s c ho sen i n c luded r aw m a te r ia l t ype s , s t a te , p a t ina t ion , a b ra s ion , c o r e t y pe , d im en s ion s , t h e n a tu r e , n umbe r a nd d im en s ion s o fb l ank s d e tached , n a tu r e a nd p o s i t ion o f s t r ik ing p l a tf o rm s , p e r cen tage a nd p o s i t ion o f c o r tex ( De ran iyaga la 1 993 ; G ho sh 1 993 ; I n izan e t a l . 1 999 , I n izan a nd L echeva l l ie r 1 995 ; M i s ra 1 978 ; Mu r ty 1 979 ; P addayya 1 970 ; R a ju 1 988 ; S a h i 1 989 ; S ha rma a nd C la rk 1 983 ) . I na dd i t ion t ot h i s , ad e ta i led s t udy o f b l ade s a nd f l ake s , a nd c o re t r imm ing e l emen t s i n t h e a s semb lage i s u nde r i n ves t iga t ion a nd p r e l im ina ry r e su l t s o f t h i s a r e p re sen ted h e re . As t udy o ft h er aw m a te r ia ln odu le s n o ted a te ach s i te w a sa l so c onduc ted .

S tudy A rea I t -ma jo rs i te c lus te r s

1 .f km

F i g . 1 :T he r e g ion s how ing d i s t r ibu t ion o fm a jo rs i t e s .

C ore s At o ta l o f 10 c o re s w e r e s t ud ied i n c lud ing b l ade c o r es ( n=64 ) , f l ake c o r e s ( n=21) a nd i n ten s ive ly r educed c o r e s ( n=25 ) ( s ee T ab le 1 ) . R aw m a te r ia l c omp r i ses f i ne -g ra in ed s i l iceou s m a te r ia l o fw h ich v a r ied c a tego r ies o f c he r t p r edom ina te s . T he f o l low ing t ype so fc o r e sw e r en o ted .

t o o l s ) w e re m apped . L ow -den s i ty a r tef ac t s c a t te r s w e r e n o t iced o ccu r r ing b e tw een s i te s . A l though i n g en e ra l a r tef ac t s w e r e c o l lec t ed r a ndom ly , g r id s o f 1x 1o r2 . 5 x2 . 5 mw e r e l a id o u t a ts e lec ted a r ea s f r om wh ich a l l a r tef ac t s a nd n a tu ra l c l a s t s w e r e c o l lec ted . F u r the r , ac o l lec t ion o f a l l a r tef ac t s , n a tu ra l c l a s t s a l ong w i th t h e t o p 5c m o fs ed im en t c ove rw a sm ad e f r om 1x l g r id s a ts e lec ted s i t es f o r ap u rpo se o fs t udy ing n a tu ra l f o rm a t ion p roce s ses , a nd t oo b ta in ac on t ro l led s amp le f r om t h e se s i te s . I n a dd i t ion t ot h i s , s e c t ion s s t ud ied w e r e m apped , d r awn a nd s ed im en t a nd c l a s t s amp le s w e r e c o l lec ted f o r f u r the r a na ly s i s . A s amp le o f c h e r t t y pe s f r om a l l c her t s ou r ce s s t ud ied a nd f r om e ach s i te w a s a l so c o l lec ted w i th t h e a im o fc onduc ted r aw m a te r ia lp rovenance s t ud ie s .

B lade C ore s A t o ta l o f 6 4 b l ade c o r e s w e r e n o ted w i th m ean d im en s ion s o f 4 0 .29 x 3 1 .52 x 2 2 .73 mm ( Sdev L = 12 .89 ; S dev -B= 10 .19 ) . Wh i le mo s t b l ade c o r e s a r e o n c her t ; o n e e xamp le e ach w a s n o ted o n b a sa l t , a ga te , c ha lcedony a nd q ua r tz . Mod if i ed n odu les wh ich m ay r e p r e sen t b l ade c o r e p e rf o rm s a r e n o ted i nf ou r c a se s a nd m ea su r e 6 6 .34 x3 7 .24 x2 8 .97 mm . I no n e c a se , a na t temp th a sb een m ade t o c r ea te a r i dge ; i n t h e s e cond e xamp le p re l im ina ry b l ade l i k e f l ake s w e r e d e tached f o l low ing wh ich t h e c o r e w a s a bandoned . O ne t o o l h a s e v idence o fp r epa ra t ion o f ac r e s ted r i dge o n t wo e dge s o fa n e l onga ted c he r t n odu le . No b l ade s w e r e d e tached , b u t t h e t oo l a ppea r s t o h ave b een u t i l ized ( F ig . 2 ) .

At o ta l o f2 0 s i te s a nd o f fs i t e s w e r e s t ud ied . T h e o l de s t l a nd s u r f ace c omp r i se s t h e R a jmaha l T rap . T h e se w e r e c apped b y T e r t ia ry l a te r i t ie s a t e l eva t ion s r ang ing f r om 5 4 -102 m AMSL , w ea the r ing o f wh ich l e d t o t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f l a t e r i t ic n odu le s , g ranu les a nd i r on s ton es w i th in t h e P l e i s tocene d r a inage s y s tem . P os s ib le L owe r P a laeo l i th ic a r tef ac t s w e r e n o ted i n ab ou lde ry p ebb ly c em en ted c ong lom e ra te s e en a tK a rangha t i a l ong t h e r i ve r T o ra i . U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t oo l s o ccu r i n v a r ied c on tex t s : - a ) o n t h e s u rf ace o f w ea the r ed R a jmaha lT rap sa nd T e r t ia ry l a te r i te s ;b ) e r od ing o u t o f l a te r i t ic r e go l i th s a nd o n t h e i r s u r f ace ; c ) w i th in c obb ly -pebb ly h i gh leve l g r ave ls ; d ) i n c a lc r e t i sed s i l t s . S tud ies a r e i n p rog r es sa st ot h en a tu r eo fP l e i s tocene g eomo rph ic

Opposed p la tf orm b lade c ore s ( n= 10 ) : T h ese a r e a l l o n h eav i ly r educed n odu le s a nd h ave m ean d im en s ion s o f 3 7 .87 x 3 1 .69 x 2 3 .06 mm . F ive h ave < 25 % c o r tex o ccu r r ing a l ong o n e f a ce . T he l a s t g ene ra t ion o f b l ade d e tachm en t c omp r i se s a r ound t wo th ree b l ade s p e r c o r e . A ve rage b l ade s c a r d im en s ion s a r e 3 2 .55 x 1 0 .79 mm , w i th a t e ndency t owa rd s s ma l le r n a r rowe r b l ade s . C o r e

1 51

shapes range from roughly pyramidal to irregular and heavily reduced cores. A variant of this type includes a core on an older flake. Three blades were detached from opposed platforms. Blade scars here are unpatinated, as contrasted with the patinated surface of the older flake.

minimum of 43.35 x 5.39 mm (average =36.75 x 9.26 mm, Sdev-L= l 0.89 and Sdev-B =6.90). b. Amorphous cores (n= l 6): These have mean dimensions of 40.25 x 35.67 x 26.73 mm. They are globular, piano-convex or amorphous in shape and appear to be heavily reduced. Cortex is noted in four cases and is B ranche s S t one

P o tr e s t

P o s th o les

t e Tree trunk

A sh

G l as sb ang le p i e ce s

(g C omp a c t f l oo r

= == ` • D igg ing t o o l "

l ' o tshe rds P i th ea r th

K ey s S i t e -l A bandoned A r ea 0 P ond 0 : 9 T r e eT r unk S t one P o s t ho l e B on e s K han ta B e long ing s S t o r ag ep l a tf oun O p en h e a r th H ea r th L ea f L ea fp l a te s B r anche s D i t ch M ud f l oo r P o t sh e r d s B amboo a nd s t r aw S t o r ag er o om A sh Q ue rn P o t P ebb l e s P ur ee p o t B rok en g l a s sb ang le s F ig . 3 :L ayou to f Mu saha rs e t t lemen tt y pe I ( s ea sona l s umme rs e t t lem en t )

3 01

S c a le

J ung le t( 2 km away)

I

M e t e r

•/ K ‚f ( e) e4

A bandoned s i l ica s a nd q ua r ry

44 *

K ey s

4

H en c oop B e long ing s S ou r ce o fw a t e r R ammed e a r th f l oo r Mud f l oo r P o s t -ho le B one s A sh T re et r unk

A re al i t te red w i th p ebb le s O p en h ea r th H ea r th C ommun i ty h ea r th L eaf L eaf p l a te s Mo squ i to r e pe l len tp o t P o t she rd Mu l le r

F i g .4 :L ayou to f Musaha rs e t t lemen tt y pe I I ( s em i -permanen t s e t t lemen t )

3 02

B r anche s Wood S t one s S t o r age b i n P ur ee p o t M u ck s tonewa l l K han ia P o t

6 2 *

b rok en p o t te ry a nd g l a s s p i ece s , a nd o the r b roken o b jec t s o u t o ft h e s e t t lem en t . I ti so n ly t h e s e t t led a g r icu l tu r i s t s who m ak e m anu r e p i t s i . e . p ans i i n w h ich r e fu se m a te r ia l i s c o l lec ted f o r u se a s m anu r e . T he h ou se s a r e w i thou t u r ina l s , l a t r ines a nd b a th room s . Men , w om en a nd c h i ld r en g o t o n ea rby f i e ld s o r i nt h e o pen t o a n sw e r t h e c a l l o f n a tu r e . 5 .D i spo sa l o fF ood R efu se : T he d i spo sa l o ff ood r e fu se i nt h e Mu sahar S e t t lemen ti s ;

4 o

I n t h e S ea sona l O pen -A i r S e t t lem en t s d i spo sa l o f f ood r e f u se i sd one i nt h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea i t se lf a nd n o s pec if ic e f f o r t i s m ade t o c l ean t h e t h rown r e fu se . T he b one s w e r e s e en s c a t te red i n t h e f o l low ing c on tex t s : e mbedded i n t h e f l oo r o f t h e c ompac t e a r th o f t h e d we l l ing a r ea ; i n t h e h ea r th a r ea , i na bandoned h ea r th s , w hen r oa s t ing m ea t i n t h e o pen w i th t w ig s i np i t h ea r th s ; d ump s l o ca ted a bou t 2 m a way f r om t h e d we l l ing a r ea a nd t h roughou tt h eh ab i ta t ion a r ea .

nw . 444

S ea le K e y % S IT t- t( Se t t lemen t Ia ,S ea lo t t e ) Ag r icu l tu re S e t t lemen t , h i l lt op ) S lit -2 ( Abandon ed W W 1 S e t t lemen t Io )

F i g . 5 : Map s how ing v i l lage Mando , S i te I( s e t t lem en t t ype I a , s e a sona la g r icu l tu r a ls e t t lem en t ,h i l lt op ) St ela .

I n S ea sona l S umm e r S e t t lem en t s t h e b on e s w e r e s e en s c a t te r ed i nt h e f o l low ing p l ace s : a r ound t h e p ond o r w a te r s ou rce ; a bou t 2t o 4m a way f r om t h e d we l l ing a r ea ; a nd i nh ea r th s , r oa s t ing a r ea a nd a bandoned h ea r th s . I nS em i -Pe rmanen t S e t t lem en t s t h e b ones w e re s e en s c a t te red i n t h e f o l low ing p l ace s ; b eh ind h u t s ; a bou t 6m a way f r om t h e d we l l ing a r ea a nd i n t h e h ea r th a nd a bandoned h ea r th s . I n P e rman en t S e t t lem en t s t h e r ubb i sh i s f e d t o t h e d ome s t ic p ig s . T he b on e s w e r e s e en s c a t te r ed a r ound r i ce f i e ld s t o a t t rac t r a t s ; b eh ind h u t s ; i nt h e h ea r th s a nd a bandoned h ea r th s a nd i n t h em anu r ep i t s( pans i ) .

* • •••e + tet

Ko l S e t t lemen t : I na l lt h et y pe so fK o l s e t t lemen t s , i . e . S ea sona l S e t t lem en t ; S em i P e rmanen t S e t t lem en t , H am le t ; a nd Y ea r R ound P e rmanen t S e t t lem en t , Sma l l V i l lage t h e b on e s w e r e f ound b eh ind t h e h u t , i nr e f u se d ump s , l o ca ted a bou t 1 0 m a way f r om t h e d we l l ing a r ea , i nh ea r th s a nd p i t h ea r th s , a nd m anu r ep i t s( pan s i ) . Ke e 0 C m e 0 •

Mendo ta b u t M od/b a t & me te S t o at P a ie t io l i t l i t r an c i t e e

. * a . •

D am e Naiad

Ma l lah S e t t lemen t : I n T empo ra ry F i sh ing S e t t lem en t s d i spo sa l o f b one s w e r e s e en o n t h e b ank s o ft h e r i ve r , b eh ind t h e h u t a nd i nt h e h ear th a r ea . I n t h e h ea r th s t h e r e w e r e b roken f i sh b one s ( An sa r i 2 001b : 4 9 ) . I n S ea sona l A g r icu l tu r a l S e t t lem en t s , h i l lt o pt h e d i spo sa l o fb one sw a s s e en s c a t te r ed i nt h e a g r icu l tu ra l f i e ld s ; d umped b eh ind t h e h u t s a nd i n t h e h ea r th a r ea . I n S ea sona l A g r icu l tu ra l S e t t lem en t s , R eced ing G anga t h e

(N an

W in*

F ig . 6 :L ayou to fa bandoned Ma l lah s e t t lem en tt y pe I a( h i l lt op )

4 .S an i tary F ac i l i t ie s : Mo s t ly b roken o rd i sca rded i t em s a r e t h rown n ex t t o t h e d w e l l ing a r ea , o ve r c ou r tya rd w a l l s , i n to g u l l ie s a nd p i t s . N o a t temp t i s m ade t o c a r ry t h e a ccumu la t ion o f a n ima l b one s ,

3 03

b one s w e r e s e en a r ound t h e d we l l ing a r ea , m a in ly n ea r h ea r th s . A f te r t h e w a t e r l e ve l o f t h e G anga r i se st h er i ve rc a r r ie s a way a l lt h em a te r ia lr ema in s , a nd n o th ing r ema in s a t t h e s e t t lem en t , i n c lud ing b one s . I n P e rm anen t S e t t lem en t s t h e f i sh b one s w e r e d i spo sed o f i nt h e h ea r th f i r e , o r e ven tua l ly t h rown b eh ind t h e h u t o r i n t h e r ubb i sh d ump s i tua ted 1 5 t o2 0 ma way f r om t h e s e t t lem en t . T he a n im a l a nd f i sh b one s a r e i n d ica to r s o f t h e a c t iv i t ies o f t h e o ccupan t s , t h e i r f ood h ab i t s a nd a l so , t o s om e e x ten t , t h e t y pe o f s e t t lem en t i n r e la t ion t o t h e d i spe r sa l a nd d i sca rd o f b one r ema in s . T h ey a r e a l r eady s t ud ied i nt h e s e t t lem en t s t udy c on tex te l sewhe r e( An sa r i 2 001b : 5 1) .

b u r row v a r ie s f r om 1 5 -20 c m a nd s om e a r e 2m d eep . E ve ry b u r row i n c lude s s u rf ace o pen ing s , f e ed ing t unn e l s , n e s t ing c hambe r s , a nd a f o od c ach e . F eed ing t unne l s a r e p a ra l le l t o s u rf ace , w h i le s t o rage c hambe r s a r e u sua l ly f ound a t g r ea te r d ep th s . S om e t im e s t h e re m ay b e a s m any a s s even t o t e n a du l t a s w e l l a s y oung r a t s i n a s i ng le h o le . T he Mu saha r s a l so t a k e o u t t h e g r a in c o l lec ted b y t h e r a t s i nt h e h o le . T he b e s t s e a son f o r r a t c a tch ing i s w hen t h e g r a in i s r i pe a nd t h r esh ing o fg r a in s t a r t s . T echn ique : Af t e r t r ac ing t h e r a t h o le o ne m an s t a r t s d i gg ing t h e h o le w i th k han ta a nd a s e cond m an s imu l taneou s ly p ou r s w a te r w i th t h e b uck e t a f te r t h e f e ed ing t unne l i s c l ea r ly v i s ib le . T h i s w ho le p roces s i st o s c a r e t h e r a t s i n s ide t h e h o le . T h e w a te rs uf f oca te st h er a t s a nd t h ey t r yt oe s cape f r om o t he r o u t le t s . Mean t im e t h e a ccompany ing c h i ld r en s t ay b y t h e o t he r o u t le t s o ft h e r a t h o le s a nd w a i tw i th s t i ck si nt h e i rh and s . When ar a tt r i e s t oe s cape , i ti sk i l led b y as t ick o ri sc augh tb yb a r e h and s . I n t h e o the r s i tua t ion w hen t h e r a t s d o n o t e s cape a nd d i ei n s ide ,t h eh un te r s d i gt h em u p . T h e Mu saha r s p r ef e r f i e ld r a t s t o o t he r t y pe s . T h ey n eve r e a t h ou se r a t s a s t h ey c l a im t h e h ou se r a t s s t ink a nd d on ' t t a s te g ood . Many Mu saha r s k eep r a t s c ap t ive i n s m a l l p o t s f o r l a te r c on sump t ion . T h ese p o t s a r e g ene ra l ly p l aced /bu r ied i n o n e c or n e ro ft h eh ou se .

E conomy , T echno logy a nd Ma ter ia lC u l ture A l though s ome p a r t o f t h i s w o rk h a s b een p ub l i shed e l sewhe r e ( An sa r i 1 999 -2000 , 2 001b ) a n a t temp t i sm ade h e re t op r e sen t ab r ief d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e i rs ub s i s ten ce p a t ter n . a . Hun t ing a nd F ow l ing : E x ten s ive f i e ldwo rk w a s c a r r ied o u t o n s ma l l g am e h un t ing p rac t ice s a mong t h et h r ee c ommun i t ies . R ap id d e s t ruc t ion o ff o r e s t s a nd t h e s egm en ta t ion o f f o r es t land s b y r oad s , b u i ld ing s , f a c to r ie s a nd a g r icu l tu r e h ave s eve re ly r educed t h e n a tu ra l h ab i ta t s o f b ig g am e . T he t r ad i t ion o fs ma l l g am e h un t ing h a s l i t t le e conom ic i mpor tance b u t i ss t i l l p rac t i sed a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ies i nt h e s t udy a r ea . T hey u sua l ly h un t w h i le g a the r ing l e ave sf r om n ea rby f o r e s ta r ea s .

T h e mo s t s i gn if ican t f e a tu re o fr a t h un t ing a mong t h e Mu saha r s i st h e m in ima l u se o ft o o l s . Af t e rt h e r a t s a r e c augh t p r epa ra t ion s f o r r o a s t ing t h em b eg in . T he k i l l i sd i s t r ibu ted e qua l ly a mong a l l t h e h un te r s . F rom t h e e a r t o t h e t a i l e ve ry p a r t i s c on sum ed a nd n o th ing i sw a s ted . T h e w a s te b ody p a r t s , t h e i n c iso r a nd t h e b ur n t t w ig s r em a in b eh ind . N o b l ade o r k n if e i sr equ i r ed t o c u t t h e r a t s , t h e r a t 's i n c iso r sa r e s ha rp e nough t oc a r ry o u t t h et a sk . A f te rt e nd ay st h e s i te w a sa ga in v i s i ted t o c h eck t h er ema in s , a nd i tw a s n o t iced t h a tt h e w ind h ad b l own a way t h et w ig s a nd a sh a nd j u s ta na shy a ppea rance a nd i n c i so r s r ema in ed . R a t s k ep t i nt h e p o t s b u r ied i n t h e g round f o r l a te r c on sump t ion , b u t f o r s om e r e a son n eve r c on sum ed , w e r e t h e o n ly e v iden ce o f r a t s f ound f r om t h e Mu saha r h ou se .

T h e Mu saha r s a r e e xpe r t i n t h e h un t ing o f r a t s , s qu i r re l s , t o r to i se s a nd b i rd s . T hey c on sum e 3 6 t y pe s o f s ma l l a nd b i g a n ima l s i n c lud ing s nakes b u tk i l l ing o f monk ey sa nd c ow si s at a boo . R a t h un t ing : A p ecu l ia r t y pe o f r a t h un t ing p r ac t ice s e t s t h e Mu saha r s a pa r t f r om o t he r r a t h un te r s l i k e I r u la s , Mu r ia s , B ondo s a nd Y anad i . T he t o o ls u sed f o r h un t ing a r e ; A mu l t ipu rpo se t oo l ` k han ta ' h a s a n i r on h ead h af ted i nb amboo ( g ene ra l ly u sed f o r d i gg ing , c u t t ing , h un t ing a nd a l so f o rp ro tec t ion ) , a n i r on t o o l ' G anda la ' i su sed f o r d i gg ing a nd b u r row ing , s t i ck s o f v a r iou s l e ng th sa nd s i zes a nd ab uck e to fw a te r . Two t ot e np eop le h un tt h e r a t s i . e . m u s d epend ing o n t h e q uan t i ty r e qu i r ed . F i r s t a nd f o r emo s t i s l o ca t ing r a t h o le s a nd t om ak e s u r et h a tt h e r a t s a r e i n . T he Mu saha r s e xce l i n d i f f e r en t ia t ing t h e r a t h o le s f r om t h o se o f o t he r b u r row ing a n ima l s . G ene ra l ly t h e r a t h o le s a r e n ea r o r i n t h e a g r icu l tu ra l f i e ld s . T he a ve rage d i am e te r o f a

S qu irre l h un t ing : Men a nd c h i ld r en h un t t h e c ommon s t r iped s qu i r r e l i . e . S c iuru s p a lmaru s . C h i ld r en u se c a tapu l t s w h i le m en u se s t ick s t ok i l l t h em . T o h un t as qu i r r e l a t l e a s t f ou r m en a r e r equ i r ed . When m en a r e h un t ing o n ly t h e

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a do le scen t b oy s a r e a l lowed t o a c company t h em , t h e r e a son b e ing t h a t s ma l l c h i ld r en w i l l m ake n o i se a nd s c a r ea way t h es qu i r r e l s .

t h ey a r ep l aced n ea rt h e f l am e s . Due t ot h ew a rm th t h e t o r to ise b r ing s o u t i t s h ead , a nd t h e w om en i mmed ia te ly b r eak t h e n eck w i th t h e i r h and s . T o r to i se s a r e r oa s ted s o t h a t t h e b ody c an b e l o o sened f r om t h e h a rd o u te r b ony s he l l . Af t e r r oa s t ing t h ei nne rl a ye rt h eb ony p l a te i so pened b y h and . Once i ti so pen t h e f l e sh i sr emoved . T h is i s t h en c ooked w i th o i l a nd s p ice s . T he o u te r s he l l a nd t h e b ony p l a tes a r e p l aced o n t h e r oof o ft h e h u t s t o d ry , t o b e l a te r p owde r ed a nd e a ten a s m ed ic ine f o rs t omach a i lmen t s . L a rge q uan t i t ie s o f d i sca rded b on e s a nd s h e l l s w e re s e en s c a t te red i n s ide t h e o ld h ea r th s , b eh ind t h e h u t s , a nd i nt h e s e t t lem en t .

T echn ique : F i r s t ly , t r ees a r e s e a r ched f o r s qu i r r e l s ,i ft h ey a r e s i gh ted ,o n eo ft h em en c l imb s t h e t r ee a nd t h e o t he r s s t and a bou t 2t o 3m a way o n t h r ee s i des . E ach o ne k now s w e l l h i s p l ace f o r c ha s ing t h e a n ima l o nce i ti so n t h e g round . N ow t h e m an u p i nt h e t r ee s t a r t s s hak ing t h e b ranche s a nd s imu l taneou s ly m ak ing l oud n o i se st os c a r et h e a n im a l . T h i st ak e s s om e t ime a st h e s qu i r r e lj ump s f r om o ne b ranch t o o the r v e ry f a s t ; a nd s t a r t s t i r ing . O n ce t h e a n ima l c om e s d own t h e m an n ea r e s tr un st owa rd s i ta nd g i ve si tab low w i th t h e s t ick . O ne h i t a nd t h e a n ima l f a in t s . I ti st h en p i ck ed u p a nd t h e l e g s a r e b rok en , b ecau se t h e Mu saha r s s ay t h e a n ima l i ss m a r t a nd f oo l s t h e m an b y a c t ing d ead a nd o f t en r un s o f f . T he Mu saha r sn eve rk i l lt h e a n ima lc omp le te ly t i l lt h ey s t a r t t h e f i re f o r c ook ing . I n t h e o th e r t y pe o f s qu i r r e l h un t ing a bou t 1 5 t o2 0 m en t a k e p a r t . I n t h is ag roup o ft r ee s , o rt r ee s i n ar ow a r e s e lec ted . F o r e xamp le , i ft h e r e a r e a bou t s i x t r ee s i n ar ow , t h en s i x m en c l imb o n i nd iv idu a l t r ee s a nd t h e o t he r s s u r round t h e b a se . T he s am e h un t ing t e chn ique d e sc r ibed a bove f o l low s , t h e o n ly d i f f e r ence b e ing t h a t l a rge n umbe r s o f s qu i r r e l s c an b ec augh t .

T he e t hnog raph ic w o rk c a r r ied o u t b y t h e a u tho r a mong t h e Mu saha r s h a s h e lped i nu nde r s tand ing t h e r e a son s w hy t h e f a una l m a te r ia l a t a r chaeo log ica l s i te s w a s e i the r f ound i nt h e h ea r th o ri nt h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea a nd a l so t h e p l acem en t o f h ea r th so u t s ide i nt h eo pen : •T he p l acem en t o f t h e h ea r th i sa lway s o u t s ide t h eh u tb ecau se r oa s t ing , g i ves o f f al o to fs mok e a nd t h e s m e l lo fb u rn tf l e sh . •F o rr oa s t ing t h e Mu saha r s o f t en p l ace t h e h ea r th whe r eve r s u i tab le w i th t h e d i rec t ion o fw ind i n m ind s o t h a t t h e s moke b l ow s a way f r om t h e h ou se . T he t o r to i se i sr oa s ted i nt h e h ea r th a nd t h e r ema in s a r e l e f t i nt h e h ea r th . T he s he l ls a r e t o s sed i n to t h e f i re .

T he p rocedu r e o fr oa s t ing i ss im i la rt ot h a t o fr a t s . H ow eve r , t h e s qu i r r e ls a r e r a r e ly t a k en t o t h e s e t t lem en t , a nd a r e a lway s r e l i sh ed a tt h e h un t ing s po t . T he m ea t i se qua l ly d i s t r ibu ted among t h e h un te r s , a nd f r om e a r t o t a i l e ve ry p a r t , b a r r ing i n c i so r s i sc on sum ed . I n o n e i n s tance t h e s qu i r r e l w a sp r egnan t , t h eb ab ies w e r er emoved a nd p l aced o ng r een l e ave s a nd w e r e d i spo sed o fi nw a te r , b u t t h e a du l tw a sc on sum ed .

• When n ew h ea r th s a r e m ade , t h e o l d o ne s a r e l ef t w i th t h e r em a in s o f t o r to i se a nd o the r a n ima ls l y ing i nt h em . •I ft h e h ea r th i sc l ea r ed , t h e b one s a nd s he l l s a r e u sua l ly t h rown b eh ind t h eh u t . •T he Mu saha r s a l so b u ry t h e se s he l l s i n r i ce f i e ld sa st h ey a t t rac tf i e ld r a t s . Hare a nd P orcup ine h un t ing : T he K o l s a nd Mu saha r s h un t h a r e s a nd p o r cup ine wh i le c o l lec t ing w ood i n t h e f o r e s t . T o t r ap h a r e s t h ey u se n e t s . T o t r ap p o r cup ine s t h ey t h row n e t s o n t h em o rp l ace n e t so nt h et r a i ls f r equen ted b yt h em .

T or to i se h un t ing : T h e Mu saha r s c a tch t o r to i se s ( Che lon ia ) , t h e s l ow mov ing f r eshwa te r r e p t i le s . T h et o o l sr equ i r ed t oc a tch t o r to i se su nderwa te ra r e t h e d i gg ing s t ick s a nd k han ta . G ene ra l ly y oung b oy s a nd w omen c a tch t o r to i se s f r om p ond s a nd l a k e s b y h and , a nd b r ing t h em a l ive t o t h e s e t t lem en t .

P lacemen t o f N e t s : T he n e t m ea su r ing 8 m i n l e ng th i sp l aced i n ar e c tangu la rf a sh ion a nd t i ed t o w ooden p o s t s s t ruck o nt h r ee c o rne r s , w i th as m a l l o pen ing i n o n e c o rne r f o r t h e a n im a l t o e n te r . I n t h e m idd le o ft h e e nc lo su r e f ood i sk ep t t oa t t rac t t h e a n im a l . I fo n t h e f i r s t d ay t h e a n im a l i sn o t t r apped , o n t h e s e cond d ay t h ey d i g at r ench m ea su r ing l m xl m a nd 2 m d eep . I ti sc ove red w i th l e ave s a nd b ran che s a nd f ood i sk ep t o n t h e c ove r . T he a n ima l v i s i t s t h e s pec if i c l o ca t ion a nd

T o c ook t h e t o r to i se s , f i r s t t h e Mu saha r w om en l i gh t af i re a nd w a sh t h e t o r to i se . T he b ody o ft h e t o r to i se r ema in s w i th in i t s s h e l l . T he n eck , l imb s a nd t a i l a r e o u t s ide t h e s he l l b u t w hen t h e t o r to i se i sc augh t t h ey r e t r ea t i n s ide t h e s he l l . I ti sv e ry i mpor tan t t o k i l l t h em b ef o r e r o a s t ing a nd h ence

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f a l l s i n t h e d i tch . T h i s m e thod i se mp loyed f o r h un t ing b oa r , d ee ra nd n i lga i .

A bou t f ou r t o s i x p eop le s imu l taneou s ly c ove r t h e w e l l w i th an e t o nw h ich g um i sr ubbed f r om t h e t o p . T hen m ake a l o t o f n o i se t o s c a r e t h e b i rd s , wh ich c au se s t h em t of l y u pwa rd s . I nt h i s p roce s s t h ey g e t e n tang led i n t h e n e t a nd g e t s t uck t o t h e g um a pp l ied o n i t .T he n e t i st h en o ve r tu rned a nd t h eb i rd s a r ep l uck ed f r om i t .

O nce t h e a n ima l i s c augh t i ti sb rough t t o t h e s e t t lem en t , k i l led a nd p roces sed . A no pen h ea r th i s l i tf o rr o a s t ing . T he h a i ri ss c r aped o f fw i th as ha rp s t ick . T he b ody i ss l i t o pen w i th a s ha rp s t ick o r k n if e a nd t h e v i sce ra r emoved . T he a n ima l i s r oa s ted a ga in i nt h e f i r e a nd t h en c on sum ed . H a r e m ea t i sc ook ed w i th o i l a nd s p ice s . R ema in s f ound a r ound t h e o pen -hea r th a r ea a r e b u rn t h a i r , v i sce r a , t e e th a nd c hewed b one s . T he s am e p rocedu re i s a dop ted f o r r oa s t ing o f p o rcup ine s . H oweve r , b ef o re r o a s t ing t h e a n ima l i t s q u i l l s a r e r emoved . R ema in sf ound a tt h eh ea r th a r ea a r e q u i l l s , v i sce r a a nd c hewed b one s . B e s ide s o pen h ea r th s , a n ima l s a r ea l so r o a s ted i nr egu la rh ea r th s .

I ft h eb i rd s a r e c augh t i nl a rge q uan t i t ie s o ra r e b ig s i zed t h ey a r e b rough t t ot h e s e t t lem en t , o t herw i se t h ey a r e c on sumed o n t h e s po t . Tw is t ing o ft h e i r n eck s k i l l s t h e b i rd s . I mm ed ia te ly t h e f e a th e r s a r e r emoved a nd t h e b i rd s a r e r o a s ted . A f te r t h i s t h e a bdom en i sc u t w i th a s ha rp s t i ck o r k n if e a nd w a s te p a r t s a r e r emoved . T h e b i rd i sa ga in r o a s ted f r om t h e i n s ide . Sma l l b i rd s a r e a lway s e a ten r o a s ted b u t l a rge b i rd s a r e e l abo ra te ly c ook ed . I ti s i n t e r e s t ing t on o te t h a t o ft h e s ma l l b i rd sb e s id e t h e b eak s , f e a the r s a nd w a s te b ody p a r t s n o th ing r ema in s a tt h e s i te ; e ve ry th ing e l se i sc on sum ed . B u t w hen b ig b i rd s a r e c ook ed a nd c on sum ed , t h e l ef tove r b ones a r e t h rown i nt h e h ea r th o r b eh ind t h eh u t .

B ird t r app ing : Mu saha r m en a nd y oung b oy s g ene ra l ly t r ap a l l t y pe s o f b i rd s a va i lab le i n t h e a r ea e xcep tv u l tu r e s , e ag les a nd o w l s . T he b i rd s a r e e i the rh un ted f o rc on sump t ion ( 20 t ype s ) o rf o rs a le ( 5t ype s )i nt h em a rke t . T he t e chn ique st ot r ap b i rd s a r e ; •N e t s

O rgan i sa t ion o f l abour : D iv i s ion o f l a bou r i s d one a c co rd ing t o a ge a nd s e x . Men d o t h e mo r e s t r enuou s w o rk w h i le w om en a t tend t o m o r e d e l ica te a nd s imp le t a sk s a nd c h i ld r en d o t h e l i gh te s t w o rk . T he f o l low ing t a b le s how s t h e d i v i s ion o fw o rk c a r r ied o u tb yt h em :

•C a tapu l t s • Gummed b amboo s t ick s : T h e Mu saha r s a pp ly g um o fA cac ia a rab ica W i l ld . t ob amboo s t ick s a bou t 3 0 c m l ong . T he se a r e p l aced i n -be tween t h e b r anche s a nd l e ave s o fa ny f r u i tb ea r ing t r ee . When t h e b i rd s c ome i n to c on tac t w i th t h ese s t ick s ,t h ey a r et r apped . • We l l s : I nt h is m e thod b i rd s l i k e p igeon s , w h ich l i ke t os i t i n aw e l l f o r i t s c oo lne s s , a r e t r apped .

O rgan iza t ion o fl a bou rf o rs ma l l g ame h un t ing a nd f ow l ing a mong Mu saha r s Men H un t ing o fs ma l l a n ima l s ,i n c lud ing r a t s , s qu ir r e l s ,h a r e sa nd p o r cup ine . R oa s t ing o ft h ea n ima l sh un ted

T rapp ing a nd r o a s t ing b i rd s

Women P roce s s ing a nd c ook ing o fa n ima ls h un ted

C h i ldren H un t ing o fr a t sa nd s qu i r re l s .

C a t ch ing o ft o r to i se s i np ond s . P roce s s ing a nd c ook ing t h em

C a tch ing o ft o r to i se si np ond sa nd l a ke s

P roce s s ing a nd c ook ing t h em

T rapp ing o fb i rd sw i th n e t s

S e l l ing o fb i rd s i nl o ca lm a rke t

v i tam in s , c a lc ium , p ho spho rou s , i o d ine , a nd c ommon s a l t a nd m os t o f t h e se f ood v a lue s a r e a l so r e ta ined i nt h e f i sh , wh ich a r e s un d r ied a nd c on sum ed l a te r .

b . F i sh ing P rac t ice s : F i sh ing p l ay s a n i mpo r tan t r o le a mong t h e Ma l lah s a nd K o l s . T he r i ve r s a nd l a ke s i n t h e s t udy a r ea c on ta in a n a bundance o f f i sh o fd i f f e r en t v a r ie t ies . T he Ma l lah s l i ve a l ong t h er i ve r s a nd l a ke s , a nd h ave a ne xpe r tk now ledge o ft h e h ab i t s o ft h e d i f f e ren t v a r ie t ie s o ff i sh f ound i nt h e a r ea . H oweve r , o n ly f ew Ma l lah s m ake t h e i r l i v ing s o le ly b y f i sh ing . T he a qua t ic f ood h a s a n e xcep t iona l ly h igh d eg r ee o f n u t r i t iona l v a lue . C ha rac ter i s t ica l ly f i sh i sr i ch i n p ro te in , f a t ,

S pec ie s E xp lo i ted : T he Ma l lah s a nd t h e Mu saha r s h ave l o ca l t e rm s f o r t h e f i sh c augh t b y t h em . T he a u tho r c o l lec ted t h e l o ca l n am e s t h e s c ien t if ic n am e s w e r e c o l lec ted f r om B i lg ram i 1 991 : 8 7 -89 a nd J h ing ran 1 983 : 5 -66 , 9 8 . A l i s t o f 6 0 f i sh

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e xp lo i t ed b y t h e Ma l lah s a nd Mu saha r s i nG anga a nd Y amuna i sg i ven e l sewh e r e( An sa r i2 00 1b ) .

F i sh ing w i th t r ap s ( T ap , C hhaup o r K ur imar , G an ja ) , F i sh ing w i th n e t s ( Bhawar j a ! , Maha j a ! , B i sr i o r c hho t -ber j a ! , F as i la j a l ) , F i sh ing w i th h ook s a nd l i ne s ( K a t ja , B ar ra , B a / /ur n , P achk i ) , F i sh ing b y s t ick s a nd h and s , F i sh ing b y e xp lo s ive s , F i sh ing b yp o i son a nd F ow l ing w h i le f i sh ing .

Me thod sa nd T echn ique so fF i sh ing R ive r ine f i sh ing : F i sh ing i s ay ea r r ound a c t iv i ty . I nt h e r a in s t h e p ace o ff i sh ing i sm o r e h ec t ic , f o r t h en s om e e conom ica l ly i mpo r tan tv a r ie t ie s o ff i sh , l i k er ohu a nd h i l sa a r e f ound i na bundance . I nd eep r i ve r w a te r , f i sh ing i sd on e f r om b oa t s u s ing n e t s . D u r ing t h e s umm e r t h e r i ve r s s h r ink a nd c hange i n to s ha l low s t r eam sa nd p oo l s . T h en t h em e thod o f f i sh ing i sr e s t r ic ted t ou s ing t r ap sa nd s ma l ln e t s .

S pawn c o l lec t ion : B e s ide s f i sh s pawn o rf i sh e gg s a r e c o l lec ted f r om t h e f i sh b reed ing g round s . Mo s t ly t h ef i sh e gg sa r e c o l lec ted f r om 3 0t o6 0 c m d eep m eande r ing r i ve r s , l a k e s a nd p ond s . T he m e thod o fc o l lec t ion i sb y d i s tu rb ing t h e b o t tom o f t h e w a te r a nd s coop ing u p t h e e gg s w i th ap i ece o f c l o th . F requen t ly n e t so fs m a l lm e sh s i ze a r ep l aced a ga in s t t h e c u r r en t a nd p u l led u p f o r t h e c o l lec t ion o f e gg s . I n t h e G anga t h e s pawn s a r e c o l lec ted f r om May t oS ep tembe r . Y oung a nd n ew ly h a tched f i sh a r e c o l lec ted f r om J u ly t oO c tobe r . C a t la a nd r ohu e gg s a r e c o l lec ted f o r b r eed ing a nd s e l l ing . T he e gg s w hen b rough t a r e s t o red i n e spec ia l ly p r epa r ed mud p i t s . T he s i ze o f t h ese mud p i t s r ange s f r om 0 . 50 t o 1 . 5 mi nd i am e te r a nd 0 . 50 m i nd ep th . O rgan isa t ion o f l abour : F i sh ing i s p r ima r i ly a m a le a c t iv i ty b u t t h e r e i sn o t a boo a ga in s t w om en t a k ing p a r t i ni t .T he d i v i s ion o fl a bou r a mong t h e Ma l lah si sg i ven i nt h ef o l low ing t a b le :

L acu s tr ine f i sh ing : F i sh ing i sa l so c a r r ied o u t i n j h i l s a nd t a nk s , w h ich a r e t h e b r eed ing g round s o f m any f r e sh w a te r f i sh . I nnum e rab le t a nk s a r e s c a t te r ed t h roughou tt h e s t udy a r ea . F i sh a r e c augh t w i th n e t s a nd t r ap s . I n l a rge t a nk s f i sh ing i sd one w i th n e t s , h ook s a nd p rong s . I ns m a l l t a nk s f i sh ing i sd one i ns umm e rw hen t h e w a te ri ss ha l low . F i sh a r et h en c augh tb yh and , s t ick s ,a nd c ove rb a sk e t s . P addy f i e ld f i sh ing : T he p addy f i e ld s , wh ich r e ta in w a te r f o r t wo t o t h r ee m on th s , p rov ide a n a dd i t iona l s upp ly o ff i sh . F i sh ing i sc a r r ied o u t i n t h e r a iny s e a son , i ns ma l l p oo ls i nr i ce f i e ld s w i th b a sk e t s ,h ook sa nd b yh and . T h e r e a r e e i gh tt y pe s o ff i sh ing t e chn ique s ( An sa r i 2 00 1b ) : F ence /Sc r een f i sh ing ( Ch i lwan , C h in ta ) , D iv i s ion o fL abou ra mong t h e Ma l lah s Men

Women

C h i ldren

C u ta nd c a r ry b a ck t h eb amboo ,h emp a nd m un jg r a s sf o rm ak ing t h eb a ske t s , n e t s ,r ope sa nd s haf t s . A cqu i r ei r on h ook s ,n e ts i nke r sa nd n y lon s t r ing sf r om t h el o ca lm a rke t . H e lp i nm ak ing b a ske t sa nd f e n ce s .

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-

Make b a ske t s ,a nd r ope sf o rf i sh ing .

Make r ope s

Make a nd a pp ly t a nt ot h en e t s ,f e nce s a nd b a ske t s .

A pp ly t a nt ob a ske t sa nd f e nce .

F i sh w i th n e t s ,f e nce sp rong s ,i r on h ook s , a nd b yp o i son a nd e xp lo s ion a nd r ow b oa t s .

H un tw i th h and sa nd s t i ck s , f e nce sa nd b a ske t s .

H un tw i th h and sa nd s t ick s ,f e nce s a nd b a ske t s . R ow b oa t s .

F i sh i nt h ed eep w a te r ,r i ve r s , l a ke s , p ond s ,g adhaye a nd s t ream s . H e lp i nd ry ing a nd p r e serv ing t h ef i sh .

F i sh i ns ha l low w a te r ,b yw ad ing i n s ha l low b ed s .

F i sh i ns ha l low w a t e r ,l a ke sa nd p addy f i e ld s .

C a r ryou td i f f e r en tp roce s se sf o r p r e se rva t ion o ff i sh .

H e lp ,i nd ry ing s ma l l f i sh .

S e l l f i sh i nt h el o ca lm a rke t .

C a r ry f i sh i nv i l lage f o rs a le .

S pawn c o l lec t ion

S pawn c o l lec t ion

C on sump t ion o ff i sh :

•F i sh a r e c ook ed w i th s p ice s . S om e t ime s a l l t h e b ody p a r t s i n c lud ing h ead a r e c on sumed l e av ing o u to n ly t h ef i n s ,t a i l , s c a les a nd v i sce ra .

•F i sh a r er o a s ted i n s ide ah ea r th o ri na no pen f i re . T hey a r e r a r e ly c l eaned a nd c ooked w ho le . G ene ra l ly s ma l lf i sh a r ec on sumed r o a s ted .

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i nd ay to -day l i f e a nd h ea l thca r e . Men , w omen a nd l o ca l h e rb s e l le r s a mong t h e K o l s a nd Mu saha r s w e r e c on su l ted r e ga rd ing t h e d e ta i l s o f t h e p l an t p a r t s u sed . L i s t s o fp l an t s u sed b yt h em f o rv a r iou s p u rpo se s a r e m ade w i th d e ta i l s ( l ike F am i ly , B o tan ica l a nd L oca l n am e s a nd t h e p a r t s u sed ; A n sa r i 2 001a ) a r e a s f o l low s ; E a ten a sv ege tab les ( 3 9 ) , F lowe r s c ooked a s v ege tab le ( 4 ) , E a ten a s f r u i t s ( 22 ) , T ube r s c on sum ed a s f ood ( 4 ) , F ib r e p l an t s f o r m ak ing c o rdage ( 5 ) , F o r m ak ing l e af p l a te s a nd c up s ( 8 ) , B a sk e t m ak ing ( 4 ) , D ye ( 3 ) , P l an t s e xp lo i ted f o r e x t r ac t ing o i l ( 4 ) , P l an t s u sed a s g um ( 5 ) , P l an t s u sed f o r c on s t ruc t ion , r oof ing a nd t h a tch ing ( 24 ) .

•O i l e x t rac ted o u t o ff i sh i su sed f o r c ook ing a nd f o rm a s sage . L oca l Marke t s : T he Ma l lah s s upp ly f i sh i n t h e n ea rby v i l lage s a nd t ot h e l o ca l m a rk e t . T hey a l so s e l lf i sh a tt h er i ve r s ide a nd o nb r idge s . c .G a ther ing o fW i ld p lan t s among t he K o l s a nd Mu sahar s : E thnobo tan ica l f i e ldwo rk b yt h e a u tho r w a s c a r r ied o u t f o r t h r ee s e a son s i n an umbe r o f v i l lage si nhab i ted b yt h eK o ls a nd t h e Mu saha r s . T h e a im w a s t ou nde r s tand t h e u se o fw i ld p l an t s b yt h e se w ho s t i l l l a rge ly d epend o nt h ef o r e s tf l o r a f o r t h e i r s u s tenance a nd l i ve l ihood . T he se c ommun i t ie s e xp lo i tt h e r e sou r ce s o ff o r e s t s , r i ve r s a nd h i l l s ; a nd t h ey h ave ar i ch k now ledge o fw i ld p l an t s . F rom h e r e t h e K o l s a nd Mu saha r s c o l lec t a w ide r a nge o ff ood s a nd u t i l i se m any t r ee s , s h rub s , h e rb s ,t u be r s , r oo t s , l e ave s , f l owe r s , f r u i t s , s e ed s

P lan t s u sed f o r H ea l thcare : T he f l o ra o f t h e f o r es t s p l ay s av i ta l r o le i nt h e l i f e a nd h ea l thca r e o f t h e K o l s a nd Mu saha r s . T he p l an t s u sed f o r t r ea tm en t o fv a r iou s a i lm en t s a r e l o ca l ly c o l lec ted a nd t h e w ay s o fa pp l ica t ion v a ry a cco rd ing t ot h e m e thod s o ft r ad i t iona l u se . T h e s am e p l an t i su sed f o r t r ea tm en t o f d i f f e r en t d i sea se s i n d i f f e ren t w ay s . V a r iou s p a r t s o ft h e s am e p l an t a r e u t i l i sed f o r d i f f e r en t t y pe s o f d i sea se s . T he p l an t s h av ing m ed ic ina l p rope r t ie s u sed f o r h ea l thca r e w e r e c o l lec ted b y t h e a u tho r a nd w e re b een s t ud ied a c co rd ing t o t h e i r h e rba l p roper t ie s . Al i s t o f 17 p l an t s h ave b een d ocum en ted w i th F am i ly , B o tan ica l a nd L oca l n am e , t h e i rp a r t su sed , a nd t h e d i sea ses t h ey a r e u sed t o f i gh t a ga in s t ( An sa r i 2 00 1a ) .

a nd g um s f o r t h e i r s ub s i s ten ce a nd f o r d ay to -day n eed s . T o c o l lec t t h e se p l an t s t h e K o l s a nd Mu saha r su se o rgan ic m ade t o o l sl i k e l agg i , k hara , k honch a nd b a iyya b e s ide s k han ta w h ich i sa lway s c a r r ied a l ong . T he f ood h ab i t s o ft h e K o l s a nd t h e Mu saha r s a r e r e la ted t o t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f r e sou r ce s . F o r i n s tance , t h e K o l s f o r t h e i r s ub s i s tence c o l lec t a nd s e l l w ood f r om t h e f o r e s t . I n t h e p roce s s o f g a the r ing w ood , t h e K o l s a l so c o l lec t p l an t s f o r t h e i r c on sump t ion a nd o t he r n eed s . B o th m en a nd w om en c a r ry o u t t h e g a the r ing o fp l an t f ood s a nd w ood . T he Mu saha r s c o l lec t l e ave s f o rm ak ing l e af p l a t te r s a nd c up s a nd s upp ly t h em t o t h e v i l lage s a nd t h em a rk e t si nA l lahabad . D u r ing t h e c o l lec t ion o fl e aves , wh ich i sc a r r ied o u tb ym en , w om en a nd c h i ld r en , t h ey a l so g a the r w i ld p l an t s f r om t h e f o r e s t f o r c on sump t ion . T he se n a tu ra l g r ana r ie s p rov ide t h em w i th e nough e ne rgy , p ro te in s , f i b r e , v i tam in s a nd e s sen t ia l m ine ra l s f o r t h e i r d i e t . T h e K o l s a nd Mu saha r s h ave a l so l e a rn tt ou t i l i se m any p l an t s a nd p l an t p roduc t s f o r m ed ic ine , f i b r e , c o rdage , o i l , t imbe r a nd w ood w o rk , m ak ing o f b room s ,b a sk e t ry , d ye s , a nd a sf u e l a nd p o i son e ve r s i nce p r im eva lt im e s .

H oney c o l lec t ion : H oney i s c o l lec ted b y t h e Mu saha r s d u r ing s p r ing a nd s umm e r s e a son s f r om b eeh ive s s i tua t ed o n t r ee s . T h ey s t o r e h oney a nd w ax f o r t h e i r o wn c on sump t ion a nd s e l l t h e r e s t i n t h e m a rke t f o r c a sh . T he t e chn ique u sed f o r c o l lec t ion i sa sf o l low s : • When c l imb ing t h e t r ee o n w h ich t h e h i ve i s l o ca ted a Mu saha r c a r r ie s ah a tche t o r c ho t k u lhar i , as m a l l b uck e t t i ed t o t h e w a i s t a nd a b unch o fn eem l e ave sa nd ar o pe . •A f te rr e ach ing as po tu nde rt h e h i ve t h e m an s e t s a l igh t t h e b un ch o f g r een l e ave s , wh ich e m i t s moke a nd h ea t , u l t ima te ly d r iv ing a way t h e b ees . •T he m an c hop s t h e b eeh ive w i th t h e h a tche t a nd c o l lec t s t h e h i ve i nt h e b ucke t . I ft h e m an i so n a v e ry h i gh t r ee h e l owe r st h e h i ve w i th t h e h e lp o f al o ng r ope .

E thnobo tan ica l S urvey : A ne t hnobo tan ica l s u rvey w a s c a r r ied o u t i nt h e r emo te v i l lage s i n hab i ted b y K o l s a nd t h e Mu saha r s . T he a im w a s t o g a the r i n f o rma t ion o nt h e t r ad i t iona l u se o fp l an tp roduc t s

3 08

O rgan iza t ion o fL abou ra mong t h eK o l sa nd Mu saha r s Men C u ta nd c o l lec tw ood f o rf u e l , s e l li n t h em a rke t C o l le c ta nd s e l lm ed ic ina lp l an t si nt h e l o ca lm a rke t

Women C o l lec tw ood ,b ranche sa nd t w ig s f o r f u e l

C h i ldren C o l lec tf a l len b ra che sa nd t w ig s

C o l lec tm ed ic ina lp l an t sf r om f o r e s t

-

C o l le c tf i b re a nd m ake r ope s

C o l lec tv ege tab le s ,t u be r s ,g ums a nd f r u i t s C o l lec to fl e ave s , mak ing l e af p l a te s

C o l lec tv ege tab le s ,g um sa nd f r u i t s

C o l lec tl e ave s ,m ake l e af p l a te sa nd s e l l i nt h e ma rke t E x t ra c to i l f r om o i l s e ed s

-

C o l lec to fl e ave sf o rm ak ing l e af p l a t e s -

C o l le c to fh oney

C o l lec to fh oney

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G a the r ing o fp l an t s i sm a in ly aw oman 's j ob b u t m en c a r ry o u t t h e mo r e a rduou sj ob s o fc o l lec t ing f o re s t p roduc t s . T he K o l s a nd t h e Mu saha r s a r e n ow c om ing i nc l o se c on tac t w i th mo r e d eve loped c ommun i t ie so ft h ea r ea wh ich h a so pened t ot h em n ew a venue s o f s ub s i s ten ce a nd r e sou r ces , r e su l t ing i n as h if t t o l a bou r , i nt h e f o rm o ff i e ld l a bou re r s a nd a s m en ia l w o rk e r s . T h i s a ccu l tu r a t ion i st a k ing a way t h e i rk now ledge o ft h e p l an t w o r ld a nd t h e i r u t i l i ty . T h e se c ommun i t ie s s hou ld b et ho rough ly s t ud ied f o rm o r ei n f o rma t ion , e spec ia l ly t h e i rk now ledge o fm ed ic ine .

b a sk e t s , wh i le c ane b a sk e t ry i s a mu l t i -ca s te a c t iv i ty . T he a im w a s t ou nde r s tand t h e u t i l i ty a nd u sage o f o rgan ic m a te r ia l s i n d ay to -day l i f e . T he ref o r e , i mpor tance w a s g i ven t ot h e a cqu i s i t ion o f r aw m a te r ia l a nd t h e t oo l s a nd t e chn ique s emp loyed i nb a sk e t m ak ing . T he m a in o ccupa t ion o f t h ese c ommun i t ie s v a r ie s , t hough b a sk e t ry s upp lem en t s t h e i r s ou r ce o f i n com e . T hey h i r e b amboo p l an t s i nt h e v i l lage f o r ac e r ta in p e r iod o f t im e a sb amboo r e gene r a te s a f te r i ti sc u t , a nd p ay t h e o wne r i nk ind . T hey , m a in ly D ha rka r s s upp ly b a ske t st ot h e v i l lage r s i nl i eu o f af i xed a moun to f g r a in c o l lec ted a t e ach h a rves t . T he r ema in ing b a ske t s a r e c a r r ied t o v i l lage m a rk e t s ( bazaar s ) a nd s o ld f o rc a sh o rt r aded f o rg ra in s .

C o l lec t ion o f f ue l : F ue l i sn ece s sa ry f o r c ook ing a nd f o r p rov id ing w a rm th d u r ing t h e w in te r s e a son . T he m a in t y pes o ff u e l u sed a r e : L oca l ly c o l lec ted f i r ewood , b ranche s a nd t w ig s , c ow d ung , a nd s t a lk s a nd k e ro sene . O ft h e t h r ee , f i r ewood i s t h e mo s t r e l iab le a nd i mpo r tan t s ou r ce o f f u e l a mong t h e Mu saha r s . Among t h o se w ho s e t t le i n f a rm s tead s a nd v i l lage s a nd s ub s is t a sa g r icu l tu ra l l a bou r e r s a nd a s s e t t led a g r icu l tu r i s t s , t h e i r m a in s ou r ce o f f u e l i s t h e f a rm ing b y -p roduc t s . F i r ewood i s a l so c o l lec ted a s d ung i s u sed p r ima r i ly a sf e r t i l ize r . K e ro sene i sp opu la r ,b u ti ti s u sed m a in ly f o rp r epa r ing m ea l sa nd f o rl amp s .

T he b a ske t s a r e m ade i nt h e o pen i nf r on t o ft h e h ou ses . Wom en w o rk ing i ng roup s o r a l one c a r ry o u t t h e w o rk . B e s ide s , a s as ou r ce o f i n com e , b a sk e t m ak ing i sc u l tu ra l ly i mpor tan t i nt h e s en se t h a t i t i s a g roup a c t iv i ty a nd c a r r ies s oc ia l s i gn if icance a s s i ng ing a nd i n te rac t ion a mong t h e c ommun i ty m embe r s t a k e s p l ace s imu l taneou s ly w i th w o rk . T he m en a nd w omen a r e b o th i nvo lved i nb a sk e t m ak ing . B u t m en m a in ly a cqu i re t h e r aw m a te r ia l a nd s e l l t h e p r epa r ed b a sk e t s i nt h e l o ca l m a rke t , wh i le w om en m ak e a nd c o lou rt h eb a ske t s . T he b a sk e t s a r e p e r i shab le i n n a tu re b u t t h e i r u t i l i ty i nd ay to -day l i f e i sh i gh . T hey a r eu sed a sa m ean s f o rt r an spo r t ing , g a the r ing l e ave s , s t ick sa nd c ow d ung , a s c on ta ine r s f o r s t o r ing g ra in s a nd v ege tab le s a nd t o k eep i mpo r tan t b e long ing s . Du r ing r e l ig iou s f un c t ion s , a nd a tb i r th , m a r r iage a nd d ea th c e r emon ie st h eb a ske t sa r eu sed .

d . A gr icu l ture : A g r icu l tu r a l a c t iv i ty d om ina te s t h e c u l tu ra l l a nd scape o f t h e s t udy r e g ion . H oweve r , t h e K o l s , Mu saha r s a nd Ma l lah s g en e ra l ly d o n o t o wn c u l t ivab le l a nd a nd w o rk a s a g r icu l tu ra l l a bou re r s i . e . h arwah ( p loughmen ) . T hey w o rk i nc oope ra t ion i nt h e f i e ld a nd h ave a d i v i s ion o fl a bou r a cco rd ing t os ex a nd a ge . Men c a r ry o u t t h e mo r e s t r enuou s w o rk wh i le w om en a t tend t o mo re d e l ica te a nd s imp le t a sk s l i ke s ow ing a nd h a rve s t ing .

E v idence o f o rgan ic m a te r ia l i n a r chaeo log ica l s i tes i sr a r e . B u t t h e e t hnog raph ic s t udy h e lp s i n u nde r s tand ing t h e e x ten s ive u se o f t h i s m a te r ia l , m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique s , u t i l i ty o f b a sk e t s a nd u se o f mu l t i p u rpo se t o o l s i n t h e i r m anuf ac tu r e . B anka f o r e xamp le i su sed d u r ing b a ske t m ak ing a nd a l so f o r c u t t ing a n ima l f l e sh . T he se

e . B a ske try : T he Ma l lah s , Mu saha r s , K o l s , D ha rka r s a nd K aha r s a l l s p ec ia l ize i n b amboo b a sk e t m ak ing , t h e A n sa r i a nd P a s i m ak e m un j

3 09

c o mmun i t ie s u se i t em s l i ke b ead s a nd c ow r ies t o d eco ra te t h e i rb a sk e t s . T h i s a dd s an ew p e r spec t ive t o t h e r e cove ry o f b ead s a nd c ow r ie s f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i t es , a st h e p reva i l ing v i ew i st h a t b ead s a nd c ow r ie s a r e u sed o n ly f o r p e r sona l a do rnm en t a nd o f ten a s af o rm o fc u r rency o r f o r t r ade .

m a in ly u sed i n s em i -pe rmanen t s e t t lem en t s ( Type I I ) . T he h ea r th i s1 . 5 ml o ng , 2m w ide a nd 0 . 45 m h i gh a nd d oe s n o t h ave a ny s upe r s t ruc tu r e . T h i s t y pe o f h ea r th i sa lway s p l a ced o u t s ide t h e h u t . When t h i s h ea r th i s a bandon ed , o ne c an s e e r em a in s o ft h e mud p l a tf o rm w i th b u rn tc l ay l ump s , c ha r r ed b on es a nd a sh .

I mp l ica t ion s o fE thnography f o r Under s tand ing P reh i s tor ic L iv ing P a t tern s

I ti si n te r es t ing t on o te t h a t t h e c o mmun i ty h ea r th a t S a r a i N aha r R a i h ad f ou r p o s tho le s a t i t s p e r iphe ry , wh ich i nd ica te s t h a t t h e r e w a s a s upe r s t ruc tu r e o n t o p o ft h e h ea r th . T he p o s s ib i l i ty o f t h e e x i s tence o f as upe r s t ru c tu re m igh t p o in t t owa rd s s om e s o c ia l i mp l ica t ion f o rt h e Me so l i th ic i n hab i tan t s . T he p o s s ib le s t ruc tu re o n t h e S a ra i N aha r R a i c ommun i ty h ea r th c ou ld h ave b een e r ec ted o nl o ng w ooden p o s t s( f ig . 7 ) .

S e t t lemen t p a t tern s : T he s e t t lem en t p a t tern s t udy h a s an umbe r o f i mp l ica t ion s f o r a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s is i nt h e s t udy a r ea . O ne c anno t h ave ar o le mode l o f as e t t lem en t p a t te rn t y pe t oi n te rp r e t t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s f o rp a r t icu la r s i te o rs i te s . T he s imp le c ommun i t ie s i n hab i t ing t h e s t udy a r ea a r e i nc on tac t w i th a dvanced c o mmun i t ie s a nd t h ey h ave v e ry d i s t inc t s e t t lem en t s . T he se s e t t lemen t s c an b e d i s t ingu ished f r om o ne a no the r b y t h e d eg ree o fp e rmanence . T h e s e t t lem en t s o ft h e p a s t w e r e d i s t ingu i shed a cco rd ing t ot h e i r mo rpho logy , f o rm a nd l a you t o f t h e s i te , h ea r th a r ea , d we l l ing u n i t s a nd o t he r f e a tu r e s f o r a n e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion .

T he Me so l i th ic s i t e o f D amdama h a s y i e lded e v idence o f c i rcu la r a nd e l l ip t ica l p l a s te r ed f l oo r s w i th d i am e te r s m ea su r ing b e tween 4 . 20 m t o5 . 35 m . S om e o f t h e f l oo r s h ave mu l t ip le l a ye r s o f p l a s te r a nd p o s tho le s . P l a s te r ed f l oo r s a r e a l so c ommon ly s e en a mong t h e s em i -pe rman en t a nd p e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s o f t h e p r e sen t d ay s imp le c ommun i t ies . T he se mud f l oo r s a r e p e r iod ica l ly s m ea r ed w i th c ow -dung . T h i s i sd one t or e pa i ra nd l e ve l t h e b rok en mud f l oo r . T he p l a s te r ed f l oo r a t D amdama w a s f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th aq uer n , w h ich s how s t h a t t h e p roce s s ing o f f o od w a s p robab ly d one i nt h ef l oo ra r ea . I ti so b se rved t h a t

N o s t ru c tu r e s a r e r e por ted f r om t h e E p i P a laeo l i th ic s i t e s o ft h e B e Ian a nd G anga v a l ley s a nd t h e e a r l ie s t e v idence o fs e t t lem en t c ome s f r om t h e Me so l i th ic l e ve l s . T he l o ca t ion , s i ze , a nd c on ten t so f Me so l i th ic s i te si nt h e G anga a nd B e Ian v a l ley s w e r e c on t ro l led b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fl i th ic r aw m a te r ia l a nd av a r ie ty o ff ood r e sou r ce s i nt h e f o rm o f w i ld p l an t s , a qua t ic a n ima l s a nd s a f e ty f r om f l ood w a te r s . E ven t oday f o rt h e f u lf i lm en t o f p ra c t ica l ly e ve ry n eed , f r om b u i ld ing m a te r ia l t o m ed ic ina l p l an t s , t h e Mu saha r s , K o l s a nd Ma l lah s t ur nt ot h e f o r e s t . I nt h i sr e spec tt h ey a r e s t i l l f o r e s t d we l le r s t h a t a r e e m e rg ing f r om aw ay o fl i f e t h a t s e ldom f a i l s t o s u s ta in t h em i n t h e e ven t o f c r op f a i lu r e o r o t he r c a lam i t ie s , w h ich u sua l ly a f f ec t s e t t led f a rm e r s .

t h e K o l s c a r ry o u t c ook ing a nd p roce s s ing i n s ide t h e h u t . T he q u er n i sa lway s p l aced n ex t t o t h e h ea r th a mong t h eK o l sa nd t h e Ma l lah s . Among t h e Mu saha r s t h e p l acem en t o fq u er n s w a s s e en i nt h e f l oo ra r ea i nS ea sona l o pen -a i rs e t t lem en t s ( Type I ) a nd S em i -pe rmanen t s e t t lem en t s ( Type I I ) . O the rw ise t h e p l acem en t o fq uer n s w a s o u t s id e t h e e n t rance o ft h eh u t . T he Me so l i th ic s i t e o f C hopan i - Mando h a s y i e lded e v iden ce o fs t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s i nt h e f o rm o f 2 0 h u t s . T he h u t s a r e c i rcu la r o r o va l i ns h ape a nd h ave p o s tho le s . T he d i am e te r o f t h e f l oo r v a r ie s f r om 3 . 80 m t o 4 . 7 m . S om e o f t h e f l oo r s b ea r e v idence o f as t one p aved f l oo r . T he se h u t s a r e l i t te r ed w i th s eve ra l s t one p i ece s , p ebb le s , n odu le s a nd m ic ro l i th s ( hu t s o f p ha se IA , p ha se I I ) ( f ig . 8 ) . A n a bandoned r e c tangu la r h u t o f t h e K o l c ommun i ty w a s s t ud ied i n S em i -pe rmanen t s e t t lem en t ( S ing le P u rwa V i l lage ; T ype I I ) t o e xam in e t h e n a tu r e o fs t ruc tu ra l r ema in s a nd f l oo r a f t e r i t s a bandonm en t . S ix m on th s a f t e r t h e

S truc ture ( Hu t t ype s ) : I n t h e Meso l i th ic s i te o f S ara i N ahar R a i t h e f l oo r a r ea m ea su r ing 5 . 66 m i nl e ng th a nd 4 . 02 m w id th a nd t h e p o s tho les o ft h e c ommun i ty h ea r th m a rk t h e s t ruc tu ra l a c t iv i ty a t t h e s e t t lem en t . T he f l oo r i sl i t te r ed w i th b ur n t c l ay l ump s , m ic ro l i th s , a n im a l b one s a nd s he l l s . C ommun i ty h ea r th s a r e a l so p r eva len t a mong t h e Mu saha r s . T hey c on s truc t ah ear th o n as t one a nd mud p l a tf o rm , w h ich i su sed d u r ing c ommun i ty c ook ing a tt h e t im e o ff e a s t s a sw e l l a sf o r d ay to d ay c ook ing a nd r o a s t ing o f m ea t . T h i s h ea r th i s

3 10

F i g . 7 :S i te p l an o fS a ra iN aha rR a i( af t e rS ha rma e ta l . 1 980 : 5 3 )

•H ea r th •C i rcu la rs t one p l a tf o rm f o rs t o rage b in

F ig . 8 : S tone p aved f l oo r , p ha se I B , C hopan i -Mando ( af t e r S ha rma e ta l . 1 980 ) F ig . 9 :K o la bandonm en th u t ,a f t e r 4y ea r

a bandonm en t o f t h e r e c tangu la r h u t , m ea su r ing 4 . 30 m l ong , 2 . 70 m w ide a nd 1 . 70 m h igh , t h e f o l low ing f e a tu r e sw e r ew e l lp r e served a nd i n tac t .

T he s e t t lem en t w a s r e v i s i ted a f t e r f ou r y ea r s . T he o bse rva t ion s s howed t h e s i ze o ft h e h u t , t ob e 4 . 20 ml ong a nd 2 . 61 m w ide ( f ig . 9 ) .

•S tone / mud w a l l s

• No w a l l s w e r e v i s ib le e xcep t t h e s t on e a t t h e b a se o ft h ew a l l s .

• Mud p l a s te ro nt h ew a l l sa nd f l oo r •F loo r •M idd le b eam •P a r t ia lt h a tched r oof

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•S tone a nd r ammed e a r th f l oo r w e r e l i t te r ed w i th af ew p o t she rd s , b ang le p i ece s , c ha r coa l a nd b one f r agm en t s . •H ea r th a r ea h ad a shy a nd b u rn tp a tch e s . •R ema in so fc i r cu la rs t one p l a tf o rm . T h i s e t hnog raph ic s t udy h e lped i n u nde r s tand ing w ha t l i k e ly r ema in s c ou ld b e e xpec ted a f t e r t h e a bandonm en t o f a h u t i . e . s t one p aved f l oo r , a ppea rance o fa bandoned h ea r th a nd s t o rage a r ea . I tw a s o b se rved t h a t mo s t o fS ea sona l s umm e r a nd S em i -pe rmanen t s e t t lem en t s o f t h e Mu saha r a r e l i t te r ed w i th p ebb les ( f ig s . 1 0 , 1 ) . T he p ebb le sa nd s t one p i ece sh ad b een s p r ead o ve rt h e f l oo r a sw e l l a so u t s ide t h e h u t t oc on t ro l d ampne s s a nd p r even t w h i te a nd r e d a n t s f r om a t tack ing t h e i r f ood s t o r e s a nd o the rb e long ing s .

e F i g . 1 0 : F loo r s w i th s t one p i ece s , a nv i l s , m ic ro l i th s a nd p o t she rd s ,p ha se I , C hopan i -Mando ( af t e rS ha rma e ta l . 1 980 )

T he o t he r f i nd s o n t h e f l oo r i n c luded f l a t q ue rn s , mu l le r s a nd p o t she rd s a tC hopan i - Mando . I ts how s t h a tt hough t h e c ook ing w a s c a r r ied o u t s ide t h e h u t a s t h e p l acem en t o f h ea r th i so u t s ide , p roce s s ing w a s c a r r ied o u t b o th i n s ide a s w e l l a s o u t s ide t h e h u t . I n t h e Mu saha r s S ea sona l o pen -a i r s e t t lem en t a nd S ea sona l s umm e r s e t t lemen t s im i la r e v idence s w e r e n o t iced . F ou r f am i l ie s r e s id ing a t t h e se s e t t lem en t s w e re e f f ec t ive ly u s ing a s i ng le q ue rn o wned b y o ne f am i ly . T hu s , i tc anno tb e s a id t h a t a q ue rn s ymbo l ize s af am i ly o rf am i ly u n i t b u t m any f am i l ie s a t ap a r t icu la r s e t t lemen t c an u se as i ng le q ue rn . F o re xamp le , as e t t lemen t c omp r i s ing s even f am i l ie s c an h ave a s m any a s s even o r a s l e s s a s t wo q ue rn s . T he se e v iden ce s w e r e c o l lec ted f r om v i l lage S hanka rga rh i nA l lahabad d i s t r ic t .

F i g . 1 : F l oo r a nd h u t a r ea l i t te r ed w i th p ebb le s , Mu saha r s e t t lem en t( s em ip e rmanen t )

• a l tata

8 0 0

W a f t*

T h e a r rangem en t o f t h e h u t s a t C hopan i - Mando w a s i n ab eeh ive p a t te rn . S uch a r rangem en t o fh u t s w a s a l so s e en a mong t h e Mu saha r S ea sona l s umm e r s e t t lem en t s a t Mawa iya a nd K a r chhana v i l lage i nA l lahabad d i s t r ic t . F ig . 1 2 : P l an o fh u t s i np ha se I , C hopan i -Mando ( a f te rS ha rma e ta l . 1 980 )

I ti sv e ry i n te r e s t ing t o n o te t h a t p o s tho le s o ft h e h u t s w e re i n s ide t h e p e r iphe ry o f t h e f l oo r a t C hopan i - Mando ( f ig . 1 2 ) . T o u nde r s tand t h i s p henom enon , a bandoned Mu saha r s S ea sona l s umm e r s e t t lem en t s h u t s w e re s t ud ied ( f ig . 1 3 ) . T h e s t udy r evea led i mpo r tan t f a c t s r e ga rd ing t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f s uch s t ruc tu r es . T he p o s tho les w i th in t h e p er iphe ry o ft h e f l oo ra r ea w e r e m ade t o s uppo r t b amboo a nd s t r aw s c r een w a l l s . S uch s c reen s a r e s uppor ted o n ab eam a c ro s s t h e f l oo r f r om b o th s i de s . T he s c r een s t hu s c ove r t h e p er iphe ry o ft h e f l oo r . T hey a r ep l a s te r ed w i th mud o rc l ay i ns om ec a se s .

R ema in s o fb u rn t w a t t le a nd d aub f r agm en t s w i th i mp re s s ion s o f b amboo s t i ck s w e r e f ound a t C hopan i - Mando . T he se i n d ica te t h a t mud p l a s te r w a s a pp l ied o n t h e s c r een s o r w a l l s o fh u t s . E ven t oday w ooden p o s t s s uppor t c i r cu la r a nd r e c tangu la r h u tm en t s a nd w a t t le a nd d aub i s c on s t ruc ted i n t h e S ea sona l , S em i -pe rm anen t a nd P e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s o f a l l s imp le c ommun i t ie s . T he w a t t le a nd d aub c on s t ru c t ion a mong t h e

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c ommun i t ies s how s t h a t t h e w a l l s d u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic t ime s c ou ld n o t h ave b een h igh e r t h an 0 . 70 t o 1m .

a mong t h e S em i -pe rmanen t s e t t lem en t s e spec ia l ly a mong Mu saha r s i n Mawa iya a nd K a rchhana i n A l lahabad d i s t r ic t . I t w a s n o t iced t h a t a f te r m a r r iage as t r ing o fr oom i sa t tached t ot h e h ou se f o rm ing a s i ng le u n i t . A s i ng le u n i t o r g roup o f a t tached h ou se ( t h r ee r oom s ) i so ccup ied b y s i x t o s even i n d iv idua l s i nt h e Mu saha r S em i -pe rm anen t s e t t lem en t s . T hu s , o ne c an p o s tu la te t h a t t h e e i gh t h ou se c omp lex a t Mahaga ra m ay h ave h ou sed a bou t4 8t o5 6i nd iv idua l s .

A tt h eN eo l i th ic s i te o f Mahagara ,t wen ty h u t s a r e r epor t ed . T he f l oo r s o ft h e h u t s a r e c i r cu la ro ro va l o n p l an a nd t h ey a r e n e i the r p aved n o r r amm ed . T h e o ccu r r ence o fb u rn t c l ay l ump s w i th r e ed o r b amboo i mp re s s ion s i n d ica te s t h e u se o f mud p l a s te r o n t h e s c r een w a l ls o ft h e h u t s . T he f l oo r s a r e o ve r lapp ing a nd t h e h ou se s a r e s pa r se ly s i tua ted . S uch t y pe o fc on s truc t ion o fh u t sw a ss e en

a .

F ig . 1 3 : Mu saha r s h u t t y pe , c on s t ru c t ion a nd r emnan t a f t e ra bandonm en t : a .H u t t y pe l e ad ing t or ema in s o ff l oo r w i thou t p o s t -ho le s a f t e r a bandonm en t ; b .H u t t y pe l e ad ing t or ema in s o fp o s t -ho le s a f t e r a bandonm en t ; c .H u t t y pe l e ad ing t or ema in s o fp o s t -ho le s o u t s id e t h e p e r iphe ry o ff l oo r

e v id ence s w he re e xcep t af ew s ma l l s h e l te r s m ade f o r k eep ing t h e i r b e long ing s ; t h ey c on s t ru c t

I ti si n te r es t ing t h a t Mahaga ra h a sy i e lded h u t sw i th a nd w i thou t p o s tho le s . T h e S ea sona l o pen a i r s e t t lem en t o f Mu saha r s h a s y i e lded s im i la r

3 13

t r ip le f l oo r h u t s ( a s h ou se u n i t s ) i n a dd i t ion t o s i ng le f l oo r h u t s a nd c a t t le p en w i th p o s tho le s a r ound i t sp e r iphe ry .

i r r egu la rf l oo r sb u td on o tm ak e a ny s upe rs t ruc tu r e o ve ri t . B e s ides , i n te r es t ing f a c t s c am e t o l i gh t a f te r s t udy ing a bandoned h u t s o f S ea sona l s umm e r s e t t lem en t s o f Mu saha r s l i k e , h ow t h e se s t ruc tu r e s c ou ld b e e r ec ted w i thou t p o s tho le s . F i r s t , ar a ised f l oo r ( 10 o r 1 5 c m a bove g round ) i s m ade o f c ompac t e a r th . T hen t h e l o ng f l ex ib le b ranche s a r e p l aced i n a s em i c i r cu la r f a sh ion a t r egu la r i n te rva l s , wh ich a r e s uppor ted b y t h e r a i sed f l oo r . O n t h e se s t r aw w a s p l aced t o c ove r t h e s pace s b e tween b en t b ranch e s . A bandon ed h u t s w e r e s t ud ied t ou nde r s tand a ny p o s s ib i l i ty o fp o s tho le s . I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te h e r e t h a t n o p o s tho le s w e r e v i s ib le a tt h e a bandoned h u t . T hu s , p robab ly s u ch t y pe o f c on s t ruc t ion w a s m ade f o r h u t s a t Mahaga ra , w h ich r e su l ted i n s i ng le , d oub le a nd

A l a rge c a t t le p en w a s e nc lo sed b y ac l u s te r o f h ou se s a t Mahaga ra c ove r ing a n a r ea o f 1 2 .5 x 7 . 5 m . S uch e v id ence o f c a t t le p en w a s o b served a mong t h e P e rmanen t s e t t lem en t o ft h e K o l s . S uch t y pe o f c a t t le p en i sc on s t ru c ted f o r t h e s a f e ty o f t h e c a t t le f r om w i ld a n im a l s . U sua l ly o n ly o ne c a t t le p en i ss e en i nt h e K o l s e t t lem en t a s a l l t h e c a t t le , b e long ing t o d i f f e r en t f am i l ies a r e k ep t i n t h e s am e p en a nd t h e p en i s r e ga rd ed a s a c ommun i ty p rope r ty . A bou t2 5 c a t t le c an b ek ep ti n a n a r ea c ove r ing 1 2 x1 2 m ( f ig . 1 4 ) . T he se p en s h ave p l a s te red f l oo r , w h ich i sr egu la r ly p aved w i th am ix tu r e o f c ow d ung p a s te a nd w a te r , o r h ave s t on e s l ab s p l aced a t r egu la r i n te rva l s .

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4 4 . 14

F ig . 1 4 : P l an o ft h e f l oo ra nd c a t t le p en o ft h e l a s tp hase , Mahaga ra ( af ter S ha rma e ta l . 1 980 )

3 14

c ommon f e a tu r es . T hu s , i tc an b e s a id t h a t t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e h ad s t rong r oo t s i n t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e o ft h e a r ea . T he h u t v a r ie t ie s o f t h e S em i -pe rmanen t a nd P e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s o f t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s a r e s im i la r t ot ho se o ft h e N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic h u t s .

N o s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu r e s w e r e r e po r ted f r om t h e N eo l i th ic s i te o f Ko ld ihwa , s i nce a v e ry l im i ted a r ea w a s e xcava ted . H oweve r , b u rn t c l ay p i ece s w i th w a t t le i mp r e s s ion s w e r e f ound i na bundance , wh ich i n d ica tes t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic p eop le l i ved i n t h a tched h u t s , w i th w ooden p o s t s a nd mud p l a s te r ed s c r een w a l l s . A t t h e N eo l i th ic s i te o f P anchoh s om ec i rcu la ra nd o va lf l oo r sa r er e po r ted .

P lacemen t a nd t ype s o f h ear th : T h e Me so l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i t e s i n t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s h ave y i e lded d i f f e r en t t ype s o fh ea r th s , i . e . r egu la r o va l o r c i r cu la r h ea r th s , s i ng le -mou th ed h ea r th s a nd p i t h ea r th s ; s om e o ft h em a r e p l a s te r ed w i th c l ay .

T h e s i te o fK o ld ihwa h a sy i e ld ed s t ruc tu r a lr ema in s i nt h eC ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s . T h ey c on s i s to fp o s tho le s e n c i r c l ing a n o b long f l oo r m ea su r ing 5 . 25 m a nd 3 . 20 m . T he f l oo r w a s r amm ed w i th b u rn t c l ay c l od s a nd e a r th . B e s ides , t wo mud w a l l s w e r e r e po r ted . A t t h e C ha lco l i th ic s i t e o f K ha ju r i t h e s t ruc tu ra l f e a tu r e i sr e p r e sen ted b y af l oo rm ade o f r ammed e a r th , b u rn t c l ay a nd p o t sh e rd s . T he f l oo r i s l i t te r ed w i th p o t te ry , a n ima l b one s , q uer n s , mu l le r s , s t one p i ece s , b u rn t c l ay l ump s w i th r e ed a nd b amboo i mp r es s ion s , a nd s t one o b jec t s . A f i r ep lace w a sr e po r ted o no ne o ft h ef l oo r s .

T he Me so l i th ic s i te s o f D amdama a nd Mahadaha h ave y i e lded e v idence o f p l a s te r ed o va l a nd c i r cu la r h ea r th s . S uch p l a s te red h ea r th s a r e s t i l l i n u se a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s i n t h e s t udy a r ea . A t S a ra i N aha r R a i , b es ide a c ommun i ty h ea r th e l even o the r h ea r th s a r e r e po r ted o u t o f wh ich e i gh t a r e e xcava ted . F ou r o f t h em w e r e r egu la r h ea r th s o fc i rcu la r o r o b long s hape h av ing v a ry ing s i ze s . S im i la r e v iden ce s c om e f r om t h e s ea sona l o pen -a i r s e t t lem en t s a nd s e a sona l s umm e r s e t t lem en t s o ft h e Mu saha r s . H e r e t h e h ea r th s a r e p l aced o u t s ide t h e f l oo r a r ea a s n o h u t s w e re o b se rved o t he r t h an a s ma l l s he l te r e r ec t ed f o r k eep ing t h e b e long ing s . T he h ea r th s a r e c on s t ru c ted a sp e r r equ i r em en t . T he b igge r r egu la r ' L P - s haped mud o r s t one h ea r th s a r e u sed f o r c ook ing a nd a r e r egu la r ly c l eaned a nd mud p a s te i s a pp l ied o n t h em . T h e h ea r th s u sed f o r as hor t p e r iod i . e . t h r ee -s ton e h ea r th s , a r e m ean t o n ly f o r r oa s t ing m ea t o r f o r c ook ing d u r ing r a iny s e a son ( f ig . 1 5 ) . When t h e se h ea r th s a r e a bandoned , t h ey a r e c ha rac te r ized b y a ccumu la t ion o f a sh , b u rn t t w ig s , c l ay l ump sa nd d i sca rd ed a n im a lb one s .

I nt h e S em i -pe rmanen t a nd P e rm anen t s e t t lem en t s o f t h e Mu saha r s t h e f l oo r s a r e m ad e o f r amm ed e a r th . T he K o l sa nd Ma l lah sm ak e f l oo r s ,b yf i l l ing e a r th a nd p l a s te r ing i tw i th c ow d ung a nd mud . T h i s a pp l ica t ion o fp a s te h e lp s i nt h e m a in tenance o ft h e f l oo r , wh ich t e nd s t oc r ack d ue t o c on s tan t u se . T he p r e sen ce o fm a te r ia l r ema in s o n t h e f l oo r o ft h e h u t a t Kha ju r i i mp l ie s t h a t t h e h u t w a s u sed f o r k eep ing t h e i r i mpo r tan t b e long ing s . B e s ide s , t h e f i r ep lace p o s s ib ly s ugge s t s ac ook ing a r ea . A t p r e sen t t h e K o l s a nd Ma l lah s u se t h e i r s i ng le h u t s f o rk eep ing t h e i rb e long ing s , c ook ing , s l eep ing a nd s t o r age o fg r a in s . B u ta mong t h e Mu saha r s , t h e h u t i s u sed m a in ly f o r k eep ing t h e i r i mpo r tan t b e long ing s a nd s t o rage , w h i le t h e c ook ing a nd s l eep ing a r e a lway s o u t s ide t h e h u t . I t i s o n ly d u r ing r a iny s e a son t h a t t h ey u se t h e h u t s f o r c ook ing a nd s l eep ing . T he e x i s tence o fl im i ted s t ruc tu ra l r ema in s a tt h e s i te o f S a ra i N aha r R a i i n d ica te s t h a t p robab ly i t w a s as e a sona l s e t t lem en t w h e r e n o p e rmanen t s t ruc tu r e s w e r e e r ec ted . T h i s i s v e ry s im i la r t o s e a sona l o pen -a i r s e t t lem en t s o ft h e Mu saha r s w ho g en e ra l ly t a ke s he l te ru nde r h uge Mahua t r ee s a nd v e ry r a r e ly m ake a s ma l l s he l te r t o k eep t h e i r b e long ing s . A t C hopan i - Mando , t h e s t ruc tu r es a r e c i r cu la r a nd o va l h u t s , c on s t ru c ted i n ab eeh ive f a sh ion . S im i la r e v idence i s s e en a mong t h e Mu saha r s e t t lem en t s , e spec ia l ly s e a sona l s umm e r s e t t lem en t s . T he h u t s o f b o th N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod s i n t h e B e lan v a l ley h ave

F i g . 1 5 : Us haped b r ick h ea r th w i th b one so fr oa s ted a n ima l

A t a r chaeo log ica l s i t es t h e a b sence o f c ha r coa l s i gn if ie s t h a t o n ly l e ave s , g ra s se s a nd t w ig s w e re u sed a s f u e l . P re sen t ly , i tw a s o b se rved t h a t i nt h e

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o pen h ea r th s , l a rge p i ece s o f w ood a r e g ene ra l ly r e u sed w he r ea s c ha rcoa l i s c a r r ied a way b y t h e w ind o r u sed f o r c l ean ing u t en s i l s b y t h e w om enf o lk . T he s e a sona l o pen -a i r s e t t lemen t o ft h e Mu saha r s u sua l ly h a s t h r ee f am i l ies b u t t h e s e t t lemen t a r ea h a s a s m any a s t h r ee r egu la r h ea r th s , f ou r o r f i ve r o a s t ing h ea r th s a nd af ew a bandoned h ea r th s . I ti s i mpor tan t t on o te h e r e t h a t as e t t lem en t c omp r i s ing t h ree f am i l ie s c an h ave a s m any a s 1 0 o r mo r e h ea r th s , i n c lud ing r egu la r , r o a s t ing a nd a bandoned h ea r th s a tt h e s am e t im e . I nt h e a r chaeo log ica l s i tes t h ese a ccoun t f o rt h ep r esence o f al a rge n umbe ro f. h ea r th s r e p r e sen t ing f am i ly u n i t s . H oweve r , f r om t h i s s t udy i tw a s f ound t h a ti ti sn o tt e nab le t oi n f e r t h a t ah ea r th i s am a rk e r o f au n i t o rf am i ly , w hen t h e h ea r th s a r e f ound s c a t te r ed a l o ve r t h e s e t t lem en t w i th o r w i thou t t h e f l oo r c on tex t . B e s ides , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t or e con s t ruc t t h e p robab le p opu la t ion a t t h e s i te i sn o t p o s s ib le u n le s s t h e h ea r th r em a in s a r e f ound i n t h e c on tex t o f f l oo r a r ea . F ig . 1 6 : S ing le m ou thed h ea r th o f t r an s i t iona l p ha se , K ha ju r i ( af t er M i s r a2 000 )

I t i s t o b e n o ted t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic s i te s o f Mahaga ra , K o ld ihwa a nd P anchoh i n t h e B e Ian v a l ley h ave n o t y i e lded a ny e v idence o f h ea r th s , t h ough i n t h e A dvanced C ha lco l i th ic l e ve ls a t K o ld ihwa , a s i ng le -mou thed c hu lha h a s b een f ound . A t K ha ju r i af l oo r h a s y i e lded a f i r ep lace a nd a n U -shaped c hu lha i nt h e T ran s i t iona l p ha se ( f ig . 1 6 ) . S uch U -shaped c hu lhas a r e s t i l l i n u se a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s i nt h ea r ea ( f ig . 1 7 ) . T he Meso l i th ic s i tes o f S a ra i N aha r R a i , Mahadaha , D amdam a a nd C hopan i - Mando h ave y i e lded an umbe r o fp i t h ea r th s ( f ig . 1 8 ) . T he se p i t h ear th s a r e c i r cu la r , o va l o r o b long i n s hape a nd m ea su re 5 2 c m i n w id th a nd 1 5 c m t o 4 0 c m i n d ep th , a nd s om e h ave a c on s t r ic ted b a se w i th a w ide m ou th . S om e o ft h em w e r ep l a s te red w i th w e t c l ay . T he p i th ea r th sc on ta ined c l ay l ump s , a sh , a nd t i ny c ha r r ed a n ima l b ones . Ag au rs ku l l w i th h or n s w a sa l so f ound i n ap i th ea r th a t Mahadaha . S im i la r p i t h ea r th s a r e e xc lu s ive ly u sed b y t h e Mu saha r s a nd K o ls f o r c ook ing , r o a s t ing m ea t a nd w a rm ing f ood ( f ig . 1 9 ) . D ue t o c l o se c on tac t w i th r e gu la r h ear th t h e p i t h ear th s a r e f ound t o c on ta in a m ix tu r e o fc l ay l ump s , c ha r r ed g r a in s , s em i c ha r r ed a n ima l b one s a nd a sh . T h i s i sb ecau se t h e b u rn ing f u e l i so f ten s c ooped o u t o ft h e c ook ing h ea r th a nd s mo the r ed w hen t h e h ea r th i s n o t i n u se a nd r e p laced w hen t h eh ea r th i sb e ing u sed .

F i g . 1 7 : S ing le m ou thed h ea r th ( c hu l lah ) n ex t t o b in i n s ide a Mu saha rh u t

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b oxes a nd a l um in ium a nd s t ee l t r unk s . T he c l ay b in s a r e f ound t o b e a n i n sepa rab le p a r t o f t h e i r m a te r ia l c u l tu r e . S tone s l ab s i n t h e f o rm o f p l a tf o rm s a r e embedded i nt h e g round s o t h a t t h e s t o rage b in s c an b e i n s ta l led o n t h em t o d i s suade r oden t sa nd p e s ta t tack f r om t h eb o t tom o ft h eb in . A t Mahaga ra 4 9 .06% o f t h e p o t te ry c on s i s t s o f s t o rage j a r s . T he s t o rage v es se l s a r e mo r e i n c ompa r i son t o c ook ing v e sse l s , wh i le d in ing v es se ls a r e mode ra te . A t N eo l i th ic l e ve l s o f K o ld ihwa a nd P anchoh b ig s t o rage j a r s h ave b een f ound . A l so n o t iced a r e a pp l iqué d eco ra t ion , c on s i s t ing o f c ha in a nd r ope p a t ter n s , o n t h e b ig j a r s a nd s t ra igh t -s ided t r ough s . T he e v idence o f s t o rage j a r s c om e s f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic s i te s o f K o ld ihwa a nd K ha ju r i . I n t h e t r an s i t iona l p ha se b e tween C ha lco l i th ic a nd I r on Age a tK ha ju r i , t h e f l oo ry i e lded ag i an t s t one s l ab n ea rt h eh ea r th . T he s l ab w a s p re sumab ly u sed a s ap l a tf o rm f o rs t o rage b in s o r j a r s . P r e sen t ly , s t o rage b in s a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ies a r e p l aced n ex t t ot h e h ea r th . A l a rge n umbe r o f c i r cu la r s t one d i sc s s t one r e cove red f r om K o ld ihwa w e re p robab ly u sed a s s uppo r t st op l ace t h e s t o rage j a r s .

F i g . 1 8 : P i th ea r th a tS a ra iN aha rR a i

F ood p roduc t ion , e ven i n i t s s imp le s t f o rm , p rov ide s a n o ppo r tun i ty a nd a mo t ive f o r t h e a ccumu la t ion o f as u rp lu s a s s e en f r om C hopan i Mando . Unf i r ed o r l i gh t ly f i r ed h andmade c on ta ine r s o f mud w ou ld h ave b een u sefu l f o r s t o r ing f ood g ra in s . C on ta ine r s o rp o t s o fc l ay a r e i mperv iou st oi n sec t s a nd r oden t s , a nd d on o td ecay a s d o c on ta ine r s o fp e r i shab le m a te r ia l s l i ke h ide , w ood , b amboo o rg ra s s . S to rage f a c i l i t ie s o fv a r ied f o rm s a nd s i ze s s how t h a t g r a in s c an b e s t o r ed i n b in s i nb u lk . B u t f o r e x t rac t ion o fs m a l l q uan t i t ie s a tr egu la r i n te rva l s c on ta ine r s l i k e s m a l le r s t o rage j a r s a r e mo r e u sef u l . T he p r e sence o fu nf i r ed l a rge s t o rage j a r s i nt h e e a r ly l e ve l sa tC hopan i - Mando i s o fk ey i mpor tance i nu nde r s tand ing h ow p r eh i s to r ic p eop le i n t h e g a the r ing s t age s t a r t ed m ak ing p o t te ry f i r s t b y h and a nd l a te r b y w hee l . T he se c on ta ine r sm ay h ave b een u sed f o rs t o r ing g r a in sa s w e l l a s p roce s sed o r u np roce s sed f ood a nd w a te r . T h e s t o rage b in s w e re s ub s t i tu ted b y t h e s t o rage j a r s l a rge ly d u e t o t h e i r s t u rd ine s s a nd d u rab i l i ty . T h e e x i s tence o f s t o rage b in s i n t h e e xcava t ion a l ong w i th o the r s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s i n d ica te s t h e i mpo r tance o fb in s , f o r t h e s t o r ing o fg r a in s . T hey c e r ta in ly p l ayed ac ruc ia l r o le i nl i f e o ft h e p eop le a nd a r e o ne o f t h e i mpo r tan t i n d ica to r s o f p ro spe r i ty o fs e t t led a g r icu l tu r i s t s .

F i g . 1 9 : P i t h ea r th ( Bor s i ) u sed f o r b o i l ing m i lk , c ook ing , w a rm ing f ood b y aK o lw omen

T he p l acem en t o f h ea r th s a t C hopan i - Mando i s f ound o u t s ide t h e f l oo r a r ea . Among t h e Mu saha r s a nd K o l s t h e p l acem en t o ft h e p i t h ea r th s i ss e en o u t s ide t h e h u ti nt h e o pen . T he r e a son i st h a tt h e i r c ook ing i n vo lves al o t o fr oa s t ing o fm ea t , w h ich e m i t s s mok e a nd t h e s m e l l o fb u rn ing f l e sh . T hu s , c ook ing i sa lway sc a r r ied o u to u t s ide t h eh u ta r ea . S torage F ac i l i t ie s : T he Me so l i th ic s i t eo fC hopan i Mando f r om w he re t h e e a r l ie s t h and m ade p o t te ry h a s b een r e cove r ed h a s a l so y i e lded a n umbe r o f c i rcu la r o r o va l s t ruc tu r e s m ade o f f l a t s l ab s o f v a r iou s s i ze s . T h e m ax imum a nd m in imum d i am e te r s o ft h e se s t ruc tu re s a r e 7 0 c m a nd 3 0 c m r e spec t ive ly . R ema in s o f b u rn t d aub f r agm en t s w i th i mp r es s ion s o f b amboo s t i ck s l y ing a r ound s om e o f t h e se c i r cu la r /ova l s t ruc tu r e s w e r e o b ta ined . T he p robab le c onc lu s ion d r awn w a s t h a t t h ese s t on e s t ruc tu r e s a r e t h e b a se s o fs t o r age b in s m ade o fb amboo a nd c l ay . T he K o t s a nd Mu saha r s u se s eve ra l t e chn ique s f o r p r e serv ing a nd s t o r ing f ood f o r v a r iou s l e ng th s o f t im e , b o th a s af u tu r e r e se rve a nd f o r o b ta in ing a d e s i r ed f l avou r o ft h e s t o red f ood . T hey s t o r et h e i rg ra in si nv a r iou st y pe s o fc on ta ine r s l i k e , c l ay s t o rage b in s ,j a r s , p o t s , t i n

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P o t tery : Wh i le t h e Me so l i th ic s i te s i nt h e G anga v a l ley h ave n o ty i e lded a ny e v idence o fp o t te ry , t h e Me so l i th ic s i te o f C hopan i - Mando i n t h e B e lan v a l ley h a s y i e lded e v idence o f t h e e a r l ies t h and m ade p o t te ry . O n t h e b a s i s o fe t hnoa r chaeo log ica l s t udy i th a sb een o b se rved t h a t n o s o c ie ty l i v ing i n ah un t ing -ga th er ing s t age g en e ra l ly m ake t h e i ro wn p o t tery . T hey o b ta in t h e p o t te ry f r om n e ighbou r ing a dvanced s o c ie t ie s . I tc an b e i n f e r r ed t h a t i n t h e d i s tan t p a s t t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le f r om t h e B e lan v a l ley u sed p o t te ry b y e xchange f r om c on tempo ra ry a dvanced s oc ie t ie s . B u t a s r evea led b y t h e t y pe , t e chno logy , mo rpho log ica l s hape s , d eco ra t ive mo t if sa nd e spec ia l ly t h e s i ze o ft h ep o t s i ti s e v iden t t h a t t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le o f t h e V indhya s m ade t h e i r o wn p o t te ry ( bow l s , v a se s , d i she s a nd b igge r b ow l s ) w i thou t a ny i n f lu ence f r om a ny a dvanced c on tempo ra ry c u l tu r e . T he se v es se l s w e r e m a in ly u sed d u r ing p roces s ing a nd c on sump t ion o ff ood .

Me so l i th ic , N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i te s o ft h e B e lan v a l ley . T h e g r ave s o ft h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod w e re c a r efu l ly p r epa r ed b y b e ing p rov ided w i th a 3 -4 c m t h ick , c u sh ion o fs of t s o i l . T hey w e r e s ha l low a nd o b long a nd t h e d ead w e r e p l aced i n a n e x tended a nd s up ine p os i t ion i n e a s t -we s t o r w e s t -ea s t o r ien ta t ion . I n af ew c a ses o ne h and w a s l y ing b y t h e s i de o f t h e b ody a nd t h e o t he r w a s p l aced a c ro s s t h e a bdom en . T he K o l s a nd Ma l lah s b u ry o n ly t h e i r c h i ld r en . B u t Mu saha r s b u ry t h e i r c h i ld r en a nd i nf ew c a ses t h e p a r en t s a bou t af ew m e te r s a way f r om t h e s e t t lem en t . F o r e xamp le i n t h e S ea sona l o pen -a i rs e t t lemen t s t h e b u r ia l g round i s 7m a way f r om t h e d we l l ing a r ea g en e ra l ly n ea r t h e w a te r s ou r ce i n S hanka rga rh v i l lage . Among t h e Mu saha r s a nd K o ls t h e g r ave i sd ug i n an o r th s ou th l i ne . T hey a r e s ha l low a nd m ea su r e 1t o 1 . 50 mi nl e ng th a nd 0 . 50 t o0 . 70 m i nd ep th . T he h ead i s p l aced t owa rd s t h e n o r th ; t h e b ody t h en i s c ove r ed w i th a w h i te c l o th . T he l a ye r s o f mud , t h or n s a nd a ga in mud a r e p u t o ve r o n t h e d ead b ody . A s ma l l t umu lu s i s m ade o n w h ich l a rge r ound s t one s a nd t h or ny b u she s a r e p l aced t o p ro tec t t h e d ead b ody f r om s c avenge r s . S ome t ime s s u ch b u r ia l s a r e p l aced v e ry n ea r t o t h e r i ve r s e c t ion o r i n s ide t h e s e c t ion , s o w hen t h e w a te r l e ve l r i se s , t h e f l ow ing s t r eam c a r r ie s a way t h e d ead b ody .

T he N eo l i th ic c e ram ic a s semb lage i n t h e B e lan v a l ley w a s mo re a dvanced , m a tu r ed a nd s t anda rd ized , w i th f unc t iona l p o t te ry t y pe s l i k e d i f f e r en tt y pes o fb ow l s ,j a r s , h and i s , b a s in , p l a t te r a nd s ma l l v a se s . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e l a te Me so l i th ic p ha se o ft h e V indhya s w a s i nt r an s i t ion f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t o t h e N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e . T he p o t te ry t r a i t s o f t h e N eo l i th ic s u rv ived i n to t h e C ha lco l i th ic p ha se o f t h e B e lan v a l ley . T he C ha lco l i th ic p o t te ry i n c luded t h e f unc t iona l t y pe s l i k e d i f f e r en tt y pe s o fb ow l s , b ow l s -cum l id s , d i sh o n -s tand , f oo ted b a s in s , t umb le r s , v a se s , h and i , j a r s , b eake r s , d i shes , a nd m in ia tu r e v es se l s . A t p r e sen t t h e Mu saha r s , K o l s a nd Ma l lah s u se p o t s m a in ly f o r s t o rage p u rpo se s a nd c ook ing a nd s t o rage i sd one i na l um in ium a nd s t ee lu t en s i l s .

A t Mahadaha , 3 5 h ea r th s w e r e f ound i n t h e c em e te ry -cum -hab i ta t ion a r ea . T he b u r ia l g round s o ft h e Mu saha r s a r e v e ry n ea r ( 7 t o2 0 m ) t ot h e d we l l ing a r ea ( f ig . 1 4 ) . I n m any c a se s t h e a u tho r w a s t o ld t h a t i nt h e r e cen t p a s t t h ey u sed t ob u ry t h e i rd ead i nt h e s e t t lem en t i t se lf . T h e p a r en t s w e re b u r ied u sua l ly j u s t o u t s ide t h e h u t , a s t h ey w e r e t h ough t t o p ro tec t t h e f am i ly f r om e v i l s p i r i t s . B e s ides , t h ey s t rong ly b e l ieve i na nce s to r w o r sh ip . T he p robab le e xp lana t ion f o r t h e Me so l i th ic i n hab i tan t s b u ry ing t h e i r d ead i n t h e s e t t lem en t i t se lf m igh t h ave s om e th ing t o d o w i th a nce s to r w o r sh ip . A nd b u r ia l w i th in t h e s e t t lem en t a l so p r ev en t s a t tack s b y s c avenge r s , a s t h e g r ave s a r e s ha l low . A sm en t ion ed e a r l ie r ,t h ep l acem en to ft h e h ea r th s a mong t h e Mu saha r s i sa lway s o u t s ide t h e h u t . I ft h e d ead w e r e a l so b u r ied o u t s ide t h e h u t , t h en t h e g r ave i sb ound t oh ave h ea r th a nd h ea r th r e f u se m a ter ia l i ni t .

D ispo sa l o f f o od r efu se s : T he Me so l i th ic i n hab i tan t s o f Mahadaha d i spo sed o f t h e i r f ood r e f u se i nt h e h ea r th s , i nt h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea a nd i n t h e a d jo in ing l a ke . Whe r ea s a t S a ra i N aha r R a i , D amdama a nd C hopan i - Mando f ood r e f u se w a s d i spo sed o f f i n h ea r th s a nd p i t h ear th s . T he d i spo sa lp a t te rn o ff ood r e f u se i nt h e Mu saha r , K o l a nd Ma l lah s e t t lem en t s a r e s im i la r . Mode o fD i sposa lo fD ead : T he Me so l i th ic s i te so f G anga v a l ley h ave y i e lded g r ave s a nd s k e le ton s f r om S a r a i N aha r R a i ( 12 g r aves / 1 5 s ke le ton s ) , Mahadaha ( 2 8 g r aves / 3 2 s ke le ton s ) , a nd D amdam a ( 4 1 g r ave s / 4 8 s k e le ton s ) . B u t n o e v idence o f d i spo sa l o f t h e d ead c om e s f r om t h e

A t S a ra i N aha r R a i i n G rave n o . V I I , f ou r i n d iv idua l s w e re b u r ied . Two o f t h e se s ke le ton s b e long t o m a les , a nd t wo t o f ema le s . Ma le s w e r e

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p l aced t ot h e r i gh t o ft h e f ema le s . I nt h e b u r ia l o f t h e Mu saha r s ,t h eh ead i sp l aced t owa rd st h en o r th . I ft h e d ecea sed w a s am an , t h e b ody i sp l aced o n t h e r i gh t s i de o ft h e g rave , i f aw om an , t ot h e l ef t . T he e xp lana t ion f o r p l ac ing t h e d ead b ody i nt h i s f a sh ion i st h a tt h e m an a nd w oman w e r e o r ig ina l ly as i ng le b ody . T he r i gh t o r t h e s t ronge r h a lf b e long s t ot h e m a le a nd t h e l ef to rt h e w eak e rh a lf t o t h e f em a le . Wh en t h e t wo h a lve s s p l i t , e ach b ecom e s awho le a nd p e rf ec tb ody , o ne ac omp le te m an a nd t h eo t he r ac omp le te w om an .

T he p l acem en t o f b u r ia l s i n t h e Meso l i th ic s e t t lem en t s m igh t h ave b een g u ided b y f o l low ing r e a son s : •T h ey w o r sh iped t h e i r d ead a s t h e Mu saha r s d o t oday . •B e l ief t h a t t h e d ead a nce s to r s ' s p i r i t s p ro tec t s t h em f o rm e v i l s p i r i t s , a s s uch b e l ief s a r e s t i l l p r eva len ta mong t h e Mu saha r s . •B e l ief i nl i f e a f t e rd ea th , f o r wh ich t h ed ead w e re b u r ied b e s ide t h e h ea r th i n t h e b e l ief t h a t t h e h ea r th s w ou ld p rov ide e n e rgy t ot h e s ou ls o ft h e d ead . •B u r ia l w i th in t h e s e t t lem en t w ou ld h ave p r even ted a t tack b ys c avenge r s .

T h e g r aves a t S a ra i N aha r R a i , Mahadaha , a nd D amdam a h ave y i e lded g rave g ood s l i k e b one a r rowhead s , m ic ro l i th s , a nd g round p i ece s o f h aem a t i te . T he o ccu r r ence o fb u rn t c l ay l ump s a nd c ha r r ed a n ima l b one s i nt h e g r ave s s ugge s t s u se o f h ea r th r e f u se i nf i l l ing t h e g r ave s . T he Meso l i th ic b u r ia l s o ft h e G anga v a l ley h ave y i e lded e v idence o f or n am en t s i n t h e f o rm o f r i ng s , e a r r ing s a nd n eck lace m ade o f a n t le r s ( e .g . a t Mahadaha f r om g r ave n o . I V , Va nd V I I ) a nd p endan t s ( i n G rave n o . V I I , D amdama ) . Among t h e Mu saha r s , b u r ia l s d o n o tc on ta in a ny g rave g ood s , b u tb e long ing s a r e p l aced a r ound t h e s t one t umu lu s o f t h e d ead . Or n am en t s o fp r ec iou s m e ta l s l i k e g o ld a nd s i lve r a r e r emoved a nd r e p laced w i th t h o se o f c heape r m a t e r ia l s l i k e l e ad a nd a l um in ium b ef o r e b u ry ing t h e d ead . A tD amdama g r ave n o . V I I h a s y i e lded a m a le b u r ied w i th ap endan t . T he m a le m embe r s o f t h e s imp le c ommun i t ies a do rn t h em se lve s w i th a f ew o rnam en t s l i k e p endan t s a nd r i ng s . T hu s , t h e g r ave g ood s d o n o t a lway s i mp ly ab e l ief t h a t t h ey w e r e n eeded b y t h e d ecea sed i nt h e a f te r l i f e , b u t b ecau se t h e u se o ft h ing s o ft h e d ead b y t h e l i v ing i s n o t c on s id e r ed a u sp ic iou s a nd t hu s t h ey a r e d i sca rded .

E v idence o fb u r ia l d oe s n o t c om e f r om t h e B e lan v a l ley s i te s . P robab ly t h ey b u r ied t h e i r d ead i n r i ve r s e c t ion s , a nd when t h e w a te r l e ve l r o se , t h e r i ve r c a r r ied t h e d ead a l ong . S uch m ode o fb u r ia l s i s s e en i n t h e S ea sona l a nd S em i -Pe rman en t S e t t lem en t so ft h e Mu saha r s . S ubs i s tence P a t tern : T he Mu saha r s a nd K o l s a r e h un te r -ga the r e r s a nd a g r icu l tu r i s t a nd t h e Ma l lah s a r e f i she rm en a nd a g r icu l tu r i s t s . D ue t ot h e r a p id d es t ruc t ion o f f o r e s t s b ig g am e h un t ing i s d one v e ry r a r e ly a nd i s i l ega l a s w e l l . H oweve r , t h e t r ad i t ion o f s ma l l g am e h un t ing t h ough o f l i t t le e conom ic i mpor tance i ss t i l l p rac t i sed a mong t h e se c ommun i t ie s . Sma l l g ame h un t ing : T he Mu saha r s p r ef e r s ma l l g am e h un t ing t o b ig g am e h un t ing , a s i tr equ i r e s l e s s e ne rgy a nd t oo l s . T hey a r e v e ry much a wa r e o f t h e c on sequences o f e xce ss ive h un t ing a nd t h e ref o r e r egu la te t h e i rh un t ing t hu sm a in ta in ing a n e co log ica l b a lance . T he Meso l i th ic p eop le m ay h ave a l so b een w e l l a cqua in ted w i th h ow m any a n ima l s h ad t ob e e xp lo i ted , wh ich i n va r iab ly l e f t t h em w i th t h e o p t ion o f e xp lo r ing n ew f ood r e sou r ce s f r om t im e t o t im e . B u t i ti si n te r e s t ing t h a tt h ea n ima lb one sa r e s e en e i th e ri nl e s so r mo r e p e rcen tage f r om a l l t h e l a ye r s f r om D amdama p robab ly b ecau se t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le w e r e e xpe r im en t ing w i th t h e c ho ice o f g am e t o b e h un ted a nd a m id t h e s c a r c i ty o f s t one t o o l s . T h i s m igh t b e t h e r e a son why e ve ry s e cond b one i n D amdama w a s aw o rk ed b one , i fn o t aw e l l -made t o o l .

T he e v idence o fd oub le b u r ia l p robab ly h ad s om e s o c ia l s i gn if icance f o r t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le . Maybe t h i s s ymbo l i sed a m a r i ta l r e la t ion sh ip . A t Mahadaha t wo d oub le b u r ia l s h ave b een r e po r ted i ng r ave n o s . I /X IV a nd V /X . I no ne o ft h e g rave s ( X IV )t h eb u r ia li so fy oung m a le a nd f ema le . S uch e v id ence a l so c om e s f r om t h e s i te o f D amdam a , wh ich h a s y i e ld ed 5 d oub le b u r ia l s a nd o ne t r ip le b u r ia l . G rave n o . XX h a s a n a du l t m a le a nd a y oung a du l tf ema le , wh i le i ng r ave n o . XXXV I t h e m a le i s ay oung a du l t a nd t h e f ema le a n a du l t . T he t r ip le b u r ia l i n c luded t wo m a le a du l t s a nd o ne f em a le a du l t . T hu s , i t c an b e s a id t h a t t h ey p r ac t i sed b o th monogamy a nd p o lyand ry .

T he e v idence o fd og i n Meso l i th ic l e ve l s a tS a r a i N aha r R a i a nd D amdama i s i n t r igu ing . T h e Me so l i th ic i nhab i tan t s w e r e i n c l o se c on tac t w i th d og s t h a t u l t ima te ly l i ved o n t h e b one s t h rown t o

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t h em a nd t h en g radua l ly g o t d om e s t ica ted a nd a ccompan ied t h em d u r ing h un t ing e xped i t ion s . D om e s t ica t ion o fd og s i sa l so c ommon a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s w ho k eep t h em f o r h un t ing a nd f o rp ro tec t ion a ga in s ti n t rude r s .

m eag r e a moun t o f r ema in s r e cove r ed . D e sp i te d i e ta ry p o ten t ia l a f f o rded b y s ma l l m amma ls , t h ey a r e g ene ra l ly a s s igned m ino r s i gn if icance a nd a r e c on s tan t ly o ve r shadowed b y l a rge r a n ima l s i n a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion . T h e i mpor tan ce o f s ma l l a n ima l s i nt h e p r eh i s to r ic d i e t c an v e ry w e l l b e s e en f r om t h e Meso l i th ic s i t e s o f t h e G anga v a l ley . S ince e ve ry p a r t o f t h e s ma l l a n ima l s i s c on sum ed i ti su n l ik e ly t h a t a ny t r aces o ft h e s am e c an b e f ound i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T hough l im i ted n umbe r o f b one s o f s ma l l a n ima l s i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd c on t r ibu t e t oo u r k now ledge o ft h e t y pes o fs pec ie s e xp lo i ted b y t h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le , i ti sd i ff i cu l tt oe s t ima t e t h e c on t r ibu t ion o f i n d iv idua l s pec ie s . S tud ies s how t h a t s ma l l a n ima l s h ave r e la t ive ly h i gh e d ib le m ea t t o l i ve w e igh t r a t io . T hu s t h e se s ma l l a n ima l r ema in s c an b e a n i mpo r tan t s ou r ce f o rr e con s t ruc t ing p r eh is to r ic d i e t . T he h un t ing o f s m a l l g am e r e qu i re s f ewe r t o o l s , wh ich w ou ld h ave b een i mpo r tan t w hen t h e r aw m a te r ia l w a s s c a r ce , t h e n ea r e s t s ou rce b e ing 1 00 km f r om t h e s i te s .

T he s ma l l g am e h un ted b y t h e Mu saha r s m a in ly c on s is t s o f r a t s a nd s qu i r re l s . T he f a una l a s semb lage o f Meso l i th ic s i t es o f Mahadaha a nd D amdama i n c ludes t h eb ones o fr oden t s p ec ie s l i ke R a t tus r a t tu s a nd B and ico ta i nd ica . T he C ha lco l i th ic s i te o f K ha ju r i h a s a l so y i e lded e v idence o fr oden t s . I tw a s o b se rved t h a t as i ng le t o o l i . e . k han ta a nd a b ucke t o fw a te r i se nough t oc a tch a sm any a s 5o r 1 5r a t s a t at im e . R oa s t ing o fr a t s i sa lway s c a r r ied o u t o n o pen f i r e s a nd r a r e ly i nr egu la rh ea r th s . T he p roce s s ing d oe s n o t r e qu i r e a ny t o o l a nd r oden t s t o o th i se nough t od i s sec ti t .D r ied t w ig s a nd l e ave s a r e u sed a s f u e l w ood f o r r oa s t ing . T he r o a s t ing a r ea a f te r 1 0 d ay s h a s r ema in s o fa sh a nd t e e th o f t h e r oden t s a s e ve ry o t he r p a r t o f t h e a n ima l i s c on sum ed . I n a dd i t ion , r a t s c o l lec t g r a in s i n t h e i r h o les d u r ing h a rves t , w h ich i sc o l lec ted f r om t h e i r n e s t b y t h e Mu saha r s a f t e r k i l l ing t h e r a t s . I ti s p robab le t h a t t h e Me so l i th ic i nhab i tan t s o f t h e G anga v a l ley a l so i n i t ia l ly c am e i n c on tac t w i th w i ld g r a in s wh i le c l ea r ing r a t h o le s a nd t h i s m ay h ave u l t ima te ly l e d t h em t o c o l lec t t h e se w i ld ly g row ing g r a in s .

T h e Mu saha r s h un t ing s t y le s e t s t h em a pa r t f r om o t he r h un te r s s i nce t h ey u se o n ly m in imum e qu ipm en t f o r h un t ing o pe ra t ion s . T he e v idence o f s ma l l g am e h un t ing i sv e ry w e l l d ep ic ted i n t h e r o ck p a in t ing s o f e a r ly h un te r s a nd g a the r e r s a t J ao ra n ea r B h imbe tka i n Madhya P r ade sh . A n e l abo ra te s c ene o f s eve ra l w om en c oope r a t ing i n c a tch ing r a t s f r om t h e i rb u r row i sd ep ic ted a tJ ao ra ( Neumaye r 1 993 : 7 8 ) . T he o t h e r d ep ic t ion s how s r a t sb e ing c a r r ied b yt h e h un te r s o n t h e i rb ack . T he u se o fs t ick s f o r d i gg ing i si n te r e s t ing b ecau se t h i s t e chn ique s u rv ive s a mong t h e Mu saha r s . A l though t h e r e w a s n o s c a r c i ty o fb ig a n im a ls i np r eh i s to r ic t im e s , t h e r a t s s t i l l c on s t i tu ted ap a r t o fp r eh i s to r ic d i e t .

T h e f a una l a s semb lage o f D amdam a h a s y i e lded e v idence o fp o rcup in e . T he Mu saha r s a nd K o l s o f t h e s t udy a r ea a l so h un tp o r cup ine s . T he p o r cup ine i sr oa s ted a f te r r emov ing i t s q u i l l s . T he r o a s t ing i s d one i nt h e h ea r th o ro n o pen f i r e . O n ly t h e q u i l l s , v i sce ra a nd b u rn t t w ig s r em a in a tt h e s i t e , wh ich i s l a te r b lown a way b y w ind . B e s ides , d om es t ica ted a n ima l s l i k ep i ga r e a l so r o a s ted i no pen h ear th s o n t w ig sa nd s t r aw .

F i sh ing : T he f a una l a s semb lag e s o ft h e Me so l i th ic s i te o f t h e G anga v a l ley a nd N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i te s i n t h e B e lan v a l ley h a s y i e lded r ema in s o fa qua t ic a n ima l s l i k e t o r to i se ( L i s semy s p unc ta ta a nd C h i t ra i nd ica ) a nd f i sh r em a in s . Ma jo r i ty o f t h e b one f r agm en t s r epo r ted a t D amdama w e re t i ny ( 1t o 3c mi nl e ng th ) a nd 9 0% o f t h e t o ta l a s semb lage o f t h em w e re c ha r r ed , s ugge s t ing t h a t r o a s t ing o f m ea t w a s t h e m a in mode o f c ook ing . A t S a r a i N aha r R a i b ones r e cove r ed f r om t h e h ea r th s w e r e i nd i f f e r en t s t age s o fr o a s t ing w i th e x ten s ive s oo t o nt h em . T he d o r sa l p l a te s a nd s he l ls o ft o r to ise f ound f r om h ea r th sa l so s howed s i gn so fr o a s t ing .

F ow l ing : T he f a una l a s semb lage o f Mahadaha a nd D amdama h a s y i e lded e v idence o ft h e b i rd G a l lu s g a l lu s ( 8 .96% o f t h e t o ta l a s semb lage ) . T he Mu saha r s a nd Ma l lah s a l so c a tch b i rd s f o r c on sump t ion . T he who le b ody i sc on sum ed l e av ing b eh ind f e a the r s a nd b eak s o ft h e b i rd s i nt h e o pen o ri n ar egu la rh ea r th . S ummary : Sma l l m amma l s l i ke r oden t s d o r e p r esen t ap o ten t ia l ly r i ch f ood s ou r ce . B u t h ow much e ach s p ec ies c on t r ibu ted t o t h e d i e t o f t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le i sd i ff i cu l t t oe va lua te f r om t h e

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T he e t hnog raph ic s t udy h e lped i n u nde r s tand ing t h e i mpo r tance o ff i sh i nt h e s ub s i s tence o ft h e p a s t c ommun i t ie s :

Wh i le i n te rp r e t ing a ny a r chaeo log ica l s i te i ti sv e ry i mpo r tan t t on o te t h e c on tex t i n wh ich t h e a n ima l b one s a r e f ound . T he d i spo sa l o ff i sh b one s i nt h e Ma l lah s e t t lem en t s i si n : h ea r th a r ea , d ump b eh ind t h e h u to rs c a t te r ed n ea rt h e s e t t lem en t , a g r icu l tu ra l f i e ld s a nd o nt h e r i ve rbank s . C on s ider ing t h e h ab i t s a nd e co logy o ft h e v a r iou s s pec ie s r e cove r ed , i ti s p o s s ib le t o r e con s t ruc t t h e s ou r ce s l i k e ly t o h ave b een e xp lo i ted b y a nc ien t m an . T hu s , t h e f i sh ing m e thodo logy a dop ted b y p r esen t d ay s imp le c ommun i t ie s s how s m any s im i la r i t ies w i th t h e p r eh i s to r ic p r ac t ice s . B one h ook s m ay h ave b een u sed , b u t o n ly l im i ted e v idence h a s c om e t o l i gh t d u r ing e xcava t ion . T he r e i sn o d i r ec t e v idence f o r t h e u se o fn e t s o rt r ap s , b u t s ma l l f i sh c ou ld h ave b een c o l lec ted w i th t h e h e lp o fc ove rb a ske t s o rb y h and .

•F i sh ing p rac t ice s d eve lop a s al o ca l r e spon se t o t h e g eog raphy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f f i sh . T hough f i sh ing i s d one t h roughou t t h e y ea r , t h e m a in f i sh ing s e a son i sd u r ing r a in s a nd s umm e r i n r i ve r sa nd l a k e s . •F i sh r ema in s a t t h e s i te i fa na ly sed c an s how d i s t r ibu t ion o fs pec ie s ,p rov id ei n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e c l ima te , t h e s e a son s i n w h ich t h ey w e r e c augh t , f ood p r ef e r ence s a nd t h e f i sh ing m e thod s . •T h e f i sh r ema in s f ound a ta n a r chaeo log ica l s i te , o r t h e r e con s t ruc ted d ea th a s semb lage m ay n o t a lway s s how s t h e e x ten t o f f i sh ing a c t iv i ty c a r r ied o u to nt h es i t e ,b ecau se : a .F i sh h un ted f r om t h e r i ve r a nd l a k e s a r e d epo s i ted i n v a r iou s p l ace s i n d i f f e r en t s e t t lem en t s . D if f e r en t t ype s o fp roce s s ing a nd b u tche ry m e thod s e mp loyed l e ad t o d i f f e r en t l o ca t ion s f o rd epo s i t ion o ff i sh b one s . F o r e . g . t h e Ma l lah s d o n o t c a r ry t h e c omp le te f i sh b ack t o t h e s e t t lem en t a s t h ey a r e a l r eady c a r ry ing c on s ide rab le w e igh t . T he h ead s a nd f i n sa r ed i sca rded a tt h eb ank o ft h er i ve r .N on e d ib le f i sh a r el e f tb eh ind a tt h er i ve rbank s a nd o n ly t h e i mpor tan tf i sh s t ock i sb ough tb ack t o t h e s e t t lem en t . F i sh h un ted b y c h i ld r en a r e p roce s sed a nd d i sca rded a l ong t h e r i ve r o r o n t h e l a ke s ide , p addy f i e ld o r e l sewhe r e . T hu s , b one so f an umbe ro fs pec ie sc on sum ed c anno t a lway s b e f ound i nt h e d we l l ing a r ea b u t a r e f ound n ea rt h ea c tua lf i sh ing a r ea . b .I ti sn ece s sa ry t oe xcava te b o th t h ef i sh ing a r ea ( wh e re g ene ra l ly b u tche r ing h appen s ) a s w e l l a s t h e d we l l ing a r ea ( d i spo sa l o f b one ) f o r b e t te ru nde r s tand ing t h e f i sh ing a c t iv i t ie si ft h e a r chaeo log ica ls i t ei ss i tua ted a l ong t h er i ve ro r l a k e . c .D u r ing e x t rac t ion o fo i l m o s t o ft h e d i sca rded b ody p a r t s ( t a i l s , f i n s , a nd b one s ) a r e u t i l i sed , l e av ing t h e c r u sh ed r em a in s b eh ind . T hu s , i t v e ry u n l ik e ly t h a t a ny t r ace s o f s uch p roce s s ing w i l l b e s e en i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd .

F i sh ing b y h and a nd w i th s t ick s i st h e s imp le s t f i sh ing t e chn ique a mong t h e Mu saha r s a nd t h e Ma l lah s , whe r et h e r e i s am in ima lu se o ft o o l s . T he r aw m a te r ia l s u sed f o r m ak ing f i sh ing t o o l s a nd t r ap s a r e l o ca l ly a va i lab le . Much o f i tc on s i s t s o f b amboo , wh ich i se a s i ly o b ta ined f r om t h e n ea rby f o r e s t , w h i le c o t ton a nd n y lon s t r ing s f o r w eav ing n e t s , i r on h ook s a nd n e t s i nk e r s a r e o b ta ined f r om l o ca lm a rk e t s . W i th t h e l a ck o f s ub s tan t ia l e v idence f o r al i nk b e tween l i f e i n t h e mod e rn e r a a nd t h a t o f t h e p r eh i s to r ic p a s t , i tm ay w e l l b e a sk ed w he the r t h e s t one too lu s ing p eop le p o sse s sed t h et e chno log ica l s k i l lo ff i sh ing wh ich i sk nown t ot h ec on tempo ra ry f i sh ing c ommun i t ie s . T h e Ma l lah s , Mu saha r s a nd K o l s a l l c a r ry o u t f i sh ing . T hey e mp loy v a r ied f i sh ing t e chn ique s ,w h ich a r es im i la rt ot ho se f ound d ep ic ted i nt h er o ck a r ti nt h e n ea rby a r ea . W i th t h e l a ck o fs ub s tan t ia l e v idence f o r al i nk b e tween l i f e i nt h e moder ne r aa nd t h a to ft h ep r eh i s to r ic p e r iod , i tm ay b e a sk ed w he the r t h e s t one too l u s ing m en w e r e a cqua in ted w i th f i sh ing . T he e v idence o f f i sh ing i sv e ry w e l l d ep ic ted i n r o ck p a in t ing s o f h un te r -ga the r e r s a t L akha joa r n ea r B h imbe tka , d i s t r ic t R a i sen i n Madhya P rade sh ( Neumaye r 1 993 : 7 8 -79 ) , ad e ta i led f i sh ing s c ene d ep ic t s p eop le c a tch ing f i sh f r om a s ma l l p ond o r w a te rho le . Ap e r son 's p ouch i sh ang ing f r om t h e b ranch o f at r ee , ah and n e t i sp l aced a tt h e g round t oa low i t s o wn e rt oc a tch at u r t le w i th b o th h and s . A no the r p e r son h a s s t rung s eve ra l f i sh o n t o ar od f o re a sy t r an spo r t . O the r sa r e f i sh ing b yn e t sa nd b y b ow a nd a r row . A t o ne s i de f i sh a r e s t ack ed a cco rd ing t o t h e i r v a r ie ty . R ock p a in t ing s a t K e rwagha t , K owa r Khoh a nd G o ja ra , D is t r ic t

S ummary : T h e Ma l lah s a r e s p ec ia l ized f i she rm en . T he i r t empo ra ry s e t t lem en t s ( S e t t lem en t T ype I ) a r e s e a sona li nc ha rac te ra nd r ef l ec ts ucce s sf u l f ood a cqu i s i t ion . S om e o ft h e Me so l i th ic , N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic c ommun i t ie s mu s t h ave a ch ieved s im i la re ff ic iency i nf i sh ing .

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o n ly c e r ea l s b u t a l so a v a r ie ty o f s e ed s . B e s ide s , e v id ence o f s t o rage j a r s i n d i rec t ly i n d ica tes t h e p roduc t ion a nd s t o rage o fg r a in s o n t h e a na logy o f t h e p r ac t ice s o ft h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s . T he m os t i n te r e s t ing f e a tu r e i st h eu se o fr o ta t ing q u e rn m ade o f mud a nd c l ay b y K o l s a nd Mu saha r s . T h i s t y pe o f q ue rn i su sed o n ly f o r d ehu sk ing t h e g r a in s , m a in ly p addy i . e . d han . T hu s , f o r d ehu sk ing , t h e r o ta t ing q uer n m ade o f s t on e i . e . c hakk i i s n o t r e qu i red . T he Me so l i th ic p eop le m ay h ave a l so c on s tru c ted as im i la r d ev ice w i thou t a ny o fu se o f s t on e .

M i rzapu r i n U t ta r P rade sh d ep ic t f i sh ing s c ene s ( Neumaye r 1 993 : 1 08 , 12 ,113 ) . H e r e f i sh ing i s d one b y b oa t s , g ene ra l ly m anned b y t wo p e r son s , o ne a t t h e s t e rn h and l ing t h e p add le , t h e o t he r s p ea r ing f i sh o rt u r t le s . T he se p a in t ing s s how t h a t t h e f i sh ing t e chn ique s u sed s eve ra l t h ou sand y ea r s a go w e r en o t much d i f f e r en tf r om t h o se o ft oday . G a ther ing : F rom t h e Me so l i th ic s i t e o f C hopan i Mando a nd D amdam a c ha r coa l r ema in s o f b amboo , c ha r red g r a in s o f m i l le t s , a nd w i ld r i ce h ave b een r e por ted . T h i s s how st h a tt h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le g a the r ed t h e se g r a in s . T he e v idence o fs e ed s o f w i ld p l an t s f r om t h e Me so l i th ic s i te o f D amdam ai nt h e G anga v a l ley i si n te r e s t ing a s :

T he f l ood p l a in o ft h e r i ve r a d jacen t t oK o ld ihwa w a s m o s t s u i ted f o r t h e c u l t iva t ion o fr i ce , w h ich c ou ld b e e xp lo i ted w i thou t t h e a i d o f a ny m an m ade i r r iga t iona l d ev ice a nd e x t ra m anu r ing . P lough ing t oo l s a r e n o t a lway s n ece s sa ry t og row r i ce i nf l ood p l a in s a s i se v id en t f r om t h e c u r r en t p r ac t ice o f r i ce -cu l t iva t ion i n f l ood p l a in s o f t h e r e g ion .

1 . B a thua ( C henopod ium a l bum L . ) i se a ten a s v ege tab le a nd Mu saha r s a nd K o l s u se t h e s e ed sf o ri t sa n the lm in t ic p rop r ie t ie s . 2 . K her ( H e t eropogon c on tor tu s L . ) i su sed a s f odde rf o rc a t t le b yt h eK o l s . 3 . B er ( Z i zyphu sj u juba L am . ) i se a ten a s af r u i t , a nd t h e Mu saha r s a nd K o ls u se t h e s e ed s a sa c u r ef o rd i a r rhoea a nd a bdom ina lp a in .

T he Ma l lah s i n t h e i r S ea sona l a g r icu l tu r a l s e t t lem en t s , h i l l top ( Se t t lem en tT ype I a )c a r ry o u t a g r icu l tu r e o n as e a sona l b a s i s o n t h e h i l l s i nt h e B e lan v a l ley . Mo s t o f t h e e xp lo r ed N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i t e s a r e f ound i nt h e n ea rby h i l l s o f t h e B e lan v a l ley . I tw a s o b se rved t h a t ag roup o f Ma l lah f am i l ie s s e a sona l ly c ome t o i n hab i t t h e se h i l l s d u r ing s umme r . T h e a r ea c ho sen f o r a g r icu l tu re i so n t h e t op o ft h e h i l l af ew m e te r s a way f r om t h e r i ve r . T hey c u l t iva te t h i s l a nd a nd c a r ry o u t f i sh ing s imu l taneou s ly . T h ey o ccupy t h e s am e h u t s o n t h e h i l l s s e a sona l ly b y r e nova t ing t h em . T he s umm e rh i l lt o p s e t t lem en t s a r ef ound o n b o th s i de s o ft h er i ve r . Af ew Ma l lah f am i l ie sc om e f o rm t h e Mando v i l lage w h e re t h ey h ave p e rm anen t s e t t lem en t s ( Se t t lem en t T ype I I ) a nd o t h e r s c om e f r om a sf a r a st h e f oo th i l ls o fK a imu r t o d o a g r icu l tu r e i n t h i s f e r t i le a r ea . T he Mando v i l lage d u r ing r a iny s e a son i sc omp le te ly i s o la ted a nd b ecom e s a n i s land a s t h e B e lan r i ve r f l ow ing a r ound r i se s u p a nd d e tache s t h e c onnec t ion t ot h e l a nd .

A t t h e N eo l i th ic s i t e o f Mahaga r a i mp r e s s ion o f b amboo i nc l ay l ump s h a s b een f ound , wh ich w a s p robab ly u sed f o r c on s t ruc t ion o f h u t s . B amboo w a s a l so u sed a s f u e l a s i s e v iden t f r om t h e c ha rcoa l f r om t h e s i t e . B e s ide s , t h e N eo l i th ic i nhab i tan t s a l so g a the r ed w i ld r i ce . F rom N eo l i th ic l e ve l s a t K o ld ihwa s e ed s o f j u jube ( be r ) a r e r e por ted . Due t o t h e p e r i shab le n a tu r e o f p l an t s t h ey a r e r a r e ly e ncoun te red d u r ing e xcava t ion s . E thnobo tan ica l o b serva t ion s a mong t h e Mu saha r s a nd K o l s s how t h a t t h e se g roup s a r e s t i l l g r ea t ly d ependen t o n f o r es t r e sou rce s b o th f o r f ood a nd m ed ic ine s . A gr icu l ture : A t t h e N eo l i th ic s i t e s o f Mahaga ra a nd K o ld ihwa r em a in s o f w i ld , c u l t iva ted a nd h yb r id ( b e tween w i ld a nd c u l t iva ted ) g r a in s h ave b een r e po r ted . I n t h e C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s a t K o ld ihwa a nd K ha ju r i , e v idence o fc u l t iva ted r i ce a nd o f c u l t iva ted w hea t a nd m oong f r om t h e l a s t p ha se a tK o ld ihwa i sr e por ted . P r e sence o fq ue rn s , mu l le r s a nd r ubbe r s t one s c om es f o rm t h e Me so l i th ic s i te s o fC hopan i Mando , Mahadaha a nd D amdama , N eo l i th ic s i t es o f Mahaga ra a nd K o ld ihwa a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i te s o fK o ld ihwa a nd K ha ju r i . Q ue rn sa nd mu t te r sa r e a l so p r e sen t ly u sed a mong t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s f o r g r ind ing n o t

Mo s t o f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l t o o l s u sed b y t h e s imp le c ommun i t ie s a r e m ade o f w ood . F o r e xamp le , a s ma l l p i ece o f i r on i n t h e p l ough i s e nough t o c u l t iva te t h e f e r t i le a r ea o nt h eh i l l . Ad i bb le ri nt h e f o rm o f m ic ro l i th ic p o in t s m igh t h ave b een a n e f f ec t ive t o o l f o r m ak ing h o le s f o r s ow ing g r a in s . R eap ing a l so c ou ld h ave b een e a s i ly c a r r ied o u t b y s i ck le sh af ted w i th m ic ro l i th s .

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A r chaeo log ica l e v idence s s how t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic i n hab i tan t s i n t h e B e lan v a l ley s c a r r ied o u t h un t ing -ga the r ing a nd a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s . T hough n oN eo l i th ic s i te h a sb een e xcava ted i nt h e G anga p l a in s i nt h e s t udy a r ea , i tc ou ld b e i n f e r r ed f r om t h e p r e sen t s imp le c ommun i t ies t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic i nhab i tan t s m igh t h ave h ad a n e f f ec t ive a g r icu l tu r e -ba sed e conomy i nt h i s r e g ion wh ich i s mo r e f e r t i le t h an i n t h e B e lan v a l ley .

b amboo , h emp , a nd n urku l . I n e a r l ie r d ay s t h ey u sed h emp , s i lk t h r ead f o rt h e w eav ing o fn e t s b u t a tp r esen t t h ey u se n y lon t h read , c o t ton a nd h emp f o r m ak ing n e t s ( bhawar j a l , m aha/ k ura i l /s an ta/ b erja l , b i sr io rc hho t -berja la nd f a s i la j a i ) . T he i r on t oo l s h af t ed i n b amboo a nd u sed i n a g r icu l tu r e a r e d i scu s sed i nC hap te r6 .T hey a r eh a l ( p lough ) , h ans iya ( s ick le ) , k hurp i ( hoe ) , g adasa ( choppe r ) , p harua ( s pade ) , a nd k u lhar i l t engar i ( a xe ) . S i ck le s m ade u p o f m ic ro l i th s m igh t h ave s e rved t h e f unc t ion o f c u t t ing d u r ing i nN eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod s . T oo l s f o r a g r icu l tu r a l w o rk a r e a l so m ade e n t i re ly o fw ood a nd b amboo , f o r e xamp le p a ta lpa te l la ( c lod -cru she r / leve le r ) , m oo sa l ( pounde r ) , s upa ( w innow ing b a sk e t ) , j owa tha ( h a rne s s ) , a nd d hek i( hu sk ing d ev ice ) .

T echno logy : T oo l s p l ay a v i ta l r o le i n t h e e conom ic p u r su i t s o f h un t ing , g a the r ing , f i sh ing , a nd a g r icu l tu re . T oday t h e s imp le c ommun i t ies d o n o t u se s t on e f o r m ak ing t o o l s . I n s t ead , t h ey u se w ood , b amboo a nd i r on , wh ich i s much mo r e e f f ec t ive a nd d u rab le t h an s t on e . B amboo a nd w ood a r e s e conda ry r aw m a te r ia l s , a nd a r e m a in ly u sed a ss haf t sa nd h and le s .

F o rb a sk e tm ak ing i r on t oo l s a nd t h e i rm a te r ia l sa r e d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 6 . T hey a r e b anka ( l ong k n if e ) , b ank i ( sm a l l k n if e ) , h a thaur i ( h amm e r ) , c hak u ( p ick ing k n if e ) , s u ja ( bodk in ) , k a inch i ( s c i s so r s ) , k a tarn i ( s ide c u t t e r s ) ,j amboor ( r ound n o sed p l ie r s ) a nd p las ( p l ie r s ) . T he t o o l o fo rgan ic m a te r ia l s u sed i n b a ske t m ak ing i sp ichar i . An o i l s tone o r as t one s ha rpen e r i sn eces sa ry t ok eep t h e k n ive s s ha rp . S ha rpen e r s o fs t one a r e r e po r ted f r om Mahadaha , Mahaga ra , a nd K o ld ihwa . Wh i le g a the r ing w i ld p l an t s f r om t h e f o r es t t h ey e mp loy t o o l s m ade o f o rgan ic m a te r ia l l i k e l agg i , k hara , k honch a nd b a iyya b es ide s k han ta , wh ich t h ey a lway sc a r ry a l ong w i th t h em .

T he m a in mu l t ipu rpo se t o o l o f t h e Mu saha r s i s k han ta . T he f l a t i r on o f k han ta l o ok s s im i la r t o s t one t oo l c h i se l w i th s ha rp c u t t ing e dge , wh ich o ccu r s a t t h e N eo l i th ic s i te o f Mahaga ra i n t h e B e lan v a l ley . T h is t oo l i sa l so u sed b yt h e Ma l lah s a nd i sk nown a sr amma . I tw a s o b served t h a t f ou r f am i l ie s o f Mu saha r s c ou ld e f f ec t ive ly u se as i ng le k han ta f o r c o l lec t ing l e ave s , d i gg ing r oo t s , c u t t ing w ood , h un t ing r a t s , a nd d i gg ing h o le s f o r d we l l ing s . T he Mu saha r s a l so u se a no th e r i r on d i gg ing t oo li . e .g anda la wh ich i ss im i la rt ok han ta b u t i sn o t h af ted t ob amboo . Among t h e K o l s t h i s t o o li sk nown a sf aar .

T he Me so l i th ic , N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i t e s o f t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley sh ave y i e lded av a r ie ty o fb l ade s a nd h amm e r s t one s . I tw a s o b served t h a t wh i le m ak ing b a ske t s t h e u se o fk n if e a nd h amm e r s t one i so fm a jo r i mpo r tance . T hu s , i tc an b e s a id t h a t t h e b l ade s a nd h amm e r s t one u sed b y p r eh i s to r ic p eop le m ay h ave b een f o r b a ske t m ak ing a l so .

T he K o l s u se t h r ee t ypes o f h un t ing t oo l s i . e . g adasa ,b ar cha ( s pea r ) a nd a k s i( b a rbed s pea r ) . A l l t h ese t oo l s a r e m ade o fi r on a nd h af t ed t ob amboo . T he g adasa i su sed m a in ly f o r c u t t ing t h e h ead o r l e g so ft h er unn ing a n im a l . T he b ar cha a nd a k s ia r e t h rown a ta n ima l s l i ke w i ld b oa r , d ee r a nd b i rd s l i k ep eacock . T he Ma l lah s h ave v a r ied t y pe s o f f i sh ing t oo l s a cco rd ing t o t h e i r f unc t iona l i mp l ica t ion s a nd m a te r ia l su sed h ave b een d i scu s sed i nC hap te r 6o f t h e t h e s is . T he o ne s m ade w i th i r on a r e k a t ia ( hook s ) , k a t ia f or ( b a i ted p o le ) , a nd b a l lum o r p achk i ( p ronged s pea r ) . T hey a l so d o e f f ec t ive f i sh ing w i thou t u se o fi r on t oo l s . T hey a l so m ake u se o f o rgan ic m a te r ia l s f o r f i sh ing . T he e a r l ie s t t oo l s f o r f i sh ing p robab ly w e r e s t ick s , a nd t ho rn h ook s . T he Ma l lah s m ak e c ove r b a sk e t s ( l ik e t a p , c hhaup o r k ur imar , g an ja ) , s c r een s ( c h i lwan , c h in ta ) , a nd b ar ra f r om o rgan ic m a te r ia l s l i k e

D i scu s s ion T he s t udy r evea l s t h a t m any c u l tu ra l a spec t s o ft h e p r eh is to r ic c u l tu r e o ft h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s s t i l l s u rv ive i n t h e c ommun i t ies l i v ing i n t h e v i c in i ty o f a nc ien t s i te s . H ence e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s p rove t o b e o f g r ea t h e lp i n e xp la in ing t h ee v idence f r om a r chaeo log ica ls i te s . T he Me so l i th ic s e t t lem en t s w e r e l o ca ted n ea r t wo t y pe so fw a te rs ou r ce s : a .R ive rv a l ley s( 9s i te s ) b .H o r se shoe l a k e( 179 s i te s )

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T he r e a son f o r t h e o ccu r r ence o f v e ry f ew s i te s a l ong r i ve rbank s i s n o t c l ea r . P re sum ab ly t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le s e t t led o nt h e s andy p a tche so ft h e r e ced ing r i ve r s l i ke t h e G anga a nd t h e T on s a nd r a r e ly s e t t led a l ong t h e r i ve rbank s . A p o s s ib le r e a son f o r t h i s m igh t b e t h e t h ick v ege ta t ion , w h ich d ue t o l im i ted a va i lab i l i ty o fr aw m a te r ia l c ou ldn ' t b e c l ea r ed b y m ic ro l i th ic t o o l s a nd i n hab i ted c o lon iza t ion . T h e v a s t s andy p a tche s , d evo id o f v ege ta t ion , w e r ei d ea l f o rh ab i ta t ion . N oh ab i ta t iona l e v idence c an b e f ound o n t h e s andy p a tche s a s t h e f l ow ing r i ve r d u r ing r a iny s e a son i n unda te s t h em a nd d e s t roy s a l e v idence . T he Ma l lah s i nS ea sona l A g r icu l tu ra l S e t t lem en t s ( Type I b ) h ave s e t t lem en t s o nt h e s andy p l a in o ft h er e ceded G anga , w h ich t h ey o ccupy d u r ing s umme r f o r a g r icu l tu ra l p u rpo ses a nd a l so f o rf i sh ing . T he t r ace so ft h i s t y pe o f s e t t lem en t s a r e w a shed a way d u r ing t h e r a iny s e a son b y t h e f l oodwa te r s a nd n ew s e t t lem en t s ( Type I b )a r em ade e ve ry y ea r .

T he E a r ly Me so l i th ic s i t e s i nt h e G anga v a l ley a r e d evo id o f h ab i ta t iona l d epo s i t s . T he t o o l s o f t h e E a r ly Me so l i th ic a r e s m a l le r i nc ompa r i son t ot h e E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic t o o l s . T he c he r t o f t h e B e lan v a l ley i sp r ima r i ly g r ey i nc o lou r . Ma jo r i ty o ft h e Meso l i th ic s i te s i n t h e G anga v a l ley y i e lded a r tef ac t s o f t h is r aw m a ter ia l . T he a ppea rance o f g r ey c o lou r c her t i n d ica t e s a c on s ide rab le e xpan s ion o f p opu la t ion f r om t h e B e lan v a l ley , w ho c a r r ied t h i sr aw m a te r ia l f o rm ak ing m ic ro l i th s f r om t ime t o t im e . T h e t o o l s o f E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic p e r iod a r eb igge ri ns i ze i nc ompa r i son s t ot h o se o f t h e s ucceed ing Me so l i th ic p e r iod i n t h e G anga v a l ley . B es ide s , t h e t o o l s o ft h e G anga v a l ley a r e s m a l le rt h an t ho se o ft h e B e lan v a l ley i ns i ze i na l t h e p ha se s . T he l a ck o f r aw m a te r ia l i n t h e G ange t ic p l a in i s t h e p o s s ib le r e a son f o r t h e e xhau s t ive u se o f t h e c o re s , t h e n ea r e s t s ou r ce b e ing 1 00 km a way f r om t h eG anga v a l ley . I ti si mpo r tan t t om en t ion h e r e t h a t d ue t ot h e n on a va i lab i l i ty o f s t one m ak ing t o o l s t h e Me so l i th ic i n hab i tan t s o f t h e G anga v a l ley a dop ted , o t he r a va i lab le r aw m a ter ia l s i . e . b one , a n t le r a nd h o rn . T he b one a nd a n t le r t o o l s f r om t h e s i te s i n c lude a r rowhead s , p o in t s , b l ade s , k n ive s , c h i se l s , a xe s , s c r ape r s , s aw s , p ok e r s , d agge r s a nd c u t t ing l a nce t s . B e s ide s , af ew h o rn c o r e s o f s h eep a nd g oa t a nd a n t le r s w e r e p robab ly u sed f o r d i gg ing p u rpo se s . Wo rk ed b one s w e r e f ound i n a bundance a t D amdama . O nt h eo the rh and , b on et o o l sa r ea b sen t i n t h e Meso l i th ic s i t e s o f t h e B e lan v a l ley , o bv iou s ly d ue t oe a sy a va i lab i l i ty o fs t one .

I ft h ey c hoo se t o s t ay c l o se t o t h e r i ve rbank , t h e f l ood s a nd s h if t ing o fr i ve r c ou r se c a r ry a way t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s . I ti si n te r e s t ing t om en t ion h e r e t h a t t h e Ma l lah s d o n o t s e t t le c l o se t o , t h e r i ve rbank b ecau se o f t h e t h r ea t p o sed b y f l ood s . T hey e s tab l i sh t h e i r p e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s ( Type I I ) a bou t ak i lom e t r e a way f o rm t h e r i ve r . I ti s o n ly i nT empo ra ry f i sh ing s e t t lem en t ( Type I )t h a t t h ey o ccupy a n a r ea c l o se t o t h e b ank s d u r ing f i sh ing s e a son s . B ecau se o ft h e mov em en t o f f i sh t h e Ma l lah s d o n o t t i e t h em se lve s t oa ny p a r t icu la r p l ace f o r al o ng t im e . T hey a r ea lway so nt h e move a nd t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e s e t t lem en t i s m a in ly d e te rm ined b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f f i sh . T empo ra ry t h a tched h u t sa r ec on s t ruc ted w i th b amboo o rw ood w i th t wo -s loped r oof s m ade o fh ay a nd b r anche s , w h ich c an e a s i ly b e r emoved w heneve r n ece s sa ry . T he se t empo r a ry s e t t lem en t s a r e u sua l ly d e s t royed d u r ing f l ood s , t h e r eby w ip ing o u t a l e v idence o f o ccupa t ion .

Wha t l e d t h e p r eh i s to r ic i n hab i tan t s o f t h e B e lan v a l ley t o m ig ra te t o t h e G anga v a l ley a nd w ha t p o s s ib le r ou te s d i d t h ey a dop t f o r t h e i r m ig ra t ion? T he r e a son f o r m ig ra t ion m igh t b e t h e g row th o f p opu la t ion a nd s c a r c i ty o f w a t e r a nd f ood , w h ich l e d t h em t om ig ra te t on ew l a nd s , w h ich p rov id ed t h em w i th r i ch w i ld f l o ra a nd f a una . T he B e lan r i ve r w a s p robab ly t h e r ou te t a ken b y t h e E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic p eop le . I tj o in s t h eT on s , w h ich u l t ima te ly j o in sw i th t h eG anga . I n t h e p a s t t h e G anga v a l ley mu s t h ave b een a v a s t s t r e tch o ff o r e s t land w i th a bundan t w i ld f a una . T o c r o s s t h e se f o r e s t s t h rough m a in l a nd w ou ld h ave b een d i ff i cu l t f o r t h e E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic m ig ran t s . P robab ly d u e t o t h i s r e a son , t h e se g roup s moved a l ong t h e r i vu le t s a nd s t ream s o n w ho se s andy b ed s t h e f o re s t c ove r w a s t h inne r t h an o n t h e m a in l a nd . T he b e s t s e a son f o r t h e i r m ovem en t w ou ld h ave b een s umm e r , w hen t h e

T he s e lec t ion o ft h e Me so l i th ic s e t t lem en t s i nt h e s t udy a r ea o n t h e l a k e s ide w a s g u ided b y c on s ide ra t ion o fa s su red s upp ly o f : • Wa te r •A qua t ic f ood r e sou rces •O ppo r tun i ty t o h un t l a rge a nd s m a l l a n ima l s w h ich c om et ot h el a ke f o rd r ink ing w a te r •A va i lab i l i ty o f w i ld e d ib le p l an t s f ood i n t h e v i c in i ty o ft h el a ke .

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w a t e rl e ve li sl ow a nd w hen t h ey c an e a s i ly o ccupy t h e s andy p a tches o ft h er e ceded r i ve r s , wh ich w e r e d evo id o ft h ick v ege ta t ion .

i mpo r tan t a spec t s i . e . b on e i ndu s t ry a nd c e ram ic i n du s t ry w e r en o ts ha r ed . T he s ub s i s ten ce o f t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le o f t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s w a s b a sed o n h un t ing , g a the r ing , f i sh ing a nd f ow l ing . T he a n ima l b ones r e cove r ed f r om t h e Me so l i th ic s i te s t h row l i gh t o n t h e e conomy o ft h ep eop le . T he G anga v a l ley i sr i ch i n n a tu ra l f ood r e sou rces r equ i red f o r ah un t ing— g a the r ing w ay o fl i f e . S imp le c ommun i t ie s l i k e t h e Mu saha r s , K o l s a nd Ma l lah s o ccupy t h e s ame a r ea s , w h ich w e re o ccup ied b y t h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le . F o r t h e i r s ub s i s ten ce t h ey d o h un t ing , f i sh ing , f ow l ing , g a the r ing a nd a g r icu l tu r e ( An sa r i 1 999 -2000 : 1 42 1 49 , 2 001 : 3 9 -35 ) . T he i r s e t t lem en t s a r e o f v a r ied t y pe s a nd c ond i t ioned b y t opog raphy a nd t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f w a te r a nd c u l t ivab le l a nd . T oday s imp le c ommun i t ies m a in ly i nhab i tt h es ou ther np a r t o ft h e G anga p l a in , wh ich i d ea l ly s u i t st h e i r mode o f s e t t lem en ta nd s ub s i s tence .

On ce t h ey r e ach ed t h e G anga t h ey w ou ld h ave o ccup ied i t s b ank s . H ow d id t h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le c r o s s s uch am igh ty r i ve rw i thou tt h e a i d o fb oa t s? T h e o n ly s u i tab le s e a son f o rc r o s s ing t h e r i ve rw a s s umm e r when t h e w a te r r e cede s a nd e xpo ses t h e r i v e rbed t h a t i s av a s t s andy p a tch . A t t h e t im e o f c r o s s ing t h e r e ceded G anga , s om e o f t h em p robab ly s e t t led d own o n i t s b ank s a nd a f ew o t he r s moved a l ong a nd c r o s sed t h e r i ve r i ns e a rch o f b e t te r f ood r e sou r ce s . P r e sen t ly , t h e Ma l lah s s e t t le ( Type I l b ) i n t h e r e ceded G anga f o r c u l t iva t ion o f v ege tab le a nd f r u i t c r ops a nd f o r f i sh ing . T he se s e t t lem en t s d o n o t l e ave a ny t r ace s o f h ab i ta t ion a s t h e w a te r d u r ing r a iny s e a son c a r r ie s a way t h e m a te r ia l r ema in s . T he P reh i s to r ic p eop le mu s t h ave a l so o ccup ied t h e l a nd a l ong t h e b ank so ft h er i ve ri nt h e s ame w ay . H oweve r , l a rge u rban a nd a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lem en t s a l ong a nd n ea r t h e r i ve r h ave p robab ly d e s t royed t h e e v idence o f t h ep o s s ib le p r eh i s to r ic s i te s .

T he t im e s pan o f t h e Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e o f t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s a cco rd ing t o C -14 d a tes a nd t ypo techno log ica l c on s ide ra t ion c an b e t e n ta t ive ly a s s igned t o c . 8 000-2000 B .C . T he e v idence s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e Me so l i th ic s e t t lem en t s o f C hopan i - Mando i n E a r ly Meso l i th ic ( Pha se I A ) a nd L a te Me so l i th ic ( Pha se I B ) p ha se w a s s e a sona l a nd s em i -pe rmanen t i n A dvanced Meso l i th ic ( Pha se I I ) . T he s i te o fS a ra iN aha rR a i w a s s e a sona l , wh i le Mahadaha a nd D amdama w e r e s em i -pe rm anen ts e t t lem en t s .

T he Me so l i th ic p eop le c am e i ns ma l l g roup s t ot h e G anga v a l ley a nd s e t t led o n a l luv ia l p l a in s w i th t h e i r r i ch f l o ra a nd f auna . A f ew g roup s s t a r ted e xp lo r ing n ew l o ca le s , a nd i nhab i ted t h e a r ea n ea r t h e h o r seshoe l a k e s , wh ich p rov ided t h em p l en t if u l a qua t ic f ood s . S tone f o rm ak ing t o o l s b e ing a b sen t i nt h e G anga p l a in s h ad t o b e i mpo r ted f r om t h e V indhya s a nd w a s t h e r ef o r e av a luab le r e sou r ce . E xp lo i ta t ion o f a qua t ic a n im a l s w ou ld h ave b een t h e e a s ies t s ou r ce o f s ub s i s tence , a s i t d idn ' t r equ i r e m any t o o l s a nd c ou ld b e e f f ec t ive ly a ccomp l ished b y h and s a nd s t i ck s . A s t h e p opu la t ion g r ew ,t h ey moved o nt oo t he rh o r se shoe l a k e s .

N o N eo l i th ic s i te s i n t h e s t udy a r ea h ave s o f a r b een d i scove r ed f r om t h e P ra tapga rh d i s t r ic t . T he p robab le c au se c ou ld b e t h a t s uch s i te s w e r e l o ca ted o n t h e a l luv ia l p l a in s a nd h ave b een d es t royed b y e x ten s ive a g r icu l tu re . I n t h e B e lan v a l ley e v idence o f t h e N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s c u l tu re s a r e k nown f r om Mahaga r a , K o ld ihwa a nd P anchoh . T he N eo l i th ic s i te s f ound i nt h e B e lan v a l ley w e r e l o ca ted o n b o th s i de s o f t h e B e lan r i ve r a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s l i k e S eo t i , T und ia r ia nd G o rm a .

T he B e lan v a l ley Me so l i th ic s i te i sc ha rac ter i sed b y p o t t e ry , wh ich i sa b sen t i nt h e G anga V a l ley . F rom t h i s i tc an b e i n f e r r ed t h a tt h e m ig ra t ion t ook p l ace i nt h e p r e -po t te ry p ha se o f Me so l i th ic c u l tu r e a nd p robab ly s t opped b ef o r e t h e i n t roduc t ion o f p o t te ry . And i ft h e Me so l i th ic i n hab i tan t s o f t h e G anga c on t inued t o c om e t o V indhya s f o r r aw m a t e r ia l o r s e a sona l ly m ig ra t ed t h en w hy d i d t h ey n o t a dop tt h e p r ac t ice o fp o t te ry m ak ing . T h i s f a c t s ugge s t s t h a t d u e t ot h e i nnova t ive u se o fb one f o r t o o l m anuf ac tu r e , m ig ra t ion o f t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le t ot h e G anga v a l ley h ad r e duced . T hu s , d ue t o l im i ted i n te r ac t ion b e tween t h e Meso l i th ic c u l tu r es o f t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s t wo

T he N eo l i th ic s e t t lem en t i n t h e B e lan v a l ley w a s p l anned a cco rd ing t o t h e d e mand o f t h e n ew e conomy . T hey s ub s i s ted b y l i ve s tock r a i s ing , s e lec t ive h un t ing , g a th e r ing , f i sh ing a nd f a rm ing . H u t s w e re c on s t ruc ted f o r d we l l ing a sw e l l a s f o r t h e s he l te r o f t h e i r l i ve s tock . T he s e t t lem en t w a s e nc losed b y a n a tu ra l b und , wh ich o f f e r ed p ro tec t ion f r om w ind . T he N eo l i th ic i nhab i tan t s c ho se n a tu r a l h i l l b a r r ie r s , a s n o o the r p l ace c ou ld

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h ave b een b e t te rs u i ted a s av an tage p o in t . B e s ide s , t h e i r c a t t le a nd c r op s w ou ld h ave b een w e l l p ro tec ted f o rm o t he r i n com ing g r aze r s , a g r icu l tu r i s t s a nd w i ld a n ima l s . T he N eo l i th ic s i t es a r e s i tua ted c l o se t o f l ood p l a in s , wh ich w e re s u i tab le f o r c u l t iva t ion o fr i ce . T h e N eo l i th ic s i t es o ft h e B e lan v a l ley o n t h e b a s i s o f C -14 a nd T L d a tes c an b e a s s igned b e tween c .5 000 t o 1 500 BC . T he e v idence s s ugge s t t h a t t h e n a tu r e o f s e t t lem en t s o f N eo l i th ic s i t es o f Mahaga ra , K o ld ihwa a nd P anchoh w a s s em i -pe rmanen t t o p e rmanen ti nn a tu r e .

mu l le r s . T h i s m igh t b e t h e r e a son w hy N eo l i th ic g round s t one t o o l s l i ke s ma l l c e l t sw e re f ound f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l s i n t h e B e lan v a l ley . P robab ly C ha lco l i th ic s e t t lem en t s w e r e b o th p e rmanen t a nd s e a sona l t y pe s a nd t h ey f l ou r ished s i de b y s i de . P r e sumab ly t h e s ma l l s e t t lem en t s w e r e s e a sona l i n n a tu r e a nd w e re s pec ia l ized i n f a rm ing w h i le t h e C ha lco l i th ic i nhab i tan t s o f p e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s w e r e s p ec ia l ised i nf a rm ing a sw e l la sl i ve s tock r a i s ing . T he C ha lco l i th ic s i te s o f t h e B e lan v a l ley o n t h e b a s i s o f C -14 d a te s c an b e a s s igned t oc .1 800 t o 7 00 B .C . T he e v idence s s ugges t t h a t t h e C ha lco l i th ic s e t t lem en t s w e r e o f a p e rm anen t n a tu r e .

T he C ha lco l i th ic s i te s h ave b een r e po r ted f r om t h e G anga a nd B e lan v a l ley s . A l l t h e s i t e s a r e r i ve r ine s i tes . T hey a r e s i tua ted o n h ighe r b hangar l a nd , a bove f l ood l e ve l a nd t e r race s . T he c ho ice s o f l o ca t ion o f s e t t lem en t s a r e m a in ly d e te rm ined b y t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f f e r t i le l a nd f o r c u l t iva t ion a nd p a s tu r e land . T he f l ood p l a in s a nd a bandoned h i l l t e r r ace s w e r e w e l l s u i ted f o r t h e c u l t iva t ion o f c e rea l s l i k e r i ce w i thou t a ny a i d o f i r r iga t ion a nd m anu r ing .

T o c onc lude t h e r e a r e s om e a spec t s , w h ich r equ i re f u r the ri n ves t iga t ion f o rb e t te ru nde r s tand ing o ft h e p r eh i s to r ic s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s o ft h e S ou th -Cen t ra l G anga v a l ley . •E xp lo ra t ion a l ong t h e r i ve r T on s f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e p o s s ib le r ou te o fm ig ra t ion o f t h eE p i -Pa laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic p eop le . •E xp lo ra t ion i n t h e G anga v a l ley f o r N eo l i th ic s i t e s . •S tud ie s o f mo r e a bandoned s e t t lem en t s o f t h e s imp le c ommun i t ies f o r ab e t te ru nde r s tand ing o f p o s t -depo s i t iona l p roce s se s , w h ich d e te rm ine t h e n a tu r e o fp r e serva t ion o fm a t er ia l r em a in s .

I n S ea sona l A g r icu l tu r e S e t t lem en t t h e Ma l lah s i n hab i tt h e h i l l top t e r r ace s .T he se s e t t lemen t s a r e 1 2km f r om t h eN eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic s i te s . T he p e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s o ft h e Ma l lah a r e l o ca ted o n t h e e i the r s i de o ft h e B e lan r i ve r . T hey c r o s s t h e r i ve r t o d o f a rm ing o n t h e h i l l top s . Du r ing t h e i r s t ay t h ey m ak e s e a sona l h u t s , w h ich a r e a bandoned a nd r e occup ied . B e s ide s o t h e r s imp le c ommun i t ies c ome f r om a d jo in ing d i s t r ic t s o f Madhya P rade sh t o c u l t iva te c r op s o n t h e a d jo in ing h i l l t e r race s d u r ing s umm e r . T he se s e t t lemen t sa r e s im i la rt ot h e Ma l lah s e t t lem en t Ia . When t h ey r e occupy t h e s i te t h ey u t i l i se r ema in s o fa bandoned h u t s f o rb u i ld ing n ew h u t s a nd u se a bandoned i t em s l i ke q ue rn s a nd

•D e ta i led e t hnog raph ic r e co rd ing o f s e a sona l ly m ig ra t ing s imp le c ommun i t ie s a nd t h e r ou te o f m ig ra t ion . A cknow ledgemen t It h ank D r . S u sm aD eo a nd D av id T e t so f o rm ak ing f i gu r e sa va i lab le t ot h ee d i to ri nt ime .

R ef erence s A l lch in , B . 1 958 . Mo rhana P aha r : AR ed iscove ry , Man 5 8 : 1 53 -55 . A n sa r i , S .2 00 1 b .F i sh ing P rac t ice s a mong t h e Ma l lah s o f A l lahabad D is t r ic t , U t ta r P rade sh , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 6 ( 1) : 3 9 -55 . A n sa r i , S . 1 999 -2000 . Sma l l G ame H un t ing Mu saha r s : A n E thnoa r chaeo log ica l A pp roach , P ura ta t t va 3 0 : 1 42 1 50 . A n sa r i , S . 2 000 . C lay S t o rage B in s i n I nd ia : A n E thnoa rchaeo log ica l S tudy , Man a nd E nv ironmen t2 5 (2 ) : 5 1-78 . A n sa r i , S . 2 00 1a . P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t tern o f S ou th -Cen t ra l G anga V a l ley : A n E thnoarchaeo log ica l P er spec t ive , U npub l ished P h .D . t h e s is , P une : D eccan C o l lege .

A n sa r i , S .2 004 . T he Mu saha r s : A n E thnoa rchaeo log ica l S tudy i n S ou th -Cen t ra l G anga V a l ley , E as tern A n thropo log i s t5 7 ( 2 ) : 1 53 199 . A n sa r i , S . 2 005 . E thnoarchaeo logy o f P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen t P a t tern o f S ou th -Cen t ra l G anga V a l ley , I nd ian S oc ie ty f o r P reh is to r ic a nd Qua terna ry S tud ies Monog raph S e r ie sN o . 4 .P une : I SPQS . B i lg ram i , K .S . 1 99 1 . B io log ica l P rof i le o f t h e G anga : Z oop lank ton , F i sh , B i rd s a nd o t he r M ino r F auna , i n T he G anga : A S c ien t if i c S tudy ( C .R . K r ishnamu r t i , K .S . B i lg ram i , T .M . D a s a nd R .P . Ma thu r E d s . ) , p p . 8 1-94 . N ew D e lh i . B rown , J .A . 1 889 . O n s ome h igh ly s pec ia l ized F orm s o f S tone I mp lemen t s F ound i n A s ia , N o r th A f r ica a nd E u rope , J ourna l o ft h e R oya l A n thropo log ica l I n s t i tu te 1 8 : 1 34 -39 .

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B u t ze r , K . W . 1 972 . E nv ironmen t a nd A rchaeo logy . L ondon : Me thuen& C o . L td . C ockbu rn , J .1 879 . N o te s o n S tone I mp lemen t s f r om t h e K ha s i H i l l s a nd t h e B anda a nd V e l lo r eD i s t r ic t s ,J ourna l o ft h eA s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l4 8 (2 ) : 1 33 143 . C ockbu rn , J . 1 883a . O n t h e R ecen t E x i s tence o f R h inoce ro s I nd icu s i n t h e N o r th - We s t P rov ince s a nd a D e scr ip t ion o f A r cha ic R ock P a in t ing s f r om M i rzapu r , R ep re sen t ing t h e H un t ing o ft h e A n ima l , J ourna l o ft h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty 5 2 ( 1) : 5 6 -64 . C ockbu rn , J .1 883b . As ho r t a ccoun t o ft h e P e t rog raph s i n t h e c ave s o f R ock s he l te r s o f t h e K a imu r R ange i n M i r zapu r D i s t r ic t , P roceed ing s o ft h e A s ia t ic s oc ie ty o f B enga l ,p p . 1 25 126 . C o ckbu rn , J .1 888 . O n t h e P a laeo l i th ic I mp lemen t s f r om t h e D r if t G rave l s o ft h e S ing rau l i B a s in , J ourna l o ft h e A n thropo log ica lI n s t i tu te 1 7 : 5 7 -65 . C o ckbu rn , J .1 894 . O n F l in t I mp lemen t s f r om t h e K on R av ine s o f S ou th M i rzapu r , J ourna l o f t h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o f B enga l 6 3 (3 ) , A n th ropo logy a nd C ogna t e S ub jec t s ,N o . 1 :2 1-37 . C ook , J i l l a nd H . Ma r t inge l l 1 994 . T he C ar ly le C o l lec t ion o f S t one A g e A r t if ac t s f rom C en t ra l I nd ia B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona l P aper 9 5 . L ondon : B r i t i sh Mu seum . C rooke , W . 1 896 . T he T r ibe s a nd c a s t e s o f N or th w e s tern P rov ince a nd O udh . V o l . I ,I , I , I V . C a lcu t ta : G ove rnmen to fI nd ia . G ho sh , M . 1 932 . R ock -Pa in t ing s a nd O the r A n t iqu i t ie s o f P r eh i s to r ic a nd L a t e r T ime s , i n Memo ir s o f A r chaeo log ica lS urvey o fI nd ia N o . 2 4 . G up ta , H .P . 1 976 . H o locene P a lyno logy f r om Meande r l a ke i n t h e G anga V a l ley , P ra tapga rh D i s t r ic t , P a leobo tan i s t2 5 : 1 09 119 . H addon , A .C . 1 924 . T he R ace s o f Man . L ondon : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . J h ing ran , V .G . 1 983 . F i sh a nd F i she r ie s o fI nd ia . D e lh i : H indu s tan P ub l i sh ing C o rpo ra t ion . L e Me su r ie r , H .P . 1 86 1 . Al e t te r f r om H .P . L e Me su r ie r r e ad d u r ing t h ep roceed ing s o ft h e R oya l A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l o n J an . 1 4 , 1 86 1 ,J ou rna lo ft h e R oya lA s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l3 0 ( 1) : 8 1 -85 . Ma r sha l l , J . 1 9 1112 . E xcava t ion a t B h i ta , A rchaeo log ica l S ur vey o fI nd ia : A nnua l R epor t ( 1911 1 2 ) 2 1 : 2 9 -94 . M i s ra , V .D . 1 977 . S ome A spec t s o fI nd ian A rchaeo log y . A l lahabad : P r abha tP raka shan . M i s ra , V .D . , J .N . P a l a nd M .C . G up ta 1 999 . F u r the r E xcava t ion a tJ hu s i , D i s t r ic t A l lahabad ( U t ta r P rade sh ) : 1 998 ,P ragdhara 9 :4 5 -49 . M i s ra , V .D . , J .N . P a l a nd M .C . G up ta 2 000 . F u r the r E xcava t ion sa tJ hu s i( 1998 -99 ) ,P ragd hara 1 0 : 2 3 -30 . M i s ra , V .D . , J .N . P a l a nd M .C . G up ta 2 00 1 . E xcava t ion a t T okwa : A N eo l i th ic -Cha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen t , P ragdhara N o . 1 : 5 9 -72 . M i s ra , V .D . , J .N . P a l a nd M .C . G up ta 2 003 . F u r the r e xcava t ion s a t J hu s i : E v iden ce o f N eo l i th ic C u l tu re , P ragdhara 1 3 : 2 27 -229 .

M i s ra V .D . B .B . M is ra , J .N . P andey a nd J .N . P a l 1 996 . AP r e l im ina ry R epor to n t h e E xcava t ion s a tJ hu s i , 1 995 , P ragdhara 6 :6 3 -66 . M i s ra , V .N . 1 989 . S tone A ge I nd ia : a n E co log ica l P e r spec t ive , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 4 : 1 7 -64 . N e sf ie ld , J . C . 1 888 . T he Mu she ra s o fC en t ra l a nd U ppe r I nd ia , C a lcu t ta R ev iew 1 7 1 : 1 53 . N eumaye r , E . 1 993 . L ine s o n S tone s , T he P reh i s tor ic R ock A r t o f I nd ia . D e lh i : Manoha r P ub l i she r s a nd D is t r ibu to r s . P a l ,J .N . 1 985 . S ome N ew L igh to nt h e Me so l i th ic B u r ia l P rac t ice s o f t h e G anga -Va l ley : E v id en ce s f r om Mahadaha , P ra tapga rh , U t ta r P rade sh , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t9 :2 8 -37 . P a l , J .N . 1 986 . A rchaeo logy o fS ou thern U t tar P rade sh ( Ce ram ic I ndu s t r ie s o fN o r ther n V indhya s ) . A l lahabad : Swabha P raka shan . P a l , J .N . 1 990 . E nv i ronmen ta l C hange a nd H uman r e spon se d u r ing t h e T e rm ina l P l e i s tocene p er iod i n t h e No r ther n V indhya s , P ape r P re sen ted a t I n te rna t iona l S em ina r o n R i s ing T rend s i n P a laeoan thropo logy , E nv ironmen ta l C hange a nd Human R e spon se : L a s t t wo M i l l ion y ear s , 1 9 -23 D ecembe r . P une : D eccan C o l lege . P a l , J .N . 1 995 . C ha lco l i th ic V indhya s , P ragdhara 5 : 1 3 1 9 . P a l , J .N . 1 997 . C e ram ic I ndu s t ry o f t h e Me so l i th ic P e r iod o ft h eV indhya s , i nI nd ian P reh i s to ry : 1 980 ( V .D . M is ra a nd J .N . P a lE d s . ) ,p p . 1 28 132 . A l lahabad . P an t ,P .C . 1 965 . C ommen t so n Me so l i th ic p ha se i nI nd ia , i nI nd ian P reh i s tory : 1 964 ( V .N . M i s ra a nd M .S . Ma te E d s . ) , p .8 1 . P oona : D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te . R i s ley , S i rH .H . 1 89 1 . T he T r ibe s a nd C a s te s o fB enga l , Two V o l s . C a lcu t ta : B enga l S ec r e ta r ia tP r e s s . R ive t t -Ca rana c , J .H . 1 882 . S tone I mp lemen t s f ound i n t h e B anda D i s t r ic t , P roceed ing s o ft h eA s ia t ic S oc ie ty o f B enga l5 1 : 6 8 . R ive t t -Ca rana c , J .H . 1 883 . O n S tone I mp lemen t s f r om t h e N o r th - We s ter n P rov ince s o f I nd ia , J ourna l o f t h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l 5 2 : 2 2 1-230 . R ive t t -Ca ranac , J .H . 1 884 . C o l lec t ion o f s t one i mp lemen t s f r om B anda , J ourna l o ft h e R oya l A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l5 3 : 19 120 . R u s se l l , R .V . a nd R .B . H i ra la l 1 9 16 . T he T r ibe s a nd C a s t e s o f t h e C en t ra l P rov ince s o f I nd ia . L ondon : Ma cm i l lan a nd C o . , 1 9 16 ; r e p r in t ed 1 975 , D e lh i : C o smo sP ub l ica t ion s . S ha rma , G .R . 1 973a . Me so l i th ic l a ke C u l tu r e s i n t h e G anga V a l ley , P roceed ing s o f t h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty ( J ohn C o le s E d . ) , 3 9 : 1 29 146 . E ng land : H ef f e r s P r in te r L td . C amb r idge . S ha rma , G .R . 1 973b . S t one A ge i nt h e V indhya s a nd t h e G anga V a l ley , i nR ad iocarbon a nd I nd ian A rchaeo logy , ( D .P . A ga rwa l a nd A . G ho sh E d s . ) , p p . 1 06 110 . B ombay : T a ta I n s t i tu te o fF undamen ta lR e sea r ch . S ha rma , G .R . 1 975 . S ea sona l M ig ra t ion s a nd Me so l i th ic L ake C u l tu r e s o f t h e G anga V a l ley , i n K .C . C ha t topadhyaya Memor ia l V o lume ( G .R . S ha rma E d . ) , p p . 1 20 . A l lahabad : A l lahabad U n ive r s i ty .

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S ha rma , G .R . , V .D . M i s ra , D . Manda l , B .B . M i s ra a nd J .N . P a l 1 980 . B eg inn ing o f A g r icu l ture . A l lahabad : A b ina sh P raka shan . S i lbe r rad , C .A . 1 907 . R ock D raw ing s i nB anda ,J ou rna l o ft h eA s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l8 . S ingh ,K .S . 1 993 . T he S chedu led C a s te s . N a t iona l S e r ie s V o lume I ,A n th ropo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . S ingh , K .S . 1 996 . C ommun i t ie s , S egmen t , S ynonym s , S u rname s a nd T i t le s , i nP eop le o fI nd ia , N a t iona l S e r ie s V o lume V I I I . A n th ropo log ica l S u rvey o f I nd ia . N ew D e lh i : O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . S ingh , R .L . 1 97 1 . I nd ia : A R eg iona l G eog raphy . V a rana s i :N a t iona lG eog raph ica lS oc ie ty o fI nd ia . S ingh , S . 1 987 . S chedu l ed C a s t e s o fI nd ia . N ew D e lh i : G ian P ub l i sh ing H ou se . Sm i th , V .A . 1 906 . P igmy F l in t s , I nd ian A n t iquary 3 5 : 1 47 -95 . T heoba ld , W . 1 862 . C e l t s f ound i nB und e lkhand , P ape r r e ad a tt h e P ro ceed ing s o ft h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o fB enga l o n J une 1 862 , P roceed ing s o f t h e A s ia t ic S oc ie ty o f B enga l3 1(3 ) : 3 23 -328 . T ewa r i ,R . 1 982 . T h irak t eS ha iC h i tra ( H ind i ) .L uknow . V a rma , R .K . 1 964 . T he S tone A g e C u l ture s o fM ir zapur , u npub l i shed D . P h i l t h e s i s : U n ive r s i ty o f A l lahabad , A l lahabad . V a rma , R .K . 1 964 . T he S tone A ge C u l tur e so fM i r zapur , u npub l i shed D . P h i l t h e s i s : U n ive r s i ty o f A l lahabad , A l lahabad . V a rma , R .K . 1 965 . C ommen t s o n t h e Me so l i th ic P ha se i n t h e P reh i s to ry o f I nd ia , i n I nd ian P reh i s tory : 1 964 ( V .N . M i s ra a nd M .S . Ma te E d s . ) , p p . 7 3 -76 , D eccan C o l lege B u i ld ing C en tena ry a nd S i lve r J ub i lee S e r ie s , n o . 3 2 . P oona : D eccan C o l lege P o s t -G radua te a nd R e sea r ch I n s t i tu te .

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E vo lu t ion o fS oc ie ty a nd Cu l ture o fO r i s sa -B a sed o n aS yn the s i s o fA rchaeo log ica l , H i s tor ica l ,L ingu i s t ic a nd An thropo log ica l Da ta T am aP anda R oy T h e s o c ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c o mpo s i t ion o fo u r c oun t ry s how s ab ew i lde r ing d ive r s i ty i n i t s c omponen t e l em en t s . T he s t a te o fO r i s sa r ef l ec t s t h i s d i ve r s i ty a s much a sa ny o the rS t a te o rr e g ion o ft h e c oun t ry . B u t i ns p i te o ft h i sb a s ic s im i la r i ty , O r i s san s o c ie ty a nd c u l tu r ep r e sen t ad i s t inc t ive r e g iona l c ha r ac t e r , wh ich i sd i f f e r en tf r om t h a to ft h eo t he rp a r t so ft h e s ubcon t inen t . Mo r eove r , w i th in t h eb ounda ry o ft h e S t a te i t se lf , i t s s oc io -cu l tu r a l p a t t e rn d i f f e r s f r om o ne r e g ion t oo the r . T h i s d ive r s i ty i s ap roduc t o f g eog r aph ic v a r ia t ion a s a l so o f h i s to ry . S ince h i s to ry e x tend s b ack i n t im e t o t h e P r eh i s to r ic t im e s , a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce t o o i sa n i mpo r tan t s ou r ce o f e xp la in ing a nd u nde r s tand ing t h i s d i ve r s i ty . T he o t he r s ou rce s a r e e t hnog r aph ic , b i o log ica l a nd l i ngu i s t ic . T he r e a r e an umbe r o f e t hn ic g roup s , r e l ig ion s , l a nguage s a nd d i a lec t s i n c on tempo ra ry O r i s sa . A l l t h ese h ave r oo t s f a rb ack i nt im e . W i th in a ny c u l tu ra l r eg ion , t h e e t hn ic m ix , i nt e rm so fja t i so rc a s te s ; ( endogamou sg roup si n to wh ich H indu s a r e b or n ) ; t r ibes a nd o t he r e t hn ic g roup s r e p re sen ted a nd t h e i r r e spec t ive n um e r ica l , p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r , s o c ia l h i e ra r chy a nd r i tua l a s cendancy p rov ide s a n e s sen t ia l k ey t o u nde r s tand ing c u l tu ra l h i s to ry a nd c on tempo ra ry s oc ia l d ynam ics . A na ly s i s a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h e e t hn ic g roup so ft h e s t udy r e g ion a r et hu se s sen t ia l , a nd w i l l p rov ide c on s ide rab le i n s igh t i n to t h e h i s to r ica l p roces s t h a t s haped t h e c on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty a nd c u l tu r e .

h a sb een r e por ted f r om t h e S amba lpu rd i s t r ic t( SC 1 7 .48% , S T -2 7 .45 % ) f o l lowed b y G an jam ( SC 1 6 .59% , S T -9 . 40% ) a nd P ur i ( SC -1 5 .45% , S T 3 . 55% ) ( Cen su s o f I nd ia 1 991) . C a s te g roup s a r e t r ad i t iona l ly d i v ided i n to f ou r m a jo r d i v i s ion s m a in ly o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e i r o ccupa t ion a nd r i tua l p u r i ty , v i z . B rahm in ; K sha t r iya , K handaya t a nd K a ran /Kaya s tha ; V a i shya ; S ud ra . T he S ud r a s a ga in h ave t wo d i v i s ion s , v i z . , c l ean S ud ra s a nd u nc lean S ud ra s( Un touchab le c a s te s ) . P hy s ica l a n th ropo log ica l d a ta o n t h e e t hn ic g roup s o f t h e s t udy r eg ion s how t h e r e i s n o m a rked b i o log ica l d i f f e r ence a mong t h e t w ice -bor n c a s te s ( Panda 2 003 ) . T hey , i ng ene ra l , a l so d o n o t d i f f e r i na ny s i gn if i can t s en se f r om m a jo r i ty o ft h e S ud ra c ommun i t ie s . H oweve r , s om e o f t h e S ud ra c ommun i t ie s s how c l o se r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e S chedu led T r ibe sa nd t h e S ch edu led C a s tes a sw e l l . S chedu led T r ibe s a nd S chedu led C a s te s o n t h e o t he r h and a r e c l o se t oe ach o t he r . T h i s p a t ter n o f b i o log ica l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e c ommun i t ie s o f t h e s t udy r eg ion h a sa l so b een c o r robo ra ted b yt h e i r c u l tu ra l f e a tu re s ( Panda 2 003 ) . I n g ene ra l , t h e t w ice b or nc a s te s p re sen t ah omogeneou s g roup i n t e rm s o f c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s . S om e o f t h e S ud r a c ommun i t ie s c an a l so b e g rouped i n to t h i s c a tego ry . T he S chedu led c a s te s a nd S chedu led T r ibe s t oge th e r w i th s om e S ud ra c ommun i t ies , i n g ene ra l , p re sen t a no th e r h omogenou s g roup . H oweve r , i ti sn eed le s s t o s ay t h a t e ach o f t h e se c a tego r ies o f S ud ra s , S chedu led C a s te s a nd S ch edu led T r ibes h ave t h r ee h i e ra r ch ica l s t ag es w i th in t h em se lve s o nt h e b a s i s o ft h e i rc l osenes st o h i ghe r c a s te s i n t e rm s o f o ccupa t ion a nd o the r c u l tu ra lf e a tu r e s .

I nt h ep r e sen t s t udy , t h e r ef o r e , a n a t temp th a sb een m ad e t ot r ace t h e s oc io -cu l tu ra l e vo lu t ion i n ap a r t o fO r i s sa a sm an if e s ted i nt h e c on tempo ra ry s oc ia l d ynam ic s a nd c u l tu ra l c ompo s i t ion o f t h e r e g ion . T h e g eog raph ica l f o cu s o ft h e p r e sen t w o rk i so n t wo c oa s ta l ( und iv ided ) d i s t r ic t s o f P u r i a nd G an jam , a nd t h e S amba lpu r d i s t r ic t i n t h e h i l ly u p land s o fO r i s sa . T h i s a r ea h a s b een c ho sen f o r r e sea r ch t o s how t h e r eg iona l v a r ia t ion s b e tween t h e h i l l s a nd t h e p l a in s o f t h e S t a te i n t e rm s o f s oc io -cu l tu ra ld eve lopm en t .

T he u n ique f e a tu r e o ft h e c ommun i t ie s o ft h e s t udy r e g ion i st h e o ccu r r ence o fa bo r ig ina l c u l tu r a lt r a i t s i na l l s egm en t s o ft h e s oc ie ty . T he p r eponde rance o f t h e se t r a i t s d ec r ea se s f r om t h e l owe s t t o t h e h i ghes t h i e ra r ch ica l o rde r . Many o f t h e S ud ra c ommun i t ies l i ke s om e o f t h e S ch edu led C a s te s a nd S chedu led T r ibes f o l low o ne o r t h e o t he r a bo r ig ina l p r ac t ices l i k e b u r ia l o f t h e d ead , b r ide p r ice , m a r r iage b y c ou r t sh ip /e lopem en t / in t ru s ion / s e rv ice , w idow m a r r iage , n or e s t r ic t ion s o nd i vo r ce o r r ema r r iage a nd w om en 's e qua l i ty i n e conom ic p u r su i t . Mo r eove ro ne o rt wo s e c t ion s o ft h et w ice b or n c a s te s e ven among t h e B rahm in s f o l low o n e

C a s te s a nd a bo r ig ina l c ommun i t ie s a r e t h e t wo s oc ia l f o rma t ion s wh ich e ncompa s s a l l t h e e t hn ic g roup s i n O r i s sa . T he S chedu led C a s te ( SC ) a nd S ch edu led T r ibe ( ST ) p opu la t ion s o f t h i s S t a te c on s t i tu te 1 6 .20% a nd 2 2 .21 % o f t h e t o ta l p opu la t ion r e spec t ive ly . I n t h i s s t udy r e g ion , m ax imum c oncen t ra t ion o fS C a nd S T p opu la t ion s

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o rt h e o t he r s uch p rac t ice . B u t t h e m o s t i n te r e s t ing c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu r e i na l l s egm en t s o ft h e s o c ie ty i st h e u se o f t o tem ic g o t ra /c lan n am e . A lmo s t a l l t h e S ud r a s , S chedu led C a s te sa nd S chedu led T r ibe s h ave n umbe ro ft o tem ic g o t ra /c lan n am es . Many o f t h em , h oweve r , h ave o n ly o ne c l an wh ich i sv e ry o f ten N aga/N age sha . A n th ropo log i s t s l i k e S i ngh ( 1998 ) s a y s m embe r s o f ag o t ra o r c l an a r e b ound b y t h e t i es o f ac ommon a nce s t ry . G o t ra o r c l an e xogamy i s t hu s t h e n o rm i n m a jor i ty o f t h e c ommun i t ie s . B u t t h e c o mmun i t ie s wh ich h ave o n ly o ne g o t r a /c lan p r ac t i se g o t ra / c lan e ndogamy . T he c oncep t o f ` g o t ra ' i s p robab ly a r e cen t a dop t ion b y t h em a nd t hu s t h e n o t ion o f g o t ra i s l o o se ly p r ac t i sed . H e f u r the r r e po r t s t h a t t h e p henom enon o fs i ng le g o t ra /c lan i sm a rked i nt h e

l owe r c a s te p eop le i n I nd ia . T o tem ic g o t ra /c lan n am e s c an a l so b e f ound a mong t h e t w ice -bor n c a s te s o f t h e s t udy r e g ion , e ven a mong t h e B rahm in , b u ti nl e s se rn umbe r . T he se c ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu r e so ft h e e t hn ic g roup so f t h e s t udy r e g ion s t rong ly s uppo r t t h e h ypo th e s i s t h a t c ommun i t ie s w i th t h e t o tem ic c l an n am es o r s t i l l r e ta in ing a bo r ig ina l c u l tu r a l f e a tu r e s o r ig ina l ly w e r e m embe r s o ft h e a bo r ig ina l s oc ie ty a nd w e r e s ub sequen t ly i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e c a s te h i e r a rchy . S in ce t h e se f e a t ure s a r e p r eponde r an t a mong t h e S chedu led C a s te s a nd S ud r a C a s te s i tw on ' t b e w rong t o s ugges t t h a t t h e p roce s s o fi n co rpo ra t ion w a s a c t ive f r om b e low t oa bove . T h i s h ypo th e s i s i s f u r the r r e inf o r ced b y t h e b i o log ica l d a ta .

T ab le 1P opu la t ion o fS chedu led C a s te ( SC ) a nd S chedu led T r ibe s ( ST ) i nt h e s t udy r eg ion a nd t h e i rp ropor t ion t ot h e t o ta l ou a t ion i nR u ra l a nd U rban A rea s 1 99 1 C en su s R epor t ) S ta te /D i s tr ic t

O r i ssa S amba lpur D is tr ic t Gan jam D is tr ic t P ur i D is tr ic t

T o ta l P opu la t ion T R U T R U T R U

T R U T=T o ta l , R=R u r a l ,U =U rban

S C P opu la t ion N o . ° A

3 1659736 2 7424753 4 234983 2 697153 2 234545 4 26608

5 129314 4 578669 5 50645

1 6 .20 1 6 .70 1 3 .00

5 24085 4 63451 6 0634

1 7 .48 1 7 .62 1 6 .79

3 158764 2 688242 4 70522

5 24085 4 63451 6 0634

3 590026 2 884022 7 06004

5 54689 4 82332 7 2357

1 6 .59 1 7 .24 1 2 .89 1 5 .45 1 6 .72 1 0 .25

G eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e S chedu led C a s te s , a nd S chedu led T r ibes i n t h e s t udy r e g ion a l so s uppo r t t h i s h ypo th e s i s . F o l low ing M i sh ra a nd N aga r( 1 994 ) i tc an b e s hown i nt h et a b le 1t h a tt h e p e r cen tage o fS C a nd S Tp opu la t ion a r e i n" i nve r se p ropo r t ion t oe ach o t he r " . T hu s i nS amba lpu r , t h e S T p opu la t ion i s g r ea te r i n n umbe r t h an S C p opu la t ion , w he r eas i n P u r i a nd G an jam S C p opu la t ion h a s h i ghe r p e rcen tage t h an S T p opu la t ion

S TP opu la t ion N o . ° A 7 032214 6 670506 3 6 1708 7 40323 6 79930 6 0393 2 96845 2 93560 3 285 1 27347 1 07931 1 94 16

2 2 .21 2 4 .32 8 . 54 2 7 .45 3 0 .43 1 3 .05 9 . 40 1 0 .92 0 . 70 3 . 55 3 . 74 2 . 75

o fS T . O nt h ec on t ra ry , t h e f o r e s t -c lad h i l ly u p land s o fS amba lpu rb ecau se o fi t s l im i ted c u l t ivab le l a nd c am e u nde r e x ten s ive p l ough c u l t iva t ion much l a te r . T hu s m a jo r i ty o f t h e S T p opu la t ion c ou ld r e ta in t h e i r o r ig ina l i ty f o r l o nge rp e r iod s t i ck ing t o t h e i rt r ad i t iona lo ccupa t ion a nd l i f e s ty le . ' T h i sd i f f e r en t ia lr a te o fi n co rpo ra t ion o fa bo r ig ina l s i n to t h e c a s te s oc ie ty a s w e l l a s t h e c on sequen t u n ique p a t ter no fb i o log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s o f d i f f e ren t e t hn ic g roup s d i scu s sed a bove a r e d i r ec t ly r e la ted t ot h e d i f f e r en ce i nt h ep a t te rn o fs u cce s s ive c hange si nt h e m ean s a nd r e la t ion so fp rodu c t ion i n t h e p r eh i s to r ic a nd h i s to r ic p a s t i n d i f f e ren t g eog raph ica l s e t t ing s .

T h i s v a r ia t ion i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f S T a nd S C p opu la t ion s i nd i f f e r en tg eog raph ica l s e t t ing s a ga in p o in t st ot h e i n co rpo ra t ion o ft h e a bo r ig ina l p eop le i n to c a s te s oc ie ty . I n t h e c oa s ta l d i s t r ic t s o f P u r i a nd G an jam w i th h igh p ropo r t ion o ff e r t i le a luv ia l p l a in , t h e o r ig ina l a bo r ig ina l s , u nde r t h e H indu i n f luence , t o ok t o p lough c u l t iva t ion much e a r l ie r t h an t h o se i nt h e h i l ly u p land s a nd t h u s e ven tua l ly g o t i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e H indu s o c ie ty s we l l ing t h e p e rcen tage o fS C p opu la t ion a nd r e duc ing t h a t

'O n e c a n a r gu e t h a t t h e m ig r a t ion o fa b o r ig ina l s f r om p l a in st o h i l l s i st h e r e a l r e a son b e h ind t h e l o we r p e r cen t ag e o f S T p opu la t ion i nt h e c o a s t a l p l a in s , b u t t h a t d o e s n o t e x p la in t h e c l o s ene s s o ft h e S C p opu la t ion a n d m a jo r i ty o ft h e S ud r a s w i th t h eS Tp opu la t ion si nb o th b i o log ica la n dc u l tu r a l f e a tu r e s .

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T he P r eh i s to r ic c u l tu ra lr em a in ss how t h a tt h e r ea r e t wo d i s t r ic tz one s o fp a laeocu l tu ra l d eve lopm en ti n t h e s t udy r eg ion . O n t h e o ne h and , t h e c oa s ta l r e g ion i sa lmo s t d evo id o fP a la eo l i th ic a r t if ac t s , o n t h e o t he r , t h e se a r e w ide sp r ead a nd p l en ty a l ong t h e h i l ly f o r e s t t r ac t s o fS amba lpu r . F rom t h e l a te p ha se o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a l luv ia l p l a in s o f c oa s ta l d i s t r ic t s e em t oh ave g a ined i mpo r tance f o r s e t t lem en t a nd t hu s B hubane swa r r eg ion h a s y i e lded a m a rk ed d eve loped p ha se o f t h e c u l tu re ( t ran s i t ion f r om U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic t o M ic ro l i th ic i n du s t ry ) wh ich i s mo re a k in t o t h a t o f n or ther n O r i s sa ( Gho sh a nd R ay 1 990 -9 1) . I n Me so l i th ic t im e , M ic ro l i th ic c u l tu r e i n g ene ra l p r e sen t s a h omogenou s n a tu r e a nd e x ten s ive d i s t r ibu t ion c ove r ing a lmo s t a l l g eog raph ica l r eg ion s , s uch a s h i l ly u p land s , r o ck s he l te r s , r i ve r v a l ley s a nd c oa s ta la l luv ia lp l a in s( Panda 2 003 ) .

c oa s ta la r ea s f r om t h eh i gh l a nd s . I ti sb e l ieved t h a t Me so l i th ic p eop le p r ac t iced s om e f o rm o f f ood s t o rage . P r eh i s to r ic e v idences s how t h a t S t one a ge c u l tu r e o f O r i s sa i s i n t im a te ly r e la ted t o t ho se o f t h e u p land r eg ion s o f I nd ia , e spec ia l ly t o t h e n e ighbou r ing r eg ion s o f C ho tanagpu r , M i rzapu r , t h e U ppe rN a rmada V a l ley a sw e l l a st ot h e L owe r G odava r i V a l ley . I n a l l p robab i l i ty , s om e o f t h e c u l tu ra l t r a i t s o f t h o se r eg ion s i nf i l t ra ted i n to O r i s sa t h rough m ig ra t ion o f p opu la t ion a nd u n in te r rup ted c u l tu ra l e xchange . L ingu i s t ic e v idence ( Panda 2 003 ) a l so i nd ica te s m ig ra t ion o f p eop le t o t h i s p a r t o f t h e c oun t ry f r om n o r ther n , w e s ter n a nd s ou the rn I nd ia i n t h e P r e - a nd P ro toh i s to r ic p a s t . I ta l so s ugge s t s as yn the s i s o f t h r ee m a jo r l a nguage f am i l ie s — I ndo -A ryan , D rav id ian a nd Au s t ro -A s ia t ic o r Munda r i .

P r eh i s to r ic p eop le w e re h un te r -ga the r e r a nd t h e h un te r -ga the r e r s oc ie ty w a s e ga l i ta r ian i n n a tu r e a nd e ach a nd e ve ry p e r son p a r t ic ipa ted i n e conom ic p u r su i tt os u rv ive i nf o r es t l i f e wh e r et h e f ood s upp ly w a s s e a sona l a nd u nce r ta in . I n t h e a b sence o ft h e k now ledge o fp r e se rva t ion o ff ood , a t t h e l owe r a nd m idd le P a laeo l i th ic s t age s o f d eve lopm en t , s ha r ing o f o cca s iona l s u rp lu s f ood , h oweve r ,p robab ly g ave r i se t oa ni n -g roup f e e l ing . T he f l ak e -b lade i n du s t ry i nt h e s ub sequen tp ha se o f c u l tu r e i s s pec ia l ly m ean t f o r an ewe r t ype o f c u l tu r ea tt h et im ew hen t h e r ew a s as l ow t r an s i t ion o f ac hange o fa ne r af r om P l e i s tocene t oH o locene . T he l a te p ha se o f U ppe r P a laeo l i th ic a nd Me so l i th ic a r e t hu s c ha rac te r i sed b y a n i mp roved c l im a t ic c ond i t ion , i n t roduc t ion o fn ew t e chno logy t o a dop t i n t h e c hanged e nv i ronm en t , mo r e e ff i c ien t e xp lo i ta t ion o f f ood r e sou rce s a nd c on sequen t p h enom ena l e xpan s ion o f p opu la t ion . T he i n c r ea se i n p opu la t ion f o rced p eop le t o c o lon i se n ew a r ea s l i k e c oa s ta l p l a in s a nd r o ck s he l te r s . T he r e w a s , h oweve r , t h e c on t inua t ion o f P a laeo l i th ic e conomy o fh un t ing -ga the r ing , b u t t h e e mpha s i s s h if ted f r om b ig g am e t o s m a l l g am e h un t ing a nd e qua l d ependence o n p l an t s , a n ima l s a nd f i she s f o r s ub s i s tence . I nt h e s t udy r e g ion c o o ccu r rence o f s oph i s t ica ted c ompo s i te t oo l s l i k e t n ic ro l i th s u sef u l a sh un t ing a nd f i sh ing g ea r s a nd h eavy d u ty f o r e s t e ff ic iency t o o l s t o c omp lem en t t h em d u r ing t h i s p e r iod n o d oub t h e lped t h e Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the re r s t o c ope i n d i f f e r en t g eog raph ica l a r ea s . I n g ene r a l , t h e Me so l i th ic p eop le w e r e s e a sona l m ig ra to r s a nd h ad s em i p e rmanen t w ay o f l i f e . T hey d i d n o t k now a g r icu l tu r e a nd i ns umm e r mon th s m ig ra ted t ot h e

I n t roduc t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e i nt h e h un te r -ga the r e r 's l i f e i n t h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod i s b e l ieved t o h ave b rough t r evo lu t iona ry c hange i n c u l tu r e . A ny i mpo r tan t a dvance i n t h e m ean s o f p roduc t ion i mmed ia te ly l e ad s t o ag r ea t i n c r ea se i np opu la t ion a nd r e la t ion s o fp roduc t ion . I nt h e N eo l i th ic P e r iod p opu la t ion e xpan s ion t oge the r w i th s u rp lu s p roduc t ion a s ac on sequ ence o f a g r icu l tu r e l e d t o s eden ta ry l i f e a nd f o rma t ion s o f v i l lage s . I n c on sequence o f a s su r ed f ood s upp ly a nd s u rp lu s p roduc t ion a s e c t ion o f p eop le c ou ld f r ee t h em se lve s a nd t o ok u p o t he r w o rk s l i ke p o t m ak ing , s t one q ua r ry ing , a n ima l h u sband ry , b a ske t m ak ing , b one w o rk ing a nd c a rpen t ry . T hu s g radua l ly t h e e ga l i ta r ian h un t ing -ga the r ing s oc ie ty b ecam e d i v ided i n to d i f f e ren t o ccupa t iona l g roup s . O n t h e o the r h and , c on t ro l o n s u rp lu s p roduc t ion a nd i t s d i s t r ibu t ion l e d t o t h e f o rma t ion o f a w ea l thy c l a s s s ub sequ en t ly r e su l t ing i n t h e d i s in teg ra t ion o f t h e s oc ie ty i n to t h e r i ch a nd t h e p oo r , t h e r u l ing c l a s s a nd t h e r u led , t h e e xp lo i te r s a nd t h e e xp lo i ted . E xpan s ion o f a g r icu l tu re , c l ea r ing o f j ung le s a nd s h rub s c au sed r a p id d ec r ea se o fw i ld a n im a l a nd p l an t f ood r e sou rces o n w h ich Me so l i th ic h un te r -ga the r e r s h ad d epended f o rt h e i rl i f e . T hu s a g r icu l tu ra l e xpan s ion i n t h e s ub sequen t p e r iod f o r ced mo re h un te r g a the re r s t o a s s im i la te i n to t h e e xpand ing a g r icu l tu re b a sed mu l t i -occupa t iona l s oc ie ty . T ho se who w e r e t oo c on serva t ive o r l e s s e n te rp r i s ing s t uck t o t h e i r h un t ing -ga the r ing p u r su i t , t h e r eby f o rm ing a no the rs e c t ion i nt h es oc ie ty .

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I n t e rm s o f A r chaeo logy , N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e p r ec ise ly i mp l ies a s t age o f t r an s i t ion f r om t h e i n ten s ive f ood c o l lec t ion t o f o od p roduc t ion , a nd t h e c u l tu r e i s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e g r ind ing a nd p o l i sh ing t e chn ique s o fl i th ic t o o l s , u se o fp o t te ry , p l an t c u l t iva t ion , d om es t ica t ion o f a n ima l s , a nd s e t t led h ab i ta t ion . E ven i fm a te r ia l e v idence o ft h e f i r s tt h ree c r i te r ia o ft h is c u l tu re h a s b een m e t w i th i n o u r s t udy r e g ion ( Panda 2 003 ) , d i r ec t p roof o f e m e rgence o f a g r icu l tu r e o r d om e s t ica t ion o f a n ima l s i nt h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod o fO r is sa i ss t i l l n o t f o r thcom ing . B u t t h a t d oe s n o t s t i l l i mp ly t h a t t h e N eo l i th ic f o lk i n O r i s sa d i d n o t p rac t ice e ven r ud im en ta ry a g r icu l tu r e . R ecove ry o fd om es t ica ted r i ce i nB a idyapu r ( Thapa r 1 985 ) a nd e x i s tence o f w i ld r i ce i n K ucha i ( V i shnu -M i t t r e 1976 ) , B a idyapu r ( V i shnuM i t t r e 1 974 ) a nd J aypo r e t r ac t o f K o rapu t d i s t r ic t ( Mu r ty 1 988 ) c on s ide r ed t oge the r w i th t h e e v idence o fg r a in i mp re s s ion o n c r ude h and -m ade p o t te ry f ound a l ong w i th m a s s ive a nd e l onga ted N eo l i th ic c e l t s a nd r i ng s t one s f r om D henkana l ( S ingh 1 988 -89 , 2 000 ) c an b e c oun ted a s i n d i r ec t e v iden ce o f a g r icu l tu ra l p r ac t ice i n O r i s sa i n t h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage f ound i nt h e se s i te si sc oa r se a nd h and m ade ; a nd i n c a se o f Dh enakana l i ti sc r ude a nd b ak ed t o o . T he t e chn ique o f p o t te ry m ak ing a t t h e se s i te s a s soc ia ted w i th c u l t iva t ion o f r i ce u ndoub ted ly m a rk s ap r im i t ive s t age o ft e chno logy c ompa red t o G o lba i , t h e N eo -Cha lco l i th ic s i te i n t h e K hu rda d i s t r ic t ( S inha 2 000 ) ; a nd t h i s , e v iden t ly , i ss ugge s t ive o fa g r icu l tu r e p r eva i l ing i n O r is sa p r io r t o c .2 300 BC ( C -14 d a te f o r G o lba i C ha lco l i th ic P e r iod ) . G o ing b y t h e w e l l d eve loped c e ram ic a s semb lage a tG o lba i N eo l i th ic P er iod i t s e em s t h a t t h e c u l tu r e w a s i n a n a dvanced s t age h av ing a s su r ed f ood s upp ly .

l e ve l o f G o lba i . B u t i ti s mo r e t h an p robab le t h a t b ecau se a s ma l l a r ea b e long ing t ot h i s p er iod h a s b een e xpo sed , n o l i t h ic t o o l h a s b een e ncoun te r ed . H oweve r , s u rf ace c o l lec t ion a s w e l l a s e xcava t ion i nt h e s ub sequen t N eo -Cha lco l i th ic l e ve l ( Pe r iod I A ) y i e lded m ic ro l i th s a nd b o th i n d igenou s a sw e l l a s f o r e ign i m i ta t ion v a r ie t ie s o f t y p ica l N eo l i th ic t o o l s . S om e o t he r e v idence s f r om t h e N eo l i th ic l e ve l o fG o lba i p o in t s t o ad ef in i te c u l tu ra l c on tac t w i th S ou th I nd ian N eo l i th ic s i t e s o f t h e c on tempo ra ry p er iod ( Panda 2 003 ) . I n v i ew o ft h i s c u l tu ra l c on tac t w i th S ou th I nd ian N eo l i th ic s i te s wh ich w e r e c ha rac te r i sed b y s p ec ia l i sa t ion i nd om e s t ica t ion o fa n ima l s , a b sen ce o f t h e s ame i n t h e N eo l i th ic l e ve l o f G o lba i i s u nu sua l . H oweve r , n o th ing c an b e s a id d ef in i te ly a bou t t h e n a tu re o fN eo l i th ic C u l tu r e a tG o lba i o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e i n adequa te m a te r ia l f i nd ing s f r om t h e s ma l l a r ea o f e xcava t ion . H oweve r , t h e r e p re sen ta t ion o f a n ima l s l i ke g oa t , p i g a nd c a t t le i n t h e p e t rog lyph s o f D eu lga r o ck s he l te r s i te ( Beh e ra 2 000 -200 1a ) i n S amba lpu r d i s t r ic t i n d i r ec t ly s ugge s t s a k now ledge o f a n ima l h u sband ry a nd p a s to ra l b a sed s ub s i s tence e conomy i nt h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod . A ny i mpo r tan t a dvance i n t h e m ean s o f p roduc t ion i mm ed ia te ly l e ad s t o a g r ea t i n c r ea se i n p opu la t ion w h ich n ece s sa r i ly m ean s d i f f e ren t r e la t ion s o fp roduc t ion . G o ing b y t h e w e l l d eve loped c e ram ic a s semb lage a tG o lba i N eo l i th ic p e r iod i ts e em s t h a tt h e c u l tu r e w a s i na n a dvan ced s t age h av ing a s su red f ood s upp ly , n o th ing c an b e s a id a bou t t h e r e la t ion s o f p roduc t ion a tt h is s t age . H oweve r ,N eo l i th ic p eop le o f t h e c oa s ta l r i ve r ine p l a in mu s t h ave p roduced b e t te r s u rp lu s a nd h ad w ide r e xchange n e two rk b ecau se o ft h e i ra dvan tageou sp o s i t ion i nt h ef e r t i le a l luv ia l p l a in s andw iched b e tween t h e p l a teau f r inge a r ea a nd t h e s e a c oa s t a nd t h e r eby h av ing w ide r r a nge o fs ub s i s tence a sw e l l a sa cce ss t os e a n av iga t ion . S amba lpu r r e g ion , o n t h e o t he r h and , l y ing i n t h e h i l ly f o r e s t -c lad u p land s , h ad l i t t le o ppor tun i ty t oh ave e nough s u rp lu s o rw ide r r a nge o f c on tac t b e ing mo r e d ependen t o n t h e p rev iou s mode o f s ub s i s tence l i ke f o od -ga the r ing a nd h un t ing . H ence , t h e p eop le r ema ined i n a n u ndeve loped e a r ly N eo l i th ic s t age .

T he N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e o fO r i s sa i se s sen t ia l ly ap a r t a nd p a rce l o ft h e E a s te rn N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e ( Thapa r 1 964 ) c omp r i s ing B enga l , B iha r a nd O r i s sa , a nd t h i s c u l tu r e i ss uppo sed t ob e o fi n d igenou s o r ig in . B u t t h e m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn iqu e o f t h e f a ce t ted t o o l s , s hou lde r ed c e l t s , w edge a nd b a r v a r ie t ie s o f t o o l s a s w e l l a s c o rd i mp r e s sed p o t te ry a r e c on s ide r ed t o h ave a r r ived I nd ia a t a much l a te r d a te f r om S ou th C h ina a nd S ou thea s t A s ia ( Dan i 1 960 ; S anka l ia 1 974 ) . I th a sb een h ypo the s i sed t h a t t h e m anuf ac tu r ing t e chn ique o f t h ese d eve loped N eo l i th ic t o o l s a nd c o rd m a rked p o t te ry w a s i n t roduced t o n o r th ea s ter n I nd ia b y t h e A u s t roa s ia t ic , i . e . t h e Munda s peak ing p eop le ( He ineGe lda rn 1 945 ) . H oweve r , n o s t one i mp lem en t h a s b een r e cove r ed f r om t h e N eo l i th ic

C o r r e la t ion b e tween A r chaeo log ica l a nd L ingu i s t ic P r eh is to ry i nt h e r e g ion ( Panda 2 003 ) l e ad s t ot h e h ypo th es i s t h a t i t i s p robab ly t h e P ro to S ou th Munda s peak ing p eop le w ho i n t roduced t h e a dvanced N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e i n i t ia l ly i nt h e n o r ther n p a r to fO r is sa w h i le m ig r a t ing f r om B iha ru nde rt h e

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p re s su r e o f t h e a dvanc ing D rav id ian s peak ing p eop le .

w e l l d eve loped C ha lco l i th ic s i te o f K ham e swa r ipa l i i n t h e m idd le Mahanad i v a l ley ( P radhan a nd B ehe ra 1 998 ; B ehe ra 2 000 -200 1b ) s i tua ted i n t h e S onpu r r eg ion o f t h e B a lang i r d i s t r ic t . T r ia l v e r t ica l d i gg ing a tt h r ee p l ace s o ft h e mound h ave u nea r thed a w e l l d eve loped v i l lage f a rm ing c u l tu r e h av ing c u l tu ra l l i nkage w i th N a rhan , C h i r and , S enuwa ra nd G o lba i C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e i n a r ound l a t e 2 nd m i l lenn ium BC . I n a dd i t ion t o t h i s e v idence a t Kham e swa r ipa l i t h e w ide s p read h o r izon ta le xpo su r e o fs i te s , a s soc ia ted w i th t h e wh i te p a in ted b l ack -and r ed -wa r e , d i scove red i n t h e l ow e r r e ache s o f m idd le Mahanad i v a l ley o n i t sr i gh tb ank a sw e l l a si na nd a r ound t h e T e l r i ve r i n t h e a d jo in ing B a lang i r d i s t r ic t ( Append ix ) c l ea r ly e s tab l i sh t h a t n o t o n ly c oa s ta l O r i s sa , b u t w e s ter n O r i s sa t o o w i tne s sed P r e I ron A ge v i l lage e s tab l i shm en t s t hough a t a much l a te rd a te .

T h e c o -ex i s tence a nd c o mmonn e s s o f h ab i ta t i s l i k e ly t o h ave p rodu ced a s t a te o f b i cu l tu r i sm b e tween t h ese t wo e t hn ic s t ock s . H oweve r , s om e d eg r ee o fb i l ingua l i sm w a s a n i n ev i tab le r e su l t o f t h i sb i cu l tu r i sm , w h ich i nt u rn mu s th ave p roduced a n a r ea o f l i ngu i s t ic a nd c u l tu r a l a g reem en t s b e tween t h e se t wo e t hn ic s e c t ion sw h ich mu s th ave g i ven r i se t o a " D rav ido -Munda c u l tu re" ( Bha t tacha rya 1 975 ) w he re t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e se t wo d i s t inc t c u l tu r es c onv e rged w i th e ach o t he r . T he N eo l i th ic a nd N eo -Cha lco l i th ic c u l tu r es a tG o lba i a nd G opa lpu r( Ka r 1 995 -96 , 2 000 ; K a re t a l . 1 998 ) p robab ly a r e t h e f i r s t a r chaeo log ica l c o r r e la te o f t h e D rav ido - Munda c u l tu re , b ea r ing c u l tu r a l t r a i t s o fb o th S ou th I nd ian a nd S ou thea s t A s ian N eo l i th ic c u l tu r e . G o lba iC ha lco l i th ic l e ve lp rov ide sf o rt h e f i r s tt im e d i r ec t e v idence o f a g r icu l tu r a l p rac t ice s a nd t e nd ing o f a n im a l s a s a n i n sepa rab le f e a tu r e o f s e t t led l i f e , a nd t hu s s ub s tan t ia te st h e e x i s tence a nd g row th o f e a r ly f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s i n O r i s sa . S e t t led p a t te rn o fl i f e a nd p l en ty o ff ood mu s th ave l e d t o d i v i s ion o f l a bou r , wh ich i n t u rn , l e ad s t o a dven to fs pec ia l iza t ion t h a td i v ide st h e c ommun i ty i n to v a r iou s o ccupa t iona l g roup s l i ke f a rme r s , s t ock b r eede r s , h un te r s , f i sh ing f o lk s , s t one a nd b on e s m i th s , c a rpen te r s , b oa t m ake r s , p o t te r s , c oppe r sm i th s , a r t i san s a nd t r ade r s . D if f e r en ts i ze o f h u t s i nt h e s e t t lemen t i sp e rhap s i nd ica t ive o ft h e b eg inn ing o fs oc ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion i nt h e C ha lco l i th ic c ommun i ty . P u tt o ge the r , t h e se e v idence s p robab ly i mp ly em e rg ing c omp lex i t ie s i n t h e s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l f o rma t ion i n c ou r se o f t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod i n O r i s sa a nd a s am echan i sm o f e f f ec t ive m a in tenance a nd m anagem en t o ft h i s c omp lex i ty , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f e m e rgence o f c h ief dom . O u t o f t h e 1 3 c i r cu la rh u t s w i th p o s tho les a nd h ea r th s , t h e l a rge s t m ay w e l l b e r ega rd ed a s t h e p r iva te p rope r ty o f t h e c h ief , mo r e e qua l a mong e qua l s . S ince c oppe r a r t ic le s w e r e s c a r ce a nd p r ized , t h e i r a s soc ia t ion i n t h e g raveya rd a t G o lba i a nd S ank e r jang ( Yu le a nd R a tha 2 000 ) c an b e i n t e rp re ted a ga in a s b u r ia l g i f t s t o t h e c h ief o r m ember so fh i sf am i ly .

A c on tac t b e tween t h e C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re s o f M idd le G anga p l a in a nd t h e m idd le Mahanad i v a l ley i s w e l l e s tab l i shed b y t h e se C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu re s w i th wh i te p a in ted b l ack -and r ed w a r e . T he s udden d eve lopm en to ft h ese s i te si np o s t 1 200 BC c an b e e xp la ined b y t h e l i ngu i s t ic e v idence wh ich s peak s o f al a rge s c a le p opu la t ion m ig ra t ion f r om t h e M idd le G anga p l a in w i th t h e a dven to ft h e A ryan s i n a r ound m id 2 nd m i l lenn ium BC ( Roy 1 912 ) . H oweve r t h e a b sence o f c hanne l b ow l s , c hanne l spou ted v e s se l s o r r u s t ica ted w a r e ( wh ich a r e s uppo sed t o b e t h e w e s t A s ia t ic i nf lu ence ) i n t h e N eo l i th ic a nd C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e o f O r i s sa p o s s ib ly i n d i r ec t ly s ugges t s p r edom inance o f t h e i nf luence o f S ou thea s t A s ian o r f o r t h a t m a t te r Munda c u l tu re i nt h er e g ion . I n t roduc t ion o f i r on t e chno logy h a s b een s ymbo l i sed w i th t h e i n ten s if ica t ion o f a g r icu l tu r e a nd t h e r eby ac hange i nr e la t ion so fp roduc t ion a nd s upe r s t ruc tu re o ft h e s oc ie ty . B u tt h e a ppea rance o f t h e s i ng le p r im i t ive p i ece o f i r on i n t h e F e r ro C ha lco l i th ic l e ve l o f G o lba i ( 1 100 -900 BC ) d oe s n o t r eg i s te r a ny r ema rkab le c hange i n t h e C ha lco l i th ic e conomy o ft h e s i te . H oweve r , i to n ly c onf i rm s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t e chno logy o f s m e l t ing , e ven t h ough i n a n a scen t s t age , m ade i t s a ppea rance d u r ing t h i s p e r iod , a nd t h a t h a s s i gn if i can t c u l tu ra l a nd e conom ic r am if ica t ion , n o ma t te r i fo rd ina ry f o lk w e r e s t i l l c l ing ing t o s t one a nd b one a r t if ac t s . T he a ppea rance o f t umb le r i n b l ack -and r ed w a r e i nt h i s p er iod , h oweve r , m a rk s We s tA s ia t ic i n f luence f o rt h e f i r s tt im e .

E ven t hough o n se t a nd d eve lopm en t o f C ha lco l i th ic c u l tu r e i nc oa s ta l O r i s sa i sr e p re sen ted i nt h eG o lba ie xcava t ion , S amba lpu ra s aw ho le h a s n o t y i e lded a ny s uch s i te . H ow eve r , P o s t -Neo l i th ic h o r izon c an b e o b ta in ed f r om t h e e xcava t ion a tt h e

3 33

H oweve r , n o I r on A ge s i t e h a s b een d i scove r ed f r om t h e c oa s ta l r e g ion w h ich c ou ld t h row l i gh t o n t h e i mpac t o f i r on t e chno logy o n t h e e conomy o f t h e p eop le . T he l owe s t l e ve l s o f S i supa lga rh ( La l 1 949 ) a nd J auga rh ( J AR 1 956 -57 : 3 0 -31) w h ich c ame u pa lmo s t6 00 -700 y ea r sl a te rh oweve rd on o t s ugge s t a ny r ema rkab le c hange i n t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu r e o f t h e p eop le . T he p l a in a nd u t i l i ta r ian n a tu re o f t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage a nd d eve loped s t age o f i r on t e chno logy h oweve r s ugges t a n e xpan s ion o fa g r icu l tu r e . B u t i nt h e l i f e s ty le o ft h e p eop le i ts e em st h e r e w a s l i t t le c hange f r om t h a t o f t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod . I t s e em s e ven i n t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 3 rd c en tu ry BC i r on w a s u sed o n ly i n ar e s t r ic ted a moun t a nd w a s t r ea ted a s a p r ized t h ing . T he c ommon m an s e em s t o b e c onf in ing h im se lf t os t one , c l ay , o rs om ep er i shab le m a ter ia l s . T h i s o n ly e xp la in s w hy i r on c ou ld n o t b r ing m a jo r c hange i nt h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re o f t h e s oc ie ty e ven a f t e r 6 00 -700 y ea r s a f t e r t h e i n t roduc t ion o f i r on t e chno logy i n t h e e conomy . H oweve r , t h i s , o n t h e o the r h and i n d ica te s em e rgen ce o f s t ra t if ied s oc ie ty b y w ay o f d i f f e r en t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fs u rp lu sp roduc t ion .

p robab ly w i th t h e u rban i sa t ion r e g ion .

i n t h e c oa s ta l

T hu s a r chaeo log ica l e v idence c l ea r ly s how s t h a t b ef o r e t h e K a l inga w a r ( 2 6 1 BC ) u nequa l d i s t r ibu t ion o fs u rp lu s p roduc t ion h ad a l r eady b een s t a r ted a nd ' r ank ' s oc ie ty w a s s l ow ly e m e rg ing o u t o f t h e a bo r ig ina l e ga l i ta r ian b a se . A cco rd ing t o F r ied ( 1967 : 1 85 , 1 91) a ' r ank ' s oc ie ty r e f lec t s a s t age i n t h e e vo lu t ion o f h um an s oc ie ty wh ich m a rk s a n e m e rgen ce o f as p ec ia l r u l ing s t r a tum , w h i le t h e t r iba l r e la t ion s h ad n o t y e t t o ta l ly d i s in teg ra ted . A t t h i s s t age t h ough s u rp lu s w a s a cqu i r ed b y t h e a bo r ig ina l c h ief , h e d i d n o t h ave a ny d i r ec tc on t ro lo ve rt h em ean so fp rodu c t ion a nd l a bou r( F r ied : 17 ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o f t h e e me rgen ce o f u rban i sa t ion i nO r i s sa ( a t S i supa lga rh a nd J auga rh ) c o inc ide s w i th t h e a r r iva l o ft h e Mau ryan s w h ich l e d t ot h e s cho la r s ( Senev i ra tn e 1 981) t ot h ink t h a t u rban i sa t ion i nt h i s p a r t o ft h e c oun t ry i s ap roduc t o f Mau ryan h egemony A l lch in ( 1 989 : 1 5 ) o n t h e o t he r h and p o in ted o u t t h a t i ti s ap roduc t o f t h e ' P r e -Ma ruyan G ange t ic C o lon i sa t ion ' s i nce O r i s sa w a s u nde r t h e r u le o fN anda k i ng i n 4 t h c en tu ry BC .

A n i n te rm ed ia te s t age b e tween t h e G o lba i F e r ro C ha lco l i th ic a nd t h e e a r ly p e r iod s o f S i supa lga rh a nd J auga rh r e p r e sen ted i n P e r iod I o f K ham e swa r ipa l i ( Beh e ra 2 000 -2001b ) i n m idd le Mahanad i v a l ley h e lp s t o h ave a n i d ea o f t h e c on sequence o ft h e i n t roduc t ion o fi r on techno logy i nt h e U p land O r i s sa .H e r e e xpan s ion o fa g r icu l tu re i sc on sp icuou s i n t h e a ppea rance o f l a rge s t o r age v es se ls s ynch ron i s ing w i th a p ronoun ced d egene ra t ion i n c e ram ic a s semb lage . T h is i s n o d oub t , ar e pe r cu s s ion o fi r on e n ter ing t h e e conomy a nd t h e reby t h em a te r ia l c u l tu r e , i nt h ef o rm o fn ew t e chno logy . Mo r eove r , m a te r ia l e v idence o f b u rgeon ing E a r ly H i s to r ic s e t t lem en t si nt h em idd le Mahanad i v a l ley ( Append ix ) i s as u r e i n d ica to r o f t h e g radua l i n c r ea se i nt h e g row th o fs e t t lemen t i n t h e P os t -Cha lco l i th ic p e r iod a s ac oncom i tan t a nd i n teg ra l a spec t o f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l e xpan s ion a nd g row th o fp opu la t ion i nt h e r eg ion . T h i s i ne f f ec t , n o -doub t mu s t h ave m ade t h e s t ruc tu r e o f s oc ie ty c omp lex b y w ay o f s t r a t if ica t ion i n t e rm s o f p roduc t ion r e la t ion s .

B u t u rban isa t ion i n O r i s sa c anno t e xc lu s ive ly b e t h e p roduc t o f e x te rna l f o r ce s T he p repa r a t ion o f t h e g round f o r t h e e m e rgence o fu rban i sa t ion h ad a l r eady b een s t a r ted i n t h e C ha lco l i th ic p e r iod w h ich w e re g e t t ing c on so l ida ted i nt h e s ub sequen t p e r iod w i th t h e e xpo su r e t o o t he r c u l tu r e s a nd i n co rpo ra t ion o f i d ea s . I n t h a t s c ena r io , Mau ryan i mpe r ia l a nd a dm in i s t ra t ive e xpan s ion t ot h er e g ion a c ted a sc a ta ly s t f o rt h e e me rgence o fu rban i sa t ion . U rban i sa t ion i n O r i s sa t hu s s e emed t o h ave f o l lowed A l lch in 's mode l ( 1990 : 1 64 ) o f " ope r a t ion o f t h e c o lon is ing f a c to r s ub sequen t t o i n d igeneou s d eve lopmen t ," a nd a sh e s ay s , i td oe s n o t m ean t h a t b o th w e re n o t a tw o rk d u r ing t h e s am ep er iod . T he c u l tu ra l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e u rban c en t r e s o f S i supa lga rh a nd J auga rh i nt h e P r e a nd E a r ly p a r t o fC h r i s t ian e r a s p eak o f am ixed c u l tu r e . F rom t h e a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia ls n o th ing c an b e s a id a bou t t h e c o r e c u l tu r e o ft h e r e g ion . H oweve r , l a nguage s u sed i n t h e i n sc r ip t iona l e v idence s how t h a t t h e A ryan c u l tu ra l i nf luence c am e t o t h i s p a r t o f t h e c oun t ry i nt wo l i ne s -ab roade r o r mo re p owe rf u l s t r eam c am e f r om Magadha , a nd t h e o t he r , a t h inne r o ne , r e ached O r is sa f r om w es ter nU .P . , v i a

B u t f o r t h e c u l tu ra l a spec t s , K ham e swa r ipa l i s i te d oe s n o t s how s i gn s o f t r an sf o rma t ion w o r th t h e n am e . I t s how s l i t t le d i f f e r ence f r om t h e C ha lco l i th ic p ha se i n i t s m a te r ia l c u l tu r e . Mo s t p robab ly u rban v a lue s s e eped i n to t h e g ene r a l l i f e s t r eam much l a te r a nd a ta n a lmo s t l imp ing p ace

34

Mahako sa la r e g ion ( Cha t te r jee 1 926 : 1 4 ) . T he se t wo s t r eam s t h en mu s t h ave c onv e rged w i th t h e l o ca l D r av ido - Munda c u l tu re . F rom t h e i n f luence o f D r av id ian o n P rak r i t l a nguage s i n t h e e a r ly p e r iod i ts e em s D rav id ian s w e r e d om inan t i n t h e l o ca l n on -A ryan c u l tu re o f t h e r e g ion . H oweve r , t h i s p roce s s o fc onve rgence w a s av e ry s l ow a nd p ro longed o ne a nd t h e p a t ter no fc onve rgence w a s mo s t p robab ly s am e a s r e con s t ru c ted b y S ou thwo r th ( 1974 ) f o r o the r p a r t s o ft h e c oun t ry A ryan s p eak ing g roup e s tab l i shed i t se lf i n s ome p a r t o f t h e a r ea a mong n on -A ryan s p eake r s . I t b ecam e t h e f o cu s o fi nf luence f o rn ew c u l tu re a nd an ew c i v i l iza t ion , o f w h ich t h e l a nguage i st h e v eh ic le . P eop le r ound a bou t s pec ia l ly t h e u ppe r c l a s s , f i r s t p i ck ed u p t h e A ryan l a nguage a nd c u l tu r e wh i le r e ta in ing t h e i r o wn s p eech f o r s om e t im e a nd t hu s b ecam e b i l ingua l a s w e l l a b i cu l tu ra l . A s ar e su l t o f t h e i r b i l ingua l i sm a nd b i cu l tu r i sm a n ew h yb r id l a nguage a nd c u l tu r e w e re c r ea ted i n t h e p roce s s o f c onve rgence b e tw een t h eA ryan sa nd t h en on -A ryan e l i te s .

f o rm o f d i r ec t c on t ro l o ve r t h e s u rp lu s a nd o n p r ima ry p rodu ce r w h ich c on sequen t ly l e d t o a g r ea te r c oncen t ra t ion o fw ea l th a nd p owe r i nt h e i r h and s c r ea t ing g r ea te r s oc ia l d i f f e r en t ia t ion b a sed o n a n u n equa l d i s t r ibu t ion o f s u rp lu s . T he P o s t Mau ryan p e r iod t hu s s aw t h e e m e rgence o f l c oa l r u l ing c l a s s a nd ' s oc ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion w i th f unc t iona lh i e ra rchy ' ( Senev i ra tne 1 981) H ow eve r , t h e H a th igumpha i n sc r ip t ion ( l ine e l even ) ( Ba rua 1 929 : 4 59 -85 ; J aya swa l a nd B ane r jee 1 929 -30 ) i mp l ie s t h e e x i s tence o f r u l ing c h ief s i nK a l inga p r io r t ot h e Maham eghavahana s . T he c on so l ida t ion o ft h e r u l ing c h ief s w i th g r ea te r c on t ro l o ve r t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fs u rp lu s a nd m ean s o f p roduc t ion a nd p r ima ry p roduce r l e d t o t h e f o rm a t ion o fs t a te si nt h eP o s t - Mau ryan p e r iod . T he f i r s t i n s t i tu t iona l i sed k ing sh ip w i th n o r th I nd ian i nf luence i n h i e ra r ch ica l f unc t iona r ies , S an sk r i t ic e p i th e t s a nd c e r emon ie s e m e rged i n c oa s ta l O r is sa w i th K ha rave la a nd t h e Maham eghavahana r u le . B u t t h e n a tu r e o f p owe r s t ru c tu re a nd a u tho r i ty d esc r ibed i n H a th igumpha i n sc r ip t ion i n d ica te s a n e a r ly s t age o f S t a te f o rma t ion w i th i t s r ud im en ta ry a dm in i s t ra t ive s y s tem , v ague ly d ef ined t e r r i to ry a nd c en t r e o f g ove rnm en t , a nd a n i d eo logy b a sed o n t h e c oncep t o f r e c ip roc i ty ( Sahu 2 000 ) . I n t h e P o s t -Kha rave la p e r iod s p r ead o fu rban i sa t ion , i n f luence o fA ryan c u l tu re f r om n o r th , c ommod i ty p roduc t ion , mone t i sa t ion o f e xchange , e x ten s ive t r ad ing a nd a g r icu l tu r a l a c t iv i ty c r ea ted t h e e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l p l a tf o rm f o r t h e c on so l ida t ion o f t h e l o ca l r u l ing c l a s s ; a nd i nc on sequence an umbe r o f l o ca l s ub r eg iona l k ingdom s a nd f o r e s t p r inc ipa l i t ie s c am e i n to e x i s tence i nc oa s ta l O r i s sa i n t h e G up ta a nd P o s t -Gup ta p e r iod w ho w e r e e i the r i n dependen t o r o n ly t empo ra r i ly a nd n om ina l ly s ub juga ted b y mo r e p owe r fu l ' f o r e ign ' r u le r s . T he se l o ca l a nd s ub r eg iona l p owe r s d ec la red t h em se lve s H indu r a jas b y i s su ing l a ndg ran t s t oB rahm in s a nd b y f o l low ing t h e r o le mode l o f t h e i r o ve r lo rd s i n t h e i r p o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion a s w e l l a s p e r sona l a nd c ou r t l i f e . T hey a l so w iped o u t a l l s i gn s o f t h e i r p robab le a l leg iance t o t h e a bo r ig ina l s oc ie ty t o s u ch a n e x ten t t h a t i n mo s t c a se s t h e r e i sn o th ing t op o in t o u tt ot h e i ra bo r ig ina l o r ig in . R eco rd s o fl a ndg r an t s t o r e l ig iou s e s tab l i shm en t s c an b e t r aced b ack t o 3 rd c en tu ry AD ( Bhad rak s t one i n sc r ip t ion ) w he r ea s l a ndg ran t s t oB rahm in s s t a r ted o n ly i n4 th c en tu ry AD a s s e en i n t h e K o ra sanda g r an t o f V i shakhava rman o f Ma tha ra d yna s ty ( R a jagu ru

I ti sn o tp o s s ib le t os ay a tt h a tp o in to fd eve lopm en t e xac t ly w ha t l a nguage p eop le s pok e i n . B u t i ti s p o s s ib le t h a t t h i s w a s t h e p e r iod w hen Magadh i P rak r i t w a s s l ow ly c hang ing i n to a pabhram sa wh ich h oweve rr e g i s te red t h e d om inance o fA ryan l a nguage i nt h ec onve rgence p a t ter n . I mpac t o f Mau ryan a dm in i s t ra t ion o n t h e i n d igenou s s oc ie ty s t a r ted t h e p roce s s o f d i s in teg ra t ion a nd i n ter na l t r an sf o rm a t ion o f t h e i n d igenou s ' r ank ' s oc ie ty t o a s t r a t if i ed c l a s s s oc ie ty wh ich u l t im a te ly l e d t ot h e s t a te f o rma t ion i n c oa s ta l O r i s sa ( Senev i ra tn e 1 981) . T he s pec ia l e d ic t s o f A soka g i ve a n i d ea o f t h e v e r t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l e xpan s ion o f f unc t iona r ie s a nd c en t r a l i sed p owe r s t ruc tu r e . F rom t h a t i ta ppea r s t h a t t h e l o ca l c h ief t a in s , o pe r a t ing a tt h e e nd o ft h e h or izon ta l c ha in o f f unc t iona r ie s , p l ayed ac r uc ia l r o le i nd i r ec t ing t h e s u rp lu s f r om t h e l o ca l u n i t s t o t h e Me t ropo l i s v i at h ep rov in c ia l g ove rnm en t . T h i s a s soc ia t ion o fl o ca l c h ief ta in s i nt h e A ryan p owe r s t ruc tu re s t a r ted t h e p roce s s o f S an sk r i t i sa t ion /A ryan i sa t ion o ft h e l o ca l e l i te s a nd t h e i r f am i l ie s w ho i n t h e l o ng r un e s tab l i sh ed a s oc ia l d i s t inc t ion e spec ia l ly f r om t h e a g r icu l tu r a l a nd a r t i san g roup s a nd i nt h e c ou r se c on so l ida ted t h e i r p o s i t ion a s an on -p roduc ing c l a s s a nd r a i sed t h em se lve s u p i n t h e h o r izon ta l h i e ra r chy . T he i r p o s i t ion a s a v i ta l l i nk b e tween t h e p r ima ry p roduce r a nd t h e Me t ropo l i ton S t a te m ay h ave p rov ided t h e e a r l ie s t o ppo r tun i ty t oe s tab l ish s om e

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1 958 : 1 3 ) T he r eaf te r B rahm in s e t t lem en t s c on t inued t o mu l t ip ly i nc oa s ta lr e g ion .

o u t v arna f unc t ion s a nd o bey ing t h e k i ng ) a nd c u l tu r e a nd t h u s t o f a c i l i ta te t h e s ubo rd ina t ion o f p ea san t ry . i i ) t os p r ead t h e k now ledge o fp l ough c u l tu r e a nd l i ve s tock m anagem en t a mong t h e a bo r ig ina l p opu la t ion , t hu s t o f a c i l i ta te t h e p rog r e s s o f b ackwa rd ` sw idden ' c u l t iva to r s t o t h e m o r e p roduc t ive s t age o fp l ough -ba sed a g r icu l tu r e .

H oweve r , t h e e m e rgence o fr u l ing c l a s s o u t o ft h e l o ca l a bo r ig ina l b a se s t a r ted l i t t le l a te r i n t h e m oun ta inou s t r ac t s o f w es te rn a nd s ou thwe s ter n O r i s sa . T h i s l a te d eve lopm en t i sp robab ly b ecau se o f t h e s l ow a nd l o ca l ised s p r ead o f u rban i sa t ion a nd A ryan s oc io -po l i t ica l i d ea s i nt h is p a r t o ft h e c oun t ry . A b sence o fd i r ec t c on t ro l o fa ny d om inan t H indu s t a te a s w e l l a s t h e r e s t r ic ted e xpan s ion o f t h e p roduc t ion o f s u rp lu s d ue t o d i sadvan tageou s g eog raph ica l f a c to r s a ppea r t o b e o t he r c au se s o f t h e l a te d eve lopm en t o f t h e p roce s s o f i n ter n a l t r an sf o rma t ion o f t h e c h ief dom s o c ie ty t o ac l a s s s oc ie ty w i th b r eak ing u po ft h e i n d igenou s mode o f p roduc t ion .

T hu st h e B rahm in s , a sa gen t s o ft h e k i ng , h e lped t o c r ea te t h e e conom ic c ond i t ion s f o r t h e e nhanced p roduc t ion o f s u rp lu s a s w e l l a s t h e i d eo log ica l c ond i t ion s f o r t h e a pp rop r ia t ion o f s u rp lu s b y t h e n ew ly e m e rged e l i te a nd i n d o ing s o t h ey a l so f o r ced t h e p ace o f t r an sf o rm a t ion o f t h e h i the r to a bo r ig ina l s o c ie t ie s t h rough a ccu l tu ra t ion a nd p ea san t i sa t ion . T he l a rge n umbe r o f l a ndg ran t s i s sued i n c oa s ta l O r i s sa i n5 t h -6 th c en tu ry AD , t hu s i n d ica te al a rge s c a le a g ra r ian e xpan s ion , s p r ead o f B rahm an ic c u l tu r e , c y s ta l i sa t ion o f c l a s s s oc ie ty w i th d eve lop ing f e uda l c ha rac t e r a nd a g r ea te r c onve rgence b e tween A ryan a nd n on -A ryan c u l tu r e s r e su l t ing i n ac hang ing s o c io -econom ic m i l ieu . Whe r ea s e m e rgence o fo n ly t wo k i ngdom s w i th o n ly af ew l a ndg ran t c ha r te r sa nd a ni mma tu r e s o c io -po l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion i nt h e v a s t h i l ly t r ac t s o fw e s ter na nd s ou thwe s ter nO r i s sa a ga in s ugge s ta s l ow a nd r e s t r ic ted p ace o f t h e t r an sf o rm a t ion o f t h e a bo r ig ina l s oc ie ty . B u t i n t h i s p e r iod , l a ndg ran t s w e r e i s sued o n ly b y t h e r u l ing f am i l ie s , a nd t h e r e i sn or e co rd o fp r iva te l a ndg r an t ; i ti st hu s o bv iou s t h a t p r iva te o wne r sh ip o f l a nd h ad n o t e m e rged y e t . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e k i ng h ad r e ta in ed a b so lu te c on t ro l o ve r l a nd , w a te r a nd f o r e s t . T he l im i ted n umbe r o f t a xes , f e uda l t i le s , V ed ic s a c r if ice sa nd r i tua l s a nd a bove a l l s i l ence o n t h e e x i s tence o fc a s te s y s tem n o d oub t i n d ica te t h e f o rma t ive s t age o ft h e s o c ia l e vo lu t ion f r om t r iba l t of e uda lo rde r .

H oweve r , f r om t h e m en t ion o f t h e v anqu i shed r u le r s a nd t e r r i to r ie s i nK a l inga a nd K osa la i nt h e A l lahabad P i l la r I n sc r ip t ion , i ta ppea r s t h a t , o n t h e e ve o f t h e S amud ragup ta 's s ou ther n c ampa ign , s om e o ft h e a bo r ig ina l c h ief s o f t h e moun ta inou s t r ac t s c ou ld r e ach t h e s t age o f P ro to -S ta te f o rma t ion r e su l t ing o bv iou s ly f r om t h e d i r ec t c on t ro l o n t h e m ean s o fp roduc t ion a nd l a bou r b y t h e r u l ing c l a s s . I ti so n ly a f t e r t h e s pe l l o fG up ta c ampa ign , t h a t af ew o ft h e r u l ing c h ief s e me rged a s l o ca l a nd s ub r eg iona l H indu k i ngdom b u i lde r s f o l low ing t h er o le mode l o ft h e f e uda lp o l i t ica l a nd s o c ia l f o rma t ion o f t h e G up ta e mp i r e . T hu s t h e N a la s i n K o r apu t -Ba s ta r r e g ion a nd t h e E a s ter n G anga s i n K a l inga r o se t o p owe r i n t h e 5 t h -6 th c en tu ry AD a nd i s sued l a ndg ran t s i m i ta t ing t h e G up ta r u le r s . T he l a ndg ran t s t oB rahm in s i n mo s t c a se s a c ted a s av eh ic le f o r s e t t ing i n mo t ion t h e p roce ss o f i n co rpo ra t ion o fa bo r ig ina l s o c ie t ie s i n to v arna l ja t i d i f f e r en t ia ted H indu s oc ie ty . I t i n vo lved i n co rpo ra t ion o f t h e s e lec t ive a bo r ig ina l p owe r s i n to t h er ank o ft h eK sha t r iya sa nd , i nr a r e c a ses , o f t h e B r ahm in s a nd m a s s r e lega t ion o ft h e r e s t o ft h e p opu la t ion t o t h e r ank o f t h e s u rp lu s p roduc ing S ud ra s . I n t h i s s chem e , t h e i mm ig r an t B rahm in s p l ayed a c r uc ia l r o le i n t h e c on so l ida t ion o f t h e n ew ly e m e rged k i ngdom s , wh ich w e r e—

A f u l l f ledged f e uda l s o c ie ty w i th a l l i t s c ha rac ter i s t ic f e a tu r e s d eve loped i n t h e E a r ly Med ieva l P e r iod w i th t h e e me rgen ce o f as e r ie s o f r e g iona l , s ub r eg iona l a nd l o ca l k i ngdom s i n d i f f e r en tp ocke t s , e ach o ft h em i s su ing an umbe ro f l a ndg r an t s . Mo s t o f t h e se p owe r s c an b e t r aced b ack t o t h e i r a bo r ig ina l o r ig in . T h i s e v iden t ly p o in t s o u t t h a t t h e p roce s s o f t r an s i t ion o f t r iba l s o c ie t ie s i n to v arna/ ja t i d i f f e r en t ia ted s o c ie ty o f e a r ly H indu i sm g a ined mom en tum i n t h e E a r ly Med ieva l P e r iod . Ac l u tch o fi d en t if iab le u pwa rd ly m ob i le a bo r ig ina l c h ief s a nd t h e l i neage s i nw h ich

i )t o h e lp t h e a bo r ig ina l k ing t o s t r eng then h i s c l a im f o r H indu s t a tu s a nd l e g i t im acy b y w r i t ing f i c t i t iou s g en ea log ie s a nd o rgan iz ing i mp r es s ive V ed ic s a c r if ice sa nd H indu r e l ig iou sc e r emon ie s . i ) t o s p r ead , w i th t h e h e lp o ft h e H indu i sed k i ng , B rahman ica l i d eo logy ( i . e . s a c r ed d u ty o fc a r ry ing

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t h ey b e longed , s e em ed t o h ave a c ted a s p r inc ipa l a g enc ies o ft h i s t r an sf o rma t ion . T he k ing s n eeded m i l i ta ry s uppo r ta nd l o ya l ty o ft h ec h ief f o ri n ter n a l s e cu r i ty o ft h e k ingdom a s w e l l a st od ef end t h e i r k i ngdom s a ga in s t o u t s ide a t tack . T he s t r eng th o f a bo r ig ina l p owe r o f ten e nhanced t h e i r p e r sona l p owe r i n t h e p o l i t ica l h i e ra r chy . Mo reove r , t h is a l so h e lped t h e k ing s t o a pp rop r ia te a g r icu l tu ra l s u rp lu s t h rough t h e a bo r ig ina l c h ief f r om h i s l a nd ; ak i ng a l so c ou ld c on s ide rab ly e x tend h i s w ea l th a nd h i s l a nded p roper ty t h rough r a id s . L andg ran t s t oB rahm in s o rt oo the rH indu s i na bo r ig ina l l a nd s w e r et hu st h ew ay t oi n i t ia te t h ep roce s so fb u i ld ing t h e se a genc ie s . I ndoc t r ina t ion t o t h e r ank o f K sha t r iya s a nd S ud ra s t hu s p l an ted t h e s e ed o f s o c ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion i n a bo r ig ina l s oc ie ty . T he c h ief s w ho w e r e g iven m i l i ta ry d u t ie s b yt h e k ing s a l so f ound t h e i d eo logy o fB rahman ica l H indu i sm a n e x t r em e ly u sef u l m ean s o f c r ea t ing a c l a s s b a sed e l i te o u t o f t h e i r l a rge ly u nd if f e ren t ia ted s o c ie t ie s . I tw a s t h e B r ahman ica l i d eo logy wh ich l e g i t im i sed t h e i r p owe r a nd c on t ro l o v e r s u rp lu s a nd p r ima ry p roduce r s . T he c on t rad ic t ion b e tween a bo r ig ina l f o lk s oc ie ty a nd B rahman ica l S t a te s o c ie ty w a s t hu s r e so lved b y t h e c omb ina t ion o f c on sen t a nd c oe r c ion . H oweve r , t h i s t r an s i t ion f r om t h e a bo r ig ina l t o t h e f e uda l mode o f p roduc t ion f a c i l i ta ted t h e p rog r e s s ive a b so rp t ion o f t h e a bo r ig ina l c ommu n i t ies i n to a n e ve r e xpand ing H indu s oc ie ty . And t h e e m e rgence o ft h ea bo r ig ina l c h ief s a sH indu k ingdom b u i lde r s s ymbo l ised t h e i r i n co rpo ra t ion a nd i n teg ra t ion , o f c ou r se t h rough S an sk r i t i sa t ion , i n to t h e B rahman ica l H indu r u l ing c l a s s . I n E a r ly Med ieva l O r i s sa l a rge n umbe r o f l a ndg ran t s m ade i nt h e f o r e s t -c lad h i l ly h in te r land s t hu sl e dt ot h ec on t inuou s f o rma t ion o f an umbe ro f l o ca l p r inc ipa l i t ie s , s ub r eg iona l a nd r eg iona l k i ngdom s t i l l t h e u n if ica t ion o f O r i s sa u nd e r t h e G anga s i n 1 2 th c en tu ry AD . As t udy o ft h e r oya l l a nd d ona t ion s t oB rahm in s i nt h e E a r ly a nd E a r ly Med ieva l O r i s sa r evea l s t h a t t h e e a r ly d ona t ion s w e r e u sua l ly g r an ted t o t h e f am i l ie s o f t h e r oya l p r ie s t sa tt h ec en t ra l c ou r t s ( Ra jaguru s , e t c . ) a nd t o i n d iv idua l s a nd s ma l l g roup s o fB rahm in s i nq u i te r emo te p l ace s a nd t h i s p henom enon c an b e n o t iced t i l l t h e e nd o ft h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD ( Ku lk e 1 978 : 1 33 ) .

o rgan i sa t ion o fd i f f e r en t c a s te g roup s w i th s pec if ic o ccupa t iona l i d en t i ty c r y s ta l i sed o n ly i n 1 -12 th c en tu ry AD . B ef o r e t h a t p u r su i t o f a ccumu la t ion c omb ined w i th h e r ed i ta ry r i gh t o n p rope r ty a nd p r iv i lege i n t h e f euda l s oc ia l s t ru c tu r e n a tu ra l ly g ave r i se t o an umbe r o f c a s te s a nd s ub -ca s te s ; t h ough p ra t i loma a nd a nu loma m a r r iage s mu s t h ave w o rked a s as e conda ry f a c to r . H oweve r , o w ing t os t rong a d iva s i l e gacy s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion d i d n o t m an if e s t a ny m a rked r i g id i ty a tt h e l e ve l s o fw o rk , m a r r iage a nd s oc ia l i n te r cou r se b a sed o n p u r i ty -po l lu t ion . T he r e w a s s om e r oom f o r mob i l i ty a c ros s t h e v arna h i e ra r chy a si ti se v iden t f r om t h e r i se o ft h e K sha t r iya /K handaya t a sw e l l a sS ud ra f r om among t h e a bo r ig ina l s . T he m en t ion o ft h e v arna samkara i nt h e i n sc r ip t ion s ( EI 1 5 : 4 ; 2 8 : 2 13 ) i s as u r e p o in te r t ot h i s c a s te mob i l i ty i n t h e s oc ie ty . T he s upe r impo sed B rahm an ica l H indu s upe r s t ruc tu re h ad t o b e l e n ien t t o t h i s f l u id c ond i t ion s o f v arna h i e ra r chy t o m a in ta in B rahman ic h egemony i nt h e s oc ie ty . T hu s w e f i nd a n i n i t ia t ive f r om t h e H indu /H indu i sed k ing s a nd B rahm in s t op a t ronage a bo r ig ina l a s w e l l a s l o ca l p opu la r d e i t ies a nd t o a s s im i la te a s soc ia ted c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s w i th l o ca l H indu c u l tu r e f o r t h e i r o wn s u rv iva l . O n t h e o t h e r h and t h e a bo r ig ina l st r i ed t or a i se t h em se lves i nt h e s oc ia l h i e ra r chy t h rough S an sk r i t i sa t ion a nd a ccu l tu ra t ion . T hu s a c on t inuou s c on t inuum b e tween t h e g r ea t t r ad i t ion ( B rahman ica l t r ad i t ion ) a nd t h e l i t t le t r ad i t ion ( f o lk t r ad i t ion ) ( R edf ie ld 1 956 ) s t a r ted w i th e s tab l i shm en t o f t h e B r ahman ica l c u l tu r e i n t h e l a nd . H oweve r , i t s hou ld b e b or n e i n m ind t h a t w hen t h e g r ea t t r ad i t ion r e ached O r i s sa i th ad a l r eady a ch ieved a l e ve l o fa s s im i la t ion w h ich moved a l ong ac ommon p a t ter n . I n o rde r t o g a in b o th v e r t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l l e g i t im acy o f t h e i r p o l i t ica l a u tho r i ty , t h e r u l ing d yna s t ie s a lway s m ade u se o f t h e a u toch thonou s d e i t ies a nd t h e o t he r p opu la r r e l ig ion s t o c on so l ida te t h e i r r u le i n t h e c onque red a r ea s . Kha rave la p a t ron i sed J a in ism , t h e p opu la r r e l ig ion o ft h e t im e i nO r is sa a nd t h e J a ina s cu lp tu r a l a r t a t Udayag i r i a nd Khandag i r i r e f lec ted a n a s s im i la t ion o f t h e g od s a nd g oddes se s o f t h e i nd igenou s a d ivas i s . T he B haumaka ra s p a t ron i sed B uddh i sm wh ich h ad t om e rge w i th t h ea ge o l dt a n t ra r e l ig ion o f t h e l a nd . T he Ma tha ra s a nd a lmo s t a l l o the r H indu /H indu i sed k ing s e s tab l i sh ed V ed ic c u l tu r e . B u t t h e p roces s o fB rahman i sa t ion g ave r i se t ot h e p opu la r i ty o fB hagava ta , S a iva a nd S ak ta c u l t s ' i n

T h i s p henom enon n o d oub t i n d i r ec t ly i n d ica te s c on t inuou s p e r iod o f l a rge s c a le i n co rpo ra t ion o f h i th e r to a bo r ig ina l c ommun i t ie s i n to H indu f o ld . T hu s , t h ough V arna shramadharma w a s s a id t o h ave b een e s tab l i shed b y t h e B haumaka ra r u le r s e ven i n t h e 8 t h c en tu ry AD , ( E I 1 5 : 1 8 )

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a n a n swe r t ot h e e t h ica l d em and a nd s p ir i t o ft h e n ew ly e m e rg ing s oc io -econom ic p a t te rn ' ( Ko samb i 1 962 : 3 1) . B hagava ta c u l t b ecam e ap owe r f u l r e l ig iou s movemen t i n S ou th I nd ia f r om t h e l a te 6 t h c en tu ry o nwa rd s . I tw a s m a in ly t h rough t h i s i mp r es s ive f o lk d evo t iona l i sm t h a t P an Ind ian B rahman ica l H indu i sm i n ac on t inuou s p roce s s o f t wo -way c ommun ica t ion c ame d own t ot h ev i l lage s a nd r u ra l c en t r es o f s ou th er n a nd s ou thwes te rn O r i s sa . V a r iou s a u toch thonou sd e i t ie s i n al o ng a nd g r adua l p roce s s o fH indu i sa t ion w e r e i n c luded i n to t h e p an theon o f b hak t i H indu i sm ( Ku lke 1 978 : 1 32 ) . T hu s i t s e em s t h a t Ma tha ra s d e l ibe ra te ly p a t ron ised B hagava ta r e l ig ion t og a in l e g i t imacy i n t h ee yes o ft h ep eop le . I ti sv e ry l i k e ly t h a t w o r sh ip o f S iva /L inga a nd S ak t i /Mo the r g odde s s i n s om e f o rm o r o t h e r w a s t h e re i nt h e i n d igeneou s s oc ie ty f r om v e ry e a r ly t ime s . T hey b ecam e o n ly mo r e p opu la ri nt h e f o rm o fH indu g od a nd g odd e s s t h a t w en t w i th t h e l a rge s c a le H indu i sa t ion o f t h e i n d igenou s p eop le . I n f a c t t h ey a r e s uppo sed t o h ave f a c i l i ta ted i n co rpo r a t ion o f a bo r ig ina l g od s a nd g odde s se s i n to H indu i sm f r om v e ry a nc ien t t im e s . H oweve r , t h e c onf ron ta t ion o f t h e g r ea t t r ad i t ion s w i th ac onge r ie s o fl o ca l l i t t le t r ad i t ion s w i th v a r iou s mo the rg odde s se s o n ly m ade T an t r i sm a nd S ak t i sm t h e s ub s t ra tum r e l ig ion o f t h e l a nd . T he f o rce a nd d om inance o fS ak t i sm w a s s o v i ta l t h a t n o o the r r e l ig ion s c ou ld e s tab l i sh t h em se lve s f i rm ly i n O r i s sa w i thou t u l t ima te ly b e ing m e rged w i th i t . T h i s a s s im i la t ion o f g r ea t a nd l i t t le t r ad i t ion s b ecame mo r e c on sp icuou s i n t h e a ccep tance o f a bo r ig ina l d e i t ie s a s f am i ly a nd t u te la ry d e i t ie s b y t h e H indu /H indu i sed k i ng s i n o rde r t o g a in s uppor t a nd l o ya l ty o ft h e p owe rf u l a bo r ig ina ls i n t h e i r r e spec t ive l a nd s . T he E a s ter n G anga s a f te r c onquer ing t h e a r ea s ou th o f Mahend rag i r i moun ta in a cknow ledged S iva G oka rna svam i , ad e i ty o f t h e S ava ra t r ibe , a nd S t ambhe sva r i w o r sh ipped b y t h e S u lk i s a nd t h e B han ja s a sf am i ly d e i t ies . H oweve r , S t ambhe swa r i w a s f i r s t p a t ron i sed b y t h e R a ja T u s t ika ra o f B oudh -Sonepu r r eg ion i n 5 t h c en tu ry AD . T he Man inage svar i c u l t w a s a l so p a t ron i sed b y t h e V ig r aha r u le r s o f t h e s ou th T o sa la ( Ku lk e 1 977 ) . H oweve r , a l l t h ese a u toch thonou s d e i t ie s u nde rwen t ap roces s o fH indu isa t ion w i th t h e r i se o f t h e i r o r ig ina l ly a bo r ig ina l p a t ron s a s H indu r u l ing p owe r . A l l t h ese g oddes se s a r e s t i l l w o r sh ipped i nt h e i r r e spec t ive a r ea s b o th b y c a s te H indu s a nd S chedu led T r ibes a nd C a s te s . I t a ppea r st h a t ' p a t ron i sa t ion o ft h eu ppe rs t ra ta o ft h e s oc ia l h i e ra r chy h e lped i nt h e u pwa rd m ob i l i ty o f t h e f o lk r e l ig iou s b e l ief s a nd t h e i r u pho lde r s

b e long ing t ot h e l owe rs t r a ta o ft h e s o c ia lh i e ra r chy t og a in p r es t ig iou ss t a tu si nt h e s o c ie ty a st h ec a s te s a nd c l a s se s c u t c r o s s e ach o t he r i n at r an s i t iona l p er iod . T h i s u pwa rd m ob i l i ty a nd t h e c on f l ic t o f c l a s se sl e dt os yn the s i s ' ( Da s 1 984 : 2 8 ) . T he r i se o fJ aganna tha c u l t a s aV a i shnava g od o u t o f aS ava ra d e i ty u nde rt h e p a t ronag e a nd i n i t ia t ive o ft h e H indu r a jas a s s im i la t ing a l e x tan t r e l ig ion s o ft h e l a nd a nd w i th a l inc lu s ive p h i lo sophy i st h e b e s t e xamp le o f t h i s s yn the s i s , wh ich i n deed r e f lec t s t h e v e ry s ou l o fO r iya l i f e a nd c u l tu r e . A l l t h e t h r ee r eg iona l p owe r s S om ava rn s i s , I mpe r ia l G anga s a nd G a japa t i s , b e ing a l ien r u le r s , s ough t t o l e g i t im i se t h e i ra u tho r i ty b yr e cogn i s ing a nd g i v ing p a t ronage t o t h e mo s t p owe rf u l a nd p opu la r l o ca l c u l t a nd i tg radua l ly a t ta ined ar e g iona l c ha r ac te rt o r e g i s te r t h e e m e rgence o f G anga a nd G a japa t i i mpe r ia l ism . W i th t h e u n if ica t ion o f w e s ter n O r is sa w i th t h e c oa s ta lp a r tu nde rt h e S omavam s i si nt h e e a r ly 1l t h c en tu ry AD , t h e p e r iod o f t h e e a r ly s ub r eg iona l S t a te f o rma t ion o f O r i s sa ' f rom b e low ' ( Ko samb i 1 956 ) c am e t oa n e nd . T h i s a l so c o inc ide s w i th t h e c r y s ta l isa t ion o fd i s t inc t c a s te g roup s a nd c hang ing p a t ter no ft h e d ona t ion o fl a nd s f r om t h e e nd o ft h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD o nwa rd s . I ta ppea r s t h a t l a rge g roup s o f s om e t im e s s eve r a l h und r ed B ra lun in s w e r e s y s tem a t ica l ly s e t t led o f t en n ea r t h e p o l i t ica l c en t r e s o ft h e K ingdom s ( Ku lk e 1 978 : 1 33 ) i nt h e p l a in s . T hu s t h e p e r iod o f l a rge s c a le , i n d i sc r im ina te d e t r iba l i sa t ion a nd H indu isa t ion g o t o ve r a nd t h e p roce s s o f u n ive r sa l i sa t ion s t a r ted w i th s t r ic t c a s te s y s tem a nd B rahman ica l h egemony . W i th t h e u n if ica t ion o fO r i s sa i n to o ne r e g iona l s t a te i n t h e 1 2 th c en tu ry AD u nde r t h e G anga k ing C hodagangadeva t h i s p roce s s g o t momen tum a nd t h e o ve ra r ch ing p owe ra nd p r e s t ige o fB rahm in sr e ached i t sc u lm ina t ion i nt h e G a japa t i r u le . H oweve r , t h e v a lue s y s tem o fr e l ig iou s i n s t i tu t ion s a lway s a c ted a s ac a ta ly t ic a gen tt ot h ed ynam ic so f c hange i nv eh ic le s o fe xp r e s s ion ( Da s 1 984 : 3 1 ) i . e . l a nguage c hange t h rough l i t e ra ry e xp r e s s ion s . T hu s t h e e vo lu t ion o fP ro to -O r iya f r om Magadh i P rak r i t t h rough a pabhramsa b y t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry AD a nd t h e f o rma t ion o f O r iya ( w i th f e a tu r es o f D rav id ian /Te lugu l a nguage ) a s a n I ndo -A ryan l a nguage i n t h e 1 th c en tu ry AD w e r e s yn ch ron i sed w i th t h e s o c io r e l ig iou s c hange s i n t h e r e g ion . I ti so n ly a f t e r t h e B r ahman i sa t ion o f J aganna tha c u l t a nd a s soc ia ted r i tua l s w i th t h e

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a ppo in tm en t o fp u re B rahm in p r ie s t s ( o fc ou r se i n d e mand o ft h e t im e ) i nt h e l a te 1 3 th c en tu ry AD ( Da sh 1 978 : 1 63 ) , g enu ine O r iya , a k in t o moder n c o l loqu ia l O r iya , e vo lved f r om i t s e a r l ie r d i a lec ta l f o rm i n 1 4 th c en tu ry AD . I ts hou ld b e m en t ioned h e r e t h a t u p t o 1 3 th c en tu ry AD . J aganna tha c u l t w a s w o r sh ipped b y t h e o r ig ina l ly n on -B rahm in p r ie s t s w ho se p ow e r a nd p o s i t ion c o r r e sponded w i th t h a to ft h ed e i ty t h ey w o r sh ipped ( Da sh 1 978 ) .

P a ramoun t k ing . T he S t a te d e i ty c u l t a l so w a s i n t roduced t ot h e i rk ingdom s wh ich v e ry o f t en w a s s upe r imposed o n t h e p r eva i l ing t u te la ry d e i ty o fa H indu i sed a u toch thonou s c u l t . W i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o f S t a te c u l t , c a s te d u t ie s w e re a l so i n ve s ted w i th r i tua l v a lue s . E ven , t oj udge o n c a s te m a t te r s P and i t S abha o f s ome s o r t f o l low ing t h e Muk t i Mandap S abha ( Sup r em e C ounc i l o f B rahm in s cho la r s ) o f J aganna tha t emp le i n P u r i w a s a l so i n t roduced . H ow eve r , r i tua l s e rv ices i n t h e se t emp le s w e r e n o t s o e l abo ra te o r d i f f e ren t ia ted a si nt h e S t a te c u l t t hough t h e r e w a s c l o se r e semb lance . A tt h e v i l lage l e ve lt emp le st h i s e l abo r a t ion o f c a s te s e rv ice d ec r ea sed p rog r es s ive ly t h ough i nr i tua l c ha rac te r t h e mode l o ft h e S t a te c u l tw a sr e ta ined ( Mahapa t ra 1 976 ) .

I t a ppea r s , b y t h e 1 5 th c en tu ry AD t h e g r ea t t r ad i t ion s e emed t o h ave t r an sf o rm ed i n to a n i d en t if iab le r eg iona l g r ea t t r ad i t ion , i nt h e p roce s s o f c on t inuou s c oe r c ion a nd c ohe s ion w i th v a r iou s l o ca ll i t t le t r ad i t ion s , wh ich f ound e xp r es s ion i nt h e f o rma t ion o f J aganna tha t r iad a nd i n t h e d eve lopm en t o f v e rnacu la r l i t e ra tu r e c omp r i s ing Mahabhara ta , R amayana , B hagava ta , H ar ivamsa a nd P urana s , r e -w r i t ten mo s t ly b y t h e n on B rahm in p oe t s a nd l i t e ra tu r e s i n t h e 1 5 th 16 th c en tu ry .

E s tab l i shm en t o f t h i s c en t ra l ised r i tua l s t ruc tu r e f r om t h e G anga p e r iod o nwa rd s , h oweve r , h ad h e lped i n t h e p e rco la t ion o f t h e g r ea t r eg iona l t r ad i t ion i n to t h e v i l lage l e ve l s i nd i f f e r en t p a r t s o f O r i s sa , w h ich , i n t h e c ommon p roce s s , s t a r ted c onve r t ing t h e l o ca l l i t t le t r ad i t ion s i n to i t s " c iv i l i sed d im en s ion s" ( R edf i e ld a nd S inge r 1 956 : 1 68 ) a nd a c ted a s av eh ic le f o r t h e f o rma t ion o f c ommon c u l tu ra l c on sc iou sne s s f r om w h ich t h e g r ea t r e g iona l t r ad i t ion w a s f a sh ioned ( R edf ie ld a nd S inge r 1 956 : 1 86 ) T h i s i n teg ra t ion a nd mive r sa l i sa t ion i ndeed h e lped i nt h e d eve lopm en t o fO r iya N a t iona l i sm i nt h e C o lon ia lP e r iod .

T he G anga r u le r s e s tab l i sh ed o ve r lo rd -f euda to ry r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e L o rd J aganna tha i n o rde r t o h ave v er t ica l a nd h o r izon ta l l e g i t im i sa t ion a nd c on t ro l o ve r d i f f e r en t p owe rfu l f e uda to r ie s h av ing i n d iv idua l c u l tu ra l a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l s e t -up . T he G a japa t i s a nd t h e r eaf t e r t h e r a jas o f K hu rda a l so f o l lowed t h is p o l icy . I n t h i s o ve r lo rd -f euda to ry s chem e , L o rd J aganna tha w a s t h e p ro tec to r a nd s ove r e ign o fO r i s sa a nd t h eP a ramoun tr a ja w a sh i s d epu ty o r s on ; t hu s r a ja h im se lf w a s c once ived a s mob i le g od b e ing t h e d e scendan t o f t h e L o rd J aganna tha . A s s uch t h e r a ja i nt h e p a lace a nd t h e g od i nt h e t emp le u nderwen t s im i la r d a i ly r i tua l s . T hough n o t i n a b so lu te c on f o rm i ty , b a s ica l ly t h e s am e c o mponen t o f c a s te s r ende r ed mo r e o r l e s s s im i la r s e cu la r a nd r i tua l s e rv ice s i nt h e t emp le a s w e l la si nt h ep a lace ( Pa tna ik 1 970 ) . B ecau se t h e se s e rv ice s w e r e p e rf o rm ed f o r d i v in i t ie s , w he the r i n t emp le o r p a lace , c a s te d u t ie s a cqu i r ed t h e c ha r ac te r i s t ic s o f r i tua l o b l iga t ion s . T hu s Mahapa t ra ( 1976 ) o p ine s t h a t c a s te s y s tem i n O r i s sa b egan t ob e w e l l d i f f e r en t ia ted a cco rd ing t o t h e i r r i gh t s a nd d u t ies a s w e l l a s h i e ra r ch ica l r e la t ive p o s i t ion si nt h e S t a te d e i ty 's t emp le a nd t h e k ing 's p a lace , wh ich , h oweve r , p r esen t c l o se p a r a l le l s w i th t h a t o f t h e L inga ra j t emp le o f B hubane swa r . I n t h e ' c en t ra l i sed r i tua l s t ruc tu r e ' ( Ku Ike 1 978 : 1 35 ) o f t h e r e g iona l k i ngdom s t h e f e uda to ry k ing s , a f t e r t h e mode l o f t h e k ing o f O r i s sa , c l a im ed t oh ave d iv ine o r ig in t ol e g i t im i se t h em se lve s i nt h e i r r e spec t ive k i ngdom s , a nd t h ey w e r e c once ived a sm ino r g od s i nt h e i mage o ft h e

B u tt h e g eog raph ica l l o ca t ion o fm any o ft h e s ma l l l o ca l p r inc ipa l i t ie s i n t h e f o r es t -c lad , h i l ly h in te r land w a sr e spon s ib le f o rt h e f a c tt h a tn o te ven t h e mo s t p owe rfu l k ingdom s e ve r s u cceeded i n b r ing ing m any o f t h em t o ta l ly o r p e rm anen t ly u nde r t h e i r c on t ro l , e ven w hen t h ey w e r e n ea r t h e c ap i ta l s o ft h e k ingdom s . I nO r i s sa , t h e r ef o r e , f o ra l ong t im e , t h e i nf luence a nd c on t ro l o f C en t ra l P owe r w a s m a rg ina l o n t h ese j ung le k indgom s . B e ing p o l i t ica l ly a u tonomou s e n t i t ie s , n a tu ra l ly t h ey b ehaved a s e conom ica l ly a nd s oc ia l ly a u tonomou su n i t s . S tudy o nt h e e x -p r inc ipa l i t ie s o f t h e1 8 th c en tu ry ( Mahapa t r a 1 984 ) r evea l s t h a t t h e se p r inc ipa l i t ie s a nd z am indar ie s r e p r esen ted e xc lu s ive s oc ia l g roup ing s w i th s l igh t ly d i s t inc t ive c a s te h i e ra rch ies a nd p a t te rn so fi n te rac t ion s among c a s tes , wh ich m igh t d ev ia te n o t o n ly f r om t h e n e ighbou r ing r eg ion , b u t a l so f r om t h e r egu la t ion s a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f t h e S a s t ra s . T hough i n o ve ra l l f e a tu r e s o fc a s te s y s tem ( c a s te i n te rac t ion s , s t a tu s e qu iva lence a nd h i e ra r chy ) , p o l i t ica l s e t -up a nd r i tua l o rgan i sa t ion t h ey f o l lowed m o r e o r l e s s ( no t a n a b so lu te r e p l ica ) t h e mode l e vo lved a tt h e

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I n t h i s c hang ing s i tua t ion , u nde r s tand ing t h e e conom ic a nd s o c ia lp r es su r e o nt h e s ub jec t s , m any r a jas s howed a p ragm a t ic a t i tude t owa rd s c a s te d i spu te s a nd h av ing t h e s up r em e p owe r i n c a s te m a t te r s w i th in t h e i r l o ca l i ty , t h ey o f ten p l ayed a p a radox ica l r o le o ft h e p r ese rve r o fa s w e l l a st h e c a ta ly t ic a gen t f o r c hange i n c a s te o rde r w i th in t h e i ra r ea o fc on t ro l .

p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s c en t r e s o ft h e S t a te . Mo s t o f t h ese p r ince ly h ou ses a nd z am indar i s a r e a leged t o h ave K hond /Gond o r o t he r a bo r ig ina l b l ood o r f o s te rp a r en tage b u tt h ey a l l c l a im ed aK sha t r iya o r R a jpu t o r ig in . Mo s t o ft h em e i the r r o se t o p owe r f r om t h e l o ca l d om inan t a bo r ig ina l g roup o r w i th t h e i r s uppo r t . T he i r v i ta l d ependence u pon t h e s uppo r t o f v a r iou s a bo r ig ina l g roup s c an b e u nde r s tood f r om t h e i mpo r tan t r o le p l ayed b y o ne o r t h e o t he r a bo r ig ina l g roup s i n t h e c o rona t ion c e remony o f t h e r a jas a nd i n t h e o t he r r oya l f e s t iv i t ie s i n t h ese H indu e x -s ta te s ( Mahapa t ra 1 987 ) .

Mo r eove r , t h e se r a jas w e r e a l so i n t s t rumen ta l i n i n teg ra t ing a bo r ig ina l t r ad i t ion s w i th h i ghe r t r ad i t ion t h rough ap roce s s o fu n ive r sa l i sa t ion . A l l t h e se H indu /H indu i sed r a ja s p a t ron i sed p owe rfu l c u l t s o fm ino rg od s a nd g odde s se s o ft h e d om inan t t r ibe s o f t h e a r ea ; e ven t h ey i n t roduced t h ese d e i t ie s i nt h e i r p a lace a nd w o r sh ipped t h em a l ong w i th t r ad i t iona l H indu g od s a nd g oddes se s . I n mo s t c a ses t h e I s tad eva ta o f t h e r a jas a nd t h e R a s t rad eva ta o f t h e p r inc ipa l i t ie s w e r e a bo r ig ina l H indua i sed d e i t ie s . S uch e xamp le s a r e n o t r a r e i n G an ja m , K heon jha r , B ona i a nd Mayu rbhan j ( Schnepe l 2 002 : 2 31 ; Mahapa t ra 1 987 : 4 1) . I n S amba lpu r a l so C hauhan r a jas h ad a dop ted t h e t r iba l g odde ss S am a la i a s s t a te d e i ty w h ich w a s a c tua l ly t h eI s tad eva ta o ft h e S aba ra t r ibe . I nt h e se r e g ion s s p read o f J agannaha c u l t w i th e s tab l i shed t emp le sw a s al a te rd eve lopm en t .

H oweve r , t h e se r a ja s , H indu o r H indu i sed , o f ten p l ayed a v i ta l r o le i n i n teg r a t ing t h e a bo r ig ina l p eop le i n t h e c a s te s y s tem a nd h e lped t o u n ive r sa l i se s ome l o ca l t r ad i t ion s c en t r ing a r ound l o ca l g od s a nd c u l t s . T hu s a lmo s t a l l t h e se r a ja s s pon so r ed t h e s e t t lem en t o f B r ahm in s a nd o t he r h i gh c a s te s , a r t isan c a s te s , s e rv ice c a s te s b e s ide s a g r icu l tu ra l a nd w a r r io r c a s tes f o r a g r icu l tu ra l , i ndu s t r ia l , c omm e r c ia l a nd r e l ig io -cu l tu ra l p romo t ion a nd d eve lopm en t o f t h e d ef ence c apac i t ie s o ft h e p r ince ly s t a te s ( Mahapa t ra 1 987 ) . H oweve r , i n du c t ion o f H indu c a s te , a nd s pec ia l ly B rahm in p r ie s t sw a sn ece s sa ry t oe s tab l ish aH indu s t a te a nd t ol e g i t im ise t h e i rK sha t r iya /Ra jpu ts t a tu s . T he l a rge s c a le i mpor t o f H indu p opu la t ion n o d oub t a l so m ean s i n t roduc t ion o f H indu g od s , r i tua l s , f e s t iva l s , i d ea s , b e l ief s a nd v a lue s ( S inha 1 958 ) b e s ide s a f f ec t ing i n ter n a l s t ra t if i ca t ion o ft h e a bo r ig ina l s b a sed o n g r ade s o f a s s im i la t ion i n to h i ghe r H indu c a s te c u l tu re a nd o n i n te rac t ion w i th h i ghe r H indu c a s te s ( S inha 1 962 ) . S om e o f t h e n or ther n e x s ta te s h ad a l so s pon so r ed t h e i mm ig ra t ion a nd s e t t lem en t o f m any a bo r ig ina l g roup s( l ik eH o , Munda , S an ta l , K ha r ia , O raon a nd K u rm i ) f r om B iha r f o r a g r icu l tu ra l d eve lopm en t , e x ten s ion o fi mp roved a g r icu l tu ra l p r ac t ice s t ot h e r e s iden t a bo r ig ina l s a nd f o rg ene ra l i n c r ea se i nt h e s t a te r evenue . S im i la r ly , t h e h i gh ly p rof ic ien t c u l t iva to r c a s te s o f w e s ter n O r i s sa , K u l ta a nd A ga r ia w e r ea l so s pon so r ed b y s om ep r ince ly s t a te s ( Mahapa t ra 1 987 ) . H oweve r , a l t h ese d eve lopm en t s i nt h e Med ieva l a nd C o lon ia lp er iod s s hou ld b e v i ewed i nt h eb ackg round o ft h ep o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic c hange s t a k ing p l ace i nt h e s oc ie ty . T he r u l ing c l a s s l o s ing t h e i rp o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r w e r e g e t t ing d e spe r a te t o i mp rove t h e i r e conom ic a nd s oc ia l p o s i t ion s w he r ea s i n secu r i ty a nd u nce r ta in ty i n c ommon p eop le 's l i f e l e d t o l a rge s c a le m ig ra t ion a nd e conom ic a nd s oc ia l mob i l i ty .

A ccep tance o f a bor ig ina l g od s a nd g odde s se s a nd r e la ted r i tua l s b y t h e H indu r a jas t o w oo t h e d om inan t a bo r ig ina l s ub jec t s i mp l ie s a ga in t h e i r g r adua l a dm i s s ion i n to al a rge rH indu s oc ie ty w i th c on sequen t p roce s s o fH indu i sa t ion o ft h e d e i ty a s w e l l a st h e i r o r ig ina l w o r sh ippe r s . B u t t h i s p roce s s o f H indu isa t ion o f t h e a u toch thonou s d e i ty i s u l t ima te ly l i nk ed w i th t h e p roces s o f t r iba l isa t ion a st r an sf o rma t ion o fa n a bo r ig ina l d e i ty t o aH indu d e i ty d oes n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ean a dd i t ion o f S an sk r i t ik e l emen t s a nd r e p lacemen t o f t r iba l e l em en t s o r v i ce -ve r sa , r a the r i t m ean s a h a rmon iou s c o -ex is ten ce o fb o th a bo r ig ina l a sw e l l a sS an sk r i t ik e l em en t s . I n t h e se h i l ly r e g ion s w he r e H indu O r iya s w e re i mm ig ran t s a nd m ino r i ty , p roce s s o f t r iba l i sa t ion w a s o n ly n a tu ra l a nd e s sen t ia l w h ich a i ded t h em t o e n joy t h e c onf iden ce o f t h e a bor ig ina ls a nd s e ek t h e i rc o -ope ra t ion i ns e t t lem en t s . A ccu l tu ra t ion a nd i n co rpo ra t ion o fa na bo r ig ina l g r oup i n to t h eH indu s o c ie ty a l so d oe s n o t n ece sa r i ly m ean a c omp le te r e p lacem en t o ft h e i r c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s i n f a vou r o f t h e n ew ly a dop ted c u l tu r e . I nv i ew o ft h i s , n e i the r H indu i sa t ion n o r t r iba l i sa t ion e xc lu s ive ly i sf ound t ob e h e lpf u l i ne xp la in ing a nd u nde r s tand ing t h e

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p roces s a nd p a t te rn o f c u l tu r e c hange . T he r e i s e ve ry p o s s ib i l i ty o fa bo r ig ina l a nd H indu e l em en t s c o -ex i s t ing i nb o th t h es oc ie t ie s .

a n th rop lo log i s t s a nd t h e T r iba l We lf a r e I n s t i tu te s . I nt h e w o rd s o fD e sa i ( 1978 : 7 8 ) , a l l s uch c hange s h ave t a k en p l ace " w i th in t h e f r am e w o rk o fs oc ia l o rde r wh ich i sb e ing f ounded o n am ixed e conomy , f unc t iona l p l ann ing a nd p rof i t o r ien ta ted p roduc t ion f o r ac ompe t i t ive ma rk e t" .

T he l i ngu i s t ic e v idence t o o e mpha s i s t h i s c onve rgence a nd c r o s s -cu l tu ra l a s s im i la t ion s . I ti s s e en , b ecau se o f t h e d om inance o f n on -A ryan e l em en t s i n t h e c onve rgen ce p a t ter n O r iya l a nguage h a s t a k en t o t h e d i a lec ta l f o rm o f S amba lpu r i i nt h e w e s ter n h i l ly u p land s . A l l o the r t r iba l d i a lec t s o f O r iya ( Bha t r i , B huyan , K andha , D a l , S aha ra /Soa ra ,B in jha l , S aba ra nd G ondo )h ave a l so b een r e po r ted f r om t h ef o r e s ted u p land r e g ion s o fw e s ter n a nd s ou thwe s ter n O r i s sa w h ich s how a g r ea te r r e p lacem en t o f I ndo -A ryan f e a tu r e s w i th n on Indo -A ryan o ne s t h an d ot h e S t anda rd f o rm o f O r iya s poken i n t h e p l a in s . T h i s i nd ica te s much l e s s a ccu ra te t r an sm i s s ion o ft h e p r es t ige l a nguage i nt h e r emo te r e g ion s m ak ing g r ea te r c onve rgence i n ev i tab le . H oweve r , d eve lopm en t o f av a r ie ty o f d i f f e r en t mod if i ca t ion s o fS t anda rd O r iya p o in t s t o d i f f e r en t k ind s a nd d eg r ees o fc on tac t b e tween t h e p r e s t ige l a nguage s peak ing O r iya e l i te a nd t h e D rav id ian /Munda s peak ing i n d igenou s m a s s . T hu s t h e l i ngu i s t ic s i tua t ion w h ich c an b e o b served t oday i n O r i s sa s e em s t o b e t h e r e su l t o f al ong p e r iod o fa ccommoda t ion b e tween t h e e x t r em es o f t h e O r ig ina l c on t inuum -t h e A ryan /O r iya e duca ted u ppe r c l a s s a nd t h e D rav id ian /Munda l owe r c l a s s . T he m echan i sm o ft h i s p roce s s o fa ccommoda t ion , a s p o in ted o u t b y S ou thwor th ( 1974 : 2 19 ) i s p robab ly t o b e f ound i n t h e i n t e r ac t ion o f s oc ia l g roup s s uch a s t ho se r equ i r ed b y t r ad i t iona l a g r icu l tu ra l o pe r a t ion s a t t h e v i l lage l e ve l -t h e l a ndowne r s , i n te rm ed ia r ie s . ( s uch a s t e nan t s o r m anage r s ) , l a bou r e r s -w i th v e ry l im i ted c on tac t b e tween m embe r s o f t h e h i ghe s t a nd t h e l owe s t g roup s , i n te rm ed ia te g roup s w ou ld b e a f f ec ted b y c o tnac t w i th b o th e x t r em e s . A cco rd ing t o S ou thwo r th ( 1 974 ) , s i nce t r ad i t iona l ly t h e se t h ree g roup s r e p r e sen t t h r ee h i e r a r ch ica l s t age s o f t h e c a s t e s t ruc tu r e -B rahm in , K handaya t a nd V a ishya , S ud ra r e spec t ive ly -t h ey p roduced t h r ee d i f f e r en t s oc ia l d i a lec t s o fO r iya w h ich a r e t y p ica l t ot hose c a s te s o n ly . H oweve r , t h e d i f f e r ence s b e tween s oc ia l d i a lec t s a r e n ow r e duc ing f a s t w i th t h e e f f lec t s o f moder n i sa t ion e duca t ion a nd s oc ia l mob i l i ty wh ich a r e t h e h a l lma rk o f C o lon ia l a nd P o s t Independ ence P e r iod s . B ef o r e 1 9t h c en tu ry , t h e p roces s o f a s s im i la t ion o r a ccu l tu ra t ion o f a d iva s i p eop le h ad t a ken p l ace w i th in a d i f f e r en t s oc ia l o rde r , b u t a f t e r t h a t t h e a d iva s i s h ave t o u nde rgo c hange s a nd a ccu l tu ra t ion m a in ly d ue t o t h e a c t ion s o f t h e m i s s iona r ie s , a dm in i s t ra to r s ,

S ince i n dependence , b eg inn ing w i th t h e n a t iona l i s t movem en t , d emoc ra t i sa t ion o f t h e p o l i ty a nd e mpow e rm en t o ft h e m a s se s , i n c lud ing t h e w eak e r s e c t ion s a nd u nde rp r iv i leged s e c t ion s , l i ke t h e w om en , h a s b rough t s om e c hange i n O r i s san s oc ie ty . T h e q ua s i -f euda l s t ruc tu re o f t h e p r ince s a nd z am indar s h a s b een a bo l i shed a nd n ew i n s t i tu t ion s l i ke P anchaya t i R a j h ave b een i n t roduced t o e mpowe r d emoc ra t ica l ly t h e r u ra l p eop le , w om en , S ch edu led C a s tes a nd S chedu led T r ibe s a tt h e g ra s s roo t l e ve l whe r e t h e o ld p owe r s t ruc tu r e i sf i rm ly r oo ted e ven a f t e r 5 6 y ea r s o f i n dependence . E duca t ion , e conom ic u p l if tmen t , e mpowe rm en t , s oc ia l -s ta tu s mob i l i ty movemen t -a l l t h ese h ave o n ly c r ea ted g r ea te r d i f f e r en t ia t ion a mong t h e S chedu led C a s tes a nd S ch edu led T r ibe s a nd g r ea te r c onve rgence w i th t h e h igh c a s te g roup s . B u t n ow t h e S chedu led T r ibe s d o n o t e ncou rage a b so rp t ion i n to c a s te s oc ie ty , r a th e r t h ey h ave r e a l i sed t h a t t o g a in r e a l s t a tu s t oday w ou ld b e t o a ccep t t h e p ro tec t ive c ove r o f t r iba l i d en t i ty a nd p o l i t ica l p owe r . H oweve r , o n ly t h e H indu i sed e duca ted t r ibe s h ave r e ached t ot h i s s t age o fr e a l i sa t ion , t h e o the r s e c t ion i ss t i l l i n av e ry n eg lec ted a nd p oo r c ond i t ion . A l l t h ese c hange s i nt h e P o s t Independence O r i s sa h oweve r c ou ld n o t c hange t h e s oc ia l a t t i tude t owa rd st h e S chedu led C a s te sa nd T r ibe s . I nv i l lage O r i s sa , a ge -o ld v a lue s a s soc ia ted w i th s pec if ic c a s te s , t r ibe s a nd t r iba l p eop le i ng ene ra l h ave n o t b een c hanged y e t . T he o l d f e uda l p owe r s t ruc tu r e , f i rm ly r oo ted i n r u ra l O r i s sa , w i l l t a ke t im e t o a ccep te mpowe rm en to fp oo ra nd d e sp i sed . T hu s , f r om t h e r e con s t ruc t ion s o ft h e s oc io -cu l tu ra l d eve lopm en t i n O r i s sa w i th t h e h e lp o f a r chaeo log ica l , l i ngu i s t ic , e t hnog raph ic a nd h i s to r ica l d a ta i t i s e v iden t t h a t c on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty a nd c u l tu r e i n O r i s sa i s ap roduc t o f t h e c omb ined e f f ec t s o fd i f f e r en t c on t inuou s p roce s se s o f m ig ra t ion , i n teg ra t ion a nd a s s im i la t ion o f d i f f e r en t p eop le a nd c u l tu r e s . T h roughou t i t s h i s to r ica l d eve lopm en t i n co rpo ra t ion o f t h e a u toch thonou s p eop le i n to t h e H indu f o ld a nd t h e

3 4 1

d eg r ee o f c r o s s -cu l tu ra l a s s im i la t ion i n d i f f e ren t s e t t ing s a r e t h e b a s ic d ynam ic s o ft h e g row th a nd m a tu ra t ion o ft h e s oc ie ty a nd c u l tu re i nt h er e g ion .

b a s ica l ly a nd p r edom inan t ly A ryan b u t t h e r e a r e m any e l em en t s w h ich h ave t o b e t r aced t o o t he r t wo s ou rces o f D rav id ian a nd Munda t h a t c on t r ibu ted g r ea t ly t ot h e b i r th a nd g row th o ft h e s o c ie ty a nd c u l tu r e . T he h i s to r ica l p roce s s o f c en tu r ie s o l d c on tac t , b o r row ing s a nd s ha r ing o f c u l tu r a l a nd l i ngu i s t ic f e a tu r es a nd c oncep t s a c ro s s t h e e t hn ic b ounda r ie s l e d t o t h e s yn thes i s a nd h omogen i sa t ion o fr e g iona l s o c io -cu l tu ra l f e a tu r e s .

T o e xp r e s s i nl i ngu i s t ic t e rm s , t h i s s o c ia l d ynam ic s i s r e p r e sen ted i n t h r ee s t ra ta o f c onve rgence b e tween d i f f e r en t e t hn ic / l ingu i s t ic g roup s . I n t h e u ppe r s t ra tum O r iya e l em en t i s d om inan t i n t h e p a t te rn o f c onve rgence w h ich i sb o rne o u t b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c on tempo ra ry D rav id ian a nd Munda p eop le o f t h e a r ea a r e g r adua l ly b ecom ing ` O r iyan i sed ' o r a bso rbed b y t h em . I n t h e m idd le s t ra tum , h oweve r , S an sk r i t ic e l em en t s , o r t o b e p r ec i se , o r ig ina l I ndo -A ryan e l em en t s b ecam e d om inan t a b so rb ing l o ca l i n d igenou s p eop le i n to t h e A ryan f o ld . A nd i n t h e l owe r s t ra tum , i n t h e c onve rgence p a t ter n b e tween D rav id ian , Munda a nd o the r i n d igenou s p eop le , D rav id ian w a s d om inan t . T he p roduc t o f t h e se s t age s o f c onve rgence i st h e l a nguage a nd c u l tu re w h ich a r e

O r i s san s oc ie ty , w h ich h a s n o t y e t s hed o f f i t s p r edom inan t ly r u r a l c ha r ac t e r ( r u ra l p opu la t ion c on s t i tu te s 8 2 .62% o f t h e t o ta l p opu la t ion ) , a nd w h ich s t i l l s he l te r s al a rge n umbe r o f n on -H indu a d iva s i p eop le , i ss t i l l u nde rgo ing t h i s p roce s s o f s yn th e s i s . T hu s s o c ie ty a nd c u l tu r e i n O r i s sa i s u n ique i n i t s c ha r ac te r t h ough i te xh ib i t s m any f undam en ta l P an Ind ian f e a tu re s i ni t s c omponen t e l em en t s .

APPENDIX D i s t r ibu t ion o fe xp lo red a nd e xcava ted s i te s a s soc ia ted w i th B lack -and red w a r e P o t te ry i nt h e l owe r Mahanad i v a l ley o fO r i s sa ( Mohan tv a nd M i sh ra 1 998 O ther f i nd s S i . D i s tr ic t C eram ic I ndu s tr ie s N ame o f N o . t he s i te P o t te ry d i sc s , P la in BR W ( bow l sa nd v a se s w i th 1 . G a r iapa le S uba rnapu r s em ip r ec iou s b ead s a nd ( Exp l . ) f l a r ing r um a nd g l obu la r b ody ) ; t e r ra co t ta c ake s . B SW ( d eep b ow l s a nd v a se s ) ; R SW ( g lobu la r v e s se l s , p ede s ta l led b ow l s , s t o rage j a r s , l i d s , e t c . ) ; p l a in a nd r u s t ica ted r e d w a re P o t te ry d i sc s , s t one d i scs , 2 . K a r tang S uba rnapu r P l a in -b lack -and red w a re ( c onvex t wo g round N eo l i th ic c e l l s ( Exp l . ) s i ded d eep b ow ls , g l obu la r v a se s f d o le r i te , a nd f a una l w i th s p layed o u t r im , a nd o ema in s . c a r ina ted h and i ) ; b l a ck s l ipped r w a re ( bow l s a nd v a se s w i th e v idence f o r b u rn i sh ing ) ; p l a in r ed w a re a nd r e d s l ipped w a re ( bow l s , v a se s , s t o rage j a r s , h and i , l i d sw i th h and le a nd b a s in s ) P o t te ry d i sca , b ead s o f 3 . P ank i ta l S uba rnapu r P l a in BR W ( sma l l s ized v a se s s em ip rec iou s s t one , i r on ( Exp l . ) a nd c a r ina ted a s w e l l a s b ow l s ) ; s l ag a nd s k e le ta lm a te r ia l s . B SW ( v a se s , c a r ina ted s ha l low b ow ls , a nd d i she s w i th a c en t ra l k nob o n t h e f l a t t ened i n ne r s u rf a ce ) ; R SW a nd RW ( b a s in s , v a se s , b ow l s , s t o rage j a r s a nd p l a t te r s ) M ic ro l i th s , p o t te ry d i sc s , 4 . BR W o f f i ne f a b r ic ( bow l s a nd T enda S uba rnapu r t e r ra co t ta c ake s w i th ( Exp l . ) l i d s ) ; B SW ( knobbed d i she s , f i nge r p r e s sed d e s ign s , b ow ls a nd l i d s ) ; RW a nd R SW s t one d i sc sa nd b ead s . ( v a se s , b ow ls , l i d s , s t o rage v a s se ls , a nd m in ia tu re p o t s ) 5 . S l ag s , t e r ra co t ta b ead s , F ew s he rd s o f w h i t e p a in ted K ha je r ipa l i S uba rnapu r ( Exca . ) f a una l r ema in s , p o t te ry BR W ; p l a in BR W ( bow ls , d i she s

3 42

p a r t o ft h e m idd le R emark s E a r ly H i s to r ic

P ro toh i s to r ic / E a r ly H is to r ic .

E a r ly H i s to r ic

E a r ly H i s to r ic

P ro toh i s to r ic s i ng le c u l tu ra l s i te

S I . N o .

N ame o f t he s i te

D i s tr ic t

a nd v a se s ) ; B SW ( bow l s , b a s in s a nd v a se s ) ; RW a nd R SW ( va se s , s t o rage j a r s ,b ow l s ,h and i s , l i d s , b ow l s -on s tand , p e rf o ra ted b ow l s a nd p l a t te r s ) ; c o rded w a re

D i sc s .

( ? )

H and -made c oa r se , g r i t ty r e d w a re P o t te ry w i th c o rd m a rk s o n t h e e x te r io r a nd i n ter io r s u rf a ce ( v a se s , b ow l s , h and i s , p ede s ta l led b ow l s a nd l i d s ) ; p l a in BR W ( d i she sa nd b ow l s ) ; R SW a nd RW P o t te ry ;d eco ra ted s he rd s

G round N eo l i th ic c e l t s o f d o le r i te a nd b a sa l t , s t one s l ing b a l l s , t e r raco t ta a n ima l f i gu r e s , a l a rge q uan t i ty o f f i n i shed a nd s em i -f in i shed s t one b ead s a nd t e r ra co t ta r i ng w e l l . -

N eo l i th ic / H i s to r ic

P o t te ry d i sc s , s t one p e s t le s , s em i -p r ec iou s s t one b ead s , s l ing b a l l s , c oppe r p l a te i n sc r ip t ion s , i r on o b jec t s , m in ia tu r e f i gu r ine s o f s em i -p r ec iou s s t one a nd af ew m ega l i th ic s t ru c tu re s . P o t te ry d i scs , i r on o b jec t s , s t one b ead s , s t one p e s t le s a nd s l ag s . P o t te ry d i sc s , i r on o b jec t s , s t one b ead s , t e r ra co t ta b ead sa nd s t one p e s t le s . M ic ro l i th s , s t one p e s t le s , N eo l i th ic g round a xe a nd f auna lr ema in s .

P ro toh i s to r ic / E a r ly H i s tor ic .

S em i -p rec iou s s t one b ead s , i r on s l ag s , p o t te ry d i sc s , f a una l r ema in s , a nd m ic ro l i th s .

E a r ly H i s to r ic ( s ee T r ipa thy , B . , 2 000 , p p . 4 0 14 14 ) .

P e rf o ra ted r i ng s tone p e s t le s , af ew m ic ro l i th s , a nd t wo g round N eo l i th ic a xe s . P e rf o ra ted r i ng s t one , a f ew m ic ro l i th s a nd p o t te ry d i sc s P e rf o ra ted r i ng s t one , t wo b roken p a r t s o f s t one p e s t le s , a nd t e r raco t ta f i gu r ine s .

P ro toh i s to r ic / E a r ly I r on A ge ( ? )

I r on b a r -ce l t , m ic ro l i th s a nd s t one p e s t le s P o t te ry d i sc s a nd s t one p e s t le s S t one p e s t le s a nd s ma l l -

E a r ly

6 .

H ikud i ( Ex ca . )

S uba rnapu r

7 .

K hame s Wa r ipa l i K ume r S ingha ( Exp l . )

S uba rnapu r S uba rnapu r

P l a in BR W ( bow l s , v a se s a nd d i she s ) ; B SW ( bow l s , d i she s a nd v a se s ) ; RW a nd R SW ( va se s , h and i s , l i d s , s t o rage v e s se l s , p l a t te r sa nd b a s in s )

9 .

Nuaga rh ( Exca . )

S uba rnapu r

P l a in a nd w h i te p a in ted ( ? ) BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry

I 0 .

J am tang i ( Exp l . )

B oudh

Wh i te p a in ted a nd p l a in BR W ; B SW ; RW a nd R SW P o t te ry

1 .

T en tu l ipa l i ( Exp l . )

B oudh

Wh i te p a in ted a nd p l a in BR W ; Rw a nd R SW P o t te ry

1 2 .

Ma ryakud ( Exp l . )

B oudh

1 3 .

K r ishna Mohanpu r ( Exp l . )

B oudh

P l a in BR W ( bow l s a nd d i she s ) ; B SW ( j a r s , l i d s ,b ow l s ,b a s in s a nd l amp -on s tand ) ; RW a nd R SW ( bow l s , l i d s d i she s , b a s in s , d eco ra ted s he rd s , v a se s , b a s in s , s t o rage v e s se l s , e t c . ) ; k nobbed w a r e P l a in a nd w h i te p a in ted BR W ; B SW ; RW a nd R SW P o t te ry . Ma jo r i ty o f t h e s he rd s s how s e v idence o fb u rn i sh ing

1 4 .

K a rad i ( Exp l . )

B oudh

P l a in a nd w h i te p a in ted BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry

1 5 .

H a tgaon ( Exp l . )

B oudh

P l a in BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry ; ( bow l s ,v a se s ,b a s in s , l i d s w i th c y l ind r ica l h and le , d i she s , s ha l low b ow l s -on s tand , a r e s ome o ft h ec ommon s hape s )

1 6 .

P a rga lpu r ( Exp l . ) D ho lpu r ( Exp l . ) B e lpun j i

B oudh

P l a in BR W , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry P l a in BR W , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry P la in BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW

8 .

1 7 . 1 8 .

B oudh A nugu l

R emark s

O ther f i nd s

C eram ic I ndus tr ie s

3 43

E a r ly

S ee t h i sr epo r t

E a r ly H i s to r ic / P ro toh i s to r ic ( ? ) P ro toh i s tor ic / E a r ly I r on a ge ( ? ) P ro toh i s to r ic

P ro toh i s to r ic ( ? )

E a r ly H is to r ic .

I r on

( ? ) E a r ly H i s to r ic E a r ly H i s to r ic

A ge

S i . N o .

N ame o f t he s i te ( Exp l . )

D i s tr ic t

O ther f i nd s

P o t te ry

1 9 .

Manamund a( Exca . )

B oudh

2 0 .

Manamund aI ( Exp l . )

B oudh

2 1 .

G ab ju r i ( Exp l . ) H a ld ipa l i ( Exp l . )

B oudh

2 2 .

C eram ic I ndu s tr ie s

S uba rnapu r

P la in BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry ; d eco ra ted j a r s ; v e ry l a rge s ized s t o rage j a r s ,e t c . P la in BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry a nd d eco ra ted s h e rd s ; ( c ommon s hape s i n c lude b ow l s , d i she s , v a se s , s t o rage j a r s a nd l i d s ) P la in BR W , RW a nd R SW P o t te ry P la in BR W , B SW , RW a nd R SW P o t t e ry ; d eco ra ted s he rd s a nd l i d s o fv a r iou st ype

Ref erences A l lch in , F .R . 1 989 . C i ty a nd S t a te F o rma t ion i n E a r ly H i s to r ic S ou th A s ia ,S ou th A s ian S tud ie s5 :1 15 . A l lch in , F .R . 1 990 . P a t ter n s o fC i ty F o rma t ion i nE a r ly H i s to r ic S ou th A s ia ,S ou t hA s ian S tud ie s6 :1 63 173 . B a rua , B .M . 1 929 . T he H a t igumpha I n sc r ip t ion s o f K ha rave la ,I nd ian H i s tor ica lQ ua ter ly 1 4 :4 59 -85 . B ehe ra , P .K . 2 000 -200 1a . I nve s t iga t ion i n to t h e N ew ly D i scove r ed R ock -A r t S i te s o f D eu lga H i l l s , O r i s sa , P ragdhara 1 : 1 11 . B ehe ra , P .K . 2 000 -200 1b . E x cava t ion s a t K hame swa r ipa l i - aP ro to H i s to r ic S e t t lemen t i n t h e Mahanad i V a l ley , O r i s sa : a P re l im ina ry R epo r t , P ragdhara 1 : 1 3 -34 . B ha t tacha rya , S . 1 975 . L ingu i s t ic C onve rgence i n t h e D rav ido -Munda C u l tu r e a r ea , I n t erna t iona l J ourna l o f D rav id ian L ingu i s t ic 4 (2 ) : 1 99 -2 14 . C en su s o f I nd ia . 1 991 . P r imary C ensu s A b s t rac t , G enera lP opu la t ion , O r i s sa , S er ie s 1 9 , P ar tI -B( z ) . N ew D e lh i : O ff i ce o ft h eR eg i s t ra rG ene ra lI nd ia C hak raba r ty , D .K . a nd N . L ah i r i 1 993 -94 . T he I r on A ge i n I nd ia : t h e B eg inn ing a nd C on sequence s , P ura ta t tva 2 4 : 1 2 -27 . C ha t te r jee , S . 1 926 . O r ig in a nd D eve lopmen to fB enga l i L anguage . C a lcu t ta : B ang ia S ah i tya P r i shad . D an i ,H .A . 1 960 .P r eh i s tory a nd P ro toh i s to ry o fE a s t ern I nd ia . C a lcu t ta :F i rma K .L . Mukhopadhyay . D a s , B .S . 1 984 . D ynam ic s o f C hange s i n t h e S oc ia l F ramewo rk , R e l ig ion a nd L anguage i n E a s te rn I nd ia ( 8 th 12 th c en tu ry ) , i nL if e a nd C u l tu re i n O r i s sa ( B .S . D a s E d . ) , p p . 2 7 -4 1 . C a lcu t ta . M ine rva A s soc ia te s P r iva te L im i ted . D a sh , G .N . 1 978 . E vo lu t ion o ft h e P r ie s t ly P owe r : T he G angavam sa P e r iod , i n T he C u l t o fJ aganna tha a nd R eg iona l T rad i t ion o fO r i s sa ( A . E c shmann , H . Ku lke a nd G .C . T r ipa th i E d s . ) , p p . 1 57 -68 . N ew D e lh i : Manoha r . E p ig raph ica I nd ica 1 5 :1-8 ;2 0 (7 ) : 7 1-89 ;2 8 : 2 13 . F r ied , M .H . 1 967 . T he E vo lu t ion o f P o l i t ica l S oc ie ty . N ew Y o rk : R andom H ou se .

s i zed g round N eo l i th ic c e l t s B r ick s t ru c tu re s , i r on a nd c oppe r o b jec t s , p unch ma rked c o in s

R emark s

E a r ly H i s to r ic ( J AR 1 989 -90 ) .

I r on o b jec t s , p o t te ry h op s co t che s , s oakage j a r s a nd s t one b ead s .

E a r ly H i s to r ic

P o t te ry d i sc s a nd s t one b ead s T e r ra co ta r i ng w e l l , p o t te ry d i sc s , s t one p e s t le s a nd i r on o b jec t s .

E a r ly H i s to r ic E a r ly H i s to r ic

G ho sh , A .K . a nd S . R ay 1 990 -93 . P roce s s o f M ic ro l i th i sm : aS tudy o f S tone A ge Ma te r ia l s f r om O r i s sa , Manav 4 :9 2 -99 . H e ineGe ld er n ,R . v on . 1 945 . P r eh i s to r ic R e sea r ch i nt h e N e the r land s I nd ie s , i n S c ience a nd S c ien t i s t s i n t h e N e the r land s I nd ie s ( P . H on ing a nd F . V e rdoo run E d s . ) , p p . 1 27 -67 .N ew Y o rk : B oa rd f o rt h eN e the r land sI nd ie s . I nd ian A r chaeo logy -A R ev iew , N ew D e lh i : A nnua l B u l l e t in o ft h eA r chaeo log ica lS ur vey o fI nd ia 1 956 -57 : 3 0 . J ay swa l , K .P . a nd B ane r j i , R .D . 1 929 -30 . T he H a t igumpha I n scr ip t ion o fK harave la , K a r , S . K . 1 995 -96 . F u r the r E xp lo ra t ion s a tG opa lpu r , O r i s sa ,P ura ta t t va 2 6 : 1 05 106 . K a r , S .K . 2 000 . G opa lpu r : AN eo l i th i c -Cha lco l i th ic S i te i n t h e C oa s ta l O r i s sa , i nA r chaeo logy o fO r i s sa ( K .K . B a sa a nd P .K . Mohan ty E d s . )V o l . 1 ,p p . 3 68 -39 1 . D e lh i : P ra t ibha P raka shan . K a r , S .K . , K .K . B a sa a nd P .P . J oge lka r 1 998 . A r chaeo log ica lR ema in s o fG opa lpu r ,N ayaga rh ,C oa s ta l O r i s sa , Man a nd E nv i ronmen t2 3 ( 1) : 1 07 14 . K o samb i , D .D . 1 956 . O nt h eD eve lopmen to fF euda l i sm i n I nd ia , A nna l s o ft h e B handark ar O r ien ta l R e sear ch I n s t i tu t e3 6 : 2 58 -69 . K o samb i , D .D . 1 962 . My th a nd R ea l i ty : S tud ie s i n t h e F orma t ion o f I nd ian C u l tu re . B ombay : P opu la r P raka shan . Ku lke , H . 1 977 . E a r ly S ta te F o rma t ion a nd R oya l L eg i t ima t ion i n L a te A nc ien t O r i s sa , i n S id e l igh t s o n H i s tory a nd C u l tu re o fO r i s sa ( M .N . D a s E d . ) , p p . 1 04 14 .C u t ta ck : V idyapu r i . K u lke ,H . 1 978 .E a r ly R oya lP a t ronage o ft h eJ aganna tha C u l t ,i nT he C u l to fJa ganna th a nd R eg iona lT rad i t ion o f O r i s sa ( A E schmann , H . Ku lke a nd G .C . T r ipa th i E d s . ) , p p . 1 25 137 .N ew D e lh i : Manoha r . L a l ,B .B . 1 949 . E xcava t ion a tS i supa lga rh ,A nc ien tI nd ia 5 :6 2 -05 . Mahapa t ra , L .K . 1 976 . G od s , K ing s a nd t h e C a s te S y s t em i n I nd ia , i n T he R ea lm o ft h e E x t ra Human : A g en t sa nd A ud ience s . ( A . B ha ra t iE d . ) ,p p . 3 1-72 .P a r i s : T he H ague , Mou ton P ub l i she r s .

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Mahapa t ra , L .K . 1 984 . T he R o le o ft h e H indu P r ince s i n t h e C a s te S y s tem i nO r i s sa , i nL if ea nd C u l ture i nO r i s sa ( B .S . D a s E d . ) , p p . 4 2 -59 . C a lcu t ta : M inerva A s soc ia te s P v t . L td . Mahapa t ra , L .K . 1 987 . E x -p r ince ly S t a te o f O r i s sa : Mayu rbhan j , K eonha r a nd B ona i , i n T r iba lP o l i t ic s a nd S t a t e S y s tem s i nP re -Co lon ia lE a s te rn a nd N or thea s te rn I nd ia ( Su ra j i t S i nha E d . ) , p p . 1 50 . C a lcu t ta : K .P . B agch i a nd C o . M i s ra , V .N . a nd M . N aga r . . 1 994 . F rom T r ibe t oC a s te : A n E thnoa r cha eo log ica l p e r spec t ive , i nP roceed ing s o f t h eS em inar o n " F rom T r ibe t oC a s te ," h e ld a tt h e I nd ian I n s t i tu te o fA dvanced S tudy , S im la ,N ovembe r 1 992 . Mohan ty , P .a nd B . M i sh ra 1 998 . R ecen tA r chaeo log ica l R e sea r che si nO r i s sa w i th S pec ia l R ef e rence t ot h e E a r ly H i s to r ic P ha se , Man i nI nd ia 7 8( 3 -4 ) : 2 05 -22 1 . Mu r ty , M .L .K . 1 988 . R ice a nd T ube r C rop s i n t h e E a s te rn G ha t s ( I nd ia ) : A n E thnoeco log ica l P e r spec t ive , B u l le t in o ft h eI ndo -Pac if i cP reh i s tory A s soc ia t ion 8 :2 6 3 6 . P anda , T . 2 003 . E vo lu t ion o f S oc ie ty a nd C u l tu r e o f O r i s sa - B a sed o n a S yn the s i s o f A r chaeo log ica l , H i s to r ica l , L ingu i s t ic a nd A n th ropo log ica l D a ta . U npub l i shed P h .D .t h e s i s ,P une : D eccan C o l lege . P a tna ik , N . 1 970 . T he R ecen t R a ja s o fP u r i : aS tudy i n S e cu la r iza t ion , J ourna l o f t h e I nd ian A n thropo log ica l S oc ie ty 5 ( 1/2 ) : 8 7 114 . P radhan , S .a nd P .K . B ehe ra . 1 998 . AB r ief R epo r t o n T r ia l E xcava t ion a tK ame swa r ipa l i , aC ha lco l i th ic S i te i n M idd le Mahanad i V a l ley , O r i s sa , i n N ew A spec t s o f H i s tory o f O r i s sa , V o l .8 , p p . 1 12 , S amba lpu r : J yo t i V iha r . R a jagu ru , S .N . 1 958 . I n scr ip t ion so fO r i s sa , V o l . I .G ov t . o fI nd ia . R edf i e ld , R . 1 956 . P ea san t S oc ie ty a nd C u l ture . C h icago : T he U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s . R edf ie ld , R . a nd M .B . S inge r 1 956 . T he C u l tu ra l R o le o f C i t ie s , Man i nI nd ia 3 6 (3 ) : 1 6 1194 . R oy , S .C . 1 9 12 . T he Munda s a nd t h e ir C oun t ry . C a lcu t ta : A s ia P ub i sh ing H ou se . S ahu , B .P . 2 000 . A u thor i ty a nd P a t ronage i n E a r ly O r i s sa , i nA rchaeo log y o fO r i s sa ( K .K . B a sa a nd P .K . Mohan ty E d s . ) , V o l . 2 ,p p . 1 10 . N ew D e lh i : P ra t ibha P raka shan . S anka l ia , H .D . 1 974 . P reh i s to ry a nd P ro toh i s tory o f I nd ia a nd P ak i s tan . P oona : D eccan C o l lege . S chnepe l , B . 2 002 . T he J ung le K ing s : E thnoh i s tor ica l A spec t s o fP o l i t ic s a nd R i tua l i n O r i s sa . N ew D e lh i : Mahona r . S enev i ra tne , S . 1 98 1 . K a l inga a nd A ndh ra : T he P roce s s o f S econda ry S t a te F o rma t ion i n E a r ly I nd ia , i n T he S tud yo ft h eS ta te ( H .J .M . C loe s sen a nd P .S ka ln ik E d s . ) , p p . 3 17 -338 . T he H ague : Mou ton P ub l i she r . S i ngh , K . ( Ed . ) 1 998 . P eop le o fI nd ia , N a t iona l S er ie s , V o l . I V : A l l C ommun i t ie s " A t o G " . C a lcu t ta : A n th ropo log ica l S u rvey o fI nd ia . S ingh ,P .K . 1 988 -89 . N eo l i th ic C u l tu re o fC en t ra lO r i s sa , Manav 3 :2 75 -281 .

S ingh , P .K . 2 000 . S tone A ge C u l tu re s o fC en t r a l O r i s sa , i n A rchaeo logy o fO r i s sa ( K .K . B a sa a nd P . Mohan ty E d s . ) , V o l . 1 ,p p . 1 02 113 . D e lh i : P ra t ibha P raka shan . S inha , B .K . 2 000 . G o lba i : AN eo l i th ic-Cha lco l i th ic S i t e i nC oa s ta l O r i s sa , i nA rchaeo logy o fO r i s sa ( K .K . B a sa a nd P . Mohan ty E d s . ) , V o l . 1 , p p . 3 22 -355 . D e lh i P ra t ibha P raka shan . S inha , S . 1 958 . T r iba l C u l tu r e o f P en in su la r I nd ia a s a D imen s ion o f L i t t le T rad i t ion i n t h e S tudy o f I nd ian C iv i l i sa t ion - A P re l im ina ry S t a temen t , J ourna l o f Amer ican F o lk lore 7 1 . S inha , S . 1 962 . S t a te F o rma t ion a nd R a jpu t My th i n T r iba l C en t ra l I nd ia , Man i nI nd ia 4 2 ( 1) : 3 5 -80 . S ou thwo r th , F .C . 1 974 . L ingu i s t ic S t ra t ig raphy o fN o r th I nd ia , I n t erna t iona l J ourna l o f D rav id ian L ingu i s t ic s 3 ( 1) : 2 0 1-203 . T hapa r , B .K . 1 964 . N eo l i th ic P rob lem i nI nd ia , i nI nd ian P r eh i s tory ( V .N . M i s ra a nd M .S . Ma te E d s . ) ,p p . 8 7 112 . P oona : D eccan C o l lege . T hapa r , B .K . 1 985 . R ecen t A r chaeo log ica l D i scover ie s i nI nd ia . UNESCO : T he C en t re f o r E a s t A s ian C u l tu ra l S tud ie s . V i shnuM i t t re 1 974 . P a laeobo tan ica l E v idence i n I nd ia , i nE vo lu t ionary S tud ie s i n W or ld C rop s ( J . H u tch in son E d . ) ,p p . 3 30 ,C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . V i shnuM i t t re 1 976 . T he A r chaeobo tan ica l a nd P a lyno log ica l E v idence f o r t h e E a r ly Ag r icu l tu re i n S ou th a nd S ou thea s tA s ia , G a s t ronomy : 1 3 -21 . Y u le , P . a nd B .K . R a th 2 000 . S anke r jang : A Me ta l P e r iod B u r ia l S i te i nt h eD henkana lU p land so fO r i s sa ,i n A r chaeo logy o fO r i s sa ( K .K . B a sa a nd P . Mohan ty E d s . ) , V on ,p p . 2 82 -32 1 . D e lh i : P ra t ibha P raka shan .

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