Guidance of American Youth: An Experimental Study [Reprint 2014 ed.] 9780674422858, 9780674428416

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G u i d a n c e of A m e r i c a n Youth

Guidance of American Youth AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

J O H N W . M.

ROTHNEY

Professor of Education University of Wisconsin

B E R T A.

ROENS

Director of Guidance Arlington, Massachusetts

Foreword by James Bryant Conant

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

PRESS

Cambridge · Massachusetts · 1950

Copyright · 1950 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College

London · Geoffrey Cumberlege · Oxford University Press

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF A M E R I C A

TO CHESTER NOYES GREENOUGH Late Professor of English at Harvard College, and its former Dean, who proposed the Study and, by a grant to the Harvard Graduate School of Education, made it possible for a period of five years

AND

RUTH HORNBLOWER

GREENOUGH

his wife, who has provided assistance and encouragement for the completion of the Study, and who has never wavered in her faith that youth, under guidance, will more fully realize its individual and social responsibilities.

S T A F F OF THE S T U D Y J O H N W. M. ROTHNEY

Director (half-time basis) 1936-1939; withdrew from active participation, but retained nominal directorship until November ¡¡140

BERT A. ROENS Counselor, January 1939 through August 1942; assumed active leadership in November 1940

G R A C E McGLINCHEY Counselor, September 193η through December 1939

ELEANOR R. COLLINS

Counselor, September 1939 through August 1942

ELEANOR S. WEISS Statistical Analyst and Assistant, 1943-194$, 1948-1949

HANFORD M. FOWLER Statistical Analyst, 1943-194;

ANDREW R. B A G G A L E Y

Statistical Analyst, 1949

MARGARET Μ. MAHONEY Clerk, 1936-1942 HARVARD ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR THE STUDY 1939-1942 Walter F. Dearborn, Chairman · Henry W. Holmes · Warren C. Seyfert · Francis T. Spaulding · Robert Ulich

Contents

1

F o r e w o r d by J A M E S B R Y A N T C O N A N T

xi

Some Problems of American Adolescents

3

Homer, 5. Nelson, 16. Paula, 23. William, 34. Doreen, 40. Molile, 47. Elson, s;. Mary, 62. Frank, 7/. Amy, 78. The study of individuals, 8η

2

The Development of a Study in Guidance

102

Setting of the Study, 102. The schools in 1936, 103. Aims of the Study, 108. Selection of experimental population, 109. Control group, m. Comparison of experimental and control groups in 1936, ¡19. Subjects other than members of experimental and control groups, 121. Methods of the Study, 126

3

The Growth of a Guidance Program

151

Work with school personnel, 151. Work with parents and other members of community, 186. Growth of a guidance program in the school and community, ¡88. Current status of the guidance program (1948), ¡91

4

Evaluation of the Effects of Guidance

202

Introduction, 202. School progress and success, 203. Student reports, 3/7

5

The Implications

241

Appendix

244

Bibliography

266

Foreword I T H A S B E E N W E L L SAID that guidance is the keystone of the arch of American education. Those who have been intimately associated with the work of the public schools are well aware of the vital significance of guidance and counseling. For the members of this group a scholarly contribution to the study of guidance requires no foreword; the importance of this inquiry in Arlington so wisely and generously sponsored by Mr. and Mrs. Greenough is self-evident; the results speak for themselves. With the general public, however, the situation is far otherwise. Those who have any interest in guidance are almost without exception focusing their attention on some personal problem involving a young relative now in school. Only occasionally does one meet a parent who has a deep concern for public education quite apart from the immediate welfare of his or her offspring. Only rarely will one find a citizen who is familiar with the problems of national importance now facing those who are responsible for our vast system of universal education. Yet it would not be too much to say that on the success or failure of our guidance program hangs, in all probability, the success or failure of our system of public education. Every reader of this book will be aware of the rapid increase of the number and size of our free schools in the last seventy-five years. N o one need argue that the vast expansion of the facilities for education is a social phenomenon of deep significance. The radical change in the educational picture has been the consequence of a movement supported in many localities by many diverse groups. Taken all together, the action of the American people has been a clear manifestation of a widespread conviction about our ideal of a free and democratic nation. For us equality means equality of opportunity for youth. Furthermore, we believe that adherence to this ideal is intimately connected with the spiritual welfare of our people. In this mechanized world with free lands no longer beckoning the pioneers, equality of opportunity for young people must be translated in terms of jobs which hold promise for the

xii

Foreword

future. This in turn means education. The goal which we are striving to attain by the development of our educational system is a society in which there are no artificial handicaps for any youth. As idealists, all devout believers in our unique American concept of democracy must applaud the expansion of the system of free schools. As hard-headed citizens, however, we may at moments have our doubts. W e can conjure up specters of an army of unemployed intellectuals whose frustrations will endanger the fabric of our state. "Too many people of mediocre ability, too highly educated, trained for too many years for non-existent posts," we may mumble to ourselves. Or, turning our orientation quickly through two right angles, we view with horror the paucity of well-educated leaders of the professions. "Our schools," we cry, "are neglecting the boys and girls with potential talent. Those skills and disciplines which are basic to any sort of intellectual endeavor, which for centuries have been the foundation for the learned professions are hardly taught at all. Our public schools are interested only in producing housewives and mechanics!" The two complaints are so antithetical as to appear to cancel. But that does not mean that they both are utterly fallacious. Quite the contrary. Those critics of our public schools who fear the breeding of an intellectual proletariat are concerned with one facet of a problem. Those who condemn our schools for the inadequacy of their academic fare are emphasizing another aspect of a fundamental question. There can be no doubt about it; we face a dilemma as to our future course of action. Are we to continue to stress education for all American youth and neglect the gifted? Or are we to modify our equalitarian zest and concentrate our educational efforts on a selected few? The rugged optimist will answer that he refuses both alternatives. He will say, " W e must offer educational opportunity equally to all our youth, yet do justice to all the latent talent. Somehow or other we must select relatively few to be trained as doctors, lawyers, scientists, and scholars while we provide a satisfying education for the future workers in many posts in a great industrial and agricultural system. And the selection must be as far as possible without prejudice or favor."

Foreword

xìii

A well-conceived and well-executed guidance program in each and every school is the only possible way we can resolve the dilemma which now confronts us. T o find and educate the gifted youth is essential for the welfare of the country; we cannot afford to leave undeveloped the greatest resource of the nation. T o guide each student as far as possible toward a place in our industrial system which will be commensurate with his or her ability and tastes is essential for the dynamic stability of a society of free men in an age of cities and machines. It is well to contrast our educational premises and our ambitions with those of other democratic nations. By so doing we can see more readily just how revolutionary and hence how difficult will be the execution of the social program implicit in our system of free schools for all our youth. In any European country today, however democratic may be the government, however socialized may be the welfare services, the heavy hand of the past still rests upon the educational system. Almost unconsciously the schools operate within the framework of a stratified social system. And the national ideology does not impel the citizens to take steps to make the society more fluid in the future. This last point can hardly be overstressed. For the contrast with our American ideals is of the utmost importance. There are those who believe that we are in the process of turning our backs on the high hopes with which this republic has moved forward — that we are certain to become a society of castes. If so we are likewise renouncing one of our cherished goals. Unlike any other nation, we inherit no social strata laid down by military conquest; we have for generations taken pride in the fact that no one ruled by right of birth. Therefore, if we make the decision to reverse the previous trend and adopt a European viewpoint, our democracy to my mind will have lost a large measure of its drive. One must admit, however, that we shall be forced to make some such decision unless we can prove that our old ideal is within at least hailing distance of reality in this complexly constructed world of the twentieth century. In other words, unless our public schools can do for us today what the free lands of the frontier did for us in the early years of our history as a nation — keep our society fluid, our people full of hope — we must reorient the fundamental premises of our democracy.

xiv

Foreword

European nations still produce a continuous stream of extremely well-educated men for the professions. Their educational system is an effective agency perpetuating a stratified society. In Europe the selection of future professional men is generally made at an early age (not far from ten) and in the large majority of cases on the basis of family status. T h e numbers are thus easily regulated; the overproduction of intellectuals should present no serious problems. In Europe nine citizens out of ten from an early age recognize just about where they are going to fit into the social situation and are educated accordingly. T h e virtues of such a system are self-evident. N o wonder it recommends itself to many eyes. Relatively few false hopes aré awakened by too extensive an education of those who must later be content with manual labor; a far more intensive education than is possible in the United States can be provided for the future members of the professions. W h a t is the drawback? Nothing but the basic premise of the social philosophy of the nation. If we were willing to turn around completely, repudiate our past, we could remake our schools along European lines.Then there would be little need for a guidance program, no necessity for further studies into the difficult question raised by this report. Few readers of this volume will believe for a moment that the American people either will or should reverse the trend of their educational thinking. W e are not going to assign our children to different educational programs at the age of ten or twelve. T o provide equality of opportunity within a society where economic rewards vary widely and where geography and family traditions play a large part in determining immediate educational advantages, we must keep our system flexible. As far as possible every graduate of every high school should consider himself a potential contributor to the prosperity of the nation through any channel. Our democratic creed maintains that as a goal all careers are open to every young person before maturity and all careers are of equal importance to society and of equal social status. W i t h such assumptions as directives, the educational administrator and teacher is faced with a colossal task. European colleagues can only marvel at the courage and faith of their American counterparts. Boldness and hope may enable us to operate our system for a

Foreword

XV

few decades. But the proof of the pudding is in the eating. Unless our schools with their undifferentiated curriculum in the lower grades and their emphasis on flexibility prove valuable social instruments they will be altered by society or society will alter its ambitions. T o repeat, a greatly improved and expanded guidance program must be provided. For this reason educators can hardly place any item higher on the agenda than that of assembling the data on which a better guidance program can be built. As a contribution toward that end, the Arlington Study seems to me of great importance. This volume, therefore, is of significance not only to professional educators but to all thoughtful citizens of this nation. J A M E S B . CONANT

Guidance of American Youth

"Woe be to the generation that lets any higher faculty in its midst go unemployed." THOREAU

1 Some Problems of American Adolescents T H I S IS A R E P O R T about some of the problems which youth meets in the process of coming of age in America. It describes the experience of guidance counselors who attempted, over a five-year period, the difficult task of helping young people help themselves to solve their problems. It reports the results of their efforts to keep records of their procedures so that others may apply them, suitably modified to meet local situations, when they undertake similar tasks. It shows how the citizens in one community and the personnel of its schools were brought to realize the nature and extent of the problems of their youth, and how they have improved their educational practices to serve youth more effectively. Finally it presents evidence that the practices used in the Study "paid off" in terms of better adjustments and performances of the young people while they were in school and when they left to enter an occupation or to continue their education in other institutions. In some cases there is information about their performances eleven years after the initial counseling which began when they were in the eighth grade. When we write about young people who have problems we do not refer to what are commonly known as "problem children," though a small percentage of our population could have been classified as such. The problems that our subjects met during the period of their junior and senior high school careers ran almost the gamut of human experiences. 1 W e worked with Nelson, who was so brilliant that secondary school had no challenge for him, 1 In this report we have deliberately avoided the presentation of difficult cases where such matters as moral delinquencies were involved, since they required special treatment. W e have also eliminated all cases which displayed extreme symptoms of health and glandular disorder, and all of the cases of severe mental disorganization.

4

Guidance of American Youth

who took up the study of Greek to keep him busy, and who worried because his poverty-stricken parents could not provide any financial aid to continue his education. 2 W e met Homer, who wanted to be left alone so that he could dream about becoming an outstanding scientist, working for the welfare of those whom he disliked because "girls are too silly and boys are too boisterous." W e had many sessions with Doreen, who was, at the age of fifteen, determined to run away to New York to perform in night clubs. W e listened to James, whose sole ambition was to get an easy job with enough time off to go fishing every day. W e tried to help Harry, who enjoyed "putting things over on people," especially teachers, who seemed to be well on his way to become a confidence man, and who was not bright enough to make a success of it. W e did help Margaret, who was brilliant but very bashful — who did not put forth her best efforts because she was afraid that they would bring her into the limelight. At the same time we worked with Walter, whose father was determined that his son should succeed him as head of a large business despite the fact that Walter's capacity would have been fully taxed by a minor clerical position. W e counseled with Louella, who refused to accept the limitations imposed by a physical handicap and became very unhappy when the boys ignored her. W e tried to help Kenneth, who was in trouble with his teachers because he did algebra exercises in his head and could see no sense in doing them in detail on paper. In the same classes we found David, who couldn't do the same exercises though he spent many extra hours at his books. And right along with the others was Tom, whose teachers described him as a hopeless, lazy, dull lad but whose part-time employer insisted that he was a conscientious, hard-working, neat, and efficient boy. T h e brief descriptions given above and the longer reports which follow are only small samples of youth's problems. Each one of our hundreds of subjects had unique problems and in each case they were complicated by problems raised by home and community conditions, health, parental attitudes, evidence of differential achievements levels, inadequate school offerings, and the many other factors which made each of these even more 2 Some readers may object to these brief descriptions because they are not stated in scientific numerical terms. W e refer such readers to the longer case descriptions which follow, and the highly respectable statistical data in Chapter IV.

Problems of Adolescents

5

complex. N o two subjects were alike, regardless of the fact that they could be placed under the headings which are currently used in the classification of cases in guidance textbooks. Indeed very few of the problems were simple enough to use the simplest classifications with any degree of validity. Usually there were so many complications that multiple implications and effects could be observed. As our subjects increased in age their problems frequently changed and increased in number. Occasionally the solution of one problem brought others to solve. The student who, as the result of efforts by the counselors and teachers, had found that school work could be challenging was now faced with the problem of securing financial support for higher education — something which had not caused him any concern up to that time. The youth who had withdrawn from other students, and who had responded to our efforts to help him to overcome his fear of others, became a new problem when his enthusiasm for group activities resulted in neglect of school assignments that were to be done alone. Changes in home situations such as those caused by the failure of a father's business, changes in health conditions, development of a new interest, and countless other factors, brought new problems so frequently that a case could never be closed. Finally, of course, there was the problem of the decision which all our subjects were required to make regardless of their original status — the decision concerning the choice of vocation, or the making of a plan for further education.3 The problems just mentioned are samples of those with which the guidance counselor was faced. They have been too simply stated: lest the reader get the impression that they are simple he should turn to the case of Homer, which follows. HOMER4 V o t e d the most bashful b o y in his graduating class, recognized b y his mother as socially maladjusted, stated b y teachers to be handicapped even in school w o r k b y his personal limitations, and these conditions 8 The ten case studies which follow were written, with the exception of the first paragraph, in 1941 from data collected over a five-year period. The report of a follow-up interview obtained in 1947, eleven years after initial counseling, was added at the time that it was secured. ' T h i s was written, as it appears here, in 1941. The report of Homer's status in 1947 has been added recently.

ó

Guidance of American Youth

immediately reflected in his physical appearance, Homer proved to be such a difficult problem that only partial success was attained in helping him to overcome his difficulties during a five-year period of counseling. When Homer was in the eighth grade of a junior high school he was referred by the principal to the counselor for study because of extremely poor posture, peculiar gait, failure to mix with other pupils, and academic difficulties. The principal thought that he seemed to be well on the way toward becoming a mental-health problem. Interpretation of Test Record5 (Thirty-six tests were administered to Homer during the five years of counseling.) Over a period of several years, there was a marked discrepancy in the scores obtained from the various tests of general mental ability but they were average for pupils of his age and grade. His reading comprehension and his speed of reading scores were average for his group and his vocabulary test performances were consistently high. He placed in the middle third of his group on a language test for highschool students and college freshmen. His scores on tests of mathematics were in the lower third of his class as well as his scores on paper form board tests of spatial facility and on tests designed to measure clerical aptitude. His score on a personality schedule was interpreted as indicative of neurotic tendencies. Family Data Homer was the son of American-born parents of English descent. Both parents were high-school graduates. The father was manager of a commercial concern. Homer's mother stated that the father had little interest in Homer or in other members of the family. She stated also that Homer's father liked to be alone and had no close friends. Until the birth of her daughter fourteen years after Homer was born, the mother worked as a stenographer, and she admitted that Homer was probably neglected during the years he was growing up. She had always realized that her son was not socially well adjusted and she seemed very anxious to do everything possible to help him. She was very cooperative with the counselor. Health Data Although Homer gave an impression, from the way he carried himself, that he had some physical disability, several medical examinations proved to be negative. Leisure-Time Activities Homer had always been a prolific reader and from the time that he entered junior high school historical novels have been his favorite 5

See discussion of the testing program in Chapter II.

Problems of Adolescents

7

type of literature. H e had tried his hand at writing poetry and short stories although he had never been willing to show any of these to the counselor or to any of his teachers. H e had a small stamp collection which had been accumulating over a period of years but he was not particularly interested in it. A f t e r he entered high school, he became interested in sports activities of the school and he frequently attended the baseball and football games as well as the track meets. H e had never participated in any of the group activities of the school. Work Experience Homer had never made any attempt to earn money. Vocational Choice Grade 8 Chemist or astronomer: H e daydreamed of being a great chemist or astronomer alone in his laboratory. Grade

9

Grade 10

Grade 11 Grade 12

Same. Journalism: H e liked to read and he also realized that future work in science would require too much mathematics. Same. Journalism or teaching: H e thought also that he might like to be a teacher of English. PROGRESS OF C O U N S E L I N G

W h e n Homer was first seen b y the counselor in the eighth grade he was a tall, thin, stooped-shouldered boy with large brown eyes, a squeaky voice, and a "hang-dog" expression on his face. W h e n he walked, he shuffled his feet and carried his left arm as if it were paralyzed. His whole appearance suggested some sort of physical disability. From time to time he had suffered the abuse of other boys in school who referred to him as "banjo eyes" and w h o teased him about girls. W h e n one teasing incident occurred in the eighth grade, Homer refused to come to school and complained of illness. It was not until the principal of the school assured him that it would not happen again that Homer was willing to come back to school. T h e following are excerpts from a letter written by Homer's mother to the principal after the counselor had recommended that Homer be given a physical examination and the source of school difficulties be investigated: " Y o u probably have wondered w h y you have not heard from me, regarding the matters that w e discussed when I interviewed you in your office recently. I have intended taking Homer to the doctor for a physical examination ever since, but as I am at business during the day, and this is the busiest time of the year, my spare time is very limited. ( M y mother takes care of Homer during b y absence.)

8

Guidance of American Youth "However, as Homer has not seemed very well of late, I remained home from the office this morning, had the doctor give him a thorough examination, and am submitting his report to you. "First, regarding posture: the doctor agreed with you, that Homer is very round-shouldered, but that this is entirely Homer's fault, in the way he carries himself. There is absolutely nothing organically wrong. He gave me a list of exercises for Homer to do, and wants him to take gym in school as often as possible. "Now, regarding his mixing with the other boys: This seems to be my biggest problem. I do not know if you heard about the 'Helen Episode,' or not, but it seems that some of the boys began to tease Homer about a girl named 'Helen.' Evidently it spread through the school, as that's all he heard, wherever he went, and then they would try to make him blush, which made matters worse. "Now I am not blaming the class, as I realize that if Homer would act like the other boys, no doubt they would leave him alone, and he probably invites their taunts by his attitude. However, the outcome of it was, that he got nervous indigestion, was sick for several days, and hasn't been to school since. "It does seem too bad, that his school work and health has to suffer for such a trivial matter. I explained all this to the doctor, and he said that he has known of cases of this kind before, and it is apt to affect a person's whole future. "You asked me to send you a list of the names of the boys that were the chief offenders, but as there are so many this seems quite impossible. I do not want you to think that I am complaining to you, for such is not my intention, but I am merely telling you the facts, as I am honestly afraid that Homer will refuse to go to school altogether, if the boys don't leave him alone. "If he doesn't come to school tomorrow, I wonder if you would mind calling him on the phone and talking to him. I think it might help a lot. I dislike very, very much to trouble you so much, but I hardly seem to know what else to do. "If I can be of any help in any way, please let me know."

Although the physician recommended corrective exercises, Homer refused to take gym in school because of the cold shower and because he did not like to undress in the presence of other boys. He did, however, attend a special posture class after considerable pressure had been brought to bear upon him but he put no effort into it and there were no perceptible results. The principal warned several boys who had teased Homer that further activity of this kind would not be tolerated, and the incident was closed. The counselor had several interviews with Homer while he was in the eighth grade. At first, he was unresponsive and suspicious but

Problems of Adolescents

9

he gradually became more cooperative. One of the topics discussed with him was his difficulty in eighth-grade Latin in which he was receiving failing marks. Homer stated that he was determined to succeed in it and wished to repeat the work in the ninth grade. Although it was not customary for the principal of this school to allow pupils to repeat college-preparatory courses, the counselor made special arrangements to allow Homer to repeat his Latin the following year. This dispensation was based upon the fact that his I.Q. score for that year was 119 and his vocabulary-test score was high, and also upon his intense desire to demonstrate to himself that he could succeed in that type of school work. It appeared at the time that his failure in Latin was due to personality difficulties rather than to lack of ability to do the work. When the counselor considered with Homer his problems of adjustment to adults and to other students, he professed a lack of concern about them. He stated that he wanted to be a great scientist working alone in his laboratory and that he could get along all right even if he didn't associate with other people. Apparently, his daydreams had been built around the idea of a great "lone wolf" scientist who could make great contributions to people even if he did not like them. Some of these ideas had been developed during long periods of reading which were carried on in his attempt to escape "girls who were too silly and boys who were too boisterous." The counselor had noted that Homer always walked home from school alone and that the other boys ignored him. As an experiment, he asked one of the boys who was well accepted by others to try to make friends with Homer, but the experiment" was unsuccessful when Homer became suspicious of the other boy's interest in him. The attempts, during the first year, to get diagnosis and correction of Homer's physical condition, to assist in the overcoming of academic difficulties, and to improve his relations with other people seemed to have been only fairly successful, but they provided basic data upon which to work during the next year. During the ninth grade the pupils in the school seemed to ignore Homer and to give up teasing him. He would not associate with any of his classmates. In interviews with the counselor, Homer intimated that he disliked Latin, and his work continued to be poor. In his other subjects, he received just passing marks. The gym teacher, at the instigation of the counselor, attempted some private intensive posture work with Homer but he was only passively cooperative. The counselor attempted to give Homer some voice modulation exercises, but he did not like the idea and did not carry them out. He preferred, ' In many cases, where more care was taken in finding a common factor of interest between two young people, this "buddy" technique was usually successful.

10

Guidance of American Youth

however, to practice these exercises, arranged by the counselor, than to take the private lessons from a speech teacher with which his mother had threatened him. Toward the end of the school year the counselor had obtained sufficient rapport with Homer so that he was willing to talk about his own difficulties without too much embarrassment, but there still existed a good deal of reservation on his part. Oftentimes, the counselor thought that he could detect in Homer's attitude a plea to be left alone. An attempt to get him sent to an excellent boys' camp for the summer was rejected by his parents at Homer's request. T h e counselor learned that Homer continued to daydream a good deal about being a scientist working alone in a laboratory, or about being an author and writing famous novels. Homer mentioned to the counselor authors and scientists who were eccentric, and the counselor indicated to Homer that many of them were unhappy because of their eccentricities. T h e counselor also indicated to him that many of them were great despite their eccentricities and that lack of social adjustment was not necessarily an indication of genius. During one of the interviews Homer and the counselor had a frank discussion about his recent test scores and school marks. A second mental test, broken up into short sections with time limits, was administered and a drop of twenty-one points in I.Q. from the first score was observed. He made a low score on a clerical aptitude test which requires a high rate of work speed and scored only at the average for his grade on an arithmetic test. His inability to work fast and accurately, as well as his low marks in academic courses, raised some doubt concerning his pursuit of the college-preparatory course successfully. Since Homer's ambitions and his parents' desires for him had not been changed, he would not consider any course other than the college-preparatory. He was allowed to elect it even though there was considerable doubt in the counselor's mind about his success. At Homer's completion of the ninth grade, the counselor felt that he had not yet done very much for the boy and that his problems were almost as serious as they had been a year before. There was, however, some progress in the awareness on the part of Homer, his parents, and his teachers that a problem existed and that there was need for some intensive work on it. In the tenth grade, Homer had very poor results with the collegepreparatory course. He was completely unable to do the Latin upon which his parents had insisted, and he finally dropped it. He failed algebra because of his inadequate background in arithmetic, and he began to realize for the first time that his lack of success in school might be a barrier to a successful career in science. He just managed to pass in French. This lack of success in school work made him feel

Problems of Adolescents

11

very much discouraged and hopeless. His mother came to the counselor and begged for help, saying that Homer brooded and withdrew more and more within himself. The counselor pointed out to her that unless a change could be brought about in Homer's behavior and appearance, he would be limited to an occupation where he would work alone with minimum contact with people. It was indicated also that there was considerable doubt concerning his ability to do college work, but that because of his determination to go to college, it might be better for his mental health to allow him to attend a college where academic standards were not too exacting, and then direct him to the semiskilled publishing or newspaper work in which he then expressed interest. The counselor did nothing more with Homer this year than attempt to alleviate some of the disappointment in his school work and to arrange a course for the following year which would be satisfactory for him. This course included required English, practical chemistry, required history, French, and a repetition of algebra. The choice of algebra for the second time was made in the belief that successs in it would be very effective in improving his morale. He had rejected the choice of shop work because there were "too many people moving around in the shop," and he would not consider an art elective because "I'm no good at that stuff." During the eleventh grade, he managed to pass in all of his subjects, with the exception of chemistry, which he dropped because he could not understand the problems. He had received failing marks, and had lost interest in the subject. The fact that he was able to pass in algebra brought back some of the self-confidence which he had lost after entering high school. For his senior year, a simplified course was planned for him in order to insure graduation. His mother reported that he continued to read extensively. She described him as a "lone wolf" but said that he was not morose or moody. Homer began to have more confidence in the counselor, and he was more willing to talk to him about his problems without any apparent reserve. The counselor attempted to get Homer interested in group activities, and he soon became enthusiastic about sports. He followed all the school teams closely. The counselor also attempted to get him interested in other boys and other boys interested in Homer, but because Homer made no attempt to continue the friendships, none of these associations lasted very long. In the senior year, Homer and the counselor planned the following program: ι. Homer was to force himself to participate in class discussions and activities; 2. He was to look directly at people when he talked to them instead of hanging his head and avoiding others' eyes;

12

Guidance of American Youth

3. He was to practice modulating his voice so that the high squeaky sound would be eliminated.7 Biweekly checks by the counselor with Homer and his teachers indicated continuous improvement. This improvement was noted on a chart which the counselor required Homer to keep. Some teachers reported that he obtained approval for the first time from other students because of his class activity. The other students listened and took issue with him in class discussions, particularly in United States History. Some improvement in his posture was also noted, though it was still far from normal. Homer insisted upon applying for admission to a nearby university and refused to consider any other institution. The counselor felt that this university might be too difficult for him, but he did not interfere with Homer's determination. The counselor took him on visits to other colleges which seemed to be more suited to his ability, but the institution first chosen remained the only one which the boy would consider. After a conference by the counselor and Homer with the admissions officer at that institution, it was agreed that he would be admitted if he made up a unit in French at some summer school. Arrangements were made for this so that he might enter college in the fall. Homer was now in his senior year, intent upon the study of journalism, and the counselor had no better suggestions to offer. After Homer completed his training, it was thought that he might get some position on a newspaper or in a publishing house. His senioryear English teacher reported that he could write good papers which reflected wide reading experience and that he was a good, methodical worker, but Homer knew that his work was not at a sufficiently high level to justify any optimism concerning writing as a career. He was still a "lone wolf" and still withdrew from people, but his mother now stated that, if necessary, he would talk to people and would take the initiative in doing things for himself — something which he had never done before. As far as his social adjustment was concerned, there was little reason to believe that he would change greatly. During the summer after Homer's graduation from high school, he wrote the following letter to the counselor: " I am writing, as you requested, to inform you as to how I spent the summer, and my plans for the fall. I spent a fairly pleasant seven weeks, studying French at summer school. The course was very interesting, and I had a very fine teacher who teaches at one of the high schools near here. Being interested in French, I excelled 'Some speech correctionists would not approve of such treatment. In view of all the circumstances in this case it seemed to be worth trying, and it did produce results.

Problems of Adolescents

13

there in every aspect, save social activities. There, as usual, I was the "proverbial flop." However, I passed my exam and came out with a Β for the course. T h e y gave me every recommendation. This morning I received a letter from the dean giving me full admission to the university. So I am quite satisfied with the way things have turned out. "Regarding my course at the university, I am planning an English-History major, and an Education-Psychology minor. This will fit me to become a teacher, as it will lead to the teacher's certificate. I don't know what kind of a teacher I will make but I don't like business or industry, and teaching is a safe living. Literature, by itself, is very uncertain, a teacher of Literature is sure of his check. I shall prepare myself to teach English and History. I plan to take the following freshman courses, English, History of Civilization, Intermediate French, American Government, and Physical Science. There is also a silly requirement about Physical Education, the proverbial bore. It carries no credit, so I shall "cut it" as often as possible." ELEVEN YEARS AFTER INITIAL COUNSELING

Homer graduated from the university with a major in history and a minor in English. His grades were average, but he was a conscientious student, who spent most of his free time in study. Against the advice of his college advisers he undertook graduate work in history. He took his final doctorate examinations in 1947 at a university which adjusts its programs and standards to individual differences in abilities of its students. He now plans to do research for a publishing house, library, or university, and the likelihood of his obtaining such a position is good. Homer was not drafted into the armed services because he was found to be "eligible for draft, but temperamentally unfit for military service." He seems to be somewhat better adjusted and less irritable than he was in high school, but according to his mother, he is certainly not a "normal boy." He has never worked for wages, is still a "lone wolf," and his recreation consists of reading and taking long solitary walks. If w e examine the record of this b o y w e find a complex set of personal problems apparently well fixed, of long standing, and thoroughly reinforced b y the conditions w h i c h existed in the home, the school, and the community. Apparently this b o y needed help w i t h physical, social, emotional, educational and vocational problems. If the reader reviews his case history and lists the specific problems under these headings he will find:

14

Guidance of American Youth ι. Maladjustment with his contemporaries, evidenced by name-calling and teasing, non-participation in a minimum of the usual group activities of boys of his age, and refusal to participate in gym classes. 2. A difficult home situation caused by the fact that the mother had been out of the home for long periods, and indifference by the father to the behavior of his son. 3. Failure in school, shown by poor marks and lack of participation in school activities other than classes. 4. Difficulties in physical development of a functional rather than organic nature. 5. Unrealistic choice of vocation.

Whose is the responsibility for providing the needed therapy in cases such as Homer's, and why was his condition neglected until he had reached junior high school? We shall leave the argument on the general issue until we have examined more of the problems, but common human sympathy for this unhappy individual demanded action. And regardless of what some may call sentimentality we must, as educators, become concerned with the fact that his social, physical, and emotional maladjustments limited his efficiency to the point where he could not profit from the instruction provided by the school. Finally, the probability is high that this boy, if left in the usual school routines, would have become an extremely ineffective, perhaps dependent, citizen. The responsibility for the treatment of the boy could have been placed squarely upon the shoulders of his parents, but they could not assume it, despite their willingness to do so. They, like many of the adults who are responsible for young people were unprepared by training or experience for such tasks, nor could they be trained adequately in time to help this boy. In such cases, regardless of how the school personnel may feel about the amount of responsibility that it should ultimately assume when the issue is considered in the abstract, the alternative to the neglect of this boy with the possible consequences noted above, is the kind of personalized attention which has been described. Even the best efforts of trained counselors were only partially effective in this case. The limited success appears to be due to the fact that his early training was faulty and the treatment for his difficulties too long delayed. It appears likely that, by the trained parent, teacher, or counselor, the symptoms might have been readily observed, their causes determined, and their implications

Problems of Adolescents

15

noted many years before he had reached junior high school. The implications in such cases appear to be clear. Training for and during parenthood must be provided. Teachers in public schools must be sensitized to the personal problems of their pupils and trained to do something about them. Counselors, psychologists, or psychiatrists must be available to assist in the diagnosis and treatment of those cases which require more training than the teacher or parent can reasonably be expected to obtain. There are many Homers in our schools who suffer similar difficulties, some to a much greater degree. And then, when such arguments as these have been given, there must always arise a small lingering doubt. Has anyone the right to interfere with a young person's mode of behavior as long as it is definitely not antisocial? Only if one fully accepts the current mode, the Zeitgeist of America, the "good fellows get together" spirit, can one feel sure. Is there not room for this boy, dreaming his dreams and doing his research alone and unhampered, as he put it, by people who are "too noisy" and "boisterous?" Did we do this boy a disservice when we urged him to mix with others? Maybe we were as wrong as we were when we thought that this boy would never attain the Ph.D. level. Perhaps his persistency and single-mindedness were qualities enough. Perhaps our interference was not justified. Or did we help to develop those traits? Were they the real outcomes of counseling? Sitting in the same eighth-grade classes with Homer was a boy named Nelson who differed from Homer in almost every factor that we attempted to appraise. Nelson's mental-test scores placed him among the upper two per cent of his group, and his achievement test scores were uniformly superior. He was physically vigorous, had made an excellent adjustment to his contemporaries, and performed well in school situations. He was the kind of student who sought extra work when school routines failed to challenge. He was an indefatigable worker to improve the conditions in his poverty-stricken home, and he was a thorough realist about the limitations which this poverty created. His problems were typical of those commonly met by gifted youth whose families have not achieved the upper levels of the economic scale. The excellent adjustment achieved in this case will be observed in the following report.

16

Guidance of American Youth NELSON

Nelson was referred to the guidance counselor in the eighth grade by the principal of a junior high school as a boy with very high ability and ambition who needed assistance in financing further education. His family was unable to provide any aid, and it appeared likely that his very high achievements and sense of responsibility could not be utilized to their fullest if he were forced to go to work as soon as he reached the legal age of school-leaving. Interpretation of Test

Record

Nelson made superior scores on every test administered to him over a five-year period. On the Stanford-Binet Test (old form) his l.Q. score was 145, and this appeared to approximate his true score. In the fields of reading, language, mathematics, spatial facility, and speed and accuracy as measured by a clerical test, he scored above the 8jth percentile for five consecutive years. Although the scores on the personality schedule suggested some emotional maladjustment, no other evidence substantiated this finding. On the Strong Vocational Interest Blank for Men, he obtained an A rating in group I and group II, which might have indicated that his interests were most similar to chemists, engineers, mathematicians, architects, artists, dentists, and physicians. Other evidence indicated the same interest in occupations at a professional level. Family Data

Nelson was the second of three children of American-born parents. His mother died when he was about four years old, and when he was six, his father remarried. There were no children from his father's second marriage. His father had been in very poor health since the first World War, and his earnings as a craftsman had been very meager. His stepmother, who was employed as a secretary, was the main support of the family. Nelson's older brother was attending a Midwestern college where he was considered to be an exceedingly brilliant student. A younger sister attended junior high school. She was not as successful as her brothers in academic work. The home relationship between the parents and the children was excellent. Nelson's stepmother was very devoted to the children. She was very cooperative with the counselor, and she was a frequent visitor to his office. Health Data

Nelson was somewhat underweight according to the health records in the school, but he received excellent home care. His stepmother had been very careful about his diet and occasionally seemed somewhat

Problems of Adolescents

17

oversolicitous about his physical condition. Routine school medical examinations did not reveal any physical defects or disabilities. A slight ocular disability was corrected adequately by glasses. Leisure-Time

Activities

Nelson's major hobby was collecting phonograph records of classical music. His interest in music was strong. Whenever possible, he attended symphony concerts and seemed to gain a great deal of pleasure and satisfaction from them. Bicycling was a major interest which persisted throughout his secondary school years. H e took several long bicycle trips through neighboring states. Nelson was somewhat timid in social gatherings, and during his early high-school career, he avoided attending class dances and parties. In his senior year he sought such positions as ticket-taker at class dances so that he was not obliged to invite a girl. In discussing these activities with the counselor he attributed them to timidity in social functions, but the counselor believed that need for money played an important part in this lack of participation. Work

Experience

During the time that Nelson was in the ninth and tenth grades, he sold newspapers at a junction of the main traffic arteries leading out of town, and for a newsboy, his earnings were fairly large. He was markedly responsible in this job, and he carried on when others with less drive were unwilling to face disturbing circumstances. During the summers both he and his brother did sufficient odd-job work to pay for their own clothes and school expenses. After Nelson had entered the eleventh grade, he gave up his newspaper work because it interfered with school studies. Vocational

Choice

Grade 8 Science, probably engineering: This decision was probably influenced by his readings in science. Grade 9 Same Grade 10 Same Grade 11

Science and teaching: Probably influenced by his success in chemistry and by his admiration for the chemistry teacher.

Grade 12

Same: The exactness of science appealed to him. He was considering teaching because of its security and immediate income after college graduation and because he thought he would like to work with young people.

18

Guidance of American Youth PROGRESS OF COUNSELING

Nelson was a tall, thin, rangy, clean-cut boy with an engaging smile. During many interviews the counselor found him to be courteous, honest, straightforward, and attentive. He was one of the most conscientious pupils in the school in the matter of filling out questionnaires administered to him. During the first interviews with him in the eighth grade the counselor saw immediately that Nelson would need help to continue his studies, and he discussed the problem of scholarship aid for further education. Nelson was told that his chances for such help were excellent if he did the school work of which he was capable. He was encouraged to do more than his regular class work in order to obtain as high marks as possible. With his cooperation, a school program for the ninth grade, which would not be too heavy in view of his newspaper work, was outlined. Science and engineering seemed to interest him as possible occupational choices, and the counselor gave him some general reading material covering these fields. During subsequent interviews these readings were discussed, and Nelson seemed to have a fairly good idea about what these vocations involved. In the ninth grade, Nelson won a medal in a national contest for an essay on Graphic Arts. He had entered this contest without consulting his teachers or parents. The counselor made Nelson aware of the emphasis by colleges on "all-around boys," and worked out a program with him for participation in athletics and other extracurricular activities. As a result, Nelson campaigned for and won election as president of the Student Council, and he also became a member of the track team. He was very successful in all these activities. Although he was an all A student, he seemed to be popular with the other boys and was regarded more as a "regular fellow" than as a "sissy" or "teacher's pet." In the tenth grade, Nelson and the counselor selected a program of only four subjects because it seemed desirable for the boy to do very well on these instead of carrying a heavier program with the lesser chance of keeping up his fine academic record. Later, when Nelson found that this load was too light, he decided to study Greek on his own. Science still seemed to interest him a great deal, and his interest was further stimulated by his success in mathematics. Nelson and the counselor discussed several times the vocational possibilities for him in that field. During the summer of this school year, Nelson worked with his brother. They cared for lawns in the community and their earnings were sufficient to keep them in clothes and to cover expenses for the following school year.

Problems of Adolescents

19

Shortly after Nelson entered the tenth grade, a long interview was held with his stepmother, at her request, concerning the problem of permitting Nelson to continue in the college-preparatory course. She thought that there was no prospect of financial help for college. She thought that he should take a course to prepare him for some immediate occupation, for she doubted that a partial scholarship would be sufficient to keep him in college. During this interview the counselor indicated that Nelson's chances for getting a substantial scholarship were very good. If this was not obtained, the alternative of having him work for a year after graduation from high school before going to college was considered. As a result of this interview, his stepmother decided that he should continue in the college course. Apparently, financial conditions at home were difficult because the counselor noted a very strong desire on Nelson's part to get out of school as soon as possible to earn money. He had strong feelings concerning his obligation to support the family, but the counselor pointed out that he probably could be of more help to his parents in the future if he obtained a college education. W i t h respect to extracurricular activities for this year, Nelson was confronted with the problem of studying piano or joining the debating club because he felt that there was not sufficient time for both. T h e pros and cons were discussed with him, and he made the choice of piano. When the decision had been made, he practiced one hour daily. He was able to obtain lessons free of charge from a friend. It was during this year that his interest in music increased greatly, and much of his leisure time was spent at concerts or in reading about music and musicians. T h e summer following completion of the tenth grade he had a fairly extensive paper route and did odd jobs in the neighborhood. When he returned to school in the fall, his morning and evening paper routes seemed to take too much time, and because he seemed to have sufficient money to carry him through the school year, he decided to discontinue them. In discussing occupations with the counselor, he became somewhat discouraged about engineering because of what he considered to be the poor prospects in the field at that time. His interest in high-school teaching increased. He obtained a good deal of pleasure from his work in chemistry and became quite friendly with a chemistry teacher whom he admired. After the midyear holiday of his eleventh school year, his stepmother became ill, and Nelson took over a number of the household duties. H e did the cooking, washing, and ironing, as well as housecleaning, so that he had very little time for homework or extracurricular activities. Except for his concern about his stepmother's health, he was as cheerful and good-natured as he always had been.

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Guidance of American Youth

A summary of the counselor's information about Nelson, including marks, test scores, and evidence of his industry was sent to two local colleges with a query concerning the possibility of securing a scholarship after he had graduated. Both institutions indicated that his possibilities for scholarship aid were very good, and they expressed considerable interest in him. During the summer, between the eleventh and twelfth grades, Nelson again sold papers and did odd jobs. This work again enabled him to pay for his clothing and save money for incidental expense during the following school year. A t the beginning of the twelfth grade, the problem of continuing the paper route came up again, and after some discussion with the counselor, he dropped it. H e estimated that he could make as much money by doing odd jobs that required less time. T h e counselor encouraged Nelson to participate more in school activities, and he was elected Editor-in-Chief of the Year Book, a very responsible and highly important position. H e also became a member of the varsity debating society and his performance in several debates was outstanding despite the fact that this was his first year of participation. T h e counselor encouraged him to join the Burroughs Newsboys Club, and he also became a member of a youth club in a church. During the winter of his senior year, applications for scholarship were made to a number of leading universities and to outside agencies which offered college aid to needy students. T h e latter part of Nelson's senior year was very trying because his stepmother became very much concerned about his chance to attend college. A n indication of her state of mind at that time may be gleaned from her remark, " I would give my life to see that this boy goes through college." Her concern about Nelson become so distorted that the counselor found it necessary to have several interviews with her to alleviate her extreme anxiety and prevent a possible mental breakdown. Nelson took the spring scholarship examinations administered by the College Entrance Examination Board, and he kept up his efforts to get high marks in his studies. During the spring of his senior year he was offered a tuition scholarship from the Midwestern college which his brother was attending. His parents were inclined to have him accept this scholarship and to supplement his resources by working for his board and room. T h e counselor reiterated that aid from one of the large universities would probably be forthcoming and that his vocational possibilities after graduation would probably be much better if he graduated from a larger university. Nelson and his parents finally decided to decline the scholarship, and shortly thereafter he was granted a National Scholarship from Harvard University for $800 annually. He was also granted a scholarship of $100 from his high school.

Problems of Adolescents

21

In view of Nelson's high performances and the fact that his college financial worries had been alleviated, the counselor predicted a successful college career and high achievement in any vocational pursuit which he chose. ELEVEN YEARS AFTER INITIAL COUNSELING

Six years after Nelson had graduated from high school, the counselor obtained the following information in an interview with him. At college Nelson received honor grades in all courses except a half-course in philosophy and a course in physics which was known to be exceedingly difficult. His work was good enough to permit acceleration, and he graduated in three and one-half years cum laude in electronic physics. Following graduation he was deferred from military service and assigned to do some secret work in physics in a naval research project until the war ended. At that time he continued his graduate work in physics, earned his master's degree, and received a generous fellowship which permitted him to carry on the work for his doctorate. Upon completion of that work in 1947, he planned to seek a university appointment which would enable him to do research in electronics. Nelson married a girl whom he met at a church function, shortly after graduation. His parents were not particularly pleased about his marriage because they thought that it would handicap his efforts. His wife has, however, worked while he has been a graduate student, and has contributed much to his success. Nelson says that he is very happily married. His parents have been somewhat concerned about his independence since he has had sufficient financial support, but he has a strong feeling of responsibility toward his family, and both he and his wife have given some of their earnings to the family when they were in need. Nelson was the first Harvard National Scholarship winner f r o m his high .school. T h e achievement can be attributed in large part to the persistence of the counselor, but Nelson's abilities and his willingness to use them w e r e the basic factors which justified the counselor's efforts. It is conceivable, of course, that Nelson might have carried on without such assistance, earned a small scholarship, and b y working f o r his board have made his w a y . T h e fact, however, that his parents urged him to change to a more practical course and the fact that he felt a strong obligation to make immediate contributions to the support of his family make it seem likely that he would have dropped into the commercial course to prepare himself f o r a job after he had completed high school. H e would, therefore, not have had enough

22

Guidance of American Youth

academic credits for college entrance if there had been a change in fortune, and would have found the work with less capable students lacking in challenge. In doing so he would have done as many others in public high schools have done, to their sorrow. The statistics reported in Chapter IV indicate that such persons are not happy about their vocational or social placements. There are many questions involved in the guidance of boys of Nelson's capabilities. Is it possible that he might have been better prepared for life if he had fought his battles without the assistance of a counselor? Was he not strong enough so that he would have come to the top despite the difficulties? Does it weaken character to help a boy of this kind? Would he not have been better served if he had been encouraged to take a program of studies that would have prepared him, as well as any course in high school can, to go to work upon graduation from high school? It soon becomes evident, when one works with a number of such individuals, that there are no general answers to such questions. And no real way has yet been established to determine the best treatment since each is irreversible and unique, and no "control" with another individual can be obtained. When we consider the particular case of Nelson there is very little reason to believe that his character was weakened by the assistance which the counselor provided. He sought information and advice, but he was intelligent enough to weigh carefully the information which he obtained. He did not lean upon the counselor, and when his share of the job of getting financial aid was outlined, he accepted it and put forth his best. With his abilities, his drive, his desire to learn, and his industry it seems that he might have been successful in almost anything that he undertook. If college can serve any young person, Nelson is the kind who should be served, and society cannot afford to neglect the potential contribution of a boy of his caliber. The counselors, who knew him for five full years, were convinced that this boy could be assisted without loss to him as an individual, and with gain to society. Not all of the students of superior ability who were studied could have received the same treatment as this lad without loss, but Nelson's rare combination of abilities, traits, and stamina were outstanding, and the counselor's actions appeared to have been thoroughly justified. Such students are too precious to ignore in the routine school procedures which schools without guidance services provide.

Problems of Adolescents

23

For contrast with the brilliant Nelson we may now examine the record of a classmate, Paula, whose test performances over a five-year period indicated that little success in academic pursuits could be expected. Along with the contrast, however, we may observe that both displayed tremendous drive to achieve similar goals, at different levels, despite the difficulties presented by extreme poverty in their homes. She, like Nelson, overcame the obstacles and made what appeared to be a successful adjustment. PAULA A tall, thin girl with a drawn expression, Paula struggled to achieve her ambition of completing high school, despite the fact that she could not understand much of what took place in her classes. When first seen she was in junior high school and was already much over-age for her grade. She was required to spend most of her out-ofschool hours at menial jobs in order to pay her own way. School

Record

Paula was always alert to make the most of her limited ability. She was never hesitant to question matters she could not understand, and was good-natured when the class was amused by her stupid questions, or when she made obvious blunders. She was persistent in keeping at a task as long as she had time. Her written work was neat and carefully prepared though there were frequent errors in spelling and many confused ideas. She insisted on having credit for everything she did. She graduated 272nd in a class of over 500 — a remarkable achievement in view of her limited ability. The following comments and statements about her work in various subjects reveal the nature of her difficulties. English. — Grade 7: She found grammar and spelling "hard." The teacher stated, "She seemed just visiting in class until she had failed two terms; but once she started coming back for extra drill, she really worked hard, showing childish glee as each new point became clear to her." Grade 8: She was considered weak in reading and language usage. Grade 9: Reported reading some western and detective stories, movie magazines, and True Concessions every night. Her teacher reported erratic work but occasional excellence, a peppy and enthusiastic manner, and a language handicap which was partly due to use of a foreign language at home. In oral English, Paula said she failed occasionally because "I just can't give speeches." The teacher of this class reported slight effort, constant giggling, and whispering.

24

Guidance of American Youth

Mathematics. — Grade 8: She enjoyed mathematics classes, though she showed weakness in fundamentals. She avoided this subject during the next four years. This lack of training in arithmetic handicapped her in courses in office practice. Business. — Grade 8: She considered business practice unnecessary, saying, "I can do well enough in business without that stuff." Her weakness in arithmetic showed up in a course in office practice in grade 12, where she was one of the few pupils who did not improve after the comptometer teacher put her through remedial drills. Grade 10: "I have to come back every day the typing teacher is there to finish my typing assignments." Teacher reported conscientious work, but said, "She is not good material for office work." Grade 11: Paula said, "I just can't get shorthand." Teacher said that she tried hard, did homework faithfully, but simply could not retain the principles involved. "Her social adjustment in class was excellent. She kept the girls laughing and was not upset by failure. I gave her points for the subject because of her effort and because she recognized that she could not continue in the subject." In commenting about typing, Paula remarked, "I have to work at my job the only day the teacher lets us come back to make up homework, or I can't complete enough perfect answers to pass." Office practice teacher reported achievement up to the limit of her ability on computing machines, saying, "She is too weak in arithmetic fundamentals to reach the level required of her class." Business organization teacher thought her lazy in completing written work, "but so amusing and good-natured in class that you can't get annoyed at her." Science. — Grade 11: She disliked science, said that she couldn't see any point to it and refused to consider further election of subjects in this field. Social Studies. — Grade 10: She enjoyed commercial geography. Grade 11: She was looking forward to American history. Grade 12: Teacher reported great interest and effort in American history. "She can understand the work if it is simplified for her." She could not understand economics, in spite of her great effort and her thorough, neat work. She said that was due in part to the fact that she had to work on a part-time job so late in the evenings that she was tired when she started studying. The commercial law teacher reported equal lack of comprehension, but arranged with the counselor to give her special assignments in phases which she could understand. She passed because she had done faithful work and because she had limited time for studying. Practical Arts. — Grade 8: "I like to cook and sew at home and take care of kids." Grade 11: "Sewing's all right. I'd have got a better mark one term if I'd brought my dress to be marked. My sister'd worn

Problems of Adolescents

25

it and spoiled it, and I was scared to bring it back." Grade 12: Paula found sewing easier "because teacher's directions are given so clearly." Sewing teacher reported careful work but weakness on written assignments. Paula found Home Management easy and interesting. The teacher reported frequent failure to do homework and said, "She asks such inane questions." Interpretation of Test Record Paula tried hard on all tests. On the New Stanford Achievement Test administered by the school in grade 8 at the age of 13-10, she showed retardation of two years and two grades. The only two sections of the test on which her grade equivalents were up to her school status were Geography (grade 8.0) and Arithmetic Computation (grade 7.6). In grades 8 to 12 she ranked in the lowest third of her group on most tests of general mental ability, reading, language, and mathematics. She was relatively more successful on the Minnesota Paper Form Board Test, which does not require the use of language, and on the Minnesota Vocational Test for Clerical Workers. On the Cooperative General Achievement Test, a survey test in mathematics, she did as well as the average student in her group who had studied the same amount of mathematics. This finding was in line with her satisfactory work in bookkeeping, but not with the analysis of teachers in every subject in which solution of arithmetical problems was part of the work of the course. Family Data Paula was the older of two daughters of foreign-born parents. Her sister, three years younger, was in a special class for backward children until she left school to be married. Eventually, the sister returned home to live with her parents, working occasionally at a very poorly paid domestic job. Paula's father, employed occasionally as a casual laborer for building contractors, was a market-gardener who frequently peddled his own vegetables. The home rated very low on the Sims Socio-Economic Scale. Neither parent had attended high school. They spoke a foreign language at home much of the time. When English was attempted, it was broken and ungrammatical. They were proud of Paula for staying in school, and they were ambitious for her to secure "a good job," though they could not provide her even with minimum clothes and spending money while she was in high school. The home had few books or magazines and those that were available were of the sensational, pulp, movie, or "confession" variety. Health Paula was thin, of a rather wiry build, and usually pale. She often appeared to have a drawn and tired expression, but she reported that

26

Guidance of American Youth

her health was good. Routine school examinations indicated that there were no defects. In grade 12, she gained weight and looked stronger and more rested than ever before because, she said, " M y boss [on a part-time job] makes me eat two good meals a day with lots more milk than I ever had, and then my boyfriend has been drafted so I don't stay up late on dates." Leisure-Time Activities Paula did not participate in extracurricular activities, because she was too engrossed in job responsibilities. Her sole recreation was obtained in her own home and with relatives. In junior high school, she rarely read or did anything of an academic nature. The distance of her home from school and her lack of pocket money made it difficult for her to do things with school acquaintances or go to the movies in the town. She helped with sewing and cooking in the home, and peddled vegetables with her father until her school homework became too heavy. She found employment away from home that was more remunerative and less time-consuming. Later, part-time employment enabled her to afford an occasional movie or pulp magazine and time to listen to the radio. Almost all her activities were still shared with her immediate family or other relatives. In grade 11 she admitted an ambition to work on the school paper, but considered herself "too dumb" to dare to try out. She had made friends with a crowd that went roller-skating, dancing, and to the movies together, until halfway through her senior year the boys were called into active service by the National Guard. Work Experience While in junior high school, Paula had a vegetable route on which she sold the vegetables that her father raised. She was successful and enjoyed the work. Later, she began to secure evening jobs as a baby-sitter. One employer's introduction got her a summer job finishing pocketbooks with a Boston firm, and she earned up to $10 a week at piece work. She thoroughly enjoyed this work and was very proud of her earnings. In Grade 11 she had an after-school domestic job four or more afternoons a week, making $2.50 or more a week. In grade 12 the same employer paid her $5.00 a week "and two good meals" for working six hours a day, six days a week. This was a hard job that included washing and heavy cleaning. Paula needed the money so badly that she refused to jeopardize her wages by asking for shorter hours or investigating other jobs, even when there was danger of her failing to graduate because of lack of time to study.

Problems of Adolescents Occupational

27

Choice

Grade 8 Stenographer: "Looks like a nice job." Grade 9 Stenographer: " A friend of my father's says he can get me a job." Grade 10 Stenographer: Family pressure to have one member get through school trained for a "good job." Grade 11 (1) Office work: N o reason given. (2) Factory piece work: "I liked my job and made good money." (3) Power stitching: Learned from counselor that training was available and said, "I want to get training on something I can really do." Grade 12 (1) Dressmaking: Considered this occupation because she was doing well in sewing and failing in business subjects. (2) Light assembly work: Liked working with her hands and was interested in jobs described by the counselor. PROGRESS OF C O U N S E L I N G

In grade 8, at the age of 14-10, Paula was referred to the counselor. She was considerably older than most students in her class. She was failing in Business Practice, and her other grades for the first marking period were below what might have been expected from her seventhgrade performance. Her rating on a test of general ability, previously administered in the school, placed her on the lower fringe of the normal group, and this rating was verified by her poor performance on the language and mathematics tests administered by the counselor. T h e test scores suggested that her good marks in the past had been partially due to conscientiousness and good conduct rather than to actual achievement. T h e counselor's first impression of energetic, quick-moving, and tense Paula was that she was taller and more mature than most girls in her grade. She was thin, dark-complexioned, and she had somewhat prognathic facial features. Her bizarre combinations of clothes and hair ribbons made her outstanding in any group. She was friendly and responsive, and she was so anxious to tell her story that only an occasional question was required to keep up her rapid flow of language. She welcomed a listener and told details of her family life without reserve. She was obviously closely bound with her home, parents, and other relatives for she quoted her parents continually to back up her statements. She displayed a keen interest in her job of peddling vegetables with her father, which suggested that her very

28

Guidance of American Youth

enthusiasm must account in part for her success in selling. The counselor observed that she did not participate in clubs and athletic activities, either in school or in her neighborhood but that she did attend a number of community dances. She complained that she never had money for movies or other activities because all her earnings were turned over to her family. Paula displayed little enthusiasm about school. She was much concerned with home interests and responsibilities, felt that the school had little to offer her, and was resigned to the fact that she was not a good student. Her work was, however, done very conscientiously, and she was pleased to have avoided assignment to the special class for dull students which her sister and cousin had attended. She wanted to leave school to help at home as soon as she was sixteen, and the counselor saw no reason to encourage her to continue. She was needed at home, and it seemed unlikely that she would succeed in further academic work or profit enough by commercial training to justify the time involved. In her selection of subjects for grade 9, Paula was less influenced by the counselor's comments than by a visitor at home who promised to find work for her if she was trained for stenography. There was no relationship in her mind between failure in Business Practice and chance of success in stenography. The counselor pointed out difficulties suggested by her language handicap, but since he was convinced she would drop out of school within the year, he did little to discourage her in this choice. On tests administered to her in grade 9, Paula's general mentalability rating was below the normal group. She was three years below her grade level in reading. Her vocabulary was very limited but she could read the simple magazine and newspapers in which she was interested. She was doing well in the household arts and her marks in other subjects — all C's — seemed to reflect conscientious effort rather than real accomplishment. The counselor discussed with her the advantages of electing the household-arts curriculum for the duration of her schooling, but Paula, influenced by family ambitions and the interest of friends, started senior high school in the stenographic curriculum. In the tenth-grade testing program, Paula still ranked low on all tests except the Minnesota Paper Form Board Test and the Minnesota Vocational Test for Clerical Workers. She upset the counselor's predictions by passing all of a rather severe tenth-grade program with B's in Bookkeeping and Commercial Geography, and C's in Clothing and English. She also passed an exacting first-year course in typing. An analysis of her study habits showed that she had to spend several extra hours a week at typing to produce the required "perfect copies" and that home study in other subjects took all of her free time. In

Problems of Adolescents

29

view of her marks, the counselor was obliged to admit that her diligence and her strong desire for success had been rewarded. These and the fact that she was over-age for her grade should have been given more weight in earlier predictions, the counselor suspected, so that when Paula insisted on continuing in the stenographic curriculum, the counselor advised, but did not insist, that she avoid shorthand. By the time she was interviewed in grade 11, Paula was now among the shorter 8 members of her class, still thin and wiry, all elbows and enthusiasms. Occasionally, however, she showed bitterness toward school work and teachers, as her difficulties in typing and shorthand increased. Her diction was poor and her speech occasionally ungrammatical, but she had no difficulty or reticence in expressing opinions. She reported inability to keep up with assignments. "Even if I do every bit of the homework, when I get to class it's marked wrong, or the teacher asks different questions." Her painstaking memorizing no longer carried her through classes where the required reasoning was frequently beyond her ability, and her weakness in language was an insurmountable obstacle in stenography. And now she did not have time for extra study or extra afternoons in the typing room because she worked four afternoons a week as a domestic. T h e counselor's suggestion that she give up this job temporarily did not prove feasible, for it was Paula's only source of funds for clothes, recreation, and the contribution which she thought she was obligated to make to her family. She was even unwilling to jeopardize her job by asking her employer to shift her free afternoon to the one day a week that her typing teacher could take students for make-up work. T h e counselor concentrated on developing study skills to enable her to make her points toward graduation. Meanwhile, he pointed out the necessity of shifting to an easier curriculum during her senior year if she intended to keep up her outside work and still do enough of the school work to graduate. During a discussion of Paula's successful summer experience in the pocketbook factory, the counselor pointed out possible openings in other industrial plants where she might do assembly work, certain finishing jobs, and power-machine stitching. She was willing to consider any job which would offer her as high wages as she had earned during the summer, but she would not leave school until she had secured the high-school diploma that she and her family desired. T h e teachers of commercial subjects reported that Paula was frequently discouraged in class, but she did not seem seriously disturbed by her failures. She continued to be pleasant and friendly with her teachers and associates and often "kept the girls laughing." She confided to her favorite teacher that her real ambition was to follow her sister's example and get married soon. Save for the 8 The other students had now gone through their pre-pubescent spurts in physical growth.

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Guidance of American Youth

morale value of fulfilling a strong ambition, she seemed likely to gain little from another year of the type of study in which she had been engaged, so the counselor's main concern was to see that she selected courses that she could pass. The counselor recommended further consideration of a transfer to the household-arts curriculum, suggested summer training in powermachine stitching at the Opportunity School (which would allow job-hunting during half the day) until she found summer work, and worked out with her a comprehensive program of job-hunting in fields related to her experience. Paula showed considerable canny common sense in planning this program, and quickly grasped the gist of the counselor's suggestions of simple readings in Your Future magazine. She had several interviews for jobs but did not find an opening so she continued her part-time domestic work. During the summer, she twice raised the question of continuing the clerical course, and twice was told that her mark in Office Practice was not high enough, according to school regulations, to permit further study in that field. She started out in grade 12 well pleased with all her householdarts program. She was doing the work of a full-time maid for her employer in order to double her weekly income, because, she said, "This last year I just have to have some new clothes and enough to pay for my yearbook and all the extras. Of course, Mother needs extra money at home, too." She began to get failing marks in English and Economics because she did not have enough time to study. The counselor urged her to arrange with her employer for time off on afternoons when the teacher could give her help, but Paula refused either to do so or to let the counselor consult the employer, until it became certain that she was going to fail to make enough points for graduation. When she threatened to leave school, the counselor supplemented her mother's urging to give up the job and finish her year at school, and she finally did so. Paula did not give serious consideration to other jobs, but finally did arrange time for regular make-up sessions which the counselor arranged with teachers who were beginning to lose patience. The vigor and persistence which she put into these sessions convinced teachers that she was doing her best, so they cooperated with the counselor in giving her simple assignments in Commercial Law and in English for the last half of the year. Looking forward to employment after graduation, she discussed with the counselor light assembly jobs with local radio and soap manufacturers, printing, and printing supply concerns. She was introduced to personnel managers in these industries. T o check her manual skill, she was given a rate of manipulation test, on which her score was average for the general population, and then referred to the Y.W.C.A. for further dexterity tests. Her performance on the tests was reported as adequate for light assembly work. The day after gradua-

Problems of Adolescents

31

tion, she was one of a group of girls who accompanied the counselor on a visit to laundries and manufacturing concerns to observe the work being done and to apply for a job. She stuck it out among dozens of applicants at a manufacturing company where, upon the counselor's recommendation, she was employed as a stem-winder in the radio tube department. Her success in securing employment appeared to be due to the counselor's sponsorship, for the employer had previously decided that he would not employ any more girls of foreign descent in the particular department in which the vacancies had existed. The counselor helped Paula to obtain the necessary working papers and recommendations in time to start work the next day. It was expected that she would want to make a change in employment before the year was over, due to unpleasant working conditions, the possibility of eyestrain, and danger of burns from working with hot metals. W h e n interviewed by the counselor during the spring following graduation, she had many complaints about these factors, about criticism from her new supervisor, and her new work. She had been transferred when her original department was reduced in size. She liked her associates, however, was interested in all the different types of work available, and was stimulated by the challenge of "keeping ahead of the other girls," in a single repetitive process. These and her satisfaction in a raise in pay from $12 to $16 a week (plus $3 or $4 overtime, frequently) made her unwilling to accept easier work suggested by the counselor. She was proud of her pay, enjoyed social activities at the plant, and looked forward to doing similar work until she could get married, saying, "I'd like office work because it would be cleaner, but I could not make as much as I am making I'm sure. Guess I'd better stay where I am." Her family was proud of her earning power and worried only because the long hours tired her and strained her eyes. E L E V E N Y E A R S AFTER I N I T I A L

COUNSELING

The following report of Paula's activities five years after she graduated from high school was obtained in 1947. Paula worked at the factory for two years and then married the "boyfriend" of high-school days. A t the time of her marriage he was in the A r m y and Paula followed him throughout his training periods and later assignments. She supplemented the family income by working as a waitress, factory worker, and restaurant checker. She disliked the inconvenience of travel but felt that it was her duty to be with her husband. After he was discharged they returned to their home town. She secured a job as a checker in a chain grocery store while her husband worked as a mechanic. T h e y live in a modest home which is fur-

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Guidance of American Youth

nished in good taste, and she appears to be an excellent housekeeper. At the present time Paula is expecting a child. She has a good deal of confidence in herself and is very proud of her accomplishments so far. There were many times during Paula's career when it seemed that she would leave school, and there were many times when it seemed that such action would have been the best possible course for her. Girls from the same section of the city and from similar poverty-stricken, foreign-language-speaking homes, who were not counseled, generally made it a practice to leave school as soon as they had reached the compulsory education age minimum. N o effort to keep them was made by the school. They simply drifted off, their records were filed, and no one seemed to care. If our schools are designed, however, to educate all the children of all the people something must be done to keep them in school. And if they are to be kept, a program to meet their needs must be provided. It is clear that much of the time that Paula spent in school was wasted because she couldn't understand what was being taught. Spurred by her family's desire to have one member graduate from high school, she struggled through four years to get a diploma and take the same kind of job which required no more formal education than she had attained four years earlier. The few half-understood facts which she had accumulated, the meager homemaking skills which could be used, and the feeling of accomplishing something that her family wanted were probably the total product of the four-year struggle. Her uneducated parents, and perhaps the counselor, rather than all the formal class work to which she was exposed, provided the motivating force to carry her through. What should have been done with Paula, and what must be done with those who have similar problems? Are we to continue to turn them out (at least continue to be indifferent to their school-leaving), or are we going to modify our requirements for high-school graduation to permit these people to get the kind of education they need? Is generalization on such issues so completely impossible that each case must be treated on its merits? Must we continue to depend on parents and counselors to pull such people through, because schools have not yet come to realize that the education of all the children of all the people requires

Problems of Adolescents

33

secondary schooling that prepares all students for citizenship as well as the New England academy prepared all its students for college? There was little doubt at any time that Paula would marry, for it was the custom in her group to do so, and she had several suitors throughout her high-school career. But marriage is not an end-all; there are continuing problems in homemaking and as we have noted, in bringing up children, in addition to those involved in participation in community, state, and national affairs, and even in the choice of suitable recreational activities. A school that could have offered Paula from the beginning of her highschool career practical courses in child-care; homemaking; history; social studies; and citizenship taught at her level with practical laboratory situations; simple processes in the crafts; English at the level which she understood; the mathematics of installmentbuying, income tax, and budgeting; some music; simple health practices; and even some elementary psychology, might have made her high-school years worth her effort. None of these was prohibited by the factors of cost, time, or personnel. None of them was prevented by any consideration other than the willingness of the school to dignify them with the title of secondary education and to grant credit for them toward graduation. As this Study developed, some of what was needed by several score Paulas was offered, but there was for this particular girl too little and too late. There was, and still is, too much stigma attached to the election of "non-academic" programs of study, although significant progress in its reduction was achieved over a five-year period. Unfortunately Paula does not know what she might have had. She is happy because she is "educated" and has a high-school diploma to prove it. In the cases of Nelson and Paula we have observed two individuals who differed greatly in mental ability but who were very much alike because they exhibited extremely high drive to overcome difficulties and achieve goals, self-chosen, but strongly reinforced by pressures from parents whose socio-economic status was low. For contrast we may now consider the problem of William who, for perhaps good reason, never forced himself to use the average ability he possessed despite fine opportunities and strong encouragement offered by his parents.

34

Guidance of American Youth WILLIAM

Referred to the guidance counselor as a boy who needed help because his fellow students teased him for his excessive weight, William was soon found to be only slightly disturbed about this situation, but seriously upset by the attempts of his parents to force him beyond his ability and against his strong interests. William is an example of those youth for whom there is great likelihood of serious personality disorganization. The following report describes the successful treatment of his problem by gradual modification of parental pressure over a five-year period. Eleven years after initial counseling the results appear to be highly satisfactory. Interpretation of Test Record On four of five tests of general mental ability administered over a five-year period, William scored within the middle third of his age and grade group. His true I.Q. probably lies within the limits of 104 to 110. His scores on the language and non-language sections of both the Thurstone Psychological Examination for High School Seniors and College Freshmen were average for his group. In mathematics and spatial facility his scores ranged from the middle to the upper third of his age and grade group. Although his scores were, for the most part, average in speed and comprehension of reading, his vocabulary scores were slightly better than average for his group. Scores on tests of speed and accuracy in doing clerical tasks were average or within the middle third of his age and grade group. School Record English. — Grade 8: Mark, C. Grade 9: His ocular difficulty in one eye might have become a handicap in reading, but at this time he seemed to have no difficulty. Mark, C. Grade 10: Mark, B. Grade 11: English teacher reported that he was lazy, but said, "You can't get angry with him." Mark, C. Grade 12: English teacher reported that he was capable of better work but that his performance was sloppy. Mark, C. Language. — Grade 8: Latin mark, D. 8 Grade 9: He was tutored in French but was not deriving much benefit from it. Grade 11: French teacher reported lack of interest. Mark, C. Grade 12: French teacher stated that he was easygoing and that nothing ever disturbed him. Mark, D. Mathematics. — Grade 8: Teacher reported low performance in arithmetic reasoning. Mark, C. Grade 9: Algebra teacher stated that ' D indicates low accomplishment but satisfactory effort. It is a passing grade but does not allow a pupil to continue with that particular subject.

Problems of Adolescents

35

he should repeat this subject in high school. Mark, D. Grade 10: Teacher reported lack of ability and interest in algebra and geometry. Mark, F. Grade 11: He was repeating algebra and geometry and continued to have difficulty. Teacher stated that he was lazy. Mark, C. Grade 12: Teacher reported that he had no "mathematical aptitude." Mark, C. Arts. — Grade 8: Art mark, B. Music mark, B. Grade 9: Manual arts, B. Grade 10: Mechanical drawing teacher reported better-thanaverage ability. Mark, B. Shop teacher reported high interest and good ability. Mark, B. Science. — Grade 11: Chemistry teacher reported that he was lazy and easygoing. Mark, C. Grade 12: Physics teacher stated that his oral and written work were poor. He further stated that his study habits were poor and that he was "lazy." Mark, C. Social studies: Grades 8, 9: Social studies marks, C. Grade 10: Teacher of ancient history reported that he was an average pupil. Mark, C. Grade 11: Teacher of American history stated that he was "sluggish and not thorough." Mark, C. Grade 12: Teacher of Problems of Democracy reported that he was getting a good mark because he did a good deal of extra credit reading. Mark, B. Family Data William was the second of four children of American-born, Catholic, non-college trained parents. His father held a very responsible position as a manager of a chemical factory. One sister had graduated from a private school and entered a sectarian college where she prepared for secretarial work. A younger brother and sister were attending grammar school. The family lived in a large home in one of the most exclusive sections of the community. Health Data William was approximately fifty pounds overweight, but according to his parents, the family physician was not concerned about his weight. They claimed that examinations revealed no glandular difficulty. During the eighth and ninth grades William wore glasses but they did not correct a defect in the vision in one eye. After he entered the ninth grade he claimed that his oculist reported that glasses would not help his vision. For six weeks during the spring of his senior year he was ill with lobar pneumonia. Leisure-Time Activities William had always been interested in mechanical and scientific materials. He had a well-equipped workshop in the cellar of his home, and he had done a great deal of work in constructing model boats and

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Guidance of American Youth

in assembling simple motors. Since he had been in the eighth grade he had been an ardent reader of Popular Mechanics magazine. During the time that he was in junior high school, he studied piano and voice but gave these up when he reached high school because, according to his statement, he preferred to play football than to study music. In the tenth grade he became a candid camera fan, and after that time he became very much interested in developing and enlarging his pictures. Occupational Experience William's only work experience prior to graduation from high school had been as an iceman in a small New England community where the summer home of the family was located. William liked this type of work because of the exercise and because, he said, "You get to know people." PROGRESS OF COUNSELING

When William was first seen by the counselor in the eighth grade, he was a tall, husky, overweight boy who, despite his size, seemed to carry himself well. His manner was pleasing but he gave the impression of being shy and self-conscious about his appearance. His speech was animated, and on the surface, he seemed to demonstrate a good deal of self-confidence. When the problem of his size and the teasing about it which he was receiving from other pupils was cautiously mentioned by the counselor, William said that he could handle the situation adequately by ignoring the boys who teased him. He also stated that as he became older his sensitiveness decreased. He had no close friends in school, and he stated that he enjoyed spending all his spare time in his workshop at home where he built model boats and airplanes. His stated ambition at this time was to attend the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for training as a mechanical engineer. At that time the counselor indicated to him that mathematics was an important subject in the study of engineering and that his work in this subject was not very satisfactory. William's only reply was that he did not care for studying and that he would put in the extra effort when it was really necessary. The general academic requirements for engineering colleges were discussed with him, and his school program for the next four years was outlined in accordance with these requirements. During his eighth school year William's parents discussed with the counselor the desirability of sending him to a private school the following year. The counselor indicated that William was having trouble in his academic subjects at present and that the school to which they proposed to send him had even more vigorous classical and aca-

Problems of Adolescents

37

demie standards than those of the local school system. On the basis of this information, the parents decided not to transfer him to that particular private school. In the first interview during the ninth grade William announced to the counselor that he was going to work hard and get good marks, but this intention was never kept. H e had great difficulty with French and algebra despite the fact that he seemed to put in more time on homework than he had ever done before. H e was encouraged by the counselor to participate in school athletics in order to get more exercise and more opportunity to make friends, but homework and participation in school athletics made it necessary for him to give up his study of music. When his parents saw his low marks in mathematics, they opposed his participation in athletics and demanded that he devote all of his spare time to study. From analysis of test scores and study of the record of his school performance, it did not seem likely to the counselor that William would be able to gain admission to a high ranking engineering college although nothing was said at this time to discourage him. Since the usual college-preparatory course seemed too difficult for William, the counselor worked out with him a modified course including English, algebra and geometry, history, mechanical drawing, and shop. During this year many mechanical and technical occupations which did not require college training were discussed with him. During the tenth grade William claimed that he enjoyed shop work more than any of his other subjects and that he liked to work with his hands. His most serious difficulty was still with mathematics, particularly geometry. He still clung to the hope, however, that somehow he would be admitted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. During a conference with his parents the desirability of encouraging him to go into engineering was discussed in light of his difficulties in mathematics, his poor academic record, and his test scores. The parents were not convinced that he would have difficulty in a college, and they exerted greater pressure on William to get better school marks. The counselor noted that William was becoming inured to the pressure and that he relaxed his efforts. H e took advantage of every strategem to avoid doing his homework and he became an expert in formulating excuses for not getting it done. The counselor made William aware that he recognized this change in attitude and William finally decided that in view of his present academic achievement, he would be fortunate to graduate from high school in three years, "let alone being admitted to college." In his eleventh grade his parents insisted that William continue with the college-preparatory course although both student and counselor argued for consideration of a non-college-preparatory course. A compromise with his parents was finally reached. William was to

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Guidance of American Youth

elect a practical chemistry course without laboratory, would repeat French, algebra, and geometry, and elect English and history. His difficulties with each of his college-preparatory subjects continued. Apparently, pressure no longer meant anything to William, and he developed a strong dislike for school. In order to provide some interest in school, the counselor urged him to try out for football, and when he did he was placed on the second squad. He derived considerable enjoyment from this participation but he was unable to participate in any other sport because of his size. The counselor noted that his football experience had made him more sociable with other pupils, and without any apparent self-consciousness on his part, he began to fraternize with girl members of his class. From his readings in Popular Mechanics magazine, he became interested in marine engineering and came to the counselor for additional information on this vocation. At the end of the year he managed to pass four out of six courses. Before approving William's choice of courses for his senior year, the counselor conferred with his parents and indicated again that his performance thus far demonstrated that he could not meet college admission requirements. It was pointed out that he did not want to study academic courses and that his test scores over a period of years did not demonstrate that he was likely to succeed in college. Again they insisted that even if he was not going to college he should have the "mental discipline" of college-preparatory subjects, and they refused to believe that non-college preparatory subjects provided the same "mental discipline." As a result of his parents' insistence William elected English, French II, algebra, and geometry, which were college-preparatory subjects, and practical physics and Problems of Democracy which were not. This program was arranged so that he could graduate at the end of the year if he passed each of these subjects. During this year his interest in marine engineering gave way to an interest in aeronautics. The counselor provided information about schools where he could obtain training in airplane mechanics after graduation. At the counselor's suggestion he and his father visited several of these schools. His parents, who had insisted upon sending him to a collegepreparatory school, now gave up the idea when William definitely stated that he would not go. During the spring of his senior year William contracted pneumonia and was out of school for about six weeks. This absence seriously jeopardized his chance for graduation, and when he returned a careful program for making up his work was arranged with him by the counselor. William wanted to postpone graduation for another year, but the counselor felt that another year in this type of work would be a waste of time for him, and so he encouraged him to make up his work. As a result of the counselor's constant prodding William was able to

Problems of Adolescents

39

complete sufficient work for graduation, although the decision to give him his diploma was held up by the administration until the last moment. After William graduated he planned to attend an aviation mechanics school for training as a master mechanic. W h e n seen at the graduation exercises, he was very happy at this prospect. William was an example of a boy who had been the victim of parental pressure to force him into a type of activity in which he had neither interest nor ability. His high-school experience might have been of greater benefit had he been allowed by his parents to take the subjects in which he was really interested. Despite this parental pressure, and with the counselor as a "buffer," he managed to get into the type of training in which he was most interested and in which success was likely. It appears probable that if he had not worked with a counselor, he would have been sent to a private school. There he would probably have been made to work hard enough to get into a low ranking engineering college where success was highly improbable. ELEVEN YEARS AFTER INITIAL COUNSELING

Immediately after graduation from high school William attended an aircraft school where he received training as a master mechanic. He graduated with honors the following year and several aviation companies made bids for his services. During the past six years (1941-1947) he has been employed at progressively better jobs with four plane manufacturing companies. A t the present time he occupies a highly responsible supervisory position in the maintenance division of a commercial airline. He expects to be married within the next year. William is delighted with his vocational choice. His parents are very much pleased with his success, and they seem to have no regrets that he did not attend a college. A t times, as the counselor w o r k e d w i t h problems such as William's, it appeared that many of them w e r e due to the fact that the parents themselves had not been given proper guidance in their youth. A n d then there w e r e times w h e n it seemed that no guidance would ever overcome that very strong and really human urge of parents to provide f o r their children w h a t they had not been able to get. A t times it seemed v e r y necessary to have more exact data that would allow statements of probabilities of success in exact figures, present them to parents, and put the responsibility directly up to them. A n d then, desirable as that might seem, there was the knowledge that the achievement of such exact probabilities is perhaps a century beyond the current state of the development of science in dealing with human affairs. "But w h y

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Guidance of American Youth

should parents seem so dense in apprehending what is so obvious?" Why do they continue to hope that some miracle will occur and that a boy who has a history of poor academic achievement from the beginning of his school career will suddenly reverse that record? And why hadn't something been done about the situation long before William reached the eighth grade? Cases similar to his suggest that work with overambitious parents must be begun very early in a student's career. They suggest, too, the need for absolute honesty and complete frankness in dealing with the parents. There is always the tendency to put off the evil day in hope that there may be a reward for efforts to bring about changes, and there is always some hesitancy in bringing up unpleasant facts to the parents. In the face-to-face situation of the interview with parents who are staking their status in the local society on the achievement of their sons and daughters and who feel that they must depend on their offspring's success to bring them the prestige they have sought, it is easier to offer hope than discouragement. In such situations small signs of improvement are likely to be interpreted as having more significance than they actually possess, and the contrary signs are likely to be minimized more than they should be. Details concerning the work with parents and teachers are presented in Chapter III. Meanwhile the need for the use of a slow, thoroughgoing, and frank approach to such problems must be emphasized. In the case histories previously reported, we have stressed the problems involved in academic achievement, vocational choice, motivation, and home conditions. In the following case of Doreen all these factors were complicated by social maladjustments that appeared to be due to the possession of talents which received little recognition in high-school academic circles. Though these talents seemed to be high enough to warrant encouragement of their development they were not generally recognized as such by school personnel or by Doreen's classmates, and hence nothing that the school offered provided satisfaction of what she considered her important needs. DOREEN W h e n the counselor first interviewed Doreen, after she had been referred to him by the principal of a junior high school, he saw a

Problems of Adolescents

41

small, plump, somewhat ill-kempt and unattractive little eighth-grade girl, who said that she disliked all teachers and hated school. Her appearance, her nervous rapid speech, and her general deportment were such that there seemed little hope of realization of her vocational goal. Its attainment, despite what seemed almost insuperable obstacles, is a story of persistency which suggests that no counselor can afford to treat this trait lightly. interpretation of Test Record Doreen's test performances over a period of five years indicate that in general mental ability, reading comprehension, and mathematics, she was well down in the lower third of her age and grade groups. Her scores on vocabulary and speed of reading tests varied from the lower to the middle third of her group. On the Minnesota Paper Form Board Test, her scores varied from the middle to the upper third. Her best test performance seemed to be in non-verbal material. Six mental tests administered over a period of five years indicate that her true I.Q. score was probably not above 95 and with the substantiating evidence from reading, languages, and mathematics test scores, it is evident that Doreen achieved less-than-average academic attainments for pupils of her age and grade. School

Record

English. — Grade 9: She didn't like English because she "didn't like to read and couldn't keep up a conversation." Mark, C. Grade 11 : Her English teacher stated that her effort was good but that she used poor judgment in her work; oral English teacher stated that she spoke too rapidly and indistinctly and that her grammar and enunciation were "atrocious." Mark, C. Grade 12: English teacher reported that frequent absences handicapped her work. Mark, C. Mathematics. — Grades 8, 9: Her performance in arithmetic was below average, as her test scores would indicate. Mark, C. Business. — Grade 10: Teachers stated she had neither interest nor aptitude in business subjects; absence also accounted for her failures. Mark, F. Grade 11: Teacher reported that no effort was made, nor was any work done in business organization. Mark, F. Arts. — Grade 9: She liked to sketch faces and figures. She said, "Drawing comes easy to me." Mark, B. Grade 10: She stated that music was her favorite subject because it came nearest to theater work. Mark, A. Grade 12: Home-management teacher reported that her work was poor because she was absent from school frequently, and as a result, was constantly behind the class. Mark, C. Music teacher reported low marks were the result of absence despite the fact that she was a hard worker. Mark, C.

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Guidance of American Youth

Social Studies. — Grade 9: She said she "didn't care for history and didn't like the teacher." Mark, C. Grade 12·. History teacher reported that she was capable of good work if she were not absent so frequently. Mark, C. Teacher of problems of democracy reported that her frequent absences made it necessary for her to work very hard to pass. Mark, C. Family

Data

Doreen was the youngest of four children of American-born parents. Her father was a salesman and two of her brothers were office workers. Her elder sister had been very succssful in recent theatrical appearances. Her mother, prior to her marriage, had made several successful appearances in New England theaters. The father had been a member of a theatrical group for a number of years and was very much interested in the stage. From the time Doreen and her older sister entered school, their mother had spent a good deal of time teaching them to perform publicly. Doreen's family life was centered around the theater. The parents attended church regularly, but the children attended only occasionally. Health

Data

Doreen was in good health according to the school medical examinations and parents' comments. At the age of sixteen, she contracted rheumatism in her legs and neuritis in her arms. They caused considerable pain, and she was absent from school a total of thirty-one days of her senior year because of this difficulty. Her physician was hopeful that the treatment for the rheumatism and neuritis would soon take effect. Leisure-Time

Activities

All of Doreen's out-of-school time was spent in theatricals. She took part in a number of noncommercial public engagements with her sister and with local amateur groups. These required a good deal of rehearsing, and frequently Doreen requested that she be excused from part of the school day in order to attend rehearsals. She followed the progress of popular actresses and seldom missed a chance to see them in movies or in personal appearances. Occupational

Experience

Doreen had been an entertainer at a number of parties, dances, clubs, and other social events, but she had never received any remuneration. She had done occasional broadcasting with her sister over a local station.

Problems of Adolescents Vocational

43

Choice

Doreen had only one vocational choice during the whole period of counseling. She was determined to become an actress. She stated that something within her prompted her toward this choice, and her sister's success had been a strong motivating factor. PROGRESS OF COUNSELING

Doreen was first interviewed by the counselor during the fall of her eighth year in school. At the time, she was a small, plump brunette who spoke so rapidly that words poured out in a jumble and it was exceedingly difficult to understand what she was saying. Her conversation was limited to her own activities and her theatrical career. She was proud of the fact that she could learn parts of plays even though she could not read them very well. She told of her sister's success at great length and repeated many times the desire to be like her. While she talked of her sister, the counselor observed some signs of envy and jealousy. Doreen was reluctant to discuss school except to say that she disliked it and was determined to leave school just as soon as she was sixteen years old. She disliked her teachers, and they in turn disliked her. In subsequent interviews with Doreen's teachers, it was learned that her difficulty was caused by persistent whispering, the fact that she had made it very clear to her teachers that she was not interested in any kind of school work, and that she was merely "marking time" until she could withdraw from school. During the next two years, the counselor attempted to change Doreen's attitude toward school by pointing out that as long as she had to remain there she could make things pleasant for herself by pleasing her teachers. Her whispering habit did not decrease, but she became more willing to cooperate with teachers and the counselor. She did so, she said, only on condition that they would recognize her plan to leave school at the age of sixteen. During her first year in high school, she took a business course but had considerable difficulty in typing and bookkeeping. In several interviews with her, the counselor realized that she was serious when she said that she was planning to run away from home and go to New York where she was sure she could become a successful actress. He spent considerable time in an attempt to convince her of the difficulties involved in such a venture. She had worked out a detailed plan for running away, but as rapport was developed and as she recognized the sincerity of the counselor's appreciation of her ability and ambition, he secured a promise from her that she would notify him before attempting any such escapade. He did not know whether he ought to notify her parents about her plans to go to New York

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and take the chance of losing rapport with Doreen by violating her confidence, or whether he ought to attempt to handle the problem himself. The situation finally resolved itself several days later when the counselor in an informal conversation with Doreen's sister intimated that Doreen was the type of girl who was impulsive enough to run away from home and seek success in New York. The problem was handled tactfully by her sister without divulging how she learned of Doreen's plans. Despite efforts by teachers and counselor, Doreen's unhappiness in school increased throughout the eleventh grade. The counselor finally learned that she was very much disturbed because she thought the other pupils did not appreciate her talent as much as she thought they should. It seemed that Doreen, in compensation for her lack of success in school work, boasted of her ability as an actress and some of her classmates expressed doubts as to the veracity of her statements, even to the point of teasing and ridicule. The counselor was able to correct this situation in part by explaining the response that boasting evokes from certain people. When Doreen reached the age of sixteen and began to plan her school-leaving, the counselor encouraged her to remain in her classes until she could obtain steady work. Her family also brought pressure on her to stay until she had earned a high-school diploma. She succumbed to the pressure slowly, and reluctantly agreed to continue in high school for another year or until she graduated. Her sister, who had become very successful in radio and movie work, promised to help Doreen if she would continue in school until she was graduated. A special course which would give her sufficient points for graduation and which was not too heavily weighted with academic work was arranged. For the first tme in her school career she became interested in achieving success in her school work, although she disliked it as much as ever. Her determined attitudes appeared to be motivated by the fact that she wanted to demonstrate to her girl friends that she wasn't "dumb." Her progress, however, was handicapped by frequent absences resulting from rheumatic disorders. Doreen seemed better adjusted to the school situation during her senior year than she had ever been before. It was now observed that she was winning more recognition from the pupils and from the school for her talent in theatricals. When she performed at school assemblies her attitude was one of appreciation for such an opportunity rather than of the boastfulness which she had previously exhibited. She was no longer overanxious about recognition, and she became willing to make the best of the opportunities which were presented. The crowning achievement of her whole school career came when she was selected by the student council as a performer at the gradua-

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tion exercises. The recognition which she had sought from her classmates came when she stopped demanding it. She planned after graduation to seek a position with a small theater or night club and there were several openings in the kind of work she wanted to do. During her first post-school year, in correspondence with the counselor, she indicated that she was rehearsing for a tryout in a major theater production. She had been doing radio work occasionally. ELEVEN YEARS AFTER INITIAL COUNSELING

Six years after Doreen had graduated from high school, and eleven years after she had first been counseled in the eighth grade, the counselor obtained the following facts about her achievements. Doreen, through the efforts of her sister, had secured a position as a feature performer in a small night club in New York. She continued to progress in her work, and at the present time (1947) she is earning approximately $8,000 a year as an actress on a radio program that is broadcast on a national network. She has also made phonograph records and has appeared in motion pictures. Doreen is still very ambitious to become a world-famous movie star, and works hard to improve her techniques. She still resents the fact that her high-school classmates did not appreciate her talents and had subjected her to ridicule. She was very anxious to inform the counselor about her success, and it is suspected that she did so in order that he would pass on the news to her former classmates. It is difficult to recognize in the rather glamorous, confident, and composed actress of 1947 the homely, plump, erratic-speaking, and hesitant little girl whom w e saw in 1936 when she was in the eighth grade. O n l y the most naive or the most gifted counselor would have predicted the development that was to take place during the intervening decade. Inured perhaps b y their subjects' frequent choices of the glamorous occupations, and even perhaps misled b y the common notion that comeliness is essential for success as an actress, the counselors tended to humor those w h o made such decisions until they could be led gradually to more "sensible" choices. It soon became apparent, however, that Doreen's choice was not one of the common whims, that she was not just passing through one of the stages through which most adolescents pass, and that she had drive enough to overcome many personal and situational obstacles. Although many adolescents use the threat of running away from home to attain their goals, this girl's plan to escape was not

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an idle threat. Her plans were worked out meticulously and the members of her family were completely unaware of them. There can be little doubt that she would have carried them through had she not found in the counselor a person who seemed to understand her problems, who had sympathy with her aims, who appeared to believe that school marks were not the most important thing in life, and who was only advising delay in taking action, rather than denying the possibility of achievement of her goal. There is reason to believe that, had she run away at such an early age, her inexperience, her lack of training, and her lack of "knowhow" in the ways of the theater would have meant defeat in achieving her goal. The three-year delay to finish high school, though it meant very little to her in the academic sense, provided opportunity for training, practical part-time experience from which she gained confidence, and a planned approach to her career. At times, in counseling with Doreen, the problem of the relationship among counselor, counselee, and members of her family raised some difficult problems. Is there, for example, a zone in which the counselor is justified in keeping from the parents what a counselee has disclosed in confidence? Should a member of a school staff accept such responsibility even when he is sure that failure to do so will result in drastic action by parents that will be very detrimental to his subject and that there will be such complete loss of rapport with the subject that he can no longer assist her? Decisions cannot be made about the wisdom of such procedures on the basis of the treatment of a small number of cases, nor should the reader judge that it is wise because, in reading this case after the events have occurred, it seems to have been successful. The counselor must not run the risk, and we can offer no long term justification for doing so. T o ignore parents' wishes must in the long run be an ineffective procedure, but the waste, until all parents can be trusted always to do what seems to be best for the young person, must be given serious consideration in resolving the issue. Doreen's case is an illustration of the way in which the generalization about the average must be modified when the counselor looks at the individual. Children of fourteen do not, on the average, select a particular goal and fight for it despite ridicule, pleadings, and pressures to drop that "silly idea." Rather dull youngsters do not usually succeed in achieving as high goals as

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Doreen had set for herself. Ugly ducklings do not generally become swans. But this girl did! The averages indicated that she could not. As we have just seen, Doreen struggled with a difficult problem at home and in school. For a remarkable contrast we may now consider one of her classmates, Mollie, who came from a home so satisfactory to her that she wanted to create one just like it for herself. This desire led to many complications because the common homemaking course offered insufficient challenge to her high ability and she soon recognized that the academic program, her only alternative, did not provide the kind of preparation which she thought that she needed to reach her goal. A thoroughly good citizen of school and community, a rare combination of comeliness and ability, and so well-liked by her classmates that she was named in the senior yearbook as the most popular girl in the class, Mollie provided a challenge to her school, which failed to meet it. When this occurred she, her parents, and the counselor developed a plan, the effectiveness of which the reader can evaluate only in terms of his own philosophy of life and of education. MOLLIE Mollie was a girl of rather attractive appearance, highly social interests and superior abilities whose active participation in all kinds of community and extracurricular activities limited the amount of time spent on her studies. When Mollie finished her high-school career she held the opinion that secretarial work would most pleasantly and profitably fill in the time before she settled down to her real goal of homemaking. She chose this program despite the counselor's efforts to have her consider training and employment on a level high enough to challenge her social and intellectual abilities. She had been referred to the counselor while she was in the eighth grade as a very bright, socially well-adjusted student, outstanding enough to warrant special attention so that her abilities would be developed to their utmost. Test Record Superior achievements in academic work were shown by the fact that Mollie scored above the 90th percentile in 34 of 36 tests taken over a period of five years. The tests purported to measure general mental ability, skill in reading and mathematics, and spatial and clerical aptitude. She maintained a uniformly high level of performance on all objective tests.

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School Record English held her interest from junior high days when she was reading "all the books in the library." As increasing interest in people and social activities absorbed her time, she read less and spent less time in preparing class work — "sliding by on my reputation when I'm pressed for time." Teachers reported her as bright, alert, responsive to suggestions, well-grounded in fundamentals, excelling in oral work in which she was well-poised, and expressing herself easily. Her speech was one of the four senior speeches chosen for delivery at commencement, and she wrote and read the Class History. Foreign languages had little interest for Mollie. She thought Latin useless, and begrudged the time needed for drill in French grammar with the result that her work became increasingly weak. In her senior year when she had decided not to go to college, she substituted Chorus for French because she wanted extra drill on songs for the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta. She was too much interested in such activities as these to take time to study French. Business subjects were easy for her. She had learned about them through her sister's secretarial course. Mathematics subjects were always easy and interesting. She considered this her strongest field although in advanced mathematics, she was judged to have reached the peak of her ability and interest. She elected a class chosen by very able students of advanced mathematics and found that some of the things which she had understood — as in Geometry I — had not been thoroughly learned. The fact that her time for study was limited and that school work was no longer her primary interest undoubtedly reduced her achievement. Arts. She excelled in household arts at school, and was keenly interested in them at home when she had time. In junior high school she was considered best in her drawing class, doing better copy work than original work — though the latter had not been especially encouraged. This interest in art waned to the extent that she did not try to include drawing courses in high school. Her interest in singing replaced her interest in art. She participated in extracurricular musical groups in school and church until her senior year. At that time she shifted from a French course to Chorus II in order to have further time to drill on songs for the Gondoliers. Her voice was considered good but not very strong. Science. She elected chemistry as a tryout in science, but was not highly successful. She showed little interest or ability and was advised by her instructor not to continue in that field. Only under such conditions was he willing to certify her work for one of the less exacting colleges.

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History. She never enjoyed history and avoided it in class work and in her own reading. Teachers always found her work very good, and her attitude satisfactory. Mollie's work was on the whole superior even when she did not put forth special efforts. When subjects such as Latin, French or chemistry became too difficult or uninteresting she did the minimum of work to meet requirements and then dropped them as soon as possible. Only the music teacher of all her high-school teachers believed that she worked up to the limit of her ability. Family Data Third eldest of four girls in a comfortable home of fairly high socio-economic status, Mollie appeared to have a pleasant, happy home life. Her father, a craftsman who had educated himself through night school and independent study, had rather definite opinions concerning the education of his family. Her mother's own business experience before marriage had been very satisfactory for her and she urged her daughters to consider secretarial work as a career. Both parents attended a series of lectures conducted by the counselor on the problems of vocational choice and they sought his help frequently in reaching decisions on Mollie's choice of study and occupation. There was much evidence that the family had given careful consideration to such problems, and their decisions were reasoned out over a period of time on the basis of their own and others' observation of the girl. Mollie shared in these deliberations and was influenced by them. By the time that Mollie reached her senior year, her oldest sister had married, the second had completed study at a conservative secretarial school and was considering several good positions, and the youngest, a girl equally intelligent though less sociable, hoped to attend a liberal arts college. The family was in comfortable financial circumstances, but could not afford college training for the four girls without great sacrifice. All members of the family were closely associated with the activities of their church. Health In junior high school Mollie wore glasses to correct defective vision, but discarded them because she thought they detracted from her appearance. She was a wholesome-looking girl, rather plump, with an excellent complexion. She was always reported to be in very good health. Occupational Experience Since Mollie felt that she did not need money and since she did not want to work, her experience had been limited to occasional hours of taking care of a neighbor's child.

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Vocational Choice In grades 7 to 10 she considered many choices, without reaching a decision. A passing interest in nursing was discarded when she looked into the nature of the work. Music had always attracted her, but she was aware that her vocal ability would limit it to avocational use. In grade 11 she considered the occupations of teaching mathematics or statistical work, but decided that she was not forceful enough to teach and wouldn't like a teacher's life anyway. W i t h this as with the statistical work which she considered, she hesitated to undertake the time and expense involved in professional training. Her senior-year choice was secretarial work in an office where she would have, she said, "something to do with mathematics and figures," and where there would be "lots of people around." PROGRESS OF COUNSELING

In the eighth grade at the age of fourteen, Mollie was a tall, plump, rather awkward girl who wore glasses and showed few signs of the charm that she was to develop later. Already, she was engrossed in too many activities including the school basketball and hockey teams, school and church choirs, Sunday School and the young people's group at church, Girl Scouts, piano lessons, group play and reading. She had received eighth-grade marks of A in four subjects and Β in English, Latin, and history even though subject-matter tests had revealed ninth-year performance in reading when she was in the seventh grade. T h e guidance process during the eighth-grade year consisted of collection of preliminary data and in encouraging her to continue a wide range of activities as an informal exploratory program on which later choices might be based. During the ninth grade Mollie became a very attractive individual, who bubbled over with enthusiasm about all her interests. She was increasingly interested in doing anything that would bring her into contact with more people and she continued her memberships in groups of many kinds throughout the school and community. She was one of a number of girls chosen to assist the secretary in the school office, and she did this work in a very efficient manner. She did some original art work on greeting cards and was chiefly responsible for the illustrations in the school paper. She said that she had "read all the books in the library," and had actually covered all those recommended by her mother plus some lighter mystery books of her own choosing. Her final marks in the ninth grade dropped to Β in all subjects except history. Although she passed in Latin, she said that she "hated the stuff." She said that algebra was "too easy." During this year she stopped wearing her glasses because she thought they detracted from her appearance even though the school nurse reported that her eyes were defective.

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At the time Mollie was choosing her high-school courses, she came to the counselor for help. In view of her superior test performances and the need for work which would challenge her abilities, it was recommended that she take the second level college-preparatory curriculum with an elective in Latin. This made it possible for her to go into the first level college-preparatory course during the next year if she overcame her difficulties in Latin, which her father had insisted that she elect. T h e problem of a vocational choice was introduced and narrowed somewhat by preliminary consideration of those occupations which required college training. Upon entering the senior high school, Mollie was required by school regulation and tradition to limit her extracurricular activities to membership in only one club, but she continued to carry on her church and community activities. On the tests administered this year, she kept to a high level of performance but it was only in geometry that her marks were commensurate with her ability. She received minimum passing marks in Latin but was determined to drop it in the following year. Her marks in English and French were lowered because she did not display a scholarly attitude toward these subjects. During this year Mollie's parents attended the counselor's series of lectures to parents concerning vocational choices of students, and their interest led to many discussions concerning her vocational choice. Despite their efforts and those of the counselor she remained vague and uncertain about a career. Her one real interest in art was discouraged by her father whose knowledge of applied art led him to the conviction that it was not a practical field for her. More information and experience was needed, and in order to give her some contact with the field of science, where the ability which she had demonstrated in mathematics could be put to use, the counselor recommended election of chemistry in the eleventh grade. Early in the eleventh year the counselor started intensive interviews concerning jobs in business and the professions. These were further supplemented by reading in books loaned by the guidance department. She expressed interest in the whole occupational field at professional levels and was particularly interested in work involving mathematical concepts and contact with people. She studied the scholarship opportunities reported in catalogs of several colleges without finding any which would bring the total four-year college expenses within her means. Upon the counselor's recommendation, she entered a scholarship competition of a local college, but her performance did not merit special attention, despite the fact that her achievement on locally administered tests was superior. T o determine the possibility of obtaining financial aid for her, records were sent to two universities but her low marks eliminated her from serious consideration. When the counselor discussed ways of earning expenses at college,

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she showed lively curiosity but no desire to try it herself. In selecting senior courses, she asked about the advisability of shifting to the technical college-preparatory curriculum in order to elect advanced mathematics. T h e counselor thought that she would not succeed in such a course because she spent so much time in extracurricular activities and advised the election of solid geometry, trigonometry, and physics. T h e course in physics was intended in part to counteract the dislike for science she had developed during her experience in chemistry. Following the advice of her chemistry teacher, however, she elected the advanced mathematics course. During this year Mollie's parents had expressed willingness to help her to pay college expenses if her application to studies indicated real scholarly interests and if she was willing to sacrifice enough of her social and extracurricular activities to leave time for study. While Mollie professed a real desire for further education, she found it difficult to do the preparatory study. Her church activities increased as she was elected to positions of leadership and took on such assignments as the second lead in a major play and the chairmanship of committees in her church groups, without diminishing her former preoccupation with light reading, driving, listening to the radio, having dates, and various other social activities. Despite the time spent upon these activities and despite the fact that she begrudged the time taken in subjects which required drill, she did do enough work to make a Β average. T h e year ended with Mollie torn between wanting to go to college and wanting to elect a light program and have a sociable senior year. T h e counselor constantly reminded her of the ability revealed by tests and advised that if she did choose the secretarial course which she was considering, she select a field of specialization in which secretarial experience could lead to more responsible and challenging work. Early difficulty with twelfth-grade French caused by her failure to learn the fundamentals of this cumulative subject was one of the determining factors in making her give up preparation for college in the senior year. This decision was made despite the counselor's efforts to get her to do special work and to teach study techniques that would enable her to work more effectively. Mollie was always interested, but she was unwilling to give the extra time that was necessary. In an interview with her mother, Mollie's ability and the advantages of college training, even for secretarial work, were balanced against waning interest in study and the desire for an interestingly active senior highschool year if a college career could not be financed. Mollie's decision was influenced by her older sister's success in a secretarial school which offered a choice of several jobs before graduation. Mollie finally decided not to make the effort to enter college, dropped French, substituted a course in Chorus, and busied

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herself with her lead in the school operetta. Recommended for a competitive scholarship at a superior secretarial school because the school's placement director was interested in her record, she made application. A complete statement of her record was sent in, but she did not win the large scholarship and did not choose to apply for a partial one. In subesquent interviews, emphasis was laid on job-hunting techniques, aids to employment, and discussion of secretarial jobs where knowledge of mathematics would be important. She inquired about summer jobs, was given introductions to agencies for waitress and nursemaid jobs, but decided against applying for them because she said that she did not need the work. Efforts to interest her in a twoyear certificate course for secretaries which was given in a neighboring university failed. She decided that she couldn't waste the time for broader training if her sister's school could prepare her for a job in one year. The year after she graduated from high school she enrolled in an excellent secretarial school. The counselor had discussed her record with the director of this school, and recommended placement in a position where her mathematical ability could be used. On the basis of Mollie's past record, the counselor predicted satisfactory school work, easy placement on a job, and a rather short working period terminated by marriage. ELEVEN YEARS AFTER INITIAL COUNSELING

Five years after Mollie had graduated from the secretarial school, and eleven years after the first counseling, the counselor interviewed her and obtained the following information. Mollie admitted that she had experienced some doubts about her choice of training for secretarial work while she was engaged in it, but had finally decided that it was a good choice. When pressed for the reason why she thought so she said, "My aim in life was to get married and have a family as soon as I could find the right man." She felt that college training would have delayed and perhaps prevented the social activities which she considered to be necessary in the preparation for marriage. After completion of the secretarial course she was offered several positions, and in order to make a good choice, she listed five in order of desirability, interviewed the five employers, discussed the pros and cons with her parents and a new high-school counselor, and finally accepted a position as secretary to a professor of law. Her choice of this position was influenced in part by the opportunity it provided to meet a number of eligible young men. She worked at that position for three years, liked it very much, and was rated as an excellent secretary by her employer.

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During the war years Mollie was an active volunteer worker in soldiers' canteens. A t one of these she met a soldier to whom she was married with full approval of her parents after an engagement of one year. She resigned from her position to keep house for her husband who now operates a small business in a suburb of Boston. She is now (1947) the mother of one child and considers herself to be very fortunate to have "a wonderful husband and baby."

Among the many interesting problems raised by cases similar to Mollie's is the issue of the adequacy of high-school offerings for highly intelligent girls whose aim is to establish a good home as soon as possible. Mollie came to the conclusion very early in her high-school career that the academic work of schools and colleges would contribute very little to a successful career as wife and mother and that their small contribution was neither worth the time that they demanded at the sacrifice of social, musical, church, and community activities, nor the money that was required. The usual homemaking and general education courses in high school, which are geared to a rather low intelligence level, provided no challenge for a girl of Mollie's ability, and hence she was forced to choose between poor training for what she wanted and good training for something which she did not consider essential. It seems unnecessary to force such choices when, if we are to judge from the amount of home disorganization, training for careers in homemaking could be so beneficial. There is no evidence which indicates that the usual college training is the most satisfactory for those who want to become good wives and mothers, and both high schools and colleges might well consider the problems of students such as Mollie when they plan their programs of instruction. In this case we have an excellent demonstration of good parentcounselor relations. Due in part at least to the lectures for parents which the counselor had presented, there was agreement to "lay all the cards on the table" and proceed in a rather objective manner to consider the facts. Sending the girl to college meant that there would be no new car for the family, but they were willing to make this sacrifice if it appeared that she would profit from college training. At the same time, this reasonable attitude in many family affairs had resulted in a very congenial home situation which initiated and frequently reinforced the girl's intention to have a home of her own as happy as the one from which she came. But good relations among teachers and the counselor were more

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difficult to achieve during initial discussion about Mollie. As soon as it was known that she was bright, there was almost unanimous agreement among the teachers that there could be no excuse for her doing any less than A work and no reason why she should not submit perfect specimens of homework every day. Conditioned and convinced by their own academic training and experience, they found it difficult to think in any other terms. And there was initially, despite attempts to avoid it, a slight suspicion that the counselor was interested in getting students through without requiring their best work. It was not until the teachers became fully convinced that Mollie's goals were genuine and that she was using her abilities in a directed and conscientious effort to make progress toward them that they were willing to make any difference between the work required of Mollie and those who were planning to undertake a rigorous college program. It is a common failing, when one has devoted one's life to teaching, to mistake the classroom for the world. F o r contrast with the happy home situation and high abilities which Mollie enjoyed, we may now consider the problem of Elson, who found that his limited attainments brought little satisfaction in school and that his home conditions provided little stimulation to high academic achievement. Faced with these unhappy situations he had decided to leave school and get a job as soon as he was permitted to do so. And he was not particular about the kind of job — anything that would give him the feeling of being of some worth — a feeling which he had not previously experienced. Never at a loss for words, Elson was a willing counselee, and he was so suggestible in the presence of the counselor that it was always difficult to remain his counselor and to avoid the role of adviser. Elson needed someone to assume the place which his father had never accepted. ELSON When he was in the eighth grade of a junior high school, Elson was referred to the counselor by the principal as a boy who needed help. He had been doing very poor school work, particularly in English, and he had often expressed strong dislike for school. He had indicated that he wanted to go to work as soon as he was of legal age to leave school, but he had little information concerning his own possibilities or job opportunities.

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Interpretation of Test Record In the tests administered to Elson over a five-year period, there was a good deal of fluctuation which depended upon the effort he put forth. His true I.Q. score derived from five tests seemed to lie between 95 and 100. He was consistently average for his group in reading comprehension tests and always low in tests of speed of reading. In the eighth and ninth grades he scored in the middle third of his group in vocabulary, but he did not develop as rapidly as other pupils in the group. In the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades his vocabulary scores dropped to the lower third of the group. Elson's scores on mathematics tests fell in the middle third of a group of students who had not studied the subject beyond the ninth grade. His highest scores were obtained in the field of spatial facility in which, with the exception of the ninth grade, he obtained scores in the upper third of his age group. In speed and accuracy on simple tasks, as measured by the Minnesota Vocational Test for Clerical Workers, his scores varied from low to average. His ability and achievement test scores indicated that if he had worked up to his capacity, he would have been able to complete the general course in the high school which he attended. On the Strong Vocational Interest Blank for Men he received Β ratings in Groups I, II and X which include the professions requiring college training. His scores on personality tests indicated the possibility of social maladjustments but no evidence of such conditions were found during the five years in which the counselor worked with Elson. School Record English. — Grade 8: He had a great deal of difficulty with his English, particularly in his composition work. Mark, C. Grade 9: English teacher reported that he was weak in this subject but that his effort was good. Mark, C. Grade 10: He failed English II but passed a make-up examination which permitted him to take English III. Mark, F. Grade 11: He had a strong dislike for English and neglected his homework. Mark, F. Grade 12: Because he failed in the course, it became necessary for him to repeat English III. Teacher reported that he was a very poor pupil with little ability. English IV teacher reported, "He seems to have found himself," and said that he got his work done. Mark, C. Business. — Grade 11: Bookkeeping teacher reported that he had no interest or drive. Mark, F. Grade 12: Economics and law teacher reported that he was an active participant in class discussions but that his work was just about passing. Mark, C. Mathematics. — Grade 9: He stated that he liked arithmetic because, "I can do it better than anything else." Mark, C.

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Arts. — Grade 8: He considered himself talented in drawing, but actually his work was mediocre. Mark, B. Grade g: He liked drawing but was not certain that he wanted to make it his career. Mark, B. Grade 10: He decided that he was no artist and gave up drawing even as a hobby. Mark, B. Grade n: Shop teacher reported that he had better than average ability. Mark, B. Science. — Grade 10: Biology was much too difficult for him, but he wanted to get it because he thought everybody should know about it. Mark, D. Grade 11: Chemistry was the only subject that he found interesting that year, and he worked hard at it. Teacher stated that he marked him on his effort and sincerity rather than on his actual performance. Mark, B. Grade 12: Physics teacher reported that he was conscientious and capable. Mark, A. Social Studies. — Grade 9: He saw no sense in social studies because, he said, "It doesn't help you when you leave school." Mark, C. Grades 10, 11, 12: History teachers reported that he did just enough to get by. T h e teacher of problems of democracy believed that he had more ability than was indicated by his school work. Marks for these grades, C. Family Data Elson was the second of four children of Canadian-born parents. His father had always earned his living as a painter, but his employment was spasmodic. Elson's father and mother did not always agree, and he reported that they did not speak to each other for periods of months. During Elson's senior year his father became incurably ill, and when he was about to be removed from the hospital prior to his death, the mother refused to allow the father to return to the home. Elson's older brother had attended a trade school and was employed as a shipper in a small manufacturing concern. One younger sister was in high school and a younger brother attended elementary school. T h e sister was referred to the counselor from time to time because of her failure to adjust to school situations. She was a very surly and unhappy child who felt that she was being persecuted by teachers and other school children. Efforts to get Elson's mother to consider the problems of both children were unsuccessful. She would not come to the school or speak to school authorities, but she was passively cooperative with a visiting teacher. Health Data In the eighth grade an examination of Elson's eyes revealed that he was nearsighted, and glasses were obtained for him by the school nurse. From time to time he had indigestion and gas pains which his mother treated with home remedies. During his junior year in high school the counselor made arrangements for him to attend an evening

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clinic for stomach disorders where he obtained monthly treatments at a small cost. Leisure-Time Activities Elson's major hobby during his attendance at junior high school had been drawing. He was not creative. Most of his drawings were copies from pictures in magazines, and his drawing teachers said that he did not seem to have better-than-average ability. He had specialized particularly in drawing airplanes from pictures which he had collected. During his summer vacations he did a good deal of swimming, and during the winters he skated at the same town pond. W h e n he was a junior high school student he earned enough money to purchase a bicycle, and much of his spare time was spent in bicycling. In his senior year in high school he learned to drive an automobile, and he obtained considerable experience as a chauiïeur for neighboring families. Work Experience (Summers between School Terms) Grades 8-9: He obtained work as a helper on a bakery truck on Saturdays. Grades 9-10: He began to look for a summer job in the spring, but was unable to obtain steady work. He was able to earn some money by doing odd jobs in the neighborhood. Grades 10-11: The counselor recommended him for a summer job as a helper to a caretaker on an estate. During the school year this developed into a part-time job. Grades 11-12: He obtained summer work as a helper on a bakery truck. Vocational Choice Grade 8 Office worker: Parents wanted him to have a white collar job. Grade 9 Aviator: He thought that he wanted to be an outdoor man, and the glamour of aviation appealed to him. Grade 10 Same: He persisted in choosing this occupation despite his defective vision. Grade 11 Same: In the counselor's opinion, this was more of a daydream than a serious vocational choice. Grade 12 Mechanic: This choice was probably fostered by his recently acquired skill in driving. PROGRESS OF COUNSELING

Elson was a tall, dark, His eyes slanted slightly, pearance. The counselor and at no time was there

thin boy with thick lips and a wide mouth. and this gave him a somewhat oriental apfound him to be a very willing counselee, any reservation on his part in talking about

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himself. The counselor found it difficult to terminate an interview with him because Elson liked to carry on a conversation. When Elson was first seen by the counselor in the eighth grade, an examination of his reading comprehension revealed that he was a slow reader. His reading was near average for his age and grade, but his difficulty in English seemed to be with composition and grammar. His dislike for school work was intense. The counselor spent some time attempting to demonstrate the value of school work, since Elson thought, partly at his father's insistence, that he should become an office worker. Arrangements were made to elect business practice in the ninth grade as a tryout and as a means of obtaining occupational information about this field. When Elson reached the ninth grade, the counselor felt that there was real danger that he would drop out of school because of his lack of success and interest in school work. H e seemed very anxious to leave school and go to work. The counselor discussed the possibility of trade school with Elson and administered mechanical tests, but there was no evidence of achievement or interest in this field. His experience in a business practice course now made him certain that he did not want to do office work. Both his parents and the counselor advised him against leaving school to take a job, and he finally agreed to give senior high school a trial. With the aid of the counselor, he elected a general course with electives in drawing and shop. Elson made a strong effort to obtain summer work, but even with the aid of the counselor, he was unable to do so. The demonstrated difficulty in obtaining employment was used as another argument against leaving school at this time. During his tenth school year Elson was on the borderline between passing and failing in English, but a poor performance in his examination resulted in a final mark of failure. Although biology was a difficult course for him, he worked hard at it and seemed to like it. There was a gradual change in his attitude toward school, and he now seemed more willing to continue with it. H e did not indicate that he wanted to leave school during his tenth grade interviews with the counselor. H e was rather persistent in mentioning aviation as his vocational choice despite his poor vision. A good deal of his time this year was spent in collecting pictures of airplanes and drawing models of them. The counselor attempted to interest him in airplane mechanics or ground work at an airport, but there was always a question in the counselor's mind about the strength of Elson's interest in aviation. During the summer between the tenth and eleventh grades Elson was recommended for, and obtained, a job as an assistant to a caretaker on an estate. The counselor made arrangements whereby he could study his English so that he could take a make-up examination

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in the fall. Elson did some studying in preparation for the test, and he passed it when he returned to school in the autumn. In the eleventh grade Elson selected bookkeeping because he thought he might give commercial work another trial. The counselor discussed the problem of occupational choice with him, and although he was willing to listen to any information, he never read any of the material which the counselor placed in his hands. It was evident that he would have to go to work immediately after graduation, and an occupation in semiskilled mechanics, preferably at an airport, seemed to best suit his interest at this time. This provided, at least, a goal toward which he might work. During this year he failed English and bookkeeping because he neglected his homework. The counselor had urged him to keep his work up to a passing level, but he was not successful. A program was finally planned for the following year in which he would repeat his English and make enough points for graduation if he passed in all his other subjects. When Elson was in the twelfth grade, he learned to drive a car, and now his major interests seemed to lie in driving automobiles and working on airplanes. By checking his school work regularly with him, the counselor was able to keep him from neglecting it to spend all his time on his outside interests. Occasionally the counselor had to bring pressure on Elson to put forth more effort on his school work. One month before graduation Elson was sent by the counselor for an interview about a job as a truck driver for an electrical concern. Before he went for this interview, he was given several practice interviews with the counselor. On the day after his interview with the employer, Elson reported that he had accepted the position and that he was going to work on the following day. The prospect of getting "such a good job" overcame any concern that he might have had about graduating from high school. At a conference including the principal, the counselor, and Elson, the question of early leaving was considered, and it was decided that he might leave early if he were passing in all his courses. Consultation with his teachers revealed that he was passing every subject except English. By agreement with the English teacher, Elson was given a number of assignments to be completed at home and sent back to his teacher. The principal was willing to allow graduation if he completed his work in English. Elson accepted the responsibility, completed his English assignment satisfactorily, was allowed to graduate, and went to work as a truck driver. One year after graduation he was still working as a driver for the electrical supply concern and was very happy. He earned $20 a week

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and had received a small raise. T h e counselor predicted that Elson would remain at a semiskilled job and be content at that level. ELEVEN YEARS AFTER INITIAL COUNSELING

Eighteen months after Elson had gone to work, he was drafted into the Army. He served as an infantryman in the South Pacific and attained the rank of corporal. After four years of A r m y service, he returned to his home town and obtained a position as a truck driver for a small construction company where he now (1947) earns $42.50 a week. Elson likes his work. H e loves to drive his truck and is still disgusted with the A r m y because he was not classified as a truck driver. H e daydreams about owning a small construction company of his own but sees little hope of securing enough capital to begin. T e m peramentally, he seems little different from the Elson of high school days, although the added years have had a settling effect. H e plans to marry within the coming year.

Elson was representative of that large group of boys of slightly less-than-normal ability and of less than normally attractive appearance, who tend to drift out of our schools and into the first available job because no one at home or at school seems to care. So poorly trained that they can seldom meet minimum requirements for better jobs, and forced by the presence of economic conditions to remain at work for which they are not particularly fitted, they can become drifters, malcontents, and generally unsatisfactory citizens. Some, of course, do pull themselves up, as if by their bootstraps, but in general the prediction for successful occupational and social adjustment is unfavorable. In the normal course of events, it is likely that Elson would have done as many of his contemporaries who were not counseled had done. He would in all probability have left school after his disillusioning experiences in the ninth grade. His decision to continue was due in part to the influence of the counselor, who took time to consider with him the advantages and disadvantages of doing so. It was slightly reinforced by parents who really cared very little about his behavior, by teachers, whose reputations were not enhanced by a boy of this kind, who were required to deal with students in the mass, and who seldom offered any encouragement during his first years in high school. As in the case of Paula, presented above, the question can always be raised about the wisdom of urging the Elsons to stay in school until they can graduate. Quite aside from the fact that a

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high-school diploma is required as evidence of eligibility f o r an increasing number of jobs, the issue of the school's responsibility must be faced. If that responsibility consists in offering, as this school did f o r the most part, courses in the social studies in which the student sees no sense "because they don't help y o u after y o u leave school," a formalized English p r o g r a m which provided, largely, a series of drills in g r a m m a r and little training in the writing that people in semiskilled occupations must do, a course in b i o l o g y which left no other residual than a set of quickly f o r gotten esoteric terms, there seems to be no justification f o r continuing in school. T h e s e were s o m e of the experiences to which the Elsons would be exposed if they continued in school because m a n y schools are not y e t fully aware that they have populations which differ widely f r o m those of the N e w England academies. In the following case the reader m a y see additional problems of counseling that are introduced b y the presence of a physical handicap. Such cases, though relatively rare in the school population, become most difficult when they are definitely incurable, f o r when nothing can be done with the condition, something must b e done about it. T h e steering of a course between over-solicitousness on the part of the family, school, counselor, and classmates, and the neglect which m a y result f r o m the inability to participate in normal routines, is a difficult problem. T h e development of satisf a c t o r y self-appraisal, adequate means of compensation, and substitute methods of obtaining personal satisfaction require considerable counseling skill, and the problems of vocational adjustment require very special consideration. In the following case the actual processes of counseling are difficult to describe because so m u c h of their effect was due to the manner of counseling rather than to the action prescribed. T h e attitude of the counselor during the interviews, f o r example, the constant encouragement of activity u p to, but not beyond, the limits imposed b y the physical handicap are important factors in the treatment of this case. MARY A victim of an attack of suffered from an incurable this condition she persisted, the customary activities of cept it as a limitation. She

infantile paralysis during childhood, Mary lack of development of one limb. Despite under the influence of the counselor, with secondary school girls and refused to achad tremendous drive to succeed in any-

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thing that she undertook and was more successful in academic work than could have been expected. Her progress from depression to elation at her success and back to depression again, over an eleven-year period, presented a challenging problem to her counselors. School

Record

Mary graduated second in her class of over 500, and highest among the girls. She was an earnest student, interested in her work and with excellent powers of concentration in class work and in preparation. She made the most of every free moment at school so that she had little studying to do at home. She insisted on electing only four subjects annually so that she could do thorough work in each and still have time for many outside activities. English: Mary found textbooks dull but read widely and with discrimination in "best sellers" until her oculist advised limitation during her senior year. Teachers reported her work outstanding in quality but with no sign of creative ability. She was always thoroughly prepared, organized her material coherently, used an excellent vocabulary in written work, held audiences easily, and though she seldom volunteered, she always had a ready response to questions. Languages: Languages were easy for her, but her interest waned as she progressed. She tried hard to do supplementary reading in Latin to make up for her decision to avoid ancient history. Her Latin teacher observed that she thought through the material carefully and used intelligent imagination on sight passages. French teachers described her as a good plugger, alert in recitation, and always well prepared for her classes. Mathematics: In grade 8 Mary showed special interest in mathematics. In grade 9 algebra was her best subject, and she was eager for more. In grade 10 she disliked geometry. In grade 11 her algebra teacher reported that she was a good student who kept to herself and worked out problems independently. She seemed to grasp fundamental concepts thoroughly and to use discrimination in applying them to new problems. Teachers thought that she had more ability in mathematics than objective tests seemed to indicate. Arts: While in junior high school, she took piano and dancing lessons. Her slight lameness was never allowed to interfere with social dancing, horseback riding, skating, or other physical activities. Though she had been moderately interested in art and music in school, she showed no signs of special ability. Social Studies: History was her favorite subject until she discovered algebra. History teachers found her a quick thinker, alert to volunteer, with a mature viewpoint and an obvious interest in all class discussions. They suggested supplementary books which she read.

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Test Record During the first three years that Mary took a battery of tests, her scores were among the upper third of her group in all except the tests of spatial facility. During her last two years of school, she scored just within the upper third on tests of general ability, reading, mathematics, and speed and accuracy in clerical work. Her scores on the Thurstone Psychological Examination indicated high average rather than superior ability as compared with other college-preparatory students. The test results support teachers' opinions that thorough study and intense concentration had raised her school marks somewhat above the level that could have been expected from her mental test scores. Family Data Mary was the elder of two girls, who had been given music and dancing lessons, parties, and expensive clothes by parents who lived up to the limit of their income, and whose home rated high on the socio-economic scale. Her father, who had some technical education beyond high school, was superintendent of a large factory. As Mary approached college age, he became aware of the insecurity of his own business future, and since her hospital expenses had been a constant drain on the family income for years, he felt unable to finance college for her on the scale that she and her mother would have chosen. Her father had tutored Mary through her long illness so that she had kept up with her class. Her parents and sister favored her when clothes and entertainment were provided because they wanted to compensate for her lameness and for the fact that her young sister was prettier, more active, and more popular. This sister tried to take Mary with her on parties and dates and was inclined to do all the home chores while Mary studied. The sister wanted to get a job as soon as possible, and agreed that Mary was the one who wanted and should have education beyond high school. Both girls were allowed free use of the family car when they were old enough to drive. They and their parents all had busy social lives, entertained freely, and were active in church and fraternal organizations. Health As a result of infantile paralysis, Mary's right leg was short and undeveloped. During grammer school she was absent frequently for many weeks at a time while she was hospitalized. As a result of the counselor's encouragement, she became determined not to be handicapped, and she tackled studies, dancing, horseback riding, and regular gymnasium classes with equal vigor, until she excelled in them.

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She deliberately ignored her handicap to the extent that it made little impression on observers. H e r health had become excellent, though both she and her family were quick to see specialists at any signs of illness. In her junior year, her oculist discovered a defect which could not be corrected by glasses, and she was ordered to reduce the number of activities which required steady use of her eyes. T h o u g h M a r y was extremely thin, her general health was reported to be good. She was subject to car-sickness when riding on trolleys. F o r this reason, and to avoid the chance of overfatigue, the family car was always at her disposal. T h o u g h she never spared herself, her family was inclined to do her chores and to plan activities which would conserve her strength. Leisure-Time Activities M a r y was on the traffic squad in grade 8, wrote the class prophecy in grade q, reported f o r the school newspaper, joined the Dramatic Club in grade n , and wrote the class prophecy in grade 12. She delivered her prophecy effectively on Class Day. She would have welcomed, but could not obtain, further opportunities in journalism after the school paper stopped publication during her junior year. Out of school she filled her time with piano and dancing lessons through grade 10. Later she skated, played ping-pong, attended movies, participated in church activities, and carried on many social activities in which her generous sharing of the family car helped to make her popular. She had no handicraft skills or interests, but she read a great deal in the movie magazines and religious periodicals to which her family subscribed and in library books suggested b y her teachers until she was forced to discontinue them when the oculist suggested that she use her eyes less. T h e n she went to the other extreme and did no reading. During the summers her family rented a cottage at a popular beach where there was, she said, "lots going on," and where, as at home, she was accustomed to meeting many people. Occupational Experience M a r y had taken care of neighbors' children on occasional evenings. During grade 12 she did some correcting of tests f o r the guidance department, and she exhibited fair speed and accuracy. H e r family discouraged her efforts to secure summer w o r k because they feared it would be too strenuous f o r her. Vocational Choice Grade 7 Librarian: She thought that the w o r k would be pleasant. Grade 9 Undecided: Less interested in library work. Grade 10 Undecided: Considered teaching and library work without any particular interest.

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( ι ) Librarian: Still interested, but friends told her the field was crowded. (2) Secretary: She knew that her father could get a job for her in a lawyer's office. (3) Dietitian: This choice grew out of her interest in her father's work and readings and discussions with the counselor.

Grade 12

( 1 ) Librarian: Interest continued, but she feared her eyesight was inadequate for the work. (2) Secretary: Considered this a sure way to get a job, and secretarial training a practical alternative to four years of expensive college study. (3) Dietitian: Grew more interested in this as she considered placement possibilities. PROGRESS OF COUNSELING

In grade 8 Mary was tall, thin, ash-blonde, with a noticeably hooked nose, loud voice, and positive manner. She took her work seriously, was proud of being on the honor roll, and said frankly that she was so busy with activities that she couldn't find time to do homework. Through junior and senior high school she took her school work and plans for the future very seriously, and she welcomed the opportunity to discuss them with the counselor. She took the initiative in inquiring about opportunities in various professions, and formed decided opinions on the basis of the comments which her friends and acquaintances made about several fields. Her harsh voice, very noticeable during grade 11, softened a bit during her last year, though her Oral English teacher despaired of ever making her voice really pleasant. Mary was, on the one hand, anxious to be practical in her plans, and on the other, resentful of her family's hesitation to invest in further education for her. She gave no evidence of the envy her mother feared she would develop as a result of her younger sister's charm and popularity, but Mary did begrudge the time she had to spend in study as contrasted to the lesser demands made on her sister by the choice of business courses. Mary's own efforts to reduce the amount of study outside school led her to greater concentration and speed in work. She neglected no details though she admitted candidly that she considered all textbooks dull and hard to understand. During grades 8 and 9, the counselor discussed Mary's work and activities with her, and encouraged her to do her best with them in spite of her physical handicap. This led to long discussions about her relations with others. She was encouraged to broaden the base of her activities, and the election of a college-preparatory curriculum was

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approved. Though specific vocational choice was postponed, she was encouraged to investigate different professional fields. Through the tenth grade this encouragement was continued. The counselor discussed with her the information which she was getting about such fields as library work and teaching. Her determination to win a college scholarship was praised, and she was urged to try out for a school activity such as work on the school paper. In grade n a more definite program of investigating occupations was outlined with her, and the readings she undertook were followed by discussions with the counselor. She narrowed down her choice to library work or dietetics, with secretarial work as an alternative in case full college training proved too expensive. Specialized positions within these fields were considered until she was well aware of the several opportunities in each of the fields which seemed worth further investigation in college, after more try-out experiences. It was recommended that she try at least one science in high school before thinking seriously of the research work in nutrition which had claimed her interest. After much deliberation she rejected the recommendation and decided to finish up a fourth year of Latin instead. Though she refused to elect more than four subjects a year lest her grades be reduced or the work be too time-consuming, she was interested in reading independently. She followed the counselor's recommendations of biographies and historical novels related to her work and interests just as enthusiastically as she carried out similar extra assignments from her teacher. At the suggestion of Mary's mother, who was much concerned over her sensitiveness and supposed lack of popularity, the counselor led her into discussion of her own need for improvement in voice and in grooming if she were to undertake certain kinds of positions. Methods of improvement were suggested. During interviews with the mother the counselor indicated that there was little maladjustment, praised Mary's apparent growth in confidence and correction of physical awkwardness, and stressed her real ability, as indicated by tests and school achievement. She encouraged the mother to believe that her promise of success justified an effort by the family to provide means for professional training. It was suggested that they might consider a small college with a small campus where Mary could join in all activities and where her superiority in academic work would insure scholarship aid after the first year. In view of the mother's objection to the expense of living away from home, this idea was shelved temporarily. Mary was encouraged to secure firsthand information on the courses of study and placement programs of local colleges rather than to accept the unquestioning judgment of friends. T h e registrar at one women's college reported to the counselor that Mary had subjected her to one of the most thorough cross-examinations on the success

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of the college in placement that she had ever experienced from a prospective student. The vocationally oriented courses at this college seemed most suitable for her needs, though she tried, on the counselor's recommendation, a scholarship competition at another local college. Her record was taken to the admissions officers in both colleges and discussed with them. The year closed with her definite choice of library training at a local college so she was advised to secure some part-time work in the local library during her senior year as a tryout. In her senior year, Mary was one of the six girls recommended to the local women's club as a candidate for their scholarship. She might have been favorably considered for their scholarship had she not been competing with girls whose financial need was greater. During the year her vocational choice reverted to dietetics. This choice was made after her oculist had advised her to avoid occupations where much reading would be required. When her family decided that commuting to a local college would be too strenuous for her, she investigated the standing of the Home Economics Department at a state college, was satisfied with it, and continued her study and discussion of jobs available in home economics. As her study continued, the counselor wove into the discussions much information on general job-hunting techniques, and suggested openings for summer jobs. Later it became apparent that the need for money was not a strong enough motive for her to resist the urging of her parents to spend a summer at the beach with the family. With her mother and the counselor, she visited a state college on High School Day, and was so pleased with the whole setting — dean, dormitories, girls — that she decided to enter it. The counselor arranged a situation that brought Mary and her mother into conversation with a congenial looking mother and daughter, whose interests complemented Mary's, and before the day was over the girls decided to room together. The return trip offered a splendid opportunity for discussion of many problems of adjustment to college life and study. The counselor had recommended that Mary be given part-time work when her record was sent to the college. She applied to the director of student employment, and since he had noted that Mary's slight limp had not handicapped her on the strenuous day of inspecting the whole campus, he promised to give her consideration. After graduation, the counselor praised Mary's presentation of the class prophecy, recommended her for a summer job as chauffeurgoverness, and advised her to learn touch-typing by self-study during her vacation. During her second month at the college Mary wrote the following unsolicited letter to the counselor:

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" I intended to write to you before this, but it seems as though I never have time to do all that I want to do. So far there have been a great many teas, dances, etc. and we are rushed from one affair to the next. " T h e state college is even better than I had hoped it would be. I believe that I have made a very wise choice and I want to thank you f o r the advice you gave me. T h e campus is a very friendly place and my professors are very helpful. " I have found the studies very difficult. Most of them require great preparation, even more than I expected. As I expected I'm finding Chemistry very hard. W e are in the same class as pupils who have had Chemistry before and we are not given any extra help. In the laboratory w e do have assistants who try to help us but there is only one assistant for every 20 pupils so they are very busy most of the time. " I am taking English, Chemistry, German, Orientation, Home Economics, Hygiene, College Adjustments, and Physical Education. I guess I am finding English rather easy. German is very simple so far, too. I think that Latin and French help me a great deal. " I am not working up here this semester and I don't think that I shall the second semester. I don't think that I would be able to get good marks if I had to give up some time for work. However, they are going to award some scholarships in about two months and I intend to put my name in for one of them. I'm also applying for a job this summer. It will probably be as a waitress in some hotel. " I think that is about all I have to say now. If there are any girls at school who are thinking of coming up here and who have any questions, I would be glad to write to them. Yours truly Mary" Mary completed her freshman year at the state college with satisfactory grades, but she did not get a scholarship for the following year. H e r parents felt that the academic work was wearing her down physically and urged her to withdraw, although she wanted to continue. T h e parents finally forced withdrawal by stating that they could not afford to provide financial aid for the next three years. Mary visited the counselor during the summer after her freshman year in an attempt to get enough financial support to complete the college program. She was advised that she could receive aid from the State Rehabilitation Bureau because of her physical handicap, but when she told her parents of the plan to go to the Bureau, they told the counselor that they did not want Mary to go on with college under any circumstances. T h e y did send her to an exclusive secretarial school from which she graduated with honors the following year.

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Guidance of American Youth ELEVEN YEARS AFTER INITIAL COUNSELING

Immediately after graduation from the secretarial school, Mary obtained a position as secretary to an executive of a manufacturing concern where she is now (1947) completing her fourth year of employment. Mary confided to the counselor, in a follow-up interview in 1947, that she regrets the decision to withdraw from college, and she now wishes that she had completed a course in dietetics. She dislikes the routine, non-challenging work of a secretary. Mary's parents, perhaps in defense of their earlier decision, say that she would never have been satisfied with anything. There is a definitely strained relationship between Mary and her parents at the present time.

As one reads the report on Mary it is possible to get the impression that her problems were not difficult, but that was not actually the case. There was in her treatment a need for striking a nice balance between doing too much and too little for her — between pushing her too hard and letting her drop below what she could accomplish — between expecting too much from her and using her handicap as a ready excuse for lack of accomplishment. Had that balance not been struck she might have developed into a very unhappy, maladjusted, and failing student, as one girl in the school which Mary attended had done, because she was not counseled to discriminate among the activities which were and were not within the limits imposed by her handicap. It is interesting to note in this case the results of the application of follow-up procedures when they cover a period of six years beyond high-school graduation. Within the year after Mary had finished school, the case could have been closed and labeled as successfully treated. One year later we find that what appeared to be a good solution to her problem was disturbed, and five years later we find that she is decidedly unhappy about her occupation and is at odds with her parents. The evidence furnished by such follow-up procedures should present considerable food for thought for those school people who do not look beyond the time of school-leaving. Even though the school can do little about such circumstances as those which brought about the disturbance in what appeared to be a good post-school plan for Mary, there is need to prepare students for such an eventuality. It may be argued that this was not done adequately for Mary and that the work with her parents lacked substance enough to carry on beyond the first year after she had graduated. But at

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what stage in a life career should the criteria of a successful guidance program be set? H o w long must we be responsible? Do we really mean preparation for life when we use such terms in speaking about the objectives of a school? As counselors work with young people in secondary schools, they find that there are many causes for the kind of behavior which is described as "lazy," "indifferent," "apathetic," "uninterested in school," and "unwilling to take advantage of educational opportunities." In the report on Frank, which follows, we see several of these causes appear and disappear when treatment, rather than name-calling, was applied. Frank was the kind of boy whom many individuals treat by vigorous scolding and by providing advice in a loud voice to the effect that they should "pull themselves together," "straighten up," and "get down to work." T h e results of another type of treatment seemed to produce good results until Frank was again subjected to unusual pressures. FRANK Frank was referred to the counselor for study when he was in the eighth grade because of his phlegmatic and apathetic attitude in school. Sometimes labeled as lazy, indifferent, and lacking in ambition, he became inured to criticism and to the pressures brought to bear on him to be a "success." Practical treatment of the cause of his apathy, more adequate appraisal of his abilities, and the application of those to his educational and vocational planning brought satisfactory adjustments for normal conditions. T h e effect of Army experiences upon his adjustment six years later raises, however, some doubts concerning the effectiveness of the counselling which he received. Interpretation of Test Record In general Frank's test scores revealed that he could have done more than his school marks indicated. Scores on the Hennon-Nelson Test of Mental Ability administered in the seventh grade, and on the Kuhlmann-Anderson Test of mental maturity administered in the ninth and tenth grades, indicate that his general performance was average for his age and grade. His reading comprehension scores were near average for his group, but his speed of reading scores were in the lower third of his group. Although the tests which were given in the junior high schools revealed only average vocabulary scores, it is interesting to note that there was marked improvement in his vocabulary performance in later years. His achievement on mathematics tests was

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consistently high and his Q (non-language) score on the Thurstone Psychological Examination, administered in the senior year, placed him at the sixty-fifth percentile for college freshmen. His total score on the same examination placed him only at the fiftieth percentile for college freshmen. Frank's scores on the Minnesota Paper Form Board test were consistently high, and his scores on the Minnesota Vocational Tests for Clerical Workers were always average. During his tenth school year he scored in the upper third for his age and grade group on the Stenquist Mechanical Aptitude Test. A personality test failed to reveal any neurotic tendencies. T h e Strong Vocational Interest Blank provided an A rating in Group II. This rating appeared to indicate that his interests were most similar to workers in the professions of chemistry, engineering, and mathematics. Family Data Frank was the second of five children of British-born parents. His father was engaged in the insurance business until Frank's junior year in high school. At that time he found it impossible to carry on the work successfully, and he accepted a position as a household appliance distributor. H e had always met with a great deal of difficulty in supporting his family. Frank's elder brother attended a small Ohio college for one year, after which he withdrew to get married. H e secured a position as a bank clerk. One younger brother who was in the same grade as Frank did superior school work. H e planned to enter the field of accounting. Another younger brother and a sister attended elementary school. Health Data During Frank's eighth school year the teachers of morning classes reported that he seemed very tired and apathetic. An investigation by the counselor revealed that he became very hungry during the long period between an early breakfast and late lunch. A mid-morning meal was arranged at the school, and the difficulty was eliminated. From that time on his health appeared to be good, and his energy adequate. Routine school examinations did not reveal any disability. Leisure-Time

Activities

W h e n Frank was in the ninth grade, his parents forced him to take violin lessons, but he rebelled and the lessons were discontinued. His main hobby had been photography, and a good deal of the money which he earned was spent in this pursuit. H e was a member of a Boy Scout troop for three years, but he did not take an active part in the programs. H e preferred to do things by himself rather than participate in group activities.

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Work Experience In the eighth, ninth, and tenth grades Frank carried a morning and evening paper route. During the summer between the tenth and eleventh grades he worked as a helper to a furnace installer and did such odd jobs as cutting lawns and delivering "shopping news" papers. During the summer between the eleventh and twelfth grades he worked as a carpenter's helper.

Vocational Choice Grade Grade Grade Grade : Grade 12

Lawyer or mechanic: N o reason given. Photographer or chemical engineer: These choices were influenced by his hobby of photography and by the fact that he had a chemical set at home. Draftsman or chemist: He became interested in drafting because he met success with mechanical drawing in high school. Mechanical work: He believed that this was the type of work in which he was most interested, and for which he was best fitted. Same PROGRESS O F COUNSELING

Frank was a well-developed and personable boy. He was very shy, and he frequently dropped his eyes when he spoke to an adult. His voice was low, and an observer was immediately impressed with his self-consciousness. When Frank was first seen by the counselor, he gave the impression of being a drowsy, sickly youth. At the first interview it was learned that he arose very early in the morning and went to bed very late at night. After some consultation with his parents concerning the need for more sleep and a mid-morning lunch, a marked improvement was noted in his appearance and in his attitude in class. Frank's parents made it very clear to the counselor that they expected him to prepare for college. His school record of A's and B's and his test scores indicated that this goal was feasible. In conferences with Frank and his parents, the counselor provided information concerning high-school courses and electives. In the ninth grade Frank was given occupational information about drafting, chemical engineering, and photography because he had displayed some interest in them. His lack of success in Latin, his difficulty with algebra, and his inadequate study habits raised some doubt about the wisdom of continuing in the college-preparatory curriculum. Assistance in study techniques did not produce really tangible results. When Frank was in the tenth grade, the counselor made an effort to get him interested in reading because his teachers had reported that

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poor reading was a serious handicap in his school work. A special reading program was outlined, but Frank found numerous alibis to avoid it. Although he had been warned by the counselor concerning the abstruse content and great difficulty of a certain high-school course in biology, he elected it because he was interested in general science. He was granted permission to drop it after he had failed to pass the subject for two successive marking periods. He was very successful in his mechanical drawing course, and to the counselor, this indicated possible vocational use. Toward the end of the school year Frank was provided with extensive information on the occupation of drafting and he read it with considerable satisfaction. By the time that Frank had reached his eleventh school year, there was reliable evidence to indicate that he was not a good college prospect because of his poor work habits, lack of interest in further education, and dislike for formal academic work. T h e poor financial status of the family provided little hope of assistance for college expenses. Despite these conditions Frank persisted in the college-preparatory course and refused to discuss modified academic courses which the counselor proposed for consideration. W h e n Frank entered the eleventh grade he soon had difficulty with algebra. He failed the course, lost all interest in the subject, and after four unsuccessful months, he dropped it. At the end of the year he had succeeded in making his points toward graduation in chemistry and French. It became evident that there was some possibility of his failure to graduate with his class unless he carried a particularly heavy program during his senior year, but this could not be done if he continued in the college course. After the counselor had consulted Frank's parents, a special program of studies was arranged so that he could graduate on schedule if he passed all his courses. After numerous discussions with the counselor, Frank felt that training in some phase of mechanics would make the most of his ability and interest. T h e counselor made arrangements for him to take a civil service apprenticeship examination for Navy Yard workers. His score on this examination was not high, and it did not seem likely that he would be eligible for this type of work until some time later. When Frank reached the twelfth grade, a conference with his parents revealed that he could expect no financial aid from the home for any type of further education or vocational training. In the meantime, Frank became convinced that he wanted to make some phase of mechanical work his life career. Toward the latter part of his senior year, the counselor taught Frank some practical job-hunting techniques. After several practice interviews with the counselor, he was sent out to follow up leads on jobs which had been obtained by the guidance department. At the time, several local universities announced Engineering

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Defense Training Courses to be given during the summer to students who were not going on to college but who were interested in engineering drawing. A t the time Frank was informed about these courses, he had been considering the acceptance of a position as an apprentice in a diamond cutting shop. He, his parents, and the counselor discussed the pros and cons of selecting the job or taking the training course, and it was finally agreed that the course held better possibilities for the future. A t the close of his senior year Frank graduated from high school with three C's and two B's in his five courses. In the interim between his high-school graduation and the time that he was to begin the Engineering Training Course, Frank was offered a position in a machine shop which he had visited during the previous job-hunting campaign arranged by the counselor. He accepted the position without the knowledge of the counselor and without consulting his parents. After he had accepted the job he wrote the following letter to the guidance department. "I hope you have had a nice summer. It certainly has gone by fast. "I thought I would drop you a line and let you know how I made out. I went to work at Manufacturing Co. I am in the service department and I am repairing, installing and moving all types of machinery and air compressors. It seems that this is just the kind of job I am looking for. T h e y are paying me $18 per week. I am beginning to get acquainted with the different types of equipment and like it very much. "I want to thank you for your efforts in trying to help me get started and I hope you can keep up your good work with others. Thanks again and best regards for a good year to come. Sincerely yours, Frank" T h e counselor did not know whether Frank should be left alone in his "happy state" to seek his own advancement and to improve his vocational status, or if he should be encouraged to obtain additional vocational training by evening study with a view of obtaining a more responsible and "better paying" job. The counselor's absence for military service prevented action on the second of these alternatives, and Frank was last seen in his state of satisfaction. ELEVEN YEARS AFTER FIRST COUNSELING

Six years after Frank had graduated from high school, the counselor, who had returned from military service and who was conducting a Veterans Counseling Service, recognized Frank as one of his clients. His present (1947) circumstance and vocational history were obtained and reported as follows.

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Frank had worked in the machine shop for three months. He had been well pleased with his job and had received two raises in pay. At the end of this period he had resigned to help his father in the insurance business but had hardly made a start when he was drafted into the Army. From 1942 to 1945 Frank served as an Army airplane mechanic. He was injured, spent a good deal of time in hospitals, and was not sent overseas. He reached the rank of staff sergeant, but he was demoted to private, according to his own report, for insolence to an officer. He had reached the rank of corporal when he was discharged. Frank described his whole Army experience as very unhappy. Frank was slow in making an adjustment to civilian life. He was sure that he did not want any more mechanical work, refused to consider further education, and stated only that he wanted a "good interesting job." He could define neither "good" nor "interesting." He refused to work with his father, whose business was now flourishing, and he drew unemployment compensation as a member of the "52-20 Club" for almost a year. During this year the counselor had several interviews with Frank and with his parents. He had become inured to his parents' constant prodding about going to work, and it was necessary to advise them to reduce the pressure that they were exerting upon him. After much counseling and consideration Frank finally accepted a position as a door-to-door salesman of kitchen appliances where the opportunity to travel now gives him considerable satisfaction. There is little doubt that his Army experiences have disturbed Frank so much that there is some emotional maladjustment. He finds it very difficult to make his own decisions, and he tends to take the path of least resistance. In view of this condition it is impossible to predict the future course of his vocational career. Nothing in his history had indicated that he would be successful in a career of salesmanship. T h e case of Frank presents another one of those which we have studied so long that we have spoiled a good guidance "success" story. Frank was happy in his first post-school job, there was no reason to believe that he had made other than a successful adjustment, and the counselors felt that their efforts had been justified. Five years later he was drifting, couldn't make up his mind, and was unemployed although employment was available. T h e young boy who had been eager to work was, after four years of A r m y experience, content to be idle. The boy who had been happy about his career was now floundering and unhappy. T h e four years of military service had changed him. Per-

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haps, if the guidance had been good, there might have been improvement rather than depreciation during those four years. But guidance for military service, until that service changes, must be different from that for civilian life. Perhaps the guidance was good despite the fact that he did not adjust to Army circumstances — even, perhaps, better because it did not prepare for them. The decision concerning the effectiveness of the work with Frank must wait until he has had another opportunity to work and live under more normal circumstances. The reader must not consider the following report on Amy as evidence for the common generalization that so-called "progressive" schools do not provide adequate training in the "fundamentals." When Amy returned to the seventh grade of a public school after three years at a "progressive" school she was weak in spelling and arithmetic. W e cannot be sure, however, that this condition was not due to a poor start in a regular school during her first three years. And again, arguing the reverse, if her weaknesses were due to "progressive" training, it may be that her sensitivity to beauty was developed during the period that she was failing to get the "fundamentals." And if there was (or is) any necessary relationship between the two conditions, who is to judge whether she lost more than she gained? Is the sensitivity to beauty at the level demonstrated by this girl as easily developed as the skills of spelling and arithmetic? There is reason to believe, because of its scarcity, that sensitivity to beauty cannot be produced, as easily as achievement in spelling or mathematics, by a relatively short period of tutoring. In any case the reader will observe a good deal of sympathy on the part of the counselor for this girl and her problems. This girl had an unmistakable, undefinable "quality" about her that no other member of the group possessed. Occasionally when rather bored with the routine that the counselor meets, and weary of helping students to solve their problems, he would call Amy to the office to have a different kind of conference. She could carry on a conversation far above what might be expected from a girl of her age; her criticisms of public school practices were interesting because she saw them clearly and presented them without the whining to which many of our subjects resorted when they became discouraged. Amy was a very personable young lady at every age.

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Amy was referred to a counselor as a girl of superior ability, who showed weakness in the fundamentals of spelling and arithmetic and whose school achievement was uneven. Investigation of these difficulties brought to light a rare combination of lack of social adjustability in the school, associated with a fine family adjustment. These conditions and the promise of special achievement in the arts raised some challenging guidance problems. School Record Amy was early considered a gifted child. She memorized easily and was capable of excellent concentration and thorough work when she was really interested. Under such circumstances she worked slowly in an attempt to reach perfection. Her activities outside of school were usually much more interesting to her than her school affairs, and she did the minimum amount of homework in a perfunctory manner. She graduated 99th in a class of over 500. In the following description of her school performances, the records submitted from a private school which she had attended from her third to the sixth school years have been used. English. — Grades 3-6: Amy learned to read early and quickly. She chose rather mature books, understood and remembered easily, and read aloud fluently and with expression. In spelling, at times, she overcame her carelessness and lack of interest enough to show slow improvement, but she slipped into mirror writing frequently when she was tired. She could spot errors in printed matter quickly. Her penmanship was neat and distinctive only when she took time to make it so. She showed excellent creative ability, amusing imagination, and a distinct skill in the choice of words for color and richness. Her awareness of weakness in spelling and her carelessness sometimes impeded her flow of thought, and her ideas were not always organized logically. Grade 8: She showed a serious weakness in spelling by making many errors. She profited little from special exercises drawn up for her by a counselor. Throughout high school she was good in comprehension and interpretation of literature, but poor on all technical details. Except for occasional spells, she worked faithfully. By conscious effort she made some improvement in spelling and penmanship, and learned to express herself more clearly. Grade 11: Teacher reported that occasionally she wrote rather ordinary poetry that showed a wide range of interests. Grade 12·. Teacher reported that she had excellent ideas, and did best on imaginative material. She always read widely among the well-written books and magazines which interested her parents. Among them were biographies, historical novels, tales of travel, adventure, and outdoor life. She disliked English in grades 11

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and 12 and found little to challenge her unless she was allowed to work out a project involving wide reading and reporting on a topic of personal interest. Languages. — She disliked French intensely and continuance was not recommended after grade 10. Upon the urging of her art teacher, who felt that she had not tried hard enough, she repeated French II, but had to be tutored to pass it. She learned vocabulary and verb forms quickly, but did not retain them. Her teacher felt that this was due to lack of organization in thinking and study. Her tutor considered her childish in avoiding drill. Her failure even with tutoring in grades 11 and 12 probably reflected her weakness in English constructions, as well as the dislike of painstaking drill. She was passed in grade 12 on effort and on sympathy for the plucky effort she made to make up work after a long illness. Mathematics. — Grades 5, 4: Amy was late in grasping the multiplication tables and other fundamental processes, so though she could reason well, grasp general principles and apply them, her errors in working them out handicapped and inhibited her. She felt that her teachers in a progressive private school did not force her to correct this weakness early enough and said (grade 1 1 ) , "Now I can never do mathematics well; I'll always have to count on my fingers." Actually, those teachers drilled her until they believed she had a passable grasp of fundamentals. All through high school she disliked mathematics and needed occasional tutoring. In grade 12 her teacher recommended tutoring in algebra. The tutor found that she understood the material and could solve problems quickly and accurately if she made no careless errors. She improved when assured that she could do the work, and did well under a substitute teacher. After her regular teacher's return she was reported to have done all required work, but she was unable to pass tests. In grade 12 she repeated the first half of Algebra II and Geometry I, and she did certificate grade work, "but she was not achieving as much as she should, as a repeater," according to the teacher. Science. — Grade 6: Amy's general science teacher reported that she was an interested worker and listener, with an excellent pictorial memory. She kept good notes and sketches, and grasped the elements of the work quickly. Grade 11: Her biology teacher considered her work adequate, but "not promising enough for success in college sciences." Social Studies. — Grades 5, 6: Amy seemed fascinated by history, read extensively, had much to contribute in discussions, seemed to savor the very spirit of times and peoples, would undertake the most difficult assignment, and do her research with diligence. After transfer to public junior high school, she reported great dislike of social studies,

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both of the content and of the method of presentation of material in class by a severe and exacting teacher. In an eleventh grade American history class where discussion and research were encouraged, she regained her enthusiasm. The teacher found her shy, polite, and mature in her thinking, though she did only average work. In grade 12 she elected ancient history as a corollary to her art work, and though she secured little challenge in a class of sophomores and seemed bored, she was attentive and informed on every detail. "She knew enough to teach the class," the teacher reported. Amy reported the keenest interest in this period. Arts. — Grades 3-6: Amy did excellent work in dramatics when she was willing to cooperate. She was quick with her hands and did neat and skillful carpentry with any tool. She had her own ideas as to what she wanted to do. She lost speed but gained skill. She was facile with clay. She drew easily, accurately, and without hesitation, showing superior ideas and skill. She showed feeling for design and color. Art was her favorite subject throughout junior and senior high school. She showed some special talent, and by spending much extra time on her work she always secured superior results. Grade it: Her term report in Fine Arts was an exhaustive account of the history of Mayan art and civilization, showing little originality in style and content, but thorough research and painstaking reproduction, both in writing and in drawing, of the best data available in the local library. The Harvard professor to whom she was referred 10 considered it good but "regrettable that she did not have access to the best authorities." Grade 12: Her interest continued to center in the arts and she spent more of her time in art study. Her instructor considered her work excellent in appreciation and criticism, though no signs of creative ability appeared. Interpretation of Test Record Amy's scores placed her in the upper third of her group on most tests. Her low test scores in clerical speed and accuracy were due to her lack of attention to detail in ordinary work, and to some extent, this habit probably reduced all her test scores. During the eleventh and twelfth grades Amy was able to raise her mathematics achievement test score on the Cooperative Test to the upper third of the group, but her performances on the Q section of the Thurstone Test, which is supposed to indicate promise of success in mathematics and sciences, were low and average in two successive years. This Q-score (mathematics) lowered her general average on this mental test. She achieved a high score on the language section of the test where good "She was referred by her art instructor, who was so thrilled about her work that he wanted the best possible criticism.

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reading performance is essential. On five general mental tests her I.Q. scores ranged from 117 to 141. Her scores on vocabulary tests and on measures of spatial facility were all high. On the Strong Vocational Interest Test her only A interest score was for artist. Family Data

Amy's father was owner of a group of clothing stores which carried expensive, "quality" goods. The counselor spent an evening with him and found him to be an unpretentious, hearty, well-educated man, who was keenly interested in hunting, fishing, and other outdoor activities. Amy was delighted to share them with him. Amy's mother was active in social affairs, interested in bridge, handicrafts, and a participant in various club affairs. Both parents had attended secondary schools. Their large home was located in the most exclusive residential section of the town. Amy was an only child who tried hard to take the place of the son her father had always wanted. There was a strong attachment between the two, and both objected to her mother's desire to get Amy more interested in parties and clothes and less in dogs and "roughhousing." The father had disapproved of the mother's choice of a private school, and had insisted on transfer to the public junior high school when business conditions required the reduction of expenses. When Amy entered public school, she shared her mother's opinion that she was entering a group socially inferior to what she had been accustomed, and she made no effort to make new friends. Both parents encouraged Amy to entertain many older girls who were attending private schools. The family could afford the fees of an expensive college, but when it came time to plan for advanced education they urged Amy to attend a local college where they could afford all extras for her, rather than enter a college where the living expenses would eliminate the extra frills. Moreover, by the time Amy had graduated from high school, the social and family life of all three was so closely and satisfactorily woven together that they all believed that her separation from home would be difficult for all of them. Health

Amy was tall and solidly built until the slendering effect of her illness in her senior year, but her poor posture made her seem less tall than she really was. Although she was pale, she was strong enough to undertake any physical activity that she chose. She did not eat lunch at high school because she preferred to spend her lunch period in the art room where she could discuss art work with her friends. Her vision in the left eye was not normal. She wore corrective

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glasses until she entered senior high school. A t that time she discarded them except for reading and other close work. In April of her senior year, she caught a cold when coming home from a dance and developed a severe case of pneumonia. She was not able to return to school until a week before graduation. Leisure-Time Activities A m y participated in only one school activity, the Art Club, which she joined during her senior year. She said that she wasn't interested in clubs. During her eleventh school year she said, " I used to read all the time; now I don't care about bothering with people. I walk the dog, skate, swim, and ski. I can't play tennis, because I can't stand too much heat on my head." Much of her time was spent in sharing activities with her parents. She did weaving or discussed ideas on home decorations with her mother, tramped with her father and his dogs, or pored over sports magazines with him. For many years A m y spent most of her time in reading, listening to the radio, drawing, going to an occasional movie, and playing with her pets. In senior high school she gradually began to attend more parties and go on dates with the children of her parents' friends, until she had to reduce her reading to less than a dozen books a year. B y the time she reached the eleventh grade she was interested in "just talking with people" and in the twelfth grade the activities of the Art Club broke down her resistance to group activities. She gave up piano lessons, but continued ballroom dancing lessons throughout her highschool years. Her only hobby was that of collecting paintings and statues of animals, especially horses, and she had some beautiful pieces. Her interest in sketching waned, though she did draw a f e w floor plans f o r houses. Work Experience She had never needed to work for pay, and she had never sought any employment. Vocational Choice Grade 8 Doctor: This rose from her hospital experience when she had an appendix operation. T h e surgeon was her uncle. He promised to give her his instruments if she followed his profession. Grade 9 Doctor: N o addition to reasons given above. Grade 10 Undecided: A m y gave up her medical ambition when she found Latin too hard. (The importance of Latin in the training f o r medicine was unduly stressed by a teacher in this school.)

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Grade 11

( I ) Commercial Artist: "That's what interests me, but Mother says I'll never make a living." (2) Architect: "This is my father's judgment after observing my interests and hobbies."

Grade 12

( 1 ) Museum Curator: Outgrowth of her interest in Fine Arts and discussions about vocations with counselor. (2) Assistant to archaeologist or professor of art: This was a suggestion by a Harvard professor in this field who warned her that archaeology is a difficult field for women.

Personality

(In order to appreciate Amy's problems it is important that the following descriptions be read before the section on the progress of counseling. The first paragraph was written by teachers.)

In the elementary school A m y was reported to have been slow to adjust to group activities. She entered a private school in the third grade as an unhappy, moody, defensive, non-coöperative pupil, independent to the point of willfulness, taking directions with ill grace, likely to be quarrelsome, and disagreeable to other pupils. She throve on encouragement, responded to affection, and was a very valuable member of a group when her interest was aroused. She could be a conscientious, hard worker showing real creative ability when she was happy, unhurried, and unworried by meticulous concern about technique. She continued to be an individualist, but learned to mix well in sports. She conquered her tendency to play with younger children in order to excel and to be overbearing. B y the time she had reached the sixth grade, she was beginning to realize and to enjoy her own gifts and powers. When she was in the seventh grade she transferred from a progressive school to a public junior high school. Her teachers had warned that she was not ready for this, though she made great strides in learning and in social adjustment. When first seen in the eighth grade she was tall for her age. She was one of the most sour children of her age the counselor had ever seen. She criticized everyone and did not spare her parents, teachers, or associates. She was very self-conscious and disliked reciting. She claimed that teachers embarrassed her in front of the class. She scorned all group activities. She had begun to worry about passing her courses and said, "Teachers bawl you out for pleasure," and "They punish you unjustly." It was not until she had reached her senior year that she achieved real composure in class recitations. B y that time, her disposition, which had been mellowing slowly as she gained interest in her work and made more friends, became really pleasant. She lost her sullen expression, and as she began to appreciate her mother's

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suggestions about dressing attractively and simply, she became a really attractive young lady. PROGRESS OF COUNSELING

In the eighth grade Amy's weaknesses in spelling and arithmetic were already causing trouble. She had formed a dislike of mathematics which was to carry all through her school years. She was unhappy about school. She hated mathematics, history, and writing papers. She had begun reading scientific magazines and was interested in science. The type of formal art instruction provided in this school did not challenge her nor give her time to turn out the quality of work that she had produced under the encouragement of teachers in a progressive school. The counselor started by giving her special help in spelling, in which she was seriously below the grade level. H e talked frankly with her concerning her sour attitude and its influence on teachers and her classmates, and these mental hygiene conferences seemed to help. Her weakness in the techniques of doing ordinary homework was recognized, and she was given special help in doing home exercises in phonics, spelling, and mathematics. She was anxious to overcome her difficulty and worked hard, but the results were not encouraging. She was reassured that her difficulty in mathematics and spelling did not indicate that she was dull. In the ninth grade her poor social and emotional adjustment was discussed at length, and she began to show some improvement in attitude (at least verbally) toward her associates. She still complained about the amount of homework expected of her, and her parents' insistence that she sit down and concentrate on it until it was done. She told of her enthusiasm for outdoor sports, but complained about the loneliness of her neighborhood. Mental hygiene treatments were continued throughout the year. T o further her interest in science, she was encouraged to elect biology instead of Latin the next year because she was making no progress in that subject and there was little hope of her doing so until her difficulties in written English were overcome. In the tenth grade her difficulty with French continued. Study aids which were provided had no appreciable effect. She would go through the exercises, but her heart was not in it. By this time she had given up all hope of completing a course in medicine. When she chose electives for the next year, it seemed wise to let her forget about languages and try another science. She elected history in the hope that she might, in a more mature class, find social studies more challenging than she had in junior high school. The history did prove satisfactory in the eleventh grade, but in French, which she repeated on the urging of her art instructor, there

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was little improvement. The counselor recommended frequent conferences with her French teacher to secure constructive criticism of her study methods. Near the end of this school year, after conferences with her teachers, the counselor recommended tutoring. Since her father insisted that she prepare for one of the stiffest academic colleges, the counselor allowed her to elect another year of French, but he had grave doubts about her chance of success. Because of her lack of a good training in fundamentals, mathematics became increasingly difficult. Amy was referred to an apprentice teacher for tutoring in algebra because her teacher said that she would not pass the course if she did not have some help. It was decided that the apprentice would see her for approximately an hour and a half each week until the difficulty could be diagnosed. After two weeks the algebra occupied about onethird of the period while an interview took most of the time. During the first interview the apprentice learned that Amy felt that her progressive private school training was entirely to blame for her inability to do mathematics well. She said that when she was in the lower grades, she had been allowed to do things which she wanted to do and to neglect arithmetic which she disliked. In reviewing her algebra, it was soon apparent that she understood the material and that she could solve problems quickly and accurately if she made no error in computation, in copying figures correctly from the book, or in reading her own writing. Her actual ability and the reasons for special difficulty were pointed out to her, and she became more confident in her work. Just at the time that these lessons were begun, Amy's algebra teacher became ill and a substitute algebra teacher took over the class for a month. During this month Amy did well and had little trouble with mathematics. As she gained confidence in herself, her inaccuracies became fewer. At the end of two months of systematic review, Amy seemed to understand all the material, but she was still slow in applying principles to new problems. She passed the course, but not at a high enough level to be certified for college. She was advised to repeat the first half of both Algebra II and Geometry in order to secure certification. In her junior year Amy was beginning to find pupils and teachers more friendly, to find textbooks easier to read, and to get satisfaction from English and history as well as art. In discussing her plans for the future with the counselor, all her interests centered around art and archaeology. The art instructor was consulted and he advised a liberal arts education with a major in Fine Arts and emphasis on art appreciation and criticism rather than creative work. This caused the counselor to eliminate the possibility of commercial art training for Amy unless she should in the future show some real skill and originality in sketching. Her yearlong project in art, a history of

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Mayan art and civilization, had aroused her interest in Latin American history and culture. Accordingly, she and the counselor investigated colleges where she could follow up both art and Latin American history, and they found such a program in a well-endowed Southern university. Her mother approved of this choice since she knew some members of the faculty. Amy's father still urged the more conservative college. Following a conference with the dean of this conservative college, who agreed with the counselor that Amy had slight chance of success there, the counselor passed on this comment and asked Amy to arrange a meeting of the dean with her parents. When this meeting was held, the father was willing to consider other institutions. The sending of her record to either college was postponed until the middle of her senior year, in the hope that her marks would improve. In grade 1ζ the counselor referred her to afternoon painting classes at a museum school, and continued discussions begun the previous year about openings in archaeology and in museum work. He pointed out the scarcity of openings but did not discourage her otherwise until an alternative could be found. Both the counselor and the Harvard professor to whom her art teacher had referred her for advice urged Amy to recognize that her best chance was to break in as secretary or assistant to a museum director or professor of art. Amy's marked dislike of clerical detail made her chances of success in clerical work dubious, and it was suggested that a summer business course, early in her college program, would be a good tryout. She turned a deaf ear to any other fields suggested for her consideration by the counselor. She glanced through the books, Careers for Women, Vocations for Girls, and several vocational articles without developing interest in anything but art. The counselor spent an evening with Amy's family where the uncertainty of her success at the conservative local college, even if she was admitted, was discussed frankly. They decided to urge her to enter another local coeducational college where she would find easier scholastic requirements, and might find extracurricular activities that would interest her. The possibility of transferring at the end of her second year to the Southern college or to the local institution, to secure a stronger major in Fine Arts, was left contingent upon the success of her first two years. An aunt who was teaching at the selected college arranged to have Amy visit some classes and lunch with students. Amy became enthusiastic and was now anxious only about meeting the entrance requirements. Her records with comments on her work and the stated opinion of the counselor that Amy could expect moderate success in fields in which she could be interested were sent to the dean. She admitted her with a condition in French

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which was to be removed by an examination written at the beginning of the college year. During the serious illness which A m y suffered during her senior year the counselor dropped in to reassure her that both graduation and college entrance were still possible, and arranged with her mother and teachers for make-up assignments. She managed to accomplish a minimum of work and to graduate. W h e n she came back after graduation to report her relief in getting through, she filled out an employment questionnaire and discussed means of securing either paid or volunteer work in museums. After graduation she entered the local coeducational college. She joined two clubs and hoped to get into backstage work in dramatics if her midyear's marks reassured her parents. She said, "I am finding the work three times as hard as high school, but I love it." ELEVEN

Y E A R S AFTER

INITIAL

COUNSELING

In 1947, six years after A m y had graduated from high school, interviews with her and with her parents provided the following data. In the middle of her sophmore year, just as A m y was becoming very much interested in science, she was again stricken with pneumonia which kept her confined to bed for five months and which prevented her from carrying on normal activities for a full year. When she had recovered she decided that she would not go back to college because she ought to make a contribution to the war effort. She secured a position as a technician in the research laboratory of a local university which was engaged in war work, and since she progressed rapidly she believed that she had finally found the right vocation. After one year of work she married a co-worker in the laboratory whose graduate study was interrupted when he was drafted into the service. A m y continued to work in the laboratory after his return from service until he had obtained two graduate degrees in science. There were some problems of readjustment when Amy's husband returned because the housing situation required that they live with her parents, but since he has accepted a position which will take him to a new locale next year, A m y thinks that she and her husband will soon be able to "lead normal lives."

THE

STUDY

OF

INDIVIDUALS

If the reader has considered the cases presented above, he must have become aware of the number and complexity of the problems which are presented in the ten samples from the total population of our Study. He must also have begun to appreciate

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the need for guidance and counseling in American high schools. The need can be made to appear less than it is by grouping the problems under such general categories as physical, mental, and social, or scholastic, social, and economic. Such groupings result in the obscuration of the fact that each person's problem is unique despite its seeming similarity to others and the finding that the treatment of each young person must be individualized to cope with particular situations, regardless of the classification label. Consider, for example, some of the problems of the ten cases reported above with respect to the category of health and physical fitness. Homer had no discoverable organic disorders; yet his posture was so bad that he appeared to be suffering from a physical disability. Nelson had visual difficulties and was under the normal weight for one of his body build. Paula's health and appearance improved after a part-time employer demanded that she "eat two good meals a day with lots more milk than I ever had," and, "then my boy friend has been drafted so I don't stay up late on dates." William had defective vision in one eye, and he almost missed graduation with his class because he contracted lobar pneumonia during the spring of his senior year. Doreen developed serious difficulties as a result of rheumatism in her legs and neuritis in her arms. These conditions were so painful that they caused absences totaling thirty-one days during her senior year in high school. Mollie should have worn glasses at all times, but she discarded them because she thought that they detracted from her appearance. Elson had stomach disorders which required an arrangement for treatment at a special clinic after his treatment with home remedies had proved unsuccessful. Mary suffered from an incurable under-development of one limb after an attack of infantile paralysis, and during her senior year, her oculist stated that her visual condition precluded selection of certain occupations. Frank's apathetic and tired manner disappeared when a better routine of sleep was established and a mid-morning lunch was provided. Amy's defective vision was only partially corrected by glasses, and a severe case of pneumonia contracted during her senior year almost prevented her graduation with her class. When the ten cases presented above were selected to illustrate problems in counseling met in this Study, only one (Mary) was chosen because of physical condition. There was no intention to emphasize or minimize the health problem; yet we find that it

Problems of Adolescents

89

was an important factor in counseling each of these individuals. The counselors were equipped with little more than a layman's knowledge of health and physical fitness problems. They could do nothing about physical conditions other than refer the case to medical authorities, but the implications and the effects of the health conditions created special guidance problems. Frank's apathy was described as laziness, and since teachers had not been sympathetic with a "lazy" boy, considerable damage had been done to his morale before the health condition was corrected. Undesirable attitudes of both pupil and teachers were not easily changed, and perhaps in this case, they were determining factors in establishing Frank's "don't care" attitude which recurred eleven years after initial counseling, despite evidence that it had been eliminated before he had graduated from high school. The health problems of William and Amy raised special issues in educational counseling. Should they have been allowed to graduate with their class even though they had missed a large part of the work of their senior year? Should they have spent another year in the process of obtaining a high-school diploma? Under ordinary circumstances they would have been required to take the latter course, and a year might have been used to achieve only part of a year's work. By making provision for home lessons and by encouraging them to put as much effort as their health conditions permitted into their studies, both of these students were able to complete the required assignments and continue with the educational plans which had been made. A year lost at that crucial age period might well have resulted in alteration of the plans which they had made under guidance. The action of the counselor in such cases required very little skill or particular training, but it did need much interest in the welfare of the two students. Treatment of Elson's health problem required only the recognition by the counselor of the inadequacy of home treatments and the making of arrangements for professional treatment at reduced cost. Without such arrangements there could be no effective counseling for this boy. Beaten down by lack of reward for his efforts in school, and neglected or abused at home, his morale was reduced to a very low ebb when physical pain was added to the complex. N o specialist in health, the counselor was confronted with a health problem which limited the effectiveness

90

Guidance of American Youth

of his procedures, and it was necessary to provide f o r medical treatment to remove the limitations. Mollie persisted in her decision to discard her glasses because she thought that they detracted from her appearance regardless of advice from counselor, oculist, and parents. Since her visual condition was not particularly serious, it seemed best to drop the issue in the hope that she would realize the importance of taking care of her vision after she had found her man. Mary's counseling, as previously noted, required the careful balancing of activities so that she could carry on fully up to, but not beyond, the limits imposed b y her physical condition. It should be noted that even similar health problems required different forms of treatment. Some of our subjects used their health conditions as alibis for failure, others seemed stimulated by the fact that they had handicaps to overcome, and still others felt that they were hopelessly beaten. T h e variability of response seemed to corroborate what the major author had discovered in a study of college students 1 1 — that persons responded to their health condition in a manner consistent with their prevailing modes of adjustment. T h e health factor was embedded in the personality structure of the individual. W e have discussed the health problem at some length because it illustrates some of the ramifications of the counselor's task. E x cept in the case of Mary, the condition of our subjects' health had not been considered to be a vital issue. Yet in many cases it became, at some time during the counseling process, an issue upon which the effectiveness of the whole process depended. T h e work with the subjects of our Study produced considerable data on the nature of many of youth's problems. A t the same time they cast some doubt on several current theories concerning the issues and processes of guidance. W e shall consider some of these problems and doubts on the following pages, and attempt to point out their implications f o r the direction of the activities of a counselor. T h e vocational choices of youth have naturally received much attention in discussions of the principles and practices of guidance. T h e discussions revolve about such issues as the optimum time for making the choice of occupation, the kinds of experience 11 1 . Bender, H. A. Imus, and J. W . M. Rothney, Motivation and Visual Factors — Individual Studies of College Students, Dartmouth College Publications, 1942.

Problems of Adolescents

91

which the person should have before the choices are made, the lack of realism with respect to personal attainments and occupational opportunities, and the methods to be used in assisting the boy or girl to make a choice of occupation that will provide a reasonable chance for success and happiness.12 There may be, as yet undiscovered, methods by which such problems as these can be solved. Experience with the subjects in this Study, however, leads only to the conclusion that there is little likelihood of early discovery of methods which are generally applicable. Since the ten cases presented above compose a fairly representative sampling of the total population of the Study, we may look at some of their occupational choices and the problems which were raised. Homer wanted to be a great scientist working alone in his laboratory. This choice involved, although he was not aware of them, such factors as ability to achieve at a high level in mathematics and science; his own belief that all scientists were a bit queer; and since he knew that he was rather an odd individual, the belief that he would fit the description. T h e choice further involved the desire to remain aloof from other persons while he was serving them by his research, and the implication that there was need for such persons in our society. Mere logic concerning the number of great scientists who were not particularly queer individuals was not enough to convince this boy, and argument about required training in mathematics was not so effective as failing marks in bringing him to see that his choice was not realistic. Homer's was not the kind of problem that could be solved by guidance procedures which consist of classes in general occupational information and group projects in self-discovery. 13 Only intensive, carefully planned, and individual work with this boy brought any action, and the action produced only partial results. Still another type of problem in vocational choice is presented in the case of Doreen, who had chosen a vocation and who persisted in working toward it despite the ridicule of her parents and classmates, and despite what seemed to be insurmountable 12 See W . F. Dearborn and J. W . M. Rothney, Scholastic, Social and Economic Backgrounds of Unemployed Youth (Harvard University Press, 1938). " T h e study of occupations may serve the purpose of teaching students about the way in which others earn their living, and can be, of course, an important part of a young person's education even if it does not help him to select a career for himself.

92

Guidance of American Youth

obstacles. Few of our subjects made such lasting and definite choices, and few made such persistent efforts to reach their goals. In such cases, however, there was no veering from the course regardless of the efforts of counselors, teachers, and parents. When such choices were made, the counselor simply attempted to determine the probabilities of success in terms of the student's achievements, and if they were favorable, to attempt to reduce the number of factors which limited those probabilities. T h e following abstracts from an interview with Paul, during the year following his graduation from high school, present another sample of this "one-choice career" behavior. Paul had stated in his first interview with the counselor that he wanted to be a politician and that he expected to become governor of the state in which he lived. He persisted in this choice throughout his highschool career, and when he was interviewed during his first year at a university, the following statements were obtained: C. P. C. P. C. P. C. P.

C. P. C. P.

(C refers to counselor, Ρ to Paul.) What courses are you taking, and why? This year, do you mean? I'm taking English. Do you know why? Is it required? I had to take it anyway. I'm also taking English History. Do you know why you are taking that course? To get a background for political science. That would provide a good background, wouldn't it? It's about the best you can get, I guess, particularly in this country. I'm also taking Modern European History. The first semester I was taking Ancient History and found I was devoting more time to it than any other course I had. In one exam I got a 91, and I got a C in the course. If you went by the mark I got on the final, it would probably have been a D. The second semester would be devoted to Roman History, so I thought English History would be better. And your other courses? Physical Geography. Do you know why you chose that? Because I need twenty science credits.

C. Do you know why you took Geography rather than Chemistry? P. Because I can study it much easier. C. Is there any relationship between your interest in political science and studying geography? P. Well, there is a little since we might study population distribution, but that is only the last three weeks of the year, so it doesn't amount to much. I don't think there is much.

Problems of Adolescents

93

C. What abilities have you which are now enabling you to do well in your studies? P. Interest, I think, in government would help me to do well in History. I am interested in different historical figures like Gladstone. C. I remember meeting you one day on the subway going into . You were going to some forum or lecture on political matters. P. I used to go to them frequently. I have an autograph collection. C. I should like very much to see it. Whose autographs do you have? P. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Mackenzie King, Willkie, from governors down . . . . C. Is your uncle still a political figure? P. He ran once again and was defeated. I never knew him though. W e went there only once. C. T o what clubs and organizations in school and outside do you now belong? P. I had a membership in the Y.M.C.A., but I had to stop it because I didn't have time. C. T o what others do you belong? P. Well, I am on two committees in student government. C. What are they? P. One is the Public Relations Committee and the other is one I am not sure I can do. It's Freshman Orientation. I am not sure at all. C. Are there any others? Have you joined any clubs since you left? P. There is another committee I am planning to be on — Wages and Hours Committee. C. That will be good training. P. Yes, I took those because I thought I would get more out of them than social dancing and so forth. C. What other leisure time activities would you like to follow if you could? P. I would like to enter debating. I probably will next year. C. I hope you will get into it. You can do that well. It is related closely to political science. If you can spend your various interests in government areas, I think you can do better. P. The biggest problem is to educate the public to know who are the best candidates. C. P. C. P. C. P.

For what occupation are you now preparing? I am still thinking of a lawyer. With what in mind? Public service. You used to say you wanted to be a politician. Yes, that's the same.

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Guidance of American Youth

C. A r e you finding your total expenses at college greater than or less than you expected? P. Greater than. C. H o w much money does a person like yourself need to have weekly to meet your obligations? P. That is excluding board, room, and tuition? C. N o , including those. P. Including those, then I am not sure. Somewhere around $900 or so. C. That's about $25 a week for everything then? P. I have a plan whereby I might be able to get out of the $200 tuition a year. T h e state legislature is able to send two fellows from a state. I know one of the two legislators here. C. H o w did you come to know him? P. I joined a Progressive Club at the beginning of the year. I have just obtained a membership. C. Y o u met him and you think that he can get you a scholarship? P. I am going to see him about it.

Five years after this interview, Paul had been released from the Army, was enrolled in a law school, and at the same time, he held a graduate assistantship in the department of political science at a state university. His eighth-grade interest in politics evidenced by his collection of autographs of statesmen, his interest in highschool student organizations, and attendance at political forums remained strong throughout the intervening years and is still, eleven years later, his foremost thought. H e may yet become the governor of the state. It must not be inferred that early selection of a career and persistency in working toward it absolves the counselor from any guidance responsibilities. A t one time in Paul's career, f o r example, his parents had decided to send him to a private school. T h e standards of the school were far beyond Paul's ability and students were required to take the kind of language courses which he despised. When Paul heard of the plan, he arranged a meeting of counselor and parents in the hope that the counselor would be able to convince them that their decision would be an error. A f t e r careful study of the record, the parents agreed that Paul's plan to continue in public high school was better than theirs. On still another occasion the inept handling of a class problem b y a new teacher almost ruined Paul's plans. She attempted to force him to deviate from his planned program of action because she thought that he would never get into a college. Both of these

e IH «

.1

¡ S i l •S·4! M ¿

| Λ < Λ , 0 Ν Ν ^ * 0 ν Ci Ν I"-» f-- Ν Ν Τ ψ O c o ·- O O O Ov Γ-- "-ι Γ Λ Ο Ο Ο Γ ^ ο - ^ υ ^ Ο Ν O O "->00 υ Τ ι Τ ι ι ι τ Τ i l i l I i ι ι Τ Τ Τ ι Γ Λ ^ ^ Ν ^ Γ Λ Ν Ν ΓΛ ΓΛ rr\ m rr\ ΓΛ f i ΡΛ ΓΆ W o C/3 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 » CO 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 T3 ä u < IHu o υ (Λ cd 4-) G 4-9

-22.6

Unguided Group

A v . No. Subjects Failed

% Students Failed

—040 —0.27 —0.12 —0.61

-144

-0.34

+3'-5

+

-55

-

-73

— 1.40

-14.8 -«44

A v . No. Subjects Failed

-0.18

—0.70

* 15.2 per cent fewer students failed in Grade 9 than in Grade 8 in the guided group. b 23.8 per cent more students failed in Grade 10 than in Grade 9 in the guided group.

212

Guidance of American Youth

guided group (22.6 per cent) was nearly twice that in the unguided group (12.ι per cent). The average number of subject failures from grade to grade shows a steady decrease for the guided group. The average number of failures for the unguided group decreased from grade 8 to grade 9 ( — 0.34), but from grade 9 to grade 10 there was a considerable increase (0.55). In the last two grades there was a decrease each year. The over-all differences show that the decrease in the guided group ( — 1.40) was twice that in the unguided group ( — 0.70). Thus, the rate of subject failure and the average number of failures per subject were higher in the guided group than in the unguided group in the first year of the Study. However, these measures decreased faster in the guided group, so that the situation was reversed in grade 12. These data indicate that the guided students did their adjusting earlier in the period of the Study than the unguided students. GRADE FAILURES

Subjects failed and grades failed are linked intimately, and we can expect to see the number of grades failed by each of the two groups fall into much the same pattern that subject failures did. Table 15 shows the numbers of the two groups who failed each Table 15

Grades Failed Grade

Guided Group

Unguided Group

No.

%

No.

%

8 9 10

Ii 2 7*

8.6 1.9 6.8

4 o 15

3.1 0.0 13.4

12

I

1.2

I

0.9 I.I

11

3

3-3

ι

* 2 students of the guided group w h o repeated grade 10 also repeated grade 8.

grade. Whether the student repeated the grade is not taken into account. Each number is also expressed as a per cent of the totals shown in Table 13.

Evaluation of the Effects

213

As noted in the comparison of subject failures, the guided group did not do as well as the unguided group in grade 8 with respect to grade failures. Its failure rate was almost three times as high. The only other grade in which there were as many grade failures was grade 10. This is not surprising since the first year in senior high school often requires many adjustments. However, this grade did not prove to be so serious a stumbling block to the guided group as to the unguided group: the failure rate in the former was about half that in the latter. It is obvious that, although the rate of grade failure was higher in the guided group in grade 8, the situation was reversed during the critical first year in senior high school. As in the case of subject failures, it is reasonable to assume that this was partly the result of guidance. CURRICULUM CHANGES

A change of curriculum may indicate a poor original choice. The guidance counselors spent considerable time assisting the students of the guided group in selecting satisfactory programs. At the end of grade 9, before the student transferred to the senior high school, the counselors interviewed and advised him about his choice. When necessary, the counselors also interviewed parents. There were times when students and parents were unrealistic about occupational choices and would not consider the counselor's recommendation. In most of such cases, a later change in curriculum was arranged by the counselor at the request of the parents. In view of this situation the number of curriculum changes is not entirely satisfactory as a criterion for evaluating the effect of guidance. Table 16 shows that the number of students changing curricula in the guided group (33) was less than in the unguided group (41). In addition, the total number of changes for the former (38) was less than for the latter (51). An analysis of the grades in which curriculum changes took place and the type of change made (see Table C of the Appendix) reveals that fewer students in the guided group (12) changed from the college curriculum to another than in the unguided group (26). The greatest number of changes was made by each group at the end of grade 9, when the unguided group made over 50 per cent more changes than the guided group (31 and 20, respectively). During the last two years of high school, by

214

Guidance of American Youth Table 10

Curriculum Changes No. of Students Making Changes

Guided Unguided

ι

2

3

Total

28 33

6

5

..

33 41

2

Total No. of Changes

38 51

which time most students should have made a satisfactory choice, there were almost twice as many of the unguided group (14) as of the guided group (8) who changed curricula. Thus, fewer students in the guided group made curriculum changes; and the total number of changes they made was less than in the unguided group. This was particularly true with respect to changes from the college curriculum. It is reasonable to assume that, with the aid of the counselors, the guided students made realistic decisions concerning their course of study at a relatively early time. GRADUATION STANDING AND HONORS

Graduation standing is an over-all estimate of school achievement. If guidance was effective, we would expect the guided group to have a better record of school performance than the unguided group. The scholastic rating of each member of the graduating class was computed by obtaining a total of the grade averages of school marks in grades 10, 11, and 12. The following values were assigned to the marks: A = 4, Β = 3, C = 2, D = 1, F = o. Pupils having a standing of 8.7 or over for the three grades were designated as honor students. Since only those students who graduated in 1941 (81 of the guided group and 90 of the unguided group) received scholastic ratings, all group averages and comparisons in this section have been based on these. The mean scholastic rating of the guided group (7.467) was significantly 2 higher than that of the unguided group (6.965). As noted above, the mean scholastic rating was computed on the basis of achievement in the senior high school. Since these groups = 2.03; number of degrees of freedom = 169. T h i s value of t could arise b y chance less than j times in 100.

215

Evaluation of the Effects

were supposedly carefully matched with respect to ability, w e would normally expect that the guided and unguided groups would have approximately the same average scholastic rating. The finding that the mean scholastic average for the guided group was significantly higher supports the hypothesis that guided students made their failures early and found themselves, academically speaking, by the time they entered the senior high school. T h e detection and encouragement of special talent is one of the aims of guidance. W e may reasonably expect this to be reflected in a particularly high standing for the talented students. Table 17 presents the number and per cent in each group who were graduated with honors. Table 17 Honor Students and Students Admitted to Colleges Number Graduated

Guided Unguided Total class Total class excluding guided group

Honor Students

Admitted to Institutions of Higher Learning

No.

%

No.

%

....

81

22

27.2

.. . .

90

...

509

9 58

10.0 11.4

164

32.2

428

36

8.4

121

28.3

43 32

53·' 3 5 .6

It can be seen that this comparison favors the guided group. The difference between the groups is statistically reliable.3 Therefore the evidence for the hypothesis that guidance detected and encouraged the bright students is positive. A D M I S S I O N TO C O L L E G E S

A large proportion of both groups were enrolled in the college-preparatory curriculum. Assuming that students had made a wise choice of curriculum, one criterion which can be applied to the evaluation of guidance is the per cent of those in each group who were admitted to institutions of higher learning. Reference to Table 17 shows that here again the guided group comes out on top: 53.1 per cent of the guided group and 3 T h e critical ratio of the difference between the per cents (17.2) to the standard error of the difference ( 5 . 8 7 ) is 2 . 9 3 . Such a difference could occur by chance less than once in 100 times.

216

Guidance of American Youth

35.6 per cent of the unguided group gained admission to college. The difference is statistically significant.4 If this is accepted as a criterion for success of some students in high school, the guided group was more successful. S U M M A R Y AND CONCLUSIONS

This section has been concerned with an evaluation of student progress and accomplishment during the period of this Study. We have examined the guided and unguided groups with respect to the following criteria: drop-outs, subject failures, grade failures, curriculum changes, graduation standing, and admission to colleges. The following conclusions are drawn. ι. The incidence of drop-out in the two groups was approximately the same. Guidance apparently had no effect with respect to the retention of students. This finding does not support the assumption that well-guided pupils tend to remain in school longer than they would without guidance. 2. The rate of subject failure and the average number of failures per subject decreased faster in the guided group than in the unguided group. This finding, coupled with the fact that these measures of failure were initially higher for the guided students, suggests that they did their adjusting earlier in the period of the Study. 3. The rate of grade failure was higher in the unguided group in grade 10, the critical first year of senior high school. It seems reasonable to assume that the lower rate of the guided group was partly the result of guidance. As in the case of subject failures the guided group did more failing during the first two years of the Study. 4. Fewer students in the guided group made curriculum changes, and the total number of changes they made was less than in the unguided group. More of the guided students who were in the college curriculum remained in it. The relatively more permanent decisions made by the guided group may be attributed in part to guidance. 5. The mean scholastic rating of the guided group was higher than that of the unguided group by a statistically reliable margin. This finding tends to support the hypothesis that guided students ' T h e critical ratio of the difference between per cents (17.5) to the standard error of the difference (7.J6) is 2.32. Such a difference could occur by chance approximately twice in 100 times.

Evaluation of the Effects

217

made their failures early and were making steady academic progress by the time they entered the senior high school. Moreover, the per cent of those graduated with honors was higher in the guided group; and this difference is also statistically significant. This suggests that guidance played a role in the detection and encouragement of students of special promise. 6. A significantly larger per cent of the guided group than of the unguided group was admitted to institutions of higher learning. Assuming that the large proportion of each group in the college-preparatory curriculum was realistic about its choice, it is reasonable to conclude that the guided group was more successful in this objective. STUDENT

REPORTS

As indicated in the introductory section of this chapter the value of guidance has also been estimated from two sets of reports made by the subjects. The first set of questions was administered in school classrooms. Members of both groups wrote their own answers in the presence of a counselor who answered any questions raised. The second reports were obtained in individual conferences. Each subject was interviewed by a counselor who recorded the answers to the questions on the appropriate form of the report. Eighty-five guided students and ninety-four unguided students made reports during their senior year. Eight months later, eighty-five of the former and eighty-two of the latter returned to make their second report. The type of report made the second time was an indication of the stability of an individual's plans during the period between the administration of the two reports. If Report i, Education was followed by Report 2, Employment, it meant that the subject found it necessary or desirable to seek employment rather than to continue schooling as had been planned. A small number of such changes would be expected in any group, but a large number would indicate a general lack of stability. The following statements show the extent of the changes. The education form of Reports 1 and 2 was taken by 83.6 per cent of the guided group and 69.4 per cent of the unguided group. The employment form of both Reports 1 and 2 was taken by 87.0 per cent of the guided group and 84.2 per cent of the unguided group. These figures suggest that the plans of

218

Guidance of American Youth

the guided students were somewhat more stable although the differences were not large. A high proportion of both groups engaged in the post-graduate activities w h i c h they had indicated before graduation. F O R M OF REPORTS A N D T R E A T M E N T OF DATA

T h e free response f o r m was used to obtain answers to questions on the reports. This choice of f o r m was made after due consideration had been given to the possibility of using the controlled response t y p e of question. It was rejected because sufficient optional responses could not be obtained to cover the w i d e variability that might be necessary. T h e decision to get an individual expression from each student often resulted in many responses to a given question. T h e number making a particular response to some items was so small that a statistical analysis could not yield any important comparative results. Another difficulty was introduced b y the use of the free response form. W h e n an investigator chooses his questions he m a y have in mind certain responses w h i c h he believes will bear upon the evaluation of guidance, but other responses may be irrelevant. This introduces the problem of rating the responses w i t h respect to their relationship to guidance. Questions contained in the education and employment forms of both Reports ι and 2 are shown in Tables D, E, G , and H . Summary descriptions of the four reports follow. T h e first part of Report 1, Education was to be answered only b y those subjects w h o k n e w exactly what school or college they were going to attend after graduation f r o m high school. In it questions w e r e asked about the institution named, the reason f o r its selection, persons w h o helped in making the choice, the time that the decision was made, acceptability of the application, other schools considered, and the occupation f o r w h i c h the subject planned to prepare. T h e second part was answered only b y those w h o did not k n o w w h i c h school they were to attend. These students w e r e asked w h y they were still undecided, what t y p e of school they were considering, w h o had helped them to decide on the t y p e of school, w h a t information they needed about the institution, and the occupation they had chosen. T h e third part contained questions to be answered b y all students. T h e questions covered the kind of w o r k w h i c h students wanted eventually, their occupational choices in grades 9 through 12, their sources of

Evaluation of the Effects

219

counsel and reasons for changing plans, the kind of job they would seek if they were unable to go to school as planned, methods of finding jobs, names of employment agencies, qualifications necessary to get and keep a job, and sources of vocational or other counsel after they left high school. Report i, Employment was similar in form to Report i, Education. The first part was answered only by those who were certain about the job they were seeking. It contained questions concerning the kind of work sought, why the choice was made, who had helped with its selection, the students' experiences with the type of work, specific knowledge about the job, and how the school had helped in the choice of a career. The second part was answered only by those who were not certain of the type of work they wanted. They were asked why they were uncertain, what jobs they were considering, and what they thought to be their personal qualifications and limitations for employment. The third part contained questions to be answered by all students. These questions were concerned with the history of the students' vocational decisions, their knowledge of the work likely to be undertaken immediately and the work wanted eventually, kinds of work not wanted, methods of finding a job, names of employment agencies, qualifications necessary to get and keep a job, sources of vocational or other counsel after leaving high school, and whether or not they had ever thought about continuing their education. Report 2, Education contained questions concerning the following items: the school they were attending, when and why it was selected, satisfaction with it and courses taken, abilities and limitations which influenced academic performance, effectiveness of study habits, use of leisure time, extent to which actual school expenses agreed with anticipated cost, occupation for which preparation was being made, and finding summer and parttime jobs. Some additional questions were designed to discover the students' attitude toward their high-school training and the extent to which they thought that it could have prepared them more effectively for their current placement. Report 2, Employment consisted of questions about the following matters: conditions of current employment, satisfaction with it, time and methods of obtaining it, attitudes of employers, knowledge of employment which they hoped eventually to secure, an estimate of the probability of securing it, time of choice

220

Guidance of American Youth

of life career and persons who had helped them in making that choice, the contribution of the high school and specific subject fields in preparing them for employment, training after graduation from high school, and avocational activities. The first step in analyzing the data obtained from the reports was to code all the responses and to punch the coded responses into IBM cards. Then counts were obtained on the IBM sorter, and complete tabulations for all responses were made. Table 18 shows the results thus obtained for a single question. Table 18

Tabulation of Responses Made to the Question "How Would You Go About Getting a Job?" Report i, Education Response

60 Guided Students No.

Following up ads 40 Applying at places of business 38 Putting an ad in the paper 5 Through family connections 4 Writing letters of application 12 Through other influences 36 Through school in general 9 Through guidance counselor3 By private employment bureau 2 I By public employment bureau I Taking civil service examinations Through employment agencies in general 39

Per Cent

67

63 8 7 20 60

'5 5 3 2 2 12

46 Unguided Students No.

19 19 3 2

4

18

3 0 I I I

65

Per Cent

41 41 7 4 9 39 7 0 2 2 2 26

Since there were no set responses for the questions, a great many different answers appeared for each question. Some were made by only one or two students. The responses shown on Table 18 are typical. In this case, although there were twelve different responses, the large majority of students replied with one of the following: "Following up ads," "Applying at places of business," "Through other influences," "Through employment agencies in general," or "By writing letters of application." Responses which were made by at least four students in one of the groups were selected for analysis. If fewer than four in either of the groups responded in a particular way, the item was discarded. N o analysis was made of responses which were unrelated to

Evaluation of the Effects

221

guidance, regardless of the number of students who made them. For example, to the question, "What kind of work do you eventually want to get into?" some of the students replied, "Sales work." If it is assumed that a larger percentage of the guided group than of the unguided group made this reply, does this result favor the program of guidance? Such a generalization is extremely hazardous without a knowledge of details about the individuals concerned. It might be that the choice of sales work was wise for some individuals and unwise for others. In view of the uncertainty concerning the relevance of a number of the responses, it was decided to submit those which had large enough numbers (at least four in one group) to a group of judges to rate them for their relationship to guidance.5 In order that the judges would not be biased by the actual outcomes they were not told which of the groups had the larger per cent for any response. They were asked to rate each response in terms of their understanding of the role of guidance as a school function and to indicate whether a positive response to the item would be in favor or opposed to the effects of guidance. Actually, the unguided group had the larger per cent in almost as many items as the guided group. Each of the judges was given a list of the questions and responses to be rated and instructed to indicate which group was favored. The judges were asked to assume that a significantly larger proportion of the guided group than the unguided group gave the responses shown. They were then instructed to encircle the "E" if they were confident that the result favored the guided group, or the "e" if they decided that the result favored the experimental group slightly, regardless of how small the margin was. The "o" was reserved for cases where they decided that the result did not favor one group more than the other —that is, where they were unable to declare from the information supplied that the result could be attributed to the effects of guidance. The "c" and "C" markings were employed for cases which they rated to favor the unguided group either by a small margin ("c") or by an amount large enough ("C") to make them confident of their decisions. The judges were instructed that the five 8 Professor P. J. Rulon of Harvard suggested having judges rate the responses, and proposed the form used for that purpose.

222

Guidance of American Youth R a t i n g s of Responses to R e p o r t i, E d u c a t i o n Question and Response

D o y o u know the name of the school you are going to attend next year? "Yes" W h a t type of school is it? "Liberal A r t s " W h e r e is the school located? "In the local area" W h e n did y o u decide on this school? "Before senior year" D o you expect to live at the school? "Yes" H o w long a course do y o u expect to take? "Four years" W h a t are the tuition fees? "Less than $ 2 j o " " M o r e than $350" H a v e you applied for admission? "Yes" Have y o u been admitted? "Yes"

Rated to Favor

E

e

o

c

C

E

e

o

c

C

E

e

o

c

C

E

e

o

c

C

E

e

o

c

C

E

e

o

c

C

E E

e e

o o

c c

C C

E

e

o

c

C

E

e

o

c

C

points were not equally spaced on the scale and no attempt was made to convert them to mathematical equivalents. Seven judges who were qualified because of their experience as* counselors or in psychological work related to guidance rated each of the responses. It was decided that at least five of the seven judges must rate the response as favoring one group or the other before it could be used in the analysis of results. For most of the responses their ratings agreed very well, but in a number of cases the judges did not reach the agreement demanded. These responses were dropped from the analysis. The results of the analysis of responses which met the frequency criteria (at least four in one of the groups) and on which there was the required agreement among the judges (at least five of the seven) concerning the rating of the item are presented in Tables D through I in the Appendix. The tables show for each response analyzed: ( 1 ) the per cent of the guided group (E) and the unguided group (c) making the response; (2) the group, E or C, which the judges had agreed would be favored by the result shown in the first column, depending on which per cent was larger; (3) the chi-square computed to test the difference be-

Evaluation of the Effects

223

tween the per cent of the guided and the per cent of the unguided; and (4) the level of significance of this chi-square. These results are discussed in the next two sections. The first deals with the first set of reports, those given near the end of the senior year in high school, the "In-School Reports;" the second deals with the second set of reports, those given eight to eighteen months later, the "Post-School Reports." IN-SCHOOL REPORTS ON EDUCATION AND E M P L O Y M E N T

Report ι, Education

T h e fifty-three chi-squares obtained from Report 1, Education (see Table D ) are shown in Table 19 grouped according to the various levels of significance. A n examination of this summary Table 19 Summary of the Significance of Chi-Squares Obtained from Report 1, Education Level of Significance 5%

10%

n.s.

Total

0

9

9

2

29 4 33

48

ι

9 0

2

1%

Favoring Guided Group Favoring Unguided Group Total

8

Í 53

reveals that twenty of the differences were statistically significant. When a difference is reported to be statistically significant it means merely that it is too large to be accounted for by chance alone. It is pertinent, therefore, to examine those differences which were significant to see if it is reasonable to infer that they were due, in part, to the effects of counseling. Since nineteen of the twenty significant differences favor the guided group, we start with a strong inference that guidance has played a part in producing the result. T h e significantly different responses for the two groups were in some cases statements of opinion and in others they were statements of fact. Students who wanted to please their counselors might have given a favorable opinion, especially since some of the items were difficult to check. The statements of fact were, however, less likely to be falsified either voluntarily or involuntarily and the report was arranged so that many of the responses required statements of fact. For example, a significantly greater per

224

Guidance of American Youth

cent of the guided students replied that they knew the school they were planning to attend and that they had already been accepted. Since the counselors had made a determined effort to assist superior guided students in the selection of appropriate post-graduate schools, it seems reasonable to infer that the difference is the result of counseling. Supporting evidence can be found for the inference that the guided students were more careful than the unguided students in their selection of the school which they planned to attend. More of the former were precise in reporting about the school that they planned to attend. A larger percentage of unguided students were unable to give an answer when asked to estimate their total expenses for their first year at school. The guided group displayed more realistic attitudes toward their choice of school, as shown by the fact that more of them gave training in a specialized field as the reason for their choice. More of them were willing to change to another school if financial need made it necessary; more of the unguided group had only one school in mind. We may, therefore, deduce that the members of the guided group were better informed on educational opportunities than were the members of the unguided group. For students who planned to go to college, the problem of job placement was not of immediate importance. Nevertheless, the guided group appeared to be better equipped with information about the techniques of finding and holding a job than the unguided group. A significantly greater proportion of the guided students listed agencies to which they might go to get a job and indicated good understanding of the common methods of doing so. They knew the kind of work that they wanted to get and were more familiar than the unguided students with the duties involved in beginners' jobs in their chosen field. Furthermore, the guided students were better informed concerning the personal characteristics which are desirable in securing employment; a greater proportion of them thought that they were able to get along with people and that they had good general appearance, neatness, and initiative. They said that these qualities were necessary to get and keep a job. The guided students expressed more reasonable and specific ideas about the work they wanted after they had completed their education. They exhibited in their responses a better knowledge of where they might go for counsel if they desired to do so. A larger proportion of the guided than

Evaluation of the Effects

225

the unguided students stated that they would go to public or private agencies, and a smaller proportion of them replied that they could go to no one. In reply to the question, "Do the kinds of work you want to get provide opportunities for advancement?" more of the unguided than the guided group answered positively. This is the only instance in which there was a significant difference favoring the unguided group. This might indicate that the unguided students knew as much about job opportunities as the guided students, but the results of a later question indicate that such was not the case. When asked to name a few schools where the training required for further advancement might be obtained, a significantly greater proportion of the guided group was able to name appropriate schools. This result throws serious doubt upon the assumption that the unguided students knew as much about job opportunities as the guided students even though their responses appeared to indicate that they knew more.6 Up to this point, the discussion of the results has involved the analysis of individual responses. W e have found that in the majority of cases (thirty-three out of fifty-three) the differences between the groups were so small that they might be attributed to chance factors alone. The over-all picture, however, is very definitely in favor of the guided group. Of the fifty-three differences that were examined, forty-eight favored the guided group, though the margin of difference was small in many cases. W e may then ask about the probability of getting this over-all 7 result if the two groups were not really different and chance factors alone were operating. The answer to this question was obtained mathematically by computing and summing the terms of the appropriate binomial expansion.8 When this was done it was discovered that only once in several million times would it happen by chance that forty-eight of fifty-three differences would favor one group. This means that we can be very confident that factors other than chance were operating to produce the result obtained. In view of the fact that the two groups were matched on non-guidance factors such as intelligence test score " T h i s is an example of how respondents w h o are given statements of opinion to select from may, quite unintentionally, give the wrong impression. 7 A series of differences, individually not large, may collectively be very significant. 8 T h e sum of the first six terms of ( Ά + Ά ) ra.

226

Guidance of American Youth

and chronological age, it is safe to assume that guidance was an important contributing factor in producing the differences between the two groups. We may summarize the results of the analysis of the responses made to Report i, Education, by stating that 37.7 per cent of the differences analyzed were significant. Since all but one of these differences favored the guided group we can state that the overall picture presents evidence of its superiority with respect to the variables measured. Report 1, Employment

Of the thirty-six chi-squares obtained from Report 1, Employment (see Table E), only four were significant as shown in Table Table 20 Summary of the Significance of Chi-Squares Obtained from Report ι, Employment Level of Significance

Favoring Guided Group Favoring Unguided Group Total

t%

s%

4

0

10%

0

n.s.

Total

27

31 5 36

20. These four differences are all significant at the 1 per cent level and favor the guided students, more of whom thought that they had abilities which they considered to be necessary for success, a good chance of eventually getting the kind of work they wanted, reasonable and specific ideas of the kind of work they wanted, and knew about agencies which provided guidance in the post-high-school period. The first two of these are statements of opinion and it might be argued that many of the guided students had made such responses to please their counselors, but the last two are statements of fact. Of the thirty-six differences, thirty-one favored the guided group. Since this result 9 would occur by chance only once in a hundred thousand times, we can be practiaally certain that factors other than chance have operated to produce it. There is, therefore, good reason to assume that the guided group exhibited • The sum of the first six terms of (Ά + Ά)

227

Evaluation of the Effects

a more satisfactory pattern of responses to questions about employment than did the unguided group. Report

ι, Both Types

Combined

T o determine whether the results for individual responses would be more conclusive if larger numbers were available,10 it was decided to combine the data of both types of Report ι. Many of the questions were the same on the two types and others were worded so that a meaningful combination could be made. For example, the question, "Do you know the name of the school you wish to attend next year?" and the question, "Do you know the kind of work you desire?" are similarly related to guidance. Responses to them may be combined for purposes of analysis without sacrifice of meaningfulness with respect to the objectives of this Study. The results obtained from the analysis of the differences after combining certain data from both types of Report ι are presented in Table 21. The pooling of the data resulted in the confirmation of practically all of the significant differences obtained on the education form and to greatly increase the number of significant differences obtained from the employment form. Summary Table 21 Summary of the Significance of Chi-Squares Obtained from Report 1, Both T y p e s Combined Level of Significance

Favoring Guided Group Favoring Unguided Group Total

1%

5%

10%

8

4

4

9

4

I 5

n.s.

Total

5 28

39 7 46

Tables 19, 20, and 21 show that nineteen significant differences in the education form, four in the employment form, and sixteen in the combined forms favored the guided group. This suggests that many of the differences in favor of the guided group which were 10 The value of the statistic chi-square, used to determine the significance of the difference between the per cent of the guided group and the per cent of the unguided group responding in a certain way to a particular question, is a function of the number of respondents to the question. The larger the number of respondents, the more likely that a particular difference between per cents will be significant.

228

Guidance of American Youth

not statistically significant in the employment form might become so if the experiment were repeated on larger samples. Of the forty-six differences that were examined when the data were pooled, thirty-nine favored the guided group. Only two differences were significantly in favor of the unguided group and one of these was at the 10 per cent level of confidence. Thus, even though a high proportion of these differences were not significant, the general pattern of the responses definitely favored the guided group. It could easily be shown that this one-sided result occurs by chance so rarely that we can be almost completely confident that the differences were due to something other than chance.11 In general, the differences between the two groups are the same as those which were discussed for the individual forms. The responses indicated that the guided students were better equipped with information about their immediate goals and long-distance plans than the unguided students. More of the former knew what job or school they sought, the beginners' jobs that were open in their chosen fields, and the specific duties which they would have to perform on these jobs. On the whole, also, they appeared to be better adjusted and more confident than the unguided students. They believed that they had a good chance of getting into the work they wanted eventually. They felt that they could get along well with people and they knew the abilities which are necessary for success. They had made reasonable and specific choices of work before or during grade 12. The guided students demonstrated a superior knowledge of some of the problems they would be called upon to face either in the immediate or distant future, and they had developed a realistic attitude about their ability to meet them successfully. They were familiar with the agencies to which they might turn for advice in seeking a job. They showed a superior knowledge of effective methods of job-finding and a willingness to seek advice in formulating their plans. The unguided students showed a lack of knowledge about finding jobs, sources of advice, and how to make best use of their abilities. They demonstrated, in their responses, a feeling of insecurity and a lack of confidence in themselves, poorly conceived plans for the future, and in general, a poor educational and vocational adjustment. 11

The sum of the first eight terms of ( J4 + Vi )

Evaluation of the Effects

229

As far as can be judged from the responses to the combined data of Report i, the guided students appeared to be better adjusted than the unguided students, better equipped with the vocational and educational information required to get and keep jobs, better advised with respect to their present and future plans, and better adjusted in terms of them. Report i, Non-Comparative Results

Up to this point the discussion of the data obtained from Report ι has been concerned with the response to items in which a comparison of guided and unguided groups could be made. Some of the responses did not, however, lend themselves to such comparisons. T o the question, "Whose advice was most helpful?" a large proportion of the guided group replied, "Guidance counselor." Since the members of the unguided group had never met a counselor, they could not make the same response. Table 22 shows the per cent of the guided group which responded, "Guidance counselor," to the questions listed. The data indicate that the guided group was well aware of the opportunities to obtain counsel from the high-school guidance department. A steadily increasing percentage of the group recognized the place of the counselor in helping them to make their vocational choices. Almost three-quarters of the group who had decided on a school or job claimed to have received assistance from the guidance counselors. Of those who were going to continue their education, 91 per cent replied that the guidance counselor had helped them to select their school. An encouraging feature of the results shown in Table 22 is the large per cent of the guided students who showed that they were aware of the possibility of returning to the highschool guidance department for assistance with post-graduation problems. Summary of Report 1

ι. For both types of the report and for the two types combined the general pattern of responses was definitely in favor of the guided group. 2. A significantly greater proportion of the guided students than the unguided students knew the occupation they would enter immediately after graduation. There appeared to be definite evidence in the responses that the counselors assisted them

230

Guidance of American Youth Table 22

Per Cent of the Guided Group Which Responded "Guidance Counselors" to Certain Questions of Report ι Per Cent Responding "Guidance Counselor"

Question

Education

Who helped you decide on the school or job? Who has helped or advised you in making your plans for further education? From whom will you be able to get help in answering questions about selecting your school? Whose advice was most helpful? Who helped you decide on your life work? What sources of advice did you have in the various grades concerning the kinds of work you thought you would Eke to do? Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 List the methods you know about which you could use in trying to find a job next year List the names of people who might help you to get a job What persons or agencies can you know about to which you can go for vocational or other advice once you have finished high school?

Employment

Combined Types

91

28

73

64

71

67

71 33 43

17 28

28 39

43 45 j2 60

16 12 20 28

35 35 42 ji

5

4

5

22

20

21

78

72

76

in selecting the school or job which they would enter after graduation. 3. T h e guided students displayed more knowledge about the methods of finding and holding a job. T h e y were more familiar with the agencies which assist people in finding work, and they knew the personal characteristics that are required for success on the job. 4. T h e members of the guided group displayed more realistic attitudes toward their immediate and long-time problems. T h e y were better equipped with information about where they could get advice, they knew more about beginners' jobs and the duties

231

Evaluation of the Effects

beginners had to perform, and they had more definite ideas of the abilities which are required for success. 5. The responses of the guided students showed that a large proportion of them had sought the aid of counselors with respect to vocational or occupational choice. As they advanced in the high-school grades an increasing proportion of them had appealed to the guidance department for counsel about the work they would like to do, and a large majority of them were aware that they could return to the guidance department after graduation. POST-SCHOOL REPORTS ON EDUCATION AND E M P L O Y M E N T

Report 2, Education

Of the forty-eight chi-squares obtained from Report 2, Education (see Table G ) , twenty-four are significant, twenty-three in favor of the guided group and one in favor of the unguided group. These are shown in Table 23. Table 23 Summary of the Significance of Chi-Squares Obtained from Report 2, Education Level of Significance

Favoring Guided Group Favoring Unguided Group Total

1%

5%

10%

n.s.

Total

12

6

6

19 5 2 4

42

13

5 0 5

6 48

It is important to note that at the time they responded to this report, the subjects had actually begun their post-school careers and were probably in a better position to appraise what guidance had done for them than they had been before high-school graduation. The ways in which the two groups replied in significantly different fashion may be grouped as follows: ( 1 ) those responses relating to what the students felt they had learned from high school, (2) those pertaining to their vocational goals and their plans for attaining them, (3) those relating to their current adjustment, and (4) those concerned with attitudes toward solution of their problems. In answer to the question, " W h y did you find your high-

232

Guidance of American Youth

school subjects valuable?" a significantly greater proportion of the unguided group replied, "Because they were practical." This is the only instance in which there was a significant difference favoring the unguided group. In answer to the same question, a significantly greater proportion of the guided students claimed that they had "learned much." These responses are statements of opinion, but it is interesting to find that both groups regarded their high-school work favorably. In answer to the question, "What did you learn about choosing a vocation and job from high school?" the responses favored the guided group. A significantly greater proportion of the unguided students replied, "Nothing," while the guided students replied favorably and gave specific information about what they had learned, such as "Occupational information," "Where to apply," "What to say and how to say it when applying for a job." Although the interviews were given to students who were still in school or college, several questions pertained to their vocational goals and plans for attaining them. In this area the guided group appeared to be better prepared than the unguided group. A higher proportion of the unguided students, for example, had made the choice of a life career without knowing what influenced their choice, or why they wished that type of work. On the other hand, a high proportion of the guided students claimed to be well-fitted for the work they had chosen. They were confident that they could get this work, and they had made investigations or received counsel concerning it, because they knew that work was available. They demonstrated a realistic attitude toward their vocational goals and knew that further vocational education and training would be necessary. They knew that if they were to find a job it would be necessary to resort to "systematic application" and "following leads." It is difficult to regard these responses as other than evidence of beneficial guidance. The selection of a school well suited to their attainments was one of the major objectives of the counseling of students who intended to continue their education beyond high school. The responses to the report indicate that this objective was reached for a large majority of the guided group. In answer to the question, "Do you believe that you chose the right school?" a larger per cent of the guided group replied, "Yes." A larger proportion of the guided group also claimed that they were satisfied with their courses and that they liked their work. Finally, in answer to

233

Evaluation of the Effects

the question, "Do you size yourself up as being satisfied?" a greater proportion of the guided group replied, "Yes." The responses to other questions indicated that the guided group had more knowledge about sources of advice in meeting problems. A greater proportion of the guided subjects, for example, were aware of the "college or training center" from which they could receive assistance. It appears that some of the habits of seeking counsel which had been developed during their high-school days had carried over to their post-graduate training period. Of the total of forty-eight differences examined, forty-two favored the guided group. There is little doubt that the general picture is favorable to the guided group. Mathematically, the probability of this over-all result occurring by chance is infinitesimally small.12 Report 2, Employment Table 24 shows that twenty-nine of the forty-six chi-squares obtained from Report 2, Employment (see Table H ) are statisTable 24 Summary of the Significance of Chi-Squares Obtained from Report 2, Employment Level of Significance 1%

Favoring Guided Group Favoring Unguided Group Total

13

5%

10%

n.s.

Total

«I

4 ι s

H 3 17

4« 5 46

tically significant. Only two of the significant differences favored the unguided group, one at the 5 and the other at the 10 per cent level. In some ways the responses made by an employed group in a follow-up interview are more important for a guidance study than those made by a group who are continuing their education after high-school graduation. After a few months "on the job" a group of students will alter their views on the value of their school work. They are likely to become more realistic in their appraisal u

The sum of the first seven terms of ( 54 + Vi )

234

Guidance of American Youth

of values, and tend to be hard-headed in their attitude toward their vocational status and its prospects. It is interesting, therefore, to observe how the guided and unguided students compare in their responses to questions concerning their high-school work, their job adjustments, their feeling of security for the future, and their belief in themselves. The two groups differed significantly in responses that may be grouped as follows: ( i ) those relating to the subjects' job status, their feeling of security, and their plans for the future; (2) those pertaining to their present adjustment; (3) those describing their attitude toward what they learned in high school; (4) those relating to their post-graduate education and their participation in the social life of their group; and (5) those concerned with their current problems and methods of seeking advice. In answer to the question, "Are you now employed full time?" a significantly greater proportion of the guided students replied, "Yes." Since one of the chief concerns of the counselors during the Study was the assistance of students in their search for suitable employment, this result is of much interest. Another definite indication of effective guidance is given in the responses to the question, "When did you definitely decide upon your life work?" A larger proportion of the guided students responded, "During grades 10, 11, or 12," while a large proportion of the unguided students replied that they were still undecided or had not yet considered the matter. Further evidence of the indecision of the members of the unguided group is given in the responses to the question, "What kind of work do you want to get into eventually?" A large proportion of them replied, "Don't know." When offered a choice of jobs they did not know which one they would choose. The guided group demonstrated a feeling of security and confidence in the future. They knew the work they wanted to undertake eventually, they believed that they had a good chance of getting it, and they could give reasons for wishing to make a career of this kind of work. The unguided students were predominantly unable to state a reason for choosing a particular life career. They did not know for what work, other than their beginning jobs, they were qualified. A larger percentage of the unguided students were unable to state any goal toward which they were working. On the other hand, in reply to the question, "What could change your plans?" a larger proportion of the guided group replied, "Nothing." This was judged to favor the

Evaluation of the Effects

235

unguided group, probably on the basis that one is unrealistic if he thinks that nothing could change his plans. Good job adjustment is probably a sound criterion of effective guidance. In this matter the verdict of the analysis definitely favored the guided group. A larger proportion of the guided students claimed that they were "entirely or fairly satisfied" with respect to their present job, whereas more of the unguided students claimed that they wanted different types of work. It was not to be expected that a beginning job would meet the requirements of all students' life goals, but more of the guided students began with a type of work which they found to be satisfactory. More of them claimed that their employers trusted them to do their jobs. High-school graduates, within a year after graduation, are likely to be critical of what the high school did for them. This is particularly true of those who are employed or seeking employment, because their new activities are radically different from those carried on in school. Judged by the responses of the two groups, the experiences in high school of the guided group were better than those of the unguided group. In reply to the question, "What more could high school have done for you?" more of the guided students were unable to give a positive answer. This does not mean that they thought the high-school program was perfect, but it does suggest that the high-school training they received, including counseling, met their job requirements. It will be shown in a later table that a large proportion of the unguided group thought that the high school should provide "educational and vocational guidance." T o the important question, "What did you learn about getting a job from your high-school experience?" more of the unguided students replied, "Nothing," or "Don't know." The guided students were able to give positive answers, such as, "Occupational information," "Where to apply," "What to say and how to say it when applying for a job," and "Appearance and grooming." A significantly greater proportion of the guided group replied, "Yes," to the question, "Do you feel that high school prepared you to make a beginning in any occupation?" A larger proportion of the guided students claimed that they studied hard in answer to the question, "Did you make the most of your high-school opportunities?" Counselors usually attempt to make students realize that highschool training is not enough to guarantee rapid advancement on

236

Guidance of American Youth

the job. Well-guided individuals would likely attempt to improve themselves on the job and prepare for advancement before it was presented. The evidence indicates that the guided group was more aware of the need for further training. In answer to the question, "Have you studied or taken any training since high school?" more of the unguided students replied, "No," and a larger proportion of them stated that they did not intend to take any further training. The members of the unguided group demonstrated less desire to participate in social activities with fellow employees. A larger percentage of them said that they were not members of clubs or organizations, and more of them admitted that they had not joined any clubs since leaving school. The responses to the question, "What are your present problems?" favored the guided group in some respects and the unguided group in others. More of the unguided students replied that they were having difficulty with employment but more of the guided group mentioned education. The judges considered that well-guided students should find both employment and education less of a problem than students who had not been guided. The guided students, however, expressed more willingness to seek help, and this was rated by the judges as favoring guidance. All responses indicated that the guided students were willing to seek counsel on their problems and that they knew where to get it. The over-all pattern of responses to Report 2, Employment is very significantly in favor of the guided group. 13 Forty-one of the forty-six differences analyzed favor the guided group. Report 2, Both Types Combined

Responses to questions that appeared in both types of Report 2 in exactly the same or equivalent favor have been combined and analyzed (see Table I). Table 25 shows that twenty-three of the twenty-eight differences are significant. Of these, twenty-one favor the guided group, fifteen at the 1 per cent level, five at the 5 per cent level, and one at the 10 per cent level. When the nonsignificant differences are included, twenty-four of the twentyeight differences favor the guided group. Since the probability of securing this result 14 is one in over eleven thousand, this finding a

The sum of the first six terms of ( Ά + V¡ ) " The sum of the first five terms of ( !4 + Ά )

Evaluation of the Effects

237

Table 25 Summary of the Significance of Chi-Squares Obtained from Report 2, Both Types Combined Level of Significance

Favoring Guided Group Favoring Unguided Group Total

10%

",s.

Total

1%

5%

15

5

«

3

M

16

6

ι

5

28

4

cannot be attributed to chance alone. The over-all result is definitely in favor of the guided group. Differences that were significant for either of the forms individually were also significant when the data were combined. The general effect of combining responses was to increase the chi-squares so that some differences which had been insignificant became significant, and those that had been significant for the individual forms became more significant. The results of the analysis of the combined data may be summarized in following statements. Guided students showed more confidence in themselves and felt more secure about the future. They had chosen their life work and could give specific reasons for their choice. They knew what additional training they needed and where to go for help in solving their problems. A larger proportion of the guided students were satisfied with their choice of school or employment. They were sure that high school had helped them to prepare for an occupation and to get and keep a job. The unguided students appeared to be much more at a loss about what kind of employment they should undertake, and they felt that the high school could have helped them much more. The unguided group reported less satisfactory social experiences than the guided group. Report 2, Non-Comparative Results

As in the case of Report 1, a number of the questions asked in the interviews of Report 2 brought forth responses from the guided group which could not be compared with any made by the unguided group. These included all direct references to the guidance counselors. Table 26 shows the per cent of the guided group which responded, "Guidance counselor," to each of the questions listed.

238

Guidance of American Youth Table 26

Per Cent of the Guided G r o u p W h i c h Responded "Guidance Counselor" to Certain Questions of Report 2 Per Cent Responding "Guidance Counselor"

Question

Education

What persons or organizations, if any, helped you in selecting your school or obtaining work? How did you come to know about the clubs and organizations you have joined since leaving high school? How did you go about getting your first job? How did you go about getting your second job? Who influenced your choice of the occupation for which you are now preparing yourself? How will you go about finding a job in this field? In case you suddenly have to leave school and go to work, how and where could you find employment? T o what persons or organizations could you go for help in finding a job in your chosen field? T o whom could you go for help if you need it in meeting your present problems? What people or organizations were of most help to you in obtaining work? Who gave you the lead which resulted in your job or jobs? Who helped you select the school or courses taken since high school?

Employment

Combined Types

84

80

82

6 34

9 37

7 35

Î0

16

19

71

62

58 14 36 42 56

49 J4 60

It is evident from Table 26 that the guided students gave credit to their counselors for advice and help on a number of problems which they had met in school and after graduation. W h e n it is remembered that those responses were made eight months after graduation, the favorable opinions expressed speak well for the soundness of the pre-graduate and post-graduate efforts of the

239

Evaluation of the Effects

counselors. It is significant that 62 per cent of the guided students still felt after eight months that they could go to the guidance department of the high school to seek help in meeting their problems. Over 80 per cent of the guided students claimed that the guidance counselors had helped them in selecting a school or in obtaining work. Approximately one-half of those who got jobs immediately after leaving school said that the counselors gave them leads which resulted in jobs. Of those employed 49 per cent indicated that the counselors were more helpful than anyone else in helping them to obtain work. Of those who went to college, 58 per cent stated that the guidance counselors helped with their choice of the occupation for which they were preparing themselves. In some cases, particularly in a follow-up interview, the responses made by the unguided group to certain questions are important indications of the value of guidance. Many members of the unguided group claimed, eight months after graduation, that the high school should have provided them with educational and vocational guidance. This finding is of interest because they were given as free responses. N o suggestive responses were offered. Table 27

Per Cent of the Unguided Group Which Stated that the High School Should Have Provided Guidance Per Cent Making This Response Question

Response

What more could the high "Educational school have done to prepare guidance" you for choosing a vocation "Vocational or finding a job? guidance"

Education

Employment

21

35

38

2

9

Combined Types 2

9

33

T h e results shown in Table 27 are self-explanatory. T h e y give evidence that many of unguided students realized, a f e w months after graduation, that guidance is an essential part of a good highschool program. Summary of Report 2 ι. For both types of the report and for the two types combined the general pattern of responses was very definitely in favor

240

Guidance of American Youth

of the guided group. 2. Of the students who did not go on to school or college after high-school graduation, more of the guided group were employed full time. 3. More of the guided students felt that what they had learned in high school was of value to them in choosing a vocation and finding a job. 4. More of the guided students believed that they had chosen the right school or the right job. 5. The guided students were more definite concerning their vocational plans and means for attaining them. 6. More guided students had chosen their life work and could give specific reasons for their choice. 7. The guided students revealed a greater feeling of security and felt confident that they would eventually get the work that they wanted. 8. The guided students described themselves as better adjusted on the job or in school than the unguided students. 9. More of the guided students were aware of educational problems, but more of the unguided students had employment problems. 10. The guided students had better information about how to meet their problems and where to seek advice in solving them. 1 1 . More of the guided students had continued post-graduation schooling and knew what additional training they needed. 12. More of the guided students belonged to clubs and organizations than the unguided students, and more had become members since high-school graduation. 13. Over 80 per cent of the guided students felt that the guidance counselors had been of help to them in selecting their jobs or schools, and 62 per cent of them said they could go to their counselors for help in solving their present problems. 14. About one-third of the unguided group stated that the high school would have been more valuable if educational and vocational guidance had been provided.

5 The Implications N O A T T E M P T will be made here to restate the findings reported in detail in previous chapters. The evidence that the counseled students were helped in the manner in which counseling is designed to aid individuals appears to be conclusive. They had, more than the unguided students, carefully thought out plans that led to attainable goals, the know-how to achieve them, and they had achieved more adjustable personal and social modes of behavior. Some of the implications and recommendations which follow from these findings are presented below. If school counseling is to be as effective as it has been shown to be, the counseling activities must be coordinated and integrated in the manner described in Chapters 3 and 4 of this volume. Effective counseling in this Study was achieved through a guidance department under the supervision of trained counselors who worked intensively with teachers as well as with pupils. The teachers were faced with students who had countless problems, but they had become familiar only with those which were overt and extreme. The demonstration of the less obvious student difficulties to teachers became one of the most important functions of the counselors, but even when the problems were recognized, many teachers were unable to assist students except in their own subject fields. In such cases the work of the counselors who had opportunities to know the individuals' performances, difficulties, interests, and situations produced satisfactory adjustments. It should be noted that the work of counseling specialists did not eliminate the need for training teachers in guidance practices and principles. It has been demonstrated in this Study that intelligent participation of teachers in the guidance process is essential. And the best organized guidance program cannot succeed without the understanding and cooperation of parents. Classes for parents in youth guidance are desirable, but they do not always attract those who could benefit most from such instruction. It is

242

Guidance of American Youth

essential, therefore, that counselors supplement the program of student and teacher counseling with class or individual instruction for parents and with home visits for those parents who cannot be reached by other methods. Guidance is a highly complex process. Satisfactory guidance can be given to a young person only when the counselor has adequate data about him.1 N o advisor, regardless of his skill and experience, can feel confident about the counsel he provides if the data about his counselees are incomplete. Intensive study of a young person to get essential data can be carried out most effectively when detailed and systematic records of his development are maintained. Since there are many educational opportunities and occupational possibilities for each young person, the preparation of records which facilitate the process of selection among them must be begun early in his school career. Records of school achievement, test performances, descriptions of behavior, interests, work accomplishments, and the physical condition of each child should be maintained from the time he enters kindergarten until he graduates from high school. Maintenance of such adequate records for counseling requires the cooperation of many persons and the development of satisfactory procedures of reporting from each source. Currently, for example, school physicians are concerned primarily with the recognition and treatment of young people who are physically unfit, and educational and vocational guidance has seldom come within their sphere of inquiry. It should do so. Every school child should be given a thorough physical examination, and the results should be reported in terms of educational and vocational indications or contraindications so that the counselor may know what types of work or educational experience the individual may or may not undertake. In this area, as in all phases of the study of the individual, the aim should be not merely to guide the young person away from work or training in which he is likely to fail but to assist him in the selection of work in which he is likely to be successful. The records collected for these purposes should be readily available for current guidance, future guidance, and transfer. The value of continuous guidance of individuals over the secondary school period has been demonstrated in this Study. The 1 See J. W . M. Rothney and B. A . Roens, Counseling the Individual Student (William Sloane Associates, 1949), Chapters 2 and 3.

The Implications

243

adolescents who were counseled liked to talk about themselves and their plans many times to sympathetic listeners other than members of their families. The majority of those who were counseled indicated that they considered themselves to be especially privileged, and the counselors received many comments and letters of appreciation from students, parents, and school personnel. Many of the students (but not so many that too much dependence on others was indicated) returned to the school for counsel after leaving or graduating from high school, or after returning from service in the armed forces. Apparently they preferred to return for counseling to surroundings and counselors familiar to them. The accomplishment of results similar to those reported in previous chapters of this volume is possible in any public secondary school if practices of concerted action similar to those developed herein are employed. The trial of such procedures is recommended to those who wish to assist in the accomplishment of the objectives of the American secondary school.

Appendix Table A Reasons for Leaving School of 48 in the Guided Group W h o Did Not Graduate in 1941 Time of Leaving 4/37

Summer '37

11/37 3/38

Summer'38

5/39

Summer '39 1/40 Summer '40 11/40 3/41 4/41

6/41

6 / 4»

Reason

Over 16 Moved Over 16 Trade school Moved Moved Moved Over 16 Priv. Prep. Sch. Trade School Over 16 Illness Over 16 Priv. Prep. Sch. Trade school Over 16 Moved Over 16 Priv. Prep. Sch. Over 16 Over 16 Over 16 Priv. Prep. Sch. Comptometer Sch. Graduated Graduated Graduated Graduated Graduated

School Progress

Number

I I

Graduated

I I

Repeat 8

I I I I I

Graduated Repeat 8 Repeat 8

I I I I

Graduated Repeat 8 Repeat 10

....

Repeat 10 Repeat 8 & 10 Insuf. Pts. Repeat 8 & 10 Repeat 8 Repeat 9 Repeat 10 Repeat 11 Repeat 12

I I I I I I 2 2 3 3

I

Total 48

245

Appendices Table Β

Reasons for Leaving School of 39 in the Unguided Group W h o Did Not Graduate in 1941 Time of Leaving 9/36

Summer '37

12/37

2/38 Summer '38 Summer '39 2/40 5/40

Summer '40 10/40 11/40

2/41 6/41 10/41 3/42

6/42

Reason

Over 16 Moved Moved Over 16 Over 16 Trade School Moved Moved Moved Priv. Prep. Sch. Trade School Illness Moved Over 16 Moved Over 16 Priv. Prep. Sch. Over 16 Moved Over 16 Over 16

Graduated Graduated Graduated Graduated

School Progress

Number I I

T o Repeat 8

2

T o Repeat 8 Graduated

I I I I

....

1

Graduated T o Rep. 10

2

Repeating 10 Repeat 10 Repeat 1 Repeat 10 Repeat 10 Insuf. Pts. Repeat 10 Repeat 10 Repeat 8 Repeat 10 Repeat 11 Repeat 12

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

1 Total 39

246

Guidance of American Youth Έ

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