Growing Nuts 9780992442903

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CONTENTS CREDITS

4

PREFACE

5

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

6

What is a nut?

7

How are nuts formed?

7

Terminology

8

Harvesting processing and storage

9

Drying and storage

9

CHAPTER 2 COMMONLY GROWN NUT VARIETIES

11

CHAPTER 3 OTHER EDIBLE NUTS

31

CHAPTER 4 USING NUTS

58

Nutritional value of nuts

58

Compare nuts with some other common foods

59

Nut allergies

60

Preparing nuts for consumption

60

Preparation of some nuts:

61

How are nuts used?

62

Using almonds

63

Roast almond stuffing

64

Almond crescents

64

Home-made almond milk

65

Using hazelnuts

65

Crust for meat

65

Hazelnut torte

66

Romesco sauce

66

Using walnuts

67

Carrot cake recipe

67

Baklava

68

Using pecans

68

Pecan pie

68

Pumpkin pecan muffins

69

Using cashews

69

Korma recipe

69

Salted caramel cashews

70

Raw cashew cheesecake

70

Using macadamias

71

Macadamia zucchini

71

Macadamia green salad

72

White chocolate macadamia cookies

72

Using peanuts

72

Peanut sauce

73

Peanut butter smoothie

73

Muesli-bar slice

73

Making wattle seed essence

74

Here are some more nutty ideas

74

Nut butters/pastes

74

Nut cookies and cakes

74

Chestnut crescents recipe

75

Frozen treats

75

Macadamia ice cream

75

Stir fry

76

Salads

76

Stuffing and coatings

76

Glazed nuts

76

Muesli

77

Home-made muesli recipe

77

APPENDIX

78

Distance learning and online courses

78

E books by John Mason and ACS staff

79

Printed books by John Mason

80

Useful contacts

81

ACS global partners

81

Social media

81

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CREDITS © Copyright: John Mason Written by John Mason and staff of ACS Distance Education Photos: John Mason Leonie Mason Nicholas Mason Stephen Mason Layout Stephen Mason

The information in this book is derived from a broad cross section of resources (research, reference materials and personal experience) from the authors and editorial assistants in the academic department of ACS Distance Education. It is, to the best of our knowledge, composed as an accurate representation of what is accepted and appropriate information about the subject, at the time of publication.

P.O. Box 2092, Nerang MDC, Queensland, Australia, 4211 [email protected] www.acsbookshop.com

The authors fully recognise that knowledge is continually changing, and awareness in all areas of study is constantly evolving. As such, we encourage the reader to recognise that nothing they read should ever be considered to be set in stone. They should always strive to broaden their perspective and deepen their understanding of a subject, and before acting upon any information or advice, should always seek to confirm the currency of that information, and the appropriateness to the situation in which they find themselves.

P O Box 4171, Stourbridge, DY8 2WZ, United Kingdom [email protected] www.acsebooks.com

As such, the publisher and author do not accept any liability for actions taken by the reader based upon their reading of this book.

Editorial Assistants/Contributors: Adriana Fraser Cert.Hort., Adv.Cert.App. Mgt., Adv.Dip.Hort. Miriam ter Borg B.Sc. Published by ACS Distance Education

ISBN: 978-0-9924429-0-3

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PREFACE Everyone is aware of nuts, but few people are aware of how many different types there are; or how many different ways you might use them. This book is designed to expand your perception of what nuts are, grow they can be grown and how you might use them. It introduces you to both familiar and unfamiliar plants; some which you may be able to grow where you live; and others which come from countries, climates and perhaps cultures that you are unfamiliar with. It is a book to expand the knowledge of gardeners and commercial growers; to introduce unknown possibilities to the food enthusiast or professional and lay down a foundation for knowing and using nuts for students of food, horticulture or agriculture.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Edible nuts mostly come from trees and often need 5 years or more to produce a crop (sometimes up to 10 or 15 years). Peanuts are an exception - they are grown in the ground rather than on a tree. When you select a site take into consideration the amount of space required, likelihood of frosts and strong windy conditions, as most nut trees are either intolerant of frosts or experience heavy crop losses through hard winds. Most nuts trees (excluding hazelnuts, filberts and almonds) very often grow into large trees that require a lot of space. For this reason, if no other; the nut varieties that are grown on a smaller property (e.g. in a home garden) need to be selected carefully. Nut trees (walnuts excluded) usually need two trees to cross pollinate

Fuchsia Tom Thumb

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(otherwise they do not produce a crop). To provide adequate pollination, you need to plant different varieties of a species (or know that there is one in a nearby property). Nut trees are generally wind pollinated and therefore most will require a cross pollinator planted close by (within 30m or so) for successful pollination. Climatic conditions required to produce nuts varies depending on species. Some species such as macadamias, pecans and cashews need long hot summers to mature. Others such as walnuts, being prone to sunburn, need cooler conditions. Many types of plants have nuts as fruits; some are grown commercially as edible food products, and others are not (some are also not edible).

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WHAT IS A NUT? The term ‘nut’ can mean different things to different people. In its broadest context a nut is an edible kernel that is encased inside a hard shell, coat or fruit. ‘True’ nuts (botanically speaking) are dry indehiscent fruits such as acorns, chestnuts, hazelnuts and filberts. These plants do not split along a definite partition when they mature, to release an enclosed seed. Because pistachios, almonds and other “nuts” split along definite seams, they cannot be called “nuts” from a botanical viewpoint. Few people however would argue that they are not nuts. Some nuts are edible when fresh, while others may contain poisons when raw, but if they are cooked, the poisons may be destroyed or eliminated - making them edible. Nuts are commonly eaten and swallowed in western cultures; but some cultures around the world treat certain types of nuts more like chewing gum. They are chewed by indigenous peoples to extract a pleasant flavour and then discarded without swallowing. Seeds of pumpkins, sunflowers and many other plants are considered by some to be nuts; but others might argue they are seeds, even though they are roasted and eaten in the same way that we roast and eat nuts. Many legumes, including some types of beans, are also often called nuts. You may well consider it strange to call something a nut when it looks like a type of bean; however, consider the peanut. Peanuts are in fact legumes, more closely related to the pea and bean than they are to a walnut or almond!

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Scientists define a nut as “A dry, indehiscent, one seeded fruit, somewhat similar to an achene, but the product of more than one carpel, and usually larger with a hard woody wall” (Reference: A Dictionary of Biology by Abercrombie et al, published by Penguin). A consumer, cook or seller of nuts may however have a very different perception of what is and is not a nut.

How Are Nuts Formed? Flowering plants reproduce by sperm fertilising an egg in a flower’s ovary. The ovary then grows to produce a fruit and the fertilized egg(s) grow to produce seed. Technically, a fruit is a ripe ovary, which contains seed. There are many different types of fruits, and sometimes it is difficult to know which part of the plant should be called a fruit. Many people think of a fruit as a juicy or fleshy plant part – but some fruits can be dry and hard and far from being juicy.

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TERMINOLOGY ■■ Achene is a simple, thin walled

fruit and contains only one seed. A strawberry in fact is a large number of individual tiny achenes which cover a fleshy receptacle (note: the fleshy receptacle is what we eat as a strawberry; while the fruits and seeds are tiny gritty bits covering the surface).

■■ Acorn - fruit of the oak tree a ‘true

nut’ can be eaten raw or roasted sometimes used as a substitute for coffee beans.

■■ Almond - the kernel of the fruit

of the almond tree. The kernel is either bitter or sweet however raw bitter almonds contain the extremely poisonous prussic acid. The extract of processed bitter almonds is used to flavour extracts etc. Almonds are not ‘true nuts’ but an edible sed.

■■ Biennial bearing - tree that tends to

bear its main or largest crop every second year with a much smaller crop in between.

■■ Drupe - fleshy indehiscent fruit,

the seeds being surrounded by a hardened layer (endocarp) e.g. walnut which is referred to botanically as a drupaceous nut.

■■ Indehiscent simply means that the

fruit does not break open readily and release the seed i.e. they do not split open at maturity but rely on other ways to open i.e. predation or decay of the outer shell. (Note: Legumes such as wattles or peas in contrast are dehiscent fruits - they dry, and then drop seeds while the dry fruits are still attached to the plant).

■■ Kernel - is the edible part of a nut. ■■ Mesocarp – husk ■■ Pericarp – dried fruit. ■■ Nut - dry indehiscent single seeded

fruit formed from more than one carpel.

■■ Nutlet/nucule - small nut

■■ Black walnut – the fruit of the

■■ Pistil - female sexual parts of a

■■ Brazil nut – not actually a nut but

■■ Pyrene – a kernel sometimes

walnut tree i.e. not a true nut but the kernel of a fruit called a drupe. the seed from Bertholletia excelsa very large tree from the Amazon jungle.

■■ Cobnuts/filberts = hazelnuts:

produces a one-seeded nut enclosed in leafy bracts.

■■ Dioecious - male and female

flowers grow on separate trees.

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flower comprising the stigma, style and ovary. referred to as a nutlet – the stone of a drupe or similar.

■■ Receptacle – the thickened part on

a stem from which a flower grows.

■■ Stamen - male sexual part of the

flower (comprising the filament and anther).

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HARVESTING PROCESSING AND STORAGE The timing and method of harvest is dependent upon the species you are growing: ■■ Some nuts are not ripe enough to

harvest until they fall to the ground while others may be harvested while still clinging to the tree.

■■ Some ripen over a short period, but

others ripen over extended periods.

■■ Some grow on small plants that can

be easily accessed for harvesting by hand. Others grow on very tall trees that are difficult to access.

■■ Some are taken by animals if they

are not collected before animals can get to them.

These and other reasons impact upon the ways in which different nut species are harvested.

Examples ■■ Brazil nuts grow high in the foliage

of tall trees encased inside a hard fruit. Fruits drop to the ground in the Amazon rainforests, and are collected before they can be taken by large rodents which have the ability to break the shell and access the nuts.

■■ Almonds and walnuts grow on

lower trees. They can be picked by hand when ready; or harvested by shaking the branches, and collecting nuts that drop to the ground. Branches may be shaken by using a tree shaking machine, or knocking the branches with poles. Be careful not to damage the plant though. A sheet may be spread below the tree to catch falling nuts; or a vacuum or sweeping machine may be used to aid with collection.

Drying and Storage Many nuts can lose their taste, become contaminated by disease (e.g. fungal rots) or deteriorate in other ways if they are not dried and stored properly. Nuts with higher oil content can deteriorate faster than those with less oil. Walnuts and chestnuts deteriorate faster than almonds and pistachios. Nuts that are stored in the shell need to be stored at low temperatures. Storing nuts in the shell can help protect them from contamination and deterioration. A hard shell can keep out contaminating aromas (such as paint, petrol or even other foods). Hard shells also deter attack by insects or other pests. Storing nuts in a refrigerator may extend their life; as does storing them in an

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air tight container. This may be more important in a warm or humid climate. De-husking (i.e. removing kernels from the husk or shell) is largely carried out using machines or specialised equipment for commercial nut production. Hand processing may be used for smaller scale operations. Many nut species have a fleshy fruit (dried or otherwise) that adheres to the outside of the nut. In some species (e.g. almonds), this tissue tends to split and come away from the hard nut easily. This material needs to be removed from the nut either by hand or machine. For some nuts (including walnuts), delaying de-husking can result in a deterioration of nut quality; but for others the quality is unaffected. Nuts have traditionally been sun dried after harvesting and removing any remaining tissue clinging to the husk. Some nuts may be dried while still in the shell, others are removed from the shell and dried. Drying in the sun has risks: rain or high humidity can be a problem. If the weather is hot and dry though, nuts may only need 2 to 3 days to dry in the sun. If weather is overcast, wet and not so hot, it may take up to 3 weeks or more for nuts to sun dry. Large scale commercial operations now tend to dry nuts using artificial fan forced heat in specially built driers; which can process nuts on multi layered drying racks with a drying time of between 12 and 24 hours. In Europe chestnuts are dried using a wood fired kiln. Some nuts are bleached to improve their appearance before marketing. Bleaching, may for instance, involve PAGE 10

dipping nuts for 4 minutes in a sodium hypochlorite solution (2% active chlorine). Sulphur dioxide has also been used to treat nuts (more in the past than now though).

Toxins Many nuts will contain unpalatable or even toxic chemicals when they are first harvested; and these chemicals need to be removed before they are eaten. Two common ways of removing these chemicals are washing or soaking the nuts, or by cooking the nuts; cooking nuts reduces any terebinthine or turpentine taste; which can be a problem in some raw nuts. For example cashew nuts have a caustic sap in the fruit that can sometimes find its way onto the nut; but with cooking, that caustic material is removed.

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CHAPTER 2 COMMONLY GROWN NUT VARIETIES ALMOND: Prunus dulcis Family: Rosaceae Almond trees are up to 6m tall and have ovate-lanceolate shaped leaves (to about 12cm long) with toothed margins and a pointy apex. Flowers are 5 petalled in white/pink and are borne singly or in pairs. Almonds are deciduous trees related to plums and peaches, but where fruit develops thick juicy flesh on other prunus species; in almonds the growth of the flesh slows, dries and splits to expose the husk of the nut inside. Almonds in blossom are a delight to both humans and bees!

Almonds prefer a sunny warm site. Avoid wet or humid climates; particularly when flowering; and when nearing harvest. They need a frost free situation in late winter and early spring, as frost kills young fruit and flowers. Buds with just a touch of pink showing can still tolerate to minus 4°Celsius. ■■ 6 x 8m spacing is ideal (but can be

slightly closer).

■■ Irrigate and feed regularly to achieve

good results - although almonds are more drought tolerant than other prunus.

■■ Needs well drained soil; avoid

alkaline soils.

■■ Almonds have a high magnesium

content which is reputed to relieve stress. They respond to annual application of nitrogenous fertiliser (e.g. manures)

■■ Prune late autumn or winter annually

near to leaf fall if possible, to regulate fruiting and manage shape – often pruned as a vase or central leader shape.

■■ Pests and diseases can be similar to

peaches; but not as serious. Silver leaf, blast, brown rot and Crown gall are sometimes an issue.

■■ Trees need between 300 and 500

Almonds with husks

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hours below 7°C, over winter in order for flower buds to form and a crop to result.

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■■ Cross pollination is essential -

flowers do not self-pollinate: you need two different cultivars for good pollination. Flowers are generally produced on lateral shoots from 3 to 10 cm long, and sometimes much longer (depending on cultivar). Insects are also needed for good pollination.

■■ Cross pollination with varieties such

as ‘Californian Papershell’, ‘Strouts Papershell’ and ‘Ne Plus Ultra’ are successful. Also ‘Challeston’, ‘Johnston’s Prolific’ and ‘Brandis Jordan’ cross pollinate with each other. Young trees take 3-4 years from planting to the first harvest. Nuts are harvested in autumn.

■■ A 5 year old tree can yield 2 kg of

unshelled nuts; an 8 year old tree 9 kg. After harvest, remove the outer pericarp (dried fruit) from the husk as soon as possible and store dry.

■■ Propagate by budding onto hardy

variety seedlings of peach, plum or almond. Preferred seedlings include: ‘Marianna’ plum, seedlings of ‘Lovell’ peach, selected cultivars of Bitter almond, almond X peach hybrid seedlings.

■■ Use T budding or occasionally

whip and tongue grafting. Budding may be done late summer in cooler climates or early autumn elsewhere. Almonds can be difficult to propagate by cuttings; but almond X peach hybrids can more readily be propagated by softwood cutting, treated with hormone and fungicide. Plum rootstocks may be raised as hardwood cuttings.

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Almonds shelled

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CASHEW: Anacardium occidentale Family: Anacardiaceae The cashew is a tender tropical evergreen tree, to 12 metres tall, with a spreading habit. Leaves are alternate, simple and leathery. Flowers have 5 petals and sepals (the leafy bracts underneath the flowers). Fruit is a kidney shaped drupe subtended from an oblong shaped fleshy receptacle. The fruit of the cashew is fleshy, fragrant and slightly bitter. There are around 15 species of Anacardium, but this is the only species cultivated for its nuts.

Most commercial production is from Africa, India and Northern Brazil. Although it will grow in a hot, semiarid climate, production is better in a climate with more reliable rainfall and ideally with a 3 to 4 month dry season each year. Irregular rainfall can result in lower levels of crop production. Plants grow fast with a lifespan up to 40 years; normally bearing fruit after three or four years in ideal conditions. ■■ Pollination by insects can be

variable; and for this reason, artificial pollination is used for plantations in some places.

■■ Propagated by seed, layering and

grafting, it will only grow in warm to hot climates. Cross pollination is not necessary.

■■ Harvest nuts when fruit is fully

ripened. Fruits in east Africa are allowed to fall to the ground then harvested daily. Nuts are removed from the apples and then dried; and after that kernels are roasted and separated from shells, being careful to avoid caustic liquid that may be expelled when shelling. Nuts will then store for up to a year if refrigerated, or they can be vacuum packed or sealed in air tight containers.

Cashew Nuts

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Cashew is actually related to “poison ivy”. The nut is a kidney shaped projection extending from the tip of the fruit. This nut must be roasted before eating to get rid of poisonous oil in it. Other genera and species in this family are used by man (for various purposes including varnishes, tanning, medicines, poisons), but none are as significant as the cashew.

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Anacardium occidentale - Cashew

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Chestnuts

CHESTNUTS: Castanea species Family: Fagaceae

SPANISH CHESTNUT: (Castanea sativa) Chestnuts are related to oak, sharing the same family; Fagaceae. Japan and Italy are the largest producers of these nuts. Chestnuts have long leaves with coarse, toothed margins and hairs on the under-surface. Flowers are in long catkins of which there are male and female types; some catkins produce only strongly scented (not pleasant) male flowers with 8 stamens – these flowers mature first, other catkins produce both males and females with fruit producing PAGE 15

clusters (2 or 3) of female flowers closest to the stem from which they arise. These flowers are enclosed in an involucre (a rosette of bracts) comprising 4 sticky lobes – this becomes a thick leathery hull that encloses the fruit. Fruit appears in clusters and are enclosed in a spiny encasing. ■■ Chestnuts need good rainfall and

cooler climates in mountain areas, shelter form the wind and deep well drained soils.

■■ pH 5.5 to 6. ■■ Avoid frost pockets if possible. ■■ Heavy pruning of young trees can

delay the production of nuts.

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■■ They are generally self-sterile

and require more than one variety nearby for cross pollination. Most likely pollinated both by insects and wind.

■■ In areas below 75cm annual rainfall

young trees will require irrigation.

■■ They are adversely affected by

hot summer temperatures. Not very drought tolerant when young, but has more tolerance once established.

■■ In the past blight has been a serious

problem in America, Europe and Asia; but this has been largely controlled by selecting and using resistant varieties. Commonly planted on a 12 X 12 metre grid

■■ Fruit ripens over a period of time

through autumn. Nuts have been traditionally harvested from the ground after they fall, but this is labour intensive and leaves nuts prone to being eaten by animals. It is also possible to remove nuts while still attached to or inside fruits (burs); by knocking them off the trees with sticks. Wear gloves when handling burs –they can be prickly. Nuts are beaten out of the husks and marketed at once or else prepared for dry storage. Once the nut has dried, to store, pack in alternate layers of dry sand in a cool dry position. They will store this way for several months.

■■ Seed germinates after a

stratification period of 2 months or more at 1° to 4°C (e.g. place in a plastic bag with some moist sphagnum, and leave in the refrigerator). Propagation gas has occasionally been successful with hardwood cuttings, air layering and ground layering.

■■ Grafting can be difficult for various

reasons (susceptibility to blight, incompatibility of stock and scion varieties, bad weather, mismatching cambium layers). Grafted trees no doubt are preferable, but grafting needs to be undertaken by a competent propagator in a nursery environment where threats of failure can be minimized. Grafted trees take 3 to 6 years to crop while seedlings take up to 20 years.

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Castanea sativa Sweet Chestnut

There are two forms of C. sativa: ■■ Marrons – a single chestnut inside a

spiky husk. These are sweeter and more flavoursome. These nuts are often preserved by coating in sugar (which are called Marron Glace^)

■■ Chataignes – have 2 or 3 smaller

nuts inside a husk

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Castanea sativa

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Other Chestnuts

FILBERT/COMMON HAZEL: Corylus avellana and C. maxima

Castanea crenata (JAPANESE CHESTNUT)

Family: Betulaceae

Tree to 9metres tall, indigenous to Japan and Korea; will grow in full sun or semi shade. Can be shorter lived than other species, though there are exceptions. Prefers a well-drained acidic soil, but tolerates low nutrition. Nuts are not very flavoursome, but can be eaten raw or cooked and are sometimes used as a potato substitute. They can have an astringent taste, which will be removed by boiling in salty water.

This relatively small, deciduous tree or shrub (5-15m tall) has a nut that is very similar to the hazelnut. Leaves on both species are rounded with a double serrate margin and softly hairy. Wind pollinated pale yellow male and female catkins are produced on a single tree with male catkins to 12cm long and females 1-3cm long. They are grown in Turkey, British Columbia and Canada. They are suited to a shade site but unsuited to warm areas.

Castanea mollissima (CHINESE CHESTNUT) A tree to 27 metres tall and 20 metres diameter but often shorter; green leaves with a softer downy surface on the underside. It produces a superior tasting nut, grown as a commercial crop in many places including parts of the USA. Trees have similar climatic and soil requirements to a peach tree. These can be attacked by a canker if the tree is weak, but generally canker disease is not a serious problem.

Castanea dentata (AMERICAN CHESTNUT) This species was devastated by disease that attacks the bark causing cankers (a type of blight) in the early 20th century; and its ongoing susceptibility to the disease makes it undesirable for cultivation, despite the culinary value of the nuts. It has long leaves with coarse, toothed margins similar to C. sativa, but no hairs on the under surface. PAGE 18

Corylus maxima purpurea ■■ Plant on a 4.5 X 4.5 metre grid. ■■ They require good drainage, fertile

soils. Tolerates clay if drained, but prefers a sandier soil provided it remains moist. Prefers soil pH around 6.

■■ Boron deficiency is a common

issue in less fertile soils. Apply NPK fertilizer regularly. Produces better crops if away from strong winds.

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■■ They need cross pollination.

Pollination is by wind. Flowers tolerate cold to minus 8°C

■■ Needs a good water supply. Does

not tolerate drought, but will tolerate high humidity.

■■ They propagate by seed, layering or

grafting. Trees can live for up to 150 years. They start to yield in their 4th or 5th year but takes up to 15 years to come into full bearing.

■■ Harvested by hand, or machine

(shaking and sweeping).

Corylus maxima purpurea

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Corylus colurna (TRAZEL) This is another species; a spreading tree to 8 metres tall from Turkey. It produces catkins of yellow flowers that develop into cob like nuts which drop from late summer through autumn. This is a hardy tree, frost tolerant and able to grow on most soil types.

Corylus americana (AMERICAN HAZELNUT) From the same genus as the Filbert, the American hazelnut too requires cooler climates. They do not like to be affected by too much sun. They are known to be grown with the Filbert to provide cross pollination. Male and female flowers are on the same tree, but do not open at the same time, so many cultivars are planted to allow for optimum pollination.

Corylus avellana

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MACADAMIA: Macadamia integrifolia and M. tetraphylla Family: Proteaceae The macadamia comes from Australia where is grows in the warmer climates of coastal south Queensland and Northern NSW. They can grow in the cooler climates, however their production drops. They are also grown on a large

Macadamia integrifolia

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scale in South Africa and Hawaii. Leaves are glossy with (often) wavy margins, oblong to 20cm long x 10cm wide. White flowers, often obscured in the foliage, appear in winter and spring in pendulous, 30cm long racemes. They are often hidden among the foliage. Fruits are 25-35mm globes the inner kernel is protected by hard inner shell under a green outer layer.

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They will start producing crops at 5 years, sometimes earlier but can take 15 years to reach full production. They will harvest from March to August, though there will be the odd drop over the year. ■■ They require free draining, fertile

soils, plenty of sun are usually pollinated by bees. The soil should be kept moist but never excessively wet; particularly over spring and into summer while nuts are forming. It is important to also have a very fertile soil. Prefers pH 6 to 7.

■■ Macadamias are fertilised heavily

on commercial plantations….around 5 kg fertilizer per year per mature tree. Several different trace element deficiencies are common.

■■ Plant in rows 4.5 metres apart with

trees paced 2.5 metres or more apart in the rows.

■■ Seem to tolerate both low and high

humidity.

■■ Fruit set is better with some cross

pollination and presence of bees. It is always better to grow two or more varieties together to improve the production of nuts. With only one variety the cropping can be low, caused by partial self-sterility.

M. integrifolia This species is more commonly used for commercial production. Leaves are darker green and have a smoother margin than M. tetraphylla. The nuts are smoother, more rounded. These nuts have 50% of the sugar content found in M. tetraphylla, which makes the taste and texture better and makes them more suited to roasting. Plants can be grown from seed, grafting or cuttings.

M. tetraphylla This species is thought to be more successful in a cooler climate. Leaves have a prickly margin; young shoots can be more colourful than M. integrifolia. Wood is harder and can be more brittle than M. integrifolia. Nuts are excellent eaten fresh; but unsuited to roasting. They have 8% sugar content. After harvesting, de-husk, dry, and then store in a cool place with low humidity. Macadamia Cultivars There are several cultivars available for both species, and also cultivars that are hybrids of the two species.

■■ Susceptible to wind damage so it is

best to provide shelter. Cicadas can cause serious damage to branches.

■■ They are grown from grafted

seedlings most often in cultivation, to create the best nuts for roasting. Though they will sprout easily from seed, they are not often used.

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Macadamia nuts

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PEANUT: Arachis hypogaea Family: Fabaceae Peanuts are only suited to tropical and subtropical regions of the world, but need protection from frost and a 500 -600 mm rainfall. They are a low growing, leguminous plant and produce nitrogen from bacterial nodules on the roots. They commonly grow to 30 or 40cm tall, but occasionally some varieties are as high as 1.5 metres. Leaves are compound: made up of 4 roundish to oblong/round leaflets; flowers are yellow and typical of those in the pea family. Other common names are ground nut, monkey nut and goober. They are an annual crop and need to be re-planted each season, but like other legumes are best not grown in the same field for more than two years to reduce

Peanuts

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the incidence of soil borne diseases of which there are quite a few. ■■ They are grown in broad acre

faming and are planted in spring, 5-8 cm deep in light soils, 3-5 cm deep if heavier. Soil needs good drainage either way. They do well with an initial feeding and prefer a soil that is no more than pH 6 to 6.5 (ideally around 7.5).

■■ In areas with an annual rainfall of

less than 60 cm, the crop should be irrigated.

■■ An application of lime can be useful

in acid soils. Peanuts do respond to applications of calcium fertiliser.

■■ In high rainfall areas a fungicide

program will be necessary.

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■■ They need to be inoculated with the

right rhizobia to fix nitrogen. Peanuts grow into a bush roughly 50cm tall and flower at about 30-40 days from planting (this is temperature dependent). The flower develops into and elongated embryo which hangs down and penetrates the soil. This is called a peg. The peg then increases in size to form a pod which will contain up to three kernels.

PECAN: Carya illinoinensis Family: Juglandaceae

■■ They form nuts close to soil level;

with upright varieties having nuts clustered around the main stem, but spreading varieties having nuts much more scattered. Most are produced in developing countries where they have in the past been harvested by digging the soil by hand. Machine harvesting has been used in developed countries like Australia and the USA. Nuts are ready for harvest when the plant starts to yellow and growth slows. When it is time for harvest, inspect the crop frequently as the nuts do not ripen all at the same time. Peanuts take some skill to harvest as the kernels are underneath the soil (not visible) and they tend to mature unevenly making harvest timing quite tricky.

■■ It is important to note that crops need

to be rotated to reduce soil borne diseases in the same planting areas. India is the highest producer of peanuts, followed by China and Nigeria.

Peanuts are a major source of vegetable oil. In many peanut growing countries, the bulk of the crop is used for oil extraction. They are eaten as a dessert nut normally roasted in the shell or roasted and salted out of the shell. Peanut butter is made by removing the skin, roasting and grinding the roasted nuts. PAGE 23

Pecan nuts

A well-known and established crop from the USA, they are a deciduous tree and can grow to 50 metres high, though often to only 30 metres. Leaves are green, odd pinnately compound with serrate margins, appear alternate on the leaf stem and are up to 50cm long with 11-17 leaflets 10 – 18cm long (narrow and pointed at the end) per leaf. Yellow insignificant flowers appear in catkins for the male flowers and terminal spikes for females with both appearing on the same tree; the male flowers are in hanging catkins and the female flowers in terminal spikes. Technically the fruit is a drupe rather than a nut with the cylindrical nut inside a thick green husk which split open upon maturity; nuts are typically 4 to 6cm long and ellipsoidal in shape. ■■ They require a long frost free

growing season with hot days and warm nights to mature the nuts properly. Between 140 and 210 frost free days are needed, depending upon variety. Any tender new growth in spring can be damaged by frost. They also need a cold winter or they will not produce flower.

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■■ They require a deep, well-drained

soil with no hard-pan sub soil layers to find as they also have a long tap root system. A pH of 6-6.5 is ideal.

■■ They are very susceptible to zinc

deficiency in the soil and may need foliar spays of Zinc sulphate to keep production high. Full sun is essential.

■■ While trees will grow in a wet

climate, too much water can result in disease attacking foliage and nuts. Relative humidity of 80% or more stops anthers opening to release pollen; hence pollination halts and nuts are not produced. Excessive humidity during harvest may result in nuts sprouting. Storm or hail damage can seriously reduce the crop; so avoid areas prone to frequent heavy storms.

■■ Propagation is by either seed,

softwood cuttings, budding or grafting. Seed is either soaked four to 5 days in water before planting; or else stratified in moist media at between 1 and 5 degrees Celsius for 3 to 4 months (This can be done by placing seeds in a plastic bag with moist sphagnum moss). Stratified seed germinates more evenly and reliably.

■■ Seedlings reach 20 cm or taller

in the first year, after which they can be grafted using a whip and tongue method. After another year of growth, or when the height is at least 70cm, they are able to be planted. Two year old seedlings may alternatively, be patch budded.

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■■ Seedling grown plants can be used

but productivity and reliability of the crop can be uncertain for seedlings. Choice of cultivar can be important. Cultivars can vary considerably in their climatic requirements and cropping characteristics.

They are a significant commercial crop in the southern USA with some plantings covering thousands of acres. Large farms harvest nuts mechanically using machines that shake the trees, then sweep and vacuum the nuts. Less than 10% of commercially produced pecans may be sold in the shell. Most of the crop is either sold as shelled nuts or is supplied for manufacturing in products including fruit cakes, nut breads, biscuits, sweets (candy) and ice cream. The species of this genus vary greatly in tree size and form; and nuts produced vary a lot in shell thickness. Apart from Pecans, there are several other species of the genus Carya that produce edible nuts; and most go by the common name “Hickory”. Most are also valued for timber production. Most come from North America. Carya cathayensis is however from east China. Hickories have separate male and female flowers occurring on the same growing shoot. Many varieties appear self - unfruitful, hence it is useful to grow multiple varieties of a species. Seedling grown plants can take 10 to 15 years to bear a crop, but grafted plants may only take 3 or 4 years. A mature tree can produce between 20 and 35 kg of nuts per year. Hickories develop a long tap root, which makes transplanting larger trees difficult. A properly produced nursery tree will usually

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transplant satisfactorily; but be sure where you plant the young tree, as it can be difficult to move a year or two later.

Varieties Carya cathayensis (MOUNTAIN WALNUT): A tall deciduous tree; in China the kernels are commonly eaten roasted and salted, used in confectionary or processed for oil.

Carya cordiformis: This is the cold hardiest species growing into parts of Quebec and Ontario in Canada. While nuts taste good, it often takes several decades before a tree starts producing nuts; and after a few years of production, it will stop bearing nuts. Good timber tree though.

Carya lacinosa (SHELLBARK HICKORY OR KINGNUT HICKORY): This tree grows on moist low lying soils along rivers in the USA, as a tree to 30 metres tall. The shell is hard, thin, but brittle. The nuts are very sweet and prized; but often taken by animals before people can harvest them.

Carya glabra (PIGNUT): A tree to around 25 metres tall - from the southern USA it produces very large quantities of nuts, but the nuts are small, often bitter (rarely sweet), hence less desirable. As such it is grown more for timber than edible nuts. PAGE 25

Carya ovata (THE SHAGBARK HICKORY): This is perhaps the most commonly grown nut species (after the pecan). It is a tall tree that can live to 300 years or more. It withstands cold winters and tolerates poor soils. Fruits vary from almost round to ovoid shape. Shell is a hard and light brown and the nut is white. Nuts are collected and dried as soon as they fall, and stored for at least two or three weeks before eating. They need a few weeks of storage before they taste best. They can continue to be stored in a dry place for months after that. They can also be ground up to make flour or meal for cooking. Native Americans used to make and brew a soup from these nuts to make an alcoholic drink.

Carya tomentosa (MOCKERNUT OR WHITE HICKORY): This produces nuts up to 2.5 cm long, but with a thicker shell, and a kernel that can be small but sweet. Trees are up to 30metres tall. This is used more for timber than edible nuts; poor value for nut production.

Carya illoinensis X (HICAN NUT): Hicans are hybrids created by crossing the pecan with one or more other species of Carya. Many different hybrids occur naturally. Hican nuts have an elongated shape like pecans, but generally a thicker shell than the pecan. Often though, the Hican kernel has a better taste than the pecan.

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PISTACHIO: Pistacia vera Family: Anacardiaceae The Pistachio is a small to medium deciduous tree that can live for several hundred years. There are around 10 species, but P. vera is the only one cultivated for edible nuts. Some of the other species have been used for production of resins or oils including turpentine production. Pinnately compound leaves are usually made up of 5, broadly oval leaflets, with entire margins and obtuse tips. Tiny brownish-green, petal-less flowers with up to 5 sepals are borne in panicles (laterally on the stems of 1 year old wood). Males have 5 stamens, and females have a single tricarpellate (3 fused ovaries), superior ovary. Most fruit set occurs from the panicle’s terminal flowers. P. vera is only worth cultivating in warmer climates, similar to places that are suitable for olives. ■■ It needs long hot dry summers;

average daily temperatures of around 30 degrees Celsius and relatively low humidity over 3 months. It prefers a cold winter with 1,000 hours below 7.5 degrees Celsius. It can survive winter temperatures well below freezing; but needs 200 frost free days following flowering for the fruits to develop and nuts to form.

■■ Pistacia are not self-fertile; male

and female flowers appear on separate trees so both male and female plants are required. One male to every 10-12 female trees are needed. Pistachios are generally grafted onto rootstocks of a different species (P. atlantica is preferred as P. vera is less vigorous)

■■ Harvest the nuts when the outer skin

colour changes from translucent to opaque and reddish; and the husk splits naturally to show the encased nut. Ripe nuts will stay hanging on the tree if left; until most of the crop has ripened.

■■ Acid from the outer coating on the

nut can stain the nuts within hours of picking. Nuts can also be stained or taste affected by wet weather when harvesting. For these reasons; the outer rosy hum is removed (mechanically or by hand) as soon as the nuts are harvested, then the nuts are washed and fast dried, prior to storing.

■■ Large scale operations dry nuts

at 65 to 72 degrees Celsius for 10 hours; reducing moisture content from 45% to around 5% in the nuts. Small scale growing may sun-dry the nuts.

■■ While they will survive on poor soils,

they yield best on deep well drained sandy loams. They can also do well on alkaline soils.

■■ For best results, feed annually with

a nitrogen fertilizer

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Pistacio Nuts

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WALNUT: Juglans spp. Family: Juglandaceae There are around 20 species of walnuts all are indigenous to north and South America, Europe to Eastern Asia. They are closely related to Pecans and Hickories. Walnut trees are tall, and are deciduous. Trees are grown as ornamental plants, for edible nut production and for high quality timber used for furniture and other fine wood working. Walnut makes a lovely veneer for building cabinets. They have very large and very deep root systems.

Leaves are generally large, odd pinnate shape and aromatic. Male flowers occur on hanging catkins coming from the previous year’s wood. Female flowers occur on current year’s wood, as a small cluster or raceme. Fruits are a furrowed drupe like nutlet inside a thick indehiscent husk. The shell can vary a lot in size, thickness, shape and form, between species, and even varieties within a species. Kernels inside the shell are formed into 2 halves. ■■ They prefer deep fertile soils and

will require 18meters between trees in cooler areas and closer in warmer ones. Generally very cold tolerant. Normally takes 5 years to commence cropping. One large tree can produce a wonderful crop, provided they have 800 hours of chilling in winter at temperatures of 10°C.

■■ Anthracnose can be a serious

disease problem that can cause defoliation and damage to developing fruits. Many modern cultivars are resistant to anthracnose; and those cultivars are preferred.

■■ Propagate by seed or grafting onto

seedlings. Cuttings are possible but can be difficult. Black walnuts can be difficult to propagate; but a high success rate has been achieved as follows

■■ Raise seedlings in pots. Cut the

Walnut

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top off a seedling rootstock well in advance of grafting (This helps reduce sap flow which can be excessively problematic for a new graft)

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■■ Top grafting with a whip and

tongue graft.

■■ Interspecies grafting does not

always work. J. nigra in particular is incompatible with many other species.

■■ Walnut plantations have been

established by various methods, including:

■■ Sowing seed (nuts) direct (where

you plan to grow the tree to maturity). This is a significantly cheaper method of establishing a plantation; and also avoids any potential transplant shock later on. Seeds may only germinate at a rate of 60 to 70% though; so there is potential for significant gaps in a plantation, unless extra seeds are used (e.g. plant two per hole) or replanting is carried out in subsequent years to fill the gaps. In some places seeds planted directly into a field may also be more exposed to being taken by wild animals, unless controls are used.

Walnut Juglans regia

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■■ Sowing into nursery rows, and

transplanting seedlings after a year or two. This is far more expensive; but young seedlings are easier to manage. While slower to establish at first, within 5 years, transplants may be as tall as trees planted as seedlings a year or two earlier.

■■ Oils are extracted from nuts also,

for use in cooking, as salad oils and other purposes including use in arts, paints, and lubricants. Nuts may be stored for 2 or 3 months before extracting oils –on harvest the nut contains an emulsive milky substance that diminishes over time. Also, oil content can continue to increase after harvest for some months. When extracting the oil, the skin is removed from the nuts before pressing. The first extraction is called virgin walnut oil, and this is used for culinary use. The flesh or cake that remains after the first pressing has boiling water rubbed into it; then a second pressing can be done to give what is called ‘fire drawn” oil, which is used for industrial, rather than culinary purposes.

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■■ If trees are being cultivated for

eventual harvest as timber; they may need routine pruning to minimize the knots that can develop in the timber.

A lot of different cultivars have been selected or developed to suit different purposes; and the cultivars available can vary from one region to another. Choose your cultivars carefully. Other Species/Cultivars

Juglans cinerea (BUTTERNUT OR WHITE WALNUT): The tree is to 35 metres tall, ovoid fruits to 5cm long, indigenous to Western China; deciduous tree that is hardier than other walnut species and very adaptable to different soil conditions. Aromatically flavoured nuts form over summer and drop late summer or autumn. Protein content is very high (around 75%), higher than almost all other nuts. Although not commonly known it consider to be superior, in flavour, r to most other nuts. The immature fruits may be pickled or culinary use. The thick shell has deterred its use for commercial cropping.

Juglans microcarpa (TEXAS BLACK WALNUT): Deciduous tree to around 10m tall, grow in part or full sun, edible nut has a thin shell. Indigenous to Texas and nearby parts of the USA and Mexico.

Juglans nigra (BLACK WALNUT) Tree to 50 metres tall, indigenous to north America from southern Ontario to PAGE 29

Eastern Texas. Thick shelled nuts can be dark brown to black in colour. Nuts taste sweet, and not as oily as J. cinerea.

Juglans regia (PERSIAN, CARPATHIAN OR ENGLISH WALNUT): Many other common names are also applied. Tree to 30 metres tall, Large leaves with leaflets to over 10cm long; tree bark is a silvery grey colour. According to Roman historian, Pliny, this species was introduced to Italy from Persia before Christ. This species grows in the wild from Greece through to Japan, and is cultivated widely across much of the world (in temperate climates). There are many different cultivars. Nuts can be thick or thin shelled, depending upon the variety.

Juglans sieboldiana (syn J. ailantifolia) (JAPANESE WALNUT, OR HEARTNUT) A tree to 20 metres tall - native to Japan it commonly occurs along watercourses and on moist soils. Has a thick shell. It is widely grown in cooler parts of the USA and the south to cooler regions of California. In Japan hulls from fruit have been used as a fish poison. J. cordiformis, is known as the heartnut. This is actually a variety of J. sieboldiana that has a thinner shell. The common name “heartnut” derives from the fact that the kernel can resemble a heart shape. Kernels are smaller than black walnuts, but shells can be easier to crack.

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Table: Quick Guide to Choosing and Growing Nut Trees

CROP

Almond

Cashew

Chestnut

Hazel Nut (Filbert)

Macadamia

Pecan

Pistachio

Walnut

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TREE SIZE AND SPACING

BEARING AGE AND YIELDS

PREFERRED CLIMATE/ RAINFALL

HARVEST PERIOD

Medium 7 x 7m

3 to 5 years 4‑12 kg

Warm dry summers, 700‑900mm

Very late summer autumn

Medium 8 x 8m

3‑4 years 4‑6kg

Warm, dry coastal tropical areas

Late autumn to early winter

Very large 15 x 15m

5 to 7 years 90+ kg

Mild summers protected from wind

Late autumn to early winter

Small 6 x 6m

5‑6 years 3‑5kg

Cool to mild year round; best in coastal regions

Mid-autumn

Large 10 x 10m

5‑7years 18‑20kg

Sub‑tropical frost‑free 1600+mm

Autumn to early winter

Large 8 x 8m

7‑10 years 20‑30kg

Long frost-free growing season with warm days and nights. 1000+mm

Late autumn to early winter

Small 10 x 8m

5 years up 30kg

Long ,hot, dry summers; cold winters

Early autumn

Large 16 x 16m

10 years 25‑50kg

Limited by spring frosts and extreme heat. 1400mm

Early autumn

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CHAPTER 3 OTHER EDIBLE NUTS There are hundreds of other nuts that are grown from all parts of the world. There are species that are only known to certain areas and some are not grown often anymore. There are many more and more edible nuts than what most people realize. Many have been important foods for indigenous populations in the past; but their use may have diminished in the

developed world. Some of these are being rediscovered; and some have more commercial potential than others, particularly in niche markets (e.g. gourmet or health foods).

Consider the following: CORNBEEFWOOD/POWDER PUFF TREE (Barringtonia spp.) BUNYA NUT (Araucaria bidwilli) BETEL NUT (Areca catechu) BEECH (Fagus sylvatica) BRAZIL NUT (Bertholletia excelsa) CHILEAN NUT (Gevuina avellana) COCAO (Theobroma spp.) COCONUT (Cocos nucifera) COLA NUT (Cola nitida) MAIDENHAIR TREE (Ginkgo biloba) GUARANA (Paullinia cupana) HAUSA GROUNDNUT (Kerstingiella geocarpa) OYSTER NUT (Telfairia pedata) QUEENSLAND WALNUT (Endiandra palmerstonii) PINE NUT (Pinus pinea) PUMPKIN SEED (Cucurbita pepo) ROSE NUT (Hicksbeackia pinnatifolia) SUNFLOWER SEEDS (Balsamorhiza sagitta) WATTLE (Acacia spp.)

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ACACIA SPECIES (Wattles) Wattle seeds have been harvested and eaten by aboriginal people for centuries in Australia. And used as fodder, famine and food crops in other countries particularly Africa. Around 10% of Acacias (i.e. approximately 50 species) are known to produce edible seeds. Of these, three have been more widely eaten than others. Some species are known to be toxic and many are simply not palatable.

This is a much used tree in Africa and also used as a food crop by people in Rhodesia during times of famine. The seeds have approx. 27% protein and do not deteriorate nutritionally upon drying. The seeds are boiled twice firstly to more easily remove the skins and then again to remove the kernels. The seeds are ground as a flour and also used as a fodder crop for farm animals.

Acacia aneura (MULGA WATTLE) Native to the arid outback areas of Australia a shrub like small tree to 15m was an important food source for indigenous people. Seeds can be ground to edible paste after first separating the seeds from the pods; seeds are roasted in hot ashes then ground into a paste whilst moistened with water.

Acacia kempeana (WITCHETTY BUSH) The seed of this plant was an important food source for indigenous people (Australia). This is also known as the witchetty bush (the species hosts the grub which was also a food source). Acacia longifolia

Acacia albida (APPLE RING ACACIA) A thorny tree to 25m (sometimes shrublike); it is widespread throughout tropical and southern Africa and also Cyprus, Israel and Lebanon. PAGE 32

This is a shrub that is rarely over 1.5 metres tall, but occasionally to 3 metres. Flowers are cylindrical, yellow and to 6 cm long. Frost tolerant and very hardy requiring little care once established. Good dry inland semi-arid to arid temperate areas.

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Acacia ligulata (SMALL COOBA, SANDHILL WATTLE, DUNE WATTLE) A widely spread shrub native to Australia, but occurs mostly on sand hills across most of inland Australia (not the far north), it grows to between 1 and 4 metres high with orange or yellowish ball flowers. Seeds can be ground into edible paste.

Acacia longifolia (SYDNEY GOLDEN WATTLE) A large shrub or small tree (6-8m tall) native to south eastern Australia and extending from the far South East of Qld. down to Victoria and in the South East of South Australia; it has long narrow phyllodes and narrow drooping seed pods. It produces large, protein rich seeds - these seeds are bitter and can have a “sulphur” taste if eaten raw. Roasting or steaming the seeds makes them more palatable and gives them a nut like flavour. Roasted seeds can be used as a coffee like beverage

Acacia murrayana (MURRAY’S WATTLE, COLONY WATTLE) From arid inland, central Australia; shrub of 2metres tall, or tree up to 7 metres with a 5 metre spread with glaucous, greyish foliage. Seeds are ground to edible paste by Aborigines. Grubs often attack in roots Frost hardy Short lived PAGE 33

Acacia victoriae (GUNDABLUIE, BARDI BUSH) Wide spread shrub that grows 2 – 5m tall and native to Australia; it suits semi-arid to warm temperate climates e.g. arid areas in Western Australia, Northern Australia Victoria and South Australia. It has been cultivated commercially in the Flinders Ranges (South Australia) to harvest seeds also grown in Pakistan, Israel and Iran. Harvest and Processing Wattle Seeds ■■ Pods need to first be picked, dried

(usually in the sun), and have seeds extracted.

■■ The seeds then need to be cleaned

(you only want clean seed so remove any dirt, pods, twigs etc).

■■ The clean seed then should be

cooked (either steamed or roasted).

■■ Cooked seed may be stored for a

period and packets of roasted seeds may be found for sale commercially at times.

The cooked seeds are commonly ground into a paste adding a small quantity of water as it is being ground. The paste can then be frozen for later use. The paste has traditionally been made into small cakes and baked. Seeds can also be boiled to extract the flavour and create an ‘essence’ that can then be used for flavouring foods (e.g. ice cream) or as a beverage (e.g. wattle seed coffee).

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Aleurites moluccana (CANDLENUT) Family: Euphorbiaceae A flowering tree to 10-20m tall with grey to blackish bark, spreading branches and white flowers; it is in the spurge family; this plant is native to South East Asia and naturalised in Australia where it grows in rainforests as large tree with a spreading crown. It has large, hairy/ downy leaves and produces clumps of brown fruit up to 5cm long known as candlenuts during the summer months. Care should be taken when eating the nuts raw as they can be poisonous and induce vomiting. However, others have reported eating the raw nuts without any ill-effects. Roasting will destroy the toxins which are contained in the nut oil. The roast nuts are reportedly very tasty and have a high energy and therefore, nutritional value. Given the high oil content of these nuts they tend to burn with a flame and produce a lot of smoke which gave rise to the name candlenut by early Australia settlers. The nuts have also been used to tenderise meat and are used as a paste in Indonesian cooking. Due to the relatively high cyanide content of nuts from some trees they should be eaten in moderation to avoid stomach cramps or vomiting. Cropping form a variety of trees will also minimise this risk.

Athertonia diversifolia (ATHERTON OAK) Family: Proteaceae A small tropical rainforest tree indigenous to the far north of PAGE 34

Queensland: the South-East Tablelands, Mt Lewis and lowland Daintree. Although unrelated the young leaves of the Atherton oak resemble those of the English oak. Mature leaves are variable with lobed or entire leaves that are 1220cm long and around 5-8 cm wide. Fruits are lens shaped and about 3cm long they ripen from Nov to Feb. Fruits have a blue skin with rather dry white flesh surrounding a hard shell. The edible kernel is inside the dry shell; it can be eaten raw or roasted. The nuts can be used in cakes, biscuits and desserts as a delicious additive.

Araucaria bidwilli (BUNYA NUT) Family: Araucariaceae About 15 species of Araucaria mostly from tropical or subtropical areas; Araucarias come from Australia, South America and the Pacific islands. A. bidwillii is a tall, erect tree to 40 m. Branch arrangement is very symmetrical; bark is rough and dark coloured. Leaves are stiff and whorled around stems. Cones are very large, 30cm x 20 cm. Seeds are edible. Natural distribution is coastal districts in Queensland. An imposing tree for coastal plantings, although care needs to be taken in choosing planting positions as the tree sheds prickly leaves and branchlets which can be a nuisance, and the large cones can be dangerous when they fall. It is frost hardy and moderately hardy to coastal conditions. These are hardy, and tolerate moist soil and salt spray (they are particularly suited to coastal planting). They respond

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well to fertile soils and watering during dry periods. They are slow growing, but will survive in poor conditions. For the best shaped tree maintain terminal (top) growth. If the top dies, side shoots may develop in which case, the strongest should be retained and the others removed. The form of the tree may however suffer. If you like a lower bushier effect, Araucarias will often coppice if pollarded (no guarantee though). If a branch begins to die back, the whole branch is likely to eventually die; hence it is best to remove it back to the trunk.

to strike, but if a cutting is struck from a branch, it is likely to grow outwards (horizontally) like a branch rather than taking on the form of a well-shaped upright tree.

Areca catechu (BETEL NUT) Family: Palmae This is one of approximately 50 species indigenous to the tropical areas from India through South East Asia to the Solomon Islands. This species is a tall slender palm tree to 30m tall that produces “betel nut” (part of the seed is a narcotic, and is commonly chewed together with a gum, lime fruits or leaves from a pepper plant). The genus does not tolerate cold conditions. Flowering begins at 4-6 years of age but the plant does not bear nuts before 7 years with full bearing age being 15years. The palm produces approximately 3 -8kgs of nuts per year. It grows on a variety of soils which must be moisture retentive but not waterlogged. This palm is considered self-pruning i.e. it sheds old fronds.

Balsamorhiza sagittal AND Helianthus spp. (SUNFLOWER SEEDS) Araucaria bidwilli

Sucking insects such as scale and mealy bug can be a problem; and various diseases can occasionally arise including blight, cankers and crown gall. Propagation is by seed but the seed should be fresh. Cuttings are not easy PAGE 35

Family: Asteraceae Two genera (Balsamorhiza and Helianthus) both share the common name “sunflower”. Both produce edible seeds; though the palatability, size of seed and productivity of plants can vary from not only one species to another, but also between varieties in the same species.

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Seeds may be eaten raw or roasted; they may be ground into a meal to use as cooking flour. Sunflowers are grown as an agronomic annual crop for oil extraction (used widely in cooking, but also medicine and cosmetics). Roasted seeds have also been used to brew a coffee substitute. Some people however are sensitive to chemicals in sunflowers which may cause dermatitis.

Barringtonia spp. (BARRINGTONIA, CORNBEEFWOOD/POWDER PUFF TREE)

Betholettia excelsa (BRAZIL NUT, PARA NUT AND CREAM NUT) Family: Lecythidaceae Rainforest tree, from the Amazon in Brazil 30‑50metres tall, rounded canopy, bottom half of the tree can be a bare trunk, hence the nuts are high in the canopy. Fruits are 12‑15cm diameter with a woody outer shell and 12‑24 triangular shaped nuts inside.

Family: Barringtoniaceae These are trees native to areas from East Africa through Asia and Australia into the Pacific. Many have edible kernels in the fruits that are eaten by natives; but many also contain saponins, which have been utilized as fish poisons. Even if eaten raw by natives; you should be cautious about eating without some preparation to remove toxins. Some have the common name Cut Nut. B. butonica from Pacific islands. Seeds and fruits are eaten raw by natives. B. careya is indigenous to Australia. It produces a large edible kernel. B. excelsa is indigenous to India and the Moluccas and produces an edible fruit B. edulis is indigenous to Fiji. Its fruit is eaten by Fijians both raw and cooked.

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Brazil nuts Bertholletia excelsa

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Despite coming from Brazil, and being commercially important across the world; the nuts are not grown on commercial farms to any serious degree in Brazil. Trees are also grown in Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Hawaii, the Caribbean and Indonesia Nuts are only gathered in Brazil from the wild. The heavy fruits fall from a great height, and it is dangerous being near trees when fruits are falling. Native Indians gather fruits and extract the nuts which remain tightly sealed inside the fruits even after they hit the ground. Nut gathering is avoided in rain or windy weather when fruits are more likely to be falling. This tree requires an equatorial type climate with a mean annual temperature of 25 degrees centigrade and an annual rainfall of between 1700 and 2700mm with a short dry season. Most soils are acceptable though trees grow best on deep soils near watercourses however it does not withstand flooding. Ideally grow on a deep, well drained, fertile alluvial soil. Propagated by seeds; seeds can take up to 3 years to germinate. Trees are planted 12metres apart in rows in Malaysia. Trees can take up to 15 years before producing any nuts. Fruits do not open naturally. They need to be cut to obtain the nuts. There are a number of other edible nut bearing trees in the Lecythidaceae family that do not have the same commercial importance, but are nevertheless still used for nut production. Most are indigenous to wet PAGE 37

locations along the Amazon and its tributaries in tropical South America. The Monkey Pot trees, from the genus Lecythis are tasty and eaten widely by native populations. Some consider these to be some of the tastiest nuts in existence, and well worth cultivating. The main impediment to cultivation is that the nuts are dropped readily from the trees when ripe, and are thus difficult to harvest. Species that may be worth considering for commercial production include Lecythis elliptica (Sapucaia nut), L. grandiflora and L. davisii.

Canarium ovatum (PHILIPPINE NUT/PILI NUT) Family: Burseraceae An attractive tree to 20-30m tall with compound leaves spirally arranged on the stem; leaflets are ovate to elliptical in shape and from 4-24cm long and 2-12cm wide. The flowers on female trees are produced as inflorescences in the leaf axils of young shoots – each inflorescence having 3-6 flowers. The male trees produce inflorescences 10cm long containing up to 18 flowers. This is a vital nut to many parts of the world of which there are seventy five types. It has been claimed to be sweeter than Almonds and is grown in mass in many countries such as Pacific Islands, Philipines and Africa. They are a slender nut with long pointed ends and can reach 600mm long. They are also very rich in oil.

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C. indicum (GALIP NUT) This is another species in this genus has been under cultivation for thousands of years in Melenasia. This is a tree to 40metres tall. Fruits can be produced 4 to 5 years after planting trees. Fruits develop over 6 to 8 months, eventually turning a dark purplish or black colour, at which point the kernel will be mature. Natives harvest nuts by the climbing trees. The flavor is milky and nutty, a little like a macadamia.

forming into cakes, and then roasting. The processes of soaking and roasting both remove toxins. Nevertheless, the seeds of this plant are rarely used in modern bush tucker.

Nuts are often dried and stored for later use, cooked (baked or fried with skin removed) and eaten as a dessert nut. Kernels are also prepared for eating by crushing and mixing with cassava, sago or banana then baked on hot stones with coconut

Castanospermum australe (MORETON BAY CHESTNUT) Family: Fabiaceae A rainforest tree from 8 to 20 metres tall from Queensland and NSW; large dark green leaves are produced in leaflets up to 12cm long and clumps of yellow and red flowers are borne in spring and summer. It is called ‘Moreton Bay Chestnut’ due to the chestnut taste of the seeds, and the ‘Black Bean’ due to the long brown 20cm pods which later turn black when they have fallen to the ground. Foliage can be toxic to livestock and the seeds contain significant quantities of toxic alkaloids that need removing before they are edible. They were consumed by Aboriginals following much preparation involving cracking them, soaking in water, grinding down and PAGE 38

Castenospermum australe

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Gevuina avellana (CHILEAN NUT) Family: Proteaceae Attractive evergreen tree with shiny leaves and red flowers it produces small nuts in autumn that look like Macadamias but taste more like hazelnuts. Sometimes called the “cold climate macadamia”; liking a cool temperate climate and tolerating to minus 10°C. It is mostly cultivated in South America not only for the nutritious nuts but also timber and cut flowers. Will grow in semi shade; but cropping is heavier if grown in full sun. Prefers a soil between 4.5 and 6.5; not alkaline; keep roots moist, maintain a good layer of organic mulch over the soil, but provide adequate drainage as well. Trees take up to 7 years to produce a good harvest. Fruits change from red to black as they mature. Nuts can take up to a year to become ripe; forming a smooth shell around the kernel. Harvest the nuts late autumn into winter as nuts start to fall they can be treated much the same as macadamias; however the shell is easier to remove than a macadamia shell.

in the world (commercially). Major producers are the Philippines, India, Ceylon and the Pacific Islands. It needs to be within 15 degrees of the equator for successful commercial production. Coconuts require tropical conditions and thrive in exposed coastal conditions with high rainfall (rainfall of 1500‑1750mm evenly distributed throughout the year) and a high ground water table, however they do not tolerate waterlogged soils or cold weather. They tolerate salt conditions and grow on a wide variety of soils, provided they (soils) are at least 1.5 metres deep. They respond well to potassium and nitrogen fertilisers. Coconut trees take 5‑6 years before they commence flowering and fruiting. Some diseases can be lethal (particularly Phytopthera palmivora).

Cocos nucifera (COCONUT) Family: Palmae Cocos nucifera grows in tropical area it has a grey trunk can grow to 30m high, frequently bending away from the sea breeze; there is a dwarf variety that only grows to about 6m. The pinnate yellowy green leaves may be 6m or more long. This is one of the most important nuts PAGE 39

Coconut

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Coconut

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Cola nitida (KOLA NUT)

Cucurbita pepo (PUMPKIN SEED)

Family: Sterculiaceae

Family: Cucurbitaceae

Evergreen tree to between 15 and 25metres tall with fruits to 13cm long and 7cm diameter.

Pumpkins are creeping or climbing vines; Sensitive to frost.

This is the most important nut crop in Africa next to the oil palm. Needs a hot, humid climate; but will tolerate up to 3 months dry season. Seed takes up to 3 months to germinate; slow growing at first. Best kept weed free and planted in shade at first. Harvest ripe fruits before they split open (Harvested using knives attached to long poles). After harvest, the fruits split and seeds are removed. Seeds then fermented in piles for 5 days to help remove the testa. Seeds are then washed and cleaned, after which they will store for months without deteriorating the main risk is insect damage - particularly weevils; so they need checking in storage).

Best at day temperatures around 25 degrees C. Needs good drainage and full sun. Best varieties need less space; about 1 metre between plants. They will keep well if stored in a dry place and not bruised. Grow up to 6 plants per family. Eaten as a desert nut extensively in Asia for a long time; and more recently in other parts of the world. Can be eaten raw or roasted. Either dry roasted or deep fried, then salted. Propagated from seeds. Other species of Cucurbita also eaten; including C. maxima, C. mixta and C. moschata

The nuts are in demand world-wide for chewing; but particularly in West Africa. The nut tastes bitter but then after eating it a sense of well-being spreads through the body and the taste then sweetens in the mouth, which makes anything after that seem sweet. It is also the source of caffeine and cola flavoring, and is used in many religious ceremonies.

Cucurbita pepo Pumpkin

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Endiandra spp. (QUEENSLAND WALNUT) Family: Lauraceae This genus has around 100 species (around 40% indigenous to Australia) in South East Asia, Australia and the Pacific. Shrubs and trees, commonly called walnuts, even though they are not in the Juglans family. Fruits are an ovoid or globose drupe.

light grey bark, alternate ovate glossy green leaves with autumn colour. Sandy, chalky (alkaline) or gravel soil; may respond to adding lime each year while establishing, American Beech is less lime-tolerant.

Endiandra pubens (HAIRY WALNUT) Tree to 30 metres; red fruits, nuts are sometimes used as a bush-food after preparation top remove undesirable chemicals; very good timber

Endiandra palmerstonii (QUEENSLAND WALNUT) Nuts produce a large kernel which has reportedly been used to create flour for cooking.

Endiandra indignis (BOOMBAN) Kernels are eaten after roasting, being ‘beaten’ and thoroughly washed with running water.

Fagus sylvatica (BEECH) Family: Fagaceae This deciduous tree occurs widely across temperate parts of the northern hemisphere the genus has 10 species. It grows to 30 metres tall has smooth PAGE 42

Fagus sylvatica Zlatia

Plant in an open position and keep the soil moist. Propagated by seed or grafting. Grafted trees can bear within 4 years - seed grown trees can take much longer. Nuts fall from the tree in autumn. Collect and dry quickly before they spoil. They are also taken by animals. Production from a single tree can become significant after 20 to 25 years. Kernels are high in protein. Oil is extracted and sold commercially in Germany. Taste is like chestnuts Named cultivars are commonly grafted on seedlings; seed needs stratification (period in cold) to induce germination. Sow in early spring at temperatures around 18 degrees Celsius and maintain winter temperatures to 16 degrees C. Graft selected cultivars to seedlings

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Hardy - few pests and diseases; oak blotch miner can occasionally cause leaf blisters. Is also used as a feature tree, coastal planting, timber has been used in the past for tool handles, wagon wheels, etc.

Ginkgo biloba (GINKGO/ MAIDENHAIR TREE) Family: Ginkgoaceae A hardy, deciduous, large, pollution tolerant, slowing growing, tree that originates from South east China. Although not technically a conifer, it is often treated as such; instead it comprises a single species in its own genus, family and order. It is considered to a ‘relic’ species or a ‘living fossil’. Foliage is similar to an oversized but thickened maidenhair fern leaf (i.e. somewhat triangular).

Ginkgo biloba

As an ornamental, the male tree is normally grown by preference because fruit from the female tree has a particularly unpleasant odour. The yellow autumn PAGE 43

leaves have been used for a medicinal tea to enhance memory. The kernels, known as gingko nuts, are commonly eaten in Asia. Oil from the seeds can cause dermatitis for some people. Separate male and female trees; the females bearing pungent, obovoid fruits (drupes) to about 3cm long and 2cm wide which turn yellowish as they mature; the seed is edible. This plant is hardy in temperate areas it is slow growing when young, prefers full sun and deep moist fertile soil. A chemical in the tissue of ginkgo is toxic to fungi, resulting in an unusually high resistance to fungal diseases. Occasional leaf spots can still occur sometimes fungal, sometimes bacterial. Wood rots have also occurred occasionally. Pest problems are also rare. Propagate by seeds, layering, cuttings or grafting. Seed is collected in autumn, the fleshy pulp removed, then stratified warm for 2 months followed by cold stratification for 2 months. Seed then sown outside should give 60% or higher germination rate. Cuttings are relatively easy to root. Take hardwood cuttings (no leaf attached), 10-15cm long in winter, treat with 8000ppm IBA talc and plant into perlite or peat/perlite mix under mist. Treatment of cuttings with fungicide may also help. Hardwood cuttings can also be successful planted into the open ground. Budding or whip and tongue grafts onto seedling rootstocks is common for commercial production in some parts of the world. A number of cultivars are available offering different shaped or coloured leaves

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Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia (ROSE NUT, MONKEY NUT, RED BOPPLE NUT) Family: Proteaceae Australian native tree reaches a height of just 6-8m, related to Macadamia it needs a warm climate.

established. Seed germinates slowly taking up to 16 months and it takes up to 15 years for a seedling to produce fruit. Crack and eat fruits fresh the flavor is similar to coconut. Store nuts cool and damp, to maintain flavour.

Fruits are 5cm across bright red and oval with an edible, almond sized kernel inside; it tastes somewhat like a macadamia nut and is used for similar culinary purposes. Fruits drop from the trees anywhere from late summer to late winter. It propagates best from seed sown very fresh: collect seed as soon as it is ripe remove outer fruit and plant immediately. The nuts are produced in large quantities and are highly nutritious but the trees are difficult to grow and seedlings are susceptible to various disorders. These problems have meant that this species has endured limited usage as a bush tucker plant.

Jubaea chilensis syn J. spectabilis (CHILEAN COCONUT) Family: Palmae There is only one species in this genus, a palm up to 20metres or more tall by 1.3m spread of massed dull green, stiff feather leaves. It produces bunches of orange-yellow, stringy fruits which each contain a small coconut like fruit (around 2.5cm diameter) inside. It adapts to cold and dry conditions but will need frequent watering until fully PAGE 44

Jubaea chilensis

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Kerstingiella geocarpa (HAUSA GROUNDNUT) Family: Fabaceae Similar to the peanut (fruits form under the soil) but cultivated in drier climates particularly tropical West Africa. Nuts contain 21% protein. Propagates easily from seed (Seed germinates within a day of planting. Seeds are removed from fruits after harvest. Native peoples sometimes mix seeds with wood ash and storing this way can preserve nuts for up to 2 years.

Pinus spp. (PINE NUT) Family: Pinaceae Pines are evergreens, vary greatly in size, cones are hard, woody and have thick scales. Branches grow out of main trunk in whorls (making pines easy to climb). They are readily distinguishable from all other conifers because most of their leaves are in groups, usually 2 ‑ 5 on short spurs the number of needles emerging from a spur (i.e. per bundle) can be a good indication of which species you are looking at.

Fruit is small and bright red and used as a medicinal plant; in energy drinks and contains up to 3 times more caffeine than coffee.

Edible nuts are produced by many different types of pines, but some are more palatable than other. Several species of Pinus in particular are commonly eaten in different parts of the world. Pinus pinea nuts, for example, can be purchased in retail stores in Australia, Europe and other parts of the world. Although there are at least 15 species of pine nuts which are harvested and eaten, in most instances they are only used as food in a local area where they occur. The Hopi and Navajo indians of North America for instance, eat nuts from Pinus cembrioides and some related species, either as whole kernels or ground into a flour and baked. Pinus gerardiana is another species, from which nuts are a relished food in parts of central Asia where it occurs. Nuts from this pine (called Chilgoza nuts) are exported from parts of the Himalayas and Afghanistan, into India.

It has been used as a medicinal plant and a stimulant. The stimulant properties of Guarana are retained best if you keep the whole nuts until ready for use and then prepare for drinking, similar to how you prepare coffee.

Many pine species can be slow to start bearing seeds (commonly well over a decade; and sometimes many decades); but they can be long lived; sometimes well over 1,000 years. These are obviously trees to plant for future generations.

Paullinia cupana (GUARANA/ BRAZILIAN COCOA) Family: Sapindaceae A spreading or climbing shrub from the Amazon to 12metres tall with compound leaves comprising 5-9 leaflets (15-30cm long) with toothed margins; leaves are opposite on the stem. Four petalled white flowers appear in axillary clusters which may be from 15-30cm long. This plant needs a moist warm environment. Propagate from seed or cuttings.

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Most are generally very hardy once established. Pruning should be minimal if you want a well formed tree however any pruning that is done should preferably be done in spring. Though generally resistant to serious problems, a wide range of pests and diseases have been recorded on pines, including: damping off and root rot (particularly on seedlings, dieback (more serious on younger plants), rusts, blights, wood rots; aphids, caterpillars, sawfly, web worms, scale, leaf miners borers, and weevils. Pines can also suffer from soil problems. A deficiency or excess of water can cause needles to drop. Root damage or nutrient deficiencies may cause stunted growth. Air pollution and salt have also been known to severely effect (sometimes kill) pines. Seed is common, cuttings or grafting occasionally. Cones are slow to develop, maturing at the end of summer or into autumn of the second season following their initiation. In most species, cones

Pinus cembra Jermyns

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open to drop seed soon after ripening, so collect cones at this stage and air dry to release seed. Most species can be grafted onto seedlings in winter, most commonly using a side graft. The rootstock selected will be dependent upon the cultivar being grafted (not all pines graft well onto all species). Seed will maintain viability if stored dry and at low temperatures. Germination can be variable between species. Many will germinate without stratification, but for some, stratification is essential. Stratify by soaking in water for 24hrs, then placing in a bag with moist peat or perlite in the bottom of a refrigerator (around 1-2oC) for a period (some species require 3 months stratification, others only 2-4 weeks). Nut Producing Pine Species include:P

Pinus cembra: Nuts are small, but

produced in large quantities. Trees that are over 2,000 years old in Russia have produced large crops Collect nuts while slightly immature, then dry and store. Mature nuts are not as tasty for eating.

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Pinus cembroides: A traditional food

for the Native Americans.

Pinus coulteri: Very large cones and

very large edible seeds.

Pinus edulis (Colorado Pinyan):

3-15m tall it produces small cones to about 5cm long that contain edible nuts.

Pinus edulis

Pinus lambertiana (Sugar Pine):

Occurs from western USA and northern Mexico, 3 sided needles have white lines on all sides, in bundles of 5; 5 to 10cm long, massive woody cones furrowed bark is reddish brown.

Pinus pinea (Stone Pine): Easily

recognised by its very wide spreading and rounded or flat topped crown. The bark is orange red and deeply fissured into large vertical plates. Cultivated commercially in Portugal the nuts are sweet tasting, can be eaten raw, steamed or roasted. Young stems are pale and hairless. The dark green leaves are 10 ‑ 15cms long, stout, often twisted and borne in pairs. The large broad ovoid cones are 8 ‑ 15cms long. The trees have a maximum height of about 20 m. Tolerant of wind and some coastal conditions. PAGE 47

Quercus spp. (OAK) Family: Fagaceae Deciduous and evergreen trees, and sometimes shrubs; widespread in northern hemisphere the genus comprising around 600 species; some species can live 1000 to 1500 years. Many deciduous species have attractive autumn foliage, leaves are variable amongst species, male flowers are yellow catkins borne in spring, female catkins are inconspicuous, rounded acorn nuts are held in cupshaped husks. They prefer a deep and moist but welldrained soil, open position in full sun, tolerate part shade, mulch young trees with well-rotted manure in spring. Prune for shape. Hardy and half-hardy species; caterpillars and chafer grubs may attack leaves, gall wasps may cause galls on leaves, stems, roots and buds. Known diseases include a range of fungi which can cause dieback and canker, bracket fungi may grow on trunks and branches, powdery mildew may affect leaves and stems, and honey fungus can kill trees. Named cultivars are commonly grafted on seedlings; seed needs stratification (period in cold) to induce germination and must be planted within two months. Bitter tasting chemicals in the nuts should normally be removed. Do this by spreading acorns1-2cm thick over a porous cloth and washing hot water through. Repeat the wash at least twice until bitterness is removed. Nuts can then be dried in an oven and ground into a meal for use in baking.

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In many parts acorns are considered as food for animals and not humans; but some native peoples have used acorns as a significant food source. Native Americans gathered and stored acorns. The nuts were then ground to a meal and used for making pastry and bread. Cultivars/Species:

Q. alba (WHITE OAK, AMERICAN WHITE OAK) Tree 15 to 20m tall (occasionally 30m); from Canada and the USA mainly occurring on alluvial soils near rivers. Leaves have a heavily lobed margin, pale grey bark on main trunk and branches. Many hybrids are known, between this and other species. Autumn foliage can become deep claret-red. Trees tend to bare good seed yields only once every 4 to 10 years. Seed germinates quickly if planted fresh. Seed germination rates can vary from 50 to 99%. Nuts eaten by Native Americans, roasted, raw or in bread.

Quercus alba X Crimschmidt

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Q. bicolor (SWAMP WHITE OAK) 15 to 25m tall and up to 10m diameter, leaves are shiny dark green above autumn foliage yellow to brownish. Good seed crops every 3-5 years. Seeds planted fresh or after 1-3months stratification should give over 90% strike rate Eaten by Native Americans, roasted, raw or in bread.

Q. lobata (VALLEY OAK) From Californian valleys, to 30m tall, drooping branches, heavily lobed leaves, dark green leaves with a yellowish mid rib, fine hairs on under surface but smooth and shiny upper leaf surface, foliage turns yellow-brown in autumn. Were eaten by native Americans in California.

Quercus lobata

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Q. macrocarpa (MOSSY CUP OAK, BURR OAK) 25 to 35m tall and to 15m diameter, very rough, ridged grey-brown bark; lobed glossy green foliage turns yellow brown and falls early in autumn. Good

Quercus macrocarpa

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seed crops occur every 2 to 3 years. Germination rates are reported at around 45%. Most nurserymen sow seed as soon as collected, though one study reported increased % strike after cold stratification. Eaten by Native Americans, roasted, raw or in bread.

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Q. robur (ENGLISH OAK, COMMON OAK) 15 to 25m, needs shelter from hot dry winds, does best in cool areas. Deeply furrowed grey bark, foliage is bright green in spring but becomes a glossy darker green as the season progresses. The under surface of the leaf is paler. Leaves are lobed, but not as heavily as many oaks. Autumn foliage is yellowbrown. Several named cultivars are grown (usually propagated by grafting). Good seed crops only occur every 2-4 years. Seed sown immediately after collection and cleaning (removing caps) can be expected to give a 70% germination rate. It is recommended to soak seed for an hour or two in water before sowing. The acorns have been used as a food by humans in Europe during famine, though the bread made from acorns is reportedly not very palatable.

Quercus robur

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Quercus robur

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Q. virginiana syn. Q. virens (LIVE OAK)

This plant needs a moist, fertile soil and warm climate; they are frost sensitive.

Evergreen tree to 20m tall from south eastern USA, dense foliage, broad dome shaped crown. Though normally grown by seed, this is one of the few oaks reported to have also been grown successfully by cuttings.Eaten by Native Americans, roasted, raw or in bread.

Plants can take up to seven years before producing fruits.

Other species that are eaten by humans are:

This species originates from North Western South America and is the commercial source of chocolate; commercially it is grown mainly in Africa and the Americas. It prefers to grow in shaded rainforest.

In Japan: Q. glauca, Q. prinus and Q. emori In Europe: Q. ilex var. Ballota and Q. aegilops

Theobroma cacao (COCAO) Family: Sterculiaceae

In America: Q. prinus, Q. lobata and Q. emori

Telfairia pedata (OYSTER NUT) Family: Cucurbitaceae A climbing vine to 30metres tall, grown widely in parts of tropical Africa, with compound leaves comprising 5-7 broadly elliptical, hairless, leaflets with serrated edges; it produces large (3090cm) elongated gourd-like fruits that contain seeds. Solitary female, flowers (the 2 – 3.5 cm fringed petals are purple with green stripe at base), males flowers are in racemes. When the fruit is ripe it falls, bursts open and releases seeds, each around 4 cm long and 1cm thick. These seeds are split open with a knife and the contents inside are referred to as “oyster nuts”. One fruit can produce up to 400 nuts. The nuts have a sweet, creamy taste. PAGE 51

Theobroma cacao

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Leaves are entire, un-lobed, egg-shaped to elliptical and alternate on the stem and can be up to 40cm long by 10cm wide. The tree is deciduous losing leaves 2-4 times a year with the leaves turning reddish to prevent burning in the sun. The shaded leaves are longer than the sun exposed leaves which hang vertical to minimize sun damage. The node at the base of the leaf changes stiffness with temperature to vertical. Being a rainforest species it requires deep, moist and well drained soils and needs to be in shade for the first 5 years of its life progressing to filtered light after that.

5 months or more to produce the end fruit. The seeds are encased in a pod that is football like in shape and turns yellow, orange then red when maturing. It takes 4-5 months to produce the seed and another month for it to ripen. The seeds are enclosed in a pulp like substance inside.

The 1-2cm smallish flowers with pink calyxes are cauliflory i.e. appear in clusters on the actual trunk of the tree and on older branches and fruit are produced on the trunk of the tree and it does so all year long; it takes

This species is propagated by seedlings, cuttings or budded and grafted. When it is grown in the wild it has a deep tap root that reaches 2 meters deep. In cultivation cuttings are used so the tap root does not develop the same.

Theobroma cacao Chocolate

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The trees are pollinated by insects called midges (like tiny flies). Only 3 out of 1000 flowers are pollinated in plantations as the same moist environment does not occur as it is in the rainforests floor to support them.

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Trapa natans (WATER CHESTNUT) Family: Trapaceae Trapa is the only genus in the family comprising 3 or 4 species. The genus is indigenous to warmer parts of Europe, Africa and Asia. Floating leaves, flowers have 3 petals sepals and stamens. Fruit is a drupe that contains a single seed. It grows in still, warm water i.e. ponds and dams in sub-tropical or mild temperate climates. This is an annual plant that can produce a harvest within a year of planting. It is cultivated in India by broadcasting seed across nursery ponds with water 30 to 70 cm deep. The seed is then pressed into the mud at the bottom of the ponds and allowed to germinate. After 4 or 5 months, when at least 4 leaves have developed, they are transplanted. Plants are laterally pruned to accelerate fruit production. In China water chestnuts are cultivated in running water (added aeration may be advantageous). Nuts can be harvested using nets when the fruits are ripe; commonly in autumn. Eat raw, roasted or boiled and also widely used in Chinese stir-fry.

Trapa bicornis (CHINESE WATER CHESTNUT) close relative with a black or brown coloured fruit.

OTHER NUTS Anacolosa frutescens (PROMISING NUT OR GALO) Family: Olacaceae Tall shrub or tree to 30 metres tall from South East Asia; occurrence is rare, but it produces an edible nut with good flavour resembling a filbert; that can be eaten raw, roasted or boiled.

Argania spinosa (ARGAN) Family: Sapotaceae An evergreen, drought resistant, longlived tree 5 to 10m tall from Morocco and Mediterranean it grows on a wide range of soils in low rainfall areas. The kernels are a source of edible ‘argan oil’ which was used in the past as an alternative to olive oil; as well as for lamps and soap making. Also used as a stock feed.

Bactris gasipaes (SWEET PLUM OR PALM CHESTNUT) Family: Palmae This is a sucker forming feather palm to 20 metres indigenous to tropical Americas. Fruits are boiled in salt water for 3 hours, peeled and seeds removed then eaten. Taste is similar to chestnuts. This is a nutritious and widely eaten food in tropical America and the Caribbean. The kernel is starchy and oily, and can resemble a coconut taste. Oil is

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extracted for use and the meal can be used as a substitute for maize flour to make tortillas. The cooked flesh is fermented to make an alcoholic drink. Poor quality fruits are used for stock feed.

Brabejum stellatifolium (WILD ALMOND) Family: Proteaceae A tree or shrub that grows up to 8metres tall (but usually smaller) It is from Cape region of South Africa. Nuts need to be well soaked to remove toxins before it becomes edible. Kernels have at times been roasted and ground to be used as a coffee substitute.

Caryocar brasiliense (PEQUIA OIL PLANT) Family: Caryocaraceae This tree grows to 10 metres tall and is Indigenous to South America It needs 1 to 1.5 metres annual rainfall and a dry season of at least 3 months to grow well. Ovoid globose shaped fruit encases an oval stone up to 3cm diameter. Fruit is harvested from the ground after it drops. The kernel is rarely eaten, but it is used as a source of edible oil.

Couepia longipedula (EGG NUT, PENDULA NUT)

South America. Nuts harvested after mature fruits fall to the ground. Nuts removed from the mesocarp using a knife. Dried nuts can be stored for months if kept dry and cool. Kernels are eaten roasted as desert nuts or crushed and mixed with cassava flour and sugar. Native peoples have used kernels to make a meal and for cooking cakes or in pastries.

Finschia spp. (PIPIPI) Family: Proteaceae In New Guinea, native people collect and roast the nuts; then remove and eat the “sweet meat” from inside.

Juniperus spp Family: Cupressaceae Most junipers are best suited to a temperate climate – but it varies a bit according to the species with some growing in cooler regions and others in coastal and exposed areas. Height spread and form is also relevant to the species. The berries/seeds of several junipers (i.e. J. pachyphlaea and J. osteosperma) are eaten raw or ground and prepared as cakes, by North American Indians. Juniper berries also provide the ‘flavour’ in gin. They can be used fresh, dried, crushed or whole to flavour game dishes and also casseroles and stuffing.

Family: Chrysobalanaceae

Lemuropisum edule (TARA)

A tree to 30 metres tall from tropical

Family: Fabaceae

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A spreading leguminous shrub to 6 metres tall from Madagascar but not cultivated in Madagascar The species has been cultivated as a potential nut crop in Western Australia. Seed can be germinated rapidly if soaked for 10 hours prior to sowing. Plants develop rapidly and are planted on a 4 X 4 metre grid after only 4 months. It grows with annual rainfalls below 40cm, likes alkaline soils, average summer temperatures around 28°C and winter averages around 19°C. Nuts are harvested from the ground. Nuts are eaten raw (remove brittle testa first) Mature nuts have a cashew like taste, and immature nuts taste closer to green peas.

Nothofagus spp (SOUTHERN BEECH) These are trees or shrubs from the southern hemisphere that are similar in appearance to the Beeches of the northern hemisphere. They are mostly grown as ornamental plants nut a few species have edible nuts.

Pachira aquatica (MALABAR CHESTNUT) Family: Bombacaceae A tree to 10 metres or more tall indigenous to Amazon estuary tree it produces fruit all year round; tolerant of variations in temperature and humidity, drought tolerant. Fruits are an oblong to ellipsoid capsule, each containing up to 25 seeds. Seeds are between 1 and 3 cm in diameter. Seeds are allowed to drop, then harvested from the ground (quickly in wet weather), before they germinate. Seeds can be eaten raw, roasted or deep fried. Raw seeds have a chestnut flavour; roasted seeds have a taste like cocoa.

Pandanus spp. (SCREW PINES) Family: Pandanaceae Many hundreds of species within this genus; they occur commonly on the coast in tropical and sub-tropical climates. Nuts are eaten as food by native peoples in many places. In New Guinea, the kernel is eaten raw or cooked when fresh. May be prepared by burning off the husk in a fire. Nuts are smoked or roasted in some places. Kernels of some species are more palatable than others; and kernels can often be quite oily.

Pandanus tecticornis This fruit is a significant food source in Micronesia. Nothofagus cunninghamii Antartic beach

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Pandanus spiralis Nuts from Australia, are very difficult to crack, but are tasty to eat, with a flavour that tastes a little like both coconut and peanut.

Pasania cornea Family: Fagaceae This is an evergreen tree from China where the edible, sweet and very palatable nuts, are sold in markets.

Santalum acuminata (QUANDONG) Family: Santalaceae More commonly cultivated for fruit flesh; but the kernels are also edible. They can either be roasted and salted, or eaten raw. Some consider them unpalatable because of an unpleasant aroma that can occur.

Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra (MARULA) Family: Anacardiaceae Indigenous plant to Angola parts of Africa and Madagascar. Both fruits and kernels from the seed are edible. Kernels can be difficult to remove from the nut. They have a flavour like hazels. Can be dried and stored, eaten or pressed to extract oil. Propagate by seed or cuttings. Soak seed 12hrs before planting. Produces fruit after 3 years.

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Terminalia catappa (TROPICAL ALMOND) Family: Combretaceae Indigenous to tropical and sub-tropical regions of Asia, Africa and Australia; deciduous or semi evergreen tree, 15 to 25 metres tall, Fruit is an ellipsoid drupe enclosing a hard shelled stone with edible kernel inside. Nut is difficult to crack. Extracted kernels can be eaten raw or roasted, sun dried and stored, or pressed for oil. Oil can become rancid if stored though. One tree can give 5kg of nuts per year.

Terminalia kaernbachii (OKARI NUT) Family: Combretaceae Tree to 45 metres tall and is from the Solomon Islands, New Guinea and Indonesia. Ellipsoid fruit that produces a relatively large edible nut: Kernels vary from 3 X 1cm to the size of a small chicken egg. Fruits are both picked from trees and harvested off the ground and sold at markets. It produces a particularly good tasting tropical nut that has an almond like flavour. Eaten raw by indigenous peoples; but may need pretreatment. (Other Terminalia species require washing or cooking to remove undesirable chemicals).

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Torreya nucifera

Torreya nucifera (KAYA) Family: Taxaceae A yew like plant from Japan which produces nuts around 3cm long; in Asia these are processed, packaged and sold as a commercial desert nut.

Vitellaria paradoxa (SHEA BUTTER TREE) Family: Sapotaceae A deciduous tree (to 15 and 25 metres tall) that occurs in Senegal through to the drier parts of central Africa; it does PAGE 57

best where there is a shallow water table with annual rainfall of 60-100 cm and a dry season for at least 6 months. Fruit is harvested as soon as it falls, from the ground. Nuts are exposed as pulp rots. Nuts in the shell are removed from pulp and stored dry in the shell during rainy season in Africa. Nuts are processed and the kernel removed. The decorticated kernel contains 4060% shea butter which is extracted by crushing roasted kernels into a paste; boiling the paste and skimming off the oil. 50kg of fresh nuts can produce 4 kg of shea butter.

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CHAPTER 4 USING NUTS There are many different uses for nuts, and they have been a popular choice of food in many different cultures for many years. Nuts are eaten raw, cooked or processed. They can often be stored easier and longer than other foods and that gives the grower an advantage. Commercial growers do not need to sell their produce quickly before it spoils; and home growers do not need to use it or process it as fast.

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF NUTS Nuts are an important source of many different nutrients for populations in some parts of the world and a delicacy in other places. Many nuts are high in nutritional value relative to their weight. In general, they have a relatively high fat content, which means a high level of energy and calories. The fats in nuts are mostly unsaturated, which is the best type of fat to consume. Fat and protein contents can vary from one type of nut to the next; but as a very general indication, many nuts may contain approximately 60% fat and 20% protein. Some nuts, including black walnuts, pistachios and almonds; can contain protein levels closer to 30%. When eating nuts for protein, keep in mind that they do not contain the full range of essential amino acids – you can get the missing essential amino acids from foods such as legumes, whole grains, or seeds (or the more obvious sources such as meat and eggs).

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Nuts do contain some fibre, but are rarely eaten in sufficient bulk to contribute significantly to the fibre needs of a human. Most nuts are an excellent source of potassium and phosphorus, and a good source of calcium, sodium, iron and magnesium. Many are also a good source of zinc. Almost all nuts have significant amounts of thiamine, niacin, and riboflavin. Vitamin A can be obtained from pecans, pistachios, walnuts and almonds.

Pistachios

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Compare Nuts with Some other Common Foods (Source-adapted from N.Howes book Nuts, published by Faber & Faber, 1953; and Nuts & their Uses as Food, USDA Farmers Bulletin 322, 1908) TYPE OF NUT

% FAT

% PROTEIN

% CARBOHYDRATE

% FIBRE

Almond

54.5

21.2

14.0

3.8

Chestnut (dry)

7.8

10.7

70.1

2.9

Filbert

64

15.6

6.8

5.3

Hickory

67.4

15.4

11.4

-

Macadamia

66

8.8

15.4

5.1

Pecan

70.7

12.1

8.5

3.7

Pine Nut

61.9

14.6

17.3

-

Pistachio

54.5

22.6

15.6

-

Walnut, Persian

60.7

18.2

13.7

-

Walnut, Black

56.9

29.1

9.1

-

Beef (round steak)

13.6

19.8

-

-

Beans, Dried

1.8

22.5

55.2

4.4

Potato

1

2.3

18

4

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NUT ALLERGIES

not indicate likely severity of a problem.

Nut allergies are relatively common in children (in Australia affecting around 2% of children). Sometimes nut allergies do not affect a person as a child; but may arise in adulthood. Around 20% of children may develop worse symptoms as they age; and another 20% may see symptoms subside as they age. This is such a significant issue that schools sometimes ban nuts and nut foods to minimise risks to affected children.

Nuts (particularly peanuts and common tree nuts) are difficult to avoid in processed foods; because they are frequently used in the manufacturing of foods. Take away or restaurant food can also be contaminated with nuts. People who have a particular sensitivity are often prescribed emergency medication such as an adrenaline auto injector pen that can be used to self-treat if they go into anaphylaxis.

These allergies are generally to one or more proteins that occur in nuts; and given that not all nuts have the exact same proteins; it is often the case that someone may be allergic to some types of nuts and not others. The fact that nuts (like dairy products) are rich in protein, makes them a food type that people are more likely to be allergic to than some other food types. Allergic reactions may only be mild and often go unnoticed; but in some cases they can be severe causing symptoms such as eczema, hives and vomiting. In occasional and extreme cases the affected person can have difficulty breathing due to inflammation of tissues in the throat or asthma. Symptoms may also include a drop in blood pressure. Severe allergies are called anaphylaxis, and is potentially life threatening. This is a generalised allergic reaction and will usually involve more than one body system – skin, gastro-intestinal, cardiovascular, or respiratory. Peanuts are one of the most common foods to trigger anaphylaxis. If you suspect a nut allergy it is important that it is properly diagnosed by a medical professional. Skin or blood allergen specific testing is a good indicator of a problem, but these tests do PAGE 60

PREPARING NUTS FOR CONSUMPTION Many types of nuts can be taken from a plant and eaten raw; however many others are either not palatable, or contain toxins, if they are not treated in some way before eating. Washing and cooking are common methods for removing toxins for example: Alkaloids: are nitrogen‑containing compounds with certain chemical characteristics such as reacting chemically like alkaline substances. They have many different effects on the human body, for example morphine and codeine in opium are well‑known pain‑relieving alkaloids. Nicotine in tobacco is also an alkaloid. Bitter almonds contain glycoside amygdalin once ingested glycoside amygdalin turns into prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) which is leached out by using a heating process. Glycosides:

Phytic Acid (Phytates): this is present in cereals and nuts and forms insoluble compounds with calcium which when consumed can render calcium unavailable.

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Those on vegetarian diets should be aware that phytic acid is a lot higher in this diet. Grains and nuts can be soaked to remove some of the phytic acid. Resins: the shells around some nuts (e.g. cashews), contains resins – a lacquer like substance that is toxic and can cause skin irritations. Resin needs to be removed carefully, so as to not contaminate the nut. Tannins: are reddish or light brownish red/ yellow coloured astringent acids that are present in some foods including some nuts e.g. walnuts, oak trees (acorns), European chestnuts etc. Tannins are sometimes used in herbal medicines in small quantities and also in leather dying. Urushiol: this chemical is found in poison ivy but also in the cashew nut shell surrounding the raw cashew. This can cause dermatitis and also is toxic if ingested.

Preparation of Some Nuts: Acorns: need tannins that taste bitter removed. Boil acorns for two hours to do this; replacing water with fresh boiling water if it becomes brownish. Alternatively, immerse acorns in bags in running water for days or weeks until all tannins are washed out, and water washing over them is constantly clear. Almonds: The almond you buy in the shops are pre-cleaned, hulled and shelled and processed to make them edible. When harvested the almonds are usually left on the ground for about 7 days before the processing operations start to allow them to dry out somewhat. After they are been cleaned, hulled PAGE 61

and shelled almond may be sold raw or roasted, blanched sliced or diced. Cashews: cashews cannot be eaten straight from the shell but need to be processed first to remove toxin such as resins and urushiol. There is a high incidence of people that work in cashew production of exhibiting allergic reactions to cashews in the form of skin rashes. Cashews are always steamed to release the urushiol before they are dried, packaged and sold. Once prepared it is rare for people to have allergic reactions to cashews. Chestnuts: Fallen nuts need to be removed from the ground as quickly as possible as chestnuts deteriorate rapidly because of the high water content. Cool storage at 0ºC is recommended. Harvesting of these nuts is difficult by hand as they have a burr that can hurt with its prickles when picking up. Large suction harvesters are available to vacuum up the fallen crops. Fruit ripens over a period of time through autumn. Nuts are beaten out of husks and marketed at once or else prepared for storage. Once dry, pack in alternate layers of dry sand in a cool dry position ... will store this way for several months. Hazelnuts: these delicious nuts are usually harvested in late summer early autumn; on a small scale a hand-rake is usually used to harvest the nuts (by pulling them off the tree and letting them fall onto the ground. Pick them up off the ground as soon as they have fallen so that they are not damaged by rain; wet conditions can also introduce fungal disease. The ‘blanks’ (involucre surrounding the outside of the nut) needs to be removed – this sometimes happens naturally on the tree but if

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not you can either blow away the dried matter or immerse the nuts in a water bath – the lighter debris with float to the top and the nuts sink to the bottom. The nuts are then dried in an oven or a small dehydrator at 32-38°C. Commercially warm air is used to dry hazel nuts so a fan forced oven may be worth considering – on a domestic level the nuts are usually roasted as it is difficult to replica a commercial setting. Roast for 15 minutes turning the nuts after 5-7minutes. Pecans: Pecans are usually harvested once the shucks begin to open in midautumn through to the first month of winter. Early harvests have higher water content so need longer drying so that they do not go rancid after storing. Place harvested nut on screens in a cool dry place to dry naturally. Store them unshelled in a cool pantry or shell the nuts and store in jars in the fridge or freezer. Pine Nuts: Firstly you must be certain that the cones come from the correct tree species i.e. those listed in earlier chapters. Some pine nuts are toxic and although they do not cause death or serious long-term problems they are known to cause a condition called ‘pinemouth’ symptoms of which can last several weeks in some people. Pine nuts are located between the scales of a pine cone – the cones open up as the fertilised cones mature exposing the ‘nuts’. Once the cones are dry it is easy to shake out the nuts. The nuts then need to be shelled – a tedious process when done by hand; cracking them with a hammer seems to be a good approach – then removing the nuts from the cracked shell. PAGE 62

Pistachio: acid from the outer coating on the nut can stain the nuts within hours of picking. Nuts can also be stained or taste affected by wet weather when harvesting. For these reasons; the outer rosy hum is removed (mechanically or by hand) as soon as the nuts are harvested, then the nuts are washed and fast dried, prior to storing. Walnuts (black): walnut trees are large so reaching the nuts can be difficult, larger birds such as cockatoos also love harvesting them so you need to beat them to it! Harvest them in midautumn. Shaking the tree or hitting nut off branches seems to be the best way to harvest those that have not readily fallen onto the ground. Walnuts have an outer green husk around the inner shell that is easily removed by gently hitting it with a hammer and then peeling the out husk away from the inner shell – use gloves because the husks stain and you will have blackened hands for quite some time without gloves. The inner shell needs to be dried on wire racks for a week or so. The nuts can be removed fairly easily i.e. cracked with a walnut cracker or hammer to extricate the nuts from the shell. Walnuts are not longkeepers so if you shell the nuts they need to be consumed within a couple of months or frozen.

HOW ARE NUTS USED? Nuts are eaten in many different ways, including: ■■ Dessert nuts ■■ Confectionary

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■■ In baking ■■ Preserves ■■ Nut butters ■■ Nut meal ■■ Oils ■■ To add flavour, nutrition or texture

to cooked or raw foods (salads, stuffing, sauces, cooked meats and vegetables, muesli)

Using Almonds Almonds can be stored either in the shell, out of the shell in their skin; with the skin removed as blanched and peeled nuts; cut into slivers or flakes, or ground into an almond meal. They can be either raw or roasted. Almonds are frequently used in baking; being added to cakes, biscuits, breads, puddings etc. Nuts can be used whole to provide texture, such as in carrot cake, or in muesli slices, or they can be used as meal, such as in cakes to add density, moisture, texture, and flavour. Another popular baked sweet made with almond meal is almond crescents (a soft, almond shortbread type biscuit) – often eaten as a Christmas treat. As confectionary, almonds are often coated with sugar or chocolate. Sugared almonds are traditional at special occasions in countries, such as France, Greece, and the Middle East, particularly at weddings. Almonds are also good honey roasted coated or covered with salted caramel. Almonds are also used to make marzipan. Almond essence is also used to flavour macaroons. As a snack food, almonds can be enjoyed roasted, salted, or flavoured with sauces such as tamari (a fermented salty soy sauce). Oriental cuisine adds almonds to rice for pilaffs and stuffing for poultry or meat. In Moroccan cuisine almonds are often used in tagines, along with meat, vegetables, spices, and fresh or dried fruit.

Nougat with nuts

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Almonds are nice sprinkled on the top of salads – try slivered almonds, or tamari

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roasted almonds. Almonds can also add nutrition and texture to stir fry vegetables. Ground almonds (almond meal) can be used to thicken soups or sauces; or as a substitute for bread crumbs to coat fish, meat or vegetables that are fried. With an increase in people with dairy intolerances, people are turning to milk alternatives. Almond milk is one such choice. You can quite easily make your own almond milk, or alternatively buy it ready made.

■■ Mix everything together in a bowl

until everything is combined, and use as per regular stuffing.

Almond Crescents 1cup of butter 2/3 cup caster sugar 1tsp vanilla extract 2 ½ cups flour 1cup of almond flour or almond meal

Roast Almond Stuffing

¼ cup icing sugar for sprinkling on top

100g butter

Preheat oven to 180°C.

2 onions, chopped finely 2 cloves garlic, crushed 3 cups breadcrumbs 1 ¼ cups almonds 1/2C finely chopped fresh flat-leaf parsley 2tsp finely grated lemon rind ¼ cup (60ml) lemon juice ■■ Place the almonds on an oven tray

and place in an oven heated to 180°C for 10-15 minutes. Allow to cool.

■■ Heat butter in a saucepan and sauté

onions and garlic until soft.

■■ Pulse the almonds in a food

processor until they are blended into crumbs.

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■■ Cream the butter and sugar until

light and fluffy, then beat in vanilla extract. Add the flour and almond flour or meal and mix thoroughly.

■■ Take about a tablespoon of the

dough and roll it into a ball then shape into a crescent. Place the crescents on a tray lined with baking paper and bake for 15-20 minutes or until a light golden brown.

■■ Set onto a wire rack to cool. When

cooled, dust with icing sugar.

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Home-made almond milk ■■ Soak 1 cup almonds overnight

covered in water.

■■ Drain off the water and rinse

thoroughly.

■■ Place the almonds and 2 cups of

filtered water in a blender and blend thoroughly. Strain through a nut bag or cheese cloth and squeeze to extract as much liquid as possible (if you don’t have a nut bag or cheese cloth you can just use a sieve, but the milk may end up with some of the almond meal in it).

If desired: you can add a tiny bit of honey, maple syrup, stevia, or similar to sweeten the milk slightly. You can also reuse the ground almond meal that is left over to mix up with more water to make another (less creamy) almond milk, or use in baking, in a smoothie, or similar.

Using Hazelnuts Hazelnuts can be used in many similar applications as almonds. They can be eaten fresh or roasted whole, or ground into a meal. Hazelnuts go hand in hand with chocolate, making a popular appearance in praline, either whole in the centre of the chocolate or ground in the chocolate filling. Ground Hazelnuts are also an important feature in many chocolate Tortes. Whole or ground hazelnuts make a great addition to chocolate brownies. You will also find hazelnuts in chocolate spreads such as Nutella, or by itself as nut butter. PAGE 65

While we are talking about sweets, hazelnuts are also an important part of torrone – a much loved traditional Italian honey nougat that is often enjoyed at Christmas time. In baking, hazelnut meal can be a great addition to biscuits, slices and cakes, whole hazelnuts can also be used in baking such as banana cake as an extra crunch. Another use of hazelnuts in baking is as a pie crust. This is commonly used in sweet pies, but can also be used in savoury pies (such as an olive tart or a quiche). In savoury dishes, hazelnuts can be used sprinkled on top with breadcrumbs and herbs as a crust coating for fish or chicken. In another accompaniment to meat (also delicious on vegetables and bread) is the Spanish salsa romanesco – a traditional sauce made from roasted tomatoes, red peppers, hazelnuts, olive oil and vinegar Like almonds, fresh, young hazelnuts taste very good in a salad. Hazelnut oil can also be used as a salad dressing. Uses for hazelnuts in beverages include the vodka-based liquor Frangelico, and as a syrup in coffee.

Crust for meat In a food processor pulse together 1/2C hazelnuts, 1/4C parsley or herb of choice, 2tsp olive oil, salt and pepper. Use to coat meat prior to cooking.

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Hazelnut Torte ½ cup hazelnut meal

■■ You might like to serve with whipped

cream, berry coulis, or ice with a chocolate ganache and decorate with whole hazelnuts.

¼ cup self-raising flour ¼ tsp salt

Romesco Sauce

4 eggs

1 red pepper

180g dark chocolate

3 tomatoes

150g butter

10 hazelnuts

¾ cup caster sugar

19 almonds

1tsp vanilla extract

4 garlic cloves

■■ Preheat the oven to 190°C and

grease then line with baking paper a 20cm round cake tin.

■■ Melt the chocolate and butter in a

heat proof bowl over a saucepan of simmering water.

Pinch cayenne pepper 1 cup virgin olive oil 3tbsp white or red wine vinegar Salt and pepper

■■ Separate the egg whites and yolks

■■ Preheat oven to 200°C. On a baking

■■ Beat the egg whites with a whisk

■■ Remove garlic and tomatoes when

■■ Leave the torte to cool in the cake tin

■■ Serve with meat, fish, poultry,

into separate bowls. Beat the yolks with 1/2C sugar, and then add vanilla essence. Mix together the egg yolks, chocolate and butter, and flour, hazelnut meal and salt. Then set aside. (electric or by hand) until they form stiff peaks, gradually adding the remaining ¼C of sugar. Fold the egg whites into the rest of the mixture and pour into cake tin and bake in oven for 40-45 minutes, or until a cake skewer can be inserted into the centre of the cake and come out clean. on a wire rack until completely cool, then remove from pan and serve.

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tray, place red pepper cut in half with skin facing upwards, nuts, garlic, and tomatoes. Remove the nuts after a couple of minutes and set aside.

they are soft, and pepper when the skin has blistered (about 20-25 minutes) and set aside to cool. Peel the vegetables, and then put into a blender with the nuts and cayenne pepper and blend, drizzling in the oil and vinegar as you blend. Add salt and pepper to taste. vegetables, or bread.

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Using Walnuts

Carrot Cake recipe

Walnuts can be used in both sweet and savoury dishes. Walnuts can sometimes be bitter. This may be an advantage if being used for a savoury purpose but when used for a sweet; the bitterness may be reduced before using, by pouring boiling water over the walnuts in a bowl or saucepan, and allowing them to stand for half an hour. Drain the water off and either use in whatever you are cooking; or dry and then use them.

2 cups self-raising flour

Walnuts are great in salads. Traditionally walnuts are used in Waldorf salads (apples, celery, mayonnaise and walnuts). They are also delicious in lentil salads, and with rocket, feta, figs and balsamic vinegar. They can be a delicious addition to many other salad creations.

1tsp mixed spice 1tsp cinnamon 1cup brown sugar 2 cup grated carrot 1 cup chopped walnuts (+ a few extra to decorate) 1 cup vegetable oil 3 eggs Cream Cheese Icing (optional) ■■ Preheat oven to 180°C

Like most nuts, walnuts are delicious in muesli or granola, or even just sprinkled on top of a fruit salad, or yoghurt.

■■ Mix together all ingredients (lightly

In baking, walnuts go great with cinnamon, so you might find them in apple crumble toppings, apple muffins, and so on. Walnuts are also delicious in carrot cakes and banana bread.

■■ Grease a 19cm cake tin and line

Another traditional use for walnuts is in Baklava – a Middle Eastern sweet treat where nuts and sugar syrup or honey is layered with filo pastry. In savoury dishes, walnuts can be used as a topping for stir fried or sautéed vegetables. Walnuts are also a popular choice in stuffing, particularly for turkey. Walnuts can also be eaten as a snack, for example in a trail mix, roasted, or covered in salted caramel. PAGE 67

beating eggs before adding them to mix). with baking paper. Pour cake mix into cake tin and bake for 1 hour and 15 minutes, or until a cake skewer can be inserted into the middle and come out clean.

■■ Leave to sit in tin for 5-10 minutes

then turn out onto wire rack to cool. When cool, you can top with cream cheese icing and decorate with walnuts, sprinkle with icing sugar, or leave plain.

■■ Best served with whipped cream,

yoghurt, or ice cream.

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Baklava 250g melted butter

■■ When baklava is ready, remove it

from the oven and pour of sugar syrup. Leave it to cool uncovered, then serve.

5C chopped walnuts 1tsp cinnamon 1 packet filo pastry 1cup caster sugar 1cup water 6tbsp honey 1tbsp lemon juice 1tbsp lemon rind, finely grated ■■ Preheat oven to 180°C. ■■ Mix the nuts with the cinnamon and

set aside.

■■ Grease a 20x30cm baking dish.

Unroll filo pastry and cut the stack to fit into the dish.

■■ Place two sheets of filo on the

bottom of the dish and brush with melted butter. Sprinkle 2-3 Tbsps. of nuts and then top with another two sheets of filo. Continue to layer butter, nuts and filo until you have done about 6 layers (or have used up the nut mixture). Cut into squares and bake for 45-50minutes, until the pastry is golden.

■■ While baklava is baking, boil sugar

and water until sugar dissolves. Add honey, lemon juice, and lemon rind. Simmer for 15 minutes, then set aside and allow to cool.

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Using Pecans The first thing that usually comes to mind when thinking of cooking with pecans is pecan pie! Pecan pie is a caramel type pie in a shortcrust pastry topped with pecans (and served with whipped cream etc.). As well as being used on top of pies, pecans are also great in pie crusts. Whilst we are on the topic of pies, pecans also go great with sweet pumpkin, such as sweet pumpkin pie, pumpkin muffins and pumpkin loaf. Like walnuts, pecans can be used in salads, and with sautéed or stir fried vegetables, in stuffing, in muesli and granolas, and eaten as a sweet or savoury snack.

Pecan Pie 2 eggs 1 cup of brown sugar 1 tablespoon of flour 4 tablespoons of milk 4 tablespoons of melted butter 250 gm of Pecan pieces (chopped, but not too finely) ■■ First: Beat eggs then add sugar,

milk, flour and butter; until you have an even consistency.

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■■ Next, stir in the pecans and pour the

mix into a pastry shell.

■■ Finally bake at 220 degrees Celsius

for 10 minutes; then lower heat to 180 degrees Celsius and bake for a further 35 minutes.

Pumpkin Pecan Muffins ½ cup butter, softened 1 cup sugar 2 eggs 1 cup mashed pumpkin 2 cup self-raising flour Pinch salt 1tsp cinnamon ¼ tsp nutmeg 1 cup milk ½ cup chopped pecans

Using Cashews Cashews are a soft, oily nut that makes delicious, rich nut butter. Cashews also go great in a basil, or herb pesto, giving it a rich creamy taste. Cashews are frequently used in raw and vegan cooking to create a “dairy” experience, such as in the filling of raw cheesecakes, and made into nut cheeses to use on top of pizza and similar. Cashews make a great snack, raw, roasted, honey roasted or salted. They are also great in a trail mix, in muesli bar slices, and in chocolate. Cashews make an appearance in Thai dishes, such as in meat and vegetable stir fries. They are also frequently used in Indian cuisine, either whole, or ground and used as a base for curry sauces. Cashews are also used as a thickener in water based soups and stews.

Korma recipe

■■ Heat oven to 200°C

¼ cup cashew halves

■■ Cream the butter and sugar then

3tbsp boiling water

add the eggs, continuing to beat. Add the pumpkin and beat well. Mix the flour, salt, and spices into the batter, alternating with the milk. Fold in the pecans.

■■ Spoon mixture into muffin tin and

cook in the oven for 20 - 25 minutes, or until golden.

3 cloves garlic A small knob of fresh ginger (about 2cm), chopped 3tbsp vegetable oil 1 onion, peeled and finely chopped 1tsp ground coriander

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1tsp garam masala

Salted Caramel Cashews

1tsp ground cumin

50g Butter

1tsp ground turmeric

¼ cup Water

1tsp chilli powder

¾ cup sugar

3 chicken breasts, chopped into 2cm cubes

½ tsp salt

2-3tbsp tomato paste 1 cup (250ml) chicken stock ½ cup (125ml) cream ½ cup (125ml) natural yoghurt ■■ Put the cashews in a bowl with the

boiling water and set aside.

■■ Blend garlic and ginger in a food

processor, or if you don’t have one, finely dice them.

■■ Heat up the oil and lightly sauté

onions until soft. Add in the garlic and ginger and spices and heat whilst stirring until fragrant (30-60 seconds).

■■ Stir in the chicken pieces until lightly

browned, and then add in tomato paste and chicken stock. Simmer for 15-20mins, stirring occasionally.

■■ While the chicken is simmering, in

a food processor blend together the cashews and water, cream and yoghurt. Stir into the chicken and allow to simmer for another 15 – 20mins.

■■ Serve with rice.

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2 cup cashews ■■ Put all ingredients except cashews

in a saucepan and bring to the boil. Boil for 1 minute then add in the nuts. Coat completely, and then turn the nuts onto a tray lined with baking paper.

■■ Spread the nuts out so they don’t

all stick together. The caramel will harden as it cools. You can play around with adding more or less salt, according to your taste.

Raw cashew cheesecake Crust ingredients 1 ½ cups macadamia nuts (pre-soaked in water for 4 hours if possible then rinsed) ½ cup dates 1 pinch sea salt In a food processor blend together all ingredients until it reaches a sticky but crumbly consistency. Press into your cheesecake tin. Filling 3 cups cashews (pre-soaked in water for 4 hours if possible then rinsed)

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¾ cup lemon juice ¾ cup agave or honey ¾ cup coconut oil 1 tbsp vanilla extract ¼ cup of water to help blend – only use as necessary

Macadamia are great in pie crusts for sweet pies, and used in tarts and icecream. They also make great nut butters that can be used in baking or as a spread. In savoury dishes, macadamias are nice sprinkled on salads, mixed with cooked vegetables, and used as savoury crust coatings and stuffing for meat.

■■ Put all ingredients into a food

processor and blend thoroughly, using water to facilitate blending as required.

■■ When smooth, pour into crust and

place in a freezer. Keep in the freezer until firm (about 2 hours), then allow to defrost in the fridge or on countertop before serving.

■■ You may like to top with berries or

other fruit to serve.

Using Macadamias

Macadamia oil & Spread

Macadamia Zucchini:

Like cashews, macadamias have a high fat content, making for a decadent treat. Macadamias are used whole, crushed, or ground, and the oil extracted from macadamias is also popular.

6 medium sized black zucchini – grated

Like many nuts, macadamias are delicious coated in chocolate. As a snack, people also commonly eat them raw, salted, roasted, and honey roasted.

Salt and freshly ground black pepper.

Macadamias are also often featured whole in baking, such as in white chocolate and macadamia cookies, in shortbread, in muffins, or in slices (think caramel macadamia slice).

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6 tablespoons butter, 1/2 cup macadamia nuts - halved brown nuts in moderate oven 1800C till golden

When ready to serve meal, melt butter in a large frying pan and simply toss in zucchini. As soon as they are steaming, stir through the macadamia nuts and serve with a pinch of salt and a good grinding of fresh black pepper. Do not grate zucchini too early as they contain an incredible amount of water. Serves 6.

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Macadamia Green Salad 200 gm of lettuce or other salad greens such as spinach, rocket, and beetroot leaves. 1 cup of chopped Macadamia pieces (approx. 2 to 5cm diameter).

Peanuts can be used whole, crushed, or ground. In baking, they may appear whole in things like chocolate cookies, or muesli bars. Peanut paste might also be used in baking to give a “nutty” taste. And while we’re talking about nutty paste, let’s not go past one of peanut’s most popular uses – peanut butter!

30 ml or more of macadamia oil. Toss all of the ingredients together, and serve.

White Chocolate Macadamia Cookies Preheat oven to 175°C. In a large bowl cream together 125g butter, ¾ cup brown sugar. Add 1 egg and 1tsp vanilla essence and continue to beat until thoroughly combined. Gently mix in 2 cups of self-raising flour until just mixed and then add 1C coarsely chopped macadamias and 1C coarsely chopped white chocolate. Place spoonsful of dough onto a prepared baking tray and press down on them a little with a fork to flatten. Cook for approximately 15 minutes until golden brown.

Using Peanuts Like many other nuts, peanuts are versatile and can be used both as savoury and as sweet. Peanuts have a stronger flavour than more mild nuts, such as cashews and macadamias, so can add real interest to dishes.

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Peanut Butter

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Peanuts can be added to smoothies, and used crushed as toppings to ice cream sundaes, choc top ice cream cones, chocolate mousse, yoghurt, and so on. Peanuts can also be used whole in confectionary such as rocky road, and in chocolate (think M&M’s, peanut clusters, peanut slab). Peanuts are commonly eaten as snacks, raw from the shell, boiled, roasted, salted, honey roasted, or, in Asian snacks, covered in a crunchy outer shell. Peanuts are frequently used in Asian cuisine, such as in satay sauce in Indonesian and Thai cooking. You will often find crushed peanuts in stir fries, in spring rolls, sprinkled on dishes such as Pad Thai, on top of salads, and in curries (such as Thai massaman curry). The use of peanut oil is another popular way of imparting the “nutty” taste in Asian cooking.

Peanut Sauce This is a traditional Indonesian dish; eaten with rice, vegetables and some meats. 20ml tablespoon peanut oil 0.5 kg onions 1 clove garlic 175 gm peanut butter 1 teaspoon ginger powder 1 teaspoon cumin powder

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40ml coconut cream Chilli powder and salt First: heat oil in a frypan. Then add onions finely chopped along with crushed garlic and ginger powder. Stir, then after a couple of minutes, turn heat to low and add peanut butter and coconut cream. Next: simmer, stir periodically, do not allow it to burn, add water if and when necessary. Once it has thickened and become smooth, add other ingredients in small quantities, tasting the sauce; until you get the taste as you wish.

Peanut Butter Smoothie Blend together 1-2 frozen bananas, 2Tbsp peanut butter, and 1C of milk (or a milk alternative). You may also like to add honey, maple syrup, vanilla essence, cinnamon, cacao/cocoa powder, a protein powder, or super food powders such as Maca powder.

Muesli-Bar Slice In a saucepan heat up 1C peanut butter and 1C honey on a low-med heat. Stir as it heats up. Bring to the boil, and simmer for about 5 mins – continuing to stir. Mix in 4C oats (or a blend of oats and cornflakes, puffed rice, or similar), and 2C of your choice of nuts, seeds, coconut and dried fruit. Mix thoroughly so the dry ingredients are evenly coated with the wet ingredients.

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Press into a tin firmly so the muesli slice is 1-2cm thick. Carefully cut into squares with a sharp knife and then put in the fridge to cool.

Making Wattle Seed Essence 2 to 3 tablespoons of ground wattle seed is added to 1 cup of water and brought to the boil for 6 minutes. Strain and leave to cool down. This essence can be kept in a refrigerator for 2 weeks or longer in the freezer. The essence can then be used as a base for flavouring various foods or beverages. For example: 1 part wattle seed essence to 3 or 4 parts water, with sugar (to taste) produces a wattle seed coffee. The flavour can be intense, so often only a small quantity of paste is needed to flavour something.

HERE ARE SOME MORE NUTTY IDEAS Don’t be afraid to experiment and innovate when using nuts in recipes. There are lots of ideas to be found in recipe books, but the types of nuts you use can be varied, and to some degree, the quantity you use can also be varied. Virtually any type of tossed salad, casserole or stir fry can have nuts added. If you are cooking vegetables or meat and wish to add nuts; consider holding PAGE 74

off adding the nuts until the cooking is almost finished. This allows the nuts to heat up, but not overcook. They can retain a crunch; and when combined with tender meat or vegetables, a little crunch can provide a textural contrast that may work extremely well. Certain nuts compliment certain other flavours. Coconut and Pineapple are often used together to create tropical flavours, peanuts for Indonesian and some other Asian dishes, chocolate and hazelnut are frequently paired together to create decadent sweets.

Nut Butters/Pastes Nut butter is commonly as a spread for toast or sandwiches. The nut butter can also be used to add flavour and texture to food, such as in baking or in sauces.

Nut Cookies and Cakes Nuts can add delicious taste and texture to baking. Nuts can be used either in biscuit or cake mixes before cooking, as decoration after cooking (e.g. pressing almonds into the icing on top of a cake) or nut meal can be used as a substitute for flour in the baking process. Nut meal is made by grinding dried nuts into a powder. It is not going to produce as light a flour as grass grains like wheat, corn, rye or rice; but nevertheless it can still be used for baking in the same way that these grains are used. If you use 100% nut meal in baking, the cake or biscuit is likely to be far more moist and heavy than if you had used wheat flour for the same thing. You can often achieve a better result by using a combination of nut meal and grain flour.

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Many people today are allergic to wheat and gluten. The use of nut meal together with grains like spelt, corn or rice, can provide a good option in such situations.

Frozen Treats

500g chestnut puree mixed with a little vanilla essence and sugar

Nuts can be used to add interest to frozen treats. Nuts can be used whole within the frozen treat, the paste can be used as part of the frozen treat, or nuts can be used sprinkled on top, or pressed into the outside. Some examples include macadamia or roast almond ice cream, chopped peanuts sprinkled on top of ice cream or frozen yoghurt. Another popular nut that is being used in ice cream is coconuts. More and more options are being created for dairy free ice cream, and coconut milk ice cream is one such option. Coconut can also be used in dairy ice cream.

1 to 2 tablespoons rum to form a firm paste.

Macadamia Ice Cream:

Example: If a biscuit recipe suggests 3 cups of wheat flour; try substituting this with 1 cup of almond meal and 2 cups of spelt flour.

Chestnut Crescents Recipe Filling:

Pastry:

■■ 3 egg yolks

280g butter; 590g plain flour;

■■ ¾ cup caster sugar

1 tablespoon milk; 2 egg yolks;

■■ 2 and ½ cups milk - heated

4 tablespoons sugar; 20g compressed yeast dissolved in 1 cup sour cream.

■■ 1 teaspoon vanilla

Dissolve butter with fingertips into flour and salt; dissolve sugar and yeast in sour cream, beat egg yolks with milk and pour into flour with yeast mixture. Knead lightly; form 9 balls of pastry. Let pastry rest overnight covered. In morning roll out each ball flat, cut into eight pieces then fill each piece with prepared chestnut filling. Roll into crescent shape and bake in moderate oven. Sprinkle with vanilla sugar while still hot.

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■■ 2 cups thickened cream - whipped ■■ ¼ cup rum ■■ ½ cup macadamia nuts - chopped.

In the top of a double boiler - over gentle simmering heat - whisk the egg yolks with the sugar till light and fluffy. Whisk in the hot milk gradually, and continue stirring until the mixture thickens and coats the back of a spoon. Remove from the heat, strain and cool. Fold through the vanilla and whipped cream.

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Place in an ice cream container and freeze for a move ice cream from the freezer and beat till fluffy and almost double in bulk. Fold through the rum and chopped macadamia nuts and freeze till ice cream is firm. Serve with seasonal fruit, e.g. thinly sliced Chinese gooseberries, or fresh raspberries.

Stir Fry Cashews, water chestnuts and peanuts have often been used in oriental stir fry recipes. Many other nuts are equally useful. The nuts can be used whole throughout the stir-fry, or crushed and sprinkled on top.

Salads Nuts add a delicious burst of flavour and texture to salads, and also bring additional nutrition. Nuts may be used whole (raw or roasted) or crushed. Nut oils are also popular for salad dressings. A simple nut salad might involve chopped lettuce (or greens), diced cucumber and tomatoes, mixed with roasted cashews and dressed with either a honey infused vinegar or a balsamic vinegar. Salads can also be more complex, spicy, tangy, sweet, or whatever flavour you desire. Ideas: ■■ Add grated coconut and coarsely

ground peanuts to a salad, dressed with a mixture of lemon juice and sugar.

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■■ Add roasted pine nuts to virtually any

salad to enhance the taste.

■■ Use sunflower or pumpkin seeds

roasted in Tamari or Soy Sauce to impart a salty crunch to a salad.

Stuffing and Coatings Poultry is often filled with a stuffing made from breadcrumbs and herbs. If you are sensitive to wheat or gluten; or are just looking for a twist on traditional stuffing; think about substituting nut meal for the breadcrumbs and making a stuffing from perhaps almond meal, egg and herbs. Nuts are also popular in creating crusts for meats, such as a hazelnut or macadamia herb crusted fish or chicken.

Glazed Nuts Glazed nuts are nuts that have been covered by a sweet coating, usually sugar, sometimes honey or some other coating. The syrup needs to be something that can be made into a warm liquid (in order that it can be applied to the nuts) but also that will harden when it cools down, so that it adheres to the nuts, and the nuts can be handled. ■■ To make sugar syrup, mix equal

volumes of sugar and water, heating and mixing to dissolve the sugar.

■■ Once the sugar is dissolved, the nuts

can be placed into the sugary syrup and allowed to stand for two to four hours. Over this time, the sugar will be absorbed into the surface layer of the nuts.

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■■ Drain off the excess syrup. ■■ After this, heat a frypan and adding

1 tablespoon of cooking oil per 250 gm of nuts; cook the nuts in the oil for no more than 4 minutes. Too much cooking will burn the sugar, but a little less cooking will turn sugar into toffee.

Spices or other flavourings can be added when cooking in the frypan, if desired. Pepper is sometimes added to walnuts. Cinnamon and other spices may occasionally be added to some nuts.

Home-made Muesli recipe There are many different variations of making muesli. Here is a basic recipe for toasted muesli. You can modify it to suit your taste. ■■ Heat the oven to 120°C ■■ In a large dish, place 7 cups of oats

(or similar). In a separate small bowl, mix together ½ cup of coconut oil (or similar), 1/3 cup of honey (or similar), and 3tsp cinnamon (optional). Pour the oil and honey mix over the oats and thoroughly stir through.

Muesli

■■ Place in the oven, stirring every 10

Muesli is made from a mixture of grains (often oats) together with nuts and dried fruit pieces. The proportions of each component and the types of grains fruits and nuts used can vary according to taste. Generally a higher proportion of grain will create “lighter” muesli, and higher proportions of fruit and nuts can create a heavier mix.

■■ Serve with your choice of milk, fruit

Typical well-balanced muesli might contain 60 to 70% oats or another cereal (toasted or untoasted) by volume. The remainder of the mix could contain up to perhaps 25% nuts (whole nuts or pieces), and the remainder of the mix could be dried fruit (e.g. sultanas, goji berries, dried pawpaw or pineapple, dried apple) Muesli is normally served in a bowl with a liquid poured over it. Cow’s milk is most commonly used; but lots of other options exist, including hot water, soy milk, almond milk, vegetable juices or fruit juice. PAGE 77

minutes or so, ensuring an even toasting of the oats. When the oats are golden brown, pull it out of the oven, and mix in your choice of nuts, shredded coconut, dried fruit and seeds. You may like to pop it back in the oven for another 5 minutes or so or just leave it to cool. and/or yoghurt.

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APPENDIX Distance learning and online courses The authors of this book have developed a large variety of distance learning courses, online, on CD or by correspondence, which are available through various colleges that are part of the ACS Global Partners Network. There are over 600 different courses offered by ACS Affiliates, through colleges across seven different countries. Short courses are generally 100 hours in duration. A range of qualifications such as certificates and diplomas are also available. These courses cover a wide range of disciplines, including Business, Management, Marketing, I.T., Biological Sciences, Health, Fitness, Nutrition, Psychology, Counseling, Writing, Photography, Hospitality, Tourism, Education, Construction, Horticulture, Agriculture, Environmental Management and more. See www.acs.edu.au/about-us/affiliates.aspx

Courses that may particularly helpful to readers of this book include: ■■ Growing Nuts

■■ Horticultural Management

■■ Warm Climate Nuts

■■ Horticultural Marketing

■■ Outdoor Crop Production

■■ Permaculture

■■ Fruit Production

■■ Self Sufficiency

■■ Vegetable Production

■■ Certificate in Horticulture

■■ Herb Production

■■ Diploma in Horticulture

■■ Soil Management

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E Books by John Mason and ACS Staff include: Starting a Business

Aerobic Fitness 2nd edition

Project Management

Aquafitness 2nd edition

Business Operations

Nutritional Therapy

Psychology Dictionary

Human Nutrition

Counselling Handbook

Animal Health

How Children Think

Horse Care

Farm Management 2nd edition

Dogs –Caring for Dogs

Profitable Farming 2nd edition

Marine Animals

Working in Horticulture

Professional Writing

Commercial Hydroponics 3rd edition

English Grammar

Trees and Shrubs for Warm Places

Getting Work in a Modern World

Organic Gardening

What to Plant Where

Climbing Plants

How to be a Life Coach

Growing Conifers 2nd edition

Fruit, Vegetables and Herbs

Roses

Psychological Profiling

Herbs

Getting Work in Horticulture

Trees and Shrubs

Scented Plants

What to Plant Where

Modern Marketing

Fruit, Vegetables and Herbs

Poultry

Growing Tropical Plants 2nd edition

Growing Ferns

The Environment of Play 2nd edition

Human Biology Dictionary

Garden Design Part I

Leadership

Garden Design Part II

Palms

Tropical Landscaping

Creative Writing

Starting a Garden or Landscape Business 2nd edition

Weeds

Starting a Nursery or Herb Farm 2nd edition

Food Preserving

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Medical Terminology

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Printed books by John Mason John Mason has been writing books since the 1970’s and has over 40 titles published, some as printed books, others as ebooks. Some (print) titles are out of print, and now only available as second hand books or e books. If you have difficulty finding any of Mr Mason’s titles, you can enquire by email to [email protected] Print Books by John Mason include: Fun and Fitness Trails, Victorian Dept. of Sport and Recreation, 1978 Starting a Nursery or Herb Farm, Night Owl, 1983 (revised 1994) The Environment of Play, Leisure Press, New York, 1982 Herb Review, self published, 1987 Landscaping with Herbs, self published, 1988 The Native Plant Expert, self published, 1989 Let’s Grow Gardens, self published, 1990 Growing Ferns, Kangaroo Press, 1990 Commercial Hydroponics, Kangaroo Press, 1990, 2007 Growing Vegetables, Kangaroo Press, 1991 Growing Herbs, Kangaroo Press, 1993 Nursery Management, Kangaroo Press, April 1994 Tropical Gardening, Bay Books, October 1994 Yates Guide to Pests & Diseases, Angus & Robertson, February 1995 Growing Pelargoniums & Geraniums Hyland House 1996 Farm Management Kangaroo Press 1996 Growing Australian Natives Kangaroo Press 1997 Starting a Nursery or Herb Farm (Revised ed) Kangaroo Press 1997 Sustainable Farming Simon & Schuster (Kangaroo Press) Spring 1997 Growing Tropical Plants Simon & Schuster (Kangaroo Press) 1997 Starting a Landscape or Garden Business Kangaroo Press 1998 Aqua Fitness Kangaroo Press 1999 Growing Conifers Kangaroo Press 1999 Profitable Farming Kangaroo Press 1999 A Beginners Guide to Orchids Hyland House Aerobic Fitness Kangaroo Press Trees & Shrubs for Small Places Kangaroo/Simon & Schuster 2000 Propagating from Cuttings Kangaroo/Simon & Schuster 2002 Growing and Using Vegetables and Herbs Kangaroo/Simon & Schuster 2007

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Useful contacts ACS global partners To see the latest list of ACS affiliates, please visit: www.acs.edu.au/about-us/affiliates.aspx

Social media Stay in touch with the authors through our various social media: FACEBOOK AUSTRALIA CLICK HERE 〉〉 FACEBOOK UK CLICK HERE 〉〉 TWITTER CLICK HERE 〉〉 LINKED IN CLICK HERE 〉〉

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