Grow Eco-gardening: Essential Know-how and Expert Advice for Gardening Success [1 ed.] 9780744026849, 0241458617

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Grow Grow Grow Eco-Gardening

Essential know-how and expert advice for gardening success

CONTENTS CREATING AN ECO-GARDEN PLANT FOR A BETTER WORLD

006

PLANNING A VEGETABLE PATCH

056

FEEDING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

108

058

PROVIDING FOOD FOR BIRDS

110

008

GROWING YOUR OWN FRUIT

MAKING A SUSTAINABLE GARDEN

010

MAKING AN ECO-FRIENDLY LAWN

060

SOWING A MEADOW

112

DESIGNING FOR WILDLIFE

012

FEEDING PLANTS

062

INCREASING YOUR YARD’S HABITATS

114

KEEPING WEEDS UNDER CONTROL

064

PROVIDING WATER FOR WILDLIFE

116

HELPING TO HEAL THE PLANET

014

KEEPING PESTS AT BAY

066

CREATING A POND ECOSYSTEM

118

HOW TREES AFFECT THE CLIMATE

016

PEST DEFENSE

068

MAKING A HAVEN FOR BIRDS

120

CHOOSING AND PLANTING A TREE

018

DEALING WITH DISEASES

070

HOMES FOR TINY CREATURES

122

MAKING A MINI-WOODLAND

020

PEST- AND DISEASE-RESISTANT PLANTS 072

MAKING INSECT HOTELS

124

GREENING HARD SURFACES

022

PLANTS FOR POLLINATORS

126

CHOOSING PLANTS TO TRAP POLLUTION

024

PLANTS FOR BIRDS AND OTHER WILDLIFE

134

THE BENEFITS OF PONDS

026

A WILDLIFE POND

028

INDEX

140

HOW PLANTS PREVENT FLOODING

030

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES

143

PLANTING FLOOD DEFENSES

032

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

144

GREAT TREES FOR SMALLER YARDS

034

ECO-GARDENING METHODS

038

RIGHT PLANT, RIGHT PLACE

040

NEW PLANTS FROM OLD: SAVING SEEDS

042

EASY PROPAGATION METHODS

044

BUYING NEW PLANTS

046

PREPARING TO PLANT

048

CHOOSING POTTING MIXES

050

MAKING YOUR OWN COMPOST

052

GROWING YOUR OWN VEGETABLES

054

REDUCE, REUSE, AND RECYCLE

078

REDUCING AND REUSING PLASTICS

080

MAKING YOUR OWN SEED POTS

082

ECO-FRIENDLY LANDSCAPE MATERIALS

084

CHOOSING AND MAKING FURNITURE

086

RECYCLED PLANTERS

088

RAISED BEDS FROM RECLAIMED TIMBER

090

CHOOSING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

092

MAKING ECO-FRIENDLY EQUIPMENT

094

REDUCING YOUR GARDEN’S FUEL CONSUMPTION

096

REDUCING WATER USE

098

COLLECTING AND REUSING WATER

100

MAKING A HOME FOR WILDLIFE

102

FEEDING WILDLIFE

104

FOOD FOR BEES AND OTHER POLLINATORS

106

Choosing plants such as alliums that attract bees and butterflies will help boost the numbers of these important pollinating insects, which are threatened by loss of habitat and climate change.

CREATING AN ECO-GARDEN Making a space that is kind to the planet and to wildlife is easy when you know how. Planting it with trees, shrubs, flowers, and food crops will help mitigate the effects of climate change, capture air pollutants, and create habitats for a vast number of creatures. Organic growing methods and a water source also keep wildlife thriving, while selecting furniture and equipment made from sustainable materials will help lower your carbon footprint.

PLANT FOR A BETTER WORLD While we feel instinctively that our gardens make us happier and healthier, recent scientific studies have proved that they offer these benefits and many others, too. As well as boosting our mental and physical well-being, gardening can help increase biodiversity by providing a home for a wide range of plants

and wildlife. Filling our plots with trees, shrubs, and other plants also improves air quality and reduces pollution by mopping up the greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. The good news is that just small changes to our gardens can help make the planet a better place for everyone.

DIVERSITY MATTERS The hundreds of thousands of plant species in our world each represent a tiny microcosm of life, nurturing many types of insects, birds, and other animals, including humans. As you would expect, trees and shrubs support more wildlife than smaller species, but all have a role to play. To maximize your contribution to the welfare of the creatures in your vicinity, include a broad spectrum to help nesting birds, amphibians, bees, and other pollinators, along with the tiny creatures that nourish the soil beneath the surface. The distribution of wild plant species is also contracting due to urbanization, so growing a wide variety of native plants can help safeguard their future, too. Planting a broad range of species will sustain many forms of wildlife. Deciduous trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide, which contributes to climate change.

CLEANING THE AIR Environmental organizations worldwide are campaigning for the planting of more woodlands and forests to help restore wildlife habitats and mitigate the effects of climate change by absorbing the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2). If each of us were to plant just one tree in our yard, this would make a huge

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contribution to the fight against global warming. In fact, it may be more effective than the planting of a dense forest, which current research shows may not be as useful in reducing temperatures as smaller deciduous woodlands, particularly in cool and temperate regions. The benefits increase if we add shrubs and flowering plants, which in some cases can trap other air-borne pollutants, too.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT Making space for fruit and vegetables to help feed your household will lower your carbon footprint by reducing food miles. Growing your own food is fun, and while producing something to eat year-round may be too ambitious in a small space, you can still make a valuable contribution with a few pots of lettuces and strawberries or some cherry tomatoes in a hanging basket.

There are plant species suited to nearly every spot, even areas that are heavily shaded by foliage or man-made structures.

FILLING THE GAPS You do not need a large space to accommodate a wide diversity of plants; pack them into every nook and cranny and you will be surprised by the number of wildlife visitors a small space can support. Let a patch of lawn grow to form a matrix of grasses and wild flowers that support a range of insect life. Plant

HARDY VS TENDER PLANTS The best way to ensure that your plants thrive is to choose those that like your site, soil, and local climate. This will result in healthy plants that are more resilient to attacks from pests and diseases and do not need chemical fertilizers to boost their performance. The hardiness of a plant is a measure of the lowest temperatures it will tolerate, and this is an important point to consider when selecting plants that will be outside all year. The different levels of hardiness are included in the plant profiles in this book.

FULLY HARDY This term is used to describe plants that will cope with temperatures below 5°F (-15°C).

roofs with tiny succulents and walls with ivy and other climbers that will insulate your home, reducing fuel costs as well as attracting wildlife. Fill the gaps between paving stones with plants rather than mortar and watch the insects move in, and use shade-lovers under benches or seats. As the old adage goes, nature abhors a vacuum, so squeeze in some life-supporting plants wherever you can.

Cherry tomatoes in a basket make a beautiful edible feature.

HARDY Some plants are not fully hardy, but are able to survive temperatures that fall below freezing; where this is the case, the lowest temperatures are stated, allowing you to check that your average winters will not be too cold for the particular species.

HALF-HARDY You may find this term used to describe some annuals and plants from warm areas. These can survive low temperatures and, in many cases, once mature they will tolerate 41°F (5°C) or lower, but they will not cope with frost. TENDER This refers to tropical plants and those that do not thrive or will die in temperatures lower than 50–55°F (10–13°C).

Rudbeckia laciniata is a robust hardy plant that enjoys moist soil and sun.

MAKING A SUSTAINABLE GARDEN The mantra for any eco-gardener is to reuse and recycle goods and materials wherever possible rather than buying them new. There are many imaginative ways in which to do this, from reusing old food containers for seedlings and plants to decorating your outdoor space with secondhand furniture or

items you have made yourself. Reducing our reliance on plastic can be more challenging, but new biodegradable seed trays and plant pots are making it easier. Just pause before acquiring anything brand-new and consider other ways of making your garden beautiful and more sustainable.

SECOND CHANCES When sourcing suitable containers and trays for your plants and seedlings, take a look in your kitchen cupboards for inspiration. Food cans, old cookie tins, and plastic containers about to go into the recycling bin can all be repurposed for use in the garden. Giving these items a second life prevents them from ending up in a landfill or being burned in polluting incinerators—sadly, more than 75 percent of plastics that could be recycled are currently disposed of in this way. Also consider purchasing secondhand rather than new tools and furniture—wooden and metal pieces are good choices, and even if you have no proof that they were made from sustainable materials, reusing them prevents waste and reduces landfill.

A vintage pan can be repurposed to make a characterful plant container.

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Reused tables and chairs that are not a matching set look perfectly at home in an informal wildflower meadow.

BE WISE WITH WATER Capturing and reusing rainwater is a must for all eco-gardeners. It not only reduces the demand for tap water—which is treated with disinfectants and other chemicals and comes with a cost to the environment—but it is also better for plants and pond life. Installing a rain barrel is the best way to capture the rain that pours off the roofs of your house, sheds, and other outdoor buildings; you will find information on installing these eco-friendly vessels and other ways of saving water on pp.98–101.

Biodegradable pots made from magazines and newspapers are perfect for vegetable seedlings and will quickly decompose in the soil.

REDUCING THE USE OF NONBIODEGRADABLES The gardening industry teems with products made from plastics and other nonbiodegradable materials. Reusing plastic is more environmentally friendly than throwing it away and, depending on the type (see p.80), it may also be the only way of preventing it going to a

landfill or being burned. When buying new, look for products made from biodegradable materials such as wood, bamboo, wool, and seed husks. Many metals used outdoors do not biodegrade easily but they can be recycled an infinite number of times. Purchasing high-quality goods also reduces landfill because they do not need to be replaced frequently; spades, forks, and other tools can last a lifetime, or longer.

RECYCLING AND UPCYCLING Reclaimed timber, bricks, and other building materials can be reused to make decking, walls, fences, and pergolas, and they will lend an aged patina to these features that blends beautifully into a garden setting. Reclamation and salvage companies Recycled timber is used here to create a rustic path between plantings.

Rain barrels to store rainfall do not take up much space in the garden.

offer a wide selection of materials and you can also ask local craftspeople to fashion furniture and statuary from them to suit your needs. You may find suitable materials on local freecycle websites, too—but check that anything wooden you propose to purchase has not been treated with creosote or chromated copper arsenate (CCA), which are harmful to wildlife and the environment, and to our health, too. In Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle (see pp.80–91), you will find more ways to give new life to old materials in your garden.

DESIGNING FOR WILDLIFE Wildlife of all kinds is under threat from climate change, loss of habitat, and the use of pesticides, but we can support birds, insects, amphibians, and small mammals if we design our spaces with them in mind. Growing pollen- and nectar-rich flowers and fruiting trees and shrubs provides these creatures with food, while plants that offer hibernation and roosting sites protect them from predators and harsh weather.

HOMES FOR INSECTS Recent scientific studies show a worrying decline in insect populations worldwide. Apart from the collapse in the numbers of bees, there are many species on the critical or endangered list, with others becoming extinct. More than 95 percent of all animals are insects, and we depend

on them to pollinate our food crops, provide food for birds and other small animals, and recycle the dead plants and wildlife in the soil, thereby releasing the nutrients that plants need to grow. It is vital that we all do our part to make good homes for these creatures in our yards by planting pollen and nectar-rich flowers. Some insects also feed and breed on

Densely packed plants make good habitats for wildlife.

particular stems and leaves, so to produce an ideal habitat include a collection of trees, shrubs, and perennials, and leave areas aside for a few weeds to take root. For more advice on making insects welcome in your yard, see pp.122–133. Plants that attract pollinators will help boost their declining populations.

WATER WORLDS One of the best ways to attract all sorts of wildlife is to include a water feature. Installing a pond will lure a wide range of species, from the tiniest beetles to bats and birds. Water also offers a home for plants and wildlife species that are adapted to live in this aquatic

environment. While you will need to add the plants, frogs, toads, and other amphibians will appear as if by magic when you provide water, as will the aquatic insect life. Where space is tight, you can still offer this precious resource with a bird bath or shallow dish of water. Try the ideas on pp.28–29 and pp.116–119 for spaces large and small.

The catkins of silver birch are food for insects such as shield bugs.

LIVING THE HIGH LIFE

A pond with a bog garden on its banks provides homes and food for amphibians and aquatic insects.

WILD ABOUT NATURE Introducing benefits for wildlife often means doing less in the garden. Nothing could be easier than leaving a pile of fall leaves and tree and shrub prunings in a quiet corner behind a shed, which will provide the perfect home for many hibernating creatures and invertebrates that feast on decaying wood. A patch of weeds such as nettles can draw in breeding butterflies and moths, and leaving fallen fruits on the ground will provide a valuable food source for them in late summer and fall. Refraining

from using pesticides and herbicides will make your garden richer, too, not only by increasing insect life but also potentially reducing air pollution. Scientists have found that particles from pesticides used in Asia were blown to the west coast of the US in less than a week, and while gardeners may be using them on a much smaller scale, the cumulative effect could be just as widespread and harmful.

Piles of prunings offer a home for invertebrates and hibernating amphibians.

There are few plants that help wildlife as much as trees. Providing nectar for pollinators in spring when they bloom, nesting sites later in the season when birds are looking for safe places, and fruit and leaves for a variety of tiny creatures and birds to eat, they are hard to beat. Large shrubs and hedges provide similar benefits and when planted together, they create a fantastic range of habitats. You will find advice on planting trees on pp.18–19 and a selection to choose from for smaller spaces on pp.34–37.

Dense planting of varied species, from trees to ground-covering and aquatic plants, helps absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and also provides homes and food for wildlife.

HELPING HEAL THE PLANET Every gardener can play a part in reducing pollution levels. The plants we grow absorb carbon dioxide, one of the greenhouse gases responsible for global warming. Shrubs and trees can also trap the tiny particulates that are a significant component of air pollution, especially in built-up areas such as towns and cities, and all plants help prevent flooding, which can result in toxins entering rivers and oceans. This chapter shows how you can use your space to maximize these benefits and help heal the planet.

HOW TREES AFFECT THE CLIMATE Trees can help protect the health of our planet in many ways. They absorb carbon dioxide (CO2), the greenhouse gas produced by fossil fuels that has led to a rise in global temperatures, while also releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. Trees regulate localized temperatures, too, helping keep our homes warmer in winter and cooler in summer, thereby reducing heating and air-conditioning needs.

Planting trees in your yard will help reduce air pollution.

HOW TREES CAPTURE CARBON

Hawthorns (Crataegus) help mitigate the effects of climate change, while also offering food and shelter for insects and birds.

016 017 HELPING HEAL THE PLANET

Trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) to make food through a process known as photosynthesis. During this process, plant cells convert the carbon from CO2 into sugars, which they store in their leaves, roots, and stems and use as fuel for growth. At the same time, as a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen back into the atmosphere, thereby creating the carbon cycle that all life depends upon. Due to their size, trees absorb relatively more CO2 than other plants, which is why they play such an important role in the fight against climate change. The destruction of forests worldwide and our dependence on fossil fuels have contributed to an excess of carbon, which acts like a greenhouse, trapping heat and raising global temperatures. While recent research shows that the picture is complex, since trees absorb sunlight and emit a range of chemicals that have both cooling and warming effects on the atmosphere, experts agree that, on balance, planting trees helps lower CO2 levels and reduces the effects of this pollutant.

LOCAL TEMPERATURE REGULATORS As well as absorbing carbon, trees help reduce temperature levels indirectly through their ability to moderate localized conditions. Their canopies cast shade, which has a marked effect on temperature. Trees also draw up large volumes of water through their roots and release most of it as water vapor through their leaves and stems, a process known as evapotranspiration, which further cools the air. Town planners are starting to recognize the effect that trees can have on air quality. Studies of Atlanta show that the paved-over city center is 5–8°F (2.6–4.3°C) hotter than the tree-lined suburbs. This is known as the urban heat island effect. The higher temperatures are caused by a lack of vegetation, waste heat from homes, stores, and offices, and dark surfaces such as tarmac on roads absorbing sunlight. Conversely, planting deciduous trees in the path of prevailing winds can help keep buildings warmer in winter. The

TOP TIP PLANT A DECIDUOUS TREE TO SHADE A SOUTH-FACING WINDOW; THE CANOPY WILL COOL YOUR HOME DURING THE SUMMER WHILE THE BARE STEMS WILL ALLOW SUN THROUGH TO WARM THE PROPERTY IN WINTER, THUS REDUCING THE NEED FOR BOTH AIR CONDITIONING AND HEATING.

Black walnut ( Juglans nigra) is a large tree with handsome autumn foliage.

leafless canopies allow sunlight through to windows, while the network of stems gives the building protection from biting winds. By cooling homes in summer and insulating them in winter, trees help reduce energy needs and pollution from heating and air conditioning.

The trees lining boulevards in Paris help lower street side temperatures.

TREES AS A FOOD SOURCE Growing fruit and nut trees can help reduce CO2 levels on a small scale by providing a food source that has almost no carbon footprint. Perfect for a small yard, a fruit tree will take up very little space if you buy a dwarf type, yet can provide many benefits—some even offer more than one type of fruit, such as apples and pears, on a single plant. These trees also create excellent wildlife habitats, providing food for pollinators in spring and for birds and butterflies in fall. (For advice on choosing a tree, see pp.18–19.) An apple tree can provide an abundant harvest for both people and wildlife.

CHOOSING AND PLANTING A TREE There is a tree to suit every yard, whether you have a tiny courtyard, an average-sized plot, or several acres that would accommodate a small woodland. Consider what type of tree you would like and then check your site, soil, and the space you have available to ensure your choice will thrive in your yard. Following the planting advice here will help get your tree off to a good start.

Sessile oak (Quercus petraea) acts as a host for more than 250 species of insect, which offer a food source for birds.

SELECTING A TREE

CHOOSING THE SITE

The first step is to match your site and soil (see pp.40–41) with a tree that will be happy in your yard. Also check the final height and spread to make sure there is enough space for it to grow. Fruit trees are grafted on to different rootstocks that determine their size, so you should be able to find one suitable for your space—but note that many trees are not self-fertile, which means that you will require two in order to guarantee a crop of fruit.

All trees, however small, will cast shade. Consider where and when the sun hits your yard (see p.41) and place a ladder or other tall structure where you plan to situate the tree in order to see exactly where its shade will fall throughout the day. Planting one to partially shade a patio can be ideal, but a large tree that plunges an area into semi-darkness for most of the day will limit your other plant choices. Also, beware of planting close to your property, as the root system of

A well-placed tree can be used both to cast some shade on a seating area and to provide privacy from neighbors.

Himalayan cherry (Prunus rufa) has peeling bark and white blossoms.

most trees is usually about equal to the width of the canopy. A small tree that will grow 10 ft (3 m) wide can be safely planted 12–15 ft (4–5 m) from the house. Leave a gap between your tree and your boundary, too, as the soil close to walls and fences tends to be in a rain shadow and very dry, which will hinder the plant’s growth. The canopy will also spread over your neighbor’s yard, which may cause problems as it matures. Ideally, plant the tree at least half its final width from the boundary. Also make sure that your tree does not block the sun from your neighbor’s yard. Planting it closer to your seating areas may actually provide more privacy from their windows (see diagram above).

If you have only a small yard, an acer will grow happily in a large pot.

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Situate the tree to mask the view from neighbors’ windows

PLANTING A TREE 1 Leave the tree in its pot in a bucket

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of water for about an hour to soak the root ball. Meanwhile, dig a hole three times as wide as the pot and the same depth. Use a fork to loosen the soil around the sides of the hole. Place the tree in the hole and, using a cane laid across the top, check that the point where the roots meet the stem will be level with, or slightly above, the soil surface. Remove the tree from its pot and use your fingers to gently loosen the roots coiled around the side of the root ball. Place it in the hole. Fill in with soil around the root ball and use your toe to gently press it down to remove any air pockets. Water well. Apply a 2–3 in (5–7.5 cm) layer of organic material, such as bark chips or well-rotted compost, as a mulch over the root ball, leaving a 4 in (10 cm) gap around the stem. Large trees will need staking. Hammer in a sturdy stake at a 45° angle on the side of the tree opposite the prevailing wind direction. Attach with a tree tie. Water trees regularly during dry spells for 3–5 years after planting to ensure good root growth. Drench the area once or twice a week so that water reaches the roots at lower levels rather than giving small quantities more often, as this can encourage roots to grow toward the surface where the soil is drier.

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NEED TO KNOW • The best time to plant a tree is in mid- to late fall. • Do not plant if the ground is waterlogged or frozen. • Loosen the stake ties as the tree grows. • Remove the stake after 2–3 years when the roots are established.

MAKING A MINI-WOODLAND The plants that grow beneath a tree create a valuable layer of vegetation which plays an equally important role in reducing air pollution and CO2 levels. The foliage and flowers also offer a habitat for wildlife and

BENEFITS OF WOODLAND PLANTING All land-based plants absorb carbon from the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) when they photosynthesize to make food (see p.16). While individual trees may take up more than smaller plants, adding a carpet of other species beneath them will increase the benefits. In fact, some studies show that these plants may contribute as much or even more than trees in offsetting climate change in areas other than the tropical zones around the equator.

pollinators. For inspiration on naturalistic planting, visit a deciduous woodland at different times of the year to see how the rich tapestry of plants growing there can be used in your own backyard.

The understory planting beneath a tree also performs a valuable role in the creation of a sustainable woodland ecosystem. The plants’ roots and leaves help prevent soil erosion, which in turn protects the tree from damage during storms and periods of drought. They also absorb the nutrients released from decomposed leaves that fall from the tree canopy, which means that once established they will not need extra fertilizers to thrive. Both the tree and the plants beneath it create an insulating blanket that nurtures wildlife, such as insects, worms, and other soil-borne decomposers, and small creatures. Dead nettle, hardy geraniums, and barrenwort thrive in dappled shade.

PLANTING IN LAYERS

Here a colorful carpet of shade-lovers includes hairy chervil (Chaerophyllum), red campion, and ferns.

020 021 HELPING HEAL THE PLANET

Look to nature for inspiration on what to plant beneath trees. The floor of deciduous woodland comprises layers of plants that make use of the variable light. Spring-flowering shrubs such as viburnums, mahonias, and sweet box (Sarcococca confusa), together with bulbs including snowdrops, bluebells, and wild garlic, bloom when light levels are highest, before foliage blocks the sun. A much longer list of plants that offer habitats and food for wildlife grow later in the dappled light at the edge of the tree canopy when the foliage has unfurled (see opposite). Try filling the space beneath your tree with shrubs interplanted with smaller woodland bulbs, biennials, and perennials.

WOODLAND PLANTS FOR YARDS SHRUBS

BIENNIALS AND PERENNIALS

Daphne (Daphne species) • Spindle (Euonymus alatus and E. europaeus) • Mahonia (Mahonia species) • Sweet box (Sarcococca confusa) • Guelder rose (Viburnum opulus) • Weigela (Weigela species)

Bugle (Ajuga reptans) • Cow parsley (Anthriscus sylvestris) • Hart’s tongue fern (Asplenium scolopendrium) • Bergenias • Foxgloves (Digitalis purpurea) • Male fern (Dryopteris filix-mas and D. affinis) • Barrenwort (Epimedium) • Wood spurge (Euphorbia amygdaloides) • Sweet woodruff (Galium odoratum) • Dusky cranesbill (Geranium phaeum) • Hellebores (Helleborus) • Dead nettle (Lamium) • Soft shield fern (Polystichum setiferum) • Primrose (Primula) • Red campion (Silene dioica) • Foam flower (Tiarella cordifolia)

SPRING BULBS Wild garlic (Allium ursinum) • Wood anemones (Anemone nemorosa) • Dog’s tooth violets (Erythronium) • Snowdrops (Galanthus) • English bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) • Siberian squill (Scilla siberica)

HOW TO PLANT WOODLANDERS Plan your planting carefully before you start. Include plants that will grow in dry shade, such as male ferns, sweet box, and wood spurge, closest to the tree, but leave a space of 3–4 ft (1–1.2 m) between them and the trunk. Spring bulbs can also be planted at about this distance from the tree—they may self-seed closer to it if conditions are favorable. Use plants that prefer dappled shade and damper conditions at the edge of the tree canopy. Before planting, check each plant’s spread and measure out the distances between them so that they all have space to reach their full potential. Plant at the same depth the plants were at in their pots, and water all of them well for a few months after planting while the roots are establishing. Some plants, such as sweet woodruff and dead nettle, spread via long roots and may need to be kept in check by removing excessive growth in spring. Space plants to allow them to grow to their full potential beneath the canopy.

Snowdrops such as Galanthus ‘S. Arnott’ bloom before trees are in full leaf.

MAKING THE MOST OF YOUR SPACE Squeeze as many plants as you can into your mini woodland. Where congested tree roots do not allow planting into the ground, add a pot of shade-loving, pollinator-friendly container plants such as singleflowered fuchsias or heliotropes.

Fuchsia ‘Checkerboard’ is a deciduous shrub with single flowers.

GREENING HARD SURFACES Make the most of the ecological benefits that plants offer by squeezing them into every nook and cranny in your yard. Green roofs and walls add extra leafy layers that enrich a wildlife haven, while ribbons of

flowers and foliage growing between paving stones also help offset your carbon footprint. Additional planting such as this will increase food sources and habitats for bees, birds, and other backyard wildlife.

LEAFY COVER-UPS

GREEN WALLS

As well as planting traditional beds and borders, use other surfaces to squeeze in more foliage and flowers that will improve the air quality and reduce pollution levels. Cover house walls and boundary fences with pollinator-friendly climbers such as honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum) and wisteria. Ideal for small yards, these climbers take up very little ground space yet offer many benefits. As well as absorbing carbon (see p.16), when grown against a house wall they will help keep your home cool in summer and offer some insulation in winter, thereby lowering fuel bills. Their tall, twining stems and leaf cover provide birds with nesting and roosting sites while their pollen attracts beneficial insects.

There are many ways in which to create a beautiful vertical garden on a wall or fence. One of the easiest methods is to affix specially designed planting pockets to your chosen structure and then simply fill them with potting soil and plants. However, while green walls can offer a good opportunity to increase the biodiversity in your garden, they do require frequent watering and feeding to thrive, so before installing one you should ensure you have an eco-friendly water supply and sufficient time to keep your wall in good health. Small, droughttolerant plants, such as sedums, sea thrift (Armeria maritima), pot marigolds (Calendula officinalis), and heucheras are good choices for green walls.

A variety of colors and leaf shapes makes a green wall visually appealing.

FILL IN THE GAPS The cracks between the stones or a groove chiselled into the top of a wall add yet more opportunities for planting. Ferns may self-seed naturally in walls located in cool, dark areas, or you can encourage them to colonize these structures by removing some pointing or a stone, wrapping a young plant in clay-rich soil and gently inserting it into the gap. In sunny areas, try houseleeks (Sempervivum), sedums, and other succulents in a wall. The flowers of Rosa ‘Rambling Rector’ are followed by hips that birds feed upon.

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Houseleeks and sedums planted into a wall make an eco-friendly feature.

PLANTING YOUR PAVING Most yards need some functional hard surfaces, particularly for dining and seating areas and paths that receive the most wear and tear. However, even these can be transformed into small-scale wildlife havens. Low-growing, spreading plants, such as thyme, Mexican fleabane (Erigeron karvinskianus), and the trailing bellflower (Campanula poscharskyana), will soon form a carpet between paving stones. Space the pavers in a path or patio (which will also make them more flood-proof; see p.32), and fill the gaps with free-draining soil. Add your plants and top with a layer of gravel.

Plant low-growing species between patio slabs to increase wildlife value.

Perfect for paths, creeping thymes bounce back if stepped on occasionally.

PLANTING CHOICES FOR SMALL GREEN ROOFS New Zealand burr (Acaena affinis) • Sea thrift (Armeria maritima) • Oregano (Origanum species) • Sedums (Sedum species) • Houseleeks (Sempervivum species) • Creeping thyme (Thymus serpyllum)

NEED TO KNOW

Make a mini-meadow on a roof by constructing a shallow box on it, then fill with free-draining infertile soil, grasses, and wild flowers.

UP ON THE ROOF Make the most of the roof space on your shed, garage, and even your home by planting sedums or wildflowers and grasses. Ensure your roof is strong enough to take the weight of the soil and plants before you start, particularly if you are planning to plant up your house roof. Most specialized suppliers

of green-roof plants will be able to advise you. Sedum roofs are the easiest option and, for a shed or outbuilding, you can buy matting that you simply tack onto the structure. For larger plants, such as grasses and wildflowers, you will need to construct a shallow box on the roof that can hold a greater depth of soil and has good drainage to prevent waterlogging.

• Check that the load-bearing capacity of your roof is sufficient for the soil and plants. • Ensure that the roof is at a slight angle so that water drains into a gutter with a downspout and rain barrel. • Use lightweight, organic potting soil designed for roofs or a free-draining sandy soil. • Choose plants that are noninvasive and low-growing. • Always ask for expert advice if you are considering the installation of a green roof on your house rather than an outbuilding.

CHOOSING PLANTS TO TRAP POLLUTION Few of us can escape the effects of the airborne pollution from vehicle exhausts and industry that permeates our towns, cities, and roadsides. However, shrubs and trees can help protect us by trapping the tiny pollution particles on their leaves. Some plants are more effective than others, so if you live in an urban area or close to a busy road, include some of the best to create a pollution-busting barrier.

A dense hedge screens pollution and makes a natural backdrop to a border.

PLANTS THAT FIGHT AIR POLLUTION Pollution caused by diesel and gasoline vehicle emissions and the burning of fossil fuels is linked to a range of illnesses, including asthma, cancer, and heart disease. The good news is that the leaves of shrubs and trees can trap tiny particles from these emissions (particulates), thereby improving the local air quality and helping keep us healthy. If you do not have enough space for a hedge or screen, a fence covered in a climber such as ivy (Hedera helix) will also offer good protection. The ridged and grooved leaves of a hornbeam hedge trap particulates, helping keep a garden free from pollution.

LEAVES THAT TRAP PARTICULATES

A tall yew hedge is highly efficient at trapping particulates.

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Research by the Royal Horticultural Society has found that some shrubs and small trees trap particulates more effectively than others. For example, a yew (Taxus baccata) hedge can trap four times as many particulates as a photinia screen because its waxy leaves are more effective at capturing and embedding

pollutants than smooth foliage. Plants with hairy leaves, such as flowering currants (Ribes), are other good choices for a pollution barrier because their hairs create a greater surface area and trap the particulates between them. Studies also show that conifers with scaly leaves are efficient at trapping particulates, while the small ridges and grooves of rough-leaved plants, such as hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), do likewise.

POLLUTION-ABSORBING PLANTS Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii) • Birch (Betula) • Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) • Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) • Cypress (Cupressus) • Spindle (Euonymus japonicus) • Ivy (Hedera helix) • Holly (Ilex aquifolium) • Bird cherry (Prunus pagoda) • Firethorn (Pyracantha) • Flowering currant (Ribes sanguineum) • Elder (Sambucus) • Yew (Taxus baccata) • Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) • Viburnum (Viburnum tinus)

Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) is effective at screening particulates.

PLANTING A HEDGE A permeable hedge that allows air to flow through it is the most effective feature for trapping particulates. To create one in your yard, choose plants from the list above that suit your site and soil conditions. Plant them at about 3 ft (90 cm) intervals in a prepared bed, free

of weeds and large stones or debris. Prune immediately after planting and then annually in fall or late winter, before birds begin to build their nests. Cut only the sides until the plants reach their desired height—research shows that a screen of about 6 ft (2 m) is ideal. When your screen is the right height, trim the top as well to keep it to that size.

The hairy leaves of flowering currant (Ribes) trap pollutants.

While evergreens such as yew and holly provide a year-round barrier to pollution, they can eventually create a dense screen that allows little air to pass through. The best solution to trapping pollutants may be to plant a variety of shrubs and trees: this has the added benefits of creating multiple habitats and increasing biodiversity.

NEED TO KNOW • Check that your chosen shrubs suit your site and soil. • Space plants at 3 ft (90 cm) intervals in a prepared bed. • Plant at the same depth as the plants were in their original pots. If you are planting bare-root shrubs, look for the dark soil line just above the root ball. • Choose some plants that also offer wildlife benefits, such as pollen-rich flowers and berries for birds.

Plant hedges 16–18 in (40–45 cm) from a wall or fence.

THE BENEFITS OF PONDS Ponds draw many forms of wildlife into the yard to drink, bathe, and reproduce in the fresh water, while the plants that thrive in these aquatic environments add yet another layer of biodiversity. Some experts say that ponds can help trap carbon and reduce the levels of this element and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, although research into these effects is still ongoing.

PONDS AS THRIVING ECOSYSTEMS A pond provides a huge boost to your yard’s biodiversity. Not only does it broaden the range of plants you can grow, it can attract and support a large number of local wildlife species, including frogs, toads, and other amphibians. Birds and small creatures will also be drawn to

the water, and damselfly and dragonfly species may visit your pond, too, especially if it is fringed with plants. In addition to these creatures, ponds are also home to a host of smaller aquatic species that live at or below the surface, including water snails, water beetles, and pond skaters, all of which contribute to a healthy ecosystem. A remarkable abundance of freshwater species are supported by small ponds.

A variety of plants bordering the pond adds to the range of wildlife it attracts.

Providing areas of clean water may attract dragonflies to the yard. Birds will visit a pond to drink and bathe, and some also eat aquatic insects.

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PONDS AS CARBON SINKS Some experts have found that ponds may play a role in mitigating climate change by acting as carbon sinks. One study suggests that they may be better at storing carbon than either woodland or grassland, despite covering a proportionally much smaller area. The scientific research demonstrates that ponds are not only much richer in species compared to rivers, streams, and lakes, they also bury carbon in the litter that accumulates at the bottom. Carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by microbes as they break down fall leaves and dead pond flora and fauna is locked in the sediment rather than being released into the atmosphere, where it would contribute to global warming. As with all plants, aquatic species also use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis (see p.16), which helps lower levels of this greenhouse gas.

A pond edged with naturalistic planting blends easily into the yard and may have considerable environmental benefits.

In Canada, research into farm ponds found that the water was acting as a sink for the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide, produced when nitrates from fertilizers are washed into the water. However, studies showing that ponds help reduce

air pollution are not conclusive; other research has found that lakes and some ponds actually contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Nevertheless, ponds definitely benefit wildlife and are well worth including in your yard.

MAINTAINING A HEALTHY POND

water lilies as well as marginals that are adapted to the shallows around the edges (see pp.44–47) helps regulate oxygen levels. The amount of sunlight also plays a part because warm water contains less oxygen, so make sure the pond surface is partly shaded in order to keep it cooler. In winter, ice and snow can act as a blanket, keeping the deeper water warm enough for most pond life to survive. However, the reduced light reaching submerged plants can prevent them from photosynthesizing (see p.16) and releasing oxygen, which may kill overwintering creatures such as frogs, so sweep away snow to allow in more sunlight. Making a hole in the ice by placing a pan of hot water on the surface at the edge of the pond will also provide creatures with drinking water.

Ponds are sensitive ecosystems and need careful planning to ensure they remain healthy. Any excess nutrients, such as nitrogen from fertilizers, can cause a chemical imbalance that leads to excessive algae growth and poor oxygen levels. To avoid these problems, do not use fertilizers, including organic matter such as garden compost, close to the pond or where rain may wash the nutrients into it. Whenever possible, use rainwater from a barrel to top up levels rather than water from the tap, which contains chlorine. Pond water also needs a rich supply of oxygen to sustain the wildlife in it. Introducing aquatic plants such as

Partly covering the pond surface with plants helps maintain oxygen levels.

TOP TIP THE TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN LEVELS WILL REMAIN MORE CONSISTENT IN A LARGE POND WITH A DEEP AREA IN THE MIDDLE, SO MAKE YOURS AS BIG AS POSSIBLE TO MAXIMIZE ITS WILDLIFE POTENTIAL. MOVING WATER, SUCH AS A SMALL CASCADE OR FOUNTAIN, WILL ALSO INTRODUCE MORE OXYGEN INTO THE WATER.

WILDLIFE PONDS Providing the perfect habitat for a whole host of birds, insects, and small animals, a pond also adds a beautiful ornamental feature, with colorful plants and reflected light creating a dramatic focal point. A pond is easy to make over a weekend, and can be large or small, depending on the size of your plot. Sloping or stepped margins allow easy access for creatures to come and go, while the plants offer cover from predators. Fill your pond with rainwater from a barrel (see p.100) or, if you use tap water, leave it for a couple of days before adding plants to allow chemicals such as chlorine to evaporate.

Planted pond margins create a perfect habitat for aquatic creatures, such as frogs and toads, as well as a host of insects.

SITING YOUR POND Choose a sheltered location in an area where you can enjoy your pond from a seating area or your windows. Check that it is well away from utility pipes and cables, and not too close to overhanging trees or large shrubs. These would not only cast too much shade over the surface, restricting your choice of pond plants, but their leaves could also pollute the water if they fell into it in large quantities in fall. Avoid making a pond near yew trees; their leaves will poison pond wildlife. Aquatic bags filled with garden soil free from fertilizers and planted with marginals fit neatly onto pond shelves.

CREATING A HAVEN FOR WILDLIFE

Choose an open site away from tall trees and shrubs that cast deep shade.

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Creatures of all kinds are drawn to water features, and a pond that has been designed especially for wildlife will greatly increase the biodiversity in your yard. Make a haven for small mammals, amphibians, and birds by creating a beached edge at one end of the pond, or use plants in pots to create shallow steps around the sides that allow them to get in and out of the water safely.

A fringe of pond plants in the shallows and along the margins will provide a leafy canopy that protects wildlife from the eyes of predators. Creating different water levels also allows you to include the widest range of plants, such as water lilies and other aquatics, and pollen-rich flowering marginals (see pp.118–119). These will help keep the water clear, sustain pollinators, and make a beautiful year-round feature for you to enjoy. To give your pond a head start, in the spring ask friends if they have any frog spawn you can add to it.

MAKING A POND Wildlife ponds do not need to be huge, but a deep area that remains frost-free offers creatures a safer home in winter.

YOU WILL NEED Garden hose • Spade • Long length of wood • Builder’s spirit level • Old rug or proprietary pond underlay • Butyl pond liner • Sharp knife 1 Mark out the shape of your pond

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with a garden hose. The bigger the pond, the more wildlife you will be able to home. Dig out the pond to a depth of 18 in (45 cm), with sloping sides. Leave a shelf about 12–18 in (30–45 cm) wide at this depth around the edge. Dig out a central area 3 ft (1 m) deep and an adjacent area about 30 in (75 cm) deep. Place a spirit level on a straight plank of wood to check that the pond will be level. Repeat in a few places around the pond edge, building up or removing soil as necessary. Remove large or sharp stones in the walls and base. Line the pond with a proprietary underlay or an old carpet that has not been treated with chemical cleaners. Cover the underlay with the butyl liner (see below), centering it over the hole. Push it down in the middle, and pleat along the sides and base to fit. Fill the pond with water—ideally rainwater stored in rain barrel. Trim the liner with a sharp knife, leaving 18 in (45 cm) excess around the edges, which you can disguise with soil and plants, turf or rocks, taking care not to tear the liner.

LINER QUANTITIES Calculate the size of the butyl liner you will need as follows: measure the pond at its longest length (L) and its widest width (W); then the depth at its deepest point (D). The area of the liner needed is given by (2D+18 in+L) x (2D+45 cm+W).

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HOW PLANTS PREVENT FLOODING Climate change has influenced global weather patterns, causing more extreme events such as summer storms and floods. Using the power of plants, gardeners can help reduce flooding, which has wide-reaching effects on the environment and can lead to polluted rivers and oceans. Replacing paving with permeable surfaces, including lawns and gravel, can also help in the fight against flood damage.

WHY FLOODS OCCUR AFTER A STORM

Pollutants lead to algae which depletes the water of oxygen when it decomposes.

CAUSES AND EFFECTS As the climate has warmed, extreme weather events such as storms and prolonged rainfall have increased. These bring both wide-scale and localized flooding, which can devastate ecosystems: plants and wildlife die in waterlogged conditions, and raw sewage can enter rivers and oceans when drains overflow in areas where rainwater and domestic sewage systems are not separated. Floodwater may also carry animal waste, engine oil, fertilizers, pesticides, and detergents. The effects of flooding are exacerbated in urban areas with little plant cover, where stormwater runs off hard surfaces into overstretched sewers. However, gardeners can make a difference by designing their spaces with flood prevention in mind.

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The rate at which rain falls as well as the quantity has an effect on the flood risk. When water hits a surface more quickly than the ground can absorb it, such as during a storm, the rainwater runs off and flooding can occur, whereas gentle rain allows the

Using permeable surfaces rather than paving for paths in your yard allows water to drain away easily.

soil more time to soak it up. After prolonged rainfall, the soil can also become saturated and if more rain then falls, the excess water will immediately produce surface runoff and flooding. By taking up water from the soil, plants continually prevent the soil from reaching saturation point, whereas hard, impermeable surfaces that have very little capacity to absorb rainwater will flood much more easily.

Where yards lack sufficient permeable surfaces, water from heavy rainfall gushes out on to public roads.

PLAN PERMEABLE SURFACES Integrate permeable surfaces into your space wherever possible, rather than using paving stones or concrete—the latter is definitely not recommended, as it has one of the highest carbon footprints of all landscaping materials. Grass, aggregates such as gravel, and shredded prunings allow rainwater to penetrate to the soil, and these can also be used between pavers where a hard surface is needed. In some countries, you must by law have permeable surfaces, especially at the front of a property, where replacing yards with parking space for cars has contributed to urban flooding. Check with your local planning department for guidelines.

TOP TIP ADD A LAYER OF LEAF MOLD OR ORGANIC HOMEMADE COMPOST, BOTH OF WHICH ARE HIGHLY POROUS, OVER YOUR BEDS AND BORDERS. NOT ONLY WILL THEY HELP INCREASE THE DRAINAGE CAPACITY OF THE SOIL, THEY ALSO PREVENT IT FROM FORMING A HARD IMPERMEABLE LAYER THAT RAIN WILL QUICKLY RUN OFF.

PLANTS TO THE RESCUE Trees and other plants play a significant role in flood prevention. Tree canopies trap rainwater on the leaves and stems and slow the rate at which it falls to the ground. The plants beneath further reduce the volume of water that reaches the ground, and leaf litter on the soil surface holds water droplets longer still. When rainwater finally reaches the ground, the soil soaks it up like a sponge, preventing it from running off the surface and causing flooding. Once the water is in the soil, plants draw it up through their roots and into their stems and leaves, where the excess is lost through tiny pores in the foliage called stomata—a process known as transpiration. The roots also create channels in the soil that allow rain to filter down into it more quickly.

Maximizing the planting area of your yard, particularly in areas where storm water may collect and run into the road and sewage systems, can significantly alleviate the risk of flooding (for ideas on how to incorporate more planting, see pp.32–33). Trees and plants prevent flooding by absorbing rainwater before it can run off. Rainwater is trapped by the leaves and branches The tree draws up water from the roots and releases it back into the atmosphere Plants beneath the tree trap more water as it falls from the canopy

Roots open up channels for water to pass through

Wooden planks and gravel create an informal, permeable pathway through a naturalistic design of ornamental grasses and low-growing herbs and perennials.

PLANTING FLOOD DEFENSES There are many ways to maximize the planting in your yard to reduce the risk of localized flooding and prevent the wider environmental damage it causes. Assess the areas that face the road, where stormwater will run off into the sewers, to see if there is scope for more plants. Climbers on walls and

PLANTED PATHWAYS When you are planning a new pathway, include some planting in your design. Grass paths are absorbent, but they can rapidly deteriorate into muddy tracks on a route that is used every day, such as one leading to a house door. The soil beneath the grass will soon become compacted in these areas, killing the turf and creating an impermeable surface for water to run off. Where foot traffic is highest, combine hard landscaping

fences and ground cover plants squeezed between pavers offer opportunities in small spaces, while trees and large shrubs will absorb even greater volumes of water if you have space for them. Try some of the simple solutions here to create a leafy defense that will protect against water run-off.

materials such as wooden planks or stone pavers with gravel or another absorbent material. Space the planks or pavers at a comfortable stepping distance from one another and fill in between with the gravel, into which you can plant low-growing or spreading plants including thyme, Mexican fleabane (Erigeron karvinskianus), chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), or houseleeks (Sempervivum). Line your path with larger plants to make a water-absorbent blanket that will prevent run-off.

A parking space can combine hard surfacing with areas of planting.

PARKING SOLUTIONS

A combination of wood and gravel allows water to filter into the ground.

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In areas with low foot traffic, grass paths make good water-absorbent walkways.

Front yards often double as parking spaces, but even these can include ribbons of planting between the hard areas needed for car tires. Install tracks made from wood, bricks, or paving, and fill the areas in between with gravel and plants. Low-growing plants that will tolerate the occasional pressure of a car tire running over them include creeping jenny (Lysimachia nummularia), bugle (Ajuga reptans), and thymes such as Thymus serpyllum. A sprinkling of forget-me-nots will add some color in spring and self-seed into the gravel. Water the plants frequently after planting until they are well-established.

POTS FOR PAVED AREAS

Plants in pots of different sizes look attractive and will soak up water.

COLLECTING STORM WATER In yards where rainwater runs off patios or other hard surfaces and pools at the lower end of your plot, consider installing a mini rain garden. This is a depression filled with resilient plants where water can collect during a storm, rather than running off into the road or waterways. The planted area holds the excess water, while the roots create channels that allow it to drain slowly into the soil. Dig a wide, saucer-shaped hole about 18 in (45 cm) deep, or 2 ft (60 cm) deep in clay soils that take longer to drain. Create a berm (lip) about 12 in (30 cm) wide and 4 in (10 cm) high, with some of the excavated soil along the lower edge of the hole to help capture water as it flows down the slope. Partly refill the hole so it forms a slight depression, using a mix of homemade compost, excavated soil, and fine gravel, which will aid drainage. Add plants that are able to tolerate periods of waterlogging as well as drier conditions. Seek professional help if your garden is on a steep slope of more than about 12 percent or 1:8. This mini rain garden is filled with tough plants and topped with stones.

Where hard materials are necessary, such as a doorstep or dining area, use plants in pots to mop up excess rainwater. The larger the pot the better, as these will hold more soil and absorb the most water. Small shrubs such as Skimmia japonica and Euonymus fortunei, ivies, and colorful violas are idea for shady doorsteps, or try lavender, sedums, and sedges (Carex) for sunnier spots. These will offer a decorative display and only require watering a couple times a week during dry weather if they are planted in a large container such as a half-barrel.

NEED TO KNOW • Plant in layers, using trees, shrubs, climbers, and perennials, to trap water before it hits the ground. • Plant climbers at least 2 ft (60 cm) from a wall or fence and add supports such as wires or trellis for them to climb up. • Include evergreen shrubs, as their canopies will help alleviate flooding in winter. • Make sure that the foliage canopy does not completely cover the rim of your containers, or rain will simply wash off the leaves onto the ground.

PLANTS FOR A MINI RAIN GARDEN Bugle (Ajuga reptans) • False spirea (Astilbe species) • Sedges (Carex species) • Wood spurge (Euphorbia amygdaloides) • Hardy geranium (Geranium species) • Hostas (Hosta species) • Japanese iris (Iris ensata) • Maiden grass (Miscanthus sinensis) • Knotweed (Persicaria affinis) • Black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia species)

GREAT TREES FOR SMALLER YARDS

FIELD MAPLE ACER CAMPESTRE HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 40 x 12 ft (12 x 4 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

With so many trees to choose from, this catalog of compact species and varieties is designed to help you select the right one for a small or medium-size yard. Compact trees are ideal for beginners as they are less likely than large species to outgrow their allotted space or need expert pruning—yet they offer the same benefits of trapping and storing carbon dioxide, mitigating the effects of climate change.

Often used as a hedge plant, this deciduous tree produces five-lobed, red-tinted leaves in spring which turn mid-green toward summer. They then take on yellow and red hues in fall. The tiny greenishyellow flowers attract pollinators in spring, and small mammals eat the winged seed heads in fall. Tolerant of a wide range of sites and soils, this maple makes a beautiful addition to a wildlife garden. While it can grow tall, pruning the main trunk when the tree is young will limit its growth.

SMOOTH SERVICEBERRY AMELANCHIER LAEVIS

RIVER BIRCH BETULA NIGRA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 25 x 25 ft (8 x 8 m) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 40 x 22 ft (12 x 7 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

Grow this small deciduous tree for its coppery-pink spring leaves, which turn green in summer before taking on yellow and red fall tints. The fragrant, starry, white spring blossom is followed in summer by edible, sweet, blue-black fruits, which are loved by birds. It makes a beautiful feature tree amid informal planting in a small city yard, or in a meadow area in a larger space. Undemanding, it will grow in most soils and needs very little aftercare once it is established.

Also known as the red or black birch, this impressive tree has shaggy pinkishbrown and white bark that makes an eye-catching feature in winter and green, diamond-shaped leaves that turn buttery-yellow in fall. Its yellow spring catkins add to its charms. Ideal for boggy or wet soils, this tree is equally happy in drier conditions, and provides a good habitat for insects and birds. Buy a multistemmed tree, which will limit its growth, and plant it in a border or close to a natural water feature.

Starry white blossoms are followed by blue-black fruits that attract birds to the yard.

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This maple’s handsome five-lobed foliage turns yellow and red in fall.

Buttery-yellow fall leaves and colorful peeling bark are prized aspects of the river birch.

JUDAS TREE CERCIS SILIQUASTRUM

CORKSCREW HAZEL CORYLUS AVELLANA ‘CONTORTA’

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 22 x 22 ft (7 x 7 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Survives all but the harshest winters SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 15 x 15 ft (5 x 5 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

This deciduous small tree is popular for its rose-lilac, pealike flowers, which appear in late spring. These are followed by bright green, heart-shaped leaves and dark, purple-tinted, flattened seedpods in midsummer. The leaves then turn gold in fall. As well as attracting bees and other pollinators, the tree is able to feed itself by extracting nitrogen from the air via bacteria on its roots—nitrogen is essential for healthy leaves. It makes a beautiful feature in small courtyard gardens.

The unusual twisted branches of the corkscrew hazel make a striking focal point in winter and early spring, when the golden catkins appear and dangle from the branches like glittering earrings. The green leaves are slightly twisted, too, and turn yellow in fall, when the tree produces nuts (although not as many as a standard hazel tree). Moth caterpillars feed on the leaves, while many types of birds eat the nuts. Underplant it with spring bulbs and pollen-rich summer-flowering perennials to add more wildlife benefits.

Pealike flowers appear on the bare branches in spring, creating an eye-catching feature.

The twisted branches of this hazel give the impression of an ancient gnarled tree.

HAWTHORN CRATAEGUS LAEVIGATA

SPINDLE TREE EUONYMUS EUROPAEUS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 22 x 22 ft (7 x 7 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 10 x 8 ft (3 x 2.5 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

Supporting a wide range of insects and birds, this deciduous tree also offers a range of ornamental features. Clusters of creamy-white or pink flowers, loved by pollinators, appear after the green lobed leaves have unfurled. Then, in fall, birds feast on the bright red berries, and the grooved bark and twisted stems add interest in winter. This tough little tree looks at home in an informal planting design and among wildflowers. It is also perfect for an exposed site or coastal space.

A good choice for a large pot in a courtyard, this deciduous tree produces dark green leaves and tiny, pollen-rich flowers. While it is quite unassuming for much of the year, in fall its colors trump almost everything else in the yard. The leaves fire up to a blazing scarlet, while orange-pink, winged fruit add to the spectacle and remain on the tree after the foliage has fallen. Plant it where its fall guise can be enjoyed, with spring and summer flowers offering interest at other times.

Pink double flowers appear on thorny stems on the popular hawthorn cultivar ‘Paul’s Scarlet’.

Stunning fall color creates a dazzling feature in a small eco garden.

COMMON HOLLY ILEX AQUIFOLIUM

APPLE TREE MALUS DOMESTICA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 40 x 12 ft (12 x 4 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 12 x 12 ft (4 x 4 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 4

Characterized by its spiny evergreen foliage, holly offers interest all year, with cultivars bearing variegated leaves providing added color. The spring flowers attract pollinators, while the dense canopy makes an ideal nesting site for birds. Plant holly in a mixed border of shrubs and flowering perennials and annuals. For berries, which provide birds with food, choose a female form and ensure there is a male nearby to fertilize the flowers, or select a self-fertile variety such as ‘J. C. van Tol’.

Few trees beat the eating apple for great value in a small yard. As the green leaves unfurl in spring, pink or white pollen-rich blossoms attract honey bees; in fall, the ripe apples are ready for picking, offering you a rich store of fresh fruit. The fallen apples also provide a feast for butterflies, birds, and other creatures. Buy tiny trees on dwarfing rootstocks for a patio pot or larger specimens to make a feature in a lawn or border. Late-flowering varieties are best in frost-prone areas.

Fresh apples taste delicious and offer a wonderful resource for backyard wildlife.

‘Argentea Marginata’ is a female form with cream-edged leaves, tinged pink in spring.

JAPANESE CRAB APPLE MALUS × FLORIBUNDA

MEDLAR MESPILUS GERMANICA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 22 x 22 ft (7 x 7 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 20 x 25 ft (6 x 8 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

This pretty crab apple bears abundant pearly-pink flowers, opening from mid- to late spring just as the small, bright green leaves appear. The blossom is followed in fall by small golden-yellow fruits that often remain on the tree into winter; the fallen apples offer a valuable food source for a range of wildlife. Tolerant of air pollution, this spreading tree makes a beautiful focal point in an informal garden underplanted with spring bulbs and summer perennials, or in a meadow of wildflowers and grasses.

This spreading tree is perfect for eco-gardeners looking for a distinctive focal point. The medlar has large white spring flowers that are magnets for bees and the leathery leaves are joined by brown, apple-shaped fruits in fall. These are hard and bitter, but if harvested in late fall and left to ripen, they become softer and sweeter. The fallen fruits offer a winter food source for wildlife, too. Due to their spreading habit, medlars are best grown as standard or half-standard trees with a clear trunk.

A profusion of red buds open into pink flowers in spring, appearing with the new leaves.

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Golden fall leaves are complemented by the medlar’s brown, apple-shaped fruit.

FUJI CHERRY PRUNUS INCISA

PEAR TREE ‘CONFERENCE’ PYRUS COMMUNIS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 8 x 8 ft (2.5 x 2.5 m) SOIL Moist but well-drained/well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 10 x 8 ft (3 x 2.5 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

This compact flowering cherry is ideal for a small urban space. A profusion of crimson buds opens to reveal clear white flowers, which are covered with bees and other pollinators when they appear in spring. The narrow, pale green leaves are tinged with bronze as they unfurl and also put on a show in fall, when they turn bright orange and red before falling. The small fruits attract birds. Plant it where you can admire the foliage, as a specimen or in a mixed informal bed. Prune in early summer if necessary.

Pear trees offer a multitude of benefits for people and wildlife, including beautiful white spring blossoms and juicy, edible fruits in fall. For a small, manageable tree that bears Conference pears, choose one grown on a Quince ‘C’ rootstock; for a heavy crop, plant another pear tree nearby. The flowers lure bees and other pollinators, while butterflies and birds, including thrushes and blackbirds, will gorge on the fallen fruits in fall. Plant among wildflowers in a meadow or in a mixed border.

The profuse white flowers make this tree popular with various pollinating insects.

The sweet fruits that make pear trees popular also help feed backyard wildlife.

ROWAN SORBUS AUCUPARIA

COMMON LILAC SYRINGA VULGARIS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 40 x 25 ft (12 x 8 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 22 x 22 ft (7 x 7 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

Also known as the mountain ash, this small to medium-size tree offers many benefits for both gardeners and wildlife. Its flat clusters of small white flowers attract pollinators in late spring and the orangered fall berries provide an excellent source of food for birds. The green, divided leaves also take on fiery hues in fall. In a small space, choose a multi-stemmed tree or compact cultivar such as ‘Vilmorinii’ and use your tree to add seasonal highlights to an informal planting design.

A deciduous small tree or large shrub, lilac is celebrated for its large, conical heads of highly scented spring flowers that are a magnet for bees and other pollinators. There is a huge range of cultivars with flowers in shades of dark red, pink, purple, and white. The mid-green, heart-shaped foliage adds to the tree’s charms. Plant it at the back of an informal mixed border or along a boundary with other shrubs and trees to add privacy to your yard. To keep it in shape, prune hard in early summer.

Bright red berries appear in large clusters in fall and provide a rich feast for birds.

A lilac tree in full bloom is a stunning sight, while the scent of the flowers is an added bonus.

Harvesting seeds from crops such as peas and beans rather than buying them each year reduces your carbon footprint and the cost of the plants you grow.

ECO-GARDENING METHODS The way you grow your ornamental plants and crops has an impact on the environment. Using organic methods that do not rely on chemical fertilizers or the use of pesticides and herbicides helps create healthier soil and ensures fewer pollutants wash into our waterways. Growing plants from seed, using biodegradable pots, and making compost at home also helps reduce our carbon footprint. Explore these and other eco-friendly ways to raise and care for your plants.

RIGHT PLANT, RIGHT PLACE The best way to ensure your plants thrive and to minimize the effects of pests and diseases is to grow those that enjoy your environment. This means finding out what type of soil you have and how much sun your plot receives through the day at different times of the year, then planting species adapted to those conditions. Most plant labels and catalogs give enough information to help you make the right choices.

CHECKING YOUR SOIL TYPE Most garden soils fall into one of two categories: those rich in sand and those where clay is the main ingredient. Sand particles are relatively large and water is able to drain quickly through the spaces between them. This is why sandy soils are free-draining and usually quite

infertile, as plant nutrients are soluble and dissolve in rainwater. By comparison, clay particles are tiny and trap moisture in the minute gaps between them. These soils are dense and prone to waterlogging, but tend to be more fertile. The best garden soil is loam, which contains almost equal measures of sand and clay. It retains enough water for plant roots to absorb, while allowing excess moisture to drain away—a condition

Helenium autumnale ‘Helena Red Shades’ needs a sunny spot to thrive.

referred to as “moist but well-drained.” However, whatever your soil type, there will be plants to suit it. To test your soil, dig up a small sample from just below the surface, leave it to dry off a little if wet, then roll it between your fingers.

SANDY SOIL When rolled between the fingers, sandy soil feels gritty and falls apart when you try to mold it into a ball or log shape. It is also generally pale in color.

CLAY SOIL Smooth and dense, clay soil retains its shape when it is molded into a ball or log shape. Soil that has a very high clay content will not crack even when it is bent into a horseshoe shape.

Clay soil is dense and retains its shape when you manipulate it, which means you can mold it into log shapes or balls.

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Dig up a little soil and roll it between your fingers to discover the consistency.

TESTING SOIL ACIDITY

To use a soil testing kit, put the required amount of soil in the container, add the chemical powder and solution, and shake to mix the contents. When the soil has settled, compare the color of the liquid against the chart.

The acidity or alkalinity of a soil is known as its pH value. This is important because some plants, such as rhododendrons and camellias, will only grow well in acid soils, while others, including lavender and rock roses, prefer alkaline conditions. Many plants are not fussy and catalogs often specify pH needs only when a plant is particularly demanding. You may also find acid-loving plants listed as lime-hating or lime-intolerant. Kits for testing soil pH are easy to use and it is well worth spending time assessing the soil in a few areas of the yard to check whether it is acid, alkaline, or neutral.

CHECKING FOR SUN AND SHADE It is vital to check where the sun falls in your yard throughout the day, as plants located in the wrong light conditions may grow poorly, fail to flower, or, in the worst cases, die. When they are grown in shade, plants that enjoy bright sun, such as those with big, blowsy flowers, will become tall and leggy as their stems stretch toward the light. Plants that prefer shade, which include those with large, dark green leaves, will scorch if grown in too much light.

To find out which way your yard faces and, therefore, how much sun it receives, stand with your back to the house and use a compass. If you are facing south, the yard will be sunny for most of the day in summer; if the compass points north, the yard will be shady. Those facing east or west will receive the most sun in the morning or evening respectively. Remember that trees and buildings will cast shade in an otherwise sunny plot. Another way to assess where the sun falls in the yard is to take photographs at different times of the day and during different seasons. Mark the areas of light and shade on a simple overhead plan. N

In the morning the west boundary will be in sun

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In the evening the west boundary will be in shade

Morning

Noon

Evening

A north-facing yard will have shaded areas for much of the day, so locate trees where they will not rob you of sun.

Morning

Noon

Evening

In a south-facing yard, the area directly in front of the rear boundary will be in some shade for most of the day.

In a garden center, plants will have labels with information about their needs.

READING PLANT LABELS Once you have completed an assessment of the conditions in your yard, look through catalogs and nursery websites for plants that will be happy and healthy there. Many websites offer easy-to-use search engines that will provide lists of plants for different sites and soils. At a garden center, check the labels on plants. These will specify the plant’s needs, as well as its final height and spread and, often, if it is good for pollinators. Once you are sure that a plant is suitable, check that it looks healthy and is free of pests and diseases.

NEW PLANTS FROM OLD: SAVING SEEDS Harvesting seeds from existing plants to make new ones is a great way to lower your carbon footprint and save money, too. The seeds of many flowers, fruit, and vegetables are easy to harvest and will germinate and

grow without too much effort—after all, that is what they are naturally designed to do. Some may not look exactly the same as their parents, but experimenting to see what might come up is all part of the fun.

COLLECTING SEEDS Many beautiful plants and tasty crops will grow easily from seed harvested from their pods. Just remember that plants grown from seeds harvested from F1 hybrids, which have been bred to produce a specific flower or fruit color, for example, may not look exactly like the parent plant. If you are not sure about yours and no longer have the seed packet, check online.

FLOWERS Once they are pollinated, flowers produce seed heads, the capsules that protect the seeds while they ripen before opening to release them. When the seed heads have changed from green to black, brown, or red, remove the whole pod or tap the plant gently above a paper bag—the seeds will fall out easily when they are ripe. Dump the seeds onto a clean, dry surface and remove any bits of seed pod or other debris (chaff), which may harbor pests or diseases. Either sow the ripe seed soon after collecting it in fall or store it and sow in spring. FRUITS AND BEANS For soft fruits and fruiting vegetables, such as tomatoes, remove the fruit from the plant, scrape or scoop out the seeds, and place them in a kitchen sieve. Clean the seeds by washing off the flesh, then leave them

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Hollyhock (Alcea rosea) has large seeds that are easy to extract from the seed heads once they have turned brown.

to dry in a warm, dry place. Pea and bean pods can be left on the plant to ripen, or removed when dry and placed in a warm area to continue ripening.

STORING SEEDS Place dry seeds in clean paper bags or envelopes and label them with the plant name and date. If they are from tender plants, store them in a dry area at a temperature just above their minimum requirement. Tomatoes, for example, should be stored above 50°F (10°C). Store seeds from hardy plants in an airtight container in a refrigerator at 39°F (4°C) until spring.

Clean the flesh from fruit seeds by washing them in a sieve under the cold tap.

HOW TO SOW SEEDS It’s easy to germinate your collected seeds indoors or, if they are hardy, in a cold frame outside in early spring. Use biodegradable containers that can be planted together with the seedling’s root ball in the soil, where they will decompose as the young plants grow.

YOU WILL NEED Harvested seed • Biodegradable pots or seed trays • Seed-starting mix (or sieved garden soil) • Tray with transparent lid for plants that need heat • Watering can 1 Fill the pots or seed trays with potting

mix or sieved garden soil. Press down lightly to remove any air gaps. 2 Sow the seed at the required depth. If you do not have the old seed packets to guide you, plant seeds at a depth of two or three times their diameter—for example, a pea seed should be planted 1¼ in (3 cm) below the surface. Tiny seeds usually need light to germinate and will require surface sowing, then covering with a very thin layer of starting mix. 3 Keep the seeds in a warm, light place or, if hardy, store them in a cold frame or sheltered spot in the yard. Place those that need heat to germinate in a propagator or in a tray with a lid on a warm windowsill. Water regularly. 4 Accustom the young seedlings to outdoor temperatures by placing the pots or trays outside during the day and bringing them in again at night for a couple weeks before planting out. For tender plants, delay this until two weeks before the last frosts can be expected in late spring. This process is known as “hardening off.”

TOP TIP IF THE SEED OF HARDY PLANTS FAILS TO GERMINATE, IT MAY NEED A PERIOD OF FROST TO BREAK DORMANCY. TRY PUTTING IT IN THE FREEZER FOR A COUPLE WEEKS BEFORE SOWING.

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EASY SEED TO HARVEST Alliums • Green beans • Hollyhock (Alcea rosea) • Fennel • Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) • Poached egg plant (Limnanthes douglasii) • Honesty (Lunaria annua) • Love-ina-mist (Nigella) • Peas • Peppers • Poppy (Papaver) • Pumpkins • Runner beans • Squashes • Tomatoes • Nasturtiums (Tropaeolum) Sunflowers produce giant, flat heads of large seeds that are easy to scrape off once the foliage is brown.

EASY PROPAGATION METHODS It is simple to propagate new plants from those already in your garden. This allows you to multiply the resources available to pollinators and other wildlife in your yard at almost no cost to you or the environment. All the methods outlined here are quick and easy to do, although cuttings require more

aftercare and a warm place in which to keep the propagated plants. Experiment to see what works for you, but always ensure that the plants you use are free of pests and diseases. If you want to take cuttings from a plant in a friend’s garden, check first that it is not invasive or poisonous to wildlife.

LAYERING SHRUBS AND CLIMBERS

Firm in your divided plants carefully to remove any air gaps.

DIVIDING PERENNIALS Perennial plants can spread quickly through their root networks. After a few years, a plant may outgrow its space or the stems in the middle of a clump can become congested and will not flower as well as those on the outside. The solution is to divide the plant. In spring or fall, water it well and trim back any long stems. Dig out the root ball and cut it into sections with a sharp knife or pull rooted segments apart with your hands. For large plants, insert two forks back-to-back in the middle of the clump and use them to pry the root ball apart. Discard old or unproductive stems in the middle of the clump and replant the divided sections in prepared soil. Water well during dry spells for the first year.

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This technique is ideal for climbing plants, such as clematis, Boston ivy (Parthenocissus tricuspidata), and climbing hydrangea (Hydrangea anomala subsp. petiolaris), as well as shrubs with flexible stems, including hazel (Corylus), daphnes, and flowering quince (Chaenomeles). In spring or fall, take a young, flexible stem, trim off side-shoots, and bend it to the ground. Where it touches the soil, remove the leaves from that section

and use a sharp knife to make a slanting cut halfway through the stem, about 12 in (30 cm) from the tip. Insert a cane into the soil at this point and bury the wounded stem next to it. Tie the remaining stem to the cane. When it has rooted, you will see new shoots develop at the tip; at this point, you can cut the stem attached to the parent plant. To propagate more than one plant, make a series of cuts along one stem, cutting just behind a leaf joint or bud. Then peg down the wounded areas, leaving the stems in between exposed to the light. New shoots will soon develop.

After cutting the stem, bury the wounded area under the soil surface. Insert a cane next to it and use soft twine to tie the stem to the cane.

TAKING CUTTINGS Cuttings provide an easy way to create new plants from the current year’s growth of many perennials and shrubs. Take them from vigorous side-shoots on healthy plants from early summer to mid-fall. You can also make several cuttings from a long section of a year-old stem: trim each below a leaf joint at the base and just above one at the top. Cuttings are usually best kept indoors until they root.

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label and keep them at 59–70°F (15–21°C) in a propagator or tray with a clear lid. The cuttings should root within a few weeks.

1 Fill some containers with peat-free

potting mix. Using clean pruners, cut sections 3–4 in (7.5–10 cm) long from the tips of young, healthy, nonflowering shoots. 2 With a sharp knife, trim the stems just below a leaf joint and remove all the leaves except for a few at the tip. 3 Push the stems into a pot, making sure that the leaves do not touch each other. Firm the potting mix around the stems and water gently. Add a

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EASY CUTTINGS FROM SHRUBS Roses and hardy deciduous trees and shrubs are easy to propagate from hardwood cuttings. In fall, after the leaves have fallen, select straight stems that have grown during the current year. In a quiet area of the yard, make a narrow trench by pushing a spade into the soil. Cut the stems from the plant and remove any side shoots and remaining leaves. Divide them into 10 in (25 cm) sections, making a straight cut just below a bud and a slanted cut just above a bud as you work toward the tip. Insert the cuttings into the trench, with the slanted end about 4 in (10 cm) above the soil surface. Firm in the soil around the cuttings and water well. Ensure the cuttings do not dry out. They will take about a year to root and produce new shoots. Push the cuttings into a trench in the soil, slanted end upward, and leave for a year to root.

AFTERCARE Keep the cuttings well watered but ensure the potting mix is not too wet, which may encourage fungal diseases. Pot them on when they have formed a few leaves and you can see roots through the holes in the bottom of their original container.

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TOP TIP WHEN TAKING HARDWOOD CUTTINGS OF TREES, LEAVE A SINGLE BUD ABOVE THE GROUND. FOR SHRUBS, LEAVE A FEW BUDS ABOVE THE SURFACE, EACH OF WHICH WILL DEVELOP INTO A SIDE SHOOT ONCE THE CUTTING HAS ROOTED.

BUYING NEW PLANTS When you are looking for new plants from a nursery or garden center, consider how and where they may have been grown before making a purchase. Locally grown plants will have a lower carbon footprint than those acquired from further afield or abroad. It is also worth asking what type of soil the plants have been grown in and making a few checks before buying to ensure your plants are healthy.

NATIVE VS NON-NATIVE While it might seem ideal to buy only native plants, they may not always be the most suitable. For example, the European native flag iris, Iris pseudacorus, would swamp a small pond, where the more compact, non-native blue flag Iris versicolor may be a better choice—frogs and toads will happily shelter among the foliage of either. Non-natives may also have been grown using organic methods in your country, which would mean they have a low carbon footprint, so ask the retailer where their plants were raised.

Iris versicolor is a compact marginal plant that is ideal for small ponds. Asking garden center staff about the company’s policy on spraying plants with chemical pesticides may encourage eco-friendly methods.

BUYING LOCAL We all need to buy new plants at some point, and the best way to minimize your carbon footprint in this respect is to purchase them from a local nursery. Look for suppliers near you who raise their own plants and can tell you where they bought their seeds or cuttings and whether they use peat-free potting mix and avoid chemical pesticides. Some nurseries also run pot-recycling programs or supply plants without a plastic pot or bag, thereby reducing waste; ask about the packaging options when buying online, too.

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Large garden center chains do not always have a wider choice of plants than small independent nurseries, and while they may not spray their plants with pesticides on their sites, their wholesaler or grower may have previously applied them. Plants that display the bee symbol, denoting their value to pollinating insects, may not have been exempt from spraying, either.

TOP TIP ALWAYS ASK RETAILERS WHICH SOILS AND CHEMICALS HAVE BEEN USED FOR THEIR PLANTS. SUPPLIERS ARE MORE LIKELY TO RESPOND WITH ORGANIC OPTIONS TO MEET DEMAND.

Iris pseudacorus is best for large wildlife ponds where it will be free to spread.

SWAPPING PLANTS In addition to exchanging plants with friends, you may find that your local horticultural society has a plant-swapping program. There is no guarantee that the plants you receive will have been grown using organic methods, but they will usually have a low carbon footprint. Bear in mind that plants offered by other gardeners may spread quickly, which is why they have a surplus. Also take care if the original owner does not know the plant’s species or name, as it may be an imported invasive type, or even a carrier of disease. You may have surplus plants grown from seed that you can swap with friends. You can also make a plan with like-minded people in your area so that each of you grows something different, which can be exchanged within the group.

BUYER BEWARE When buying plants or accepting them as gifts, make a few checks before taking them home. First, inspect the stems, flowers, and both sides of the leaves for signs of pests or diseases, and reject any plant you are unsure about to prevent importing problems into your

WHAT IS BIOSECURITY? With reference to plants, the term “biosecurity” describes the measures that are in place to protect them from harmful pests and diseases. These often arrive in a country on imported plants, which is another reason to buy from local suppliers who know the origins of their stocks. In Europe and the UK, all plants for planting and some seeds require passports when moved, which helps prevent the spread of diseases such as Xylella fastidiosa. This devastating bacterial disease affects a wide range of species, including olive trees, lavender, and many herbaceous perennials. Similar restrictions are in place in the US.

yard. If you are able to, tip the plant gently out of its container and check that the roots are healthy, too. Also look for signs of poor growth—dry potting mix can indicate a lack of care, and multiple roots growing through the holes in the bottom of a pot is a sign that the plant is root-bound. Congested roots in a pot restrict growth. However small, an olive tree must be guaranteed free of disease.

NEED TO KNOW

Take time to examine a plant and the bottom of its pot before buying.

If possible, tip a plant out of its pot and check the condition of the roots.

• If there is no nursery selling organic plants nearby, try buying them online. • Unpack plants as soon as they arrive, water them well, and keep them in a cool place before planting. • Bare-root trees and shrubs, available in fall and winter, can be planted temporarily in a trench or large pot in a sheltered spot if conditions are not immediately favorable for planting them in the ground.

PREPARING TO PLANT The best way to ensure that your seeds germinate and plants thrive is to create the ideal growing conditions for them. Whatever your soil type, you can increase your plot’s fertility using eco-friendly methods. You can also maximize the biodiversity and range of habitats in your yard by increasing your planting space with new beds and borders, and enlarging those you have already made.

MAKING A NEW BED The best time to make a new bed is in fall or early spring, when the ground is not waterlogged. Mark out an area with a hose or pegs and string; squares, rectangles, ovals, and circles look neatest. To lift turf, use a sharp spade to cut it into small squares. Insert the spade under each one and slice through the grass roots before removing it. You can then compost the turf: set it upside down in a quiet area of the yard to decompose or use it to line the bottom of a raised bed.

Remove any large stones, building detritus, or other waste from the soil. Also, dig out perennial weeds, such as bindweed, docks, and brambles, and hoe off annual weeds. Alternatively, if the area is badly infested with weeds, put a layer of flattened cardboard packaging (remove any tape) on the surface and cover it with a 4 in (10 cm) layer of compost (see pp.64–65). Patience is required for this method as it will take about 12 months to kill off the weeds—the cardboard will decompose naturally.

Nutrient-rich, well-drained soil will help your plants flourish.

Dig out perennial weeds and any other unwanted plants.

MINIMIZE DIGGING

To lift squares of turf, slide your spade under each one, cutting through the roots as you do so..

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Until recently, the advice to gardeners was to dig over the soil every year to incorporate organic matter, remove weeds, and reduce compaction. Now, research shows that minimizing soil disturbance is more beneficial to both the soil and the environment (see opposite). Huge volumes of carbon are locked up in the soil and digging it releases this greenhouse gas into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. Turning the soil also breaks down its natural structure, which can increase compaction, reduce drainage, and lower its capacity to hold water and nutrients. Digging brings weed seeds up to the surface, too, where the increased light levels will trigger germination.

THE NO-DIG METHOD This method is not only more environmentally friendly, it also cuts down the amount of work you have to do, reducing weed growth and removing the need for digging. When you are making a new bed, simply add a 2–4 in (5–10 cm) layer of homemade compost or well-rotted manure over the surface (ensure you buy the latter from a reliable organic source—see p.51). On existing beds, apply the compost or manure each fall, leaving a mulch-free area around the woody stems of trees and shrubs. Earthworms then pull it down into the lower depths of the soil, where they and microorganisms such as bacteria decompose it and recycle the nutrients it contains, ready for use by your plants. The thick compost layer also suppresses weeds by blocking the light they need to grow. Weed seeds will still germinate in the mulch layer, but its loose structure makes the seedlings easy to pull out. You can also plant your crops and flowers directly into the mulch; their roots will soon grow into the soil.

Applying a thick layer of manure or compost over the surface feeds the soil and helps suppress weeds.

TOP TIP AVOID WALKING ON YOUR BEDS IF POSSIBLE SINCE THIS CAN CAUSE SOIL COMPACTION, ESPECIALLY IF THE GROUND IS WET. IN AREAS THAT REQUIRE FREQUENT ACCESS, SUCH AS VEGETABLE PLOTS, CONSIDER RAISED BEDS OR WALK ON PLANKS TO SPREAD YOUR WEIGHT. MULCHES WILL ALSO CUSHION THE LOAD.

WELCOME IN THE WORMS

A healthy population of worms is one of the most valuable components of productive soil.

The no-dig method encourages the activity of worms, which not only recycle nutrients from organic composts but also improve the soil structure. By burrowing into it they create air and water channels that improve drainage and sustain other organisms. Their mucus binds tiny clay soil particles together and clings to larger sand particles, creating a more stable soil structure; their casts are rich in plant nutrients and contain five times more nitrogen, seven times more phosphorus, and 1,000 times more beneficial bacteria than the original soil. Worm casts on the surface help rebuild the topsoil layer, which is the most productive area.

CHOOSING POTTING MIXES Potting mixes are invaluable to ecogardeners. Some are ideal for potted plants, others help to enrich and stabilize the soil in beds and borders. Compost produced from kitchen scraps and yard waste is the most environmentally friendly, but if you do not have space to make your own you can buy

from garden centers or online. However, commercially produced mixes are less eco-friendly, especially if they contain peat, which is sourced from rare bog habitats. These important carbon sinks support plants and wildlife that are found only in their acidic conditions, so check products before buying.

PEAT-FREE MIXES Peat is sourced from peat bogs, which hold more than a quarter of all the soil carbon in the world, even though they cover just three percent of the land area. Research shows that drained peat bogs and those cut to make potting mixes and other products emit at least two billion tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year, while their destruction also damages the fragile ecosystems they support.

As an eco-gardener, you should buy only those potting mixes labeled “peat-free” and made from products guaranteed free from pesticides and herbicides. Note that potting mixes labeled “organic” do not necessarily meet these criteria, so always check carefully before purchase. Bags of topsoil may also contain peat; ask suppliers for a list of the ingredients before buying.

Good-quality peat-free mixes have an open texture that will allow good drainage.

MIXES EXPLAINED Whether homemade or bought, potting mix consists of organic material such as decomposed wood chips, leaves, plant stems, and vegetable matter. Homemade composts may also contain small quantities of cardboard and paper, while commercial mixes can include peat, coir, coconut fibers, sand, and grit. The most environmentally friendly potting mixes are those you make yourself (see pp.52–53). Any that you buy will have a higher carbon footprint, and those containing peat should be avoided; others that contain materials that have not been sourced locally or are a by-product of commercial agriculture may also be adversely affecting the environment.

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You can make your own seed-starting mix or buy commercial peat-free varieties.

Use homemade composts to raise ornamentals and crops in pots.

Horse manure from a nearby stable is an excellent source of fertilizer.

WELL-ROTTED MANURE Animal waste can be used as a soil conditioner, and will help increase the fertility of your beds and borders in a similar way to compost. Dung is usually combined with straw and left to rot down, after which it can be used safely in your garden (fresh manure contains high levels of nitrogen,

Having your manure delivered loose rather than in plastic bags from a garden center is an environmentally friendly option.

ammonium, and salts which can burn your plants). This traditional form of soil conditioner has been used for centuries, but today some animals are fed on grass or hay that has been treated with herbicides. The result is manure contaminated with harmful chemicals that may kill your plants, so check your sources to ensure their manure is from an organic farm or stable.

TOP TIP IF YOU ARE ABLE TO MAKE YOUR OWN COMPOST (SEE PP.52–53), YOU CAN USE IT TO CREATE POTTING MIXES. COMBINE EQUAL AMOUNTS OF SIEVED HOMEMADE COMPOST, STERILIZED GARDEN SOIL, AND LEAF MOLD FOR A LIGHT AND NUTRIENTRICH MIX SUITABLE FOR MOST CONTAINER PLANTS. FOR SEED-STARTING MIX, TRY AN EQUAL MIX OF STERILIZED GARDEN SOIL, LEAF MOLD, AND COARSE SAND.

MAKING LEAF MOLD This crumbly material is a superb soil conditioner and can also be used as an ingredient for homemade potting compost. It is easy to make from fall leaves that have dropped on paths, patios, or lawns—those that are on beds and borders can be left to rot down in situ. Pack the leaves into a sack or a simple cage made from wooden stakes and chicken wire or old pallets. Water the leaves if they are dry and place a stone on top of the sack or untreated wood on the cage to prevent them blowing away. Store for a year to make a leaf mold mulch or up to two years for a finer material that can be used for potting composts.

Rake fall leaves from lawns and hard surfaces and transfer them to a sack or cage to rot down into leaf mold.

MAKING YOUR OWN COMPOST Homemade compost is a wonderful, free resource for any eco gardener. It recycles kitchen and yard waste, transforming them into a nutrient-rich medium that promotes good soil structure and feeds hungry plants, delivering its goodness over a long period. You can buy or make your own compost bin, and it’s easy to create this natural product, even in the smallest of spaces.

Beehive-style compost bins make decorative, practical features for a wildlife or ornamental flower garden.

CHOOSING A BIN

Compost benefits all soils, improving their structure and releasing plant nutrients.

HOW COMPOST WORKS As plants die, soil organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and worms, feed on the vegetation and break it down into compost. This organic matter is rich in plant nutrients and a spongy material called “humus.” Humus helps improve soil structure by binding together tiny clay particles to create channels between them that allow water to drain through more easily. It also absorbs large amounts of water, thereby making free-draining sandy soils more moisture-retentive.

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Compost heaps can be simple mounds of kitchen peelings and yard waste material covered with an old rug or sheet of plastic, but the composting process will be much quicker if the material is better insulated. You can easily make a container yourself from old wooden pallets or recycled untreated wood, or even a large builders’ bag, as long as it has drainage holes at the bottom. Alternatively, buy a proprietary model. Wooden beehive-style bins look attractive in an ornamental or kitchen garden, while robust types made from recycled plastic, though less aesthetically pleasing, are inexpensive and will do the job just as well. Some bins also include a hatch that allows you to remove the compost from the base. If you have a large vegetable plot, consider two bins to ensure a plentiful supply. Make sure your bin has a wide top to make filling easier, and a secure, rainproof lid that will not blow off. Set your bin on soil or grass—not on paving slabs—and position it where you can access it in all weathers and there is sufficient space for you to turn it and remove the contents.

Upcycled old pallets can be easily transformed into a practical compost bin.

Bins made from recycled plastic are inexpensive and easy to set up and use.

FILLING THE BIN When filling your bin, aim for a mix of materials. Grass clippings, young weeds, soft plant stems, vegetable peelings, and flower heads rot down very quickly and are known as “activators” or “greens.” These are useful for starting the composting process, but will create a smelly wet mass if used on their own, so it is important to also add tougher plant-based materials, such as chopped or shredded twigs and prunings, old bedding plants, paper towel, and

shredded cardboard boxes and toilet paper tubes. These woody items, known as “browns,” decompose slowly but give the compost a good structure. Layer the materials, starting with a few twigs on the base to increase air flow and improve drainage, and then alternate soft greens with browns. Water the heap every 12–24 in (30–60 cm) as you fill it up. If your heap is too wet, add more browns; if it’s too dry, add more greens or water. After 6–12 months, stop filling the bin and allow the composting process to finish. The lid keeps out rain and insulates the bin

Add fall leaves in thin layers or compost them separately

Put a layer of twiggy brown prunings at the bottom to aid air flow

Grass clippings • Annual weeds (but ensure they have not made seeds) • Raw fruit and vegetable kitchen waste, including coffee grounds and tea bags that do not contain plastic • Spent flowers and dead bedding plants

Pet bedding, such as hamster, rabbit, or guinea pig hay and straw • Young hedge trimmings • Prunings—shred large branches first • Wood ash • Dry fall leaves • Cardboard, egg boxes, paper towels, tissues, small amounts of newspaper • Shavings from untreated wood • Chicken, horse, or cattle manure if fed on organic grass

DO NOT COMPOST

Layering green and brown materials promotes a good structure and results in dark, sweet-smelling compost to use in the garden.

To ensure your heap or bin works its magic, make sure there is plenty of air flowing through it. This sustains the microorganisms that kick-start the composting process, as well as the larger creatures, such as beetles and worms, that work on it later as the contents cool down. Every few weeks, use a fork to turn over the layers to inject more air into the heap—you may notice that it heats up again after this as the microorganisms start working again.

GREEN ITEMS TO COMPOST

BROWN ITEMS TO COMPOST

Alternate layers of green and brown material

TURNING THE HEAP

Woody items, plants, and kitchen waste all contribute to a compost heap.

You will also notice that composting takes longer in winter when temperatures are low; continue to fill it at this time of year, but at a slower pace. Once the process is complete, you should be left with a dark, sweet-smelling, crumbly material that you can use as a mulch over your flower and vegetable beds, or to add to containers, mixed with some leaf mold (see p.51) and sterilized garden soil. Use a fork to mix the contents of your bin or heap to speed up the process and ensure all the material is fully composted.

Diseased plants • Perennial weeds • Meat • Fish • Cooked food • Coal or coke ash • Cat litter • Dog feces • Paper items with plastic coatings

GROWING YOUR OWN VEGETABLES Food grown at home in a small vegetable patch or in containers on a patio or balcony will provide you with a supply of fresh, tasty produce with a very low carbon footprint. Sourcing your own vegetable seeds and using organic growing methods also means you can be sure that the food you are eating has not been contaminated by chemicals that could harm you or the environment.

Beet ‘Boltardy’ is a popular variety that is resistant to bolting.

WHERE TO GROW YOUR CROPS Locate your plot on a reasonably flat patch of land in a sheltered spot. Most vegetables need plenty of sunshine, although some leafy crops will be happy in part shade. You won’t need a huge space; in fact, a 3 ft (1 m) square plot will support a succession of tasty crops from early summer to late fall, or you can grow compact crops in pots on a patio or balcony. It is a good idea to make your productive garden near a water source such as a rain barrel or outdoor tap, which will allow you to tend to your crops more easily. Young crops need frequent watering, so locate them near a convenient source. A well-designed vegetable plot can help feed your family all year with nutrient-rich, organic produce.

WHY GROW YOUR OWN? Growing your own vegetables allows you to control the growing environment and maximize the benefits to you and to wildlife, particularly bees and pollinators that are affected by pesticides. Ensuring that your plot is free from harmful

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chemicals also protects the wider environment from contamination. In addition, growing food enables you to select varieties that contain more phytochemicals—which research shows have important health benefits—than the vegetables most commonly available in stores (see p.56).

PREPARING YOUR PLOT In the fall, prepare an area for planting. First, remove large stones and dig out any pernicious weeds, such as brambles, dandelions, and bindweed, trying to remove the whole root system if possible. Hoe off any annual weeds, too (see pp.64–65). Then cover the soil with a 2 in (5 cm) layer of homemade compost or well-rotted animal manure from a local supplier (see p.51). The compost or manure will be taken down into the soil by worms, which will release the nutrients it contains and help toward improving the soil structure. Push a draw hoe through the soil to remove shallow-rooted annual weeds.

PLANTING GREEN MANURES If you have space for two plots, you can enrich the soil in one with nitrogenfixing plants, known as green manures, while crops are growing in the other, then swap the crops and manures the following year. Green manures such as clover and beans can convert nitrogen, an essential plant nutrient (see p.63), from the air to maintain healthy growth, rather than taking it up in a solution from the soil like most plants. Sowing a patch with either of these plants in fall and digging them into the soil in spring will release their nitrogen for summer crops to use. Flowering green manures, such as phacelia and crimson clover, can also be sown in spring after a winter crop has been harvested, and will provide insect pollinators with food before you dig them into the soil during the summer.

Crimson clover is an attractive and fast-growing green manure.

Vegetables grown in pots can be located conveniently close to the kitchen.

CROPS FOR POTS Many crops grow well in large containers, such as half barrels or old trash cans. Fill them with peat-free potting mix and try a few of the crops listed below. Although large pots will need less frequent watering than smaller containers, it is still wise to set them close to a water supply to save you lugging heavy cans too far. Try these crops for size: Eggplants* • Beets • Carrots • Zucchini* • Herbs • Lettuce • Peppers* • Radishes • Scallions • Swiss chard • Tomatoes* *plant outside after the frosts

TOP TIP TO REUSE THE POTTING MIX IN A POT, ADD SOME MORE POTTING MIX ON TOP OF THE EXISTING LAYER AND PLANT A DIFFERENT TYPE OF CROP THAT IS NOT SUSCEPTIBLE TO THE SAME PESTS AND DISEASES AS THE ORIGINAL, SUCH AS CARROTS FOLLOWED BY TOMATOES, OR ZUCCHINI FOLLOWED BY BEETS.

PLANNING A VEGETABLE PATCH Carefully planning your vegetable plot will pay dividends. For a succession of crops that delivers a steady harvest over many months, list the vegetables you want to cultivate and check their growing times. You can then combine a range of fast-growing crops during spring and summer that will produce more

than one harvest with vegetables that take longer to mature. Experiment with crops you cannot buy easily in stores, too, such as salsify or oca. You can make your own crop plan to include your favorite vegetable varieties or follow the one shown here, which is designed for beginners.

CHOOSING CROPS You will want to grow the plants you enjoy eating, but to avoid disappointment, check that your garden conditions will suit them. Experiment with different cultivars for a variety of tastes and the maximum number of nutrients. For example, purple carrots are rich in anthocyanins, as well as the carotenes that are present in orange types, offering greater protection against cancer and inflammatory diseases than the vegetables that are widely available to buy. Other purple varieties, such as lettuces, onions, and cabbages, have greater health benefits than their green or white counterparts, too.

Sow coriander seeds between rows of fast-maturing spinach and salad greens, which will be harvested as the herb plants mature.

EXTENDING THE HARVEST

Growing both purple and orange carrots offers you a variation in flavors.

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Fast-maturing crops, including salad greens, scallions, and radishes, can be squeezed between vegetables that take longer to mature, such as sweet corn, cabbages, parsnips, and tomatoes. This practice, known as intercropping, is especially practical if you have only a small space for your vegetable

garden. Sowing small quantities of fast-maturing crops at six-week intervals also prevents gluts and extends the harvesting season. Remember that some vegetables are not hardy and should be sown indoors, then planted outside only after the last frosts have passed. These tender plants include tomatoes, zucchini, green beans, cucumbers, and eggplants.

SIMPLE CROP PLAN This simple crop plan is ideal for beginners as it includes vegetables that are easy to grow and provide a steady harvest from early summer to fall. For more advice on growing each of the vegetables here, follow the instructions on the seed packets or check reliable sources online. If you do not have space for all the beds shown, simply pick out those with your favorite crops that will fit. You can also try intercropping the sweet corn with beets and lettuces, as described opposite.

TOP ROW Sweet corn x 9 • Summer squash x 1 • Runner beans x 8 • Green beans x 6 • Main crop potatoes x 4

MIDDLE ROW Dwarf bush tomatoes x 5 • Cucumbers x 3 • Kale x 4 • Zucchini x 2

BOTTOM ROW Beets x 20 • Carrots x 40 • Radishes x 40 • Swiss chard x 8 • Kohlrabi x 12 • Oriental greens x 20 • Lettuces x 20 • Cilantro x 6 • Parsley x 4

ROTATING CROPS Try not to plant the same crops in the same place year after year, which can lead to a buildup of pests and diseases and depletes the soil of some essential nutrients. Vegetables fall into three main groups, and members of each have similar nutritional needs.

ROOTS AND LEAVES These include potatoes, beets, carrots, leeks, onions, Swiss chard, and spinach.

PEAS, BEANS, AND FRUITING VEGETABLES As well as peas and beans, this group includes tomatoes, peppers, chiles, zucchini, eggplants, cucumbers, and pumpkins.

CABBAGE FAMILY Known as brassicas, these include cabbages, kale, Brussels sprouts, turnips, radishes, broccoli, kohlrabi, and oriental greens. Ideally, use the same bed for roots in the first year, followed by peas and beans, which help enrich the soil with nitrogen (see p.55) in the second year, and the cabbage family in the third year. Sweet corn, herbs, and lettuces can be planted anywhere.

NEED TO KNOW • Keep beds weed-free (see pp.64–65). • Start sowing tender vegetables indoors in spring; plant outside after the risk of frost has passed. • Protect carrots, cabbages, and kale from insect pests (see pp.66–69). • Make pyramid supports with canes for green and runner beans. • Water crops during dry spells, focusing on vulnerable young plants.

Plant Swiss chard with other leaves and roots such as onions.

GROWING YOUR OWN FRUIT Growing fruit is one of the easiest ways to feed yourself and your family with delicious produce while helping protect the environment. Trees and bushes fruit year after year with very little maintenance, and the flowers, foliage, and windfalls benefit pollinators and other wildlife in your yard. Fruits are also rich in phytochemicals, which help protect us against illnesses such as cancer and heart disease.

SELECTING FRUIT TREES Tree fruits, such as apples, plums, and cherries, offer many benefits to wildlife, as well as helping mitigate climate change (see pp.16–19). They are also suitable for small yards, if you select those grown on dwarfing rootstocks; specialist nurseries can advise you on which will be most suitable for your plot. For example, apple trees are available on M27 rootstocks, which produce tiny trees suitable for growing in large pots on a

Blueberry plants bear bell-shaped flowers before producing their fruit, classed as a “superfood.”

patio; MM106 rootstocks give mediumsize trees suitable for a larger yard. Look for heritage varieties to increase biodiversity, or do a little research to discover if any fruits were traditionally grown in your area, since these will probably thrive in your yard. Also check if your chosen tree needs a pollination partner tree to produce a good crop of fruit. Bare-root trees are cheaper than those grown in containers, but are only available to buy from late fall to late winter.

Dwarfing rootstocks make it possible to grow several fruit trees in a small space.

WHERE TO BUY FRUIT TREES AND PLANTS When buying trees and plants, look for growers who have organic certification. This ensures that their plants have not been sprayed with harmful chemicals and have been grown in peat-free mixes, using organic methods. Most specialist nurseries give advice on the cultivation of the fruits they sell, or you can consult reliable sources online.

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If you want a single fruit tree of any type, choose a self-fertile cultivar such as pear ‘Gorham’.

BOUNTIFUL BERRIES In addition to a tree, plant a few fruit bushes, which take up less space in the yard but can be equally productive. Blackberries are very easy to grow, even in partly shaded areas, while raspberries and loganberries come a close second but will need full sun for their fruits to ripen. Plant blackberries and loganberries about 18 in (45 cm) from a wall or fence and train their stems along sturdy horizontal wires to create a fruiting screen. Raspberry canes are best planted in a bed or border and trained on a frame made from posts and wires, which will allow more airflow around

FRUITS FOR POTS Where space is limited, grow fruits in containers. Strawberries will fruit well for two or three years in a hanging basket or pot. You can propagate them easily, too, by inserting the base of the little plantlets that form on long stems into individual pots of growing mix. Water them until they root, then sever the long stem to detach the new plant from its parent. Blueberries are also a good choice for pots, but you will

the plants. If you have sufficient space, grow both summer- and fall-fruiting varieties to extend your harvest. You can also increase the biodiversity in your yard by selecting some of the more unusual fruit bushes, such as chokeberries (Aronia), which can be grown in part shade under a tree, along with decorative shrubs. Another berry to try is Chilean guava (Ugni molinae), which tastes a bit like a strawberry. This plant needs a warm, sheltered spot and acid soil, so grow it in a pot of ericaceous compost if yours is alkaline. Chokeberries’ black fruits against red fall leaves offer ornamental value.

need to grow at least two bushes to maximize your crop. These vitamin-rich berries need acidic soil, and containers allow you to grow them even if you do not have this in your yard. Plant them in organic potting mix intended for acid-loving plants. Red and white currants will also grow well in a large pot and will produce long strings of nutrient-rich berries in summer. Try training the stems along wires affixed to a fence or wall so the sun can reach all the ripening fruits.

NEED TO KNOW

Red currants are easy to grow and look attractive trained against a wall.

• Keep all newly planted bushes well-watered during dry spells for the first year. Water trees for up to five years until they are well-established. • Make sure that your pots all have good drainage at the base; raise them off the ground on pot “feet” in order to allow water to pass through. • You will need to water fruit growing in containers once or twice a week in dry or warm weather. Fit a rose head to a watering can and use at least one full can on each plant.

Strawberries grow well in a basket, which can be hung at easy picking level.

MAKING AN ECO-FRIENDLY LAWN Much as we may love an expanse of green lawn, the environmental cost of maintaining closely mown, weed-free turf transforms what could be an ecological feature into a disaster zone. The effects of mowers, leaf-blowers, and lawn fertilizers create a toxic mix—one study has shown that

LEAVING YOUR LAWN TO GROW While a carpet of closely mown turf makes a soft and natural ground covering in a yard, it offers very little value for the resident wildlife. Mowing it less frequently creates a window of opportunity for wildflowers such as clover, buttercups, daisies, greater plantain, and bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), which are present in most turf. If they are allowed to bloom, they will provide food for pollinators and the caterpillars of butterflies. Insects that breed in longer grasses also offer a feast for birds, as do the seeds of many lawn

plants. In addition, clover enriches the soil with nitrogen, creating the ideal conditions for lush, leafy growth. If you must mow, leaving some of the clippings in situ will bolster growth—they release nitrogen as they decompose and can provide up to 30 percent of the lawn’s nutrient requirements. Add this to the contribution from clover, and the lawn will not need extra feeding. By mowing only once every three weeks you will greatly increase your lawn’s wildlife benefits, while using a hand mower or scythe will lower your carbon footprint further. A lawn should also not need watering—turf is drought-tolerant, especially if the grass is longer, and it will soon revive when rain returns.

Instead of fighting the weeds in a large lawn, allow some of them to bloom and contribute to the riches available to wildlife.

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gasoline lawn mowers make up 5 percent of the total air pollution in the US. To reverse this trend and create a beautiful haven for backyard wildlife, you can simply make a few adjustments to your maintenance routine, such as leaving the grass and flowers in your lawn to grow taller and bloom.

CONTROLLING WEEDS Research has shown that the close cutting of lawns actually contributes to weed growth, because it exposes more soil between the blades of grass and so offers extra ground where seeds can germinate. Most flowers can simply be left to flourish in a longer lawn, but dandelions and dock can take over and decrease biodiversity. Dig some of them out with a knife or trowel or remove all of their top growth by hand rather than using chemicals, which harm wildlife and contribute to water pollution. If your lawn is too big to make hand-weeding a practical solution, consider converting it into a wildflower meadow.

Remove pernicious weeds such as dandelions by hand before they spread.

TURNING A LAWN INTO A MEADOW If you leave a patch of lawn to grow undisturbed for a season or two, neither feeding it nor using weed killers, you will see flowers popping up among the grasses. Creating a small meadow in this way provides a habitat for insects and a refuge and food for birds and small mammals. It can take a few years to establish a good balance between the grasses and flowers, but over time a thriving ecosystem will form. Remove unwanted pernicious weeds by hand.

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1 Some flower species will already be

present in the grass mix. Grow more from seed in pots or buy them from specialist suppliers as small seedling plants (plugs). Annual yellow rattle (Rhinanthus minor) is particularly useful because it helps to reduce the vigor of established grasses, allowing more flowers to thrive. In spring, remove small sections of turf and plant or sow into the spaces. 2 For a more colorful meadow, sow annual flowers such as poppies, cornflowers, and corn cockles into the soil between the grasses and perennial flowers in spring. 3 When the flowers have bloomed and set seed in late summer, lightly mow the meadow so that the grass is no less than 2 in (5 cm) high. Leave the cut stems in situ for a week to allow the flower seeds to disperse. 4 After a week, remove and compost the meadow clippings. If left in place they will rot down and nourish the soil, which will result in more grasses at the expense of flowers.

TOP TIP IF YOU ARE LOOKING FOR A NATURAL GREEN CARPET THAT DOES NOT NEED MOWING, TRY A MICROCLOVER LAWN (TRIFOLIUM REPENS ). IT IS DROUGHT-TOLERANT AND CAN BE WALKED ON, BUT REQUIRES RESOWING EVERY TWO OR THREE YEARS.

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FEEDING PLANTS There are various eco-friendly ways to feed your plants in order to keep them healthy and productive. Bulky organic fertilizers that are made from well-rotted animal manures and natural plant materials, such as homemade compost, release their nutrients slowly, allowing plant roots to

absorb them when they are needed. They also improve the soil structure, so that it retains plant food and water while draining easily. Organic comfrey and nettle fertilizer teas are easy to make and offer another good source of nutrients for hungry plants, such as those grown in pots or fruiting crops.

FEEDING LESS FOR GREATER BENEFITS Providing plants with plentiful nutrients may be counterproductive. For example, in species grown primarily for flowers, an excess of nutrients, especially nitrogen, may promote lush leaf growth at the expense of flower formation. Some crop

species develop higher concentrations of phytochemicals (which help boost human immunity) when they are underfed. Excess nutrients are generally damaging to the environment, since they leach out of soils and accumulate in groundwater and natural waterways; so, unless your plants are showing signs of poor growth or have discolored leaves, it is best to avoid artificial fertilizers.

Tomatoes are hungry plants and need plenty of fertilizer to fruit well.

WHICH PLANTS NEED FEEDING? In nature, plants that grow in one ecosystem generally share similar nutritional requirements. Conversely, a garden may have diverse species with very different needs; some may require an input of nutrients to grow successfully. Fruiting vegetable crops will require feeding, especially when grown in pots. Flowering plants, trees, and shrubs in beds and borders can also benefit from a 2–4 in (5–10 cm) layer of homemade compost or well-rotted manure spread over the soil surface each year in spring or fall to keep plant nutrient levels topped up (see pp.48–53). However, a mulch may not be needed where the leaves that fall from trees and shrubs in fall rot down and recycle their nutrients for the plants to take up.

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Feeding crops less often and exposing them to full sun can increase their production of health-promoting compounds called phytochemicals.

PLANTS IN POTS Plants that are grown in pots often suffer from more nutrient deficiencies than those grown in the ground. If they are in their pots for more than a year, remove the top layer of soil in spring and replace it with well-rotted homemade compost or manure. This will slowly release its nutrients as the seasons progress and should keep most plants healthy. Summer-flowering annuals and crops may need a boost from a homemade fertilizer, such as comfrey or nettle tea, to top up the nutrient supply. You can also buy seaweed extract, which is rich in potassium (see right) as well as trace elements such as iron that plants only need in small amounts. Check that any product containing seaweed is from a certified source. Trees, shrubs, and other plants in their pots for more than a year require annual applications of compost or rotted manure.

MAKING YOUR OWN FERTILIZER Comfrey and nettles both make excellent natural fertilizers. Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) is rich in potassium (potash), while nettles have a high nitrogen content. Comfrey and nettle flowers are also a good food source for

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pollinators. To make these plant “teas,” use 2 lb (1 kg) comfrey leaves to 3 gallons (15 liters) of water, or 2 lb (1 kg) nettles to 2 gallons (10 liters) of water. 1 Collect leaves and non-flowering

stems, or harvest after flowering. 2 Chop up the leaves and stems and

pack them into a bucket or other container with a lid. Weigh them down

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KEY PLANT NUTRIENTS There are three main nutrients that plants require. Acid-loving plants also need the trace nutrient iron.

NITROGEN (N) This nutrient promotes healthy foliage; a deficiency causes yellowing leaves and poor growth. POTASSIUM (K) Also known as potash, potassium encourages flowering and fruiting and general plant hardiness. A deficiency causes poor flowering or fruiting and the leaves turn yellow or purple with brown edges. PHOSPHORUS (P) This promotes good root growth. Deficiencies, which will cause poor growth, are rare, except in heavy clay soils or areas with high rainfall.

with a brick. Add water (preferably rainwater from a barrel) and cover. Leave comfrey to ferment for about six weeks and nettles for three or four weeks. 3 Strain the liquid into a bottle with a cap—it is quite smelly—and store in a cool place. Dilute 1 part “tea” to 10 parts rainwater before applying to the soil or compost.

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KEEPING WEEDS UNDER CONTROL Weeds are vigorous plants that can take over a garden if left unchecked, which means you will have to remove some of them on a regular basis. Not all are pernicious, so be selective in how you tackle them. Some annuals, such as herb robert, provide food for pollinators and can be removed easily by hand if they threaten to overwhelm the garden, while nettles offer feeding grounds for some butterfly larvae.

Weeding by hand close to your plants avoids accidental damage from tools.

WHAT TO WEED

Dandelions seed themselves prolifically, so remove them as soon as they appear.

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Weeds take light, nutrients, and water from other plants and can also reduce the biodiversity in your yard. While many weeds support wildlife, allowing invasive species to take over your plot will reduce the variety of food available and the range of creatures that visit it. Plants to keep in check include the bramble, which spreads widely given the chance. Its sprawling roots throw up new plants, while birds eat the blackberries and disperse the seeds in their droppings. Brambles can also produce new plants from the tips of their arching stems, which take root when they touch the soil. If you want to feed the birds, opt for a blackberry cultivar such as ‘Loch Ness’ that will not grow as vigorously. Dandelions are also best kept in check. Each plant produces up to 15,000 seeds, which soon form a blanket of flowers. While dandelions offer food to bees, there are less invasive plants that do the job just as well. Other weeds can provide specific benefits to wildlife. Nettles, for instance, are the favorite food of red admiral, comma, and small tortoiseshell butterfly larvae, so just limit the spread of these beneficial weeds or set aside a “wild” corner (see p.122).

Dense planting reduces the open soil in which weeds can grow.

GROUND CONTROL One of the best ways to keep weeds at bay is to cover your beds and borders with your chosen plants. Packing them in tightly creates a blanket of leaf cover over the soil, leaving little space or light for weed seeds to germinate. Just be vigilant in spring when perennial plants are emerging and the soil is exposed, and tackle any pernicious weeds as soon as you see them.

PERENNIAL WEED ATTACK Bindweed, bramble, dandelion, couch grass, ground elder, and horsetail are among the most pernicious perennial weeds and the most difficult to eradicate. Never resort to chemical warfare, since weed killers adversely affect pollinators, such as bees, and contaminate rivers and oceans; some studies also suggest that they may be carcinogenic. Such

weed killers are rarely a long-term cure anyway, because the weeds’ roots may be spreading from a neighboring yard that you cannot reach and seed will find its way in again regardless. Instead, dig out these weeds, removing all the roots you can see. Place a marker where the weed was and keep checking the area for regrowth, digging it out as soon as it emerges. If you have a large patch of weeds, cover the whole area

with an old rug or other covering that will not allow any light through. Leave in place for at least 12 months, and the lack of light will kill the plants. Where bindweed or dandelions are growing next to your plants, pull them out or cut off all the top growth—this may not kill the weeds completely, but it will weaken them and prevent them from stealing the light and nutrients your plants need.

NEED TO KNOW

Horsetail is a pernicious weed that will need to be dug out carefully to remove all the roots and prevent regrowth.

• Most perennial weeds grow from even a tiny piece of root, and some can produce roots from their stems, too. • Many small domestic compost heaps will not achieve the high temperatures needed to kill these weeds completely, so do not compost them. • After pulling up perennial weeds, pack them in strong biodegradable bags and cover to exclude all light. Leave for two or three years and they should break down into usable compost.

HOEING SUCCESS Remove any annual weeds, such as chickweed, groundsel, and fat hen, as soon as you spot them. Either pull out mature plants by hand before they flower or hoe off seedlings when they emerge. Get to know what each of these weeds looks like at different stages of growth so that you are able to identify them easily. On a fine day before the weeds come into flower, push a Dutch hoe blade just beneath the soil surface to sever the roots from the top growth. Leave the leaves and stems to wither in situ and then compost them. Annual weeds can be easily removed by hoeing at seedling stage.

KEEPING PESTS AT BAY Aphids, slugs, snails, and a number of other common pests can devastate crops and ornamental plants, but there are many ways to control them without resorting to chemicals that may also kill other forms of wildlife. One of the most effective methods is to encourage a range of pest predators

such as frogs, toads, ladybugs, and hoverflies into the garden, where they will form an army of allies in your fight against pest attacks. Checking plants frequently for damage and limiting any infestations before they become a major problem are other eco-friendly ways to keep pests at bay.

ENCOURAGING PEST PREDATORS

Ferns do not attract many pests, but offer shelter for frogs and toads that eat them.

KEEPING PESTS AT BAY Insects, birds, and small creatures can be friends or foes, depending on their food preferences. Rather than waging a constant war on pests, choose plants that will thrive in the soil and light conditions in your space, since vigorous plants shrug off pest attacks much more effectively than struggling specimens. For minimum effort, include plants that few pests target. For example, hostas are beautiful plants for shade but slugs love them; instead, plant ferns, which like similar sites and are rarely troubled by slugs, nor any other pests. In sunnier sites, snails and slugs adore dahlias, lettuces, and basil, so try sedums (Hylotelephium spectabile), Swiss chard, and thyme, which are more resistant to attack.

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One of the best forms of defense against plant pests is to lure their predators to your garden. Birds are omnivores and some, including thrushes and blackbirds, eat snails, while sparrows feed aphids to their young in spring and early summer. Encourage them into the yard with supplementary food, such as fruit trees and shrubs with berries, as well as seed feeders. Frogs and toads are your friends, too. They eat slugs, snails, and insects, helping keep many pests at bay. Both require some water, and leafy plants and piles of stones to hide beneath. Even a small space can accommodate them—a half barrel filled with water and pots of marginal plants will provide a home for frogs, as long as they can hop in and out easily. The larvae of hoverflies, lacewings, and ladybugs enjoy a diet of aphids and will quickly polish off infestations, as will adult ladybugs. These beneficial insects will soon find their way into gardens where aphids are on the menu. Hoverflies and lacewings are also pollinating insects, so attract them with pollen-rich plants. Adult ladybugs will seek aphids and other small insect pests to eat.

Ladybug larvae are predators of aphids and may eat a hundred per day.

PROTECTING THE YOUNG AND VULNERABLE Seedlings and young plants are particularly vulnerable to attack from pests such as slugs and snails, though many that suffer damage at this early stage will not be affected so badly as they mature. To protect young plants, pot on seedlings and keep them indoors or out of harm’s way until they have developed sturdy stems. This may mean growing vulnerable plants such as cosmos in pots until they are almost in flower. Remember to put them outside during the day for a couple of weeks before planting them out permanently after the frosts. Also mix up your planting with different species and varieties—many pests have plant preferences, so the damage will be limited if they cannot easily hop onto their favorites nearby. Protect young plants indoors until their stems are more resistant to attack.

POND PESTS A pond with plenty of frogs, toads, and newts should not suffer with too many pests, as these predatory amphibians will keep most under control. Water lily beetles and china mark moth caterpillars carve holes out of the foliage of pond plants but they rarely spoil the flowers, so it is usually best to just tolerate this minor damage. Most water snails help keep the water clear, but the great pond snail, which has a long, pointed shell, will eat pond plants. If these arrive in your pond, attract them with lettuce leaves and remove them with a net.

The great water snail may arrive in your pond by means of eggs on aquatic plants.

Bright red lily beetles are easy to spot and pick off vulnerable plants.

KEEPING WATCH You will soon become familiar with the pests that are attracted to the plants in your garden. Check vulnerable plants every day or two and remove any pests that have few predators, such as the red lily beetle. Be vigilant for vine weevils, too. These slow-moving beetle-like insects are easy to catch as adults—they make semi-circular holes in leaves and do little damage, but their grubs eat plant roots, often with fatal results. Slugs and snails may be too numerous for pest predators to control completely. During the day, look under leaves or stones where they may be hiding; you can collect them and place them near your pond to feed amphibians and birds.

PEST DEFENSE Where neither predators nor being vigilant succeeds in keeping pests at bay, you can use biological controls and other eco-friendly methods to protect your plants. Food crops, such as cabbages, carrots, and soft fruits, are particularly vulnerable to insect and bird damage and will often need special treatment. Some tolerance of birds eating your tree fruits is recommended, especially as there is usually enough for everyone, but it can be disheartening to find they have polished off your entire crop of juicy raspberries before you felt they were ready to pick.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS The term “biological controls” refers to tiny pest predators that you buy and apply to vulnerable plants. They do not disrupt natural ecosystems and are safe to use on organic crops. The most popular are nematodes—microscopic creatures that eat a range of pests— and parasitic wasps that consume aphids. Neither will harm other wildlife in your yard, but check that you buy the correct type for the pest you want to control. There are specific types of nematodes that prey on slugs or vine weevils, for example, or mixes that will eat fruit flies, carrot root fly, onion fly, gooseberry sawfly, and codling moth. Store packs of biological controls in the refrigerator until you are ready to use them and read the application instructions carefully. Most work best from spring to early fall when the pests are active. You may have to apply biological controls a few times during the growing season (for example, slug nematodes last up to six weeks) and they can be quite expensive.

Biological controls, such as those that kill onion fly, are applied by mixing with water and dousing vulnerable plants.

068 069 ECO-GARDENING METHODS

Snails and slugs can rapidly cause major damage to many types of plant.

BARRIER METHODS

Nasturtiums planted with fava beans will draw aphids away from your crop.

SACRIFICIAL AND COMPANION PLANTS Where crops are besieged with a particular type of pest, you can sow another plant that the pest prefers to act as a decoy. A good example is to plant a frill of nasturtiums (Tropaeolum majus) around fava bean plants to attract aphids to their flowers rather than your crops. Other plants can be used to lure predators that will feed on pests. Pot marigolds (Calendula) act as both a sacrificial and companion plant, leading aphids away from crops and attracting hoverflies and lacewings that prey on them. Other good companion plants that attract these beneficial insects are French marigolds (Tagetes), mint (Mentha), and sunflowers (Helianthus annuus), as well as flowering crops such as celery, dill, and parsnips. There is little scientific evidence that some plants, such as mint and sage, deter pests by confusing them with their scents, although many gardeners claim they provide good protection.

Many pests can be prevented from ruining your crops by means of simple barriers. A fruit cage or netting that keeps birds away is a good investment if you want to grow soft fruit, such as berries; when buying netting, check that the packaging states that it is harmless to birds. Likewise, fine netting over a crop of carrots will prevent carrot root flies from laying their eggs in the soil, while covering cabbages and other brassicas will offer protection against cabbage white butterflies. The cabbage root fly can also be kept off your crops by a protective collar fitted closely around the stems of the plants. Cut out circles 4–6 in (10–15 cm) in diameter from cardboard or recycled plastic and make a straight cut to the center so you can tuck the card or plastic around the plant stem and prevent the fly from laying her eggs next to the crop.

Wool-based barrier products can help deter slugs and snails from attacking young crops. Grit or coffee grounds are also worth a try, as these pests are said to dislike the texture and will not traverse them, although the protection they afford is limited and some will venture over them to the treats beyond.

A netted cage will prevent a crop of soft fruit from being eaten by birds.

PEST TRAPS Beer traps have been used for centuries to control slugs and snails and offer cost-effective protection. Bury a jam jar or similar container in the soil with the rim level with the surface and fill it with beer. Mollusks are attracted to the brew and drown when they fall in. You can also try placing inverted pots stuffed with straw on canes pushed into the ground. These will lure earwigs away from vulnerable plants such as dahlias. Beer traps for slugs are easy to set up by sinking a container into the soil.

NEED TO KNOW • Some organic insecticides made from natural materials such as pyrethrum (derived from chrysanthemum and Tanacetum coccineum plants), oils, or soaps can help control insect pests, such as aphids and thrips. • Organic pesticides tend to be nonspecific, which means they will also harm beneficial insects, such as hoverfly and ladybug larvae. Use them cautiously.

DEALING WITH DISEASES One of the best forms of defense against disease is to provide your plants with the conditions they need to thrive. Many diseases can be kept at bay by ensuring your soil is fertile and has good structure and plants are not overly stressed by drought or nutrient deficiencies. You can also select disease-

HOW DISEASES SPREAD Many diseases are spread by plant pests, such as aphids and other sap-sucking insects, so take action to reduce vector populations (see pp.66–69). Some weeds also carry disease—for example, groundsel acts as a host for rust spores that may then infect your crops or ornamental plants. Keep tools clean and

resistant crops that offer some immunity and grow a wide variety of plants to prevent infections from spreading too quickly. When problems do arise, identify the disease and take action—but never resort to chemical controls, many of which have a detrimental effect on wildlife and the environment.

always wipe the cutting blades after use on each plant with hot water and soap, which will kill most diseases and viruses. Crop rotation (see pp.56–57) will also help prevent the spread of diseases that afflict specific plants, such as potato blight and onion rust. Groundsel often carries rust disease, so weed it out to prevent transmission.

Magnesium deficiency causes inter-veinal yellowing of leaves.

DISORDERS VS DISEASE Sometimes a sickly-looking plant may be suffering from a disorder rather than disease, and these problems are usually easy to solve. Wilting plants, for instance, may simply need a good watering, while plants with uncharacteristic yellow or red leaf tints may require feeding. Try these remedies first before considering diseases.

COMMON PLANT DISEASES When watering and feeding do not cure a problem, check the plant for signs of disease and then act promptly. The following common ailments affect a wide range of plants and crops.

DOWNY MILDEW Symptoms: leaves are discolored on the upper surface and show white, gray, or purple mold below. Control: remove infected parts. Spores are transmitted during wet weather and when humidity is high. Water in the morning so leaves dry out during the day, avoid overhead watering, and improve ventilation around plants.

GRAY MOLD Symptoms: this fungal disease (Botrytis cinerea) causes fuzzy gray-brown mold on decaying leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits. Buds and flowers may shrivel and die. Control: it is often caused by high humidity, so provide better ventilation and drainage. Remove dead plant material promptly when it drops to the soil.

that smells of mushrooms appears between the bark and wood, usually at ground level, and honey-colored toadstools may also appear. Control: there is no cure, but to limit its spread, create a vertical physical barrier from pond liner, setting it at least 18 in (45 cm) deep in the soil, with 1 in (2.5 cm) above the surface. This will prevent the underground threadlike fungal strands (rhizomorphs) from spreading.

POTATO AND TOMATO BLIGHT Symptoms: tomato and potato leaves have a white fungal growth on the undersides, and shrivel and turn brown. Brown patches appear on tomatoes, while potato tubers turn reddish-brown beneath the skins and succumb to rot. Control: do not compost infected material—throw it away or burn it. Practice crop rotation and buy disease-resistant varieties. Indoor tomatoes are rarely affected.

widely. Add mulches over the soil to retain water, but also ensure that drainage is good to prevent other fungal diseases taking hold.

RUST Symptoms: raised areas, mainly on lower leaf surfaces, which may be rusty brown, orange, yellow, black, or white, depending on the specific type of rust. Heavy infection reduces the vigor of some plants; in others, it has little effect on fruiting and flowering and will not need any management. Control: where infection is localized, remove infected material but do not take off too many leaves, because this will affect growth. Remove dead and diseased plant material lying on the soil in fall and do not compost.

VIRUSES Symptoms: pale green or yellow

kills the roots of perennials, trees, and woody plants. White fungal growth

powdery fungal growth covers the leaves, flowers, and fruits, which may then become distorted. Control: remove infected parts and improve the air flow between plants by spacing them more

spots, streaks, or mosaic patterns appear on the leaves. Flowers are smaller than usual and may be streaked with white patches; fruit may also be discolored and streaked. Control: remove and destroy infected material; do not compost or the virus will spread. Remove weeds and control pests, such as aphids, which carry viruses. Wash your hands after handling infected plants.

Gray mold appears on all parts of plants and may cause them to die.

Blight affects the leaves, fruit, and tubers of tomatoes and potatoes.

Powdery mildew is identifiable by a white, powdery growth on plants.

HONEY FUNGUS Symptoms: this disease

POWDERY MILDEW Symptoms: white,

PEST- AND DISEASERESISTANT PLANTS Whether you are new to gardening or just want to add extra color and interest, try a few of these plants, which rarely succumb to pest or disease attacks and need no special treatments. Most thrive in a wide range of sites and soils and provide beautiful flowers and foliage, as well as benefits to wildlife.

ALLIUM ‘PURPLE SENSATION’ ALLIUM HOLLANDICUM ‘PURPLE SENSATION’ HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 8 in (90 x 20 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45 In late spring, this ornamental garlic produces tall stems topped with spheres of tiny purple flowers. The leaves appear first but fade as the flowers open, so plant it between small shrubs and perennials that will hide the dying foliage. Pollinators love allium flowers so this bulb is a must for any wildlife garden, although it also looks good in more formal settings. Plant in groups of five or more in fall in free-draining soil for the best visual effects.

The round flower heads of this allium are magnets for bees and other pollinators.

CHINESE ANEMONE ANEMONE HUPEHENSIS

SNAPDRAGON ANTIRRHINUM MAJUS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 24 in (90 x 60 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 16 in (90 x 40 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Hardy down to 23°F (-5°C) SUN 4

An easy-to-grow perennial, Chinese anemone produces lobed mid-green leaves and abundant open flowers held on tall, sturdy stems from midsummer to early fall. The flowers of the species are pale pink, but there are purple, white, and dark pink cultivars, most of which are not quite as vigorous. This anemone soon forms large clumps, but it can be easily controlled by digging out unwanted plants. Use it in a wildlife garden or in informal mixed beds to attract a range of pollinators.

With hundreds of cultivars to choose from, this annual offers something for everyone. The unusual flowers, which open like dragons’ jaws when pinched, come in colors from white and yellow to pink and red. They are magnets for pollinators and are produced continuously throughout the summer and early fall, if plants are dead-headed regularly. Sow seed in pots indoors in spring and plant outside after the frosts in beds or pots in a sunny spot; snapdragons will also flower in a little light shade.

‘Hadspen Abundance’ is a cultivar that bears a profusion of deep pink flowers.

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Brightly colored flowers appear in clusters from summer through to fall.

MICHAELMAS DAISY ASTER × FRIKARTII

PURPLE BERGENIA BERGENIA PURPURASCENS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 28 x 16 in (70 x 40 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 16 x 16 in (40 x 40 cm) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

This easy-going perennial produces slim green leaves and daisy-like lavender-blue flowers on tall stems from midsummer to mid-fall. These are rich in pollen and nectar, providing food for bees and many other pollinating insects. One of the most popular cultivars is ‘Mönch’, which is diseaseresistant and very longflowering. Plant it in groups of three or more for a dramatic effect. If the stems flop, stake them with bamboo canes when the new growth appears in spring.

The large, glossy, evergreen leaves offer cover for hibernating insects and creatures in winter, when the foliage also takes on dark red tints. The leaves provide a foil for the late spring flowers, which rise above them on sturdy stems and attract pollinators. Most bergenias are easy to grow, given average soil and a few hours of sun each day. Plant in groups at the edge of tree canopies or at the front of a mixed flower border, where the leaves will add a decorative frill throughout the year.

‘Mönch’ has an extended flowering season which makes it ideal for a wildlife garden.

The handsome leaves of this bergenia create a subtle backdrop for the pink flowers.

ENGLISH MARIGOLD CALENDULA OFFICINALIS

TRAILING BELLFLOWER CAMPANULA POSCHARSKYANA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD: 12 x 8 in (30 x 20 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 6 x 18 in (15 x 45 cm) SOIL Moist but well-drained/well-drained HARDINESS Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 45

The sunny orange or yellow flowers of the English marigold are set off by slender mid-green leaves. Guaranteed to cheer up any patio container or border, the blooms of this hardy annual also attract pollinators. For more subtle, cream-colored flowers, choose a cultivar such as ‘Snow Princess’ or ‘Lemon Twist’. Sow seed in spring in situ or in pots indoors or outside, and use it en masse at the front of a border, in an herb garden—the petals are edible—or in containers.

This bellflower produces a carpet of small, heart-shaped green leaves on long, wiry stems and small, blue starry flowers which bloom from summer to early fall. However, its spreading habit means that it can overwhelm less vigorous plants, so allow it plenty of space to ramble. A favorite with bees and other pollinators, it can be planted in cracks in paving, to tumble over a wall, in a large rock garden, or at the edge of a tree canopy. You can pull out some stems in spring to keep its growth in check.

The cheerful flowers of English marigold brighten any border or container.

The bellflower’s starry blue flowers are a reliable source of color over a long season.

PERENNIAL CORNFLOWER CENTAUREA MONTANA

MOUNTAIN CLEMATIS CLEMATIS MONTANA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 18 x 18 in (45 x 45 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 20 x 16 ft (6 x 5 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

Also known as mountain knapweed, this robust plant thrives in all but the harshest conditions. It produces lush, silvery-green leaves and spidery blue flowers with purple centers from late spring to midsummer. The white cultivar ‘Alba’ is a little less vigorous than the species. This cornflower is beautiful in a wildlife garden or informal border where bees and other pollinators will be drawn to the flowers. It is inclined to spread, so give it space to form a clump and pull out unwanted seedlings in spring.

In spring, the spiraling stems of this vigorous climber are covered with mid-green leaves and fat buds that open to reveal four-petaled white flowers. Cultivars in shades of pink are also available. The plant offers a wonderful encore when grown through a fruit tree, the pollen-rich flowers taking over the show as the tree blossoms start to fade. It can also be trained on horizontal wires affixed to a boundary fence or wall and it needs no pruning, apart from a trim after flowering, if needed, to keep it in check.

Famed for their color, the flowers of perennial cornflower appear over a long period.

A profusion of white flowers decorates this clematis in spring alongside pretty lobed leaves.

MALE FERN DRYOPTERIS FILIX-MAS

HARDY FUCHSIA FUCHSIA MAGELLANICA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 36 in (90 x 90 cm) SOIL Moist but well-drained/moist HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 5C

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 5 x 3 ft (1.5 x 1 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Hardy to 14°F (-10°C) SUN 45

Most ferns need damp soil to thrive, but the male fern is happy in drier conditions, making it useful for shady areas beneath trees. In spring its fronds unfurl to form a shuttlecock of finely divided mid-green leaves. They may overwinter or turn bronze as temperatures fall, but they will look tattered by the spring and will need removing to make way for new growth. Grow this fern in large clumps for a textured effect, or with spring bulbs such as bluebells that will bloom before the leaves have fully expanded.

Also known as lady’s eardrops, this deciduous shrub may be evergreen in mild areas and city gardens. The woody stems bear many small green leaves and the dainty scarlet and purple pendant flowers, which resemble earrings, appear from summer until mid-fall. The nectar-rich flowers are loved by bees, butterflies, and moths. Cultivars come in a wide range of colors, from white to pale pink and dark red. Plant it in a sheltered spot in a mixed border or, in milder areas, use it as a hedge.

The finely divided foliage of the male fern offers shelter for garden birds and other wildlife.

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The pretty red and purple flowers of this fuchsia dangle like earrings from the leafy stems.

SWEET WOODRUFF GALIUM ODORATUM

CRANESBILL GERANIUM SANGUINEUM

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 8 x 14 in (20 x 35 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 5

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 12 x 16 in (30 x 40 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

The dainty foliage and flowers of this woodland plant belie its tough nature. It quickly makes a large clump, spreading via rhizomes (underground stems) to produce a carpet of bright green divided foliage. From late spring to summer, starry, scented, white flowers appear, attracting bees and other pollinators. A good choice for ground cover beneath trees, woodruff can be combined with spring bulbs such as narcissi and scillas, but keep it in check by removing Small, starry, white flowers stems in spring if it starts to stand out against the foliage, swamp its neighbors. attracting pollinators.

Producing a low hummock of small, lobed leaves, cranesbill explodes with color from late spring to midsummer, its masses of magenta, cup-shaped flowers almost obscuring the foliage. Use it at the front of a border to suppress weeds or in raised beds, where it can tumble over the sides. Cut back the old flower heads and leaves in summer to encourage a fresh flush of growth and divide large clumps in spring. The foliage provides cover for insects and small garden creatures.

HELLEBORE HELLEBORUS

ICE PLANT HYLOTELEPHIUM SPECTABILE

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 24 x 24 in (60 x 60 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 5

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 18 x 18 in (45 x 45 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 4

Hellebores are essential for winter and early spring gardens, blooming when many plants are still under the soil. H. niger, the white-flowered Christmas rose, appears from mid- to late winter, followed in early spring by H. x hybridus, H. x ericsmithii, and their many cultivars in colors ranging from dark purple and pink to cream and green-tinged white. All offer pollinators food as they emerge from hibernation. When the flowers appear, you can cut off faded leaves to keep the plant looking neat and make way for new foliage.

The fleshy gray-green leaves of this perennial emerge in spring, followed in late summer by dusky pink flower heads which bloom into fall, providing late nectar for bees and butterflies to sustain them through hibernation. The bronze seed heads remain throughout winter, adding a beautiful feature to the garden. The ice plant works well at the front of a sunny mixed border, in prairie-style designs, and in wildlife gardens. To prevent stems flopping, cut The flower heads of the one stem in three back to the ice plant offer late-season sustenance for pollinating insects. ground in early summer.

The large white flowers of H. x ericsmithii are tinged with pink and borne on pink stems.

This cranesbill's magenta flowers provide bright color over several weeks.

OREGON GRAPE ‘CHARITY’ MAHONIA × MEDIA

DWARF CATMINT NEPETA RACEMOSA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 10 x 10 ft (3 x 3 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 5C

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 2 x 2 ft (60 x 60 cm) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 45

The Oregon grape is an architectural shrub with long stems of spiny evergreen leaves that offer year-round interest. From late fall to winter, it bears spikes of cup-shaped small yellow flowers which have a sweet scent and attract pollinators. These are followed in spring by blue berries. Useful for shady borders and areas under trees, this plant makes a textural backdrop to spring bulbs, ferns, and smaller shrubs such as daphnes. Keep it in check by cutting back long stems in spring after flowering.

This free-flowering perennial produces clumps of slender stems covered with aromatic foliage, topped in early summer with spikes of small, lilac-blue flowers. The foliage is loved by cats, while the blooms are a magnet for pollinators, including bees and butterflies. ‘Walker’s Low’ is a popular cultivar, with compact growth and abundant blooms. It is an excellent plant for the front of a border in an informal or wildlife garden. Cut back the stems after the first blooms Catmint’s myriad lilac-blue have faded to promote a flowers are covered with bees second flush in early fall. when they appear in summer.

The bold and striking leaves of the Oregon grape are notable all year.

LOVE-IN-A-MIST NIGELLA DAMASCENA

COMMON LUNGWORT PULMONARIA OFFICINALIS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 18 x 16 in (45 x 40 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 4

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 12 x 12 in (30 x 30 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 5C

The finely dissected foliage and blue flowers surrounded by feathery bracts make this eye-catching hardy annual a must for any wildlife garden. The flowers open in summer, when they attract bees and other pollinators, and the seed heads that follow are equally decorative, persisting for many weeks into early fall. Sow the seed in situ in spring, after which, given free-draining soil and a sunny site, this little annual will self-seed in future years. The blooms also make beautiful cut flowers.

This semi-evergreen perennial has white-spotted hairy leaves that create a textural carpet throughout most of the year in sheltered areas. In spring, clusters of pink tubular flowers appear, then change to blue, giving a two-tone effect. They are loved by bumblebees and other pollinators. Perfect for a woodland design or the front of a shady border, this plant needs little maintenance, but it is best to remove old leaves in spring to make way for fresh new growth. Also cut back the flowering stems after the plants have bloomed.

The pretty blue and white flowers of love-in-a mist are followed by attractive seed heads.

076 077 ECO-GARDENING METHODS

With pink and blue flowers simultaneously, lungwort brings valuable color to a shady spot.

ROSE ‘SEAGULL’ ROSA ‘SEAGULL’ HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 20 x 15 ft (6 x 5 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDINESS Fully hardy SUN 4 A vigorous rambling rose, ‘Seagull’, like many of its kind, is generally free of pests and diseases. Tall climbing stems hook on to supports to reach the light. In spring, mid-green glossy leaves appear, followed in summer by large clusters of small, fragrant, pure white single or semi-double flowers with yellow stamens. The blooms, which attract pollinators, are followed by small red hips. Use ‘Seagull’ to decorate a tree or pergola, or tie it to sturdy wire horizontal supports on a house wall.

Bearing pretty white flowers with yellow stamens, ‘Seagull’ is ideal for growing through a tree.

ROSEMARY SALVIA ROSMARINUS (SYN. ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS) HEIGHT AND SPREAD 3 x 3 ft (1 x 1 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Hardy to 14°F (-10°C) SUN 4 Rosemary is a shrubby evergreen herb, loved for its aromatic needlelike foliage, used in culinary dishes, and its small, blue, pollen-rich flowers, which appear in spring. Grow it in the herb garden, or in mixed, sunny borders or large pots. Trailing varieties, such as S. officinalis (Prostratus Group) ‘Capri’, look good spilling over the sides of raised beds. Pruning is not necessary, but cutting stems for cooking from spring to late summer will encourage bushier growth.

Edible aromatic foliage makes this plant ideal for both kitchen and garden.

PINCUSHION FLOWER SCABIOSA CAUCASICA

ZINNIA ZINNIA ELEGANS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 24 x 16 in (60 x 40 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Hardy to 14°F (-10°C) SUN 4

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 12 in (90 x 30 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDINESS Not frost-hardy SUN 4

The perfect plant for a cottage-style or wildlife border, this elegant scabious produces slim, gray-green leaves and wiry stems of lavender-blue flowers with pincushion-like centers, which appear over a long period in summer. Rich in pollen, they attract a range of butterflies, bees, and other pollinators. They also make good cut flowers. Plant it in groups at the front of a border or mix with meadow grasses for a naturalistic effect. Removing faded blooms will extend the flowering period.

Zinnias’ tall stems of brightly colored flowers are favorites with florists and also make a striking feature in the garden. This annual produces mid-green leaves along its stems and flowers in a range of colors, including pink, white, orange, and yellow. To attract pollinators, select the species or cultivars with open flowers—some are also short and more compact, ideal for the front of a flower bed. Sow seed in spring indoors and plant the young plants outside after the frosts in large pots or sunny borders.

The lavender-blue flowers of this scabious are popular with many insect pollinators.

The orange flowers of Zinnia marylandica ‘Double Zahara Fire’ bloom from early summer.

Making biodegradable seed pots from recycled newspaper is easy and free—they can be planted together with the seedlings and will quickly decompose in the soil.

REDUCE, REUSE, AND RECYCLE Buying new products and furniture is sometimes necessary, but you may find recycled or salvaged items do the job just as well. By reusing and recycling, you limit the nonbiodegradable waste that is burned or goes to a landfill, while also reducing the plastic pollution that blights our world. The ideas in this chapter show you how to give household products another life and ensure your patios, boundaries, and furniture are eco-friendly.

REDUCING AND REUSING PLASTICS Plastic is so ubiquitous in the horticulture trade that it is difficult to buy a plant which will help protect the planet without also acquiring a plastic pot. While some nurseries and garden centers run recycling programs, it is still all too easy to end up with a mountain of plastic waste that will take

more than 400 years to break down. Plastic is also responsible for a cocktail of polluting chemicals that are pumped into waterways and the atmosphere during its manufacture and as it degrades. So, here are some easy ways to reduce, reuse, or even eliminate the plastic in our yards.

PLASTIC TYPES Many of the plastics that are used in the horticulture trade are not easily recycled. Until recently, black low-grade polypropylene (PP) was widely used for pots. This cannot generally be recycled because the sensors at recycling facilities do not recognize the black pigment. Although plastics of a different color are now more prevalent, they still have a high carbon footprint, generating pollution during their manufacture. Plastics are identified by a number, and these are the most common types found in gardening products

4

LDPE (LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE) Used in

potting mix bags and grow tunnel covering, this plastic is rarely recycled at commercial facilities.

PP (POLYPROPYLENE) Ropes, netting, and rigid containers such as flowerpots and plant trays are often made from this plastic. It can be reused and recycled, unless it is black. 5

6

PS (POLYSTYRENE) The

International Agency for Research on Cancer has identified styrene as a possible human carcinogen. Used in plant packaging, it is not generally recyclable.

080 081 REDUCE, REUSE, AND RECYCLE

Many everyday household containers can be repurposed for use in the ecological garden.

REUSING PLASTICS There are billions of plastic pots and other products used for gardening and food packaging that are destined to sit for hundreds of years in landfill or be burned in incinerators that churn out toxic air pollutants. Some will end up in our rivers and oceans, too, so we need to reduce our dependence on plastic products and repurpose the plastic we already have. Before buying plastic seed trays, look through your refrigerator and

cabinets for alternatives. Yogurt containers make excellent seed and plant pots (see p.83) and are often made from plastic that can be used several times, unlike some flimsy plastic module trays that split after the first sowing. Trays used for soft fruits and vegetables such as mushrooms can also be repurposed, while small black plastic plant pots that cannot be recycled are ideal for sowing seeds and potting on seedlings. After use, wash them in soapy water and they will be ready for the following year.

SWAP SHOPS Look online for nurseries near you that run plant-pot recycling programs, where you return their pots and they wash and reuse them. If your local nursery or garden center does not offer such a program, ask them if they could introduce one—consumer pressure often results in positive action. Also enquire about pot-swap programs, where you bring your own pots or bags to take home your chosen plants. Take your own container to pot swaps to avoid bringing more plastic home.

BYPASSING PLASTIC To prevent bringing more plastic into your yard, select bare root trees and shrubs rather than container-grown plants, and ask the seller if they can package them for transport to your home in a biodegradable material, such as newspaper or cardboard. You can also buy biodegradable seed and plant pots made from plant fibers, husks, or animal dung, known as cow pie pots. Some are reusable; others you plant in the ground where the pots will decompose naturally—breaking them

open carefully before planting helps the roots grow out more easily. Alternatively, make your own from paper or other materials (see pp.82–83). Traditional terra-cotta pots, which will last a lifetime if you look after them carefully, offer another eco-friendly option. They are made from natural clay, and if you buy them from a local potter, thereby reducing packaging and transportation, they will have a very low carbon footprint. Also look out for clay pots in antique stores and ask friends if they have some that they don’t need lurking at the back of a shed.

A biodegradable, compostable, plastic-free cup made from plant material.

WHAT ARE BIOPLASTICS?

Plant-fiber pots are better for the planet and blend well in the yard.

Terra-cotta pots can be used many times and have a low carbon footprint.

Made from renewable resources such as vegetable fats and oils or plant starch, bioplastics use fewer fossil fuels in their manufacture and degrade much more quickly than ordinary plastic. Some are also compostable. Plant pots made from these materials are now available to buy.

MAKING YOUR OWN SEED POTS There is no better way to raise your seeds than in pots and seed trays that you have made yourself from recycled and biodegradable materials. Some can be planted along with your seedlings, where they will decompose and help feed the soil as they do so. They are also fun to make with children and take only a few minutes—less time, in fact, than a visit to the garden center to buy commercially produced pots.

HATCHING SEEDLINGS Cardboard egg cartons make excellent ready-to-use, biodegradable seed trays, and the eggs themselves can also provide a home for seeds. If you are partial to a boiled egg for breakfast, do not discard the shells. Make a small hole in the base with a skewer, fill them with potting mix and sow one or two seeds into each shell. You can plant the

Cardboard rolls from paper towels are the perfect size for germinating seeds.

ROLL OVER Possibly the easiest seed pots you will ever make, the cardboard rolls inside toilet paper and paper towels are perfect for deep-rooted seedlings, such as sweet peas (Lathyrus odoratus) or green beans. You can use rolls from toilet paper whole and cut those from paper towels in half. Pack them in a rigid container, as they tend to wobble a bit and may lose some of their structure when wet. Fill with seed-starting mix and sow seeds. The cardboard is biodegradable and can be planted in the ground or a large container.

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Food cans with drainage holes in the base make eco-friendly seed pots.

shells along with their seedlings, but crack them carefully first so that the young roots are able to escape more easily. As the shells decompose, they release calcium, an essential plant macronutrient that is needed for building cell walls. It also helps maintain a healthy chemical balance in the soil. Sowing seeds in eggshells avoids plastic and feeds developing seedlings.

YOGURT PLANT POTS Plastic food containers of many types can be upcycled into seed trays and pots. Yogurt containers are particularly useful—the small types are ideal for individual seeds, while the larger containers are perfect for potting on seedlings. Clean the pots thoroughly

in hot soapy water first to remove all traces of food. Heat up a kitchen skewer and use it to make two or three drainage holes in the base of each yogurt container, then fill with compost and sow your seeds or transplant your seedlings. Small yogurt pots are convenient for sowing individual seeds.

MAKING POTS FROM NEWSPAPER These eco-friendly seed pots are fun to make with children. You can use newspaper, comics, or magazines, but avoid embossed paper, which may contain plastics or harmful chemicals. Use your pots for large vegetable seeds such as beans or cucumbers and annual flower seeds, including cosmos, annual dahlias, zinnias, and calendulas. Do not leave the pots in a tray of water, as this may cause the paper to decompose too quickly.

YOU WILL NEED Newspaper, comic, or magazine paper • Small can or glass jar • Scissors

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in half lengthwise so that you have a rectangle comprising two layers of paper. 2 Lay a small glass jar or drink can on its side and place it on one end of the folded paper. Roll the paper around the jar or can a couple of times. 3 Fold the newspaper at one end over the bottom of the jar or can to form the base of the pot. Carefully remove the newspaper pot and stand it up on a table. 4 Trim the paper at the top so that the pot is the height you want it, plus about ¾ in (2 cm). Fold this excess paper inside the pot to secure it. You are then ready to fill your pot with seed-starting mix (see p.51) and sow your seeds.

TOP TIP SOW JUST ONE OR TWO SEEDS INTO EACH HOMEMADE PAPER POT SO THAT YOU WILL NOT NEED TO TRANSPLANT THE SEEDLINGS INTO LARGER CONTAINERS BEFORE TRANSFERRING BOTH POT AND PLANT INTO THE SOIL OR POTTING MIX.

ECO-FRIENDLY LANDSCAPE MATERIALS Most spaces need hard surfaces, fences, and walls. Concrete appears to provide an inexpensive solution here, but its manufacture is the cause of great environmental damage. Decking and fences made from natural wood are a good alternative, if sourced from sustainably managed woodland local to you, but in many cases, using products made from recycled materials, even plastics, may be your best option.

REUSING PAVING Paving made from concrete, brick, and natural stone has been used for centuries to create paths, patios, and terraces. However, concrete manufacture releases huge amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere, and making clay bricks requires burning fossil fuels, creating other noxious gases as a by-product. While natural stone is of course a naturally occurring material, its extraction and transportation can have a high environmental cost.

To mitigate the polluting effects of all these products, look for recycled options rather than buying them new. Repurpose old concrete slabs, which you may be able to source for free on local recycling websites—even broken pavers can be made into decorative crazy paving. Recycled bricks and natural stone products are widely available from salvage companies. They may be cheaper than new stock, and they also come with an aged patina that looks more natural in a garden setting than a brand-new material.

Repurposed materials are often easy to source and give the impression of a long-established space.

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Steps made with compacted soil, gravel, and recycled timber lend a natural look that is well suited to informal planting.

Sustainably sourced timber is an eco-friendly form of decking.

DECKING OPTIONS A wooden deck can be an eco-friendly option when choosing hard ground cover for your space, but check that the timber has not been cut from a rainforest or other unsustainable source. Unless it is from a local woodland, it may have a significant carbon footprint resulting from its transportation. A deck made from recycled plastic may also be ideal for an eco-garden, as more than 90 percent of plastics are not repurposed and end up in a landfill, or polluting the countryside, rivers, and oceans. Some composite decking uses wood reclaimed from manufacturing industries as well as plastic. These decks last longer than soft wood and require no chemical treatments, but check that the products you buy are made from 100 percent recycled materials.

NEED TO KNOW When buying wood, check for accreditation that proves it is from a sustainable, regulated source. Look for wood products that have certification from the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) or the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC). These bodies assure that all wood and wood-based products originate from sustainable sources.

Recycled scaffolding boards and timber have been used to make these sustainable steps and deck.

RECLAIMED TIMBER

Logs used for screens or barriers provide homes for wildlife.

REUSING MATERIALS FROM THE YARD The most eco-friendly materials may be free and right outside your back door. Logs from pruned trees make beautiful stepping stones through gravel or grass, or use them to create screens that double as homes for hibernating insects and other wildlife. Prunings are ideal for homemade picket-style fencing, or you can harvest stems from a clump of bamboo to create an eco-friendly screen—if you cut just some of the stems, the plant will soon recover.

Most timber waste produced by the construction industry goes to a landfill, where it decomposes, releasing sequestered carbon back to the atmosphere as methane, one of the most damaging greenhouse gases. However, a wide variety of recycled wood for decking boards, paths, raised beds, and screens is available from

reclamation companies and by buying it you increase the perceived demand, which may result in more wood being recycled in the future. When purchasing reclaimed timber, check that it has not been treated with creosote or chromated copper arsenate (CCA), both of which pose risks to human health, wildlife, and the environment. These chemicals are now banned in most countries.

ECO-FRIENDLY AGGREGATES

Crushed shells from the seafood industry make a biodegradable path.

Aggregates made from the waste products generated by various industries, such as shellfish processing and glass manufacturing, provide a beautiful surfacing solution from materials that would otherwise be discarded and go to a landfill. Look online for a range of products, from recycled television and computer screens to slate and terra-cotta chips—the by-products of tile and china clay manufacturing.

CHOOSING AND MAKING FURNITURE New outdoor furniture is often made from mixed materials that are difficult to recycle. A more sustainable solution is to give new life to used furniture and save it from the landfill, perhaps by adding nontoxic paint or rubbing down the wood to refresh it. You can also lower your carbon footprint by making your own furniture from eco-friendly materials, or asking a local craftsperson to make it for you.

UPCYCLING SECOND-HAND FURNITURE A great way to reduce your carbon footprint is to recycle used furniture. Search freecycle websites, auction houses, and secondhand stores for wooden tables and chairs—many will be a fraction of the cost of new items. Even

plastic furniture will be better for the planet if it is reused. You may need to replace the cushions for chairs and benches, or simply re-cover the originals with organic cotton and wool or recycled materials such as curtains. Don’t dismiss timber furniture designed for indoors— if it is made from solid wood, it should last a few years outdoors, or longer if it is made from hardwood. To give old

Secondhand metal furniture sourced from auction houses and antique shops will add a stylish period look to your space.

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With some DIY skills and a few tools you can make your own classic table and bench set from recycled wood.

pieces a quick makeover, try painting them with a nontoxic, water-based paint or apply natural wax. Cast iron furniture is long-lasting and eco-friendly. Vintage pieces are available online, at auctions, and in antique shops, but finding a complete dining set can be difficult, so mix styles for an eclectic look. A coat of nontoxic, solvent-free metal paint can help unify mismatched items.

Interior furniture that is no longer needed indoors, such as this classic wooden chair, can be given a new life outside.

MAKE YOUR OWN If you would like to take a creative approach to your outdoor furniture, try making your own from upcycled or recycled materials. One of the simplest options is to use cut sections of logs as stools. Ask a tree trimmer, the local parks department, or a landscaper in your area if they have any suitable logs to spare; never take them from woodland. You may need to get help from a tree trimmer to cut the logs to the correct lengths. Another easy project is to transform a cable reel into a stool or table with a little eco-friendly paint; these reels are available from auction and freecycle websites or directly from the manufacturers. To create a bench for an informal garden, try screwing together a few wooden pallets, available from hardware stores, garden centers, and online. Rub down the surfaces with sandpaper to remove any splinters and sharp edges, and use wood scraps to screw two pallets together, one on top of the other, to create the base. Screw a third pallet to the seat to make a back for

Old pallets can be screwed together and painted to create a stylish bench. Add some cushions for color and comfort. Logs from sustainably managed woodlands make eco-friendly seats and a wildlife habitat too.

the bench, and paint it using a nontoxic product. Finally, add some cushions for extra comfort. It is also relatively easy to make a classic timber picnic table and bench set, if you have the space and tools for the job. To make the tabletops and bench seats, use metal joining plates or wooden battens to screw together recycled timbers cut to length. Then attach the legs securely to each piece with long coach screws. Cushions can be among the least eco-friendly products if the covers are made from synthetic or new cotton fabrics and they are filled with polyurethane foam, a plastic polymer derived from oil. Look for products made from sustainable bamboo, organic or recycled cotton and wool, or recycled bottle plastic. Use these to cover existing cushion pads or buy those made from natural sustainable kapok, wool, buckwheat seed, or millet husks.

TOP TIP MANY SOFT-FURNISHING PRODUCTS ARE NOT WATERPROOF. MAKE SURE YOU HAVE SPACE TO STORE THEM INSIDE WHEN THEY ARE NOT IN USE.

Furniture made from scraps from the timber trade has a low carbon footprint.

HANDCRAFTED ITEMS Furniture-makers can offer beautiful items handcrafted from natural materials, such as locally sourced or reclaimed wood and canes. Ask them where they buy their materials to make sure they are from certified sustainable sources (see p.85). Craftspeople may offer a selection of ready-made items or you can commission bespoke pieces to suit your needs. Either way, locally produced furniture that is made to a high standard using low-energy methods will have a much lower carbon footprint than products manufactured on an industrial scale. Also look out for specialist companies that produce outdoor furniture from recycled plastics and other eco-friendly materials. You will find chairs made from 100 percent recycled plastic recovered from the ocean; hammocks created with organic, recycled cotton fabric; cushions sewn from recycled plastic bottles; and beanbags that are handcrafted from old yacht sails that would normally end up in a landfill. Shipping distances will add to the carbon footprint of these products, but the total may not be as high as that of other bought goods.

RECYCLED PLANTERS Look around your home, shed, and yard for items that are no longer needed for their original purpose and can be transformed into planters. Almost any vessel that has not been treated with toxic chemicals can be

adapted, and finding a new use for bags, pots, and even old furniture will save them from a landfill or the incinerator. When filled with plants, they can create intriguing focal points on a patio or in the yard.

CHOOSING CONTAINERS Many household items can become eco-friendly planters: plastic food tubs, metal saucepans, dish-washing bins, and shopping bags will all do the trick. Look for items of furniture, too, such as old wooden drawers and cupboards. A metal wash basin will house long-lasting perennials or small shrubs, while a burlap bag that will biodegrade is best suited to short-term annual crops—you can add it to the compost heap when it is no longer useful. Your containers must have drainage to save plants from drowning, so make a few holes at the base of each item, using a drill with a metal bit for tough plastic and metal containers.

An old apothecary’s chest makes a characterful container for plants.

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Sedums, houseleeks, and pretty pebbles create an unusual chair seat. Stacks of bricks provide an informal support for recycled containers.

An old handbag can become a home for crops such as chard and green onions.

MAKING A PLANT SEAT An unusual way to display succulents and other shallow-rooted plants is to create a plant seat in an old wooden chair. You can replace the original seat base with a piece of pond liner or an old plastic potting mix bag. For a neat finish, position the black side of the bag facing downward, allowing enough depth of plastic to provide room for potting mix and plants. Fold the plastic bag or pond liner over to create a double layer before nailing it in place around the edge of the chair frame, then make some holes in the base for drainage. Add gritty potting mix for low-growing succulents such as sedums and houseleeks (Sempervivum), or sow baby salad leaves into a standard potting mix. If you would prefer wild flowers, make the base a little deeper.

HOW TO MAKE A COLANDER BASKET Old colanders make decorative hanging baskets for alpine strawberries, salad leaves, or pollen-rich annuals. If you do not have one tucked away at the back of a cabinet, they are easy to find in secondhand stores. Because they have drainage holes already, all you need are some old chains or strong twine to hang them up once planted.

YOU WILL NEED An old colander • Recycled plastic (optional) • Chains and wire or strong twine • Potting mix (see pp.50–51) • Plants • Hook or metal eye

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into some recycled plastic and line the base of the colander to help it retain more water. (If you would prefer not to do this, you will need to water your colander more frequently.) Then half-fill it with potting mix. 2 Add your plants and fill in carefully around the root balls with more potting mix. Press it down lightly with your fingers to remove any large air gaps. 3 Thread the wire through three evenly spaced holes at the top of the colander and use it to attach the chains. Bring the chains together at the top and make a loop with more wire to connect them. Alternatively, attach the chains to a hook or metal eye. If using twine, thread it through the holes and tie it at the top. 4 Water the plants well and hang the colander from a hook, metal eye, or hanging basket bracket. Make sure you can reach it easily to water it. Water the plants every other day, or every day during hot weather.

DISPLAYING YOUR PLANTS You can raise the stakes by creating a plant pot display on an old wooden ladder—just place your pots on the steps so that each plant receives sufficient light for its needs. Setting plants on old wooden chairs or recycled timber planks on bricks are other quick and easy ways to create a plant display on a patio or balcony. Presenting plants on the steps of a ladder allows them all plenty of light.

RAISED BEDS FROM RECLAIMED TIMBER Vegetables and soft fruits may grow more successfully in a raised bed than on open ground, especially if your garden has poor or heavy clay soil. A bed crafted from reclaimed timber and filled with soil and garden compost will provide your crops with the optimum growing conditions—and while homemade beds may be no cheaper than kits bought from a garden center, the environmental cost may be much less.

GROWING IN RAISED BEDS There are many crops and flowers that will thrive in a raised bed. Try growing salad leaves, onions, radishes, cabbages, and peas, plus tender crops such as green beans, tomatoes, zucchini, and sweet peppers. Including a few pollen-rich flowers, such as French and pot marigolds, will brighten up the appearance of the beds and attract bees to help set the fruiting crops.

The richer soil conditions in a raised bed allow you to grow crops closer together than you would in the ground. This not only makes the most of your productive space but also helps reduce the number of weeds, because the dense leafy growth cuts out light and prevents their seeds from germinating. Crops can be protected from birds and flying insect pests by inserting canes into each corner of the raised bed and covering it with appropriate netting (see pp.68–69).

Planting in raised beds allows you to reach your crops from adjacent paths, without treading on the soil.

Higher raised beds reduce the need for stooping to tend and harvest the crops.

CHOOSING MATERIALS

Filling your raised beds with rich soil allows you to grow your crops closer together.

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Salvage companies offer reclaimed scaffold boards and timbers ideal for making a raised bed. Railroad crossties are sometimes used, but those that have been treated with creosote, which contains toxic chemicals and is banned in most countries, are not recommended for eco-gardens or growing crops. Products will vary considerably in price, depending on the treatment they have undergone; for example, old floorboards may need nails to be hand-pulled from them, but scaffolding boards generally require less work to prepare them for sale. Check the credentials of your supplier, and ask about the wood’s provenance, especially if it is hardwood that may have come from a rainforest.

MAKING A RAISED BED This practical bed should not take more than a day to make if you have some DIY skills. You can opt for a bed with just one layer of timbers, but adding a second layer to create a taller bed gives a more comfortable height to tend.

YOU WILL NEED Heavy-duty gloves • 8 timbers cut to size required: those used here are 4 x 6 ft (2 m) and 4 x 4 ft (1.2 m) • Sticks or chalk • Spade • Builder’s spirit level • Tape measure • Rubber mallet • Drill • Screwdriver • Long heavy-duty coach screws • Mixture of topsoil and garden compost

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to form a rectangle and mark their positions with sticks or chalk. Move the timbers aside, then use a sharp spade to remove turf and weeds from the areas on which they will sit, as well as any pernicious weeds from the bed area. You do not need to remove grass from the bed as the growing medium will cover and kill it. 2 Place the first layer of timbers in position. Check that they are level by laying a builder’s spirit level diagonally across the top; remove or add soil beneath them as required. Also make sure the base is square by checking that the diagonals are equal lengths. 3 Use a rubber mallet to adjust the position of the timbers so that they butt up and align neatly at the corners. Drill two holes on one side of each corner and secure the joints using coach screws. Check that all timbers are screwed together firmly. 4 Arrange the next layer of timbers so that the joints at the four corners are staggered, as shown, to give extra stability. Check that all the levels are correct before screwing the timbers together; there is no need to screw the second layer to the first as the timber is heavy enough to remain in place. Fill the bed with a mixture of topsoil and compost.

SECURING TALL BEDS You may need to make a bed more secure if it has three layers of timbers or you are using narrow scaffold boards. Screw an upright piece of wood to each timber inside the frame at all four corners. For extra drainage and to reduce the amount of soil needed to fill the bed, add a layer of broken pots or builder’s rubble to the base. Adding upright struts at the corners gives a raised bed extra stability.

CHOOSING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT Garden tools made from recycled or biodegradable materials such as wood will often outlast cheap plastic items, and many can be repaired rather than sent to a landfill when parts break. Secondhand cutting and digging tools, even those with plastic-coated handles, can last for decades, so look for old items that are still serviceable. Taking good care of your tools and storing them in a dry shed will extend their life further.

Storing tools in a clean, dry shed or garage will increase their longevity.

REPAIRING TOOLS If you buy tools with wooden shafts, they can be repaired rather than discarded should they break. You will find replacement wooden handles in various sizes and styles for spades, forks, rakes, and hoes online and at DIY and hardware stores. Online videos show how to replace a broken handle, but if you do not have the equipment or skills for this, ask a local professional to do the job. Once removed, an old handle can be cut into sections to make a log pile or hotel for hibernating insects and small creatures (see pp.124–125).

Metal rakes and hoes with wooden shafts can last a lifetime.

BUYING TOOLS TO LAST Basic tools such as spades, forks, trowels, and hoes are essential items for all gardeners. As with any product for an eco-garden, check the quality and the materials used to make them before buying. Tools crafted from sustainable wood (see p.85), metal, bamboo, and cork can last a lifetime, given a little

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Sharpening pruning saw blades regularly keeps them in working order.

care, so before buying new, look for vintage items that are still in good condition. It may not be possible to restore old cutting tools with badly rusted blades, but those with a thin layer of rust can easily be brought back to life (see opposite). If you do buy new tools, check the length of the guarantee, which usually reflects their durability and quality.

Replacing broken wooden handles on old tools extends their lives.

WATERING EQUIPMENT When buying a new hose, check that it is labeled “lead-free”—many older hoses contain lead in their brass fittings and in the hose itself, and should be avoided. Vinyl hoses made from PVC (polyvinyl chloride) contain phthalates, which have been linked to problems with human reproductive development and some cancers, so to be on the safe side choose a natural rubber hose with stainless steel fittings. Also check with the manufacturer that the rubber is from a sustainable source. If you cannot find one that fits the bill, it may be best to irrigate your plants in another way, while reducing the water needed by covering the soil with mulches. Many plastic watering cans are made from PVC, so opt for galvanized metal types, which tend to have a longer lifespan, too.

RESTORING GARDEN TOOLS

Before buying a hose, check that it is free of both lead and phthalates, and the rubber is from a sustainable source.

To remove rust from old cutting tool blades, soak them in a 50:50 solution of vinegar and water for 24 hours, then remove any residual rust with steel wool. Wipe the blades dry and apply some linseed oil to protect them from rusting again in the future. To maintain pruners and other cutting tools, clean and sharpen the blades regularly—blunt blades can tear your

plants and introduce disease. Wipe the blades with linseed oil and rub them with sandpaper to remove dried sap and stains. With a small sharpening stone, also known as a whetstone, gently rub along the blade. Match the angle of the stone to the tool’s blade to create a sharp edge. If the blades of your pruners break, you can buy replacements. Keep the wooden handles of your tools in good condition by cleaning them with water and a stiff brush. If they

become scuffed or splintered, use sandpaper to smooth them and then apply a little natural linseed or coconut oil with a soft cloth.

Remove rust from cutting blades by rubbing them with steel wool.

Sharpen your pruners by rubbing a whetstone along the blades.

After cleaning your tools, apply oil to the wooden parts with a soft cloth.

TOP TIP YOU CAN GET TOP-QUALITY, INEXPENSIVE SECONDHAND TOOLS ON FREECYCLE AND ONLINE AUCTION WEBSITES AND SAVE THEM FROM GOING TO A LANDFILL. MOST ARE MADE FROM MIXED MATERIALS AND CANNOT BE RECYCLED EASILY.

MAKING ECO-FRIENDLY EQUIPMENT Before buying any equipment, look for items at home that can be repurposed for use outdoors. Products such as cold frames and plant supports can be expensive and new equipment may include nonbiodegradable components, so making your own outdoor essentials is a great option to save money and

EASY PROJECTS It is easy to make a few practical gardening aids, even if you have little space and no special DIY tools or skills. For example, you can cut the bottoms off plastic bottles and use the top halves as mini cloches to protect vulnerable seedlings in spring. To scare birds away

reduce your carbon footprint. Packaging, pieces of wood, and kitchen utensils can be used to protect and cultivate plants, while larger items, such as panes of glass to cover tender plants or barrels for collecting rainwater, can be sourced from freecycle websites and neighborhood swaps.

from newly sown seedbeds or crops, such as cabbages, try stringing up strips of used aluminum foil or place old plastic bottles on bamboo canes, so that they rattle in the breeze. Alternatively, make a traditional scarecrow with prunings for arms, old clothes for the body, and a sock stuffed with straw or newspaper for the head.

A homemade cold frame provides protection for young plants in winter.

CREATING A COLD FRAME

Plastic bottles on the top of bamboo canes will sway and rattle in the breeze, scaring birds away.

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Cold frames are wooden boxes with glass roofs that give plants some protection against the elements. Although they do not offer frost-free conditions, you can use them to overwinter hardy young plants that may suffer in cold, wet weather and to house seedlings in late spring before the weather is warm enough to plant them outside. To make your own, first find a recycled window frame with the panes intact. Construct a box the same size as the frame, using the method for making a raised bed (see pp.90–91). Buy two heavy-duty stainless steel hinges and screw them to the window and the box on one of the longer edges, so that the frame sits neatly on the timbers when it is closed.

MAKING A RAIN BARREL Rain barrels made from old oak barrels offer an eco-friendly alternative to plastic models, which are not biodegradable and may split over time. You can buy a barrel or make your own from an old whiskey, beer, or wine barrel, obtainable from specialist suppliers and online. Check that the barrel has a lid or solid top to prevent debris falling in and that it has

not been used to store chemicals or treated with preservatives. Place the barrel on bricks so that a watering can will fit under the tap—you can add a tap, available from barrel suppliers, if yours does not have one already. Site the barrel no more than 20 in (50 cm) from a drainpipe, then fit a rainwater divertor to the pipe, following the instructions on the kit. This will ensure the barrel does not overflow.

Rain barrels can store large volumes of rainwater for use on plants.

WEAVING A PLANT SUPPORT Young willow stems, known as withies, have been used for centuries to make woven structures such as plant supports. Ideal for beans, they also make beautiful rustic supports for climbing flowers, such as sweet peas and compact clematis. You can grow your own willow (Salix alba, S. viminalis, or S. purpurea) if you have moisture-retentive soil and a sunny spot, or buy withies via mail order. 1 To harvest withies, in early spring, use

loppers or a pruning saw to cut all the stems from a young willow tree to one or two buds from the trunk at about head height. This technique, known as pollarding, encourages the plant to put on new straight growth for weaving. Repeat this process every two or three years. 2 Insert up to seven sturdy stems in the ground to create the uprights for the support, using a terra-cotta pot as a guide. Tie them at the top with the younger flexible willow stems or strong twine. Soaking stems in water for two or three days will increase their flexibility if they have dried out. 3 Weave the stems around the base a few times. Tie them in place with more flexible willow stems or strong twine. Repeat two or three times up the support to create a strong structure. 4 Install your plant supports in the garden wherever they are needed.

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REDUCING YOUR GARDEN’S FUEL CONSUMPTION From power tools to patio lights, the fuel used by modern gardening equipment contributes to pollution levels and climate change—but even a brief look at how earlier generations maintained their gardens shows that much of today’s energy consumption is

WORKING OUT IN THE YARD Electric tools make it easier for us to keep outdoor spaces in good order, but the price that we pay is the environmental damage they cause. It is an interesting paradox that in the 21st century we may now expend less of our own energy on jobs in the yard but then go to a gym to exercise, when working outside has more benefits for our health and helps

reduce pollution, too. Research shows that gardening increases muscle strength and bone mineral density, and lowers cholesterol levels and blood pressure, contributing to a healthier and longer life. Scientists have also discovered that exercising outside in a natural environment is more beneficial than exercising indoors, as it stimulates an enzyme called telomerase, which helps prevent age-related illnesses. The answer is to swap power tools and machines for mechanical equipment such as push

Using a push mower is good exercise and also avoids the use of gasoline or electricity.

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not necessary. Traditional low-tech methods can be employed to reduce your carbon footprint without affecting the beauty or productivity of your patch. Here are ways to cut your fuel needs while benefiting both your own health and that of the planet. mowers and ratchet loppers that use no polluting fuels. Instead of reaching for a leaf blower, invest in a besom broom made from birch twigs, and when cleaning a patio or deck, scrub it with hot water and a stiff brush, rather than using a power washer.

TOP TIP REMEMBER NOT TO USE DETERGENTS WHEN CLEANING OUTDOORS—THEY WILL SEEP INTO PONDS AND WATERWAYS, HARMING WILDLIFE AND INCREASING POLLUTION.

A besom broom is an efficient and eco-friendly tool for sweeping up leaves.

TURN DOWN THE HEAT The trend for heating outdoor seating areas has raised many concerns about the environmental damage that patio heaters and fire pits can cause. Exterior gas-powered heaters have a high carbon footprint, and while electric models that use infrared technology to heat your body rather than the air may be more energy efficient, they still have a cost. Burning coal or wet wood—banned in some countries—in a firepit is also polluting, producing particulates that affect our health and air quality. Even locally sourced, natural products, such

as freshly cut branches from your tree, are not safe to use—one study showed that burning wet wood for an hour is more polluting than driving a diesel truck. The question is, do we really need to heat outdoor spaces at all? A warm blanket will keep you snug on cool evenings and is perhaps more effective than a heater. You can also surround a seating area with a hedge windbreak to create more shelter, thereby reducing the need for heating and fuel use. Surrounding your seats with hedging will help keep out the cold.

DRY RIGHT

To prevent light pollution having an adverse effect on animals and plants, always switch lights off after use at night.

LIGHTING THE WAY Most outdoor lights today are either LEDs, which use very little electricity, or solar-powered units that use none at all. However, while this is a positive step, they can still cause light pollution, which has a negative effect on wildlife. Studies have shown that LEDs often found in street lights emit wavelengths of blue light that affect animals—including humans—more than lights emitting from other parts of the spectrum.

Light pollution disrupts normal animal behavior; for example, blackbirds should only wake at dawn, but they have been heard singing all night in brightly lit cities. Other creatures affected by light pollution include bats, migratory birds, fish, and insects, and it can even have an impact on plants. Solar-powered units may be a better choice because they emit low light levels, but they, too, will have a detrimental effect if they shine all night, so remember to turn them off before going indoors.

TOP TIP AVOID CHEAP SOLAR-POWERED LIGHTS THAT BREAK EASILY. THEY ARE OFTEN MADE FROM PLASTIC AND A RANGE OF OTHER MATERIALS THAT MAKE THEM DIFFICULT TO RECYCLE, AND MOST GO TO THE LANDFILL AFTER A YEAR OR TWO.

Making space in the yard to dry your clothes can have a significant impact on your energy needs. Almost 75 percent of American and 50 percent of European households own a dryer, which has one of the highest fuel consumptions in the home, but you can dry your clothes outside for free. Doing so is also better for fabrics, since studies show that dryers break down the fibers in materials. Air-dried laundry smells better, too, and you can add to that sweet scent by growing some lavender or rosemary bushes under your clothesline.

Drying your washing on a clothesline uses no fuel and is better for the fabrics.

REDUCING WATER USE Water is a precious resource, even in areas where there is relatively high rainfall. The water that pours from our taps has been processed, filtered, and made safe to drink, usually with the addition of chemicals such as chlorine, all of which entails an energy cost and environmental price tag. Try to minimize its use outdoors by preserving the rainwater that falls on your plot, choosing and positioning your plants carefully, particularly if you live in a drought-prone region, and only watering those plants that really need it.

SELECTING AND SITING YOUR PLANTS

Adding mulch to your soil makes it more moisture-retentive.

PRESERVING SOIL WATER One of the most efficient ways to reduce our reliance on tap water is to trap rain that falls on the garden. In spring, after rain has soaked the soil, apply a 2–4 in (5–10 cm) layer of organic mulch, such as well-rotted animal manure or homemade compost, over the surface (see also pp.48–53). This will reduce evaporation and maintain soil moisture at deeper levels. As rainwater drains deep into the soil, it encourages plant roots to follow it down to where moisture is more consistent, which helps protect plants from periods of drought when upper soil levels are dry.

098 099 REDUCE, REUSE, AND RECYCLE

Covering the soil with plants will prevent high evaporation rates.

To reduce your water needs, look for plants that will suit your local climate and conditions. Use drought-tolerant species in areas with low rainfall, in sunny spots on sandy soil, and at the tops of slopes. Good choices include lavender, rock roses (Cistus), sea holly (Eryngium), Russian sage (Perovskia atriplicifolia, syn. Salvia yangii), and lamb’s ears (Stachys byzantina). Low-growing plants adapted to arid conditions, such as sedums, houseleeks (Sempervivum), and Cape daisies (Osteospermum), are ideal for containers that dry out quickly.

Where rainfall—or lack of it—is not predictable, which now includes many more areas due to climate change, drought-tolerant plants may not always be the answer. For example, if your soil is bone dry in summer but saturated in winter, lavender and other plants adapted to arid conditions will not survive the wetter months. Look instead for plants that can cope with a range of soil conditions and some shade, and plant them away from spots that receive the full glare of the summer sun. Good choices include buddleias, catmint (Nepeta), many hardy geraniums, and astrantias—and try others that thrive in part-shade to see which work well in your space.

Lavender, salvias, and thymes are good choices for dry soils.

Sedums and houseleeks need very little water, even in summer.

WHAT TO WATER Mature plants with extensive root systems should not need watering; if they do, you probably have the wrong plant in the wrong place (see pp.40–41). Even during long periods of drought in summer, most trees and shrubs should cope, assuming rain returns within a month or two. Established perennials that are adapted to your conditions should need no or very little extra irrigation and lawns that have dried out

and turned yellow are also droughtresistant and will usually green up again after it has rained. This means that very few plants really need irrigating. Focus your watering can on seedlings, young plants with immature root systems and those you have just planted, annual crops, and plants in pots and containers. Bear in mind, too, that recent research has shown that many crops have higher levels of healthpromoting phytochemicals if they are slightly water-stressed. Target the water from your can on the soil above the root zone.

HOW TO WATER

Pots of summer bedding will need to be watered every few days.

Water cabbages and other crops only during dry spells.

Plants absorb water largely through their roots, so avoid splashing their leaves or flowers, which will have little effect. Use a can with a rose head or a hose on a gentle spray and target the soil above the root zone. Give your plants a long drink so that moisture drains down to the lower depths— small, frequent doses mean the water remains close to the surface where the roots are more vulnerable to drying out. Take care when watering plants in pots, where the moisture may run off the leaf canopy and on to the ground. Water two or three times a week, unless pots are small, when a daily dose may be needed. Apply water early in the morning or in the evening, when evaporation rates are at their lowest.

NEED TO KNOW

Established trees and shrubs suited to your climate and soil conditions will thrive without extra irrigation during dry spells.

Do not rush to water plants that wilt on hot days in summer. For many, this is a temporary state that allows the plant to preserve its water content by not releasing it through the stomata (pores in its leaves) as the plant would do normally. Wait until evening falls and the temperature cools, and only water then if the plant is still wilting.

COLLECTING AND REUSING WATER Capturing and storing rainwater that would otherwise go down the drain is the perfect way to make the most of precious supplies. It also helps prevent water running off into overloaded street drainage systems, where it can pick up pollutants and contaminate waterways. Rainwater collected in barrels or

buckets is ideal for irrigating plants because it is free from chlorine, which is added to tap water to make it safe to drink but is disliked by some ornamental plants and crops. In a few instances, household water can also be saved and used to irrigate plants, depending on the cleaning products you use.

CHOOSING A RAIN BARREL

Prevent water from being wasted by capturing it from a shed roof.

Plastic barrels are relatively cheap, but they will obviously bring more of this nonbiodegradable material into your space. However, in a small space, a slimline plastic model may be your only option. To minimize the impact on the environment, opt for a good quality barrel made from recycled plastic. You can also buy galvanized steel barrels, which may be more eco-friendly but can heat up quickly in summer, causing some of the water to evaporate. Alternatively, opt for a recycled wine or whiskey

NEED TO KNOW

RECYCLING RAINWATER To reduce waste and irrigate plants during dry spells, recycle as much rainwater as you can from the roofs and hard surfaces in your yard. Install rain barrels to the downspouts on your home, garage, shed, and greenhouse and use the rainwater on thirsty plants and crops (see p.99). Water from a barrel is also ideal for topping up ponds and water features—tap water can disrupt a natural aquatic ecosystem. Also include a barrel to capture rainwater in a front yard to prevent excess run-off from flowing into the street drainage systems, which can become overloaded and cause pollution during and after a storm (see pp.30–31).

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barrel made from oak and sustainable metals (see p.95). Any rain barrel should be sealed at the top or have a tightfitting lid to prevent leaves and other debris falling in and polluting the water. The easiest way to install a barrel is with a rainwater divertor, which you attach to a downspout. You can also choose to divert the overflow from a barrel into other vessels so that no rainwater runs down into the drain when the barrel is full—just make sure that the collection tanks are large enough to prevent water from spilling over the sides and flooding the garden.

Barrels made from recycled plastic are inexpensive and practical.

• If you use your rain barrel often, the water should remain clean and clear. If it starts to smell, lift the lid and remove any organic matter and debris such as moss and leaves that may be causing the problem. • Never use bleach to clean a rain barrel—it will kill your plants. • If you use a cleaning product designed for rain barrels, check the label to ensure that it is safe for wildlife. • Do not use water from a barrel to fill bird baths. It may have picked up grime and bird droppings from the roof and gutters that could cause harm to birds.

OTHER WAYS TO CAPTURE WATER If you have no suitable place to install a rain barrel, you can still collect some of the rainwater that falls on your garden. Place metal buckets or water storage tanks with open tops away from trees and they will soon fill up during a downpour. You can also use open vessels on a roof terrace or balcony to collect water for house plants, most of which prefer rainwater to that from a tap. In the yard, remember to affix wire mesh over the top of your containers to prevent small creatures and plant debris from falling into them. Use the collected water before it becomes stagnant and starts to smell. If it is not needed immediately you can pour it into clean bottles and store them in a cool spot to keep the water fresh for a little longer. Create a decorative feature with water-capturing bowls, but remember to cover them with mesh to prevent wildlife and debris falling in.

USING GRAY WATER

Water used for washing vegetables and salads can be saved for the garden.

Any water that is used in the home, apart from water flushed down the toilet, is known as gray water. It includes water from the bath, shower, and bathroom and kitchen sinks, and while some is safe to use in the garden, its suitability depends on the products you use. Most dish-washing liquids contain detergents that contribute to pollution when they enter a waterway (see p.30). Detergents can also harm fish and other aquatic life in a pond—you may be surprised to find this warning hidden discreetly on the label of even so-called “gentle” products. Biodegradable soaps can have the same negative effect, especially if they contain petroleum, colors, and fragrances.

Water that contains products made from natural oils such as coconut oil, shea butter, olive oil, aloe vera, and sustainably sourced palm oil can be used sparingly on ornamental plants and crops, as long as it does not touch the edible parts—do not pour it on root vegetables and leafy crops such as lettuce leaves, for example. Use as soon as the water cools in a bath or sink; never store it, because the soap will soon attract pathogens that may cause diseases. Also, do not apply water that contains soap residues in areas where it will drain into a pond or water feature. Water in which you have scrubbed your veggies before cooking or serving is also safe to use on any plants and near water features—place a bowl in the sink to capture it.

An insect hotel made from a variety of plant materials will encourage many species to make a home in your yard.

MAKING A HOME FOR WILDLIFE Eco-gardens are havens for wildlife, offering homes to a rich diversity of insects, birds, bats, frogs, toads, and small mammals. Supporting the many species that are drawn to our yards is important conservation work, helping reverse the worrying declines in bees, butterflies, and other creatures whose numbers are falling due to climate change and loss of habitats. So take up the challenge and discover how to create your very own nature reserve for all to enjoy.

FEEDING WILDLIFE One of the best ways to encourage wildlife to visit is to provide suitable food and water. While bird feeders and supplementary treats can help, plants play a much greater role in supporting the life in your yard.

THE ECOSYSTEM Natural ecosystems are sustained by a web of complex interactions between the plants and animals that are found in a particular habitat. The same is true of backyard ecosystems, with the difference that conditions in adjacent yards can vary enormously; for example, you may have

Planting areas with a diverse range of species will form the foundation of a complex food web that sustains the many creatures in your plot, from tiny beetles that live in the soil to foxes, birds, and bats.

a wildflower meadow, but your neighbor may have a planting of conifers. Not only are outdoor spaces profoundly influenced by human intervention, they are generally very small, so they have less resilience than larger natural ecosystems. The highly simplified food chain below shows how organisms might interact in a small ecosystem: plants, both living and

dead, provide food for herbivores and decomposers, which are in turn eaten by a range of predators. What the diagram highlights is that making a change to one aspect of the ecosystem—for example, by spraying insecticide to kill aphids—will very likely cause the entire system to adjust with consequences that may not be predictable or desirable.

sparrow hawks and cats birds

squirrels

foxes

earthworms

beetles

slugs and snails

Dead plants

This simplified food chain diagram shows the interdependence of many species of wildlife.

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hoverfly and ladybug larvae, and adult ladybugs

spiders

aphids

bees and wasps

birds

bats

moths, butterflies, and flies

moths, mosquitoes, and flies

Live plants: green growth; nectar; pollen; fruits; nuts

foxes

mice

MAXIMIZING FOOD SOURCES

Providing a range of habitats will attract a wide variety of wildlife.

Clearly, plants are the key to feeding all of the wildlife in your yard and including as many different species as possible will help create a haven for the broadest range of creatures. Trees are among the most important habitats. Their foliage provides food for the larvae of beetles, moths, and other insects, while the fruit and berries they produce feed birds, insects, and small mammals. Planting one or two trees in your yard, including a fruit-bearing species, will encourage more wildlife to move in (see pp.18–19).

LIVE AND LET DIE You may not immediately think of fallen leaves as a food source for wildlife, but these and other dead plant materials, such as roots and fallen branches, feed the decomposers, which form an essential part of the ecosystem. Decomposers include worms, beetles, and woodlice, upon which other predatory creatures depend, as well as bacteria and fungi. To feed them, allow fall leaves to decompose naturally on the soil and place prunings in a quiet corner to rot down.

Also plant a rich diversity of flowers for pollinators (see pp.126–133) and provide space for native species to flourish; some members of the local insect population will be adapted to feed on these in particular. A menu of shrubs and leafy species for different insect larvae to feast on will also bolster wildlife numbers. In addition, offer food sources throughout the year to prevent barren months when wildlife could suffer. A space filled with summer bedding plants that offer minimal sources of nectar and pollen when in flower, and no food at all in early spring and winter, will be depleted of wildlife. Conversely, yards with trees, hedges, and mature shrubs support the largest and most diverse wildlife populations.

SUPPLEMENTING FOOD AND HABITATS

The diet of adult wasps includes fruit, but they also feed insects to their larvae.

The food chain diagram shows that creating a space rich in plants is the best way to feed wildlife, but there are times when a little extra help is needed. Offering supplementary food to birds, for example, and providing sites for insects to breed and hibernate, will contribute to their welfare. A water source is also important and a pond will create yet another thriving ecosystem to enrich your space (see pp.28–29).

PREDATORS

Dead plant material provides food for the decomposers.

In many cases, the predators that eat the plant-eaters in your yard are your friends, offering a natural form of pest control. Birds eat insects, of course, but creatures that may not be among your favorite forms of wildlife, including spiders, centipedes, and even wasps, are equally important pest predators and they also provide food for other species further up the food chain. All play their part and should be encouraged, or at least tolerated, for their role in protecting your plants.

A log insect home will encourage more species to visit.

FOOD FOR BEES AND OTHER POLLINATORS There are about 20,000 species of bee worldwide, and all pollinate flowering and fruiting plants, including food crops. However, pesticide use, climate change, disease, and habitat loss have contributed to a dramatic fall in bee numbers and some species have become extinct. To help reverse this worrying trend, you can support bees and other important pollinators by growing a wide range of flowers and fruits.

Honey bees transfer pollen from plant to plant and also carry it back to their hives in pollen sacs behind their legs.

BEES IN CRISIS The crash in bee populations is a worldwide phenomenon. Falls of up to 25 percent in the numbers of native bees have been recorded in the US in recent years, with similar declines in Europe. Bees of all kinds contribute to the pollination of 75 percent of food crops, including staples such as apples, berries, and tomatoes, so any help gardeners can offer is an important investment in the future of these valuable insects. As well as planting flowers to feed them, banish pesticides and herbicides from your yard. Many studies have shown that pesticides cause bees to become weak and disorientated, so that they cannot locate food, while their ability to fight infections and produce eggs and sperm is also reduced.

Bees pollinate flowers as well as many important food crops.

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Solitary bees do not fly long distances and need food close to their nests.

Open single flowers offer bees easy access to their pollen and nectar.

TYPES OF BEE

pupae, and because the adults do not fly long distances, they require food close to their nests when they emerge in spring (see p.124). Bumblebee colonies die in fall and the old nests are abandoned, but the queens survive, hibernating through winter and appearing in spring to forage for food before making nests for their eggs, which hatch later in the summer. Honeybees overwinter in their hives, using their honey reserves to survive, but they may come out to feed on warm days. Bees’ life cycles and warmer winters due to climate change means that bees can emerge when there is little food available for them, so provide nectar and pollen sources all year.

There are many different types of bee, and each has slightly different mouth parts that allow them to target different flowers. For example, some species of bumblebee have very long tongues that can reach deep into flowers such as those of lavender and honeysuckle to drink nectar and collect pollen, while the tongues of honeybees are much shorter, so they focus on flowers with more accessible sources of food. The life cycle of bees determines when and where they need food supplies. Solitary species such as mason bees, which do not live in hives, spend the winter as

FOOD SOURCES Since different types of bee have a preference for different plants, try to include a wide diversity of species. For example, bumblebees love Pulmonaria in spring and lavender in summer, while honeybees are partial to spring blossom, sedums, and ivy for late-season nectar. The greater the diversity of plants in your yard, the more species of bee will pay a visit. You can even include bee-friendly plants, such as zinnias, cosmos, and snapdragons (Antirrhinum majus), in pots on your patio or balcony. Select a variety of plants that will give a succession of flowers through the year. Good choices for winter include mahonia, with its sweetly scented yellow blooms; winter aconites (Eranthis hyemalis); snowdrops (Galanthus); and hazel trees (Corylus), which produce pollen-filled catkins from late winter. Follow with spring bulbs, such as crocus and grape hyacinths (Muscari), and blossoming trees. Also pack your garden with summer- and fall-flowering plants that will provide a rich source of food when bees are most active (see pp.126–133).

Mahonia flowers feed pollinators if they fly on warm days in winter.

Grape hyacinths are easy-to-grow bulbs packed with bee food.

TOP TIP PROVIDE LONG GRASS AND UNDISTURBED LEAF LITTER TO ALLOW BUMBLEBEE QUEENS TO REST IN SAFETY BETWEEN FLIGHTS FOR FOOD IN EARLY SPRING. IF YOU FIND A BUMBLEBEE QUEEN ON THE PATIO OR OTHER HARD SURFACE AND SHE DOES NOT MOVE FOR A WHILE, GENTLY TRANSFER HER TO A MORE SHELTERED SPOT OR A BEE-FRIENDLY FLOWER.

OTHER IMPORTANT POLLINATORS

Hoverflies resemble small wasps and are harmless pollinators.

Bees may be the best known of the pollinating insects, but others also play an important role. • Beetles were the first pollinators to evolve more than 160 million years ago, and they still contribute to pollination today. • Flies, wasps, and hoverflies, which do not sting but look like wasps to protect themselves from predators, are other key players, as are butterflies. • Moths are useful, too, pollinating night-scented plants that have evolved to attract them (for advice on what to plant to sustain these beautiful insects, see pp.108–109).

FEEDING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS One of the best-loved of all insects, butterflies brighten the garden from spring to fall. Night-flying moths may not occupy quite the same place in our affections, but they play an equally important role in the ecosystem. The larvae and adults of both provide food for birds, and are an important source of

nutrients for chicks at nesting time. When these insects emerge from their pupae in spring, they also join the garden’s army of pollinators. The numbers of butterflies and moths are plummeting worldwide, but we can help boost falling populations by providing essential food and new habitats.

REVERSING THE TRENDS

Nectar-rich daisylike flowers attract many butterfly species.

FEEDING MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES Much media attention is given to the decline in the numbers of bees, but scientists believe that butterfly and moth populations are at even more risk. These insects react quickly to environmental changes, such as temperature rises and habitat loss, and their future is now in jeopardy. Scientists studying 28 butterfly species in the UK discovered that their numbers have fallen by almost 70 percent since 1995. The situation is no better in the US, where monarch butterfly numbers have dropped by 80 percent since the mid-1990s. Meanwhile, more than 50 moth species in the UK became extinct during the 20th century and the picture is bleak worldwide for these night-flying pollinators.

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Butterflies and moths are important pollinators, and their decline is having a devastating effect on some plants and on birds, which eat both adults (especially moths) and their larvae. Their falling numbers have been attributed to intensive agricultural methods and the use of pesticides, but scientists point to habitat loss and air pollution as the main culprits. In towns and cities, paved-over gardens and reduced biodiversity are also cited as factors—problems that

gardeners can easily remedy. Planting a wide range of species and leaving an area for wild plants and flowers will help support butterfly and moth larvae. Some may munch on your ornamentals but in many cases they do no long-term harm, so simply use other plants to disguise any damage. Including nectarrich flowers that adult butterflies and moths feed on (see opposite) will help bolster numbers, too. Butterflies use their long tubelike proboscis to reach the nectar.

PLANTING FOR BUTTERFLIES

PLANTS FOR ADULT BUTTERFLIES

You may find the numbers of butterflies increase if you plant native trees and shrubs, which supply food for their larvae. Grasses and weeds, such as nettles, are the favorite plants of some native butterfly species, so set aside an area for these, too. Nectar sources are needed for the adults, and good supplies

are particularly important in spring as they emerge and in fall, when they need to build up energy reserves to survive hibernation. Good plant choices for spring include fruit tree blossom, alliums, and sweet rocket (Hesperis matronalis), while asters and sedums will provide late-season nectar. Butterflies like warmth, so choose sunny, sheltered areas for your plants. Select a wide variety and plant each type in groups to attract a range of butterfly species.

Adult moths and butterflies lay eggs on their caterpillars’ favorite food plants.

Plant wild flowers such as cornflowers to attract butterflies.

Sea holly species (Eryngium) are favorite foods of butterflies.

PLANTING FOR MOTHS

LIFE CYCLES EXPLAINED

Like butterfly larvae, many moth caterpillars eat the leaves of native trees and shrubs, while others prefer wild flowers or grasses. Research plants that are native to your locality and include some of them to lure in breeding insects. Most adults are active after sunset and attracted to pale-colored, night-scented plants, many of which have evolved to attract these insects to pollinate their flowers.

PLANTS FOR MOTHS Buddleia (Buddleja) • Jasmine ( Jasminum officinale) • Honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum) • Night-scented stocks (Matthiola longipetala) • Tobacco plant (Nicotiana) • Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) • Petunia (Petunia)

Allium (Allium) • Buddleia (Buddleja) • Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) • Globe thistle (Echinops ritro) • Sea holly (Eryngium) • Sweet rocket (Hesperis matronalis) • Sedum (Hylotelephium) • Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) • Honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum) • Mint (Mentha) • Catmint (Nepeta) • Phlox (Phlox drummondii or P. paniculata) • Sage (Salvia officinalis) • Aster (Symphyotrichum) • Lilac (Syringa vulgaris)

Jasmine’s sweet scent attracts night-flying moths to the flowers.

Many moths and butterflies lay their eggs on the leaves of a host plant—usually a specific type which the caterpillars are adapted to eat. Other species drop their eggs into long grass during flight, while those whose eggs overwinter often lay them on a tree stem. The eggs then hatch into caterpillars, which spend most of their time feeding. Once a caterpillar attains its full size, it forms into a pupa, also known as a chrysalis. Inside the pupa, the caterpillar undergoes the final metamorphosis before emerging as a butterfly or moth.

PROVIDING FOOD FOR BIRDS Your yard can provide the perfect habitat for many types of bird, both those that are in residence all year and migrants that may visit for a few months to breed. Offering food from a feeder is a great way to encourage birds into the yard, while including plants that provide them with their favorite foods, such as seeds and berries, is another way to keep them healthy during the fall and winter months.

PLANTING A BORDER FOR BIRDS

Thrushes and blackbirds enjoy a protein-rich diet of worms.

WHAT DO BIRDS EAT? Birds are omnivores, eating insects, worms, and mollusks, as well as nuts, seeds, and berries. Grow plants such as trees and flowers that attract insects to provide them with a rich diet year after year. Lawns also harbor insects that birds enjoy, as well as worms that rise to the surface after rain, which make a good meal. Allowing some grass to grow longer and bloom will lure even more insect species for birds to eat. Native trees and shrubs not only harbor insects that birds feed on, some also supply a feast of fruit, berries, and nuts. Other flowering plants, such as sunflowers, honesty (Lunaria annua), and asters, produce protein-rich seeds that help sustain birds as the cold weather approaches. See also pp.134–139 for more planting suggestions.

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To maximize the number of birds visiting your yard, plant a border in a sunny or partly shaded spot with seed- and fruit-bearing flowers and shrubs. Start by removing pernicious weeds, stones, and debris from the site in early fall. Plant a few large shrubs, such as firethorn (Pyracantha), elder (Sambucus nigra), and guelder rose (Viburnum opulus) at the back of the border, checking their

Waxwings eat mainly berries and are particularly fond of those from rowan trees (Sorbus aucuparia).

heights and spreads to make sure that you have space for them to grow. Add plants that produce seeds that birds enjoy (see pp.134–139) in front of the shrubs, planting each species together in groups of three or more. Include early and later-flowering plants, such as tickseed (Coreopsis) with globe thistles (Echinops), to extend the seed supply. Water the border after planting and add a mulch of organic matter such as homemade compost over the soil surface. On sandy soils, wait until spring to add the mulch.

Firethorn cultivars provide a feast of red, orange, or yellow berries for birds through fall and winter.

HOMEMADE BIRD FEEDER You can make your own feeders by gently heating one part suet or lard with two parts bird seed and raisins in a saucepan. When the fat has just melted, pour the mix into a mold; you can also stir in some grated cheese as it cools. To incorporate a length of twine for hanging, use a mold with a hole in the bottom and insert the twine before adding the food mix. Suspend the feeders from a branch where birds will be safe from predators.

Position freestanding feeders in a safe, open area where birds cannot be ambushed by cats.

POSITIONING BIRD FEEDERS A richly planted garden will offer a menu of delights for birds, but additional food will help sustain them in winter and when they are breeding. Provide a range of feeding stations, such as bird tables and hanging feeders, to suit different species. Position tables in a quiet area where you can see the birds without

OFFERING CHOICE A table set with seeds, soaked raisins, oats, apples chopped into small pieces, and mealworms will attract a variety of birds, but do not include whole peanuts, which may choke small species and chicks. Peanuts can be given in a feeder made from wire mesh. Check that the nuts you buy are guaranteed to be free from aflatoxin, a fungus that kills birds, and crush them slightly with rolling pin. Fill other hanging feeders with mixed seeds. Birds also enjoy fat balls, but do not buy them covered with plastic mesh, or if you do, remove it before setting them outside.

disturbing them, and with good views all around so that they will not be ambushed by cats or other predators. A nearby look-out post, such as a tree branch, will allow the birds to check that it is safe to feed. Also include some metal hanging feeders in similar sites. Some birds prefer to feed on the ground, so scatter food on a lawn or patio, or put out a ground-feeding tray. Give just enough each day so that surpluses do not attract vermin.

Feeders are easy to make from suet or lard, seeds, and raisins.

NEED TO KNOW • Keep bird tables and surrounding areas free from droppings or moldy food to prevent parasites and bacterial diseases. • Clean your tables and feeders regularly with hot soapy water. • Move feeding stations every month to prevent droppings accumulating underneath them. • Wash your hands thoroughly after cleaning bird feeders.

Hanging feeders are popular with chickadees and woodpeckers.

SOWING A MEADOW Sowing a wildflower meadow will attract wildlife of all sorts, such as bees, butterflies, and moths seeking nectar, and birds that eat the seeds. Your meadow need not be large— a small patch in a sunny or partly shaded area will provide space to plant some native grasses and flowers. Sow them in early fall when the soil is warm and moist, and follow the tips here to ensure your plants establish successfully and bloom year after year.

In small spaces, sow a few wildflowers into existing beds.

SITING A MEADOW

Pictorial meadows, which include colorful cornfield annuals, will need to be sown year after year to maintain the effect.

WHAT IS A MEADOW? A true wildflower meadow comprises perennial plants that appear each year. They include native grasses and flowers such as coneflowers, black-eyed Susan, butterfly weed, tickseed, Mexican hat, and blanket flower, among others. These meadows are quite subtle in color and are usually dominated by a few flower species. They only require sowing once, and are mown each year in fall. The images that many people associate with meadows are actually beds of cornfield annuals, sometimes referred to as “pictorial meadows.” These are

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filled with grasses and colorful annual plants such as cornflowers (Centaurea cyanus), poppies (Papaver rhoeas), corn cockles (Agrostemma githago), and corn marigolds (Glebionis segetum). The flowers provide a useful source of nectar for pollinators, but they will bloom just once and then disappear if you do not resow them annually or turn the soil in fall to promote self-sowing. For the best of both worlds, you can sow a few of the more eye-catching flowers in pots and plant the seedlings into an established wildflower meadow each spring (see p.61). Alternatively, add a few annual cornfield plants to a mixed border.

Most meadow plants require a sunny, open area and poor soil, which will ensure that the grasses do not dominate the flowers. There are meadow mixes for shady sites, too, but your choice of flower species may be more limited. Although large meadows have great impact, wildflowers will flourish on just a few square yards in small to mediumsize spaces, too. When sowing from scratch, select an area away from mature trees and shrubs, which can inhibit seed germination. Most soils are too rich for a flower meadow and you will need to strip 3–6 in (8–15 cm) from the top layer and sow on the infertile soil beneath (use the soil you have removed in pots or raised beds). Alternatively, sow a crop of mustard plants in the first year, which will use up many of the nutrients.

Wildflowers will thrive in a meadow sown in poor soil.

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HOW TO SOW A WILDFLOWER MEADOW YOU WILL NEED Wildflower seeds suited to your conditions • Coarse sand • Bamboo canes • Leaf rake • Garden rake 1 Remove some topsoil if necessary (see

opposite), as well as weeds and large stones. Rake the soil to break up any large lumps. Leave the bed for two or three weeks, then weed it again. To prevent the seeds washing away, water the area before sowing. Use canes to mark out the area into square yards.

2 Mix your seed with dry coarse sand

to help spread it evenly. Weigh out roughly ¼ oz of flower and grass seed per square yard (5 g per square meter) of soil and mix it with the sand in batches in clean containers. 3 Sow each square with a batch of the seed and sand mix, using a leaf rake to lightly cover the seeds before moving on to the next section. Avoid walking on the areas you have sown. 4 With the back of a garden rake, gently press down the sown bed to ensure that there is good contact between the seed and soil, which will aid germination. Net over the bed to protect it from birds, which are very partial to flower seeds.

MAINTENANCE After about 6–8 weeks of growth in spring, mow the plants to 2 in (5 cm), and repeat every two months throughout the first summer. In subsequent years, cut the meadow annually in late summer once the flowers have set seed. After mowing, leave the meadow clippings on the surface for a few days to encourage self-seeding, then remove and compost them so that they do not rot down in situ and enrich the soil.

INCREASING YOUR YARD’S HABITATS Yards offer vital support to creatures whose homes have been lost due to habitat depletion. Creating areas for wildlife will help protect species by providing them with safe havens, food, and good conditions for breeding. Boosting the numbers of birds, mammals, amphibians, and invertebrates in your yard helps increase the genetic diversity within each species, making their populations more resilient.

CREATING NEW HABITATS A yard typically includes a diversity of plants that support a range of wildlife species (see pp.104–105). Diversity is important, because the wider the choice of plants, the greater the number of creatures you will attract—and once they have taken up residence, if a plant that they feed on fails, others will offer an alternative source of nutrients. Even in a small plot, you can increase habitats with imaginative planting. Pack your terrace or patio with flowering

plants and shrubs in containers; clipped yew topiary in a large pot, for instance, will provide a nesting site and fall berries for birds. Use shelves to make the most of vertical planting space and fix hanging baskets and pots to house walls, filling them with nectar-rich flowers and herbs loved by pollinators (see pp.126–133). Where possible, cover walls and fences with climbers that offer food and nesting sites—ivy is one of the best for wildlife, but you will need to keep it in check by clipping it back annually after any fledglings have departed.

Diverse plant species support the widest range of wildlife.

Grow ivy in a pot to provide food for pollinators or on a fence for birds to nest in.

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Viburnums will shelter butterflies during rain showers while also offering berries for birds in fall.

A vertical container garden adds more diversity on a patio.

MAKING A BOG GARDEN By creating an area of damp ground in a dry space, you can introduce a new range of plants to increase biodiversity. For the most natural effect, make your bog garden near a pond or small pool (see also pp.28–29) and choose a partly shaded spot so it does not dry out too quickly. Use rainwater from a barrel, or tap water if you have no other source, to keep the soil damp in hot weather.

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YOU WILL NEED String or chalk • Spade • Pond liner or recycled plastic sheet • Fork • Gravel or coarse grit • Rake • Well-rotted organic matter • Scissors • Bog plants 1 Mark out an area using string or chalk

and dig out the soil to a depth of about 24 in (60 cm). Place the liner or plastic sheet in the hole and push it into the corners. Weigh down the edges at the top of the hole. Using a fork, pierce the liner at 2–3 ft (60–90 cm) intervals—you want the area to retain water but not become completely waterlogged. 2 To ensure that the drainage holes do not become blocked over time, cover the liner with a 3 in (8 cm) layer of gravel or coarse grit. 3 Fill the bog garden with the soil that you excavated, along with well-rotted organic matter. Using scissors, cut visible excess liner from around the edges. Add a few cans of water from a rain barrel and leave to drain. 4 Plant up and add a layer of organic matter over the surface.

PLANTS FOR WILDLIFE-FRIENDLY BOG GARDENS Gravel root (Eupatorium purpureum) • Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) • Water avens (Geum rivale) • Hosta species • Leopard plant (Ligularia ‘The Rocket’) • Gooseneck loosestrife (Lysimachia clethroides) • Bee’s primrose (Primula beesiana) • Candelabra primula (Primula japonica)

A HERB WINDOW BOX To increase biodiversity, fill a window box with a variety of pollen-rich plants. This box is planted with a range of herbs, including thyme, purple basil, and wild marjoram (Origanum vulgare), which will attract pollinating insects during the flowering season. Fill gaps with lettuces, and pick just a few leaves at a time to extend the harvest. When the herbs come into bloom, hoverflies, parasitic wasps, and many species of bee that help control plant pests will visit them for their pollen. In subsequent years, when the thyme and marjoram outgrow the box, add them to a vegetable patch or flower bed, and renew the container with younger plants.

Thyme, marjoram, and purple basil jostle with lettuces in this window box.

PROVIDING WATER FOR WILDLIFE A pond is a great addition to a wildlife garden (see pp.28–29), but if this is unsuitable for your space, there are plenty of other ways to supply water sources. Birdbaths are easy to make and provide water for both drinking and bathing, or you can install a small water feature that thirsty creatures can use. Just remember to keep the water clean to prevent the spread of disease.

WATER FOR BIRDS As well as providing birds with food, it is important to offer a clean source of water, especially when natural supplies are frozen in winter or have dried up during the summer. Birds need water for drinking and for bathing, which loosens dirt on their feathers and makes preening easier. You can install one or two birdbaths in the tiniest of spaces and they are generally safe for spaces used by young children, especially if you elevate them on stands.

In cold weather, check birdbaths regularly to make sure the water is not frozen over and inaccessible to birds.

Whether you buy a birdbath or make one (see opposite), position it carefully. Birds can become preoccupied and vulnerable when bathing, so it is vital to make the bath as safe as possible. Place it where birds have a clear view all around, with shrubs or trees close by to provide cover and perches for preening after bathing. To prevent predators creeping up on birds, position your baths near thorny species such as holly or pyracantha. Alternatively, place stems of prickly plants on the ground around other trees and shrubs where predators may hide.

Bees will quench their thirst in bird baths or puddles.

A UNIVERSAL NEED All forms of wildlife need water to live. Insects such as bees require only a little fresh water to sustain them, and they can often be seen drinking from puddles or water droplets on plants. Birds and small mammals need a water source from which they can drink safely, away from predators and where there is no risk of falling in and drowning. A pond with sloping sides is ideal for wildlife, but in small spaces, you can use other features to satisfy thirsty creatures.

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Vulnerable young birds need a site that is safe from predators while they bathe, as flight is hampered by wet feathers.

NEED TO KNOW Many birds and other creatures drown during the summer when their natural sources of water have dried up and they attempt to drink from open-topped rain barrels or steep-sided water features. Either cover these features or make them safe by placing a plank of wood or a branch over them to provide a perch from which birds and other creatures can drink without falling in.

An upturned trash can lid secured in place on bricks makes an ideal vessel for sociable species to bathe together safely.

MAKING YOUR OWN BATH A good birdbath should have shallow sloping sides, allowing birds to perch on the edge and drink safely. A water depth of 1–4 in (2.5–10 cm) is ideal. Also make sure that the surface is rough-textured, so that birds can grip it and avoid slipping into the water. To attract the largest number of birds, make your bath as big as possible—a flock of sparrows or starlings will soon use up the water in a small vessel.

To make a simple birdbath, place a stone in the middle of a plant pot saucer made from terra-cotta or other textured material and fill with water. Place it on an old chair or table, a sturdy upright log, or an open-topped timber bird table. For a larger bath, upturn an old plastic or metal trash can lid and add some large pebbles or stones. Support the lid with bricks or soil so that it does not tip over. The stones in both features provide areas for small birds and insects to land safely without falling in the water.

SOURCES FOR SMALL CREATURES Small bubble fountains fitted with a solar-powered pump can also provide a water source for birds, insects, and small creatures. A feature that spills water onto a pebbled surface is a good choice, and the movement helps prevent the water from becoming stagnant. To top up the feature, use fresh water from a barrel or tap water—the latter is the safest because water from a barrel may have picked up dirt and bird droppings. Never use water that has an odor, as it may be carrying diseases.

KEEPING WATER CLEAN

After cleaning your birdbath, refill it with fresh tap water.

Clean your birdbath weekly, if possible, and change the water every day or two. To prevent algae, decaying leaves, and bird feces from polluting the water and causing diseases, scrub the sides and bottom with a stiff brush and just-boiled water, taking care not to scald yourself in the process. Remove any stones and clean them, too. Rinse everything well with fresh tap water. For stubborn dirt, you can use a nontoxic birdbath cleaner, but ensure you rinse the bath over a sink or drain afterward. If the water becomes frozen in winter, pour a little hot water in to melt it.

Birds can drink safely from the shallow water in a pebble feature.

CREATING A POND ECOSYSTEM A pond is a magnet for wildlife, from birds and amphibians—including frogs, toads, and newts—to aquatic insects such as pond skaters and water boatmen. A well-planned pond will attract large numbers of species, creating a small aquatic ecosystem within the wider environment. To maximize the

PLANTING UP A POND Research has shown that covering 50–75 percent of the surface of a pond with plants makes the best home for wildlife. If you have a large pond, try to include a selection of noninvasive, submerged aquatics, such as water lilies and common water crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis), which will help control pond weeds by mopping up nutrients and excluding light with their leaves. When choosing a water lily for a small pond, opt for dwarf Plant a range of species at these approximate depths in your pond to maximize the habitats for wildlife. Zone 1 Moisture-loving (bog) plants

Planting depth

varieties such as one of the Nymphaea ‘Pygmaea’ cultivars. If the sides of your pond are shelved (see p.29), use the shallower depths for marginal plants, which will support an array of wildlife. In other settings, you can support these plants in their baskets on clay bricks or flat stones, so that they are sitting at the correct water level for their needs. To keep pond plants in check, it is usually best to plant them in unfertilized garden soil in aquatic pots, which are fine-meshed plastic containers. As an alternative, you can recycle black plastic plant pots by punching small holes into the sides with a skewer to allow water to enter, or use small burlap sacks.

Zone 2 Marginal plants

0–6 in (15 cm) 6–18 in (15– 45 cm) Over 18 in (45 cm)

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habitats your pond offers, include a range of water depths and planting zones, each of which will provide a home for different types of wildlife. If your plot is not large enough for a pond, you can still enjoy some water plants and aquatic wildlife in a smaller feature, such as an oak-barrel pool or glazed pot.

Zone 3 Deep-water marginal plants

NEED TO KNOW Check that none of the plants you include pose a risk to the wider environment. So-called oxygenating plants are not really needed in a pond that includes other plants and many are too rampant for a garden feature. Some invasive oxygenating plants, such as parrot’s feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum) and Nuttall’s waterweed (Elodea nuttallii), were once widely used in ponds but are now banned from sale in the UK as they have devastated wildlife by clogging up natural waterways.

Zone 4 Water lilies (dwarf and standard) and deep-water aquatics

WHO LIVES WHERE? Once you provide a pond, wildlife will start to appear. Frogs and toads rapidly locate water sources, and dragon- and damselflies will pay a visit in summer. Taking a closer look into the water, you will notice many different types of insect, including water boatmen

floating upside down just below the surface, pond skaters walking on the water with their spidery legs, and beetles hiding between the plant stems, as well as pond snails and the larvae of mayflies, dragonflies, and damselflies. It is best not to introduce fish if you want to attract local wildlife because they eat other creatures, such as tadpoles.

Scoop duckweed from the surface of your pond with a long-handled net.

CLEARING THE SURFACE

Frogs often find a pond of their own accord, or friends and neighbors may be able to offer some tadpoles from their own ponds.

PLANTS FOR A POND

MAKE A MINIATURE POOL

ZONE 1 Bog plants (see p.115)

If you do not have space for a full-size pond, you can make a small feature in a watertight glazed pot or half oak barrel, available from specialist suppliers. Provide “stepping stones” by means of upturned pots and plant baskets to allow water creatures such as frogs and toads to get in and out easily, and to prevent other wildlife from drowning. Plant with pond plants, such as a miniature water lily, Iris versicolor, and zebra rush (Schoenoplectus lacustris subsp. tabernaemontani ‘Zebrinus’). You will need to divide these in future years (see p.44) when they outgrow the space. Top up your feature regularly during warm or windy weather with water from a rain barrel.

ZONE 2 Flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus) • Marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) • Blue flag (Iris versicolor) • Water forget-me-not (Myosotis scorpioides) • Arrowhead (Sagittaria sagittifolia)

ZONE 3 Sweet flag (Acorus calamus) • Pickerel weed (Pontederia cordata) • Dwarf cattail (Typha minima) ZONE 4 Miniature water lilies (Nymphaea odorata var. minor; N. ‘Pygmaea Helvola’; N. ‘Pygmaea Rubra’) • Larger water lilies (Nymphaea ‘Froebelii’; N. ‘Lemon Chiffon’; N. ‘Marliacea Albida’; N. ‘Rose Arey’)

If your pond becomes covered in duckweed (small round leaves that form a film over the surface) and algae, you can scoop it out with a net, or twirl algae around a stick to remove it. Place the weeds close to the edge of the pond for a day or two so that any wildlife can crawl out and back into the water, then compost them. Never use chemical weed killers in a pond.

Water lilies and rushes suit a small water feature for wildlife.

MAKING A HAVEN FOR BIRDS Creating a home for birds is easy to achieve with a few shrubs and a tree or two. These plants will provide safe nesting sites as well as a food source, tempting many species to raise their young in your leafy haven. Installing birdhouses will add to your yard’s attractions, protecting brooding birds and their chicks from the elements and predators. Just make sure that houses are in a safe spot and securely affixed to a structure.

A wooden birdhouse affixed to a shed and partially screened by greenery offers camouflage from predators.

Trees and large shrubs provide safe nesting sites while their twigs and leaves supply the building materials.

Birdhouses come in a range of styles suited to particular species.

CREATING SAFE PLACES

CHOOSING A BIRDHOUSE

Providing birds with places to perch, preen their feathers, and roost at night will help attract many species to your yard. Birds look for safe places, such as trees and tall shrubs, from which they can survey the landscape for food and where predators cannot reach them. If you have space, include a fruit tree and an evergreen, such as yew (Taxus baccata), which offers shelter in winter as well as food. From late winter and throughout spring, birds will also be searching for suitable places to build their nests. Small birds are attracted to hedges of prickly plants such as holly (Ilex), hawthorn

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(Crataegus), and blackthorn (Prunus spinosa). Many birds also appreciate evergreen climbers, especially ivy, which will create a leafy screen on a wall or fence that will keep chicks warm and well hidden. Other birds, such as swifts and swallows, may use the dry area under the eaves of your house to build their nests. Larger birds look for mature trees, where they can weave their sturdy nests out of harm’s way—the amazing structures made by members of the crow family high up in the trees remain intact even when blasted by storms. Trees, shrubs, and grasses provide material for nest-building, while mosses, mud, and spiders’ webs help birds knit the structures together.

While trees and shrubs can provide excellent nesting sites, man-made boxes offer vulnerable eggs and chicks extra protection from predators and the elements. You can buy birdhouses or make your own, but remember that different birds require different styles. Some tend to choose those with a small hole at the entrance, while others are drawn to open-fronted boxes. To satisfy the needs of several species, place a few different boxes around the yard. Buy your houses from specialist sellers such as bird protection charities and wildlife organizations to make sure the designs and materials are suitable.

SITING A BOX In fall, affix most birdhouses 6–12 ft (2–4 m) from the ground on a wall, fence, or tree trunk. Open-fronted boxes for robins and wrens need to be below 6 ft (2 m) but camouflaged by greenery. Use sturdy wire to attach to a tree, and add some cushioning material behind it to protect the trunk; do not use a nail, which may damage the tree. Make sure the entrance is not in full sun, which could make the nest too hot, and that it is sheltered from prevailing winds. Also, tilt the house slightly forward so that rain runs off the roof, well clear of the entrance. Avoid placing two houses close together and make sure that no plants or features near a house provide hiding places for predators.

KEEPING YOUR DISTANCE If you suspect that a nest or birdhouse has occupants, do not be tempted to get too close to have a look. This can frighten the parent birds and in the worst cases may cause them to

ANNUAL CARE From mid- to late fall, lift the lid and remove the old nest from the house. Pour boiling water into the interior to kill any parasites and leave it to dry out completely before replacing the lid. Do not use insecticides. You can add a small handful of clean hay or wood shavings (not straw) to the house after cleaning, which may encourage small mammals to hibernate in it or birds to use it for roosting in winter.

Fix a birdhouse in part shade and away from prevailing winds.

abandon the nest. Once the eggs have hatched there will be extra activity to enjoy at a distance as you watch the parents ferrying food to their young ones. If you want to see the chicks as they develop, consider installing a birdhouse with an integrated camera.

In fall, remove old nesting material, then clean out the birdhouse.

NEED TO KNOW

Venturing too close to chicks in a nest can frighten the adults, prompting them to abandon their young ones.

If you find a baby bird on the ground or on low branches calling for its parents, do not be tempted to rescue it. In most cases, the parents will be somewhere close by, encouraging the chick to learn how to feed and fly on its own. Human intervention may lead to the adult birds abandoning their chicks and they may then be reluctant to nest in your yard again. Only pick up a baby bird if it is in imminent danger, such as close to a road or a predator.

HOMES FOR TINY CREATURES There are many tiny creatures in your yard that you may not be aware of until you uncover them beneath a fallen log or stone; others live under the surface, where they help to improve the soil structure. Frogs and toads also remain hidden for much of the time, only emerging from the shadows in

quiet, damp areas when they are disturbed. These creatures, however small and seemingly insignificant, collectively make up the wider food chain and ecosystem in your yard, and supporting them is as important as providing habitats for larger, perhaps more beautiful creatures such as birds.

GOING WILD The best way to support this wildlife is to leave areas of the yard to go a little wild. Set aside a quiet area behind a shed or garage, allowing the grass to grow long and some weeds to flourish, which will provide the perfect habitat for amphibians, small reptiles, and many types of insect. You can also grow a few alpine strawberries in a partly shaded area to sustain small rodents, and leave fallen fruits from your tree to languish on the ground, so that butterflies, beetles, and queen wasps can take their fill and stock up on essential calories before winter arrives.

Woodlice are important decomposers, helping break down dead plants, which then enrich the soil with their nutrients.

HIDDEN LIFE Insects and small invertebrates make up the largest groups of wildlife, but most are hidden from view or only venture out after dark. However, look more closely and you will find a hidden world of vibrant life all around you. Turn over a fallen branch or clay pot and

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watch the woodlice and beetles scuttle off to find cover, or dig up a little soil to discover the insects and worms just below the surface. Mice and voles may also live in your plot, their presence only made known by nibbled fruit such as strawberries or a half-eaten flower bulb. All these creatures contribute to the ecosystem of your yard.

Make a home for tiny creatures with a range of native plants.

HABITATS IN DEAD WOOD Many creatures live in or eat decaying or dead wood, and rotting logs and tree prunings provide them with an essential food source and habitat. Create a log pile in a damp corner where it will not dry out, and include a few upturned logs, too (see p.124). The rotting wood will attract beetles, centipedes, and ladybugs, which collectively eat slugs, snails, and aphids, providing the perfect natural pest control. Hibernating frogs, toads, and newts are also attracted to damp wood piles and deep leaf litter which offer them shelter and a menu of mollusk and insect-rich food. Other

ACCOMMODATING SMALL MAMMALS As well as the tiny insect life in the yard, you can play host to slightly larger animals, too. Wood mice and voles are generally nocturnal, although you may see them toward the end of the day in summer. They may eat some of your ornamental or crop seeds, but making them welcome in the yard can be a positive step, as they also eat weed seeds and plant pests and are in

THE SECRET LIFE OF STAG BEETLES

Toads will help keep the number of mollusks in your yard under control.

creatures that will take up residence in decaying logs include woodlice, ants, and other invertebrates that supplement the diets of birds.

turn an important food source for foxes, owls, and other birds of prey. Growing plants that they like in your wild area will deter them from eating your prized flowers or peas and beans, while hedges, shrubs, and trees offer them cover and nesting sites. Shrews, which look like mice with long, pointed noses, may also make their home in your yard if it mirrors their natural habitats of woodland and long grasses. These creatures are a gardener’s friends, since they have a voracious appetite for insect pests and slugs and snails.

Among the largest members of the beetle family, stag beetles derive their name from the male’s fierce-looking jaws (mandibles), which resemble the antlers of a stag. These beetles have become endangered in Europe due to habitat loss, and experts believe that many species in the US are also in decline, but you can help support numbers by making a home for them in your yard. They lay their eggs underground and the larvae feed on dead and decaying wood, so to provide them with food, leave old tree stumps in situ, and create log piles on the soil. Stag beetles remain at the larval stage for up to seven years, depending on the weather, and then build cocoons in the soil, where they pupate and metamorphose into adults. When the adults emerge, they feed on plant sap and fallen fruits. They mate in summer, then die before winter—you may spot a male stag beetle sunning himself to gather strength before flying off to find a mate.

Stag beetles take seven years to reach their mature stage, but then die in a matter of months after breeding.

Wood mice may eat a few pea and bean seeds, but they provide valuable food for owls and other birds of prey.

MAKING INSECT HOTELS You can buy bee and insect hotels to provide living quarters, but it is easy to make them at home. Construct a wood pile and recycle wine boxes and terra-cotta pots into insect accommodations by filling them with materials collected from the yard. These residences will provide insects of all sorts with safe places in which to take cover and hibernate in winter.

ASSEMBLING THE PERFECT WOODPILE Woodpiles provide an ideal habitat for many types of insect (see p.122), and they are easy to make. Branches cut from ash, oak, beech, and birch measuring at least 4 in (10 cm) in diameter, with the bark still attached, will support the most species. Wood from other native trees, including heritage fruit trees, is also suitable. Place the large branches directly on the ground in dappled shade—not dense shade, which is too cold for most species. Choose a spot that is not too close to live plants, since decaying wood can harbor diseases. Insert smaller twigs and stems between the branches. If you have space, also include a few upright logs by partially burying stems of different widths to a depth of 18–20 in (45–50 cm). If you do not have a large tree in your own yard that requires some pruning, seek out local tree trimmers and ask them if they are able to supply you with logs. Do not collect fallen branches from natural woodlands, where they will be forming part of the local ecosystem. A woodpile in a quiet corner will house many beneficial insects.

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A few hollow stems in a terra-cotta pot are enough to make a home for insects.

CREATING HOUSES FOR SOLITARY BEES Unlike honeybees and bumblebees, solitary bees do not live in colonies, and most build individual nests in hollow stems and holes in the ground. The female solitary mason bee, for example, lays each of her eggs on a ball of pollen in a stem or hole, then constructs a partition wall with mud and repeats the process until the space is almost full; she usually leaves the last cell empty. She then seals the end with mud. When the eggs hatch, the larvae eat the pollen. After a few weeks each larva creates a pupa, in which they metamorphose into an adult bee and hibernate for the winter, emerging in spring to mate and start the cycle again. After hibernation, the adults live for just 10–12 weeks. Studies show that a single mason bee pollinates 120 times more flowers than a honeybee. Create homes in your garden for these and other solitary bee species using a range of hollow stems that have cavities /1 16 –⅜ in (2–10 mm) in diameter. Bamboo canes and plants such as buddleia, Himalayan honeysuckle (Leycesteria formosa), purple top (Verbena bonariensis), and brambles are ideal. Pack the stems into a terra-cotta pot and secure it to a fence, wall, or tree in a sunny, sheltered spot, ensuring that the entrance is tilted down toward the ground to prevent rain from entering.

MAKING A HOTEL FROM A WINE BOX This homemade multipurpose bug hotel will attract a variety of insects, such as hibernating lacewings and ladybugs, as well as nesting solitary bees and wasps.

YOU WILL NEED Hollow stems, moss, dried leaves, pine cones, and other plant material • Wooden wine box • Paint (optional) • Hammer • Stainless steel nails • Picture hook • Recycled wood or slate tile for the roof (optional) • Drill with drill bits of different sizes • Short lengths of branch • Small terra-cotta pots • Terra-cotta pieces • Shavings from untreated wood

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materials to fill the hotel. Remove the front sliding section from the wooden wine box. If you choose to paint the outside, use a nontoxic, solvent-free, odorless paint that will not harm wildlife. 2 Using a hammer and nail, affix the picture hook to the top of the box. You can also make a small pitched roof from recycled wood to protect it from rain if you have good DIY skills, or drill a hole in a piece of slate tile and nail it to the top so that it overhangs the edges. 3 Drill several holes with varying diameters of /1 16 –⅜ in (2–10 mm) in the ends of three sections of tree branches. Select a couple of small terra-cotta pots that will fit into the box and fill these with broken pieces of terra-cotta, wood shavings, and leaves. 4 Fill the insect hotel with the hollow stems, terra-cotta pots, pieces of drilled wood, moss, leaves, and pine cones. Hang the hotel on a screw or nail affixed to a sheltered, sunny wall or fence, siting it at least 3 ft (1 m) above the ground.

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• At the end of summer, keep your solitary bee homes healthy by removing any stems that have enclosed entrances from the previous year—they will probably contain dead bees. • To prevent a buildup of fungus, mold, mites, and other pests and parasites, replace drilled branches with new ones every two years once the young bees have emerged. • When buying ready-made bee and insect homes, make sure they are fit for purpose by purchasing them from a trustworthy supplier, such as a conservation charity.

PLANTS FOR POLLINATORS

HOLLYHOCK ALCEA ROSEA HEIGHT AND SPREAD 6 x 2 ft (2 x 0.6 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

Bring your yard to life with the sights and sounds of pollinating insects, such as bees, butterflies, and hoverflies. These beneficial bugs not only enable your plants to set seed and produce fruits, they also help establish a healthy ecosystem in your yard. The larvae of hoverflies and other pollinators contribute to the control of plant pests such as aphids, while insects in turn provide food for birds. Insecticides and diseases have reduced the numbers of bees and other pollinators worldwide, so including food for them will also help redress this decline.

This towering garden staple is an imposing sight, with stout stems featuring hairy, lobed leaves, followed by large, cup-shaped flowers. Loved by bees and other pollinators, it is a biennial or short-lived perennial that comes in a range of colors from purple and red to pink, yellow, and white. Plant it at the back of a flower border and stake stems in exposed sites. If the leaves fall victim to rust, use other plants to hide the lower stems; this disease does not seem to reduce the hollyhock’s ability to flower.

NODDING ONION ALLIUM CERNUUM

BUTTERFLY FLOWER ASCLEPIAS TUBEROSA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 20 x 8 in (50 x 20 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 18 in (90 x 45 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Hardy to 14°F (-10°C) SUN 4

Dainty pink flowers adorn this allium in summer, while slim green leaves form a skirt at the base. The small bulbs can be squeezed between other pollinator-friendly plants, maximizing wildlife benefits in a small plot. It is troublefree if grown on well-drained soil. Plant bulbs in fall for flowers the following year. It will then reappear annually and form a clump over time. It may also self-seed, providing plants elsewhere in the garden and creating a naturalistic effect. Remove unwanted seedlings in spring.

As its common name suggests, this colorful nectar-rich perennial is a magnet for butterflies, but it is also loved by other pollinating insects. The clusters of small, bright orange-red or golden flowers appear on tall, sturdy stems above slim green leaves and sustain wildlife from midsummer to late fall. They are followed by unusual seed heads, which are covered with cotton ball–like fibers. Grow this plant in a flower bed or mixed border, or use it to stand proud above the grasses in a meadow.

Fountains of bell-shaped flowers create an elegant feature in the summer garden.

126 127 MAKING A HOME FOR WILDLIFE

In summer, the tall spires of large, cup-shaped flowers make an impressive display.

The butterfly flower’s colorful blooms stand out against the bright green leaves.

BUTTERFLY BUSH BUDDLEIA DAVIDII

HEATHER CALLUNA VULGARIS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 10 x 15 ft (3 x 5 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 8 x 14 in (20 x 35 cm) SOIL Well-drained acid soil/ericaceous potting mix HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

A common sight on road verges and railroad sidings, the butterfly bush has much to offer the wildlife in your yard, attracting many types of butterfly. Bees and other pollinators are also drawn to its long cone-shaped fragrant flower heads, which appear in summer and come in a wide range of colors, from dark purple and lilac to bright pink and white. Use it along a boundary or at the back of a mixed border, and encourage an abundance of blooms by cutting the stems back hard in early spring.

Moors covered with heather buzz with bees when the scented blooms appear from midsummer to fall, and you can replicate this effect in your yard if you have the acid soil this plant demands (see p.41). The spikes of urn-shaped pink or pale purple flowers appear above small, narrow, evergreen leaves; the many cultivars widen the color choice to include dark pink, red, and white forms. Plant it as ground cover and, in spring, use shears to cut back the flowered shoots to 1 in (2.5 cm) above the old growth.

Nanho Purple is a compact cultivar with fragrant flowers borne in dense panicles.

‘Alicia’ bears very longlasting white flowers from summer through to fall.

CUCKOO FLOWER CARDAMINE PRATENSIS

CORNELIAN CHERRY CORNUS MAS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 16 x 12 in (40 x 30 cm) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 5C

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 12 x 12 ft (4 x 4 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

A beautiful perennial that often colonizes cool, shady, waterside spots in the wild, the cuckoo flower produces a rosette of leaves divided into rounded leaflets and clusters of pale pink or white flowers on upright stems in late spring or early summer. Plant it in drifts beneath trees in damp areas, in wet meadows, on the shady sides of a pond or in a bog garden (see p.115). Sow seed in pots indoors in fall or spring, or outside in situ when the weather is warmer and seed is more likely to germinate.

Brighten up the winter garden with this deciduous shrub or small tree which features clusters of tiny, bright yellow flowers on bare stems as the season comes to a close, offering early-flying pollinators a welcome source of food. The green oval leaves follow in spring and turn purple in fall, after the edible red cherry-like fruits have formed. This easy-going plant is happy in most sites and soils and makes a good backdrop to borders planted with spring bulbs and flowers that bloom later in the year.

The delicate blooms of cuckoo flower attract many pollinators to cool, shady spots.

Bright yellow flowers on bare stems stand out in the winter and early spring garden.

COSMOS COSMOS BIPINNATUS

SPRING CROCUS CROCUS VERNUS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 3 x 2 ft (90 x 60 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Does not tolerate frost SUN 4

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 4 x 2 in (10 x 5 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

Few annuals are easier to grow than cosmos, and its cheerful daisylike flowers can be used throughout the yard as well as in containers on a patio. The ferny green leaves make a beautiful textural contrast to the flowers, which bloom from summer to the frosts in fall, if deadheaded regularly. Cultivars come in shades of red, pink, yellow, or white—select single or semi-double flowers for pollinators. Sow seed indoors in spring and plant out after ‘Psyche White’ produces a the frosts in the middle of a continuous display of flowers mixed border. from summer to fall.

These bulbous perennials are the harbingers of spring, their cup-shaped flowers appearing at the beginning of the season when pollinators are just emerging from their winter hibernation. The blooms come in a wide range of colors, including purple, pink, yellow, and white, with contrasting orange stamens which deliver the pollen. Some are striped or patterned. Plant the corms en masse in fall in a lawn, at the front of a border, or in a rock garden. You can also grow crocus in shallow pots of growing mix.

DAHLIA (OPEN-FLOWERED) DAHLIA

COMMON FOXGLOVE DIGITALIS PURPUREA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 3¼ x 1½ ft (1 x 0.45 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Hardy to 23°F (-5°C) SUN 4

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 5 x 1¾ ft (1.5 x 0.5 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

Single- or peony-flowered dahlias make striking garden plants. These tuberous perennials are loved by many pollinators, but when you are choosing dahlias from catalogs or online, check that you can see the yellow stamens as some cultivars are so multi-petaled that pollinators cannot access them. Use dahlias in flower beds and borders, or in large pots on a patio. Plant tubers in early spring in pots indoors and set outside when the risk of frost has passed or plant in the soil later in spring.

The common foxglove is a biennial, which means it produces leaves in its first year of growth and flowers the next year. Some plants may flower for a few more years, and given the right conditions they will self-seed. These stately plants produce a rosette of hairy, oval leaves and, in summer, tall spires of rosy-purple tubular flowers with spots inside. Buy plants or sow seed in pots in late spring and plant out at the edge of a tree canopy among other woodlanders, such as ferns and hellebores.

‘Bishop of Landaff’ has dark foliage and produces its bright red flowers until the first frosts.

128 129 MAKING A HOME FOR WILDLIFE

‘Pickwick’ is an early-flowering cultivar that has pretty purple flowers with white veining.

The spotted petals of foxglove blooms entice bees to stores of nectar and pollen inside.

PURPLE CONEFLOWER ECHINACEA PURPUREA

WINTER ACONITE ERANTHIS HYEMALIS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 3 x 1¾ ft (1 x 0.5 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 4 x 8 in (10 x 20 cm) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

Loved by butterflies and bees, the perennial purple coneflower produces slim green leaves and sturdy stems topped by daisylike pink flowers with slightly reflexed petals. Blooming from early summer to early fall, it provides a rich store of pollen and nectar and birds enjoy the seed heads that follow. Dark pink and white cultivars are available, too. Grow it in bold drifts in a mixed border or among grasses and leave the seed heads through winter; cut back in spring to make way for new growth.

The golden flowers of the winter aconite are guaranteed to add a cheerful note to the yard when little else is in bloom. The rich green ferny foliage appears with the cup-shaped bright yellow flowers, each bloom edged with a ruff of leaves. They produce a store of pollen for many weeks from mid- to late winter. Plant this perennial among other winter flowers such as snowdrops and crocuses, close to trees or in beds and borders—ideally in soil that will remain reasonably moist in summer.

The coneflower gains its name from the shape of its prettily reflexed petals.

SNAKE’S HEAD FRITILLARY FRITILLARIA MELEAGRIS HEIGHT AND SPREAD 12 x 4 in (30 x 10 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 45 The common name of this fritillary refers to the pattern on its nodding, bell-shaped purple flowers, which resembles snakeskin. It produces an underskirt of small, lance-shaped, grayish-green leaves, but it is the elegant flowers, loved by bees, which are the star attraction. Plant the fragile bulbs in fall in an area that does not dry out completely in summer. If bulbs do not succeed, buy plants in flower in the spring.

This fritillary is well suited to a planting in a patch of rough grass or a meadow.

Winter aconite’s golden flowers and green foliage are an asset in the cold months.

SPOTTED CRANESBILL GERANIUM MACULATUM HEIGHT AND SPREAD 28 x 20 in (70 x 50 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45 An ideal plant for beginners, this easy-going perennial produces large clumps of lobed green foliage that makes a textural carpeting ground cover. In late spring and early summer, it produces abundant pollen-rich pale mauve to pale pink flowers with a white eye, held on slim stems above the leaves. Cut back after flowering to promote new leaf growth and encourage a second flush of blooms in early fall. Use this cranesbill at the front or middle of a mixed border, or beside trees.

The bright flowers of the spotted cranesbill stand out against the attractive foliage.

SNEEZEWEED HELENIUM

ENGLISH LAVENDER LAVANDULA ANGUSTIFOLIA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 3 x 1¾ ft (1 x 0.5 m) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 24 x 30 in (60 x 75 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 4

Heleniums add a splash of vibrant color to beds and borders. These perennial plants have simple green leaves and tall stems topped with red, orange, or yellow flowers from midsummer to early fall, although some bloom slightly earlier. Add bold swathes to borders for maximum impact, or smaller clumps in beds where space is at a premium. Tall varieties will need stakes. The flowers are rich in nectar and pollen; leave the seed heads on plants to feed the birds and provide a home for hibernating insects.

English lavender is a magnet for bees and hoverflies when the scented blue-purple flowers appear in summer. The blooms persist for several weeks above the aromatic gray-green, evergreen foliage. Grow it as a low hedge within a garden or to edge a flower bed. To keep plants neat and compact, lightly prune the flower spikes after blooming and again in spring, taking them down to new growth. This plant will withstand low winter temperatures on The flowers of lavender free-draining soil but will rot provide a beautiful haze of in cold, wet conditions. color in the summer garden.

‘Sahin’s Early Flowerer’ is an early-blooming cultivar that continues to flower into fall.

POACHED EGG PLANT LIMNANTHES DOUGLASII

HONEYSUCKLE LONICERA PERICLYMENUM

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 6 x 6 in (15 x 15 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 4

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 23 x 6 ft (7 x 2 m) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

This easy-to-grow hardy annual produces a carpet of fernlike, bright yellow-green foliage and, from summer to fall, abundant lightly scented, cup-shaped white flowers with yellow centers. They attract bees and hoverflies, the latter and their larvae offering natural aphid control. Sow seed in spring at the front of a border or in a rock or gravel garden, or sow in pots in early fall, overwintering the young plants in a frost-free place. Given sunshine and the right soil, it will self-seed freely.

Prized for its scented flowers, which are more intensely fragrant in the evening, this deciduous climber attracts a wide range of pollinators, including moths. The spidery pink and white or yellow flowers appear from late spring to early summer. In hot summers, they are followed by edible small red fruits. Use honeysuckle to cover a fence or wall or to grow through a shrub or tree. It may produce a second flush of blooms later in summer, particularly when stems are cut back after the first flowering.

The bright yellow and white flowers of poached egg plant attract many types of pollinator.

130 131 MAKING A HOME FOR WILDLIFE

Scented flowers amid fresh green leaves cover honeysuckle’s twining stems in summer.

BEE BALM MONARDA DIDYMA

GRAPE HYACINTH MUSCARI ARMENIACUM

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 18 in (90 x 45 cm) SOIL Moist but well-drained/moist HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 6 x 2 in (15 x 5 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

Also known as bergamot, this decorative perennial produces aromatic, narrow green leaves and red, purple, or pink pollen-rich spidery flowers over many weeks from summer to early fall. Choose from the many colorful cultivars, but ensure the soil is reasonably moist to prevent powdery mildew from developing or select a disease-resistant variety. Grow in groups in the middle of a flower bed or border, alongside clumps of other pollinator-friendly perennials and shrubs.

The green, grasslike foliage of the grape hyacinth appears in late winter and is joined in spring by spikes of tiny mid-blue flowers, loved by bees. Very easy to grow, this little bulb will spread to form clumps and will self-seed to create a naturalistic effect. Grow it close to trees, at the front of a border or in a wildlife or gravel garden; it also makes a colorful feature in patio pots. The top growth dies down over the summer. Cultivars offer a variety of color choices, including sky blue, pink, and white flowers.

‘Cambridge Scarlet’ bears bright flowers from midsummer until early fall.

SICILIAN HONEY GARLIC NECTAROSCORDUM SICULUM HEIGHT AND SPREAD 48 x 10 in (120 x 25 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 45 A cousin of allium, this plant produces linear garlic-scented foliage and, from late spring to early summer, tall stems topped with a pretty fountain of cream, pink, and greentinted bell-shaped flowers that are loved by butterflies and bees. They are followed by seed pods that form little castle-like turrets. The bulbs, best planted in groups in fall, can be squeezed between perennials in small spaces. The stems snap easily, so choose a sheltered spot.

Intriguing flowers and dramatic seed heads earn this plant a spot in any garden.

Spreading clumps of grape hyacinth offer easy spring color and food for pollinators.

COMMON POPPY PAPAVER RHOEAS HEIGHT AND SPREAD 30 x 12 in (75 x 30 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4 Historically, this vibrant wild poppy was a common sight in agricultural fields and it gained its place as a symbol of remembrance when its dormant seeds burst into bloom on the battlefields during World War I. It bears its characteristic bright red blooms with black eyes on wiry stems above fernlike green leaves. Sow the seed in fall or spring on poor, well-drained soil, or as part of a meadow mix with grasses and other wildflowers—you will need to sow it annually to ensure a display every year.

‘Mother of Pearl’ is a pretty mix of single and double flowers in a range of colors.

FIDDLENECK PHACELIA TANACETIFOLIA

TURKISH SAGE PHLOMIS RUSSELIANA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 18 in (90 x 45 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Hardy to 14°F (-10°C) SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 20 in (90 x 50 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

Also known as lacy phacelia and purple tansy, this tall hardy annual produces fernlike leaves and spikes of small pale blue or lavenderblue bell-shaped flowers over many months in summer. Loved by bees and other pollinators, it makes a good filler for cottage or prairie designs, or grow it with grasses in a wildflower meadow. Sow in situ in early fall, or in spring in colder areas. It can also be used as a green manure (see p.55), and will self-seed widely; remove unwanted seedlings in spring.

The Turkish sage is a perennial which in mild areas can retain its large, rough-textured, gray-green leaves over winter. In early summer, hooded, soft yellow flowers packed with pollen appear along its tall, stout stems, accompanied by lance-shaped leaves. They are followed by beadlike seed heads that persist over winter and offer a home for hibernating insects. Grow it in bold clumps in the middle of a flower bed or border, or in drifts in a prairie-style design. It thrives in sun, but will tolerate a little light shade.

With its blue flowers on tall stems, fiddleneck offers wildlife and visual benefits over summer.

Turkish sage’s whorls of soft yellow flowers appear for a few weeks over the summer.

COWSLIP PRIMULA VERIS

FLOWERING CURRANT RIBES SANGUINEUM

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 10 x 10 in (25 x 25 cm) SOIL Moist but well-drained/moist HARDY Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 10 x 8 ft (3 x 2.5 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

Once established in conditions it enjoys, this wild form of cowslip self-seeds, brightening up the spring garden with its rosette of textured, paddle-shaped green leaves and upright stems of nodding, bell-shaped, yellow flowers. Sweetly scented, they are attractive to bees. Plant this little perennial in wildflower meadows and at the edge of woodland areas, or in borders in a wildlife garden. The seeds need low temperatures to germinate; sow them in situ in fall, or buy young plants in early spring.

The flowering currant is a deciduous shrub that bursts into life in mid-spring with drooping clusters of small pink flowers, followed by blue-black berries. Cultivars offer plants with pollen-rich blooms in various shades of pink, white, and crimson. The rough-textured, lobed leaves unfurl after the flowers have opened. Use this currant at the back of an informal or wildlife border or along a boundary fence or wall. Stems can be pruned back after flowering in late spring to keep plants in shape.

A classic wildflower plant, cowslip adds sunny color to the garden in spring.

132 133 MAKING A HOME FOR WILDLIFE

‘Pulborough Scarlet’ is a popular cultivar with clusters of deep crimson flowers.

BLACK-EYED SUSAN RUDBECKIA

MEALYCUP SAGE SALVIA NEMOROSA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 6 x 3 ft (2 x 1 m) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 20 x 12 in (50 x 30 cm) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

Rudbeckia species include annuals and perennials such as the tall R. laciniata and more compact R. fulgida. They have small green leaves and upright stems topped by large, pollen-rich daisy flowers with yellow or orange petals and a central green or dark brown conical disk. These appear from late summer to fall, providing a feast for pollinators before winter sets in. Plant in bold groups in the middle or toward the back of a border and leave the seed heads on in winter to provide a home for hibernating insects.

This long-flowering perennial produces upright stems of gray-green aromatic foliage. In summer and early fall, spikes of tiny violet-blue flowers draw in a range of pollinators, including bees and butterflies. To prolong the flowering period and availability of insect food stores, remove the flowering stems as the blooms start to fade and the plant will soon throw up more. Pink cultivars are also available. Plant Mealycup sage in groups alongside other pollinator plants toward the front of a border.

R. fulgida var. deamii is compact, free-flowering, and ideal for the front of a border.

The cultivar ‘Ostfriesland’ is a small form, reaching just 18 in (45 cm), with bright blooms.

RED CAMPION SILENE DIOICA

PURPLE TOP VERBENA BONARIENSIS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 32 x 18 in (80 x 45 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 5

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 6 x 1¾ ft (2 x 0.5 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Hardy to 14°F (-10°C) SUN 4

Frequently seen growing wild in woodland glades, this short-lived perennial features clumps of downy, oval, green leaves and tall stems of small rose-pink flowers. They appear in late spring, enticing butterflies, hoverflies, and bees, and are followed on female plants by cup-shaped seed heads. When grown on poor soils, these dainty plants will self-seed freely to create a colorful naturalistic effect. Use red campion in a perennial wildflower meadow or close to trees and shrubs in a wildlife or informal garden.

Tall, wand-like stems studded with small, rough-textured leaves and branched clusters of small, purple, scented flowers, rich in nectar and pollen, have made this perennial a favorite with wildlife gardeners. Blooming from summer to fall, it attracts a host of butterflies and moths as well as bees; the seed heads offer food for birds, too. Use it en masse in a flower bed or border, or grow it in a gravel garden, where it will self-seed widely. It needs free-draining soil and may rot over winter on heavy clay.

The simple open flowers of red campion make a pretty addition to an informal garden.

Heads of tiny purple flowers appear to almost float on the slender stems of this plant.

PLANTS FOR BIRDS AND OTHER WILDLIFE Many plants will help sustain wildlife in your yard. Seeds, berries, fruits, and nuts are important food sources for birds and other small creatures, while trees provide nesting and roosting sites for birds. Flowers attract insects that are in turn a vital source of protein for young birds and mammals.

YARROW ACHILLEA MILLEFOLIUM HEIGHT AND SPREAD 24 x 24 in (60 x 60 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4 The flat, white flower heads that appear for many weeks in summer on the slender stems of this dainty perennial are rich in nectar, attracting insects that birds feed on. Later in the year, the plant produces seed heads that birds enjoy. The feathery foliage adds to the plant’s charms and it works well in a wildflower meadow along with grasses that birds use to create their nests in spring. You can buy cultivars with pink, red, or orange flowers that add a colorful note to sunny areas of the yard.

The flower heads of yarrow make a meal for the insects that birds feast on in summer.

JAPANESE BARBERRY BERBERIS THUNBERGII

SILVER BIRCH BETULA PENDULA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 5 x 5 ft (1.5 x 1.5 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 82 x 33 ft (25 x 10 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

Barberry is a deciduous shrub with prickly stems covered in small oval leaves that turn red and orange in fall. In spring, small birds choose it as a safe nesting site, where they can be protected by its dense, spiny growth. The small yellow flowers that attract insects appear in spring, followed in fall by small red berries that provide food for birds into the winter. There are many forms to choose from, including Berberis thunbergii f. atropurpurea ‘Golden Ring’, with purple foliage.

Popular for its white trunk and graceful cascading stems, silver birch is ideal for a medium-size space, while cultivars such as ‘Youngii’ offer an option for smaller spaces. A deciduous tree, it attracts huge numbers of insects that feed on it, which in turn provide food for birds, while the seeds offer an additional feast for them in fall. Woodpeckers also make their homes in the trunks of mature trees. The triangular green leaves make a dazzling sight when they turn buttery yellow in fall.

‘Golden Ring’ has purple foliage that turns red in fall, with accompanying red berries.

134 135 MAKING A HOME FOR WILDLIFE

The silver birch is an airy presence in the yard and sustains many insects and birds.

JAPANESE QUINCE CHAENOMELES SPECIOSA

GOLDEN CLEMATIS CLEMATIS TANGUTICA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 5 x 8 ft (1.5 x 2.5 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 15 x 10 ft (5 x 3 m) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

This deciduous or semi-evergreen shrub, often trained along a fence or wall, produces a dense network of thorny stems that provide nesting birds and other wildlife with a protective barrier against predators. The spring flowers attract insects that are then preyed upon by birds—cultivars with open, single blooms are the best choices for wildlife and they are available in a range of colors. The fruit that follows softens after a frost and is eaten by wildlife once it has fallen to the ground.

An easy-going deciduous climber, the golden clematis will weave through trees and shrubs or over a boundary wall, given support. It offers cover for birds during the summer and fall, when it also bears its lantern-shaped golden flowers. These are followed by attractive silky seed heads from fall that persist on the plant until the next spring, when birds use them to line their nests. For a good supply, cut one-third of the stems to the ground in early spring and prune the rest a few weeks later.

‘Cardinalis’ is a smaller cultivar that bears single scarlet flowers followed by aromatic green fruit in fall.

The seed heads of Clematis tangutica are both decorative and useful to nesting birds.

TICKSEED COREOPSIS VERTICILLATA

COMMON HAWTHORN CRATAEGUS MONOGYNA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 20 x 20 in (50 x 50 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 26 x 26 ft (8 x 8 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

Combining a mound of ferny green foliage and small golden or pale yellow flowers over many months in summer, tickseed draws a range of birds including goldfinches into the yard to feast on the seeds that follow the blooms. The flowers also attract bumblebees and butterflies, so there is little to dislike about this versatile perennial plant. Easy to grow from seed in spring, the plants may even flower in the first year after sowing. Use tickseed to edge a flower bed or plant it in a large pot.

One of the best trees for wildlife, the common hawthorn supports many insect species that provide a staple diet for beetles and birds such as wrens. The tangle of dense, prickly branches also offer a nesting site and home for small hibernating creatures, including toads and wood mice. The white flowers appear in late spring after the small, green, lobed foliage has unfurled; these are followed in fall by red fruits (haws), which are enjoyed by an even wider range of birds.

The pretty yellow flowers of tickseed produce copious seeds for birds later in the year.

Hawthorn’s clusters of white flowers are followed by berries that birds enjoy.

DAPHNE DAPHNE MEZEREUM

GLOBE THISTLE ECHINOPS RITRO

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 5 x 3 ft (1.5 x 1 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 18 in (90 x 45 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

All parts of this deciduous shrub are poisonous to humans, but it has many benefits for the birds and the yard. Its highly fragrant, purplish-red flowers, which appear in late winter or early spring, attract early-flying pollinators. A few birds are also drawn to the clusters of round red berries that form in fall. Its spreading, open habit makes a good addition to an informal or woodland garden, and the early flowers offer muchneeded spring color.

This perennial’s spiny foliage and tall, sturdy stems topped with spherical, thistlelike blue flowers in summer make a dramatic impact in the garden. The blooms offer invaluable stores of pollen for bees, butterflies, and hoverflies and in fall they form seed heads which birds will soon strip. Plant globe thistles in the middle or toward the back of a border. They will self-seed given the right conditions, so watch out for young plants in spring and move them to areas where they are needed.

The flowers of mezereon are a boon for pollinators in late winter and early spring.

Globe thistle produces dramatic blooms and then a feast of seed heads for birds.

AMERICAN BEECH FAGUS GRANDIFOLIA

IVY HEDERA HELIX

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 40 x 26 ft (12 x 8 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 6 x 6 ft (2 x 2 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

If allowed to reach maturity, this deciduous tree is suitable only for large spaces; it is usually treated as a hedging plant or clipped annually to keep its size in check. Its yellow-green young leaves turn green in summer and then russet-brown in fall, lasting over winter on young stems. Birds nest in its dense growth and in fall they enjoy the beech nuts, enclosed in bristly cases. Small mammals also benefit from the nuts. Prune in late winter or early spring before nesting begins.

Ivy is often maligned for its rampant growth, but it is highly valuable for wildlife. The dense evergreen growth is ideal for nesting and offers protection for hibernating insects, which provide birds with a rich food supply. Ivy flowers in the fall, when few other nectar sources are available to insects, and the berries that follow are also food for birds. Choose a well-behaved cultivar, grow it on a fence or a wall with sound pointing, and keep it in check by cutting growth back in late winter or early spring.

Beech nuts in fall are an attractive feature and offer a valuable food source for birds.

136 137 MAKING A HOME FOR WILDLIFE

‘Heise’ is a medium-size cultivar with dense gray-green foliage that shelters birds.

SUNFLOWER HELIANTHUS ANNUUS

CANDYTUFT IBERIS SEMPERVIRENS

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 36 x 20 in (100 x 50 cm) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Hardy to 23°F (-5°C) SUN 4

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 12 x 24 in (30 x 60 cm) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Hardy to 5°F (-15°C) SUN 4

Easy to grow from seed, the annual sunflower is loved by wildlife and gardeners alike. Honeybees, bumblebees, and hoverflies are drawn to the nectar-rich yellow flowers in summer, while doves, finches, and other birds flock to the plants when the large seed heads form in fall. Sow the seeds indoors in biodegradable pots in spring (see pp.42–43) and plant outside after the frosts. There is a wide range of cultivars in various sizes, some of them with amber or orange flowers.

Candytuft’s white flowers resemble a lace tablecloth when they cover the small evergreen leaves in spring and early summer. This subshrub attracts pollinators such as bees and butterflies as well as snails, slugs, and caterpillars that provide food for birds. It can be used as low-growing ground cover to edge a path or flower bed, or in a trough on a patio. Trim lightly after flowering to maintain the shape and allow stems time to regrow before the winter, when they will provide a refuge for insects.

The giant seed heads and flowers of the annual sunflower attract birds and pollinators.

Clusters of white flowers and leafy growth harbor insects that sustain birds.

HOLLY ILEX × MESERVEAE

ANNUAL HONESTY LUNARIA ANNUA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 10 x 8 ft (3 x 2.5 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 36 x 20 in (90 x 50 cm) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

Providing birds with shelter for nesting, this compact holly with bluish-green leaves is a good choice for eco-gardeners with small spaces. It supports many types of insect which provide food for birds, while the bright red winter berries offer another valuable source in fall and winter. For berries, you will need to plant a female clone, such as Blue Princess, and a male pollinating partner. In areas that experience freezing winds in winter, plant it in a sheltered position.

Honesty is a hardy annual or biennial that produces large clusters of purple flowers in late spring and early summer above toothed, heart-shaped leaves. It attracts caterpillars that birds eat, and the purple, nectar-rich summer flowers are followed by flat, round, silvery pods containing seed that finches and other birds will devour. Sow seed in spring and plant outside when temperatures rise. It flowers in the first or second year after sowing, and you can collect your own seed to replenish your supplies.

The bright red berries of Blue Princess stand out against the blue-tinged leaves.

The leaves of honesty are liked by caterpillars, which in turn provide food for birds.

TUPELO NYSSA SYLVATICA

WILD CHERRY PRUNUS AVIUM

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 50 x 20 ft (15 x 6 m) SOIL Moist but well-drained acid soil HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 40 x 26 ft (12 x 8 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

Also known as black gum, this graceful tree is suitable only for medium-size to large spaces, but is well worth growing if you have the space. Its branches offer shelter and nesting sites, while thrushes, waxwings, and other birds relish the small purple fall fruits. Woodpeckers will also make a home in mature trees. The narrow, oval leaves create a dazzling display of red, purple, yellow, and orange shades in fall before dropping. Check that your soil is acidic (see p.41) before buying.

The wild cherry is a beautiful tree, ideal for a medium-size space. The foliage supports many types of caterpillar, which in turn offer a food supply for birds, and in late spring the clusters of white flowers provide an early source of nectar and pollen for bees. Small, red-purple cherries appear in summer and are eaten by birds such as thrushes as well as small mammals. In fall, the green, oval leaves turn orange and red before dropping and revealing the tree’s skeleton of shiny reddish-brown stems.

In fall, tupelo trees put on a spectacular display of colors before the leaves drop.

‘Sunburst’ is a self-fertile cultivar with sweet, dark red fruits in midsummer.

FIRETHORN PYRACANTHA

RED-LEAVED ROSE ROSA GLAUCA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 8 x 8 ft (2.5 x 2.5 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 6 x 6 ft (2 x 2 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 4

The common name of this evergreen shrub describes both its thorny stems and fiery fall berries, both of which offer benefits to birds and other creatures. The fierce thorns provide a protective defense for nesting birds and hibernating creatures, but take care to plant firethorn where it will not cause you harm, such as trained against a boundary wall. The pollen-rich spring flowers are followed in fall and winter by a bird banquet of red, yellow, or orange berries.

Many old-fashioned shrub roses are disease-resistant and provide a rich food store for a range of wildlife. Rosa glauca is one of the most beautiful, with its arching, almost thornless, reddish stems covered with purple-flushed, grayish-green foliage. Clear pink flowers with pale centers appear briefly in early summer and are followed by orangebrown hips, which attract many types of bird. Tolerant of poor soil, this old rose makes a great addition to an informal garden.

The berries of firethorn light up this shrub in fall and provide food for birds.

138 139 MAKING A HOME FOR WILDLIFE

The single flowers of Rosa glauca attract birds which prey on the insects that visit them.

BLACKBERRY RUBUS FRUTICOSUS

ELDER SAMBUCUS NIGRA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 8 x 20 ft (2.5 x 6 m) SOIL Well-drained/moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD 20 x 12 ft (6 x 4 m) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

Wild blackberries make excellent habitats for birds, but in gardens they quickly smother everything in their path. The better-behaved cultivars are more suitable, and while some have thorny stems that offer protective nesting sites, the thornless types are easier to manage. All produce nectar-rich flowers that will attract pollinators, followed by the edible fruits which you can share with the birds from late summer to early fall. Cut the fruited stems back to the ground in spring.

Ideal for an informal garden, this large, deciduous shrub or small tree provides birds and other creatures with a range of benefits. Its branches, clad with large, divided, green leaves, offer roosting and nesting sites, while the small black berries that follow the pollen-rich spring flowers deliver a rich source of nutrients in fall; thrushes and blackbirds are especially partial to them. You can use both the flowers and berries to make drinks—cook them first, as both can cause discomfort if eaten raw.

Blackberries provide a rich feast for wildlife from late summer to early fall.

Elderberries form in large clusters in fall and are a favorite snack for birds.

NEW ENGLAND ASTER SYMPHYOTRICHUM NOVAE-ANGLIAE

YEW TAXUS BACCATA

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 5 x 3 ft (1.5 x 1 m) SOIL Moist but well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

HEIGHT AND SPREAD up to 40 x 26 ft (12 x 8 m) SOIL Well-drained HARDY Fully hardy SUN 45

Plant this beautiful perennial for its daisylike flowers, which appear from late summer to late fall, depending on the cultivar. Available in shades of white, blue, pink, and purple, they bring a range of insects into the yard, including bees and butterflies, while the seeds that follow offer food for birds such as finches, helping sustain them as winter approaches. Aster cultivars vary greatly in size, so look for those that will fit your space and plant them in groups for a colorful late-season display.

An evergreen tree with dark green needlelike leaves, yew can be clipped into a hedge, topiary or simply a smaller plant if you lack space for a mature specimen. It provides food and shelter for birds, together with other creatures which nest in its dense growth and feast on the small red berries. These appear on female plants in fall if there is a male plant close by. Plant yew along a boundary or in a border as a backdrop to more colorful plants. All parts of it are poisonous.

‘Barr’s Pink’ produces its bright pink flowers with yellow centers in early fall.

Yew produces decorative red berries in fall amid the dark green leaves.

INDEX Bold text indicates a main entry for the subject.

A

Acer campestre 34 Achillea millefolium 134 air quality 17, 24 Alcea rosea 42, 43, 126 allium 21, 43, 72, 109 Allium cernuum 126 Amelanchier laevis 34 Anemone hupehensis 72 Antirrhinum majus 72, 107 aphids 66, 68, 69, 71, 123 apple tree 17, 36, 58 arrowhead 119 Asclepias tuberosa 126 Aster × frikartii 73 Astilbe 33 astrantia 98

B

Balkan clary 133 barrenwort 21 basil 66, 115 beans and peas 57, 69, 82, 83, 90, 95, 123 seed harvesting 42, 43 beech 136 bees 106–107, 115, 116 food sources 107 insect hotels 124, 125 population crisis 106 Berberis thunbergii 25, 134 bergamot 131 bergenia 21, 73 berries, edible 59 Betula nigra 25, 34 Betula pendula 13, 25, 134 bindweed 48, 55, 65 biosecurity 47 birch river birch 25, 34 silver birch 13, 25, 134 bird cherry 25 birds 110–111, 114 bird bath 116–117 bird feeder 111 in food chain 104 nesting and roosting 120–121 and pest control 66, 68 scarer 94

140 141 INDEX

birds and wildlife plants 134–139 beech 136 blackberry 64, 139 candytuft 137 clematis 44, 74, 95, 135 elder 25, 110, 139 firethorn 25, 110, 138 globe thistle 109, 110, 136 hawthorn 16, 24, 25, 35, 120, 135 holly 25, 36, 116, 120, 137 honesty 43, 110, 137 ivy 9, 24, 25, 107, 114, 120, 136 Japanese barberry 25, 134 Japanese quince 135 mezereon 136 New England aster 139 rose, red-leaved 138 silver birch 13, 25, 134 sunflower 43, 69, 110, 137 tickseed 110, 135 tupelo 138 wild cherry 138 yarrow 134 yew 24, 25, 28, 114, 120, 139 see also wildlife, feeding bird’s-foot trefoil 60, 112 black walnut 17 black-eyed Susan 33 blackberry 64, 139 blackthorn 121 bluebell 20, 21, 74 bog garden 13 Boston ivy 44 bramble 48, 55, 64, 65, 124 Buddleia 98, 109, 124, 127 bugle 21, 32, 33 bush vetch 112 buttercup 60, 112 butterflies and moths 64, 107, 108–109, 114 butterfly bush 98, 109, 124, 127 butterfly flower 126

C cabbage family 57, 69, 99 see also vegetable growing Calendula 22, 69, 73, 83, 90 Campanula poscharskyana 23, 73 candytuft 137 Cape daisy 98 carbon capture 16, 17, 20, 27 Cardamine pratensis 127 catmint 76, 98, 109 Centaurea montana 74, 112 Chaenomeles 44, 135 chamomile 32 Chinese anemone 72

clematis 44, 74, 95, 135 climbing hydrangea 44 clover 55, 60, 61, 112 cold frame 94 comfrey or nettle tea 63 companion plants 69 coneflower 9, 33, 133 purple 129 Coreopsis 110, 135 corn marigold 112 corn cockle 61, 112 Cornelian cherry 127 cornflower 74, 112 Corylus 35, 44, 107 cosmos 67, 83, 107, 128 couch grass 65 cow parsley 21 cowslip 132 cranesbill 21, 75, 112 spotted 129 creeping jenny 32 crocus 107, 128 crop rotation 57, 70 cuckoo flower 127 cuttings 45 cypress 25

D

dahlia 66, 69, 83, 128 dandelion 55, 60, 64, 65 daphne 21, 44, 76 Daphne mezereum 136 dead nettle 20, 21 decking options 84, 85 Digitalis purpurea 21, 128 disease defense 70–71 dog’s tooth violets 21 downy mildew 71

E earwigs 69 Echinacea purpurea 129 Echinops 109, 110, 136 eggshells as pots 82 elder 25, 110, 139 Eranthis hyemalis 107, 129 eulalia 33 Euonymus 21, 25, 33, 35 evening primrose 109

F

feeding plants 62–63 see also soil choices fern 21, 22, 66, 74 fiddle-neck 132 field maple 34 firethorn 25, 110, 138

flood defenses 30–33 mini rain garden 33 parking spaces and pathways 32 rainwater and runoffs 30, 100, 101 storm water collection 33 trees 31 flowering currant 24, 25, 132 foam flower 21 forget-me-not 32, 119 foxglove 21, 128 French marigold 69 frogs, toads and newts 66, 67, 123 fruit growing 9, 58–59 organic certification 58 seed harvesting 42 fuchsia 21, 74 fuel consumption 96–97 solar-powered units 97, 117 Fuji cherry 37

G

Galium odoratum 21, 75 garden equipment 10, 92–95 garden ponds 26–29 banned plants 119 as carbon sinks 27 duckweed removal 119 ecosystem 118–119 marginal plants 28 miniature pool 119 pond pests 67 siting 28 wildlife ponds 13, 28–29 geranium, hardy 33, 98 Geranium sanguineum see cranesbill germination tips 43 global warming, and trees 8 globe thistle 109, 110, 136 grape hyacinth 107, 131 gravel root 115 greening hard surfaces 22–23 gray mold 71 ground cover 64 ground elder 65 groundsel 65, 70 guelder rose 21, 110

H

hawthorn 16, 24, 25, 35, 120, 135 hazel 35, 44, 107 heather 127 Hedera helix 9, 24, 25, 107, 114, 120, 136 hedge planting 25 Helenium 130

Helianthus annuus 43, 69, 110, 137 hellebore 21, 75 heuchera 22 hoeing, and weeds 65 holly 25, 36, 116, 120, 137 hollyhock 42, 43, 126 honesty 43, 110, 137 honey fungus 71 honeysuckle 22, 109, 124, 130 hornbeam 24, 25 horsetail 65 hosta 33, 66, 115 houseleek 22, 23, 32, 98 Hydrangea anomala 44

I

Iberis sempervirens 137 ice plant 75 see also sedum Ilex 25, 36, 116, 120, 137 insect hotels 105, 124–125 intercropping 56 iris 33, 46, 119 ivy 9, 24, 25, 107, 114, 120, 136

J

Japanese barberry 25, 134 Japanese crab apple 36 Japanese quince 44, 135 jasmine 109 Judas tree 35

K knapweed 74, 112 knotweed 33

L

lady’s leek 126 lamb’s ears 98 landscape materials 84–85 lavender 33, 41, 97, 98, 107, 109, 130 lawns 60–61 wildflower meadow 60, 61, 112–113 layering 44 leaf mold 31, 51 leopard plant 115 lettuce 9, 55, 56, 57, 66, 115 lilac 37, 109 Limnanthes douglasii 43, 130 Lonicera 22, 109, 124, 130 loosestrife 115 love-in-a-mist 43, 76 Lunaria annua 43, 110, 137 lungwort 76, 107

M

mahonia 20, 21, 76, 107 Malus domestica 17, 36, 58 Malus × floribunda 36 manure, well-rotted 51, 63 marigold 22, 73, 83, 90 French 69 marsh marigold 119 meadowsweet 115 medlar 36 Mexican fleabane 23, 32 mezereon 136 mice and voles 123 Michaelmas daisy 73 mint 69, 109 catmint 76, 98, 109 Monarda didyma 131 mountain clematis 74 mulching and no-dig method 49 and soil water preservation 98 water use reduction 98 see also soil choices Muscari 107, 131

N nasturtium 43, 69 Nectaroscordum siculum 131 nematodes 68 Nepeta 76, 98, 109 nettle 13, 63, 64, 109 New England aster 139 new plant purchase 46–47 see also planting and placing New Zealand bur 23 Nigella damascena 43, 76 night-scented stock 109 no-dig method 49 Nyssa sylvatica 138

O

outdoor furniture 86–87 see also landscape materials oregano 23 Oregon grape see mahonia organic certification 58 organic insecticides 69 ox-eye daisy 112

P

Papaver rhoeas 43, 112, 131 particulates 24, 97 paving 23, 84 pear tree 37 peas see beans and peas

perennials division 44 weed control 65 woodland, mini 21 pest control 66–69 aphids 66, 68, 69, 71, 123 barrier methods 69 beer traps 69 biological controls 68 and biosecurity 47 and birds 66, 68 companion plants 69 earwigs 69 and frogs and toads 66, 67 grit or coffee grounds 69 inverted pots 69 nematodes 68 organic insecticides 69 pond pests 67 predator encouragement 66, 105 slugs and snails 66, 67, 68, 69, 123 soap 69 vine weevils 67, 68 see also planting and placing pest- and disease-resistant plants 72–77 allium 21, 43, 72, 109 bergenia 21, 73 bloody cranesbill 75 catmint 76, 98, 109 Chinese anemone 72 clematis 44, 74, 95, 135 cornflower 74, 112 ferns 21, 22, 66, 74 fuchsia 21, 74 hellebore 21, 75 love-in-a-mist 43, 76 lungwort 76, 107 mahonia 20, 21, 76, 107 marigold 22, 73, 83, 90 Michaelmas daisy 73 pincushion flower 77 rose, rambling 77 rosemary 77, 97 sedum 22, 33, 66, 75, 98, 107 snapdragon 72, 107 sweet woodruff 21, 75 trailing bellflower 23, 73 zinnia 77, 83, 107 pesticides and bees 106 organic 69 and wildlife 13 petunia 108, 109 Phacelia tanacetifolia 132 Phlomis russeliana 132 photosynthesis 16 pickerel weed 119 pincushion flower 77

plant support 95 planters, upcycled 88–89 planting and placing 40–41 soil acidity check 41 soil types 40 trees see trees, choosing and planting vegetables see vegetable growing see also new plant purchase; pest control planting preparation 48–49 compost see compost choices new beds 48 no-dig method 49 weed removal 48 worms, encouragement of 49 plastics, reducing and reusing 11, 80–81 bioplastics 81 homemade pots see pots, homemade pot recycling schemes 46, 81 repurposing 80 poached egg plant 43, 130 pollinator plants Balkan clary 133 bergamot 131 butterfly bush 98, 109, 124, 127 butterfly flower 126 coneflower see coneflower Cornelian cherry 127 cosmos 67, 83, 107, 128 cowslip 132 cranesbill see cranesbill crocus 107, 128 cuckoo flower 127 dahlia 66, 69, 83, 128 fiddle-neck 132 flowering currant 24, 25, 132 foxglove 21, 128 grape hyacinth 107, 131 heather 127 hollyhock 42, 43, 126 honeysuckle 22, 109, 124, 130 lady’s leek 126 lavender 33, 41, 97, 98, 107, 109, 130 poached egg plant 43, 130 poppy 43, 112, 131 purple top 124, 133 red campion 21, 133 Sicilian honey garlic 131 sneezeweed 130 Turkish sage 132 winter aconite 107, 129 pollution traps 24–25 air pollution 24 hedge planting 25 particulates 24, 97

ponds see garden ponds poppy 43, 112, 131 pot marigold 22, 69, 73, 83, 90 potato and tomato blight 71 pots, homemade 81, 82–83 pot recycling schemes 46, 81 see also plastics, reducing and reusing powdery mildew 71 predator encouragement 66, 105 primrose 21, 115 Primula japonica 115 Primula veris 132 propagation methods 44–45 cuttings 45 division 44 layering 44 Prunus avium 138 Prunus incisa 37 Pulmonaria 76, 107 purple top 124, 133 Pyracantha 25, 110, 138

Q

quince 44, 135

R rainwater recycling 11, 100 raised beds 90–91 recycling see landscape materials; outdoor furniture; planters, upcycled; plastics, reducing and reusing; pots, homemade red campion 21, 133 red cedar 25 Ribes 24, 25, 132 river birch 25, 34 rock rose 41, 98 roof planting 23 rose, rambling 77 rose, red-leaved 138 rosemary 77, 97 rowan 37, 110 Rubus fruticosus 64, 139 Rudbeckia 9, 33, 133 rush 119 Russian sage 98 rust 71

S

Salvia nemorosa 133 Salvia rosmarinus 77, 97 Scabiosa caucasica 77 sea holly 98, 109 sea thrift 22, 23 seaweed 63 sedge 33

142 143 INDEX

sedum 22, 33, 66, 75, 98, 107 seeds, harvesting 42–43 germination tips 43 seed and plant pots 80 sowing seeds 43 storage 42 Siberian squill 21 Sicilian honey garlic 131 Silene dioica 21, 133 silver birch 13, 25, 134 Skimmia japonica 33 slugs and snails 66, 67, 68, 69, 123 small spaces, trees see trees for smaller spaces smooth serviceberry 34 snapdragon 72, 107 sneezeweed 130 snowdrop 20, 21, 107 soap, and pest control 69 soil acidity check 41 soil choices 50–53, 61 green manure, planting 55 homemade 50, 51, 52–53 leaf mold 51 peat-free 50 and planting preparation 49 vegetable growing 55 weed control 65 see also feeding plants; mulching soil types 40 solar-powered units 97, 117 Sorbus aucuparia 37, 110 spindle tree 21, 25, 33, 35 succulents 9, 22, 88 sunflower 43, 69, 110, 137 sweet box 20, 21 sweet pea 82, 95 sweet woodruff 21, 75 Swiss chard 55, 66 Symphyotrichum 139 Syringa vulgaris 37, 109

T thyme 23, 32, 66, 98, 115 tickseed 110, 135 tobacco plant 109 trailing bellflower 23, 73 trees, choosing and planting 18–19 siting 18 staking 19 timing 19 and wildlife 13, 105 woodland, mini 20–21 trees and climate 16–17 carbon capture 16, 17 flood defenses 31 global warming 8 photosynthesis 16

trees for smaller gardens 34–37 apple tree 17, 36, 58 field maple 34 Fuji cherry 37 hawthorn 16, 24, 25, 35, 120, 135 hazel 35, 44, 107 holly 25, 36, 116, 120, 137 Japanese crab apple 36 Judas tree 35 lilac 37, 109 medlar 36 pear tree 37 river birch 25, 34 rowan 37, 110 smooth serviceberry 34 spindle tree 21, 25, 33, 35 tupelo 138 Turkish sage 132

U understory planting 20 upcycling see under recycling

V

vegetable growing 9, 54–57 beans and peas see beans and peas cabbage family 57, 69, 99 companion plants 69 containers 55 crop choice 56 crop rotation 57, 70 green manure, planting 55 intercropping 56 pests 68, 69, 90 plot location 54 plot preparation 55 raised beds, recycled 90–91 root vegetables 57, 101 simple crop plan 57 top-dressing and compost 55 weeding 55 Verbena bonariensis 124, 133 vertical gardens 22 viburnum 20, 21, 25, 110, 114 vine weevils 67, 68 viola 33

W water avens 115 water butt 11, 95, 100 water lily 28, 118 water use reduction 98–101 and climate conditions 98 gray water 101 mulching 98

rainwater 11, 100 storage 11, 95, 100, 101 watering frequency 99 water for wildlife 116–117 see also wildlife, feeding weed control 64–65 composting 65 ground cover 64 lawns 60 perennials 65 planting preparation 48 vegetable growing 55 and wildlife 13 weigela 21 wild cherry 138 wild garlic 20, 21 wild marjoram 115 wildflower meadow 60, 61, 112–113 wildlife, designing for 12–13, 20 wildlife, feeding bees see bees birds see birds bog garden 115 butterflies and moths 107, 108–109, 114 frogs, toads and newts 123 garden ecosystem 104, 114 garden predators 66, 105 habitat increase 114–115 insect hotels 105, 124–125 mice and voles 123 pollinator see pollinator plants ponds see garden ponds small creatures 122–123 and trees 13, 105 water for wildlife 116–117 wildflower meadow 60, 61, 112–113 woodlice and beetles 122, 123 woodpiles 123, 124 see also birds and wildlife plants winter aconite 107, 129 wisteria 22 wood accreditation 85 wood anemone 21 wood spurge 21, 33 woodland, mini 20–21 see also trees headings woodlice and beetles 122, 123 woodpiles 123, 124 worms 49

Y

yarrow 134 yew 24, 25, 28, 114, 120, 139

Z

zinnia 77, 83, 107

RESOURCES

BIBLIOGRAPHY page 8–9 Sánchez-Bayo, F. and Wyckhuys, Kris A.G., ‘Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers’, Biological Conservation (April 2019) 232: 8-27 ‘Outdoor Air and Pesticides’, National Pesticide Information Centre, www.npic.orst.edu/envir/ outair.html pages 16–17 ‘Heat Island Impacts’, United States Environment Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/heatislands/heat-island-impacts pages 26–27 Jeffries, M., ‘Ponds can absorb more carbon than woodland’, Northumbria University, www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/ news-events/news/ponds-absorb-carbon Finlay, K. and McCowan, C., ‘Farm ponds can act as greenhouse gas sinks in the Canadian Prairies’, www.theconversation.com/ farm-ponds-can-act-as-greenhouse-gas-sinksin-the-canadian-prairies-115058 Peacock, M. et al., ‘Greenhouse gas emissions from urban ponds are driven by nutrient status and hydrology’, Ecosphere, https://esajournals. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ ecs2.2643 pages 48–49 'Earthworms', Garden Organic, www.gardenorganic.org.uk/earthworms Turetsky, M. R. et al., ‘Global vulnerability of peatlands to fire and carbon loss’, Nature Geoscience (2015), 8: 11–14 pages 60–61 Son, J., ‘Lawn maintenance and climate change’, Princeton Student Climate Initiative, https://psci.princeton.edu/ tips/2020/5/11/law-maintenance-and-climatechange pages 80–81 ‘How does plastic harm the environment?’ Friends of the Earth, https:// friendsoftheearth.uk/plastics ‘Plastics in the Garden’, Garden Organic, www.gardenorganic.org.uk/plastics-garden pages 84–85 Watts, J., ‘Concrete: the most destructive material on Earth’, The Guardian, 25 Feb 2019, www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/ feb/25/concrete-the-most-destructive-materialon-earth

Lehne, J. and Preston, F., ‘Making Concrete Change; Innovation in Low-carbon Cement and Concrete’, Chatham House Report (2018) www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/ publications/research/2018-06-13-makingconcrete-change-cement-lehne-preston.pdf pages 96–97 Hawkins, J. L. et al., ‘Exercise Intensities of Gardening Tasks Within Older Adult Allotment Gardeners in Wales’, Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 23: Issue 2, 161–168 Harrabin, R. ‘Wood burners: Most polluting fuels to be banned in the home’, BBC, 21 February 2020, www.bbc.co.uk/news/ uk-51581817 pages 100–101 Belanger, J. D., ‘Recycling Water at Home: Grey Water for the Garden’ Countryside Magazine (February 25, 2019) https://iamcountryside.com/growing/ recycling-water-grey-water-for-the-garden pages 104–105 Thompson, K., Wildlife Gardening Forum: ‘The complexity of garden food webs’, www.wlgf.org/food_webs.html 'Biodiversity in Urban Gardens in Sheffield', University of Sheffield, www.bugs.group.shef. ac.uk/BUGS1/bugs1-index.html pages 106–107 ‘Facts About Bees’, The Soil Association, www.soilassociation.org/ organic-living/bee-organic/10-facts-about-bees ‘The NAPPC Honey Bee Health Task Force’, Pollinator Partnership, www.pollinator.org Centre for Biological Diversity, www. biologicaldiversity.org

If you would like more information on some of the topics in this book, the following organizations can help. For general information about ecological issues, eco-gardening, and healthy soils: Charles Dowding (no-dig methods) https://charlesdowding.co.uk Friends of the Earth https://friendsoftheearth.uk Natural Resources Conservation Service www.nrcs.usda.gov Organic Gardening https://rodaleinstitute.org Sustainability Guide https://www.epa.gov/sustainability The Woodland Trust www.woodlandtrust.org.uk For more on plant and animal conservation in your garden: Amphibian and Reptile Conservation www.arc-trust.org Audubon Society www.audubon.org Bumblebee Conservation Trust www.bumblebeeconservation.org Butterfly Conservation www.butterfly-conservation.org Butterfly Counts https://butterflies.naba.org/naba-butterflycounts/ Monarch Butterfly and Pollinators Conservation Fund https://www.nfwf.org/programs/monarchbutterfly-and-pollinators-conservation-fund

pages 110–111 ‘Big Butterfly Count 2020: The Results’, Butterfly Conservation, www. butterfly-conservation.org/news-and-blog/ big-butterfly-count-2020-the-results

National Wildlife Federation www.nwf.org

‘Butterfly declines in North America and the UK’, www.dw.com/en/butterfly-declines-in-thenorth-america-uk/a-37688619

The Nature Conservancy www.nature.org

pages 114–115 ‘Biodiversity and Ecosystems’, Stand For Trees, www.standfortrees.org/ why-it-matters/biodiversity-ecosystems pages 116–117 Head, S. and Thomas, A., ‘Introduction to water in the garden and pond ecology’, Wildlife Gardening Forum, www.wlgf. org/water_ecology.html

Native Plant Conservation Campaign https://plantsocieties.cnps.org/

North American Native Fishes Association www.nanfa.org Pollinator Conservation https://xerces.org/ Rewilding https://rewilding.org/

Author Zia Allaway

AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many thanks to Marek Walisiewicz at cobalt id for commissioning me to write this inspirational book and to Paul Reid for his beautiful designs. I would also like to thank editor Diana Vowles for her skill, patience and good humor, and Amy Slack at Dorling Kindersley for her attention to detail.

PUBLISHER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS DK would like to thank Oreolu Grillo and Sophie State for early spread development for the series, John Tullock for consulting, and Margaret McCormack for indexing.

PICTURE CREDITS The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission to reproduce their photographs: Alamy Stock Photo: Anton Garin 4c; blickwinkel 6c; JosephWGallagher 8tl; Jean Williamson 10br; Miriam Heppell 11tl; Derek Harris 13cl; Annie Eagle 13br; kris Mercer 26bl; Tim Gainey 35tl; Christina Bollen 36bl; GKSFlorapics 51tr; Pavol Klimek 61cr; john t. fowler 67br; Tim Gainey 81cr; Tim Gainey 82tr; David Burton 84cr; Avalon/Photoshot License 85bc; Arcaid Images 86bl; Sawangwit Muanghtai 86br; Panther Media GmbH 87bl; Pixelot 88tr; Heather Edwards 92cl; Zoonar GmbH 93tr; keith burdett 94tr; Goddard New Era 95tr; Design Pics Inc 96bl; Francisco Martinez 97cl; Jurate Buiviene 102c; SelectPhoto 106cl; David Chapman 110br; Anna Stowe Botanica 111tl; Theo Moye 111bc; Sue Robinson 116tr; Gillian Pullinger 116cl; idp wildlife collection 116br; David Stuckel 120cl; gary corbett 121bl; Yon Marsh Natural History 122cl. Dorling Kindersley: 123RF.com / Gunnar Pippel / gunnar3000 112br; 123RF.com / Leonid Ikan 108tr; 123RF.com / Pumidol Leelerdsakulvong 30cl; Alan Buckingham 71br; Brian North 89br, 99cl; Brian North / RHS Chelsea Flower Show 12tr, 120tr; Brian North / RHS Hampton Court Flower Show 8br, 32bl, 52cr, 84tr, 87tr, 88bc, 133br, 101tr, 86tr; Brian North / Waterperry Gardens 24bl; Debbie Patterson / Ian Cuppleditch 25tl, 135br; Dreamstime.com / Dave Massey / Dmass 106tr; Dreamstime. com / Dfikar 108br; Dreamstime.com / Jochenschneider 26br; Dreamstime.com / Ker784 65t; Dreamstime.com / Richard J Thompson / Photoaged 108tl; Dreamstime.com / Valentino2 123tc; iStock / Pavliha 17tr; Jerry Harpur / National Trust (Erdigg) 136br; Kim Taylor 110cl; Mark Winwood 115cl, 115tl, 115tr; Mark Winwood / Ball Colegrave 72br, 77br, 128tl; Mark Winwood / Downderry Nursery 130tr; Mark Winwood / Dr Mackenzie 21tr; Mark Winwood / Hadlow College 75bl; Mark Winwood / John Hall Plants, Hindhead 127tr, Mark Winwood / Marle Place Gardens and Gallery, Brenchley, Kent 127br; Mark Winwood / RHS Chelsea Flower Show 127tl, 129tl; Mark Winwood / RHS Malvern Flower Show 74tl, Mark Winwood / RHS Wisley 9br, 18tr, 34tr, 36tl, 37bl, 72tr, 74br, 75br, 76br, 76tl, 76tr, 107tc, 107tr, 109bc, 109tr, 114tr, 130tl, 133bl, 133tl, 137bl, 138tr; Peter Anderson 11bl, 20bl, 20tr, 24cr, 32bc, 35tr, 63tl, 84bl, 85tr, 115cr, 122br, 134br; Peter Anderson / National Dahlia Collection 128bl; Peter Anderson / RHS Chelsea Flower Show 22br; Peter Anderson / RHS Hampton Court Flower Show 22tc, 31tr, 33br, 49tr, 85cl, 98bc, 105br, 105tl, 112tr, 124bl; RHS Tatton Park 40tr, 131tl, 135bl; RHS Wisley 35br; Steve Hamilton / Chelsea Physic Garden, London 136tl. GAP Photos: Marcus Harpur - Design: Wendy Allen Hadlow College with Westgate Joinery 32tr. Getty Images: sassy1902 30br; xavierarnau 46cl; welcomia 47bl; Natthapong Daeng Leis / EyeEm 100tl. Cover images: Back: Dreamstime.com: Richard J Thompson / Photoaged cl Illustrations by Cobalt id. All other images © Dorling Kindersley

Produced for DK by COBALT ID Managing Editor Marek Walisiewicz Editor Diana Vowles Managing Art Editor Paul Reid Art Editor Darren Bland DK LONDON Project Editor Amy Slack US Editor Megan Douglass Managing Editor Ruth O’Rourke Managing Art Editor Christine Keilty Production Editor David Almond Production Controller Stephanie McConnell Jacket Designer Nicola Powling Jacket Coordinator Lucy Philpott Art Director Maxine Pedliham Publishers Mary-Clare Jerram, Katie Cowan First American Edition, 2021 Published in the United States by DK Publishing 1450 Broadway, Suite 801, New York, NY 10018 Copyright © 2021 Dorling Kindersley Limited DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC 21 22 23 24 25 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 001–320999–Mar/2021 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-0-7440-2684-9 DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 1450 Broadway, Suite 801, New York, NY 10018 [email protected] Printed and bound in China

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