Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development 9789389698039

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Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development

Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development

M Afshar Alam

Professor and Head Deptt. of Computer Science and Engineering Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi

Sapna Jain

Assistant Professor Deptt. of Computer Science and Engineering Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi

Hena Parveen St Peter School, Faridabad Haryana

©Copyright 2020 I.K. International Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110002. This book may not be duplicated in any way without the express written consent of the publisher, except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for the purposes of review. The information contained herein is for the personal use of the reader and may not be incorporated in any commercial programs, other books, databases, or any kind of software without written consent of the publisher. Making copies of this book or any portion for any purpose other than your own is a violation of copyright laws. Limits of Liability/disclaimer of Warranty: The author and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing this book. The author make no representation or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book, and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness of any particular purpose. There are no warranties which extend beyond the descriptions contained in this paragraph. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The accuracy and completeness of the information provided herein and the opinions stated herein are not guaranteed or warranted to produce any particulars results, and the advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every individual. Neither Dreamtech Press nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Trademarks: All brand names and product names used in this book are trademarks, registered trademarks, or trade names of their respective holders. Dreamtech Press is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. ISBN: 978-93-89698-03-9 EISBN: 978-93-90078-55-4

Preface

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has the potential to transform all the various sectors through advancements such as IoT, cloud and robotics – all of which reduce costs, increase efficiency and drive economic growth. Rapid urbanization, industrialization and problems associated with them necessitated the development of goals which can help in the sustainable development without hampering the environment and retaining wellbeing of the humankind.  The sustainable development goals (SDGs) depict a sustainable plan of action to balance “economic, social, and environmental”, the three dimensions of sustainable development by the year 2030. SDGs or the global goals are meant to end universal poverty, earth protection ensuring peace and prosperity of the humankind. In today’s world ICT is a key parameter for economic development. Presently, India is at 121st position in ICT development rankings out of total 157 countries. Though the value of the index increased from 2.13 in 2011 to 2.21 in 2012. India’s overall ranking slashed down from 120 to 121 during this period. Hence, India has to improve its status regarding ICT if it wants catch up its development goal. The book provides the present situation and analysis of trends and patterns of ICT in India and their impact on Indian economy. The book explores seminal research in ICT infrastructure in the dimensions of society, economy and environment. It begins with providing smart solutions with the use of ICT for achieving sustainability in society, environment and then shifts its focus towards the details about measures to achieve sustainable development goals in India for environment and discusses its impact.

vi  Preface Chapter 1 explains the green informatics incorporate design techniques, construction techniques, the function and the information diffusion techniques and aim to the optimal environmental governance, in the interest of the natural environment and the natural resources regarding sustainability in combination to management of the energy requirements in a way that exploits the alternative energy sources. Web technology and broadband Internet along with web-based projects are emerging at a fast pace in devices everywhere in our society and a huge amount of information is moving across the world. Chapter 2 provides insights about the SDGs. They involve a significant step forward from the millennium development goals (MDGs). It describes sustainable development as three pillars: economic, social, and environmental. It provides a broader perspective of the SDGs as a key role of science, technology innovation (STI) and information and communications technology (ICT), industrialization and infrastructure. Chapter 3 describes the impact of ICTs on the resource and energy efficiency of many physical products embedded in either the products themselves or their production processes. The green cloud architecture and the corresponding green cloud system with its performance measures including application workload, resource utilization and power consumption with implementation factors are discussed. Chapter 4 gives the insight about efficiency of green computing on minimalizing hazardous environmental impact in conjunction with achieving economic viability and improved system performance. It covers a board spectrum of subjects such as alternative energy generation and electricity consumption techniques and use of eco-friendly, recyclable materials to implementing sustainable digital services. This work is primarily meant for students, scholars, economists and researchers in the area of sustainable development and ICT. We believe that the book will be necessary and helpful not only for Information Technology students, but also in the field of social sciences in India. Any constructive comments for improving the contents will be warmly appreciated.  Authors

Acknowledgements

We express our gratitude to all the people and authors who worked in the area of green computing while writing this book. We thank all those who provided support and offered comments and assisted in the editing, proofreading and design of this book. We are thankful to government of India for developing schemes related to green computing and sustainable development goals. We would like to acknowledge the help of all the people involved in writing this book such as authors, reviewers and publishers who took part in the review process. We would express gratitude to our friends, colleagues and family members without their support, this book would not have become a reality.  Authors

Contents Prefacev Acknowledgementsvii 1. Green Computing in Society 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Green Informatics: ICT for Green and Sustainability 1.3 ICT for Green and Sustainability 1.4 Paris Agreement

1 1 12 15 26

2. Green Computing and Economy 2.1 Economy 2.2 What is Green Computing? 2.3 Sustainable Development 2.4 India and the MDGs: Towards A Sustainable Future for All 2.5 Urbanization and Sustainable Development 2.6 Sustainable Development in India 2.7 India’s Finance Gap 2.8 MDGs Progress 2.9 Broad Based Economic Growth 2.10 Prioritization of Resources for Human Development 2.11 Strong Design of Programmes and Effective Delivery of Public Services 2.12 Basic Infrastructure Development

49 49 49 50 75 83 87 97 100 101 103 104 107

3. Green Computing in Ecology 3.1 Ecology 3.2 Green Computing Architecture 3.3 Impact of Green Computing 3.4 Metrics of Green Computing 3.5 Approaches of Green Computing 3.6 Green Ecology Methods

112 112 115 118 119 122 133

x  Contents

3.7 Creating Green Environment 3.8 ICTS and the Environment

134 136

4. Impact of ICT on Sustainable Development 145 4.1 Sustainable Development 145 4.2 The Impact of Information Technologies and the Internet on Sustainability 150 4.3 Green Initiatives in Information Communication Technology 153 4.4 Challenges in Green Computing 154 4.5 Green Computing: A Gate Way to Green Business 156 4.6 Looking into Future 178 References 183 Index

Chapter

1 Green Computing in Society

1.1 Introduction Green ICT is a topic and initiative that has emerged recently to address the problematic role of ICT. Its main objective is to change the overall impact of ICT, making it environmentally sustainable and positive. Although the term has been widely used, the contents of green ICT have yet to be clearly established. Originally, green ICT was understood to encompass only the direct effects of ICT on the environment, i.e., the design, manufacture, use, and final disposal of ICT equipment and services. Nowadays, however, it is more common to consider the use of ICT as a way to improve the environmental efficiency in other industries and domains. This view is, in a way, well justified due to the ubiquitous nature of ICT, i.e., it is embedded pretty much everywhere. In this roadmap, we will adopt this broader view of green ICT. To emphasise our broader view of the subject and to avoid confusion in the terminology, we will henceforth use the term ICT for environmental sustainability or environmentally sustainable ICT instead of green ICT. Furthermore, we define ICT for environmental sustainability as “use of ICT for optimising societal activities in order to improve environmental sustainability”. In other words, the aim is to use ICT to minimise the environmental load caused by humans. The approach is to concentrate on the activities and solutions that have high potential for significant impacts on environmental sustainability. Solutions that are seen to have only marginal environmental impacts on a global scale are considered in less detail. The overall target used for guiding the roadmapping work was to separate overdriven resource use from economic growth. Events and discussions on the topic of “green informatics” and “green ICT’’ are frequent and numerous and the interest in ICT’s potential is not as much appreciated and often fails to get the attention it deserves to reflect solutions instead of problems. Green informatics incorporates design techniques, construction techniques, the function and the information

2  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development diffusion techniques and aim to the optimal environmental governance, in the interest of the natural environment and the natural resources regarding sustainability in combination to management of the energy requirements in a way that exploits the alternative energy sources. Web technology and broadband Internet along with web-based projects are emerging at a fast pace in useful devices everywhere in our society and a huge amount of information moves across the WWW worldwide. Green computing is the term referring to efficient use of resources in computing and IT/IS infrastructure. Efficiency of green computing emphasises on minimalizing hazardous environmental impact in conjunction with achieving economic viability and improved system performance. The field of “green technology” covers a board spectrum of subjects—from alternative energy generation and electricity consumption techniques and use of ecofriendly, recyclable materials to implementing sustainable digital services. Technical issues of green technology include: green infrastructure (energy-efficient buildings, intelligent cooling systems, renewable power sources), green hardware (multicore computing systems, energy efficient server design and solid-state storage and green software and applications—parallelizing computational science algorithms to run on modern energy efficient ulti-core clusters, intelligent load distribution and CPU switch.

1.1.1  Four Complementary Green Computing Approaches 1.1.1.1  Green Use It emphasises minimizing the electricity consumption of computers and their peripheral devices and using them in an ecofriendly manner. Green technologies encompass various aspects of technology which help us reduce the human impact on the environment and create ways of sustainable development. Social equitability, economic feasibility and sustainability are the key parameters for green technologies. Today the environment is racing towards the tipping point at which we would have done permanent irreversible damage to the planet earth. Studies done by the Inter Governmental Panel on climate change indicate that it is not necessary that the climate would change continuously, once we reach the tipping point entire atmospheric cycles can just flip and within the next four decades the earth might start becoming totally inhabitable due to unimaginable climate situations. Our current actions are pulling the world towards an ecological landslide which if happens would make destruction simply inevitable. Green technologies are an approach towards saving the earth and are necessary if we want to live on the earth beyond two centuries.

Green Computing in Society  3

1.1.1.2  Green Disposal It is re-purposing an existing computer or appropriately disposing of, or recycling, unwanted electronic equipment. E-waste is one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world. In developed countries it, on an average, equals 1% of the total solid waste. The increasing “market penetration” in developing countries, “replacement market” in developed countries and “high obsolescence rate”, make e-waste one of the fastest waste streams. It includes items such as televisions (TV), computers, liquid crystal display (LCD), plasma panels, printing, scanning devices, mobile phones as well as a wide range of household, medical and industrial equipment which are simply discarded as new technologies become available. Huge quantities of these wastes are discarded every year and since these wastes contain toxic and carcinogenic compounds can pose high risk to the environment. In computer lead and cadmium are used in circuit boards, lead oxide and cadmium in cathode ray tube monitors, mercury in switches and flat screen monitors, cadmium in computer, polychlorinated biphenyls in older capacitors, transformers and batteries. At present, Indians use about 14 million PCs, 16 million mobile phones and 80 million TV sets. So, there is a pressing need to address e-waste management particularly in developing countries like ours. The presence of valuable recyclable components, in electronic wastes, attracts informal and non-organised sectors towards it but the unsafe and environmentally risky practices adopted by them pose great risks to health and environment. E Waste Management Law has been improvised by Government of India for safe green disposal. The rules given by Government of India are: 1. The hazardous wastes management and handling rules: The Hazardous Waste Management Rules are made for safe handling, generation, processing, treatment, package, storgae, transportation, use reprocessing, collection, conversion, and offering for sale, destruction and disposal of hazardous waste. These Rules came into effect in the year 1989 and have been amemded later in the years 2000, 2003 and with final notification of the Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008 in supersession of former notification. The Rules lay down corresponding duties of various authorities such as MoEF, CPCB, State/UT Govts., SPCBs/PCCs, DGFT, Port Authority and Custom Authority while State Pollution Control Boards/ Pollution Control Committees have been designated with wider responsibilites touching across almost every aspect of hazardous wastes generation, handling and their disposal.

4  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development

2. The e-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011: The e-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules are covered under the Hazardous Waste Management (HWM) Act, under the Environmental Protection Act 1986. These rules were brought with an aim to recover or reuse material from e-waste, which help to minimise the hazardous wastes providing safe and environmentfriendly handling, transporting, storing, and recycling of e-waste. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) was introduced in the rule which made manufacturers liable for safe disposal of electronic goods. Then the e-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 were enacted in supersession of the 2011 Rules and came into effect from 1st October, 2016. The e-Waste Management Rules, 2016 have recently been amended by the Centre on 22nd March, 2018 to facilitate and effectively implement the environmentally sound management of e-waste in India. These amendments were made with the aim of utilising the e-waste generated in the country. These rules revised the collection targets under the provision of EPR with effect from 1st October, 2017. By way of revised targets and monitoring under the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), effective and improved management of e-waste would be ensured. As per the revised targets of e-waste collection, 10% of the quantity of waste generated shall be collected during 2017-2018. Further, there shall be a 10% increase every year until the year 2023. After 2023, the e-waste collection target has been fixed at 70% of the quantity of waste generation. All the rules are applied to every producer and consumer who is involved in the manufacture, sale, and purchase and processing of electrical and electronic equipment or components as specified in the schedule. In this rule all the Information Technology and Telecommunication Equipment like Mainframes, Minicomputers, Personal Computers (Central Processing Unit with input and output devices), Laptop Computers (Central Processing Unit with input and output devices), Notebook Computers, Notepad Computers, Printers including cartridges, Copying Equipment, Electrical equipment like Electronic Typewriters, User Terminals and Systems, Facsimile, telephones, cellular telephones, television sets, refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners excluding centralized air conditioning plants were covered.

1.1.1.3  Green Design Green design is designing energy-efficient computers, servers, printers, projectors and other digital devices that are environment-friendly. With

Green Computing in Society  5

this in mind, green design means designing with the whole life cycle of the product in mind (not just thinking about how the product performs). Green designers look at the entire chain of production, from mining and processing, to manufacturing, use, and disposal. They seek to eliminate or minimize the negative impacts and incorporate sustainable practices, like using materials that won’t become waste when the products are recycled, but can be “closed loop” recycled back into new products. This ends the traditional “cradle-to-grave” life cycle in favor of a greener “cradle-tocradle”. Green designed products are able to be reclaimed, renewed, and reused. Product longevity is an important part in the design process. With goals of producing greener technology, one must strive to make the product last for as long as possible. Often the biggest use of resources comes from making the product during the manufacturing process. It is more economical and ecofriendly to upgrade or modulate equipment, rather than produce a new one. Size is another aspect of green design. The trend of technological components getting smaller, as well as faster, benefits the green initiative. Smaller form factors require less energy to function and less materials to build. An example of this would be flash drives and solid state drives (SSDs) which use less electricity per gigabyte than hard drives. Modularity is the how much a system can be broken down into separate parts and used to build, repair, or upgrade other systems. This is achieved through standardization of interfaces in production so that components are able to connect, interact, and exchange resources. Components are designed loosely coupled, meaning that the components are built with little to no definite system specifics in mind. This concept is used in green design to increase the product’s ability to adhere to the practices of green design. EOL (end of life) management must be considered in planning with environment-friendly intentions. EOL management answers questions concerning when and what happens after the product reaches the end its life cycle; such as support, marketing, and maintenance. Backwards and forward compatibility are issues that should be decided, as well as continuing to address the market needs that the product addresses —which might lead to the development of a new product. Packaging that is made of recycled or renewable materials can cut down on waste and the amount of used resources. An example, would be using recycled paper in the packaging which would reduce the need to cut down more trees. Packaging can also be made lighter or of less materials all together to further decrease the product’s impact on the environment.

6  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development Less is More… Dual conguration along with 8 USB ports gives users exibility which hardware they need and how they use it. Rather than stufng the case with frivolous electronic components. Recompute keeps things simple. Need wireless or extra storage? Just plug it in a USB. No one component is physically tied to recompute, thus existing hardware pleces can be swapped form computer to computer and replaced individually as need.

Vertically conguration

Horizontal conguration

Fig 1.1:  Size aspect

Fig. 1.2:  Use of computing resources

The great importance is to understand the full life cycle of computing resources, while applying the idea of green computing. Following are the areas and practices that users can implement for maximizing usefulness and minimalizing negative consequences for environment:

Green Computing in Society  7

• PC power management techniques: Set of actions and mechanisms for controlling the power use of personal computer hardware mainly turning off the power or switching the system to the low-power state when inactive (Wikipedia). In computing this kind of power management is built around the specification called the Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI), an open industrial standard that allows direct control, management savings energy by the operating system, i.e., automatic switch off, and stand-by mode, etc. In addition, the system can go into hibernation, at the time the CPU and RAM are disabled. Some software solutions allow the definition of voltage, e.g., on CPU, which allows for the reduction of heat production and energy consumption. Some mobile processors can adjust the voltage up to the required capacity in a given moment. This technology is called SpeedStep on Intel processors, PowerNow!, Cool‘n’Quieton AMD chipsets, Longhaulon VIA processors and LongRun of Transmeta processors. • Virtualization: In the traditional IT infrastructure servers are dedicated to specific computing functions like storage, communication, database and so on. Virtualization eliminates the need for a dedicated server to run applications. It enables at the same time to run multiple operating systems on the same hardware platform and the system at maximum possible performance. It is based on launching the operating system in virtual machine, abandoning the universality of emulation many computer architectures. Limitation only to the hardware platform used to perform a certain number of guest operating system processes (emulated system) directly on the hardware of computer. Only when such operations are not directly performed, virtualizer emulates them. This means that a virtualizer starts the operating system so that it can coexist with the primary system and achieve maximum compatibility and performance. The dedicated servers are only used when there are 1855 active connections, they can be used for other purposes during their idle or inactive time or use. Virtualization contributes in green technology on the one hand by reducing the number of servers, power and disposal requirements of desktops and limiting costly business travels of staff, customers and suppliers as well as replacing paper systems with on-line communication platforms.

1.1.1.4  Green Manufacturing It is minimizing waste during the manufacturing of computers and other subsystems to reduce the process of production of computers and associated

8  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development devices include methods of manufacturing and biodegradable components for minimal or no impact on the environment. This approach allows to provide economic benefits like long-term cost savings, and business process efficiency improvements. These four approaches cover a number of areas, efforts and actions for efficient use of computers and computing, however the basic problem occurring from this issue is finding the path for achieving sustainability. “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs” – that’s how sustainability was defined by WCED in 1987. In order to achieve goals set by the idea of ICT sustainability the whole process of creating ICT infrastructure should be taken into account. Minimal impact on the environment should be one of the key assumptions for IT manufacturers during the process of design and production of all ICT components. Major IT companies are already applying green standards to their operations in order to gain new revenue opportunities and promote social and environmental responsibility influencing customers and market competition. Main areas in green manufacturing of computers are: • Ecofriendly design: The design of computing resources that meet the stringent restriction of e.g. Energy Star enabling further utilization with determined power supply and power management requirements including special modes and allowances). “The Energy Star devices can be programmed to power-down to a low electric state when they are not in use, helping to save energy and run cooler which helps them last even longer”. • Use of bioproducts: Biodegradable and renewable materials often require less energy to produce in comparison to traditional toxic materials. Manufacturers use many different types of plastic in computers, which makes it challenging to recycle. What is more, computers contain hazardous contaminants for environment like cadmium, lead, mercury or chromium. Use of harmful powerdemanding materials can be replaced by efficient and recyclable elements, e.g., displays made of OLEDs (organic light-emitting diodes) in manufacturing mercury is not used, hence making them more environment-friendly.

1.1.2  ICT for Environmental Sustainability ICTs, such as satellites, mobile phones or the Internet, play a key role in addressing the major challenges related with climate change and sustainable development. ICTs are fundamental for monitoring climate change, mitigating and adapting to its effects and assisting in the transition towards

Green Computing in Society  9

a green and circular economy. By raising awareness on the role of ICTs, ITU is promoting transformative solutions that can ensure a sustainable future for all. Explore the links below to find more about ITU’s vision and mission in the area of environmental sustainability and climate change.​ Here, we discuss and present some of the most relevant reports related to the field of ICT for sustainability. Pathways to a low-carbon economy report by McKinskey provides a global greenhouse gas abatement cost curve, which estimates the potential and costs of more than 200 GHG (green house gas) abatement activities across 10 sectors and 21 world regions (Fig. 1.2). According to this report, there is potential to reduce the GHG emissions by 38 GtCO2e by 2030. This means a 35 percent reduction compared with 1990 levels or a 70 percent reduction compared to a business-as-usual scenario for 2030. The activities are divided into four categories (the estimated abatement potential in parenthesis): energy efficiency (14 GtCO2e), low-carbon energy supply (12 GtCO2e), terrestrial carbon (forestry and agriculture, 12 GtCO2e), and behavioural change (3.5– 5GtCO2e). Regarding the first three categories, the report estimates that 33 percent of the abatement potential lies in land-use sectors (agriculture, forestry), 29 percent in energy supply sectors (electricity,petroleum and gas), 22 percent in sectors with significant consumer influence (transportation, buildings, waste), and 16 percent in the industrial sector. Regarding the last category, the report claims that changing behaviour is difficult and will greatly depend on the kind of incentives policy makers are able to offer. In the report Fig. 1.3 SMART 2020 (Global eSustainability Initiative 2008), the Global Sustainability Initiative (GeSI) evaluated the impacts of direct emissions of ICT products and services based on expected growth in the ICT sector. It also assessed areas where ICT could enable significant emission reductions. The report states that ICT’s largest influence will involve enabling energy efficiency in other sectors and not in increasing the energy efficiency of ICT products and services as such. The biggest role ICTs could play is in helping to improve energy efficiency in electricity supply infrastructure, the power consumption of buildings and factories and the use of transportation to deliver goods. Consequently, by realising the opportunities in smart motor systems, smart logistics, smart buildings, and smart grids, ICT could produce emissions savings of approximately 7.8 GtCO2e. This amounts to carbon savings five times larger than the total emissions from the entire ICT sector in 2020, translating into savings of approximately €600 billion. The report also stresses that in order to capitalise the potential of ICT for sustainability, major policy, market and behavioural changes are required.

15

Fig. 1.3:  Desktop survey on ICT for environmental sustainability

10

Building efciency new build

25 20 Organic oils restoration Geothermal Grassland management Reduced pastureland conversion Reduced lash and burn agriculture conversion Small hydro 1st generation biofuels Rice management Efciency improvements other industry Electricity from landll gas Clinker substitution by y ash Cropland nutrient management Motor systems efciency Insulation retrot (commercial) Lighting – switch incandescent to LED (residential)

5

Cars full hybrid Waste recycling

Degraded land restoration 2nd generation biofuels Insulation retrot (residential)

Retrot residential HVAC Tillage and residue mgmt

Residential electronics Residential appliances

Low penetration wind Cars plug-in hybrid Degraded forest reforestation Nuclear Pastureland afforestation

30

38 Abatement potential GtCO2e per year

35

Gas plant CCS retrot Coal CCS retrot Iron and steel CCS new build Coal CCS new build Power plant biomass co-ring Reduced intensive agriculture conversion High penetration wing Solar PV Solar CSP

Note:  The curve presents an estimate of the maximum potential of all technical GHG abatement measures below €60 per tCO2e if each lever was pursued aggressively. It is not a forecast of what role different abatement measures and technologies will play. Source:  Global GHG abatement cost curve v2.0

–100

–90

–80

–70

–60

–50

–40

–30

–20

–10

0

10

20

30

40

50

Abatement cost € per tCO2e 60

Global GHG abatement cost curve beyond business-as-usual – 2030

10  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development

Green Computing in Society  11

Gartner’s report Green IT – The New Industry Shock Wave concentrates on the potential changes that greener ICT could have on business practices. The report also raises the issue of “green fatigue” on the agenda, i.e., the over-exposition of green information and the attitude people could adopt towards this information. The report also presumes that green IT will go through the same hype cycle as every new emerging technology using realistic approach.

1.1.3  Sustainability of Green IT Sustainability of communication technologies is one of the main aims of today. Sustainability is associated with aspect of economic, environmental, and social impact of organizations (service suppliers, administration, academia, enterprises, etc). Green IT is to be taking into account in the sustainability. These two concepts are linked to each other. Green usually means energy efficient and environment-friendly and sustainable means “planning and investing in a technology infrastructure that serves the needs of today as well as the needs of today while conserving resources and saving money”. To reach effective results, sustainability is important but green IT is the first step for all these purposes. Green IT addresses issues such as: • Designing energy efficient chips and disk drives • Replacing personal computers with energy efficient thin clients • Use of virtualization software to run multiple operating systems on one server • Reducing the energy consumption of data centers • Using renewable energy sources to power data centers • Reducing electronic waste from obsolete computing equipment • Promoting telecommuting and remote computer administration to reduce transportation emissions. After we looked the broader concept of sustainability innovation, it is the time for the green IT to analyze very exhaustively. Murugesan (2008, pp. 25-26) suggests that Green IT is: “The study and practice of designing, manufacturing, using, and disposing of computers, servers, and associated subsystems, such as, monitors, printers, storage devices, and networking and communications systems, effectively with minimal or no impact on the environment. Green IT also strives to achieve economic viability and improved system performance and use, while abiding by our social and ethical responsibilities.

12  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development Thus, green IT includes the dimensions of environmental sustainability, the economics of energy efficiency, and the total cost of ownership, which includes the cost of disposal and recycling. It is the study and practice of using computing resources efficiently.” Approaches to Sustainability

Sources of Sustainable value

Sustainable innovation

Innovation, contributing to community & opening new markets, legislative assessing managing shareholder impact developing sustainable value, low-energy products

Green IS

Environmental management and reducing process costs

Green IT Responding to regulation and reducing energy & waste

Fig. 1.4:  Sources of sustainable value

1.2  Green Informatics: ICT For Green And Sustainability 1.2.1 Dimensions of Green Informatics Contribution The dimensions of contribution of green informatics to the environment and environmental sustainability are: • Reduction of energy consumption/carbon footprint while production and usage towards low carbon economy. • Rise of environmental awareness with information diffusion, training and education. • Effective communication for environmental projects and networks. • Sustainable environmental governance.

1.2.2 Reduction of Energy Consumption and Gas Emission Green informatics can contribute through: • inventing innovative energy saver systems, technologies and “smart” devices, using “smart energy management”; • applications for energy saver policies using renewable sources, solar energy and photovoltaic, wind energy, biofuel, bioclimatic technology, anti-pollutants technology, etc.; and • recycling and reducing of e-waste such as old IT systems, chips, PC, hardware, printers, mobile phones, etc.

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The 40% of the total energy consumption is due to households, therefore innovative “smart houses’’, green constructions of bio-climate material and green architecture making use of innovative energy sensor – IT systems can achieve to measure, manage and reduce electricity consumption and air conditioning requirements. During the last decade, technical and industrial products’ manufacturers were essentially obliged to change direct, about their energy consumption, as a result of the economic crisis in addition to the increased environmental awareness of the public. The concern taken by the producer towards energy reduction covering every computing device, from the laptops and mobiles to the data centres, has been and will be presumably successful. Actually, consumers show their preference for smart devices, new, noticeably less energy-consuming technologies, renewable energy sources and updated, more efficient cooling systems with improved energy management software. Qualifying products are rewarded with official certification for meeting or exceeding efficiency guidelines. The transition to a low-carbon society by 2050 includes the vision to live and work in low-energy and low-emission buildings, with intelligent heating and cooling systems. Cars and trains should be electric and hybrid and therefore our living-environment will be less polluted and cleaner. It is also important during global economic crisis that the sector of green construction and house energy improvement can lead to new jobs. The average per capita final energy consumption of households in 2005 and 2010, in various energy types is presented in Fig. 1.5. It’s optimistic that many citizens have begun to accept the concept of human caused climate change, resource depletion, as well as the imperative nature of acting on this knowledge. This has led many to make personal lifestyle changes. The “living green” trend includes many aspects such as green constructions, green roofs, renewable energy use, energy saving at home, the extended use of ecofriendly products, a recycling perspective, even using sustainability checklists, designed to help evaluate how sustainable our home is, as well as provide ideas for increasing home sustainability that includes many no or low cost actions. Moreover, clever use of e- and m-services can be a tool for less energy consumption. In the case of paper use it is important that nowadays correspondence of files, studies, data, photos, maps, etc., can be acquired in digital form using Internet and smart devices. The production and distribution of new products and services through broadband tends to minimize the needed energy that is estimated through carbon footprint.

Electricity, 2005

Other energy types, 2005

Electricity, 2010

Other energy types, 2010

Fig. 1.5:  Average per capita energy consumption of households in 2005 and 2010, divided into electricity consumption and other energy types (Source: EEA)

FY

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0.0

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14  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development

Green Computing in Society  15

1.3  ICT For Green And Sustainability By using e-mobile innovation we solve environmental problems and we ensure the sustainable environmental management with environmental data. “ICT for sustainable growth’’ is a specific process that focuses on greening with ICT (and also on greening of ICT). Six policy areas have been selected as priorities (Ernst and Young, 2011):

(a) Energy efficiency of the ICT sector (greening of ICT)



(b) Smart sustainable cities (greening with ICT)



(c) Energy efficient buildings (greening with ICT)

(d) Smart grids (greening with ICT)

(e) Water management (greening with ICT)



(f) Climate change management (greening with ICT).

Green informatics supports the construction and improvement of natural environment and resources surveillance systems, as a means to protect and restore natural ecosystems potential (forests, lakes, rivers, wetlands, etc.) and introduce preventive actions, such as observatories, innovative tele-detection for forest fires, river floods, land erosions, climate change, monitoring and alarm systems, improvement of infrastructure and communication equipment, GIS technology, etc. For EU decisions/projects/tasks/measures/initiatives about agriculture, fishery, forestry, transportations, energy, commerce, development, etc., there is always focus on innovative ICT tools. Forests and agricultural land are important to climate change mitigation because of the significance of their carbon stock and also for their exchange of greenhouse gases between the atmosphere and soils and vegetation that can go both ways. Over 120 million trees are harvested annually to supply US book and newspaper industries, emitting over 40 million metric tons of CO2 per year. Although research attempts are carried out locally successfully, in institutes and research centers, at often considerable cost, their use remains limited and local. Effective organization, access and management of all available information in environmental databases constitute an important factor within decision-making process. Environmental projects have to manage large interdisciplinary multivariable data sets that include a lot of variables from different sources and with different structure (meteorological, biological, economic, etc.) and this has been successfully achieved through multidisciplinary environmental data management with databases.

16  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development Environmental monitoring is an extremely useful tool for a large proportion of people. Network technologies can integrate geospatial technologies aiming to sustain agricultural and environmental observation networks and mission-critical agricultural and environmental applications can be deployed. Sensor networks through wireless networks can help to collect from remote places time-series of environmental data. They are sent wirelessly/automatically to local databases in institutes, labs, etc., and then data are analyzed for the study of sensitive environmental parameters. Data are analyzed with enhanced software and visual graphs are continuously produced for comparison. The analysis of data provides simulation models that simulate effectively the environmental reality. Models can provide future forecasts. Decision-makers can evaluate alternative future scenarios with decision support system (DSS). DSSs are information systems given certain parameters we can provide wise management aiming to environmental sustainability. Decision support information systems may use: • Environmental databases • GIS • ARIMA modeling (time-series analysis) • Multi-variant analysis/multi-criteria analysis • Fuzzy logic • Expert systems, etc. These system to help local authorities/stakeholders to decide towards sustainable environmental management, wise use of natural resources and also protect from natural disasters. Whereas world opinion, business, and information systems units acknowledge problem, the IS academic community seems largely ignorant of the challenge of sustainable development, with a few exceptions. • Using screensavers: Screensaver that displays moving images, which continually interacts with the CPU, conserves less power than a blank screensaver but it reduces energy consumption by only a small percentage. • Using thin-client computers: Thin client computers draw about a fifth of the power of desktop PC but it is used only with active participation and wholehearted willingness from users. This is achieved with employee education by changing their computer habits, so enterprises must take into account their employees’ feedback and address their concerns, and encourage them to join in green computing efforts.

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• Greening data centers: The rise of Internet and web applications leads to rapid growth of data centers. Enterprises are installing more servers and expanding their capacity and each server draws far more electricity than earlier models. Also operational costs for data centers are increasing because price of energy is increasing. Beside the cost, availability of electrical power is becoming a crucial issue for many companies whose data centers have expanded steadily, so these constraints force the companies and IT departments to reduce energy consumption. They are taking some actions to increase data center efficiency by using new energy efficient equipment, improving airflow management to reduce cooling requirements, investing in energy management software, and adopting environment-friendly designs for data centers and new measures to curb their energy consumption. The coming three topics are related to green data centers: energy conservation, eco-friendly design, and server virtualization. MM Energy conservation: As we mentioned above, data center operating expense is high and most of the costs are related to cooling, so IT industry is inventing new ways to help address this issue. For example, companies like IBM, HP, SprayCool, and Cooling are working on technologies such as liquid cooling, nano fluid-cooling systems, and in-server, in-rack, and in-row cooling. Other ways to make data centers more environment-friendly are new high density servers, hydrogen fuel cells as alternative green power sources also by applying virtualization technologies; the total power consumption of servers and the heat generated reduces. MM Ecofriendly design: Organic compound (VOC), countertops made of recycled products, and energy efficient mechanical and electrical systems at optimal efficiency. Eco designs make use of natural light as well as green power which means that electricity generated from solar or wind energy to run the data center, so adopting ecofriendly designs provides many benefits to the enterprises such as complete design control, reducing heat and adding light. For instance, many American enterprises are adopting the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) standards maintained by the US Green Building Council areas: sustainable site development, water savings, energy efficiency, materials selection, and indoor environmental quality. MM Virtualization: It is a key strategy to reduce data center power consumption. It enables data centers to consolidate their physical

18  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development server infrastructure by hosting multiple virtual servers on a smaller number of more powerful servers. These lead to less electricity and simplifying the data center. Also it reduces the data center floor space, the data center’s energy demands and makes better use of computing power.

1.3.1  Green Software Greening software is also important for the practitioners in terms of speed, energy monitoring, speed with new inventions, and grouping of new software. • Speed: Computers’ life cycle is significant for every user. As users, we are more sensitive about speed especially while we are browsing the Internet. On the market, there are predeveloped tools for cutting electricity costs or speeding up a web site or both such as the runtime page optimizer (RPO). • Energy monitoring: By using any of the existing energy monitoring tools to manage power, something classified as green software can be achieved. These tools allow visualization of the power consumption and possibilities to choose the level of energy savings and calculation of estimated savings among other features like IBM Active Energy Manager and Edison by Verdiem. • Speed with new inventions: Swedish company Oricane founded in 2006 by PhD Mikael Sundström is the best example for the greening or sustainable software. Oricane has developed what they claim to be green software technology for many Internet applications to reduce the total power consumption of the Internet and minimize the environmental impact of Internet’s explosive growth. They are doing this by optimizing all decision processes in software with new potential algorithms. Ultimately, the power consumption of the hardware on which the Internet is built will be reduced.

1.3.2  Examples of Green it Services from different Angles Through the Vendors The approaches of the vendors from different angles towards the green IT can be categorized as: • Services arms of IT systems manufacturers (Dell, HP, Intel, and Sun): These companies’ service practices are pretty tightly tied to their product offerings; thus, tend to be focused on data center design and optimization. • IT systems integrators/outsources (CSC, EDS, Getronics, and Wipro): Getronics and Wipro are data center oriented, CSC and EDS have broader visions of corporate green initiatives and their IT’s role within them.

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• IT consulting giants (Accenture, Deloitte, and IBM): The objective of these companies is to help clients position IT as an enabler and contributor to wide ranging green business initiatives. They approach IT from the corporate sustainability and CSR perspectives. • Telecom services suppliers (BT): They focus on helping clients address their green IT challenges and opportunities With respect to green IT/IS, mentioned in previous pages, HP is the best example. The company is the forerunner in the IT industry. It was the first company to set recycling programs from 1994 onwards and it was one of the key drivers of several industry initiatives for green IT/IS and sustainable innovation. The greening and sustainability efforts of HP in each of the above-mentioned phases are summarized in Table 1.1. Table 1.1:  The sustainability journal of HP Strategies

Green IT 1990

Green IS 2000

Examples • Europe-wide recycling • ISO40001 Certification of Environmental from HP: scheme in response to management system German recycling laws • Free recycling programs in response in California state legislation and the EU WEEE directive • Elimination of hazadous substances in response to EU RoHS directive • Production of energy efficient products in order to earn the EPA energy star label.

Sustainable innovation 2003 • Collaboration with key stakeholders and strong commitment to community through organizing recycling events for informing consumers: stimulating university research and education on social responsibility: setting up digital inclusion projects. • Radical rethink and redesign of electronic products and manufacturing processes • Shaping legislation and initiating industry initiatives • Assessing managing stakeholder impacts along the supply chain • Multi-stakeholder product innovation

1.3.2.1  ICT Technologies which can be used to reduce GHG Emissions • Smart metering and smart grids • ICT for smart buildings management • Sustainable transport, including electric vehicles, real time navigation (RTN) and e-logistics • E-commerce

20  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development • E-government, including e-civil service • E-learning • Telepresence

1.3.2.2  Smart Energy A ‘smart grid’ is a set of software and hardware tools that enable generators to route power more efficiently, reducing the need for excess capacity and allowing two-way, real-time information exchange with their customers for real-time demand side management (DSM). Demand control (electricity) by load shifting via smart meters and appliances reduces peak demand saving hot standby power stations, e.g., temporary turn off, for refrigerator, dishwasher, etc. (future electric vehicle charging) requires communication to meters and appliances

ckWh

Electricity price 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2

Load (kW)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Demand response effect 5000 4500 Normal load 4000 Load after demand response 3500 3000 2500 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Hour

Fig. 1.6:  Demand side management

1.3.2.3  Smart Buildings Smart building management systems with up-to-date information can make intelligent modifications to improve building energy efficiency, reduce wastage, make optimum usage of water. Increasing occupant satisfaction: for both new and existing through simple retrofit programs.

1.3.2.4  Sustainable Transport Electric vehicles (EVs) save >50% of carbon emissions over vehicle lifetime. EVs are currently expensive compared to petrol and diesel fuelled vehicles but are becoming available in quantity. Adoption could be brought forward by policy makers stimulating the market. India recently launched a National Mission on EV mobility with target of 6 million EVs (two-wheelers and four-wheelers) by 2020. Market for manufacture and sale of EVs should be established in developing countries promoted by piloting an EV

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charging infrastructure, initially in major cities. Promoting awareness of the benefits of EVs, including the lifetime costs of an EV are much lower than for other options.

Fig. 1.7:  Integrated building management system

Subsidising the sale of EVs to promote the market. Quality of EV batteries should be monitored by EPA to avoid increase in eWaste arising from premature expiry during use of these vehicles. Electric vehicles (EVs) could also have a role as providers of energy storage for the smart grid.

1.3.2.5  Transport: Travel Avoidance using ICT Teleworking up to 260 MtCO2e savings each year. For example, in US, if up to 30 million people could work from home, emissions could be reduced 75-100 MtCO2e in 2030, comparable to likely reductions from other measures such as fuel efficient vehicles. Tele- and videoconferencing, conducting meetings online or on the phone instead of face-to-face could also reduce emissions. Previous conservative estimates have suggested that tele- and videoconferencing could replace between 5 and 20% of global business travel. Advanced videoconferencing applications in the early stage of adoption could have a significant impact in transport sector reduction.

1.3.2.6  Smart Transport Smart transportation management systems collect information about mobility patterns, enabling city managers to check the existing infrastructure is being best used, improves the level of citizens’ lifestyle in the transportation of goods, services and people. In addition, ICT can help to reduce overall need for transportation and travel by offering virtual alternatives to physical movements.

22  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development

Fig. 1.8:  Smart transport

1.3.2.7  Smart Logistics Smart logistics: Through a host of efficiencies in transport and storage, smart logistics in Europe could deliver fuel, electricity and heating savings of 225 MtCO2e. The global emissions savings from smart logistics in 2020 would reach 1.52 GtCO2e, with energy savings worth US$441.7 billion. The unnecessary journeys by using GPS for locating and directing delivery vehicles ‘always turn right rule’ (Verizon) Mobile phone (or PDA) to inform of ‘next call’ Mobile phone to ‘ring ahead’ needs to be avoided. Smart traffic control Lights send out status signals to warn drivers they need to stop Smart parking Vehicles directed to an empty space No touring around to find a slot.

1.3.2.8  Smart Agriculture Agriculture sector emitted 10.6 GtCO2e in 2008 over 21% of world’s total GHG emissions. SAgriculture could boost crop yields by 30%, avoid 20% of food waste, deliver economic benefits worth $1.9 trillion worldwide, which has reduced water needs by 250 trillion litres. The control of watering and fertilisers using satellite imaging and global positioning systems in the past years but these days, a complete field would receive the same treatment, whereas precision farming makes it possible to split up the crop into sub-field management areas. Today it is even possible to conduct spatial analysis of the crop in blocks as small as 20 m by 20 m. This allows local soil or climate conditions to be taken into consideration and encourages more efficient fertiliser application.

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Fig. 1.9:  Nitrogen management map for winter wheat

1.3.2.9  Smart Forestry Forests are stores of carbon and can be either sinks or sources depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forests alternate between being net sinks and net sources of carbon dioxide. Deforestation accounts for about 20 per cent of man-made greenhouse gas emissions, more than those produced by the entire transport sector. Copenhagen Accord (2009) specifies “need to recognize reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) through immediate establishment of mechanism to enable mobilization of financial resources from developed countries.”

Fig. 1.10:  NASA photo of deforestation in Tierras Bajas project, Bolivia, from ISS in April 2001

24  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development

1.3.2.10  Smart Sustainable Cities “A smart sustainable city is an innovative city that uses information and communication technologies (ICTs) and other means to improve quality of life, efficiency of urban operation and services, and competitiveness, while ensuring that it meets the needs of present and future generations with respect to economic, social and environmental aspects”. A smart sustainable city is a city that leverages the ICT infrastructure in an adaptable, reliable, scalable, accessible, secure, safe and resilient manner in order to improve the quality of life of its citizens • Ensure tangible economic growth such as higher standards of living and employment opportunities for its citizens. • Improve the well-being of its citizens including medical care, welfare, physical safety and education. • Establish an environmentally responsible and sustainable approach which “meets the needs of today without sacrificing the needs of future generations”. • Streamline physical infrastructure based services such as the transportation (mobility), water, utilities (energy), telecommunications, and manufacturing sectors. • Reinforce prevention and handling functionality for natural and manmade disasters including the ability to address the impacts of climate change. • Provide an effective and balanced regulatory, compliance and governance mechanisms with appropriate and equitable policies and processes in a standardized manner. The cities should be made sustainable by efficient management of resources and infrastructure, greener environment, smart governance resulting in better quality of living of its citizens. All of which can be enabled by the effective use of ICTs leading to efficient water management based on real-time information exchanges, public transport systems organized through information gathered by satellites, solutions to concerns related to air quality monitoring, electromagnetic field monitoring.

1.3.2.11  Green Cloud Computing The Gartner report from May 2009 defines cloud concept as “a style of computing where scalable and elastic IT capabilities are provided as a service to multiple customers using Internet technologies”. The 1856 use of the potential of cloud computing model interacts with the concept of sustainable development,understood in three dimensions: economic, environmental and social. Clouds consolidate environment, saving power,

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cooling, space and money. Cost savings and flexibility of operations are among the most frequently mentioned benefits associated with a decision to adopt the cloud computing solution. Fixed costs related to the investment in infrastructure (which in the traditional business model generally increases with time and the need to update the software) are reduced, as well as energy costs feeding the infrastructure. Traditional costs related with the licenses, number of users, equipment, operation, repairs and applications are replaced for payment for functionality that is actually used by the company or other organization that also obtain access to the latest technology. This solution allows to adjust supply to demand, eliminating incurring unnecessary costs associated with the overestimation or underestimation of customer needs. At the same time, it affects the reduction of occurrence of lost sales opportunities risk and cost of incorrect demand forecasting and company’s supply planning. Some aspects of cloud’s ICT infrastructure allow to identify the model as the one providing green benefits. The basic features of the model allow you to specify a number of environmental benefits that can be achieved by migrating the IT resources to the cloud. These aspects may include: • Dynamic provisioning and multi tenancy: lower energy consumption and associated carbon emissions than the traditional approach of over-provisioning. Automatic processing of computing environment supports user needs, operating under the cloud may acquire or release the resources (instances) where it is appropriate (according to the demand). Dynamic resource allocation is done automatically, thus datacenters maintain active servers according to current demand. With virtualization technology, which allows to connect disparate resources in one great set of resources it is possible to release them more selectively to all customers at the same time increasing the level of their use. Without virtualization cloud computing would never arise. The entire pool is shared by many customers of a one supplier, in the way of dynamic allocation and releasing precisely defined portion of virtual resources. Level of use of the pool is proportional to changes in demand for computing resources. • Optimal server utilization: traditionally, many servers remain idle of 85-95% of the time using nearly as much power as they do when they are active. Virtualization technology enables hosting of multiple applications through one server. The number of active servers is reduced and the power consumption is lower.

26  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development • Energy-efficient client devices: the public cloud model reduces the number of energy consuming clients through small energy-efficient devices (e.g., thin clients)

1.4  Paris Agreement 1.4.1  Parties to this Agreement Being Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, hereinafter referred to as “the Convention”, Pursuant to the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action established by decision 1/CP.17 of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention at its seventeenth session, In pursuit of the objective of the Convention, and being guided by its principles, including the principle of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances, Recognizing the need for an effective and progressive response to the urgent threat of climate change on the basis of the best available scientific knowledge, Also recognizing the specific needs and special circumstances of developing country Parties, especially those that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, as provided for in the Convention, Taking full account of the specific needs and special situations of the least developed countries with regard to funding and transfer of technology, Recognizing that Parties may be affected not only by climate change, but also by the impacts of the measures taken in response to it, Emphasizing the intrinsic relationship that climate change actions, responses and impacts have with equitable access to sustainable development and eradication of poverty, Recognizing the fundamental priority of safeguarding food security and ending hunger, and the particular vulnerabilities of food production systems to the adverse impacts of climate change, Taking into account the imperatives of a just transition of the workforce and the creation of decent work and quality jobs in accordance with nationally defined development priorities, Acknowledging that climate change is a common concern of humankind, Parties should, when taking action to address climate change, respect,

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promote and consider their respective obligations on human rights, the right to health, the rights of indigenous peoples, local communities, migrants, children, persons with disabilities and people in vulnerable situations and the right to development, as well as gender equality, empowerment of women and intergenerational equity, Recognizing the importance of the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of the greenhouse gases referred to in the Convention, Noting the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans, and the protection of biodiversity, recognized by some cultures as Mother Earth, and noting the importance for some of the concept of “climate justice”, when taking action to address climate change, Affirming the importance of education, training, public awareness, public participation, public access to information and cooperation at all levels on the matters addressed in this Agreement, Recognizing the importance of the engagements of all levels of government and various actors, in accordance with respective national legislations of Parties, in addressing climate change, Also recognizing that sustainable lifestyles and sustainable patterns of consumption and production, with developed country Parties taking the lead, play an important role in addressing climate change, Have agreed as follows:

Article 1

For the purpose of this Agreement, the definitions contained in Article 1 of the Convention shall apply. In addition: 1. “Convention” means the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, adopted in New York on 9 May 1992. 2. “Conference of the Parties” means the Conference of the Parties to the Convention. 3. “Party” means a Party to this Agreement.

Article 2 1. This Agreement, in enhancing the implementation of the Convention, including its objective, aims to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change, in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty, including by:

28  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development

(a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change;



(b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten food production;



(c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.

2. This Agreement will be implemented to reflect equity and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances.

Article 3

As nationally determined contributions to the global response to climate change, all Parties are to undertake and communicate ambitious efforts as defined in Articles 4, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 13 with the view to achieving the purpose of this Agreement as set out in Article 2. The efforts of all Parties will represent a progression over time, while recognizing the need to support developing country Parties for the effective implementation of this Agreement.

Article 4 1. In order to achieve the long-term temperature goal set out in Article 2, Parties aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible, recognizing that peaking will take longer for developing country Parties, and to undertake rapid reductions thereafter in accordance with best available science, so as to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century, on the basis of equity, and in the context of sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty. 2. Each Party shall prepare, communicate and maintain successive nationally determined contributions that it intends to achieve. Parties shall pursue domestic mitigation measures, with the aim of achieving the objectives of such contributions.

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3. Each Party’s successive nationally determined contribution will represent a progression beyond the Party’s then current nationally determined contribution and reflect its highest possible ambition, reflecting its common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances. 4. Developed country Parties should continue taking the lead by undertaking economy-wide absolute emission reduction targets. Developing country Parties should continue enhancing their mitigation efforts, and are encouraged to move over time towards economy-wide emission reduction or limitation targets in the light of different national circumstances. 5. Support shall be provided to developing country Parties for the implementation of this Article, in accordance with Articles 9, 10 and 11, recognizing that enhanced support for developing country Parties will allow for higher ambition in their actions. 6. The least developed countries and small island developing States may prepare and communicate strategies, plans and actions for low greenhouse gas emissions development reflecting their special circumstances. 7. Mitigation co-benefits resulting from Parties’ adaptation actions and/ or economic diversification plans can contribute to mitigation outcomes under this Article. 8. In communicating their nationally determined contributions, all Parties shall provide the information necessary for clarity, transparency and understanding in accordance with decision 1/CP.21 and any relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement. 9. Each Party shall communicate a nationally determined contribution every five years in accordance with decision 1/CP.21 and any relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement and be informed by the outcomes of the global stocktake referred to in Article 14. 10. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall consider common time frames for nationally determined contributions at its first session. 11. A Party may at any time adjust its existing nationally determined contribution with a view to enhancing its level of ambition, in accordance with guidance adopted by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement.

30  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development 12. Nationally determined contributions communicated by Parties shall be recorded in a public registry maintained by the secretariat. 13. Parties shall account for their nationally determined contributions. In accounting for anthropogenic emissions and removals corresponding to their nationally determined contributions, Parties shall promote environmental integrity, transparency, accuracy, completeness, comparability and consistency, and ensure the avoidance of double counting, in accordance with guidance adopted by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement. 14. In the context of their nationally determined contributions, when recognizing and implementing mitigation actions with respect to anthropogenic emissions and removals, Parties should take into account, as appropriate, existing methods and guidance under the Convention, in the light of the provisions of paragraph 13 of this Article. 15. Parties shall take into consideration in the implementation of this Agreement the concerns of Parties with economies most affected by the impacts of response measures, particularly developing country Parties. 16. Parties, including regional economic integration organizations and their member States, that have reached an agreement to act jointly under paragraph 2 of this Article shall notify the secretariat of the terms of that agreement, including the emission level allocated to each Party within the relevant time period, when they communicate their nationally determined contributions. The secretariat shall in turn inform the Parties and signatories to the Convention of the terms of that agreement. 17. Each party to such an agreement shall be responsible for its emission level as set out in the agreement referred to in paragraph 16 above in accordance with paragraphs 13 and 14 of this Article and Articles 13 and 15. 18. If Parties acting jointly do so in the framework of, and together with, a regional economic integration organization which is itself a Party to this Agreement, each member State of that regional economic integration organization individually, and together with the regional economic integration organization, shall be responsible for its emission level as set out in the agreement communicated under paragraph 16 of this Article in accordance with paragraphs 13 and 14 of this Article and Articles 13 and 15.

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19. All Parties should strive to formulate and communicate long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies, mindful of Article 2 taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances.

Article 5 1. Parties should take action to conserve and enhance, as appropriate, sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases as referred to in Article 4, paragraph 1(d), of the Convention, including forests. 2. Parties are encouraged to take action to implement and support, including through results-based payments, the existing framework as set out in related guidance and decisions already agreed under the Convention for: policy approaches and positive incentives for activities relating to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries; and alternative policy approaches, such as joint mitigation and adaptation approaches for the integral and sustainable management of forests, while reaffirming the importance of incentivizing, as appropriate, non-carbon benefits associated with such approaches.

Article 6 1. Parties recognize that some Parties choose to pursue voluntary cooperation in the implementation of their nationally determined contributions to allow for higher ambition in their mitigation and adaptation actions and to promote sustainable development and environmental integrity. 2. Parties shall, where engaging on a voluntary basis in cooperative approaches that involve the use of internationally transferred mitigation outcomes towards nationally determined contributions, promote sustainable development and ensure environmental integrity and transparency, including in governance, and shall apply robust accounting to ensure, inter alia, the avoidance of double counting, consistent with guidance adopted by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement. 3. The use of internationally transferred mitigation outcomes to achieve nationally determined contributions under this Agreement shall be voluntary and authorized by participating Parties.

32  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development 4. A mechanism to contribute to the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and support sustainable development is hereby established under the authority and guidance of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement for use by Parties on a voluntary basis. It shall be supervised by a body designated by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement, and shall aim:

(a) To promote the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions while fostering sustainable development;



(b) To incentivize and facilitate participation in the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions by public and private entities authorized by a Party;



(c) To contribute to the reduction of emission levels in the host Party, which will benefit from mitigation activities resulting in emission reductions that can also be used by another Party to fulfil its nationally determined contribution; and



(d) To deliver an overall mitigation in global emissions.

5. Emission reductions resulting from the mechanism referred to in paragraph 4 of this Article shall not be used to demonstrate achievement of the host Party’s nationally determined contribution if used by another Party to demonstrate achievement of its nationally determined contribution. 6. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall ensure that a share of the proceeds from activities under the mechanism referred to in paragraph 4 of this Article is used to cover administrative expenses as well as to assist developing country Parties that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change to meet the costs of adaptation. 7. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall adopt rules, modalities and procedures for the mechanism referred to in paragraph 4 of this Article at its first session. 8. Parties recognize the importance of integrated, holistic and balanced non-market approaches being available to Parties to assist in the implementation of their nationally determined contributions, in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication, in a coordinated and effective manner, including through, inter alia, mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology transfer and capacitybuilding, as appropriate. These approaches shall aim to:

Green Computing in Society  33



(a) Promote mitigation and adaptation ambition;

(b) Enhance public and private sector participation in the implementation of nationally determined contributions; and

(c) Enable opportunities for coordination across instruments and relevant institutional arrangements.

9. A framework for non-market approaches to sustainable development is hereby defined to promote the non-market approaches referred to in paragraph 8 of this Article.

Article 7 1. Parties hereby establish the global goal on adaptation of enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change, with a view to contributing to sustainable development and ensuring an adequate adaptation response in the context of the temperature goal referred to in Article 2. 2. Parties recognize that adaptation is a global challenge faced by all with local, subnational, national, regional and international dimensions, and that it is a key component of and makes a contribution to the longterm global response to climate change to protect people, livelihoods and ecosystems, taking into account the urgent and immediate needs of those developing country Parties that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. 3. The adaptation efforts of developing country Parties shall be recognized, in accordance with the modalities to be adopted by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement at its first session. 4. Parties recognize that the current need for adaptation is significant and that greater levels of mitigation can reduce the need for additional adaptation efforts, and that greater adaptation needs can involve greater adaptation costs. 5. Parties acknowledge that adaptation action should follow a countrydriven, gender-responsive, participatory and fully transparent approach, taking into consideration vulnerable groups, communities and ecosystems, and should be based on and guided by the best available science and, as appropriate, traditional knowledge, knowledge of indigenous peoples and local knowledge systems, with a view to integrating adaptation into relevant socioeconomic and environmental policies and actions, where appropriate.

34  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development 6. Parties recognize the importance of support for and international cooperation on adaptation efforts and the importance of taking into account the needs of developing country Parties, especially those that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. 7. Parties should strengthen their cooperation on enhancing action on adaptation, taking into account the Cancun Adaptation Framework, including with regard to:

(a) Sharing information, good practices, experiences and lessons learned, including, as appropriate, as these relate to science, planning, policies and implementation in relation to adaptation actions;



(b) Strengthening institutional arrangements, including those under the Convention that serve this Agreement, to support the synthesis of relevant information and knowledge, and the provision of technical support and guidance to Parties;



(c) Strengthening scientific knowledge on climate, including research, systematic observation of the climate system and early warning systems, in a manner that informs climate services and supports decision-making;



(d) Assisting developing country Parties in identifying effective adaptation practices, adaptation needs, priorities, support provided and received for adaptation actions and efforts, and challenges and gaps, in a manner consistent with encouraging good practices;



(e) Improving the effectiveness and durability of adaptation actions.

8. United Nations specialized organizations and agencies are encouraged to support the efforts of Parties to implement the actions referred to in paragraph 7 of this Article, taking into account the provisions of paragraph 5 of this Article. 9. Each Party shall, as appropriate, engage in adaptation planning processes and the implementation of actions, including the development or enhancement of relevant plans, policies and/or contributions, which may include:

(a) The implementation of adaptation actions, undertakings and/or efforts;



(b) The process to formulate and implement national adaptation plans;

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(c) The assessment of climate change impacts and vulnerability, with a view to formulating nationally determined prioritized actions, taking into account vulnerable people, places and ecosystems;



(d) Monitoring and evaluating and learning from adaptation plans, policies, programmes and actions; and



(e) Building the resilience of socioeconomic and ecological systems, including through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources.

10. Each Party should, as appropriate, submit and update periodically an adaptation communication, which may include its priorities, implementation and support needs, plans and actions, without creating any additional burden for developing country Parties. 11. The adaptation communication referred to in paragraph 10 of this Article shall be, as appropriate, submitted and updated periodically, as a component of or in conjunction with other communications or documents, including a national adaptation plan, a nationally determined contribution as referred to in Article 4, paragraph 2, and/ or a national communication. 12. The adaptation communications referred to in paragraph 10 of this Article shall be recorded in a public registry maintained by the secretariat. 13. Continuous and enhanced international support shall be provided to developing country Parties for the implementation of paragraphs 7, 9, 10 and 11 of this Article, in accordance with the provisions of Articles 9, 10 and 11. 14. The global stocktake referred to in Article 14 shall, inter alia:

(a) Recognize adaptation efforts of developing country Parties;



(b) Enhance the implementation of adaptation action taking into account the adaptation communication referred to in paragraph 10 of this Article;



(c) Review the adequacy and effectiveness of adaptation and support provided for adaptation; and



(d) Review the overall progress made in achieving the global goal on adaptation referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article.

36  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development

Article 8 1. Parties recognize the importance of averting, minimizing and addressing loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change, including extreme weather events and slow onset events, and the role of sustainable development in reducing the risk of loss and damage. 2. The Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts shall be subject to the authority and guidance of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement and may be enhanced and strengthened, as determined by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement. 3. Parties should enhance understanding, action and support, including through the Warsaw International Mechanism, as appropriate, on a cooperative and facilitative basis with respect to loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change. 4. Accordingly, areas of cooperation and facilitation to enhance understanding, action and support may include:

(a) Early warning systems;



(b) Emergency preparedness;



(c) Slow onset events;



(d) Events that may involve irreversible and permanent loss and damage;



(e) Comprehensive risk assessment and management;



(f) Risk insurance facilities, climate risk pooling and other insurance solutions;



(g) Non-economic losses;



(h) Resilience of communities, livelihoods and ecosystems.

5. The Warsaw International Mechanism shall collaborate with existing bodies and expert groups under the Agreement, as well as relevant organizations and expert bodies outside the Agreement.

Article 9 1. Developed country Parties shall provide financial resources to assist developing country Parties with respect to both mitigation and adaptation in continuation of their existing obligations under the Convention.

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2. Other Parties are encouraged to provide or continue to provide such support voluntarily. 3. As part of a global effort, developed country Parties should continue to take the lead in mobilizing climate finance from a wide variety of sources, instruments and channels, noting the significant role of public funds, through a variety of actions, including supporting countrydriven strategies, and taking into account the needs and priorities of developing country Parties. Such mobilization of climate finance should represent a progression beyond previous efforts. 4. The provision of scaled-up financial resources should aim to achieve a balance between adaptation and mitigation, taking into account country-driven strategies, and the priorities and needs of developing country Parties, especially those that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change and have significant capacity constraints, such as the least developed countries and small island developing States, considering the need for public and grant-based resources for adaptation. 5. Developed country Parties shall biennially communicate indicative quantitative and qualitative information related to paragraphs 1 and 3 of this Article, as applicable, including, as available, projected levels of public financial resources to be provided to developing country Parties. Other Parties providing resources are encouraged to communicate biennially such information on a voluntary basis. 6. The global stocktake referred to in Article 14 shall take into account the relevant information provided by developed country Parties and/or Agreement bodies on efforts related to climate finance. 7. Developed country Parties shall provide transparent and consistent information on support for developing country Parties provided and mobilized through public interventions biennially in accordance with the modalities, procedures and guidelines to be adopted by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement, at its first session, as stipulated in Article 13, paragraph 13. Other Parties are encouraged to do so. 8. The Financial Mechanism of the Convention, including its operating entities, shall serve as the financial mechanism of this Agreement. 9. The institutions serving this Agreement, including the operating entities of the Financial Mechanism of the Convention, shall aim to ensure efficient access to financial resources through simplified approval procedures and enhanced readiness support for developing

38  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development country Parties, in particular for the least developed countries and small island developing States, in the context of their national climate strategies and plans.

Article 10 1. Parties share a long-term vision on the importance of fully realizing technology development and transfer in order to improve resilience to climate change and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. 2. Parties, noting the importance of technology for the implementation of mitigation and adaptation actions under this Agreement and recognizing existing technology deployment and dissemination efforts, shall strengthen cooperative action on technology development and transfer. 3. The Technology Mechanism established under the Convention shall serve this Agreement. 4. A technology framework is hereby established to provide overarching guidance to the work of the Technology Mechanism in promoting and facilitating enhanced action on technology development and transfer in order to support the implementation of this Agreement, in pursuit of the long-term vision referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article. 5. Accelerating, encouraging and enabling innovation is critical for an effective, long-term global response to climate change and promoting economic growth and sustainable development. Such effort shall be, as appropriate, supported, including by the Technology Mechanism and, through financial means, by the Financial Mechanism of the Convention, for collaborative approaches to research and development, and facilitating access to technology, in particular for early stages of the technology cycle, to developing country Parties. 6. Support, including financial support, shall be provided to developing country Parties for the implementation of this Article, including for strengthening cooperative action on technology development and transfer at different stages of the technology cycle, with a view to achieving a balance between support for mitigation and adaptation. The global stocktake referred to in Article 14 shall take into account available information on efforts related to support on technology development and transfer for developing country Parties.

Article 11 1. Capacity-building under this Agreement should enhance the capacity and ability of developing country Parties, in particular countries with

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the least capacity, such as the least developed countries, and those that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, such as small island developing States, to take effective climate change action, including, inter alia, to implement adaptation and mitigation actions, and should facilitate technology development, dissemination and deployment, access to climate finance, relevant aspects of education, training and public awareness, and the transparent, timely and accurate communication of information. 2. Capacity-building should be country-driven, based on and responsive to national needs, and foster country ownership of Parties, in particular, for developing country Parties, including at the national, subnational and local levels. Capacity-building should be guided by lessons learned, including those from capacity-building activities under the Convention, and should be an effective, iterative process that is participatory, cross-cutting and gender-responsive. 3. All Parties should cooperate to enhance the capacity of developing country Parties to implement this Agreement. Developed country Parties should enhance support for capacity-building actions in developing country Parties. 4. All Parties enhancing the capacity of developing country Parties to implement this Agreement, including through regional, bilateral and multilateral approaches, shall regularly communicate on these actions or measures on capacity-building. Developing country Parties should regularly communicate progress made on implementing capacitybuilding plans, policies, actions or measures to implement this Agreement. 5. Capacity-building activities shall be enhanced through appropriate institutional arrangements to support the implementation of this Agreement, including the appropriate institutional arrangements established under the Convention that serve this Agreement. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall, at its first session, consider and adopt a decision on the initial institutional arrangements for capacity-building.

Article 12

Parties shall cooperate in taking measures, as appropriate, to enhance climate change education, training, public awareness, public participation and public access to information, recognizing the importance of these steps with respect to enhancing actions under this Agreement.

40  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development

Article 13 1. In order to build mutual trust and confidence and to promote effective implementation, an enhanced transparency framework for action and support, with built-in flexibility which takes into account Parties’ different capacities and builds upon collective experience is hereby established. 2. The transparency framework shall provide flexibility in the implementation of the provisions of this Article to those developing country Parties that need it in the light of their capacities. The modalities, procedures and guidelines referred to in paragraph 13 of this Article shall reflect such flexibility. 3. The transparency framework shall build on and enhance the transparency arrangements under the Convention, recognizing the special circumstances of the least developed countries and small island developing States, and be implemented in a facilitative, non-intrusive, non-punitive manner, respectful of national sovereignty, and avoid placing undue burden on Parties. 4. The transparency arrangements under the Convention, including national communications, biennial reports and biennial update reports, international assessment and review and international consultation and analysis, shall form part of the experience drawn upon for the development of the modalities, procedures and guidelines under paragraph 13 of this Article. 5. The purpose of the framework for transparency of action is to provide a clear understanding of climate change action in the light of the objective of the Convention as set out in its Article 2, including clarity and tracking of progress towards achieving Parties’ individual nationally determined contributions under Article 4, and Parties’ adaptation actions under Article 7, including good practices, priorities, needs and gaps, to inform the global stocktake under Article 14. 6. The purpose of the framework for transparency of support is to provide clarity on support provided and received by relevant individual Parties in the context of climate change actions under Articles 4, 7, 9, 10 and 11, and, to the extent possible, to provide a full overview of aggregate financial support provided, to inform the global stocktake under Article 14. 7. Each Party shall regularly provide the following information: (a) A national inventory report of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases, prepared

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using good practice methodologies accepted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement; (b) Information necessary to track progress made in implementing and achieving its nationally determined contribution under Article 4. 8. Each Party should also provide information related to climate change impacts and adaptation under Article 7, as appropriate. 9. Developed country Parties shall, and other Parties that provide support should, provide information on financial, technology transfer and capacity-building support provided to developing country Parties under Article 9, 10 and 11. 10. Developing country Parties should provide information on financial, technology transfer and capacity-building support needed and received under Articles 9, 10 and 11. 11. Information submitted by each Party under paragraphs 7 and 9 of this Article shall undergo a technical expert review, in accordance with decision 1/CP.21. For those developing country Parties that need it in the light of their capacities, the review process shall include assistance in identifying capacity-building needs. In addition, each Party shall participate in a facilitative, multilateral consideration of progress with respect to efforts under Article 9, and its respective implementation and achievement of its nationally determined contribution. 12. The technical expert review under this paragraph shall consist of a consideration of the Party’s support provided, as relevant, and its implementation and achievement of its nationally determined contribution. The review shall also identify areas of improvement for the Party, and include a review of the consistency of the information with the modalities, procedures and guidelines referred to in paragraph 13 of this Article, taking into account the flexibility accorded to the Party under paragraph 2 of this Article. The review shall pay particular attention to the respective national capabilities and circumstances of developing country Parties. 13. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall, at its first session, building on experience from the arrangements related to transparency under the Convention, and elaborating on the provisions in this Article, adopt common modalities, procedures and guidelines, as appropriate, for the transparency of action and support.

42  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development 14. Support shall be provided to developing countries for the implementation of this Article. 15. Support shall also be provided for the building of transparency-related capacity of developing country Parties on a continuous basis.

Article 14 1. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall periodically take stock of the implementation of this Agreement to assess the collective progress towards achieving the purpose of this Agreement and its long-term goals (referred to as the “global stocktake”). It shall do so in a comprehensive and facilitative manner, considering mitigation, adaptation and the means of implementation and support, and in the light of equity and the best available science. 2. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall undertake its first global stocktake in 2023 and every five years thereafter unless otherwise decided by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement. 3. The outcome of the global stocktake shall inform Parties in updating and enhancing, in a nationally determined manner, their actions and support in accordance with the relevant provisions of this Agreement, as well as in enhancing international cooperation for climate action.

Article 15 1. A mechanism to facilitate implementation of and promote compliance with the provisions of this Agreement is hereby established. 2. The mechanism referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article shall consist of a committee that shall be expert-based and facilitative in nature and function in a manner that is transparent, non-adversarial and non-punitive. The committee shall pay particular attention to the respective national capabilities and circumstances of Parties. 3. The committee shall operate under the modalities and procedures adopted by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement at its first session and report annually to the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement.

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Article 16 1. The Conference of the Parties, the supreme body of the Convention, shall serve as the meeting of the Parties to this Agreement. 2. Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to this Agreement may participate as observers in the proceedings of any session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Agreement. When the Conference of the Parties serves as the meeting of the Parties to this Agreement, decisions under this Agreement shall be taken only by those that are Parties to this Agreement. 3. When the Conference of the Parties serves as the meeting of the Parties to this Agreement, any member of the Bureau of the Conference of the Parties representing a Party to the Convention but, at that time, not a Party to this Agreement, shall be replaced by an additional member to be elected by and from amongst the Parties to this Agreement. 4. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall keep under regular review the implementation of this Agreement and shall make, within its mandate, the decisions necessary to promote its effective implementation. It shall perform the functions assigned to it by this Agreement and shall:

(a) Establish such subsidiary bodies as deemed necessary for the implementation of this Agreement; and



(b) Exercise such other functions as may be required for the implementation of this Agreement.

5. The rules of procedure of the Conference of the Parties and the financial procedures applied under the Convention shall be applied mutatis mutandis under this Agreement, except as may be otherwise decided by consensus by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement. 6. The first session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall be convened by the secretariat in conjunction with the first session of the Conference of the Parties that is scheduled after the date of entry into force of this Agreement. Subsequent ordinary sessions of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall be held in conjunction with ordinary sessions of the Conference of the Parties, unless otherwise decided by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement.

44  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development 7. Extraordinary sessions of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall be held at such other times as may be deemed necessary by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement or at the written request of any Party, provided that, within six months of the request being communicated to the Parties by the secretariat, it is supported by at least one third of the Parties. 8. The United Nations and its specialized agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency, as well as any State member thereof or observers thereto not party to the Convention, may be represented at sessions of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement as observers. Any body or agency, whether national or international, governmental or non-governmental, which is qualified in matters covered by this Agreement and which has informed the secretariat of its wish to be represented at a session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement as an observer, may be so admitted unless at least one third of the Parties present object. The admission and participation of observers shall be subject to the rules of procedure referred to in paragraph 5 of this Article.

Article 17 1. The secretariat established by Article 8 of the Convention shall serve as the secretariat of this Agreement. 2. Article 8, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the functions of the secretariat, and Article 8, paragraph 3, of the Convention, on the arrangements made for the functioning of the secretariat, shall apply mutatis mutandis to this Agreement. The secretariat shall, in addition, exercise the functions assigned to it under this Agreement and by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement.

Article 18 1. The Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation established by Articles 9 and 10 of the Convention shall serve, respectively, as the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation of this Agreement. The provisions of the Convention relating to the functioning of these two bodies shall apply mutatis mutandis to this Agreement. Sessions of the meetings of the Subsidiary

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Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation of this Agreement shall be held in conjunction with the meetings of, respectively, the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation of the Convention. 2. Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to this Agreement may participate as observers in the proceedings of any session of the subsidiary bodies. When the subsidiary bodies serve as the subsidiary bodies of this Agreement, decisions under this Agreement shall be taken only by those that are Parties to this Agreement. 3. When the subsidiary bodies established by Articles 9 and 10 of the Convention exercise their functions with regard to matters concerning this Agreement, any member of the bureaux of those subsidiary bodies representing a Party to the Convention but, at that time, not a Party to this Agreement, shall be replaced by an additional member to be elected by and from amongst the Parties to this Agreement.

Article 19 1. Subsidiary bodies or other institutional arrangements established by or under the Convention, other than those referred to in this Agreement, shall serve this Agreement upon a decision of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement shall specify the functions to be exercised by such subsidiary bodies or arrangements. 2. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement may provide further guidance to such subsidiary bodies and institutional arrangements.

Article 20 1. This Agreement shall be open for signature and subject to ratification, acceptance or approval by States and regional economic integration organizations that are Parties to the Convention. It shall be open for signature at the United Nations Headquarters in New York from 22 April 2016 to 21 April 2017. Thereafter, this Agreement shall be open for accession from the day following the date on which it is closed for signature. Instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession shall be deposited with the Depositary. 2. Any regional economic integration organization that becomes a Party to this Agreement without any of its member States being a Party shall

46  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development be bound by all the obligations under this Agreement. In the case of regional economic integration organizations with one or more member States that are Parties to this Agreement, the organization and its member States shall decide on their respective responsibilities for the performance of their obligations under this Agreement. In such cases, the organization and the member States shall not be entitled to exercise rights under this Agreement concurrently. 3. In their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, regional economic integration organizations shall declare the extent of their competence with respect to the matters governed by this Agreement. These organizations shall also inform the Depositary, who shall in turn inform the Parties, of any substantial modification in the extent of their competence.

Article 21 1. This Agreement shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after the date on which at least 55 Parties to the Convention accounting in total for at least an estimated 55 percent of the total global greenhouse gas emissions have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession. 2. Solely for the limited purpose of paragraph 1 of this Article, “total global greenhouse gas emissions” means the most up-to-date amount communicated on or before the date of adoption of this Agreement by the Parties to the Convention. 3. For each State or regional economic integration organization that ratifies, accepts or approves this Agreement or accedes thereto after the conditions set out in paragraph 1 of this Article for entry into force have been fulfilled, this Agreement shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after the date of deposit by such State or regional economic integration organization of its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession. 4. For the purposes of paragraph 1 of this Article, any instrument deposited by a regional economic integration organization shall not be counted as additional to those deposited by its member States.

Article 22

The provisions of Article 15 of the Convention on the adoption of amendments to the Convention shall apply mutatis mutandis to this Agreement.

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Article 23 1. The provisions of Article 16 of the Convention on the adoption and amendment of annexes to the Convention shall apply mutatis mutandis to this Agreement. 2. Annexes to this Agreement shall form an integral part thereof and, unless otherwise expressly provided for, a reference to this Agreement constitutes at the same time a reference to any annexes thereto. Such annexes shall be restricted to lists, forms and any other material of a descriptive nature that is of a scientific, technical, procedural or administrative character.

Article 24

The provisions of Article 14 of the Convention on settlement of disputes shall apply mutatis mutandis to this Agreement.

Article 25 1. Each Party shall have one vote, except as provided for paragraph 2 of this Article. 2. Regional economic integration organizations, in matters within their competence, shall exercise their right to vote with a number of votes equal to the number of their member States that are Parties to this Agreement. Such an organization shall not exercise its right to vote if any of its member States exercises its right, and vice versa.

Article 26

The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be the Depositary of this Agreement.

Article 27

No reservations may be made to this Agreement.

Article 28 1. At any time after three years from the date on which this Agreement has entered into force for a Party, that Party may withdraw from this Agreement by giving written notification to the Depositary. 2. Any such withdrawal shall take effect upon expiry of one year from the date of receipt by the Depositary of the notification of withdrawal, or on such later date as may be specified in the notification of withdrawal.

48  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development 3. Any Party that withdraws from the Convention shall be considered as also having withdrawn from this Agreement.

Article 29

The original of this Agreement, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.



DONE at Paris this twelfth day of December two thousand and fifteen. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the undersigned, being duly authorized to that effect, have signed this Agreement.

Chapter

2 Green Computing and Economy

2.1 Economy The economy’s system is regarded as the economic environment where economic agents and their group organizations are ordinary agents. Every agent has the same properties as the system: they can be open, non-equilibrium, dissipative, self-organizing; they can also have the aim to maintain integrity through the main function (development). Development is caused by contrary processes: the process of production and the process of consumption and is implemented through two types of the development mechanism: the bifurcation mechanism and the adaptation mechanism. Development, the main function of the system, is viewed as the movement of economic environment.

2.2  What Is Green Computing? The high and rising prices of energy (from oil) have forced a number of businesses to find alternatives for their sources of energy; this demand made companies launch initiatives such as green computing. This initiative is highly beneficial for the environment, but businesses just don’t do things unless there is some profit or reduction in their cost. As suspected, there is actually a great number of benefits for these companies. One of the greatest benefits is saving money (reducing cost), some companies can save millions due to the green policies they put in effect as they get to ‘cut back’ on energy consumption. Going green is unusually about the environment, it is commonly just a business strategy. Green computing as such should not come as a surprise. The IT industry is one of the largest energy consumers, this is because almost all IT equipment consume energy, some significantly more than others. Computers require energy for cooling fans, servers, network devices, etc. Servers are usually on 24/7 and as such these companies usually have very large electricity bills. A stagnating economy will force businesses to get all they can in revenue which requires regulating their energy

50  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development consumption thus reduction in cost. In the IT industry, the reduction of energy consumption is not just related to usage but also the materials that make and manufacture these devices. Computers contain several hazardous materials and as such there has been an increase in companies ‘going green’. The late 1990s and early 2000s witnessed many regulatory milestones, and the recent years witness companies innovating to incorporate green technology. Definition 1: Green computing is a philosophical approach to computers where the goal is to reduce the environmental impact of both the user and the manufacturer. This includes making computers as energy efficient as possible, using materials that can be recycled or are biodegradable, and using fewer toxic materials and disposing of them safely. 2: Green devices are machines are progressively designed to minimize energy use and have less of an impact on the environment. This doesn’t just mean they suck less juice out of electrical sockets, though. Truly, green electronics also features materials and uses manufacturing processes that are less energy-intensive than traditional methods and even use renewable and natural materials when possible. 3: Green technology is the application of environmental science to offer economically viable solutions that conserve the natural environment and resources, and curb the negative impacts of human involvement. The SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals) are a United Nationssponsored effort to create a common set of development goals for all communities in every country, with a deadline for attainment of 2030. The idea is to get governments, aid organizations, foundations and NGOs on the same page about what global problems most urgently need to be solved and how to measure progress and solutions. The hope is that getting all of these groups pointed in the same direction will result in greater impact for massive, complex goals such as eradicating hunger and even ending poverty — aims that many development scholars feel are increasingly attainable. Adopted in September 2015, the SDGs replaced the Millennium Development Goals, which were in place for the past decade and a half. Countries started to implement the new framework in January 2016.

2.3  Sustainable Development Sustainable development involves a significant step forward from the Millennium Development goals (MDGs). Drawn from the Rio+20 outcome

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document, The Future We Want, the goals are intended to advance sustainable development through greater integration of its three pillars: economic, social, and environmental. Apart from having a broader perspective, the SDGs have explicitly recognised the key roles of science, technology innovation (STI), along with information and communications technology (ICT), industrialization and infrastructure. This calls for building resilient infrastructure; promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation. While dealing with SDG 9, it needs to be noted that the relevance of the goal as well as the targets therein, in the Indian context, cannot be overemphasised. The targets specified under goal of SDG may be grouped to: • building up of an internationally competitive, socially inclusive and environmentally sustainable manufacturing sector; • strengthening STI capability at all levels; • harnessing ICT for development; and • building resilient infrastructure.

2.3.1  Sustainable Development Goals • 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere. • 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. • 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. • 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. • 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. • 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. • 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. • 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. • 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation. • 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries. • 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. • 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. • 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.* * Acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.

52  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development • 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. • 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. • 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. • 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development. Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere 1.1 By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day 1.2 By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions. 1.3 Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all, including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable. 1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance. 1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climaterelated extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters. 1.a Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources, including through enhanced development cooperation, in order to provide adequate and predictable means for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, to implement programmes and policies to end poverty in all its dimensions. 1.b Create sound policy frameworks at the national, regional and international levels, based on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies, to support accelerated investment in poverty eradication actions. Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture

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2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round. 2.2 By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons. 2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of smallscale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment. 2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality. 2.5 By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed. 2.a Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing countries, in particular, least developed countries. 2.b Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets, including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the Doha Development Round. 2.c Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility.

54  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages 3.1 By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births. 3.2 By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1000 live births and under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1000 live births. 3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases. 3.4 By 2030, reduce by one-third premature mortality from noncommunicable diseases through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being. 3.5 Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of alcohol. 3.6 By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents. 3.7 By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive healthcare services, including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes. 3.8 Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all. 3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination. 3.a Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in all countries, as appropriate. 3.b Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable and non-communicable diseases that primarily affect developing countries, provide access to affordable essential medicines and vaccines, in accordance with the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, which affirms the right of developing countries to use to the full the provisions in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights regarding flexibilities to protect public health, and, in particular, provide access to medicines for all.

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3.c Substantially increase health financing and the recruitment, development, training and retention of the health workforce in developing countries, especially in least developed countries and small island developing States. 3.d Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks. Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all 4.1 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes. 4.2 By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education. 4.3 By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university. 4.4 By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship. 4.5 By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations. 4.6 By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy. 4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development. 4.a Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all. 4.b By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed

56  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development countries, small island developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries. 4.c By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing States. Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls 5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere. 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation. 5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation. 5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate. 5.5 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life. 5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences. 5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws. 5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women. 5.c Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels.

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Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all 6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all. 6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations. 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally. 6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity. 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate. 6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes. 6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies. 6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management. Goal 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all 7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services. 7.2 By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. 7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency. 7.a By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology. 7.b By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable energy services for all in

58  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States, and land-locked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programmes of support. Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all 8.1 Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed countries. 8.2 Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-intensive sectors. 8.3 Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services. 8.4 Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production, with developed countries taking the lead. 8.5 By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value. 8.6 By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training. 8.7 Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms. 8.8 Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment. 8.9 By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products. 8.10 Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to banking, insurance and financial services for all.

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8.a Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-Related Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries. 8.b By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization. Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation 9.1 Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and transborder infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all. 9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by 2030, significantly raise industry’s share of employment and gross domestic product, in line with national circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries. 9.3 Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit, and their integration into value chains and markets. 9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities. 9.5 Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending. 9.a Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States. 9.b Support domestic technology development, research and innovation in developing countries, including by ensuring a conducive policy

60  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development environment for, inter alia, industrial diversification and value addition to commodities. 9.c Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020. Goal 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries 10.1 By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 percent of the population at a rate higher than the national average. 10.2 By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status. 10.3 Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate legislation, policies and action in this regard. 10.4 Adopt policies, especially fiscal, wage and social protection policies, and progressively achieve greater equality. 10.5 Improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial markets and institutions and strengthen the implementation of such regulations. 10.6 Ensure enhanced representation and voice for developing countries in decision-making in global international economic and financial institutions in order to deliver more effective, credible, accountable and legitimate institutions. 10.7 Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies. 10.a Implement the principle of special and differential treatment for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, in accordance with World Trade Organization agreements. 10.b Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign direct investment, to States where the need is greatest, in particular least developed countries, African countries, small island developing States and landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their national plans and programmes. 10.c By 2030, reduce to less than 3 percent the transaction costs of migrant remittances and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5 percent.

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Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable 11.1 By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums. 11.2 By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with disabilities and older persons. 11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries. 11.4 Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage. 11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations. 11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management. 11.7 By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities. 11.a Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning. 11.b By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels. 11.c Support least developed countries, including through financial and technical assistance, in building sustainable and resilient buildings utilizing local materials.

62  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development Goal 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns 12.1 Implement the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries. 12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources. 12.3 By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses. 12.4 By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment. 12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse. 12.6 Encourage companies, especially large and transnational companies, to adopt sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into their reporting cycle. 12.7 Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national policies and priorities. 12.8 By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature. 12.a Support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and production. 12.b Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products. 12.c Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption by removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances, including by restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies, where they exist, to reflect their environmental impacts, taking fully into account the specific needs and conditions of developing countries and minimizing the possible adverse impacts on their development in a manner that protects the poor and the affected communities.

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Goal 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts* 13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries. 13.2 Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning. 13.3 Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning. 13.a Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible. 13.b Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related planning and management in least developed countries and small island developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalized communities. Goal 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development 14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution. 14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans. 14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels. 14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological characteristics. * Acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.

64  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development 14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 percent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information. 14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries subsidies negotiation. 14.7 By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism. 14.a Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States and least developed countries. 14.b Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets. 14.c Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by implementing international law as reflected in UNCLOS, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources. Goal 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss 15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements. 15.2 By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally. 15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world.

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15.4 By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development. 15.5 Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species. 15.6 Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed. 15.7 Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products. 15.8 By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species. 15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts. 15.a Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems. 15.b Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation. 15.c Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities. Goal 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels 16.1 Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere. 16.2 End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children. 16.3 Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access to justice for all. 16.4 By 2030, significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen the recovery and return of stolen assets and combat all forms of organized crime.

66  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development 16.5 Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms. 16.6 Develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels. 16.7 Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels. 16.8 Broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance. 16.9 By 2030, provide legal identity for all, including birth registration. 16.10 Ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance with national legislation and international agreements. 16.a Strengthen relevant national institutions, including through international cooperation, for building capacity at all levels, in particular in developing countries, to prevent violence and combat terrorism and crime. 16.b Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies for sustainable development. Goal 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development Finance 17.1 Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue collection. 17.2 Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the target of 0.7 percent of ODA/ GNI to developing countries and 0.15 to 0.20 percent of ODA/GNI to least developed countries; ODA providers are encouraged to consider setting a target to provide at least 0.20 percent of ODA/ GNI to least developed countries. 17.3 Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources. 17.4 Assist developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through coordinated policies aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief and debt restructuring, as appropriate, and address the external debt of highly indebted poor countries to reduce debt distress. 17.5 Adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for least developed countries.

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Technology 17.6 Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance knowledge sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level, and through a global technology facilitation mechanism. 17.7 Promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms, including on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed. 17.8 Fully operationalize the technology bank and science, technology and innovation capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology. Capacity-building 17.9 Enhance international support for implementing effective and targeted capacity-building in developing countries to support national plans to implement all the sustainable development goals, including through North-South, South-South and triangular cooperation. Trade 17.10 Promote a universal, rules-based, open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system under the World Trade Organization, including through the conclusion of negotiations under its Doha Development Agenda. 17.11 Significantly increase the exports of developing countries, in particular with a view to doubling the least developed countries’ share of global exports by 2020. 17.12 Realize timely implementation of duty-free and quota-free market access on a lasting basis for all least developed countries, consistent with World Trade Organization decisions, including by ensuring that preferential rules of origin applicable to imports from least developed countries are transparent and simple, and contribute to facilitating market access. Systemic issues Policy and institutional coherence 17.13 Enhance global macroeconomic stability, including through policy coordination and policy coherence.

68  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development 17.14 Enhance policy coherence for sustainable development. 17.15 Respect each country’s policy space and leadership to establish and implement policies for poverty eradication and sustainable development. Multi-stakeholder partnerships 17.16 Enhance the global partnership for sustainable development, complemented by multi-stakeholder partnerships that mobilize and share knowledge, expertise, technology and financial resources, to support the achievement of the sustainable development goals in all countries, in particular developing countries. 17.17 Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships, building on the experience and resourcing strategies of partnerships. Data, monitoring and accountability 17.18 By 2020, enhance capacity-building support to developing countries, including for least developed countries and small island developing States, to increase significantly the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other characteristics relevant in national contexts. 17.19 By 2030, build on existing initiatives to develop measurements of progress on sustainable development that complement gross domestic product, and support statistical capacity-building in developing countries.

2.3.2  Inclusive and Sustainable Industrialisation It may not be an exaggeration that India’s efforts overtime through various policy initiatives and institutional interventions to build a manufacturing base has been remarkable. The focus of these initiatives in the earlier period was to build a regionally balanced and diversified industrial base at the instance of public sector and increased role for the small-scale sector under the umbrella of protection and regulation. Over the years and especially after 1991 the focus has shifted towards evolving an internationally competitive industrial sector with greater integration with the world market. This implied inter alia dismantling of barriers to manufacturing, trade and investment (both foreign and local) along with the removal of reservations for the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs).These initiatives, needless to say, have paid rich dividend as is manifested in the marked increase in the inflow of industrial investment, both local and foreign, and in high growth in the manufacturing output.

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Nonetheless, India’s performance in the manufacturing sector lagged behind when compared to that of the service sector and also in comparison with China and some of the South-East Asian countries. To be more specific, while the share of manufacturing sector in GDP increased from about 9 per cent in 1950-51 to about 15 per cent by 1990. During the last 25 years after globalisation, the share of manufacturing sector in GDP has shown a marginal decline. This has to be compared with over 30 per cent share of the manufacturing sector in GDP in countries like China and South Korea.

2.3.2.1  Sustainable Economic Development Scientists’ interest in issues related to economic development increased in the second part of the twentieth century when a sharp contrast appeared between developed countries of “the golden milliards” and the third world countries which were defined as developing countries or countries with developing economy. The contrast in the level of income among countries of the world community determined scientists’ interest in analyzing conditions for nation welfare as well as in maintaining these conditions for the highest possible period of time. The necessity of such analysis predetermined using the mathematic modeling of economic growth. The first significant result was the combined model of Harrod-Domar based on changes in the main economic parameter which influences economic growth, i.e., the rate of investments. With increased understanding about the influence of human capital, technologies and population upsurge on economic growth, the task of optimal economic growth was developed in the form of Solow and Solow-Swan model with the function of CobbDouglas to be used. The growth of technologies and the population growth are also introduced into the model. These factors influence the main parameter of economic growth—fixed capital per worker—which defines efficiency of labour that is the economy growth rate. Later appeared models of economic growth by Ramsey, Braun, P. Romer, the models of technological changes, the model of Uzawa-Lucas with two sectors, Schumpeter’s models of endogenous growth. With the help of these models scientists studied factors that influenced economic growth and among these factors were human and physical capital, technological changes, diffusion of technologies, migration and population growth, environmental pollution. Besides, an American economist W. Rostow studied conditions for sustainable growth on long term. The works by S. Kuznets became the base for further development in understanding sustainable economic growth. According to Simon Kuznets, sustainable economic growth is a process of

70  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development increasing productivity of the national economy which has to exceed the population upsurge for the longest possible period of time. Thus, efforts of economic theory were directed at analyzing conditions that provide long-run economic growth. Then the concept claiming that economic growth lies in the necessity of maintaining the equilibrium state of economy by economic methods too the longest possible period of time was formed. Almost all these approaches being expressed by mathematic models of economic growth did not find their qualitative application in economies of developing countries and later in the second part of the 80-90s of the 20th century they did not find an application in analyzing the economic behaviour of countries with transitive economies. There were approaches towards forming models of economic development including those which take into account structural changes in the economy. For example, Arthur Lewis’s model with two sectors; later this model was expanded and formalized by J. Fti and G. Ranis, the model of H. Chenery and others. Being based on the experience of countries with developed economies, these models and theories linked to them turned to analysing the developing economies of the third world countries. Further, the elaboration of the sustainable development theory reached the basic formal assertion widely accepted in the world as a category that is as follows: “Sustainable development is the development that serves needs of today’s generations and does not place possibilities for their usage by future generations under the threat. The work of G. Brundtland’s committee resulted in the categories stated above. Thus, “sustainable economic development” and “sustainability” categories came from the environment of analysis into conditions for optimal economic growth based on the postulate which necessitates exceeding the growth of national production against population upsurge. However, today there is no well-founded answer to the question: “Why have these models not given practical results in countries with developing and transition economies?” What do the existing models of economic growth not take into account? Why are the existing models of development inadequate for changes occurring in many kinds of economies in the world. From all abovementioned information in the context of system-information understanding of sustainable development of social system we can claim that: 1. We investigate the process of social system development for sustainability. This system consists of political and social subsystems

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where the political system is the structural characteristic whereas the economic system gives the quantitative indicators of its state. 2. We investigate sustainability in the sense of maintaining integrity of the social system during a long period of time with regard to population development under the conditions of limited resources. 3. The sustainable development of a social system is the consecutive, periodical change of its state during a long period of time, directed at increasing in the system sustainability (in a sense of maintaining its integrity) on the basis of restructuring its relations—evolution of a system structure. In a mathematical sense we can give a more strict definition as to sustainability of social development that is based on availability of undetermined behaviour in a social system. 4. The sustainable development of a social system is a consecutive change of states where all possible trajectories of its development are attracted to the area of sustainable positions in a phase space. The area is defined by the set of attractors characterizing the treatment of system functioning for a given period of time. (a) The set and the structure of attractors are defined by the quality and the type of a political structure. (b) The sustainable development of a social system is the movement of economic environment where solution to the system non-linear differential equation, describing it in the form of equation of economic environmentmovement, is sustainable against impact of managing parameter.

2.3.2.2  Laws of Sustainable Development The general theory of systems and the information theory provide other approaches to the qualitative understanding of the phenomenon of economic development. Development is considered the process of accumulating structural information that increases the level of system organization. The general system theory holds development as the change of system states during a long period of time. Every state of a system is characterized by structural and quantitative characteristics. Thus, in the process of system development there is a change of structural and quantitative characteristics. It shows the evolution of the system structure that adapts the latter to environmental impact. In economic systems environmental pressure lies in population development and the limited natural resources. The adjustment of the system takes place due to accumulating structural information,which increases sustainability on the basis of increasing in the

72  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development quantity of system organization. Materials covered above verify/prove the following conclusion: the model of economic development should contain the parameter that would characterize the structure of the economic system in the sense of conditions and interaction regulations of economic agents among themselves. Numerical solutions of this model should show the evolution of this structure, which provides sustainability of a social system during a long period of time in the sense of its integrity. The political structure serves as a structure for a social system.

2.3.2.3  The Basic Equation of the Economy Development On the basis of the outlined properties we make a mathematical model of the non-linear dynamic system – development of the economy system, where: • phase variables – ordinary agents that have a property to dissipate resources in the form of production and consumption expressed by production output Y and property of optimizing resources for production and goods for consumption expressed by value of selforganization S and its index S K-structural coefficient of self-organization; • space they belong to is the phase space or economic environment; and • the main function is the development expressed by economic environment traffic. Thus, ordinary agents of the system can be described by two phase variables (Y, S K), correspondingly phase economic space they belong to is recorded as F F(Y, K, t), where: Y–qualitative characteristics of development, parameter that characterizes system capacity – ability to produce economic efficiency and dissipativity; S K – coefficient of self-organization – structural characteristics, parameter that reflects economic usefulness of system structure and characterizes, minimization of dissipation or ability to optimize resource allocation for production and goods for consumption; t – time Development of the system global socium is recorded in the form of environment traffic equation like Burgers dY I dY I d 2Y I + YI = KS dt dLQ dL2Q where: t – time interval during which the system is investigated Y – production output during the time interval under analysis (estimated in GDP)

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dY – rate of production output or economic growth during the time dt interval under analysis 2 d Y – rates of economic growth of a system during the time interval Y II = dt 2 under analysis. LQ = LKN – skilled labour or population growth during the time interval under analysis taking into account qualification L – population during the time interval under analysis L′ – speed of population growth L″ – rate of population growth during the time interval under analysis N – population with higher education during the time interval under analysis KN – coefficient of qualification of work in a social system. The coefficient characterizes the growth of structural information expressed by new knowledge. I Y  =

2.3.2.4  Analysis of equation 1. The basis of the equation consists in N. Kondratiev’s hypothesis which says that cumulative accumulation of three components of a social system underlies the process of development (trend): – population growth L – capital accumulation k, together they make up the production function Y = F(k, L) – scientific-and-technological advance. In our case, for a long time interval k → 0, scientific-and-technological advance is described with accumulation of new values (of information) or the function of accumulating people with higher education I = F(N, t). Thus, the equation shows the convective transport of the main properties of the environment in space on the basis of the population growth taking into account the accumulation of new knowledge (information) influencing increase in productivity or dissipation of system resources. dY I dLQ dY I It is recorded as + dt dt dLQ

the total derivative from −

dY I dt

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2. The equation contains the nonlinear term Y I

dY I since qualification dLQ

of ordinary agent’s work is the factor that originates nonlinearity proceeding from the simple consideration YI = YI (LQ). Nonlinear term shows the system property – dissipation, and reflects the accumulation of structural information in time and also dependence between rate of production output and change of population qualification along with change in its number. This term reflects the influence of structural information accumulation over the rate of production output. d 2Y I K d Y, which reflects the 3. Equation contains adhesive term KS dL2Q

system’s ability to resist resources’ dissipation or implement the principle of minimum dissipation of system resources, that is, to optimize their distribution on the basis of current structure. 4. Thus, the left part of the equation shows the dissipative process: the rates of dissipating resources in time taking into account the growth of work qualification KN. The right part shows the compensatory process – optimization of resources for production and goods for consumption KS. The equation expresses the law of conserving the potential of the production of the economic effect which is formulated in the following way: – rates of dissipating unrenowned system resources during long period of time are compensated by their optimization on the basis of implementing the principle of minimum dissipation. It provides its integrity and implementation of the target function –maintaining homeostasis. Decrease in creating economic effect in the left part of the equation on the basis of decrease in the ratio of production output to population growth rate is compensated by creating economic effect on the basis of increase in the level of system organization in the right part of the equation. 4.1. This position explains the cyclical (periodic) restricting of the system on the long time interval and the wave nature of the economic cycles. 5. The equation shows the evolution of structure. The accumulation of information KN = dt/dN which increases the rates of resource dissipation is compensated by its introducing into the systemstructuring. In the right part of the equation we can see how the

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information becomes structural by changing KS and increases the level of system organization. Basing on the action of the political system the information becomes structural in the form of laws put into force. The change of KS from 0 to 1 shows accumulation of the structural information, complication or evolution of the system structure during long time interval. 6. Equation shows the evolution of structure, which enables us to make forecast of the future state of the system. 7. Sustainable decision of this equation will be a shock wave owing to competition between two opposite tendencies: dissipation and attenuation –minimum dissipation. 7.1. Equation formally describes the wave nature of economic cycles.

2.3.2.5  Model of Economy System Development The model is recorded in the following way: dY I dLQ dY I d 2Y I + = KS The condition of sustainability Y″/L″ ≥ 1. dt dt dLQ dL2Q The managing system parameter – economic efficiency EY. Equation is examined by stability of decisions depending on value of managing parameter. It is necessary to determine what value of the managing parameter should have so that solution of equation could be stable. It is also necessary to designate what geometrical image of obtained solutions of equations will be equal to stables.

2.4  India And The MDGS: towards A Sustainable Future For All The MDGs represent a core people-oriented development agenda. As a signatory to the historic Millennium Declaration adopted at the United Nations General Assembly in September 2000, India is committed to end poverty and other deprivations. Achieving the MDGs is a core development challenge for India. India’s new Government has reinforced this priority through the principle of Sabka Sath, Sabka Vikas and the Prime Minister, in his 2014 Independence Day speech, also urged Indians to work together towards overcoming poverty, gender inequality and the lack of sanitation, which are all crucial MDG tasks. India has made notable progress towards reaching the MDGs but achievement across the goals varies. India has already achieved the target for reducing poverty by half (Goal 1) by official estimates – and is close to doing so by international estimates. India has already achieved gender parity in primary school enrolment (Goal 3) and is likely to reach parity in secondary and tertiary education also by 2015. India is set to achieve

76  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development reducing hunger by half (Goal 1); to reduce maternal mortality by three quarters (Goal 5); control of the spread of deadly diseases such as HIV/ AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis (Goal 6); has increased forest cover and has halved the proportion of population without access to clean drinking water (Goal 7). But India is lagging behind on targets for achieving universal primary school enrolment and completion and achieving universal youth literacy (Goal 2); empowering women through wage employment and political participation (Goal 3); reducing child and infant mortality (Goal 4); and improving access to adequate sanitation to eliminate open defecation (Goal 7). India can improve performance by helping the weaker states emulate the good methods which find that states can perform on the MDGs focused following “drivers”: Accelerated broad-based and employment creating economic growth. Across states in India, economic growth is closely related to MDG performance. This is due to indirect impacts of growth on MDGs from governments’ expanding revenues; and direct impacts of growth from employment creation and increased incomes for poor households to invest in nutrition, health and education.

2.4.1  Poverty, Hunger and Employment India has achieved the poverty reduction target, but the progress is uneven. Faster reduction in poverty since the mid-2000s helped India halve the incidence of poverty from the 1990 level. It is a result both of economic growth (including in agriculture) as well as increased social spending on interventions such as MGNREGA and the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM). Nevertheless, over million of Indians in 2012 still remained trapped in extreme poverty – making the post-2015 goal of eliminating extreme poverty by 2030 challenging, but feasible. Divergent growth experiences and rising inequality have led to poverty becoming increasingly concentrated. India has achieved the poverty reduction target, but progress is uneven in poorer states. The incidence of poverty in rural India is twice that of urban areas, and higher among excluded groups — Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes, female-headed households, and religious minorities such as Muslims. To end poverty, the immediate tasks are to widen implementation of poverty alleviation programmes, such as MGNREGA and Food Security in poorer states; and focus greater attention on rural development, states falling behind and socially-excluded groups (including the urban poor). To guarantee more inclusive growth through universalization of the Government’s financial inclusion programme Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana across the nation, and integrate it with expanded micro-finance and micro-insurance schemes.

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Over the medium term, continuous emphasis on both increasing growth and social spending on poverty eradication programmes are essential to reduce inequality across income, geographical regions and between socially advantaged and disadvantaged groups. Accelerated economic progress in recent years leaves India on-track to achieve halving hunger. Nevertheless, India remains home to one quarter of the world’s undernourished population, over a third of the world’s underweight children, and nearly a third of the world’s food-insecure people. India should join the new global pledge to end hunger by 2025. Hunger responds sluggishly to growth and requires complementary interventions in several other areas including access to balanced food and medical facilities by the poor child nutrition and immunization, adequate sanitation and hygiene, and fast changing cultural practices to promote nurturing physical and mental environments for development of children and adolescent girls. Immediate actions to ensure India accelerates progress on hunger is to step up and incorporate improvements into targeted child nutrition programmes such as the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme, and other programmes that help children, such as the National Rural Health Mission, the Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent GirlsSABLA, the Public Distribution System and sanitation programmes. The implementation of National Food Security Act should also be expedited by completing targeting and identification of intended beneficiaries to ensure that poor people get affordable access to healthy and nutritious food. In the medium term the major challenge of food production, India remains home to one quarter of the world’s undernourished population, over a third of the world’s underweight children, and nearly a third of the world’s food-insecure people. The distribution and access to both cereals and non-cereal food by people living in poverty will have to be addressed. India should aim at doubling agricultural productivity by 2030 through a new green revolution based on sustainable agriculture. It must also address other factors crucial for ending hunger such as improving mothers’ feeding and caring behaviour, ensuring clean household water and adequate sanitation; strengthening access to the health system; and access to local nutritious diets to meet calorie, protein and micronutrient requirements. India needs to step up efforts to expand youth employment. Limited employment creation despite high growth has slowed India’s poverty reduction. Greater efforts are needed to take full advantage of India’s demographic “bulge” as the working age group expands by creating decent productive jobs to reinforce and underpin India’s sustainable growth. The factors responsible for low employment growth

78  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development include insufficient absorption of surplus labour from agriculture in industry, particularly manufacturing, and services; and a drop in female labour force participation affecting the overall labour force participation rate. Other priority actions to bolster employment include the skill India programme announced by the Government for vocational education and training should be effectively implemented focusing on target groups, especially youth and women. Expanding productive jobs in manufacturing and services sectors including through promotion of small and medium enterprises; vigorously implementing the ‘Make in India’ programme by leveraging the large domestic market through infrastructure development, credit provision, land and labour reforms, stimulating domestic enterprise development, and enhancing ease of doing business to stimulate domestic investment and FDI; and examining alternative policies and measures to make informal employment more productive and inclusive; focusing on employment of women, especially in the unorganized sector; and placing greater emphasis on creating decent jobs.

2.4.2  Education for All Latest data suggest that India is off-track on the targets to achieve universal enrolment and completion. Large numbers of children still remain out of school and fail to complete primary education. The quality of education is also a major concern. Direct testing of primary school students indicates very poor learning. More attention is needed on regular assessment of teachers’ performance and providing them incentives linked to improvement in students’ learning. The achievements in core areas of reading and mathematics need improvement. Far greater effort is needed not only to achieve quality universal primary education, but also to achieve the SDG target of universal secondary education. In the short term, achieving universal primary education will require scaling up efforts to reach the most excluded groups such as Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST), among other vulnerable segments of populations, particularly in states that have fallen behind; provide instructions in the mother tongue of students; ensure that children are enrolled at the official age of entry to primary school; encourage early childhood education; improve accountability of teachers, and accord priority to improving learning outcomes. Over the medium term, interventions needed are stepping up resources to basic education, which remain low by international norms; supporting

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states with insufficient funds; and improving efficiency in use of public resources. More attention is also needed on regular assessment of teachers’ performance and providing them incentives linked to improvement in students’ learning. States must increase the teacher-pupil ratio, particularly in remote and disadvantaged areas. Finally, efforts to encourage participation of non-public players, such as civil society and the private sector, parents and communities must be prioritized.

2.4.3  Gender Equality and Empowerment India is on track to achieve gender parity at all education levels, having achieved it at primary level already. But women’s literacy rates lag that of men, indicating women’s poorer learning outcomes and opportunities. An immediate measure to encourage education of girls and women is to initiate action to make educational institutions at all levels safe and attractive for them with mandatory improvements in areas of water and sanitation, safety, teacher training and gender-sensitive curricula. Over the medium term, awareness-raising campaigns to promote secondary and tertiary education of girls and women should be expanded. Access to education facilities is a significant practical barrier for women and girls. Be more reliable and safer transport options are necessary. Empowering women remains a major development challenge. e MDGs focused only on a limited set of empowerment. India is on track to achieve gender parity at all education levels, measures and interventions must be widened. Women in India lack economic, political and social empowerment, of women working in decent jobs outside agriculture remains low; their participation in the overall labour force is also low and declining in rural areas; women in farming are constrained by lack of land ownership; and women are poorly represented in the Parliament. Priority empowerment measures are providing women vocational education; promoting parity in wages; implementing laws providing women with property and land rights (including the amended Hindu Succession Act); and promoting more employment of women including providing more than 100 days of work to them under MGNREGA, particularly in states where women’s employment in MGNREGA is lagging. For political empowerment, build on the success of 33% reservation for women in Panchayat Raj institutions (village local bodies) to move ahead with the Women’s Reservation (Constitution 108th Amendment) Bill to provide 33% reservation of seats in the Parliament for women must be passed and similar measures taken for states. Medium term measures

80  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development include making workplaces safe and attractive for women; regulating informal and domestic work; and promoting women’s entrepreneurship with specialized capacity-building programmes, exclusive credit provision, and self-help groups. High priority must be accorded to changing discriminatory social norms and behaviors against women. Biases exist both at the household level (such as sex-selective abortion, lower attention to girls’ welfare); as well as in society (such as child marriages and dowry). Particularly distressing is discrimination against women which begins with sex selection before birth resulting in declining sex ratios and violence against women that continues in life through physical harm including harassment, molestation and rape. To change discriminatory social norms immediate measures include implementation of legislation to prevent violence against women. In addition, measures should be initiated to effectively implement laws preventing under-age marriages. Women should be given legal assistance to fight injustice and violence. In the medium term, efforts must be continued to change social norms through education and by scaling up campaigns involving the private sector and NGOs to bring about changes. Special focus on the needs of women from groups who face discrimination or are vulnerable is also needed. Vigorous pursuit is required of the new government’s Beti Bachao-Beti Padhao campaign especially in the states with adverse sex ratio. Health for all India has achieved success on maternal health and on priority diseases but is off-track on child health although recent trends show an acceleratation towards achieving this goal. The control of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and polio has been a major success for India. Also, its efforts mainly through the adoption of the National Rural Health Mission in 2005 (now expanded country-wide across rural and urban areas through the National Health Mission) have speeded up progress in child and maternal health but while the maternal mortality target is likely to be achieved, the targets on infant and child mortality will not. e NRHM adopted a targeted approach focusing on underserved rural areas and lagging states and emphasized health of women and children and improving service standards. More vigorous and sustained efforts on improving child and maternal health will be needed, especially to meet the new global targets being considered of zero preventable child deaths and a much sharper reduction in maternal deaths by 2030. To improve health

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services more effort will be needed to fill the existing staff vacancies and overcoming gaps in the availability of health personnel; tackling governance issues to reach unserved and remote populations and monitoring of programmes; improving quality of health services; encouraging states to pay more attention to health and helping improve their capacities; and strengthening participation in health by the private sector and civil society. Immediate measures that can give quick results include integrating fragmented disease-specific services and programmes developed through NRHM, Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) and other schemes, at both policy and implementation levels to improve synergies. By use of existing resources by more effective implementation and management of programmes, and appropriate and transparent accountability over health facilities should also be ensured. Quality of health services must be improved. Price regulation, procurement and supply systems, especially on essential drugs, should be strengthened and enforced, and generic medicines should be popularized. Such measures should be taken by both the Centre and the states. In the medium term, major gaps in health spending at the Centre and states must be filled; as also the existing severe shortages in health personnel. The capacity of states to implement health programmes will need to be vastly improved. Active support of more vigourous and sustained efforts on improving child and maternal health will be needed, especially to meet the new global targets of zero preventable child deaths and a much sharper reduction in maternal deaths by 2030. Communities and civil society will have to be sought to improve oversight functions and health outcomes. Interventions outside the narrowly defined health sector that address the social determinants of health including improvements in nutrition, women’s education and empowerment; as well as the water quality and sanitation will also be needed.

2.4.4  India needs to implement Universal Health Coverage New challenges in health will have to be tackled. Apart from traditional diseases, new non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as heart attacks , strokes, other cardio vascular diseases, chronic respiratory diseases, diabetes and cancer are emerging. To tackle them seriously, India needs to consider targeting a reduction by one third of premature mortality from NCDs by 2030. In addition, road accidents are on the rise. This will place a significant additional burden on India’s already overstretched health services. New approaches will be necessary to address

82  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development India’s future health needs. e Universal Health Assurance Scheme that the Government is planning to implement is the need of the hour to make progress towards health for all. e performance of the health system must also be improved, and resources augmented by securing the support of private, cooperative and non-governmental players. Water, sanitation, energy and other basic infrastructure. India has already achieved the MDG water target, but is falling far short on sanitation. Despite meeting the water target, several concerns remain such as insufficient availability of water; inequity in its access; and sustainability of water sources. India faces a much bigger challenge on sanitation where progress is held back by the massive open defecation problem. E-Government’s Swachh Bharat Abhiyan campaign intends to achieve a ‘Clean India’ by 2019. To end open defecation, immediate measures include intensifying the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan campaign; scaling up awareness-raising programmes on sanitation involving communities and local governments; mass-communicating messages on sanitation from highest quarters; and focusing efforts on states, districts and social groups falling most behind. In the medium term, shortages in human resources in critical areas such as (i) for inter-personal communication and community approaches to total sanitation; (ii) skilled personnel for toilet construction; and (iii) monitoring and evaluation of programmes, must be tackled. While continuing efforts to increase access to clean drinking. Interventions that address the social determinants of health including improvemnent in nutrition, women’s education and empowerment, water quality and sanitation are needed. The quality of water and its round-the-clock availability in both rural and urban areas is also necessary. Scaling up the many national and international best practice examples will also help in addressing both water and sanitation related challenges. India also needs to bridge gaps in access to sustainable energy and other basic infrastructure. e MDGs did not focus much on infrastructure although infrastructure is a key “driver” of the MDGs and other development outcomes. It’s omission has been rectified in the SDG proposal where access to sustainable energy and other infrastructures have been emphasized. India faces major infrastructure gaps: one-third of Indian households do not have access to electricity, and close to 70% lack clean and affordable energy for cooking. India lags behind developing Asia in other basic infrastructures as well. It includes roads, critical for access to schools and hospitals; and urban infrastructure which is greatly overstretched with a fifth of India’s urban population living in slums.

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E-Government has placed high priority to filling infrastructure gaps including in rural areas such as through the Shyama Prasad Mukherji Urban Mission. Areas for priority action in infrastructure include to prioritize efforts to enable access by all to modern energy, roads, and essential urban and rural infrastructure, including urban amenities in rural areas. Integrate infrastructure interventions with the provision of basic services such as education and health. Integrate sanitation, waste management and energy generation using new technologies as under Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. It provides clean cooking fuels to devise scalable programmes for rural populations.

2.5 Urbanization And Sustainable Development Urbanization will be the defining trend over the next several decades, especially in East Asia, South Asia, and sub--Saharan,Africa,where the bulk of extreme poverty is concentrated. Cities, in these and other regions, will play a central role in the ability of nations to achieve sustainable development. Today, half the world’s seven billion people live in cities. By 2030. There will be over one billion more urban residents and for the first time ever in many parts of the world the number of rural residents will start to shrink. Between 2010 and 2050, the urban population will grow significantly, by 2.5 to 3 billion people, increasing the urban share to two-thirds of the world’s population. Urbanization has the ability to transform the social and economic fabric of nations. Cities are responsible for the bulk of production and consumption worldwide, and are the primary engines of economic growth and development. Roughly three quarters of global economic activity is urban, and as the urban population grows, so will the urban share of global GDP and investments. The right to development for low-income and middle-income countries can only be realized through sustainable urbanization that addresses the needs of both rural and urban areas. It must also be recognized that cities are home to extreme deprivation and environmental degradation with one billion people living in slums. In many countries the number of slum dwellers has increased significantly in recent years, and urban inequality is deepening. The dynamism of cities represents a major sustainable development opportunity. By getting urban development right, cities can create jobs and offer better livelihoods; increase economic growth; improve social inclusion; promote the decoupling of living standards and economic growth from environmental resource use; protect local and regional ecosystems; reduce both urban and rural poverty; and drastically reduce pollution.

84  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development Sound urban development will accelerate progress towards achieving SDGs, including the end of extreme poverty. On the other hand, mistakes made in managing urban growth are very hard to undo. Infrastructure investments, urban land use systems, and layouts are literally cast in stone with impacts that may be difficult to alter for many decades without adequate management and investments,slums May expand, and cities may fail to generate the jobs necessary to improve livelihoods.

2.5.1  World needs an Urban SDG A dedicated and stand-alone urban SDG will accomplish the following: 1. Educate and focus attention on urgent urban challenges and future opportunities: An urban SDG is needed to educate leaders and the public, and focus their attention on the urgent challenges and opportunities of sustainable urban development by 2030, in order to improve the lives of slum dwellers, provide access to basic infrastructure services, protect local and regional ecosystems, and ensure resilience. 2. Mobilize and empower all urban actors around practical problem solving: The challenges and opportunities presented by urbanization are complex and context-specific. Success will require practical problem solving. An urban SDG is needed to mobilize all urban actors, including local authorities, mayors, urban NGOs and community organizations, universities, businesses, and national authorities to respond to the challenge and opportunity of global urbanization. 3. Address the specific challenges of urban poverty and access to infrastructure: The characteristics of urban poverty differ in several ways from rural poverty. While $1.25 per day may be a good definition of extreme poverty in rural areas, this threshold is often too low in cities. A dedicated urban SDG is needed to sharpen the focus on better ways to address urban poverty, access to infrastructure and basic services, housing and security of tenure, and the institutional arrangements needed to fund, implement, and track progress in meeting these objectives. 4. Promote integrated and innovative infrastructure design and service delivery: The challenges faced by cities are interconnected and must be dealt with in an integrated manner. Innovative infrastructure design, modern technology solutions, and smart systems offer tremendous opportunities, which can only be seized

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through integrated infrastructure planning processes. A dedicated urban SDG is needed to promote integration at the city level where it must occur. 5. Promote land use planning and efficient spatial concentration: Good spatial planning can minimize urban land use footprints and increase the efficiency of service provision. Well-planned, mixed-use, and compact cities generally offer higher levels of well-being at lower levels of resource use and emissions. An urban SDG will promote effective and integrated management of cities. 6. Ensure resilience to climate change and disaster risk reduction: Cities are responsible for the majority of global greenhouse gas emissions, as well as being particularly vulnerable to temperature rise, flooding, rising sea levels, and extreme weather. Integrating resilience planning and disaster risk reduction into city management and infrastructure design requires site-specific strategies and citylevel targets that are best promoted through an urban SDG.

2.5.2  SDG Urban Stakeholders 2.5.2.1  Localizing the SDGs: Role of Local and Regional Governments Cities are test-beds for implementation of the SDGs, and a successful new urban agenda will create an opportunity to enhance the Goals’ effectiveness. Though the 17 SDGs and their 169 targets are often described as aspirational, cities are where they become tangible to regular citizens. SDG 11 aims to make “cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.” Hence, achieving this goal depends in part on the level of engagement of local stakeholders, regional governments, communitybased organizations, academia and the business sector, as well as on adequate synergies between national and local policies. The linkages between the SDGs and the new urban agenda may seem apparent, but there are open questions regarding: implementation and monitoring at the local level; the importance of “localization” and the connections between political leadership and technical solutions; and the means by which local governments can find solutions at the nexus of the new urban agenda and the SDGs. Some argue that “localizing” the SDGs is a good way forward. Localizing refers to accounting for subnational contexts in order to achieve the 2030 agenda, as well as prioritizing a bottom-up approach to urban development. That is, the SDGs and the new urban agenda provide a policy framework within which bottom-up action from local authorities can provide support. United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG),

86  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development an organization representing the interests of local governments on the world stage, has advocated for localization, arguing that successful implementation of the SDGs depends on the strong involvement of local and regional governments. All SDGs have targets that are directly related to the delivery of basic services, which means that all SDGs have implications for the responsibilities of local governments. Among the areas of relevance for the average citizen’s quality of life in an urban setting, the SDGs aspire to overcome poverty, gender inequality, combat climate change and insecurity, and provide high quality public goods, including education, healthcare, water, energy, clean air, housing and the conservation of natural resources. While the SDGs are global, their implementation is local. Localizing the SDGs is a political process, as well as a technical one. Local governments can be held accountable by citizens if they fail to lead local development, and such democratic accountability could become a powerful driver of achieving the SDGs at local level.

2.5.2.2  Habitat III as Opportunity to Foster Citizen Engagement During the negotiations in the lead-up to Habitat III, local and regional governments have advocated for greater recognition of their role and capacity as partners to implement the SDGs. Such recognition, they assert, will empower citizens with greater ownership over sustainable urban development, to ensure that citizens are not passive receivers of the SDGs, but unique actors who can proactively participate in development decision making and problem solving. To this end, local governments have expressed a desire for national governments to place the SDGs at the center of policy planning, while recognizing that local ownership of such strategies is vital for the successful achievement of the 2030 Agenda. However, several challenges still haunt the effective participation of citizens in decision making for sustainable development. If local and regional governments have the task of engaging ordinary citizens, they often lack the human capacity and institutional strength to facilitate such an interaction. Many recognize that in countries around the world local governments are simply agents of the central government, deprived of power, resources and competencies. The Habitat III negotiations convening in Surabaya, Indonesia, on 25-27 July (PrepCom 3), are anticipated as a key opportunity to strengthen the decentralization agenda and promote innovative forms of governance, identified as multi-level and multi-stakeholder. Local and regional governments will closely monitor the negotiations with the aim of developing tools and road maps that could translate achievement of the SDGs into their local development agendas.

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2.6  Sustainable Development In India As per the data released by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP), there has been a marked increase in the inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) into the country after 1991. India’s share in global FDI was only 0.1 per cent by 1990 and by 2009, the share increased to 3.1 per cent. Similar trend could be seen in terms of the share of FDI in GDP that remained less than 1 per cent until 1990 and in recent times it has been as high as 3.2 per cent. From the perspective of FDI contribution in filling the saving investment gap, it is evident that its share in gross fixed capital formation increased from a very low level of 0.5 percent in 1970 to over 9 per cent. However, as per the DIPP data the patterns of FDI inflow have been inimical to the objective of achieving balanced regional development. The distribution of FDI into different states indicates that one of the states, Maharashtra, accounted for 36 per cent of the total FDI into the country during 2006-10 (up from 22 percent during 2000-05). More specifically, while the share of four leading states was about 59 percent during 2000-05, it increased to 66 percent during 2006-10. The sectoral composition of FDI in India has also undergone significant change. Studies have noted that during the pre-liberalisation period the bulk of FDI was directed to manufacturing sector but in the post-liberalisation period FDI inflows have been received mainly by the service sector. Share of services, housing and construction in total FDI inflow had been only 8 percent during 1990-99 which increased to over 41 per cent during 2006-10. Scholars have also indicated that there is an increase in the share of FDI taking place through mergers and acquisitions (M&As). In recent years two-fifths of all FDI inflows took the form of mergers and acquisition as compared to virtually all FDI inflows for greenfield ventures earlier (Kumar, 2000; Beena, 2014). The general theory of systems and the information theory provide other approaches to the qualitative understanding of the phenomenon of economic development. Development is considered the process of accumulating structural information that increases the level of system organization. The general system theory holds development as the change of system states during a long period of time. Every state of a system is characterized by structural and quantitative characteristics. Thus, in the process of system development there is a change of structural and quantitative characteristics. It shows the evolution of the system structure that adapts the latter to environmental impact. In economic systems environmental pressure lies in population development and the limited

88  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development natural resources. The adjustment of the system takes place due to accumulating structural information, which increases sustainability on the basis of increasing in the quantity of system organization. Materials covered above verify/prove the following conclusion: the model of economic development should contain the parameter that would characterize the structure of the economic system in the sense of conditions and interaction regulations of economic agents among themselves. Numerical solutions of this model should show the evolution of this structure, which provides sustainability of a social system during a long period of time in the sense of its integrity. The political structure serves as a structure for a social system. In 1972, the then Prime Minister of India, Mrs. Indira Gandhi emphasized, at the UN Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm, that the removal of poverty is an integral part of the goal of an environmental strategy for the world. The concepts of interrelatedness, of a shared planet, of global citizenship, and of ‘spaceship earth’ cannot be restricted to environmental issues alone. They apply equally to the shared and interlinked responsibilities of environmental protection and human development. History has led to vast inequalities, leaving almost three-fourths of the world’s people living in less-developed countries and one-fifth below the poverty line. The long-term impact of past industrialization, exploitation and environmental damage cannot be wished away. It is only right that development in this new century be even more conscious of its long-term impact. The problems are complex and the choices difficult. Our common future can only be achieved with a better understanding of our common concerns and shared responsibilities. Following are some perspectives and approaches towards achieving a sustainable future.

2.6.1  Poverty Eradication and Sustainable Livelihoods Poverty and a degraded environment are closely interrelated, especially where people depend for their livelihoods primarily on the natural resource base of their immediate environment. Restoring natural systems and improving natural resource management practices at the grassroots level are central to a strategy to eliminate poverty. The survival needs of the poor force them to continue to degrade an already degraded environment. Removal of poverty is therefore a prerequisite for the protection of the environment. Poverty magnifies the problem of hunger and malnutrition. The problem is further compounded

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by the inequitable access of the poor to the food that is available. It is therefore necessary to strengthen the public distribution system to overcome this inequity. Diversion of common and marginal lands to ‘economically useful purposes’ deprives the poor of a resource base which has traditionally met many of their sustenance needs. Market forces also led to the elimination of crops that have traditionally been integral to the diet of the poor, thereby threatening food security and nutritional status. While conventional economic development leads to the elimination of several traditional occupations, the process of sustainable development, guided by the need to protect and conserve the environment, leads to the creation of new jobs and of opportunities for the reorientation of traditional skills to new occupations. Women, while continuing to perform their traditional domestic roles are increasingly involved in earning livelihoods. In many poor households they are often the principal or the sole breadwinners. A major thrust at the policy level is necessary to ensure equity and justice for them. Literacy and a basic education are essential for enabling the poor to access the benefits offered by development initiatives and market opportunities. Basic education is therefore a precondition for sustainable development. A sizeable proportion (about 60 per cent according to some estimates) of the population is not integrated into the market economy. Ensuring the security of their livelihoods is an imperative for sustainable development.

2.6.2  Protecting and Managing the Natural Resource Base of Economic and        Social Development The integration of agriculture with land and water management, and with ecosystem conservation is essential for both environmental sustainability and agricultural production. An environmental perspective must guide the evaluation of all development projects, recognizing the role of natural resources in local livelihoods. This recognition must be informed by a comprehensive understanding of the perceptions and opinions of local people about their stakes in the resource base. To ensure the sustainability of the natural resource base, the recognition of all stakeholders in it and their roles in its protection and management is essential. There is need to establish well-defined and enforceable rights (including customary rights) and security of tenure, and to ensure equal access to land, water and other natural and biological resources. It should be ensured that this applies, in particular, to indigenous communities, women and other disadvantaged groups living in poverty.

90  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development Water governance arrangements should protect ecosystems and preserve or restore the ecological integrity of all natural water bodies and their catchments. This will maintain the wide range of ecological services that healthy ecosystems provide and the livelihoods that depend upon them. Biomass is, and will continue for a long time to be, a major source of fuel and energy, especially for the rural poor. Recognizing this fact, appropriate mechanisms must be evolved to make such consumption of biomass sustainable, through both resource management and the promotion of efficient and minimally polluting technologies, and technologies which will progressively reduce the pressure on biomass, which cause environmental degradation. The traditional approaches to natural resource management such as sacred groves and ponds, water harvesting and management systems, etc., should be revived by creating institutional mechanisms which recapture the ecological wisdom and the spirit of community management inherent in those systems.

2.6.3  Sustainable Development in a Globalizing World Globalization as it is taking place today is increasing the divide between the rich and the poor. It has to be steered so that it serves not only commercial interests but also the social needs of development. Global business thrives on, and therefore encourages and imposes, high levels of homogeneity in consumer preferences. On the other hand, for development to be locally appropriate and sustainable, it must be guided by local considerations which lie in cultural diversity and traditions. Therefore recognition at the policy level, of the significance of diversity, and the need to preserve it, is an important precondition for sustainable development. In an increasingly globalizing economy, developing countries, for want of appropriate skills, are often at a disadvantage in negotiating and operating multilateral trade agreements. Regional cooperation for capacity building is therefore necessary to ensure their effective participation in all stages of multilateral trade. Globalization is driven by a vast, globally spread, human resource engine involving millions of livelihoods. Their security is sometimes threatened by local events causing global distortions (e.g., the impact of the WTC attack on jobs in India or, in a wider context, sanctions against countries not conforming to ‘international’ prescriptions in human rights or environment related matters). Mechanisms to safeguard trade and livelihoods, especially in developing countries, must be evolved and

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negotiated to make globalization an effective vehicle of sustainable development. War and armed conflict are a major threat to sustainable development. It is imperative to evolve effective mechanisms for mediation in such situations and to resolve contentious issues without compromising the larger developmental goals of the conflicting parties.

2.6.4 Health and Sustainable Development Human health in its broadest sense of physical, mental and spiritual wellbeing is to a great extent dependent on the access of the citizen to a healthy environment. For a healthy, productive and fulfilling life every individual should have the physical and economic access to a balanced diet, safe drinking water, clean air, sanitation, environmental hygiene, primary healthcare and education. Access to safe drinking water and a healthy environment should be a fundamental right of every citizen. Citizens of developing countries continue to be vulnerable to a double burden of diseases. Traditional diseases such as malaria and cholera, caused by unsafe drinking water and lack of environmental hygiene, have not yet been controlled. In addition, people are now falling prey to modern diseases such as cancer and AIDS, and stress-related disorders. Many of the widespread ailments among the poor in developing countries are occupation-related, and are contracted in the course of work done to fulfil the consumption demands of the affluent, both within the country and outside. The strong relationship between health and the state of the environment in developing countries is becoming increasingly evident. This calls for greater emphasis on preventive and social medicine, and on research in both occupational health and epidemiology. Because of the close link, there needs to be greater integration between the ministries of health and environment, and effective coordination and cooperation between them. Basic health and educational facilities in developing countries need to be strengthened. The role of public health services must give preventive healthcare equal emphasis as curative healthcare. People should be empowered through education and awareness to participate in managing preventive healthcare related to environmental sanitation and hygiene. Most developing countries are repositories of a rich tradition of natural resource-based healthcare. This is under threat, on the one hand from modern mainstream medicine, and on the other from the degradation of the natural resource base. Traditional medicine in combination with modern medicine must be promoted while ensuring conservation of the

92  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development resource base and effective protection of IPRs of traditional knowledge. Developing countries should also strive to strengthen the capacity of their healthcare systems to deliver basic health services and to reduce environment-related health risks by sharing of health awareness and medical expertise globally.

2.6.5 Means of Implementation 2.6.5.1 Finance Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) is declining. The commitments made by industrialized countries at the Earth Summit in Rio a decade ago remain largely by several developing countries. Industrialized countries must honour their ODA commitments. The new instruments and mechanisms, e.g., the Clean Development Mechanism, that are trying to replace ODA need to be examined closely for their implications for the developing countries. In view of the declining trend in ODA, developing countries must explore how they can finance their sustainable development efforts, such as by introducing a system of ecological taxation. Private investment cannot replace development aid as it will not reach sectors relevant for the poor. Such investments and other mechanisms can at best be additional to, not replacements for, development assistance. Conditions attached to financial assistance need to be rigorously scrutinized, and the assistance accepted only if the conditionalities are acceptable. Financial support for sustainable development programmes must not be negatively influenced by political considerations external to the objectives of the assistance.

2.6.5.2 Trade Trade regimes, specifically WTO, are sometimes in conflict with sustainable development priorities. Imperatives of trade, and the concerns related to environment, equity and social justice however need to be dealt with independently. Environmental and social clauses which are implicitly or explicitly part of international agreements must not be used selectively to erect trade barriers against developing countries. Developing countries will suffer a major trade disadvantage if the efforts to put in place globally acceptable process and production methods (PPMs) are successful. Instead, the existing disparities between the trade regimes and multilateral environmental agreements, such as those between Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) regime and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), should be thoroughly addressed. Mechanisms to resolve such conflicts between multilateral agreements should be set up.

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2.6.5.3  Technology Developing countries need not follow the conventional path to development with regard to technologies but must use to their advantage the cutting edge technology options now available to ‘leapfrog’, and put the tools of modern technology to use. Technology transfer must be informed by an understanding of its implications in the social, economic and environmental contexts of the receiving societies. Technologies must be usable by and beneficial to local people. Where possible, existing local technologies must be upgraded and adapted to make them more efficient and useful. Such local adaptations should also lead to upgradation of local technical skills. Local innovations and capacity building for developing and managing locally relevant and appropriate technologies must be encouraged and supported. Integrating highly sophisticated modern technology with traditional practices sometimes produces the most culturally-suited and acceptable solutions, which also makes them more viable. This trend should be encouraged.

2.6.5.4  Science and Education The paramount importance of education in effecting social change is recognized. Mainstream education must now be realigned to promote awareness, attitudes, concerns and skills that will lead to sustainable development. Basic education which promotes functional literacy, livelihood skills, understanding of the immediate environment and values of responsible citizenship is a precondition for sustainable development. Such education must be available to every child as a fundamental right, without discrimination on the basis of economic class, geographical location or cultural identity. Adequate resources and support for education for sustainable development are essential. An understanding must be promoted among key decision makers of the potential of education to promote sustainability, reduce poverty, train people for sustainable livelihoods and catalyze necessary public support for sustainable development initiatives. The empowerment of women and girls must be supported by actions to improve their access to basic and higher education, training and capacity building. The emphasis should be on gender mainstreaming. Greater capacity needs to be built in science and technology through improved collaboration among research institutions, the private sector, NGOs and government. Collaborations and partnerships between and among scientists, government and all stakeholders, on scientific research and development and its widespread application need to be improved.

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2.6.5.5 Population With India’s population crossing a billion in the year 2000, the National Population Policy announced in that year has special significance. Its change in focus from merely setting target population figures to achieving population control through greater attention to socio-economic issues such as child health and survival, illiteracy, empowerment of women, and increased participation by men in planned parenthood, gives it greater breadth and depth, thereby holding forth better promise of achieving its long-term objective of a stable population by mid-century. The official realization, that population is not merely about numbers but about the health and quality of life of people in general and women in particular, must be reinforced and sustained by an informed debate to bring key population issues into ever sharpening perspective at various levels of policy making from the national and state legislatures to local government institutions. There is need for a better and more widespread understanding that the number of children desired by any couple depends on a large and complexly interrelated number of socio-economic and cultural factors, and that any policy action seeking to control population must seriously take all these variables into account. An important part of empowering women in matters pertaining to population, is to explicitly recognize and respect their rights over their bodies and their reproductive behaviour. This recognition must permeate society in general, and religious, judicial and law-enforcement institutions in particular, through continual campaigning and dialogue. The pursuit of population control must not be allowed to compromise human rights and basic democratic principles. Such compromises are often implicit in the disincentives aimed at controlling family size; in comments on the fertility of particular social groupings; and in the occasional demands to control in-migration to metropolitan areas. It is essential to place these matters in a balanced and rational perspective through informed public discourse supported by the wide dissemination of authentic data.

2.6.6  Strengthening Governance for Sustainable Development at the Local,    National and International Levels 2.6.6.1 Local Effective management of resources requires participation by all stakeholders. At the local level, strengthening democratic institutions generally leads to better and more sustained management of natural resources. The committees comprising both elected and executive members

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of local bodies and representatives of community groups, must be formed. Appropriate capacity building would enable them to undertake local development activities according to community priorities, monitor project implementation and manage community assets. Where the conditions for such community empowerment have already been created, as in India through the 73rd and 74th amendments of its Constitution, effective implementation of the provisions should be ensured. All members of society are the stakeholders of sustainable development. Women make up half of this group. Affirmative action to ensure representation and power to women in local governance, and appropriate capacity building, are necessary to make them effective and equal partners in the development process. Social groups which have been traditionally discriminated against must be represented in local governance and empowered to ensure that they become effective and mainstream partners in development. Children are a valuable asset of every society. It is the responsibility not only of the parents but of the community that they realize their potential fully, growing up in a healthy, enriching and fulfilling environment. Ensuring the provision of such an environment is a major challenge of governance at the local level. The occupational, cultural and economic heterogeneity of population is on the whole a major asset in making development sustainable; but there are times when the same heterogeneity can become the basis of conflict and social insecurity. It is imperative to evolve participatory mechanisms of governance involving citizen groups and local authorities which will provide effective means of conflict resolution.

2.6.6.2 National Sustainable development is achieved through optimizing gains from several variables, rather than maximizing those from a single one. This requires government departments, by convention sectorally organized, to work together, or in some cases as a single multi-disciplinary authority. For this joint planning, transparency and coordination in implementation are required. The richness of skills available in society must be harnessed through partnerships involving institutions in civil society, such as NGOs, CBOs, corporate (including private) bodies, academic and research institutions, trade unions, etc., which must be made an integral part of planning and implementation for sustainable development. There is on the one hand a surfeit of laws, many of them outmoded and irrelevant. On the other hand, effective enforcement is lacking in respect of laws relevant to contemporary concerns and conducive to governance. This calls for a thorough review of laws, elimination of those which are

96  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development outmoded, and simplification of the procedures for implementing those which are relevant. Internal reviews as well as learnings from international experience should be the basis of identifying and filling gaps in existing laws. It must, however, be recognized that laws in themselves do not provide solutions, unless there are mechanisms to enforce them effectively. There are many traditional systems and practices whose value and validity needs to be recognized and brought into the mainstream of governmental development thinking and policy. Appropriate mechanisms for integrating them need to be created. Many policies were framed either before sustainable development became a major concern or in a sectoral perspective. These need to be reviewed from the point of view of sustainable development. All future policies must be guided accordingly. Areas lacking policies should be identified and adequate policies compatible with the imperatives of sustainable development framed, taking into account successful examples, of policies and initiatives in similar areas.

2.6.6.3 International There is both a need and a scope for regional and global cooperation in sustainable development. Some of the areas of common concern are marine and riparian issues, transboundary environmental impacts, management of bioresources, technology sharing and sharing of sustainable development experiences. Efforts must be made, especially by developing countries, to work towards synergizing experiences and raising shared regional concerns as a strong united front in international forums. Mechanisms must be put in place to facilitate such international exchange of domestic and global experiences in sustainable development. There must be mechanisms for monitoring the compliance of countries to their obligations under various environmental agreements. Currently, there is a multiplicity of institutions with fragmented responsibilities. A better governance regime is required to ensure cooperation and compliance. The global community, after dedicated and consistent efforts over the last year, has developed an agenda that promises to address the concerns of human development for all while ensuring the health of the planet and its ecosystems. The Post 2015 UN Development Agenda is a unique participatory exercise that has led to the design of a sustainable development framework consisting of 17 goals that address the key concerns of humanity and 169 interlinked targets within these goals that reflect the complex and interrelated nature of social, economic and ecological well-being parameters.

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In September 2015, the post-2015 UN Development Agenda, comprising 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) will be adopted, replacing the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). These ambitious and aspirational SDGs call for significant rethinking in development processes across the world. They also call for significant resources to be dedicated and invested in priority areas as identified in the framework of goals and targets for each member state. Five SDGS in India has, over the past years, directed its development pathway to meet its priorities of employment, economic growth, food, water and energy security, disaster resilience and poverty alleviation. India has also aimed to restore its natural capital and adopt transparent and robust governance along democratic lines. However, emerging challenges of climate change impacts, increasing inequities, and lagging human development indices are well recognised by both the citizens as well as the government. The post-2015 UN Sustainable Development Agenda framework provides an opportunity to renew and integrate efforts in order to meet, to a significant degree, national and global aspirations in a defined time frame. The SDGs will be more ambitious than the MDGs, covering a broad range of interconnected issues, from economic growth to social issues to global public goods. To realise this vision, a just-as-ambitious plan for financing and implementation is needed. The magnitude of the SDG financing challenge far exceeds the capacity of any one organisation and demands a strong partnership among governments, the private sector, and development organisations. The SDGs will have very significant resource implications worldwide. At the global level, total investment needs according to UNCTAD are in the order of USD 5 to USD 7 trillion per year. Total investment needs in developing countries alone could be about USD 3.9 trillion per year, mainly for basic infrastructure (roads, rail and ports, power stations, water and sanitation), food security (agriculture and rural development), climate change mitigation and adaptation, health, and education. Current investment in these sectors is around USD 1.4 trillion leaving a gap of around USD 2.5 trillion and implying an annual investment gap of between USD 1.9 and USD 3.1 trillion (UNCTAD, 2014).

2.7  India’s Finance Gap The first level of estimates indicates a financial shortfall of INR 533 lakh crore (USD 8.5 trillion) over the mandated 15 years for achieving SDGs1. Per year, on average, this works out to INR 36 lakh crore or USD 565 billion. (Note that this is only the gap in finance to achieve the SDGs, not

98  Green Computing Approach Towards Sustainable Development the overall financial requirement.) This is a minimalist estimate and the actual amounts are likely to be much higher. The table at the end of this section summarises the estimates for each goal. These estimates are a fraction of the global estimates of USD 5-7 trillion per year required for meeting the SDGs according to the UNCTAD 2014 Report. Estimates for investment needs in developing countries range from USD 3.3 trillion to USD 4.5 trillion per year. The SDGs will require a stepchange in the levels of both public and private investment in all countries. At the current levels of investment in SDG-relevant sectors, developing countries alone face an annual gap of USD 2.5 trillion. (UNCTAD, 2014). A compilation by Adam Fishman of the WRI for the International Research Forum indicates that public domestic finance in developing countries more than doubled between 2002 and 2011, increasing from USD 838 billion to USD 1.86 trillion. However, as analysed by Kharas et al., “there is a problem of a ‘missing middle’ where international public support falls faster than the rise of tax and government revenues, leading to a net decrease in total public finance available relative to national”. OECD countries collect 34% of their GDP as tax from the people. It is also clear that public finance alone would be inadequate and even the private finance available may not be able to meet the gaps being estimated. There is a need to reassess financial requirements from a perspective of innovative policy strategies to address the core needs of poverty eradication, gender, equity, governance issues, sustained growth, investment in fundamental natural resources and climate response, in a synchronised and systemic manner. This study must be interpreted as a foundational exercise in the financial assessment of SDGs in India. The estimates provided are conservative and minimalist. They should be interpreted as the bare minimum figures, such that the true finances required cannot be below what is presented here. This study has several limitations, as described below. It is hoped that further studies will build on the methodologies presented here to provide more precise estimates. Firstly, the study does not account for all possible development pathways that India can choose. India may explore alternative strategies in different sectors, in accordance to the need, availability, resources, expertise, and political will of the Indian Government. This may impact the finances required and the gap faced by the sector. While this has not been the scope of this study, such an assessment, if conducted in the future, may help compare the relative costs and benefits of alternative scenarios and assist India in making a well-informed choice. It is hoped that further research will provide these crucial analyses.

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Secondly, the links at the target level as well as the goal level have not been exhaustively researched or understood in this study. The SDGs are replete with linkages, such that financial flows towards one SDG target may easily influence other targets across goals and vice versa. The estimates presented here look at targets or specific groups of targets in isolation without accounting for the full complexity of the linkages. It is only mentioned in passing what these linkages could be. Achieving SDGs in India: A study of India’s financial requirements and gaps. Approach and Methodology of the Study Sustainable Development Goals: 17 Goals, 169 Targets

Assessable targets within each goal, with ‘related targets’ clustered together (75 targets)

Financially assessed

Targets that follow other targets such that they may be met through action towards achieving other targets (26 targets)

Not financially assessed because these targets would be achieved with the achievement of other targets.

Targets that are not related to Indian context, or do not have dened quantiable indicators yet, or beyond present scope (68 targets)

Targets not considered in the study

Identied existing government schemes aligned with each target or cluster of targets

Finance required Estimated nance required for scheme/cluster of scheme to achieve SDG target by one of the following methodologies:  Obtaining gures from other existing studies  Projecting nance required to reach target value of indicator, based on past correlation of target indicator on budgeted expenditure  Deriving gures from other studies, e.g., obtaining unit costs and scaling across population & time.

Finance available Projected future public nance available for scheme/cluter of schemes based on the trend of past public expenditures on the respective scheme/cluster of

Estimated gap

Fig. 2.1:  Sources of finance considered in the study

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2.8 MDGs Progress While factors specific to each of the MDGs are important for achievement of the targets, there are several key ‘drivers’ that affect the performance of all the MDGs. Some of these cross-cutting factors were not explicitly factored into the MDG goal and indicator structure but their roles are now being recognized as crucial to the success of the MDGs and so are being integrated within the proposed SDGs. In the rest of this section, five of these key drivers that influence performance and attainment of MDGs (and will also help drive the SDGs) are discussed. These are (1) broad-based and employment-creating economic growth; (2) adequate allocation of resources towards the social sectors and India’s progress on the MDGs. India’s progress on the MDGs 2015 predicted achievement (% of target) MDG 1 Consumption poverty (below national poverty line) Poverty and Underweight children (