Green Chemistry: Water and its Treatment 9783110597820, 9783110597301

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Mark Anthony Benvenuto, Heinz Plaumann (Eds.) Green Chemistry Green Chemical Processing

Green Chemical Processing

Edited by Mark Anthony Benvenuto

Volume 7

Green Chemistry

Water and its Treatment Edited by Mark Anthony Benvenuto and Heinz Plaumann

Editors Prof. Dr. Mark Anthony Benvenuto Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Detroit Mercy 4001 W. McNichols Rd. Detroit, MI 48221-3038 USA [email protected] Dr. Heinz Plaumann Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Detroit Mercy 4001 W. McNichols Rd. Detroit, MI 48221-3038 USA [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-059730-1 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-059782-0 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-059806-3 Library of Congress Control Number: 2021941378 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2022 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Cover image: scyther5/iStock/Thinkstock Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

About the series Green Chemical Processing is a continuing series of volumes comprising refereed chapters, with upcoming volumes having submission dates of 15 June and 15 December each year. All areas of green chemistry, pending as well as established, are considered and welcome. If you are interested in contributing a chapter, please contact series editor Mark Benvenuto, of the University of Detroit Mercy, at [email protected], concerning the appropriateness of your topic. We are interested in any and all new ideas that examine any of the 12 principles of green chemistry. For more information on all previous and upcoming volumes of Green Chemical Processing, see https://www.degruyter.com/view/serial/GRCP-B

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-202

Contents About the series

V

List of contributing authors

IX

Mark A. Benvenuto, Heinz Plaumann Chapter 1 Green chemistry and water: an introduction

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John H. Hartig, Timothy Dekker Chapter 2 Establishment of a water collaborative for Metropolitan Detroit, MI, USA R. Michael L. McKay, George S. Bullerjahn, Katelynn Johnson, Tim Kearns, Kelli Paige, Bryan Stubbs, Edward M. Verhamme Chapter 3 Binational cooperation toward a goal of Smart Great Lakes 17 Luuk Peters Chapter 4 Gray water system

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Will Sarni Chapter 5 The future of water: digital water technologies and localized water systems 37 Jeremy Wright, Jeremy Lytle, Hala Al Amine, Hitesh Doshi Chapter 6 Green roofs: 10 years after City of Toronto Green Roof Bylaw

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Heinz Plaumann Chapter 7 From greenfield to chemical production and back to greenfield: a major environmental remediation success 81

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Contents

Jacob Napieralski Chapter 8 Swimming in the desert: the environmental costs of residential pools in arid cities 85 Anum Khan, Darko Joksimovic, Barry Orr Chapter 9 Defining “flushability” for sewer use 93 Meisam Darabi, Yongli Zhang Chapter 10 Removal of microplastic pollution in water and wastewater treatment Audrey Stahrr, Mohammed Dardona, Chandra M. Tummala, Timothy M. Dittrich Chapter 11 Road dust: composition and effects on urban waterways 119 Vanessa Maldonado, Qi Hua Fan Chapter 12 Destructive water treatment technologies for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) 133 Kathryn Fahy Chapter 13 HANWASH and its dream for Haiti

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Nick Krayacich, Ron Denham Chapter 14 Rotary WASH and the role of the WASH rotary action group Index

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List of contributing authors Mark A. Benvenuto Fellow, American Chemical Society Professor of Chemistry University of Detroit Mercy 4001 W. McNichols Rd. Detroit, MI 48221-3038 USA [email protected] Heinz Plaumann Wayne State University 5050 Anthony Wayne Drive Detroit, MI 48202 USA [email protected] John H. Hartig Board of Directors Detroit Riverfront Conservancy and Visiting Scholar Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research University of Windsor Windsor, ON Canada [email protected] R. Michael L. McKay Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research University of Windsor Windsor, ON Canada and Great Lakes Center for Fresh Water and Human Health Bowling Green State University Bowling Green, OH USA [email protected] Luuk Peters [email protected] Will Sarni Water Foundry, Founder and CEO [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-204

Hitesh Doshi Department of Architectural Science Ryerson University Toronto, ON M5B 2K3 Canada [email protected] Jacob Napieralski University of Michigan-Dearborn [email protected] Anum Khan Department of Civil Engineering Ryerson University 350 Victoria Street Toronto, ON M5B 2K3 Canada [email protected] Yongli Zhang Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Wayne State University 5050 Anthony Wayne Dr. Detroit, MI 48202 USA [email protected] Timothy M. Dittrich Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Wayne State University 5050 Anthony Wayne Drive Detroit, MI 48202 USA [email protected] Vanessa Maldonado Department of Chemical Engineering and Material Science Michigan State University Ann Arbor, MI USA [email protected]

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List of contributing authors

Kathryn Fahy HANWASH Steering Committee 411 Hill Avenue Spirit Lake, IA 51360 USA [email protected]

Nick Krayacich Chair-emeritus WASH Rotary Action Group 10 Bellair St, #1202 Toronto, ON M5R 3T8 Canada [email protected]

Mark A. Benvenuto, Heinz Plaumann

Chapter 1 Green chemistry and water: an introduction Keywords: Water purity, pollution, global water use

1.1 Water and its potential Throughout history, people have settled near water, whether it was an ocean shore, or some inland sea, or a river. For all that time, perhaps obviously, water has been needed by humans and their domesticated animals to drink. For almost all that time, water has been used as a source of food – fish, shellfish, and other marine animals, to name just a few. Also, water has been used for energy for centuries – in the form of waterwheels and dams. One might also argue that the wind over water, which can be produced by changes in water temperature, has been the means by which sailing ships have moved for millennia. In short, water has been critical to the advancement of humankind in many ways. Water has become more visible as a global issue for several decades now, as the population of our planet expands, and the water sources available for use are subjected to increased stresses. This causes political tensions, and is reported and discussed in the popular press, such as those between the United States and Mexico, since virtually all of the Colorado River is diverted through damming projects, and none makes it into Mexican territory. Likewise, the death of the Aral Sea through the policies of the defunct Soviet Union has become an international problem for the newly independent nations of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan that now border its area [1]. Regrettably, some nations may even go to war over the ownership and use of water, such as Turkey, Syria, and Iraq over the Euphrates and Tigris, with the damming of the latter via the Ilisu Dam [2]. Michael Denton states within his work, The Wonder of Water, “Within the range of temperatures and atmospheric conditions that exist on the Earth’s surface, only water exists as solid, liquid and gas” [3, 4]. The range of physical states, and the characteristics of the material in them, can be argued is what makes the variety of animal and plant life on the Earth possible.

Mark A. Benvenuto, Fellow, American Chemical Society, Department of Chemistry, University of Detroit Mercy, 4001 W. McNichols Rd., Detroit, MI 48221-3038, USA, e-mail: [email protected] Heinz Plaumann, Wayne State University, 5050 Anthony Wayne Drive, Detroit, MI 48202, USA, e-mail: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-001

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1.2 Water in our modern world This book, Volume 7 in this open-ended series devoted to all aspects of green chemistry, includes a wide span of relevant contributors and topics ranging from global influencers to university and industrial contributors. Many within the general public think of water in terms of clean, potable, bottled water for drinking, such as in Figure 1.1, as well as that which comes from our household taps [5, 6]. But several of the chapters here present what can be considered new and intriguing looks at how water is used in some way most of us do not normally consider. From determining levels of water purity to measuring and examining the residues and pollutants found in water, our authors have looked closely at many aspects of water in our society.

Figure 1.1: Bottled water for consumer use.

Several of our chapters deal with water that is through some means connected to the Great Lakes, which form part of the boundary between Canada and the United States. These lakes, which were called “freshwater seas” by some of the earliest European explorers, are the world’s largest connected freshwater source. Chapters included here discuss international collaborations between the two nations, and the cycling of a site from an industrial concern back to a green field. Our authors have also contributed chapters that discuss water and new technologies, as well as some older, established ones. The idea of green roofs in an urban environment is treated, which spotlights an excellent use of rain water that traditionally has just been flushed away in storm sewers in residential or commercial zones in cities and towns, as shown in Figure 1.2, being considered more of a nuisance than a resource. Additionally, the topic of microplastics in freshwater and saltwater has become of interest in the past decade, as it is realized that such materials are not treated or

Chapter 1 Green chemistry and water: an introduction

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Figure 1.2: Residential storm drain.

removed by traditional water treatment plants. The idea of how water supplies are handled in an arid environment is also discussed, in the curiously and intriguingly titled chapter, “Swimming in the desert.” As well, the removal of persistent, fluorinated pollutants is the focus of one of the chapters within. The discussion, study, and regulation of water are now broad enough that no single volume can probably encompass all aspects of it. But we hope the chapters here give good insights into this most useful, life-supporting material.

References [1] [2]

[3] [4] [5] [6]

The Incredible Shrinking Aral Sea 1960 – 2014. Website. (Accessed 14 November 2020, as: brilliantmaps.com/aral-sea). “War for Water? Syria, Iraq and Turkey Will Next Fight for Rivers, Report Says,” Newsweek. Website. (Accessed 14 November 2020, as: newsweek.com/war-water-syria-iraq-turkey-willnext-fight-rivers-rivers-report-says-1046349). Denton, M.. “The Wonder of Water”, Discovery Institute Press, Seattle, Washington, 2017. P 17, 25, and references therein. Ecolab Company NALCO Water. “The Nalco Water Handbook, Fourth Edition”, McGraw-Hill, 2018. Benvenuto, M. A. “Industrial Chemistry”, De Gruyter, 2014, ISBN: 978-3-11-029589-4. USEPA. “Safe Drinking Water Act: Consumer Confidence Reports (CCR)” at: https://www.epa. gov/safewater/consumer/pdf/hist.pdf (accessed 14 November 2020).

John H. Hartig, Timothy Dekker

Chapter 2 Establishment of a water collaborative for Metropolitan Detroit, MI, USA Abstract: The Laurentian Great Lakes are the Earth’s greatest reserve of freshwater and a vital connector is the Detroit River. Over the past few centuries, the Detroit River region has been vital for commerce, industry, global shipping, and recreation and as such warrants special treatment in a monograph such as this. Not surprisingly, human population density and level of commercial and industrial development in the Detroit area resulted in many impacts on our waters. This chapter summarizes a number of such issues and calls for the creation of a multi-sectoral Detroit Water Collaborative focused on innovation in: science, technology, and engineering; design and planning; and finance, economics, and business. Keywords: Great Lakes, science, technology and engineering, waterfronts, design and planning, Detroit Water Collaborative

2.1 Introduction The Laurentian Great Lakes are a continentally and globally significant natural resource. They contain approximately 22,900 km3 of water, representing nearly onefifth of the standing freshwater on the Earth’s surface. The Great Lakes drainage basin covers more land than England, Scotland, and Wales combined, and the lakes together have over 17,000 km of shoreline. Perhaps it is easiest to visualize this chain of lakes as a gigantic staircase, where the top step is Lake Superior, and water descends down a series of lake steps to the Atlantic Ocean. There is little doubt as to why the Great Lakes are often considered one of the natural wonders of the world. Metropolitan Detroit is situated in the heart of these Great Lakes. Its international waters stretch from southern Lake Huron, through the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, and the Detroit River, and empty into western Lake Erie (Figure 2.1). This water corridor is also intersected by six tributaries on the U.S. side, including the Black, Belle, Clinton, Rouge, and Huron rivers, and the River Raisin. All the waters of the upper Great Lakes (i.e., Superior, Michigan, and Huron) flow through this water corridor and feed Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and the St. Lawrence Seaway. John H. Hartig, Detroit Riverfront Conservancy and Visiting Scholar, Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada, e-mail: [email protected] Timothy Dekker, LimnoTech, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, e-mail: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-002

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Figure 2.1: A map of the Huron–Erie Corridor that stretches from southern Lake Huron to western Lake Erie (photo credit: NASA).

Table 2.1: Examples of exceptional water resource attributes of the corridor from southern Lake Huron to western Lake Erie [adapted from Hartig [8]]. Natural resource attribute Description St. Clair River

This -km river serves as a connecting channel between Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair

Black River

This .-km river flows into the St. Clair River in Port Huron, Michigan

Belle River

This .-km river flows into the St. Clair River in Marine City, Michigan

Lake St. Clair

The St. Clair River empties into the ,-km Lake St. Clair that, in turn, empties into the Detroit River

Clinton River

This -km long river drains , km of southeast Michigan before it empties into Lake St. Clair

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Table 2.1 (continued) Natural resource attribute Description Detroit River

This -km connecting channel links Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie

Rouge River

This -km long river drains , km of southeast Michigan before it empties into the Detroit River

Huron River

This -km long river drains , km of southeast Michigan before it empties into western Lake Erie, near the mouth of the Detroit River

Lake Erie

This is the eleventh largest lake in the world (by surface area) and the warmest and most biologically productive of the Great Lakes

River Raisin

This -km long river drains , km of southeast Michigan before it empties into western Lake Erie

Birds

Over  species of birds have been identified in the corridor

Flyways

Lake St. Clair, the Detroit River, and western Lake Erie are situated at the intersection of the Atlantic and Mississippi flyways

Waterfowl

 species of waterfowl have been documented using the corridor; more than , diving ducks use the lower Detroit River as stopover habitat during spring migration

Freshwater delta

St. Clair Flats is one of the largest freshwater deltas in the world and provides important stopover points for feeding for migratory shore birds during fall migration

Raptors

The lower Detroit River is one of the three best places to watch raptor migrations in the U.S.;  species of raptors migrate through the lower Detroit River; birders have seen over , raptors migrating in a single fall day

Important bird areas

The corridor has four important bird areas that have been identified by the National Audubon Society

Waterfowl hunting

In , Ducks Unlimited identified Detroit as one of the top ten metropolitan areas for waterfowl hunting in the United States

Birding

Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, and western Lake Erie offer exceptional birding opportunities; a ByWays to FlyWays Bird Driving Tour Map features  unique birding sites in southwest Ontario and southeast Michigan

Fish

 species of fish have been identified in the corridor

Fish spawning

Detroit River wetlands provide spawning areas for % of the fish species in the Great Lakes

Walleye

An estimated  million walleye ascend the Detroit River from Lake Erie each spring to spawn, creating an internationally renowned sport fishery

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Table 2.1 (continued) Natural resource attribute Description Fishing

Detroit River and Lake Erie are considered the “Walleye Capital of the World”; major international fishing tournaments, sponsored by FLW Outdoors and other organizations, are held annually on the Detroit River and western Lake Erie offering prize money of as much as $. million

Biodiversity

The Detroit River and western Lake Erie have been recognized for their biodiversity in: – the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (one of 34 waterfowl habitat areas of major concern in the USA and Canada); – the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (i.e., Detroit River and western Lake have been identified as areas to receive biodiversity protection and conservation); – the Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve Network (i.e., marshes along the lower Detroit River and northeast Ohio have been identified a Regional Shorebird Reserve); and – the Biodiversity Investment Area Program of Environment Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (i.e., the Detroit River–Lake St. Clair ecosystem has been identified as one of 20 Biodiversity Investment Areas in the Great Lakes).

Wetlands of international importance

St. Clair Flats on the Ontario side of the St. Clair River, Point Pelee National Park in Leamington, Ontario, and Humbug Marsh in Trenton and Gibraltar, Michigan have been designated as “Wetlands of International Importance” under the international Ramsar Convention

Heritage river designation

The Detroit River is the first river in North America to receive both American Heritage River and Canadian Heritage River designations

These waters provide drinking water to millions of people, sustain our agriculture and industries, enable maritime shipping (e.g., the Detroit Wayne County Port Authority oversees approximately 15.4 million tons of cargo each year), support worldclass outdoor recreation, and enhance quality of life for residents. Table 2.1 presents selected examples of the exceptional water resource attributes of this corridor. This region first attracted Native Americans because of water and other abundant natural resources. Over centuries of development, those resources contributed greatly to the economic vitality of the region, supporting the establishment of Detroit as a major Great Lakes port city, the development of the nineteenth-century shipbuilding and shipping industries, and the creation of a global center for manufacturing innovation with the advent of the auto industry in the twentieth century. Not surprisingly, human population density and level of commercial and industrial development in Detroit resulted in many impacts on our waters. The Great Lakes

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have suffered substantial degradation over the years: the area has had to recover from effects of logging, cultural eutrophication, toxic substances contamination, and introduction of exotic species and climate change. In recent years, the pace of cleanup and innovation around water and restoration activities has increased, and the Detroit Metropolitan area has become a center for dramatic and lasting change around water resources, water quality, and water sustainability. Detroit has a long history of innovation in industry, manufacturing, and trade that extends over centuries, and new initiatives and opportunities are emerging today. Two things have been common to these successes: water and the human capital needed to make the most of the resources that are readily available in this critical crossroads of the Great Lakes. Both are still abundantly available today. Water clearly provides a unique competitive advantage for our region. As Michigan’s Blue Economy has stated (www.michiganblueeconomy.org): Water is our past and our future. Water surrounds and cradles us. Water opened our region to trade. Water powered the rise of our mighty industry. Water defines our culture and lifestyle. Water innovation positions us for leadership in the coming Blue Economy.

2.2 Need for collaboration around water in the Detroit metropolitan area The attributes presented in Table 2.1 position southeast Michigan as a unique setting for focused, collaborative innovation around water. The region is already a hub for technical innovation in water, with numerous academic institutions, federal research institutions, and private and nongovernmental organizations developing and applying water technology across multiple sectors of the state and national economy. Already, multi-sector collaborations are producing innovations in water sensing technologies, urban water management and reuse, sustainable corporate water use, environmental remediation and restoration, ecological management, and urban waterway revitalization and green design. These activities are collectively enabling a new blue economy that has the potential to recast the region as a critical hub for water-based economic activity. Nationally, the most successful and transformative innovations in the Blue Economy have resulted from cross-disciplinary collaborations that provide multiple perspectives and deeper, more lasting solutions to complex water problems [1]. The ongoing transformation of the waterfronts of cities like New York, Toronto, and Tulsa; the bold implementation of green stormwater infrastructure in Philadelphia, Washington, DC, and Seattle; the development of an important and lasting water tech cluster in Milwaukee [2]: all of these innovations were born out of coordination

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across disciplines, jurisdictions, and organizations. The best of these collaborations have common elements: – A strong basis in the science, technology, and engineering practices that are currently transforming the ways we manage and sustain our water resources; – A close relationship with the design and planning disciplines that provide insights into human uses and experiences related to water; and – A connection to the areas of finance, economics, and business that provide a context for transformative projects and innovative ways to enable cooperation and manage risk. All three of these areas are undergoing fundamental, rapid transformations globally that are clearly visible in the Detroit metropolitan area. The area has been a center of science and technical innovation for a century, and today the area is rich in technical innovators in the water sector (see examples in Table 2.2). Table 2.2: Selected examples of existing centers for water innovation in the Detroit metropolitan area. Organization

Description

Wayne State University, Healthy Urban Waters

Collaboration of Wayne State University researchers networked with community members to focus on water in an urban setting

Wayne State University, T-RUST

Wayne State STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) training program focusing on post-industrial urban sustainability

Southeast Michigan Council of Governments

Regional planning partnership of governmental units in southeast Michigan

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers–Detroit District

A government agency that provides vital public engineering services in peace and war to secure our nation, protect the environment, and reduce risks from disasters (its vision it to provide engineering solutions to the Great Lakes toughest challenges)

Wayne State University Engineering

University program with schools of civil and environmental engineering, and technologies

University of Michigan’s Graham Sustainability Center for funding and fostering collaborative Institute/Water Center research informing policy and management decisions affects Great Lakes waters University of Michigan’s Urban Collaboratory

University organization created to foster collaboration between University of Michigan scholars, faculty, and stakeholders in urban communities

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Table 2.2 (continued) Organization

Description

University of Michigan’s Center for Smart Infrastructure Finance

University center for exploration of novel methods for financing construction and maintenance of urban infrastructure

U.S. Geological Survey’s Water Science Center

Federal water science research and environmental monitoring center

International Joint Commission

Commission founded in  to foster cooperation in the management and protection of waters bordering the USA and Canada

Great Lakes Commission

Binational commission established under the Great Lakes Compact to pursue a healthy environment, vibrant economy, and high quality of life for binational citizens

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Great Lakes Environmental Research Lab

Federal research lab focusing on environmental and ecosystem research in the Great Lakes

University of Michigan’s Environmental and Water Resources Program

University program of civil engineering focused on environmental and water resources

University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability

An academic and research program that focuses on interdisciplinary research on the environment and sustainability

International Association for Great Lakes Research

A professional society made up of researchers that study the Great Lakes and their watersheds for ecosystem-based management

Michigan Sea Grant

A cooperative program of the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration that funds research, education, and outreach projects designed to foster science-based decisions about the use and conservation of Great Lakes resources

State of the Strait Conference

A biennial conference that assesses the health of the corridor and strengthen science–policy–management linkages.

SEMIWILD

A broad coalition of organizations working to improve access to natural resources, foster stewardship, and promote ecosystem sustainability

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Table 2.2 (continued) Organization

Description

Lake Erie Millennium Network

A collaborative approach among the public, regulatory agencies, and researchers to understand Lake Erie’s most pressing problems, propose solutions, and track changes

Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor

A research institute that addresses complex environmental problems that cross conventional disciplinary boundaries such as the effects of multiple environmental stressors on large lakes and their watersheds

Detroit is also emerging as a center for design and planning innovation, with a waterfront that is undergoing rapid and novel transformation, an emerging reimagining of green corridors and stormwater infrastructure in the city, and future opportunities for urban transformation, blue and green, that have the attention of the most significant designers, landscape architects, and urban planners in the country. The Detroit metropolitan area is also a place where real innovations in water-related economics and finance are already taking place, with a strong intellectual basis for thinking about the Blue Economy already laid [3]; established public, private, and academic centers for financial innovation like the University of Michigan’s Center for Smart Infrastructure Finance and the newly established WaterWorks Fund; and an emerging market for green and performance-based bonds to enable economic activity around the blue economy. These three elements are closely aligned with the economic, environmental, and social spheres of sustainable development. We believe that the greatest potential for transformation in the water-based economy in Detroit will come from a close, intentional collaboration among the science, design, and financial disciplines around the transformative topic of water (Figure 2.2). A Detroit Water Collaborative could be a convener, facilitator, resource provider, and venue for collaborative, multidisciplinary interaction in the elements of the water-based economy most central to the needs and opportunities of the Detroit metropolitan area. In Detroit, water is central to much of the life of the city, and as the area emerges from difficult times and gains economic strength, it has a rare opportunity to create a national example of how a reemerging city takes a comprehensive approach to water. An agenda for a Detroit Water Collaborative could include: – Blue and green stormwater infrastructure planning, green corridors, and neighborhood integration – Waterfront planning and revitalization – Environmental and water quality sensing innovation

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Figure 2.2: A Water Collaborative would be most effective and impactful when located at the nexus of sustainability domains (economy, environment, and society) and professional disciplines (water science and technology, business and finance, and design and planning).

– – – – – – – – – – –

Smart systems for stormwater and wastewater management Corporate water sustainability planning Regional water stewardship planning and management Urban ecosystems observation and ecosystem-based and watershed management Blue financial innovation, green bonds, resiliency bonds, performance-based bonds Blue Economy accounting and reporting (e.g., State of Blue Economy reporting every 5 years) Innovation in stormwater funding, fees, and incentives Regulatory innovations for CSO abatement, sediment remediation, habitat rehabilitation and enhancement, and river water quality protection Planning for climate change adaptation and resiliency Organizational innovation, P3 strategies Cradle-to-cradle design, ISO 14000, full cost accounting

In any new initiative, it is important to focus on clear priorities to build a record of success and to not try to take on too much and frustrate partners. From the list above, the first two agenda items (i.e., blue and green stormwater infrastructure planning, green corridors, and neighborhood integration; and waterfront planning and revitalization) could potentially be the centerpiece and top priorities of a Detroit Water Collaborative, with other items being considered supportive elements.

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The above topic areas are challenging problems that face Detroit and many similar cities, and are inherently complex, multijurisdictional, and multidisciplinary. These problems require working across boundaries that separate municipalities, academic institutions, and corporations, and they require scientists and engineers to learn the languages of design and finance. They also require training of a new generation of innovators who are already more interdisciplinary and collaborative than the current generation. A Detroit Water Collaborative would work to enable these cross-disciplinary interactions by: – Creating a “Water Vision” for metropolitan Detroit – Providing a forum for information sharing around water and water innovation – Fostering cooperative problem solving around water – Adding value to existing water initiatives and programs, and helping avoid duplication of efforts – Advancing education, innovation, and action around water – Sharing knowledge, research, and innovative practices for water – Marketing the Detroit metropolitan area based on water resources and water stewardship – Cooperatively implementing the “Water Vision” through a blueprint of strategic actions, framework planning, and coordinated funding These activities would build on the work others have already done to envision a new, greener, and more sustainable future for the City of Detroit. Detroit Future City [4] identified 12 imperative actions for achieving a sustainable future. Many of these are directly related to a Water Collaborative initiative, including transformation of vacant land, realigning city systems to promote economic potential, and creating healthy places for city residents. One of the recommended actions is to create a new and diverse open space system for the city that implements blue and green infrastructure projects, encourages reuse of vacant land with productive landscapes, diversifies park networks, and encourages partnerships between universities and firms in productive landscapes to conduct research and provide job training opportunities. Detroit has also developed a Sustainability Action Agenda to help ensure that Detroiters thrive and prosper in an equitable, green city, have access to affordable, quality homes, live in clean, connected neighborhoods, and work together to steward resources [5]. One priority is to create an equitable, green city by enhancing infrastructure and operations to improve resilience to climate impacts and to reduce municipal and citywide greenhouse gas emissions. The Water Collaborative could be a critical facilitator and enabler of actions envisioned by the authors of Detroit Future City’s Strategic Framework Plan and the Sustainability Action Agenda. Cities, like Detroit, have always been cradles of culture, technology, and commerce, where history’s most luminous minds and civilizations converged [6]. However, cities are also well known for their complex systems of governance and decisionmaking. That is why it is often so difficult to bring about large-scale social change.

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Kania and Kramer [7] have shown that large-scale social change, including waterfront redevelopment and urban revitalization, requires broad cross sector coordination, yet frequently the focus remains on isolated intervention of individual organizations. To address this challenge, they propose a framework that includes common agenda setting, common metrics, mutually reinforcing activities, continuous communication, and a well-structured “backbone organization” that invests the time that busy participating organizations cannot. Research has shown that achieving these five conditions results in true alignment among public and private partners, and powerful results. The backbone organization is more than just an administrator. To execute this framework, what is also needed is a leader: an organization that has respect in the community, stakeholder support, cross-disciplinary capabilities, independence, and resources. If that organization acts out of a vision that is big enough to inspire and grounded enough to execute, lasting change can occur.

2.3 Moving forward A Detroit Water Collaborative would not replace the many organizations that already exist to advance the economic, environmental, and social objectives that will help to form the future of Detroit. Instead, it would provide ways for these organizations to work together to create a bigger, more robust vision for the city that draws on all the resources that business and finance, water science and technology, and design and planning have to offer. We recommend that a conversation be initiated among these professional disciplines and other Detroit stakeholders, leading to a forum or roundtable discussion to explore the establishment of a Water Collaborative in Detroit.

References [1]

[2] [3]

[4] [5]

Graziano, M., Alexander, K. A., Liesch, M., Lema, E. and Torres, J. A. Understanding an emerging economic discourse through regional analysis: Blue economy clusters in the U.S. Great Lakes basin. Applied Geography, 105, (2019), 111–123. Flisram, G. Power & Water: Milwaukee’s elemental economic strategy. The IEDC Economic Journal, 13(3), (2014), 28–34. Austin, J. Water, Michigan, and the Growing Blue Economy. White Paper commissioned by the Governor’s Office of the Great Lakes for Michigan’s Water Strategy. Lansing, Michigan, USA. 2013. Detroit Future City. Detroit Strategic Framework Plan. Detroit, Michigan, USA, 2012. City of Detroit. Detroit Sustainability Action Agenda. Office of Sustainability. Detroit, Michigan, USA, 2019.

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[6] [7] [8]

John H. Hartig, Timothy Dekker

Sadik-Khan, J. and Solmonow, S. Streetfight: Handbook for an Urban Revolution. Penguin Books. New York, USA, 2017. Kania, J. and Kramer, M. Collective impact. Stanford social innovation review, Winter 2011, 36-41. Hartig, J. H. Bringing Conservation to Cities: Lessons from Building the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge. Ecovision World Monograph Series, Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management Society, Burlington, Ontario, Canada. 2014.

R. Michael L. McKay, George S. Bullerjahn, Katelynn Johnson, Tim Kearns, Kelli Paige, Bryan Stubbs, Edward M. Verhamme

Chapter 3 Binational cooperation toward a goal of Smart Great Lakes Abstract: The Great Lakes are the world’s largest freshwater resource and a critical part of the Canada–USA interactions. In addition to their water resource advantage, they are critical to trade/transportation and recreation. The “Smart Lake Erie” concept is an information ecosystem supported by a robust sensor-driven network that will transform data into usable tools and create actionable information. Keywords: Smart Great Lakes’ initiative, smart sensors, transmitted measurements

3.1 Smart approaches to environmental monitoring Products such as Google’s Nest Hub are changing the way we control our home environment. Self-driving cars and trucks promise to revolutionize the transportation sector. Smart and connected communities are popping up around the globe integrating intelligent technologies between the natural and built environments. With innovation creeping into all aspects of our daily lives, should it come as a surprise that efforts to monitor the pulse of our natural environment have followed

Acknowledgments: Work described from Sandusky Bay is based in part upon work conducted through the Bowling Green State University Great Lakes Center for Fresh Waters and Human Health supported by the National Science Foundation (OCE-1840715) and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (1P01ES028939-01). Funding for RAEON comes from a Canada Foundation for Innovation award to A. Fisk. Rapid Funds in response to flooding in the Detroit River were from the Cooperative Institute for Great Lakes Research to A. Fisk and T. Pitcher. We thank T. Pitcher for insights on the deployment of water-level sensors in the Detroit River. R. Michael L. McKay, Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada, e-mail: [email protected] George S. Bullerjahn, Great Lakes Center for Fresh Water and Human Health, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH, USA Katelynn Johnson, Real-Time Aquatic Ecosystem Observation Network, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada Tim Kearns, Great Lakes Observing System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Kelli Paige, Great Lakes Observing System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA Bryan Stubbs, Cleveland Water Alliance, Cleveland, OH, USA Edward M. Verhamme, LimnoTech, Ann Arbor, MI, USA https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-003

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suit? Increasingly, we rely on autonomous monitoring of air and water to inform our understanding of the environment or to alert us to impending danger. And in the Laurentian Great Lakes, a coalition of non-profits, academic scientists, and the private sector are embarking on an ambitious binational venture to create a “Smart Lake Erie” [1], a pilot for an even more ambitious “Smart Great Lakes” initiative [2]. The “Smart Lake Erie” concept is an information ecosystem supported by a robust sensor-driven network that will transform data into usable tools and create actionable information. These tools, in turn, will enable effective community solutions aimed at reducing public health risks such as cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cyanoHABs) and mitigating economic impacts resulting from climate change and direct human influence in Lake Erie and its watershed. The network will further enable adaptive management of the lake, providing real-time assessment on the success of environmental restoration efforts. Sensors can also be deployed that measure recreational access to the Lake so that the tourism sector can best respond to changes in charter boat fishing, boating, and other lake-related activities. Smart Lake initiatives have their roots in the Jefferson Project at Lake George [3], a partnership between technology giant IBM, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and the not-for-profit FUND for Lake George. Launched in 2013, the Jefferson Project combines technology, scientific enquiry, and advocacy and involves over 60 scientists whose scholarship is informed by 500+ sensors accommodated on over 50 sensor platforms positioned throughout the lake. While water quality in Lake George has been routinely monitored for nearly 40 years [4], the benefits of monitoring at high spatial and temporal frequency are already being realized by informing “smarter” synoptic sampling by lake researchers. With more data points generated in one week from autonomous sensors than in all other years combined using conventional approaches, scientists are optimizing predictive models developed by IBM to understand the effects of pollution, invasive species, and climate change on lake function.

3.2 Scaling up the Smart Lake approach Nicknamed the “Queen of American Lakes,” Lake George is indeed impressive, but it is not “great,” at least not in terms of size. With a surface area of 120 km2, it is only a fraction of the size of Lake Erie which boasts a surface area of >25,000 km2. Additionally, Lake George is a comparatively pristine lake that provides fewer challenges in terms of measuring algal biomass and biofouling of instrumentation. Thus, achieving in Lake Erie what has been accomplished at Lake George is not a trivial pursuit. Use of autonomous water quality sensors by scientists working on Lake Erie is not new; however, the frequency of sensors and the way in which they are being used is changing dramatically. As recent as 15 years ago, there were just a handful of sensors deployed in the lake, maintained mainly by Canadian and U.S. federal agencies. For

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the most part, these sensors logged meteorological and basic water quality data such as temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen that were downloaded periodically through the field season, usually extending from May to October. Scientists with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory advanced autonomous sensing with the rollout of the Real-Time Coastal Observation Network (ReCON) in 2005 [5]. Designed with networking technologies, ReCON offered the ability to wirelessly connect to buoys supporting instrumentation deployed throughout the Great Lakes system. In Lake Erie, ReCON buoys and their associated instruments have been particularly useful providing real-time data informing scientists and managers to episodic events such as incursions of hypoxic water into municipal water intakes [6]. The water crisis in Toledo, Ohio, in August 2014, which left over 400,000 residents without access to safe drinking water for over 48 h [7], spurred on the next wave of “smart” innovation to Lake Erie. With support from the statewide Harmful Algal Bloom Research Initiative and the Ohio EPA, a flotilla of >20 water quality sondes are deployed through Ohio waters. Most of these instruments include sensors for phycocyanin, a pigment diagnostic of cyanobacteria, the toxin-producing organism responsible for the water crisis. In many cases, the instruments are deployed near municipal water intakes [8, 9] or directly in the intake well thereby offering year-round monitoring and an early warning system to water utilities of a cyanoHAB encroaching on their intakes. Additional sondes at sites removed from water intakes provide real-time data on the formation of different types of cyanoHABs. For example, Sandusky Bay, an estuary of Lake Erie, harbors a cyanoHAB that forms earlier in the season than do blooms that form offshore, yielding microcystin toxin concentrations above the Ohio EPA recreational contact advisory. Such data are useful to both scientists studying drivers of cyanoHAB formation and recreational boaters who routinely use the lake for fishing and water sports. Broadening the impact of these efforts has been the integration of the instruments through the Great Lakes Observing System (GLOS) to provide real-time data to scientists, water utilities, and the public at large. Yearly expansion of GLOSlinked nodes in Lake Erie have more recently added nutrient sensors to autonomously measure fluxes of nitrogen and phosphorus that can stimulate cyanoHAB growth, and water velocity sensors (acoustic Doppler current profiler, ADCP) that can inform models predicting where cyanoHABs may form. As an example, a node in Sandusky Bay has been enhanced from year to year with sensors measuring water currents and fluxes of nutrients (nitrate and phosphate) that arise both from watershed and sedimentary inputs (Figure 3.1). Aligning multiple parameters can provide insights into the physical and chemical mechanisms driving bloom formation, persistence, and decline. Figure 3.2 shows the temporal relationship between turbidity and phosphate concentration, suggesting that wind events leading to sediment resuspension (measured as turbidity) release phosphate into the water column that in turn help support cyanoHAB biomass. Robust sensor arrays such as these

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Figure 3.1: The solar-powered Sandusky Bay node is attached to the Edison (state route 2) Bridge in Bay View, Ohio. The water pump in the vertical PVC pipe on the right delivers water to the nitrogen and phosphorus nutrient analyzer (large box), and a water quality sonde is positioned within the left PVC pipe. An acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) is bolted to the bridge below the water line. The smaller metal box houses batteries charged by solar panels, as well as the modem delivering data to internet users.

will become more widespread as instrumentation costs fall in the future, driven in part by a current competitive climate to develop novel sensors. Complementing the array of “conventional” water quality sensors are truly innovative instruments such as the environmental sample processor (ESP) which functions as “a lab in a can,” autonomously collecting water samples and measuring cyanobacterial toxins in near real-time [10]. Whereas the ESP has been deployed seasonally as a stationary instrument near the Toledo water intake since 2016, a third-generation prototype integrated into an autonomous underwater vehicle was trialed in 2019.

3.3 Sensor development through entrepreneurship Smart Lake technologies have emerged through events such as Erie Hack (https://erie hack.io/), an entrepreneurship competition hosted by the Cleveland Water Alliance (CWA) focused on developing technologies aimed at improving water quality. Subsequent CWA-led competitions such as the 2017 Internet of H2O, sponsored a competition aimed at creating pollution-management solutions for reducing the agriculture-based nutrient loading occurring in Lake Erie. Aligned with government, the private sector, and academic institutions, CWA and their not-for-profit partners have advanced the development of resilient monitoring systems for these nutrients. By bringing advanced networking, detection, and analytics to bear on this challenge, the Internet of H2O

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Figure 3.2: Top panel: Phosphate concentrations measured at 1 m depth at the Sandusky Bay node during October 2019. Bottom panel: Coincident turbidity measurements as a proxy for wind-driven sediment resuspension. The aligned data suggests that increases in nutrient availability can be linked to nutrient release from suspended sediment.

program called for participants to create end-to-end pilots that could be monetized and scaled, generating products with concrete economic and environmental impacts. The Internet of H2O challenge culminated with an award to Team GLASS, who piloted a fully functioning nutrient monitor that transmitted measurements to H2Ometrics, a cloud-based data analytics platform [11]. It also allowed CWA to advance a shared vision for community, economic, and ecological transformation through water technology and water data. Through the Internet of H2O work sessions, CWA and partners began to socialize the technologies developed with a growing network of stakeholders, working to devise and scale solutions toward a Smart Lake Erie.

3.4 Initiative gaining traction in Canada While Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) has maintained a handful of autonomous water quality sensors in Lake Erie for several decades, momentum in Canada

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recently amped up through the Real-Time Aquatic Ecosystem Observation Network (RAEON; https://raeon.org), an initiative led by the University of Windsor. RAEON is funded by the Canada Foundation for Innovation and Ontario Ministry of Research and Innovation and provides instruments, technical expertise, and data management for research on the Great Lakes. In Lake Erie, RAEON has deployed a series of instruments from buoys and sondes reporting a wide variety of water quality and meteorological parameters to acoustically tagged fish. A series of autonomous underwater vehicles (Slocum gliders) will also be used to allow both spatial and temporal measurements over large areas and in all types of weather. Additionally, RAEON, along with Erie Watch (https://twitter.com/ErieWatch) deployed buoys in 2019 and 2020 throughout the western basin of Lake Erie to detect real-time phosphorus (total and bioavailable P) and nitrate dynamics along with measuring other parameters including light intensity, chlorophyll-a, water temperature, turbidity, and flow. Integrated into GLOS, sensors on both buoys and gliders can report real-time data aiding in the effort to track incursions of hypoxic water and nutrient dynamics, data which will aid in refining predictive models of Lake Erie hypoxia [12] and contribute to informing water utilities and fisheries alike. Beyond RAEON, scientists with the Ontario Ministry of Environment, Conservation and Parks in partnership with ECCC and GLIER have conducted monitoring and deployed water-quality sensors within Lake St. Clair and the Detroit River as part of a recent multi-year water quality and cyanoHAB assessment program. Like western Lake Erie, Lake St. Clair receives drainage from a predominantly agricultural watershed and both the lake [13] and its main tributary, the Thames River [14], are prone to cyanoHABs. Instruments include multiparameter sondes and ADCPs although deployed thus far in a mode such that data are downloaded only once the instruments are recovered at the completion of the field season. Great Lakes water levels have reached record highs in 2019 and 2020, eroding shorelines, threatening and damaging public and private infrastructure and overwhelming water systems in many coastal communities [15]. In summer 2019, flooding along the Detroit River resulted in the closure of roads along the waterfront in Windsor–Essex (Figure 3.3) resulting in significant damage to homes, public spaces (e.g., closure of river access points, public swimming pools and parks), and businesses, especially marinas in the area. The flooding occurred with no warning, as the coastal communities and region did not have the technology to monitor water levels along the Detroit River. In order to provide more rigorous and timely information needed in order to make decisions about managing the flooding (e.g., when to pump out flooded watermain systems), scientists from the University of Windsor and RAEON mobilized with rapid funding from the Cooperative Institute for Great Lakes Research and deployed ultrasonic water-level sensors and buoys along the shoreline (Figure 3.4). These sensors provided real-time data for the municipality, including live updates refreshed every 5 min on key variables related to flooding including water level near the shoreline in relation to the height of the break walls and storm sewer levels, wave height and wind speed and direction (Figure 3.5). The data collected by the sensors can be used to construct models to predict (with confidence intervals) when flooding (both

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overland and via the storm water system) may occur in the future in order to provide decision-makers with better and more timely information to manage and mitigate flooding. The ultimate goal is to use real-time instruments and the data they provide to allow decision-makers to better prepare and develop protocols and procedures for dealing with flooding, which will ultimately contribute to making the Detroit River coast resilient to environmental change for the community and ecosystem.

Figure 3.3: Social media post by the Town of LaSalle, ON, urging flood preparedness during record-high Great Lakes water levels. Credit: Town of LaSalle.

Figure 3.4: Solar-powered ultrasonic water-level sensor measuring to accuracy of ±1 cm. Credit: T. Pitcher.

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3.5 Next steps The Smart Lake Erie initiative will continue to advance innovation through engagement with participants of future entrepreneurship competitions. Innovation is likewise extending to the telemetry and data platform components of the network through new developments in Internet of Things (IoT) technologies including use of low-cost LoRaWAN gateways which reduce power demand and communication costs (Figure 3.6). Aligned to the most pressing challenges to public health in the Lake Erie basin, the “Smart Lake Erie” pilot will provide an early warning system for drinking water utilities. Specifically, the pilot will provide notification-based alerts of cyanoHABs encroaching on water intakes as well as incursions of hypoxic water into intakes. Alerts can inform decision-making by water plant operators or may even direct autonomous action based on exceedance of thresholds that can be set. Furthermore, the sensor networks provide rich data sets with high spatial and temporal resolution that can inform the development and assessment of environmental restoration efforts. The result? Active and engaged stakeholders whose actions are informed by the best available science.

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Figure 3.6: Range of the wireless low-power Long-Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) being created on Lake Erie to communicate with sensors.

The value of having such a network in place, reporting autonomously, is now apparent more than ever as we deal with the broad-ranging implications of the COVID-19 pandemic [16]. While municipalities, along with state and provincial agencies, continue to offer essential services to ensure the safety of our drinking water, monitoring initiatives have been placed on hold. In a typical year, scientists from universities and government agencies commence surveillance programs of the Great Lakes and connecting waterways as early as April. While satellites will continue to acquire data that can be used to inform the expanse of cyanoHABs in western Lake Erie and Lake St. Clair, algorithms developed to produce a cyanobacterial index require validation which is only achieved by synoptic sampling [17]. An array of autonomous instruments deployed in key areas throughout the lake would offer continuity of monitoring during unprecedented times such as now. Of course, realizing the vision of smart and connected infrastructure to inform intelligent community water management in Lake Erie and its watershed will cost money. Stateside, the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS), the parent organization of GLOS, is supporting the initiative with US $2 million over 3 years as part of the NOAA IOOS Ocean Technology Transition program [1]. In Canada, support for Great Lakes initiatives is piecemeal and underfunded. While the investment from the USA will ultimately benefit Canadians through development of a data management

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platform through which lake-based sensors will be integrated, it will not enhance critically needed infrastructure in Canadian waters. And this means gaps in coverage leaving water utilities in Ontario vulnerable to cyanoHAB toxins [18].

References [1]

Pearson, B., Kearns, T., Slawecki, T., Stubbs, B., Herzog, M., Paige, K. and Fitch, D. Making Lake Erie smart by driving innovations in technology and networking. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6, 731, (2019). doi: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00731. [2] Great Lakes Observing System. Smart Great Lakes Strategic Plan 2020-2025. https://www. glos.us/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/GLOS_Strategic-Plan-2020-2025_Smart-Great-Lakes. pdf (Accessed: 26 April 2020) [3] Gilbert, N. Inner Workings: Smart-sensor network keeps close eye on lake ecosystem. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115, 5, (2018), 828–830. [4] Hintz, W. D., Schuler, M. S., Borrelli, J. J., Eichler, L. W., Stoler, A. B., Moriarty, V. W., Ahrens, L. E., Boylen, C. W., Nierzwicki‐Bauer, S. A. and Relyea, R. A. Concurrent improvement and deterioration of epilimnetic water quality in an oligotrophic lake over 37 years. Limnology and Oceanography, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.11359. [5] Ruberg, S., Brandt, S., Muzzi, R., Hawley, N., Leshkevich, G., Lane, J., Miller, T. and Bridgeman, T. A wireless real‐time coastal observation network. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 88, 28, (2007), 285–286. [6] Ruberg, S. A., Guasp, E., Hawley, N., Muzzi, R. W., Brandt, S. B., Vanderploeg, H. A., Lane, J. C., Miller, T. and Constant, S. A. Societal benefits of the Real-Time Coastal Observation Network (ReCON): Implications for municipal drinking water quality. Marine Technology Society Journal, 42, 3, (2008), 103–109. [7] Steffen, M. M., Davis, T. W., McKay, R. M. L., Bullerjahn, G. S., Krausfeldt, L. E., Stough, J. M., Neitzey, M. L., Gilbert, N. E., Boyer, G. L., Johengen, T. H., Gossiaux, D. C., Burtner, A. M., Palladino, D., Rowe, M. D., Dick, G. J., Meyer, K. A., Levy, S., Boone, B. E., Stumpf, R. P., Wynne, T. T., Zimba, P. V., Guttierez, D. and Wilhelm, S. W. Ecophysiological examination of the Lake Erie Microcystis bloom in 2014: linkages between biology and the water supply shutdown of Toledo, OH. Environmental Science and Technology, 51, 12, (2017), 6745–6755. [8] Bullerjahn, G. S., McKay, R. M. L., Davis, T. W., Baker, D. B., Boyer, G. L., D’Anglada, L. V., Doucette, G. J., Ho, J. C., Erwin, E. G., Kling, C. L., Kudela, R. M., Kurmayer, R., Michalak, A. M., Ortiz, J. D., Otten, T. G., Paerl, H. W., Qin, B., Sohngen, B. L., Stumpf, R. P., Visser, P. M. and Wilhelm, S. W. Global solutions for regional problems: collecting global expertise to address the problem of harmful algal blooms. – A Lake Erie case study. Harmful Algae, 54, (2016), 223–238. [9] Chaffin, J. D., Kane, D. D., Stanislawczyk, K. and Parker, E. M. Accuracy of data buoys for measurement of cyanobacteria, chlorophyll, and turbidity in a large lake (Lake Erie, North America): Implications for estimation of cyanobacterial bloom parameters from water quality sonde measurements. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, (2018), 25175–25189. [10] Stauffer, B. A., Bowers, H. A., Buckley, E., Davis, T. W., Johengen, T. H., Kudela, R., McManus, M. A., Purcell, H., Smith, G. J., Vander Woude, A. and Tamburri, M. N. Considerations in harmful algal bloom research and monitoring: Perspectives from a consensus-building workshop and technology testing. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6, 399, (2019). doi: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00399.

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[11] [12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16] [17]

[18]

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Danielsen, K., Zgnilec, N. and Kelly, V. Data tools improve nutrient monitoring. Opflow, 44, 8, (2018), 16–19. NOAA-Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, Experimental Lake Erie Hypoxia Forecast. https://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/HABs_and_Hypoxia/hypoxiaWarningSystem.html (Accessed: 25 April 2020). Davis, T. W., Watson, S. B., Rozmarynowycz, M. J., Ciborowski, J. J. H., McKay, R. M. and Bullerjahn, G. S. Phylogenies of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in the lower Laurentian Great Lakes suggest extensive genetic connectivity. PLoS ONE, 9, (2014), e106093. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106093 McKay, R. M., Frenken, T., Diep, N., Cody, W. R., Crevecoeur, S., Dove, A., Drouillard, K. G., Ortiz, X., Wintermute, J. and Zastepa, A., Bloom Announcement: An early autumn cyanobacterial bloom co-dominated by Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Planktothrix agardhii in an agriculturally-influenced Great Lakes tributary (Thames River, Ontario, Canada). Data in Brief https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2020.105585 (2020). Gronewold, D. and Rood, R. B. Climate change is driving rapid shifts between high and low water levels on the Great Lakes. The Conversation (2019) https://theconversation.com/climatechange-is-driving-rapid-shifts-between-high-and-low-water-levels-on-the-great-lakes-118095 (Accessed: 25 April 2020). Gates, B. Responding to Covid-19 – a once-in-a-century pandemic? The New England Journal of Medicine, (2020). doi: 10.1056/NEJMp2003762. Binding, C. E., Zastepa, A. and Zeng, C. The impact of phytoplankton community composition on optical properties and satellite observations of the 2017 western Lake Erie algal bloom. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 45, 3, (2019), 573–586. Almuhtaram, H., Cui, Y., Zamyadi, A. and Hofmann, R. Cyanotoxins and cyanobacteria cell accumulations in drinking water treatment plants with a low risk of bloom formation at the source. Toxins, 10, 11, (2018), 430. doi: 10.3390/toxins10110430.

Luuk Peters

Chapter 4 Gray water system Abstract: The Motown Movement in Detroit, MI, USA, has developed three means of reutilizing water from homes. This chapter discusses how each system can be constructed, and compares and contrasts each. Keywords: climate change, gray water, filtration

4.1 Introduction Why does not everyone fight against climate change with the technologies already at hand?1 We stumbled upon this question during our architecture studies at the Technological University of Delft. We are able to transform old broken-down houses into self-sufficient homes all over the world, yet we show a lack of effort to inspire, motivate, and empower others to do the same. This way, technical innovation and brilliance is left almost untouched by the majority of people. Therefore, our goal is to upscale the fight against climate change by making sustainable housing accessible for everyone. We want to inspire and motivate others to take action not only for their own financial benefits, but also for the benefit of our future world and generations. Tw o birds with one stone, we would say. When the founders of The Motown Movement visited Detroit, they expected to see an exceptional phenomenon happening: a metropolitan city in full decay. lnstead, they saw a city putting itself back together and recovering its lost glory. What a resilience! This inexhaustible dedication inspired them as young architecture students. They saw great potential in implementing simple but effective technologies that go along with the Motor City’s resilient, creative and independent spirit. Residents have not only shown them that they embrace bold, bottom-up initiatives, but also that they have the urge, capacity, and desire to realize change. That is why the ideal city for the mission of The Motown Movement is Detroit: the do-it-yourself city. We develop and share low-budget and do-it-yourself methods to transform worndown houses into self-sufficient homes. To demonstrate the methods, we are transforming a worn-down house on Ford Street into a sustainable home. The different methods and techniques will serve as a menu for sustainable innovations. Various solutions will be displayed for the same item, added with useful information about the costs, savings, suppliers, and assembly instructions.

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The home serves as a showcase and a community center. The ground floor will be our demonstration home with a training center. The upper level of the twofamily home will be given to a Detroit family that lost their home due to tax foreclosures. Finally, the basement will be housing the local resource center that provides the neighbors with computers, Wi-Fi, and books. The design of the sustainable home is based on three methods: reduce, reuse, and renew. Some components of that design consist of the lo w-budget and do-ityourself methods that we will share when the home is finished. To reduce living costs, we are adding extra insulation to lower heating bills, we are installing an energy-efficient heat pump to replace the old-fashioned boiler system and we are building a green roof to buffer water during heavy rains and insulate the roof. Also, we are reusing materials and energy to drastically scale back construction costs. We are achieving this by avoiding the loss of useful waste materials, for example, for insolation or construction, by turning surplus heat from surrounding industries into a communal heat source and by bringing back clean water usage, by using rainwater to flush the toilet and spray the garden. To finish, the renewable energy helps increasing our savings and saving the environment with: solar panels to produce electricity and heat from sunlight, urban farming to stimulate communal involvement and a septic tank to turn domestic sewage in to biogas and plant nutrients that can be reused for the urban farm. In this article we will discuss one of our larger techniques – the gray water system. This is a system that reuses water to reduce the total use of water in a household. Though it is one of our larger techniques and less do-it-yourself, it is still a very interesting technique and quite easy to install with the help of a plumber.

4.2 Gray water system The gray water system technique consists of three independent systems: one to reuse water, one to filter used water with a helophyte filter, and one to convert urine into fertilizer by means of a chemical reaction with a struvite reactor. Per system, we will discuss what it does and how it works. We will start with the reusing part of the system, following with the helophyte filter and finishing struvite reactor. The systems are colored with green, red, and yellow.

4.3 Green system: reusing water The first system that is used reuses the water within the house. The shower and the taps at the toilets are connected to clean water from the pipe network. The discharge

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of this, however, does not go to the sewer, but to a collection reservoir in the basement. Before it enters the collection reservoir, it is cleaned in a number of steps.

4.3.1 How does it work? The water from the showers and lavatories is collected in the aeration tank. In this tank, water is aerated by a small air pump to remove gases. Aeration is the process by which air is circulated through the water. Through aeration, dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide and chlorine are dispelled from the water. The water leaves the aeration tank at the bottom of the tank and flows to the gray water diversion device (GWDD). The GWDD is a black box containing filters and an integrated pump. The filters filter all particles out of the water. The integrated pump pumps the water from the GWDD to the UV-c disinfection tube. Alternatively, if the barrel gets too full, the water will leave via an overflow connection. This connection discharges onto the sewer. The water flows through the UV-c disinfection tube attached to the wall. The tube contains a UV-c light. The radiation of the UV-c light kills all bacteria and thus disinfects the water flowing through the tube. Now that the water is clean enough, it is collected in a daisy-chained reservoir where it is constantly kept moving so that it does not start to boil. The daisy-chained reservoir stores the water. We used no less than 6 barrels to have a large enough buffer. After leaving the sixth and lowest placed barrel (labeled E6), the water flows to the pressure pump. Alternatively, if the first and highest placed barrel (labeled El) gets too full, the water will leave via an overflow connection. This connection discharges onto the sewer. To use the water for flushing the toilets, a sprinkler system for the green roof and a large sink that is used exclusively to flush out things after odd jobs or paints, it must first be pressurized by a pressure pump. This pump ensures that the pressure to the pipes is always sufficient. Also, the pump is partially pumping the water back to the beginning of the daisy-chained reservoir to prevent the water from becoming stagnant. Stagnated water is more likely to grow bacteria. A float switch is placed on the lower part of a barrel labeled E3. A solenoid valve is connected to that float switch. In case the water level in that barrel E3 drops below the float switch, the float switch will automatically switch the solenoid valve, which allows city water to flow to the daisy-chained reservoir. This is to make sure that there will always be a buffer in the reservoir to keep the gray water system running. The reuse of water within your own house is not just possible for everyone. A reasonable amount of space is used in the basement of the house for all installations. In addition, some components of the system also cost electricity, such as the pump and the UV-c lamp. However, in countries where water is scarce, but the sun

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shines a lot, this is an excellent solution if this system is connected to green energy. In addition, the various parts can be purchased yourself and are easy to connect. However, leave the large piping to the plumber.

Figure 4.1: Green water system.

4.3.2 What problem does it solve? Reusing water to reduce the overall water usage.

4.4 Red system: helophyte filter The second system is connected between the house and the garden. The drain of the washing machine, dishwasher and kitchen sink goes to a separate water reservoir in the basement and will be filtered by a Helophyte filter in the garden.

4.4.1 How does it work? When the water is collected in the separate water reservoir, a filter hanging in the reservoir functions as a sieve: it sifts the rough waste. On the bottom of the water reservoir is a submersible water pump that pumps the water through a long water pipe to the constructed wetland (the helophyte filter). Like a real wetland, the reeds and bacteria living around the roots of the reeds filter the water in a natural way. The water slowly drains through the sand and pebble layers to the bottom of the constructed wetland. lt even seems to work so well that the toilets can be connected as well. However, we did not do this because of

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the regulations in America. On the bottom, the water naturally filtered flows through a pipe that discharges the water to a pond or the soil. The filter is designed in such a way that a certain amount (maximum 80 L) can always be discharged. After that, the plants have to “catch their breath.” To achieve this, we have connected the pump in the reservoir to a float switch. This is a switch which triggers once it starts to float. The float switch is also connected to a timer. The timer is set to give a signal every 5 h for a period of 70 min. lf the signal is received by the float switch while it floats, the pump will start. lf the signal stops, or the switch stops floating, the pump will shut off. Both sensors must give a signal to activate the pump. In this way, a self-regulating system is thus easily “programmed” that it is understandable for everyone and also very affordable. This system lends itself much better to houses (with a garden) in the Netherlands and is already being used frequently. The idea was therefore taken from the Netherlands to Detroit. Although it was difficult to get a permit for this, because the municipality is afraid of a “bio hazard” as they themselves said. With chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) measurements, we hope to be able to demonstrate that the water is clean enough to actually be able to discharge into the surface water.

4.4.2 What problem does it solve? Filtering the water with a different system to relieve the sewer.

4.5 Yellow system: struvite reactor The third system is separate from all other systems in the house and is called the struvite reactor. This system transforms urine into fertilizer.

4.5.1 How does it work? The struvite reactor receives urine from the waterless urinal. The urine drains through the struvite reactor and then discharges the urine to the sewer. Such a reactor converts urine into fertilizer by a chemical reaction. By using a urinal that is not flushed with water, only pure urine flows to a barrel in the basement. When the barrel is full, magnesium is added and a precipitate is formed. That precipitate is filtered and what is left are nitrates and phosphates that are bound to magnesium. This is a perfect fertilizer that you can use for plants. Location: basement.

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Figure 4.2: Red Water System.

4.5.2 What problem does it solve? Using the urine from the waterless urinal to relieve the sewer and make fertilizer for your garden.

4.6 Status and outlook This has been accepted by the government of Detroit. However, it still has to be implemented and tested.

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Figure 4.3: Yellow water system.

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Chapter 5 The future of water: digital water technologies and localized water systems The future is already here – it’s just not evenly distributed, yet. William Gibson, Author of Neuromancer

Abstract: Innovation in the water sector is accelerating due to the need to address current and projected water scarcity and quality challenges. Scarcity and poor water quality are driven by outdated public policy, population growth, and the associated demand for food and energy (thermoelectric) coupled with the impacts of climate change. Most recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has, in general, raised awareness and investment in innovative water technologies such as digital solutions (e.g., blockchain and artificial intelligence) and more sustainable and resilient water supply and treatment systems (e.g., air moisture capture and localized (distributed and decentralized) systems). In addition, the adoption of digital water technologies is opening up new opportunities for water supply and treatment solutions that move beyond traditional approaches. Keywords: Digital water technologies, localized water systems, communication, personal mobility, healthcare, education

5.1 Why digital water technologies get us to localized water systems: the experience of other sectors A critical driver in moving beyond current (e.g., centralized) water infrastructure for both the public and private sectors is the adoption of digital technologies. We now have the ability to deliver real-time monitoring of water quantity and quality, and asset performance, and to provide actionable information for watersheds, operations (utility or industrial manufacturing), water users, customers, and consumers. This will enable the deployment and scaling of off-grid water supply technologies and localized water systems. By moving away from the exclusive use of traditional, centralized water and wastewater treatment systems, we have an opportunity to build sustainable and resilient access to water for economic development, business growth, social well-being, and ecosystem health.

Will Sarni, Water Foundry, Founder and CEO, [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-005

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5.2 Leapfrogging, coupling, and decoupling Humans are masters of adaptation. From the Romans to the Aztecs to modern day, we have altered our surroundings to create environments and infrastructure that allow human life to thrive. Water, sanitation, energy distribution, telecommunications, transportation, and so on from concept to widespread implementation these key, modern infrastructures have taken hundreds of years to unfold, and then only in well populated, urban areas or nations with the financial means. Implementation and maintenance still take decades of planning, with dire consequences when proper time and resources are not allocated. One only needs to look to the ongoing water poisoning crisis in Flint, Michigan or the rolling blackouts in 2013 that left 150 million people without power in Bangladesh to be reminded of that. When it comes to water, many infrastructures around the world are either failing or non-existent. According to the 2017 American Society of Civil Engineers Report Card for Infrastructure, the water infrastructure for the United States rates a D on a scale of A–F. In Africa, only 58% of the population has access to clean drinking water and an estimated annual investment of $15 billion would be required to reach the remaining 42%.1 The time and money required to upkeep aging systems that were designed for another era seems insurmountable. But what if we did not have to think about updating or creating infrastructure in the same way we did when it was new? Leapfrogging, the concept of jumping over one or more generations of previous infrastructure to arrive at a new infrastructure or technology better suited for today’s world, is happening all around the globe and across many sectors. Perhaps the best-known example is the move from no or extremely poor telecommunications in Africa, India, Asia, and South America, to a highly utilized network of cell phones and mobile devices. As one person put it, “India, China and Africa are all building out their communications infrastructure on the back of the cell phone and not the copper wire.”2 The rapid arrival of mobile phones has led to leapfrogging in the finance, education, energy, and even healthcare sectors. Kenya is an example of this mutli-faceted leapfrogging, where two innovative phone-based programs, M-PESA that provides non-bank centered monetary transactions and M-TIBA that connects people to healthcare and health insurance, have helped the country see a reduction in poverty, an increase in financial transactions, and will hopefully support a healthier citizenry.3 Many developing countries are forgoing fossil fuels, which come with high environmental and social costs, and in some cases, are bypassing altogether the centralized distribution grid required by a singular large power source. From localized

1 Kelechava [1]. 2 ICTpost [2]. 3 The Perspective [3].

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solar gardens and individual solar installations at affordable prices to wind power, these technologies simultaneously leapfrog over outdated fuel sources and infrastructure while also decoupling from traditional environmental impacts caused by energy generation. The result is equitable access to energy, decreased pollutionrelated deaths, increased job growth,4 and a positive impact on the ecosystems usually affected by fossil fuel extraction. These increased benefits to society leak from one sector to another, helping to both spur innovation and create a cleaner world. In fact, some of the most effective work being done with infrastructure technology is reliant on the power of entities, even those that may traditionally be at odds, working together to create new, powerful solutions. As Joshua Sperling, PhD of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory explains, coupling involves application “across interfaces of rural to urban, district-city-national-to global scale, to social-ecologicalinfrastructural systems, or even across public-private-research sectors – that together can effectively enable new synergies between industries, technologies, infrastructure, or policy trajectories that maximize economic prosperity (or productivity) while enhancing environmental, resource, and service sustainability (or resilience), respectively.”5 These solution oriented partnerships bring far greater resources to the research and implementation of meaningful actions than any party working in isolation. The Africa Renewable Energy Initiative is one such coupling worth examining. With a goal to achieve at least 10 GW of new and additional renewable energy generation capacity by 2020, and mobilize the African potential to generate at least 300 GW by 2030, it is a robust initiative with necessarily aggressive goals.

5.3 Digital transformation in other sectors As the water sector undergoes its digital makeover, it is important to remember that the water sector is not alone in its transformation. In fact, there is much to be learned from the experiences of other sectors. The telecommunications, personal mobility, healthcare, and energy sectors have all experienced drastic changes in their operations, business strategy, and customer service due to the implementation of digital technologies.

5.3.1 Telecommunications The telecommunications (telecom) industry has been both influenced by, and a primary enabler of, the digital revolution. As the provider of communications

4 Jacobson [4]. 5 Sperling [5].

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infrastructure, online networks, and cloud services, telecom provides the building blocks for other sectors’ digitalization through access, interconnectivity, and applications.6 As consumer interests have evolved, with customers now requiring rapid, on demand services, and new applications emerging to bypass traditional mediums for communication, telecom has seen a decline in revenue.7 However, the new expectations, in combination with new business models and technologies, have provided an opportunity for the telecom industry to reinvent itself. The telecom industry has always been adaptive to changing trends and emerging technologies; however, the transformation of the sector took a new direction with the appearance of text, call, and video offerings such as WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, and Skype.8 In addition, consumers have been demanding faster networks, broader access, and on-demand services. Customers are also increasingly interested in video content including YouTube channels, social media streaming, and over-the-top sites such as Netflix and Hulu. Such changes in market demands are leading providers to turn to new business models including bundling alternatives to full services and subscription models. Telecom has thus found itself at the heart of digital transformation, directly influencing the industry’s need to improve current technology and develop new technologies to supply the cloud, streaming, and communications services customers now prefer. As telecom evolves to meet the changing market demands, new technologies and services are emerging. Fixed broadband services, fixed mobile convergence, cloud technologies, mobile finance services, and various other applications are rising to fill the gap left by declining traditional services (e.g., fixed lines, cable television, and mobile communications).9 Service providers are finding that they need to adapt continuously to changes in technology and consumer demands, enhancing existing offerings, and introducing new products and services to meet consumers’ evolving needs.10 Telecom has also learned to capitalize on the large volumes of Internet of things (IoT) data already in their possession, using data insights to optimize bandwidth and coverage, reduce dropped calls, and boost download speeds, minimizing lost revenue due to service disruptions.11 Such advancements are leading to the digitalization of other sectors by providing the technology and services other industries require (e.g., equipment and network services that enable IoT, big data acquisition, and cloud). By focusing on helping users securely connect to their applications and manage their data, the telecom industry is embracing the digital era. Evolving from expensive, difficult-to-manage

6 Patterson, Mittal and Weinelt [6]. 7 Ismail [7]. 8 Vantara and Kalakota [8]. 9 Arustamyan [9]. 10 Vantara and Kalakota [8]. 11 Stoughton [10].

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network elements to virtualized communications and cloud infrastructure that can be managed autonomously and at a low cost, the telecommunications industry provides one example of the digital transformation experienced by other sectors.

5.3.2 Personalized mobility The transportation industry has been quick to incorporate digital technologies, with computer systems, GPS, and sensors already long incorporated into most traditional modes of transportation (e.g., cars, planes, trains, and ships). As the digital era unfolds, however, modes and methods for mobility have seen drastic changes alongside the type and frequency of transportation. New realities are becoming the norm. Virtual activities are becoming an alternative to physical activities (e.g., telecommuting, online shopping, online health services, and education), reducing some types of personal transportation.12 The rise of digital services and change in social behavior has been a driver for change in the transportation sector – changes that are only predicted to continue in the coming decades. With the world at their fingertips in the form of smartphones and instant information and entertainment, consumers have begun demanding that same instantaneity in other aspects of their lives. In addition, consumers only want to pay for exactly what they need. In that sense, traditional ownership of personal transportation vessels is becoming a thing of the past. Instead, mobility as a service (MaaS) is enabling a transition to subscription services wherein a subscriber has access to a variety of offerings that can be purchased as needed. MaaS services can include bikes, scooters, cars, individual ride services, and so on. Rather than subscribing to MaaS, cities around the world also offer consumers the ability to rent individual services (e.g., one time use of a bike or scooter), with digital technologies automating locking/unlocking, collecting payment and identifying bike/scooter locations. Similar rental services are also becoming available for private car use. Subscription and rental services, however, are just one component of the transportation industry’s digital transformation. Dynamic carpooling and ridesharing services are largely changing how people travel. Using an app, vehicles are “e-hailed,” with the driver, route, payment, and other passenger pick-ups (for carpooling services) all being managed electronically. With the rise of ride-hailing services, there is less of a need for individuals to invest in ownership of vehicles, but also increased flexibility provided to consumers. Whereas the digital revolution has already largely influenced the transportation sector, there is still much potential for digital technology incorporation and further industry transformation. For example, with the IoT, sensors, and artificial intelligence

12 Emerging Technologies [11].

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(AI) technologies now available, autonomous vehicles are nearly a reality for individual travel. Conservative estimates predict 90% market penetration of autonomous vehicles in the next 50 years.13 Already at play in the trucking industry, autonomous vehicles can utilize AI for intelligent routing to avoid congestion,14 advanced sensors to maximize safety, and big data and IoT to measure vehicle performance and enabling predictive maintenance.15 Another potential for the transportation sector lies in IoT and its ability to connect cars, streetlights, and traffic signals, enabling smart transportation systems and improving the reliability, efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and safety of travel as well as enhancing asset-management and planning. Digital technologies have already played a major role in the transformation of personalized mobility, revolutionizing when and how people travel, and with intelligent networks and increased automation entering in the sector, consumers will continue to reap the safety, efficiency, and cost–benefits of digitalization in the transportation industry.

5.3.3 Healthcare Digital technologies have allowed for revolutionary transformations in the healthcare industry (both in primary care and health insurance). With the health industry’s notorious high cost of care in the United States, the drive for digitalization in healthcare stems from the immediate need for control and efficiency optimization alongside longer term goals such as increased precision, fewer errors, and better outcomes.16 In addition, the healthcare industry’s ongoing shift from a disease treatment to a health management focus requires an ability to monitor conditions in order to predict and prevent adverse health effects. With the advance of digital technologies, new and improved methods are emerging for treatment, monitoring, and general patient interactions (e.g., consultations and health service payment) both within and outside of the hospital environment. Perhaps the most impactful effect of digitalization on the healthcare industry is the role of digital technologies in diagnostics and treatment. Diagnostic and treatment errors are still relatively common, and new technologies can improve treatment precision and decrease the probability of error in disease identification.17 AI systems have the capacity to analyze thousands of pathology images to provide highly accurate diagnoses, helping radiologists where details may be missed by the

13 14 15 16 17

Emerging Technologies [11]. Smith [12]. Benton [13]. Chen et al. [14]. Chen et al. [14].

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human eye. AI can then aid in developing personalized treatments tailored to the genetic makeup and lifestyle of a patient.18 There are many other ways in which AI technologies are transforming the healthcare industry as well. AI algorithms are being used to analyze in-patient data (e.g., monitoring vitals and other conditions) and robots are being developed to fetch and restock supplies,19 freeing hospital personnel from routine patient visits.20 Similarly, pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies are using machine learning algorithms to shorten drug development lifecycles.21 Other AI applications range from chat-bots and virtual health assistants that help with customer service to robots simulating and, in some cases performing minor surgeries and biopsies through remote control.22 For example, as early as 2015, surgeons at the Florida Hospital Nicholson Center were using surgical robot systems performed on simulators in Texas, over 1,200 miles away.23 In addition to AI, other big data analytics tools are aiding in lowering the rate of medication errors through patient record analysis. Big data analytics can identify patients who frequently visit emergency rooms and develop preventative care plans for them. Accurate staffing is also enabled by digital technologies that estimate admission rates. Such predictive technologies help pharmaceutical companies better understand the market and can also be used to estimate which illnesses or diseases may experience outbreaks in the future. Another branch of digital technologies, virtual reality (VR) technologies, are making headway in the healthcare industry through their abilities to treat pain, anxiety, PTSD, and strokes as an alternative or supplement to drug treatments. Likewise, VR headsets can motivate wearers to exercise and help autistic children learn to navigate the world. VR is also being used to train doctors and residents using scenario simulations and in planning complicated surgeries. Similarly, sensors and IoT are also leaving their mark on the healthcare industry. Not only can devices and monitors now communicate among each other in a hospital setting, but wearable sensors are transforming patient monitoring and treatment both pre- and post-hospital visit. Wearable devices (e.g., heart rate sensors, exercise trackers, sweat meters, and oximeters) can monitor high-risk patients and determine the likelihood of a health event, provide incentives for healthy, active behavior, and monitor patients post stroke, heart attack, or other extreme health event.24 For example, in 2016, a pilot program by the National University of Singapore used an IoT-based

18 Reddy [15]. 19 Reddy [15]. 20 Future of Smart Hospitals [11]. 21 Reddy [15]. 22 Future of Smart Hospitals [11] 23 Future of Smart Hospitals [11]. 24 Dumortier [16], Reddy [15].

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tele-rehabilitation program for stroke patients. Patients were issued wearable devices to monitor their condition and care providers guided patients through rehabilitation exercises remotely using tablets. The program ensured regular therapy without the cost to the patient of traveling to a care center, at the same time saving the hospital time and money by reducing house calls.25 The hospital environment and healthcare industry have long been an ever-growing sea of data, patient files, and health and insurance forms. Blockchain technologies, however, are improving the accuracy of data records, preventing data breaches, and cutting costs for hospitals. By providing the ability to record transactions, consolidate patient information, and detect duplicate patient records, blockchain is streamlining the healthcare and health insurance industries, simplifying and securing processes for both patients and providers. Through the utilization of digital technologies, many tedious, repetitive, and routine hospital procedures and processes can be streamlined with the increase in efficiency not only decreasing burdens on healthcare staff but reducing costs and improving overall services. Most importantly, digitalization of the healthcare industry has the potential to vastly increase treatment success rates, enhance recovery and preventative healthcare, and improve human quality of life.

5.3.4 Education The digitalization of education comes with a sweeping positive impact on society. By allowing a host of degrees, from high school to PhD’s, and educational experiences beyond the traditional classroom to a wider range of students, obtaining a degree has never been more attainable for more people. While use of internet-based learning, such as online courses and the use of a virtual campus, has been available since the 1990s,26 current day digitalized education solutions involve far greater reach and creativity. By jumping past the traditional classroom, the education sector has been able to bring new opportunities quickly and effectively to millions of traditional and non-traditional students alike. In 2019, India launched a major initiative to digitalize state run schools and colleges to further support a model of “flipped classrooms,”27a pedagogical approach that exposes the students to a concept outside of class and then uses in-class time to process the learning, and personalized learning. With easier access to information at times that are more convenient for the student, digital resources have the ability to increase both the effectiveness of education and reach a wider range of Indian students.

25 Dumortier [16]. 26 Peterson’s [6]. 27 Livemint [17].

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Whether flipping the classroom or not, the simple act of creating a system where a greater number of students have access to the same experience and exposure has the potential to bring an equity to education that has been missing for many. To be clear, simply handing a student a digital device does mean their learning will be better, easier, or more equitable. Perhaps one of the greatest lessons we can take from the education sector’s exploration into digital tools is that digitalization is most effective when paired with a larger plan. In the United States, a study of almost 17,000 teachers and administrators revealed that professional development and collaboration through an overarching learning management system created the most benefit for everyone involved, including students.28

5.3.5 Renewable energy Digital technologies are revolutionizing the way energy and fuel are explored, collected, generated, stored, distributed, and consumed across the energy sector. Perhaps the most transformative impact of digitalization on the industry, however, is the implication of digital technology on the renewable energy sector. Scaling renewable energy in the coming decades is necessary not only to help growing economies meet their energy requirements, but also as a means to combat ongoing climate change. Renewable energy resources such as wind and solar, however, are highly variable and require highly accurate and timely forecasting to ensure grid stability.29 Near real-time data is required for forecasting, and advanced, automated grid control is necessary for switching between energy sources during periods of low production. Digital technologies are becoming the enabling force allowing these requirements to become a reality. Due to its intermittent and distributed nature, managing renewable energy resources requires expanding visibility, intelligence, and control (e.g., deploying connected, intelligent, and secure devices; automation equipment; sensors; and smart meters). With digital technologies providing higher resolution data sets, better algorithms, and new modeling tools, actionable intelligence can be provided to grid managers, mitigating the risks of intermittent energy production.30 IoT technologies, AI and machine learning can sense changing grid conditions (e.g., changes in demand or production) and quickly take appropriate actions (e.g., redirecting more produced energy to storage; shifting to a different, more available energy source). While large-scale grids benefit communities in numerous ways, microgrids are providing new benefits and are using digital tools and IoT technologies to gain their

28 Schoology [18]. 29 Fayazfar [19]. 30 Fayazfar [19].

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share of the energy sector. As energy disruptors increase, such as natural disasters, increased demand on large-scale grids, and even IoT itself, so does the propensity for power outages and blackouts. Microgrids allow individuals, buildings, and even small communities to provide their own energy or function as a contributing source to a larger grid. Digital sensors and intelligent connections allow these transfers to occur safely and reliably by automatically shutting off or reversing the flow of energy from a microgrid to the larger grid. Additionally, microgrids themselves can be a combination of renewable energy and traditional sources, such as solar power and diesel fuel, and can switch from one to the other as needed through digital tools.31 In Puerto Rico, where more than a third of the population was without power for months after Hurricane Maria in 2017, and being an island frequently rattled by earthquakes, microgrids and small, localized energy sources provide an important stabilizing factor and reliable connection into the larger grid.32 In addition to overall grid management, digital technologies are also revolutionizing the management and operation of renewable energy plants (e.g., wind and solar farms, hydropower production facilities). For example, at wind farms, kilowatt hours are lost every year due to unplanned downtime, operational inefficiencies, and inaccurate forecasting. Schedule-based maintenance is also largely inefficient and cuts years off the lifetime of turbines. IoT and other digital technologies, however, are providing the data, analytics tools, and AI systems to make turbines smarter and more productive. Combined sensor data and AI analytics make turbines more reliable and generate more energy. Data analytics programs can help operators react in real time to changing wind velocity and direction as well as grid demand, allowing for improved management of the intermittency of wind energy. Sensors also play additional roles by detecting anomalies in turbine operation that may go unnoticed in regular inspections, and alerting technicians to immediate issues, allowing maintenance to be performed on a case-by-case basis. Once identified, many malfunctions can even be addressed remotely, saving technicians from being sent to hazardous or remote locations. Digital twin technologies are providing another method for proactive maintenance by combining historical, physical, and real-time data to predict asset failure. Already deployed globally, digital wind farms are resulting in up to 10% reductions in maintenance costs and 3% increases in revenue.33 Digital technologies are transforming solar and hydropower production in much the same way as they are wind power. In solar and hydropower production, digital twins simulate how a plant should operate, helping managers fine tune operations for optimal performance and flagging potential maintenance needs before asset failure

31 NREL [20] 32 Walton [21]. 33 The Future of Renewables is Digital [22].

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occurs, avoiding unplanned downtime and bypassing regular maintenance visits. Digital technologies are improving turbine/panel performance, reducing losses, and optimizing asset management across the renewable energy sector. With digitalization comes the potential to enable true “smart” grids using battery storage and the “smart” release of renewable energy, all while remaining responsive to end-users’ needs and synchronizing production with weather forecasts and flow control. As digitalization continues to transform the renewable energy sector and smart grids become more of a reality, the potential of green energy is being unlocked to meet the growing demand for electricity, circumnavigate the constraints of centralized power supplies to provide electricity to rural and underdeveloped communities, and combat the rising threat of climate change.34 In this way, the experience of the renewable energy sector provides an example of how digital technologies not only provide for improved operations, efficiencies, and savings within an industry, but have the potential to benefit both society at large and the greater environment by providing resilience, security, and sustainability.

5.4 Digital transformation and localized water systems Now more than ever we need resilient water infrastructure to ensure delivery of safe drinking water when responding to shocks to the system from pandemics and climate change. An emerging area of interest is microgrids for water, leveraging learnings from the electric power sector. One of the essential articles in framing the case for resilient water infrastructure is by Falco and Webb. The paper clearly articulates the parallels between electric and water infrastructure: Whereas extreme weather events have disrupted the electric systems of cities, water infrastructure shares similar vulnerabilities to extreme weather events resulting in significant impacts to clean water infrastructure, wastewater treatment, and stormwater management. The authors make the case that microgrids provide system redundancy, fortify vulnerabilities, and secure the supply chain.35 They also see an overlap in the “downfalls of the traditional utility model and the benefits of a micro-utility,” making the case that there is a pressing need for resilient microgrids and “micro-nets” for water and electricity. In view of our current experience with the pandemic, this case is more relevant, and action is much needed. The knitting together of the value of digital technologies and other water sector innovations was explored by the Inter-American Development Bank in a collection

34 Digitalization and the Future of the Solar Energy Industry [23]. 35 Falco and Webb [24].

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of essays on disruptive technologies with the potential for transforming the water sector in the coming decade. The essays map out the transition from twentieth-century water infrastructure to a more sustainable and resilient water sector. Trends such as water reuse, resource recovery; desalination (e.g., forward osmosis); innovative treatment technologies (e.g., UV-LED and membrane reactor systems), business models, and financing; and digital technologies reflect the urgent need to rethink our water infrastructure in view of the challenges from increasing demand and the impacts of climate change.36 In my view, digital technologies are currently demonstrating their value in scaling these other innovative water technologies and business trends. Digital as a stand-alone technology (e.g., satellite data analytics) or as an enabling technology (e.g., real-time water quality monitoring at the tap or localized treatment systems) is accelerating this transition. For example, the need to repair and replace centralized infrastructure with limited funding is driving the adoption of innovative technologies to proactively identify leaks (non-revenue water) through remote sensing and robotics. Centralized water and wastewater utilities are in dire need of repair and replacement. As a result, digital water technologies have emerged as a powerful solution to managing centralized utilities in a more cost-effective manner.37 In a recent survey,38 90% of utilities put a high priority on adopting digital technology, and most utilities use a form of legacy digital technology for their current operations. However, it is acknowledged that the water utility sector would benefit from an integrated digital technology adoption strategy. Another opportunity enabled by digital solutions is digital technology’s potential to facilitate the move toward a circular economy (e.g., wastewater treatment plants as factories for energy, water and nutrients). Centralized wastewater treatment systems are increasingly being viewed as “factories” for energy, nutrients. and water39 and as such will need new digital tools to monitor real-time performance. Often overlooked is the potential for VR and augmented reality solutions to facilitate the training of staff and improve the maintenance of assets.40 With an aging utility workforce in the US, innovative digital solutions to train new professionals and optimize asset maintenance are essential. Such digital solutions for asset maintenance range from predictive analytics (e.g., TaKaDu), remote sensing for leak detection (e.g., Utilis), and overall asset management (e.g., Redeye) to improved customer engagement (e.g., dropcountr). Digital technologies are finding their way into new approaches for delivering water through on- and off-grid air-moisture capture systems such as those designed

36 Daigger, et al. [25]. 37 Krause, et al. [26]. 38 Karmous-Edwards [27]. 39 Kirk, Reinhardt and Eger [28]. 40 Wright and Wei [29].

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by Water-Gen and Zero Mass Water. Likewise, digital solutions providing data and actionable information on water quantity and quality to consumers through digital services, such as those offered by Conservation Labs and spout, are within reach or currently commercially available. Distributed water treatment systems, such as those sold by Organica and Fluence, to name a few, have emerged as viable alternatives to centralized options. Combine on- and off-grid air moisture-capture technologies with these water treatment systems, and we now have a broader menu of technology options for communities and cities. These innovative digital and localized water and treatment systems are often being brought to market through water technology hubs, accelerators, prize competitions, and new collaborations. For example, the collaboration between techstars and the Nature Conservancy and the lab created by ABInBev’s innovation arm, ZX Ventures, are identifying startups that solve water scarcity and quality challenges. The collaborations are innovative in themselves: a partnership between the tech startup community and an NGO (in the case of the former) and a global beverage company and an investment fund (the latter model). Both strive to bring in entrepreneurs from outside the sustainability and water stakeholder groups. Other innovation platforms with implications for the digital water sector are technology hubs and accelerators (e.g., Imagine H2O and Water Start), prize competitions (e.g., XPRIZE), and corporate innovation programs (e.g., AB InBev 100+ Accelerator). For example, X-PRIZE is currently working on the Infinity Water Prize, the TNC-techstars 2019 cohort included five water technology companies, Mammoth Water and Aquaoso, among others, and the AB InBev 100+ Accelerator includes water technologies companies such as Gybe. With lessons and drivers from other sectors as a foundation, we are finally accelerating the adoption of sustainable and resilient water technologies, with innovations and applications at local and decentralized scales, to solve water challenges in this century: climate change, pandemics, and public policy failures.

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[2]

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Kelechava, B. 2016. “Water Structure Problems Worldwide.” American National Standards Institute. Retrieved from https://blog.ansi.org/2016/06/water-infrastructure-problemsworldwide/#gref. Accessed January 28, 2020. “Technology leapfrog effect: Innovating the Energy Sector in India.” 2015. ICTpost. http://ict post.com/technology-leapfrog-effect-innovating-the-energy-sector-in-india/. Accessed on January 28th, 2020. The Perspective. http://www.theperspective.se/technological-leapfrogging-and-developmentthe-example-of-kenya/. Accessed on January 28, 2020. Jacobson, M. 2016. “The Developing World Can Leapfrog Dirty Coal and Go Straight to Clean Energy.” Fast Company. Retrieved from https://www.fastcompany.com/3056313/the-

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developing-world-can-leapfrog-dirty-coal-and-go-straight-to-clean-energy. Accessed on January 28th, 2020. Sperling, J. 2019. “Urban-Rural Nexus Science Across Scales for a ‘Coupling’ and ‘Leapfrogging’ of Integrated Services for Smart-Healthy-Resilient Cities, Communities, to Regional Competitive Advantage.” Iowa State University: SUS-RURI Proceedings. Retrieved from https://sus-ruri.pubpub.org/pub/sperling. Accessed on January 28th, 2020. Patterson, G., Mittal, S. B. and Weinelt, B. 2017. “Digital Transformation Initiative: Telecommunications Industry.” World Economic Forum. Retrieved from http://reports.wefo rum.org/digital-transformation/wp-content/blogs.dir/94/mp/files/pages/files/dtitelecommunications-industry-white-paper.pdf. Ismail, N. 2019. “Digital Transformation in the Telecom Industry: What’s Driving It?” Information Age. Retrieved from https://www.information-age.com/digital-transformation-inthe-telecom-industry-123478152/. Accessed on June 19, 2019. Vantara, H. and Kalakota, R. 2019. “Transform Telecom: A Data-Driven Strategy for Digital Transformation.” Hitachi. Retrieved from https://www.hitachivantara.com/en-us/pdfd/whitepaper/digital-transformation-of-telecom-industry-liquid-hub-whitepaper.pdf. Arustamyan, S. 2018. “How the Telecom Sector is Developing in Times of Digital Transformation.” Telecoms. Retrieved from https://www.telecomstechnews.com/news/2018/ mar/19/how-telecom-sector-developing-times-digital-transformation/. Stoughton, J. 2018. “Turning Data into Insights: How Digitization Creates New Opportunities for the Telecommunications Industry.” Digitalist Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.digi talistmag.com/iot/2018/04/23/digitization-creates-new-opportunities-fortelecommunications-industry-06093584. “Future of Smart Hospitals.” 2018. Alliance of Advanced BioMedical Engineering. Retrieved from https://aabme.asme.org/posts/future-of-smart-hospitals. Accessed on June 22, 2019. Smith, S. 2017. “7 Ways Technology Is Transforming Transportation.” Decision Point. Retrieved from http://blog.decisionpt.com/7-ways-technology-is-transforming-transportation. Accessed on July 1, 2019. Benton, D. 2017. “Transforming Transportation with Real-Time Analytics.” Digital Supply Chain. Retrieved from https://www.supplychaindigital.com/technology/transformingtransportation-real-time-analytics. Accessed on July 1, 2019. Chen, B., Axel, B., Stepniak, M. and Wang, J. 2019. “Finding the Future of Care Provision: The Role of Smart Hospitals.” McKinsey. https://healthcare.mckinsey.com/finding-future-careprovision-role-smart-hospitals. Reddy, M. 2019. “Digital Transformation in Healthcare in 2020: 7 Key Trends.” Retrieved from https://www.digitalauthority.me/resources/state-of-digital-transformation-healthcare/. Dumortier, D. 2017. “Digital Transformation and the Rise of Smart Hospitals.” Healthcare Global. Retrieved from https://www.healthcareglobal.com/technology/digital-transformationand-rise-smart-hospitals. “Centre launches ₹9,000 crore plan to digitize education delivery.” 2019 Livemint. Retrieved from https://www.livemint.com/news/india/centre-launches-9-000-crore-plan-to-digitizeeducation-delivery-1550683075713.html. Accessed on February 9, 2020. “Digital Learning: What to Know in 2020.” 2020. Schoology. Retrieved from https://www. schoology.com/blog/digital-learning. Accessed on February 9, 2020. Fayazfar, M. 2019. “Digital Transformation Puts Clean Energy Goals Within Reach.” Electric Light & Power. Retrieved from https://www.elp.com/Electric-Light-Power-Newsletter/articles/ 2019/01/digital-transformation-puts-clean-energy-goals-within-reach.html.

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[20] “Resilient Renewable Energy Microgrids.” 2017. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved from https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy18osti/70033.pdf. Accessed on February 9, 2020. [21] Walton, R. 2017. “New $17.6B plan would rebuild Puerto Rico’s grid with renewables, DERs.” Utility Dive. Retrieved from https://www.utilitydive.com/news/new-176b-plan-would-rebuildpuerto-ricos-grid-with-renewables-ders/512805/. Accessed on February 9, 2020. [22] “The Future of Renewables Is Digital.” 2019. General Electric. Retrieved from https://www.ge. com/digital/blog/future-renewables-digital. Accessed on June 21, 2019. [23] “Digitalization and the Future of the Solar Energy Industry.” 2019. Retrieved from https:// www.dnvgl.com/power-renewables/themes/digitalization/. [24] Falco, G. J. and Webb, R. Water microgrids: The future of water infrastructure resilience. Procedia Engineering, 118, (2015), 50–57. [25] Daigger, G. T., Voutchkov, N., Lall, U. and Sarni, W. 2019. “The Future of Water: A Collection of Essays on “Disruptive” Technologies that may Transform the Water Sector in the Next 10 Years.” IDB. Retrieved from https://publications.iadb.org/en/future-water-collection-essaysdisruptive-technologies-may-transform-water-sector-next-10-years. [26] Krause, A., Perciavalle, P., Johnson, K., Owens, B., Frodl, D. and Sarni, W. n.d. “The Digitization of Water: Intelligent Water Platforms for Water Abundance.” GE. Retrieved from https://www.ge.com/sites/default/files/GE-Ecomagination-Digital-Water.pdf. [27] Karmous-Edwards, G. 2017. “Digital is Making Waves.” Water Finance & Management. Retrieved from https://waterfm.com/digital-making-waves-technology-adoption/. [28] Kirk, K., Reinhardt, G. and Eger, J. 2017. “The Water Resources Utility of the Future: A Blueprint for Action.” NACWA. Retrieved from https://www2.nacwa.org/images/stories/pub lic/2013-01-31waterresourcesutilityofthefuture-final.pdf. [29] Wright, I. and Wei, J. 2019. “Tech Trends 2019: Power and Utilities Perspective.” Deloitte. Retrieved from https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/pages/consulting/articles/power-utilitysector-perspective.html. [30] “Technological Leapfrogging and Development: The Example of Kenya.” 2019. [31] “The History of Online Education.” 2017. Peterson’s. Retrieved from https://www.petersons. com/blog/the-history-of-online-education/. Accessed on February 9, 2020.

Jeremy Wright, Jeremy Lytle, Hala Al Amine, Hitesh Doshi

Chapter 6 Green roofs: 10 years after City of Toronto Green Roof Bylaw Abstract: Cities around the world are being challenged on how to effectively build infrastructure to support increasing populations, while constrained to a finite amount of space. Our cities are under immense pressure to plan, rethink, and adapt their urban fabric to cope with climate change and rapid urbanization that is shaping our urban future. With a population of over 6 million people, the city of Toronto is the fourth largest city in North America [1]. Toronto has been forced to navigate unprecedented population growth, aging infrastructure, and climate change similar to other global cities. The success of Toronto’s ability to accommodate more people and buildings in challenging times depicts the influence of the policies that govern construction. One policy in particular that is a testament to Toronto’s vision for sustainability is the green roof (GR) bylaw. Reaching its 10-year anniversary in 2020, it is important to look back at the origin of the bylaw and the people who were motivated to change the landscape of the city of Toronto. GRs are now considered a valuable tool of low impact development for their ability to manage stormwater and are utilized around the world. This chapter discusses the current status and future possibilities of GRs in North America and the role that the City of Toronto Green Roof Bylaw has played in it.

6.1 A push for urban gardens Toronto was becoming an increasingly busy and congested city in the 1990s. The cities’ population increased from 2,290,753 in 1990 to 2,544,292 by the turn of the century [2]. Despite the effects of an early 90s recession, the Toronto skyline evolved to new heights through the decade with the addition of nearly 49,503 dwelling units; this included new condominiums as well as retrofitted buildings [3].

Acknowledgments: This chapter was produced with reference to interviews with a number of Canadian experts in the field of green roofs. Interviewees include Brad Bass, Patrick Cheung, Sean Cosgrove, Jenny Hill, Monica Kuhn, Jeremy Lundholm, and Steven Peck. The interpretations of the interview as presented in this chapter are solely those of the authors of the chapter. Jeremy Wright, Jeremy Lytle, Hala Al Amine, Department of Architectural Science, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, M5B 2K3 Canada Hitesh Doshi, Department of Architectural Science, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, M5B 2K3 Canada, e-mail: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-006

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Figure 6.1: Aerial view of Toronto’s Downtown Core (Saraca, F. 2016).

Sean Cosgrove was on the Toronto Food Policy Council with an agenda to bring gardening and agriculture to Toronto. As they explored their options, Sean notes “It became increasingly apparent that Toronto was not like many US cities.” The density of downtown meant they would have to go above ground level to meet their targets for urban gardening. This established a motivation for rooftop gardens in the interest of vegetable production and urban agriculture. In 1993, the Rooftop Gardens Resource Group (RGRG) was formed by a volunteer team of academics, architects, landscape architects, and environmentalists. Influenced by cities in Europe that were combatting urban densification with increased green space on rooftops, the RGRG had a vested interest to increase the number of GR (GR) and rooftop planter projects in the city. Recognizing the foundation of European research highlighting the environmental benefits of GRs, RGRG members committed to translating German literature to English to establish a footing within the Canadian audiences. The volunteer organization held public workshops on the nature of green roofing systems, the benefits they provided and how to effectively build them. On top of educating the public, the group also assisted in the design of rooftop garden projects across the city and produced a map of Toronto gardens for prospective rooftop

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gardeners to reference for their own projects [4]. As a result of the work of the resource group, rooftop garden projects started to increase within the city. Three of the individuals that became involved within the RGRG were Monica Kuhn, Brad Bass, and Steven Peck. Bass, a member of the Environmental Adaptation Research Group at Environment Canada, was a scientist with an extensive background in climate change. Peck, an environmental consultant at the time, went on to found Green Roofs for Healthy Cities and was a devoted supporter of the RGRG. Monica Kuhn was a practicing architect. They determined that there was an opportunity to produce GR research of a Canadian origin. In 1999, Bass and Peck teamed up with Monica Kuhn of the RGRG to create a report for the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, titled “Greenbacks from Green Roofs: Forging a New Industry in Canada.” The report summarized the environmental benefits of GRs, which included stormwater management, increasing biodiversity, as well as providing building energy savings [5]. The report, funded by a $20,000 grant provided by the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, presented a strong argument for the need for more GRs by referencing local case studies such as the Mountain Equipment Co-op Green Roof which was constructed in 1998.

Figure 6.2: Mountain Equipment Co-op Green Roof in Toronto [6].

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6.2 Green roofs as a stormwater tool In the early 2000s, the city of Toronto began to recognize the advocacy efforts from the RGRG. At the time, the Toronto Region Conservation Authority (TRCA) was tasked with addressing stormwater management in the city. The TRCA has been at the forefront of Toronto’s issue with stormwater management since the 1954 aftermath of Hurricane Hazel. Hazel is regarded as the most severe flood in the history of the Toronto region, bringing 210 mm of rain over a 12-h period, resulting in 81 deaths and tangible economic damage of $25 million. This event spurred a three-pronged initiative by the TRCA to increase the city’s flood resilience. Land acquisition became one of the main initiatives utilized by the organization, supported by infrastructure projects known as Flood Control Works and development regulations which were instantiated to limit development in floodplains and high-risk areas [7]. Despite the efforts made by the TRCA, Toronto’s stormwater issues persisted. Population expansion and impervious urban development continued to exceed the capacity of measures in place to mitigate the resultant flooding implications. It became clear that additional measures would be necessary for the city to meet its ever-changing stormwater targets. Like most cities from the old construction era, the portion of the old Toronto’s water system is built upon combined sewers. Combined sewers are an all-in-one approach to wastewater management that collect rainwater runoff, sewage from households and buildings, as well as industrial wastewaters in one pipe [8] which flows to a centralized treatment facility. This type of water management system creates limitations on how much of each water service it can provide; in rain events, there is less available space for sewage and wastewater collection. Portion of Toronto’s water and waste water system poses a substantial risk of combined sewer overflow (CSO) during heavy rainfall events. CSOs can be detrimental to the environment as untreated sewage is discharged to the surface level with contaminants in the water ranging from organic waste to fertilizers and pharmaceuticals [9]. In addition, CSO events often force partially untreated wastewater to be expedited through treatment plants and discharged into Lake Ontario, a process otherwise known as a by-pass event. Lake Ontario, which borders Toronto from the South, has been a victim of the environmental consequences of CSOs even after moderate rain events for decades. It was determined that the lake was experiencing environmental degradation from CSOs in 1971, where research highlighted that it had a changing tropic state [10]. A 2011 report produced by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation concluded that Ashbridges Bay, located in East Toronto, was North America’s #1 surface water polluter. The bay, which functions as a popular summer beach attraction for residents, was accountable for approximately 13,679,710 kg of on-site surface water discharges [11]. Researchers and environmental advocates from both the federal and municipal levels of government were aware of the issues the Great Lakes were

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experiencing and the urgency to radically change stormwater management practices to prevent further damage [12]. The growing concern regarding the effects of stormwater discharge to Lake Ontario was one of the considerations of GR systems as a potential solution. GRs had been used as stormwater management tools in Europe for decades, with widespread implementation originating in Germany in the late 1960s [13]. A successfully constructed GR system serves two primary functions related to stormwater management. A GR has the ability to reduce the amount of stormwater through water retention in the GR materials and substrates. Water retained in the system is then evaporated into the atmosphere by the GR plants. Another function of a GR is contributing to a delayed peak stormwater flow in combined water systems; effectively they slow down the rate of water that is flowing into a city’s stormwater system. The year of 2005 was a substantial milestone for Toronto’s campaign for using GRs as tools against stormwater events. The flood of August 19 offered a harsh reminder of the urgency of the stormwater problem. The rain event of greater than 100 mm contributed to flooding of over 4,200 homes and resulted in nearly $500 million in damages to both homeowners and the city [14]. The event highlighted instability of existing stormwater infrastructure and subsequently motivated substantial flood mitigation planning from city authorities. Shortly thereafter, in October 2005, a team of researchers from Ryerson University completed the Report on the Environmental Benefits and Costs of Green Roof Technology for the City of Toronto [15]. The focus of this report was to quantify perceived economic and environmental benefits achievable with broad-scale implementation of GR technology. In order to accomplish this, researchers analyzed an implementation case where all flat roofs within the city exceeding 350 m2 in area would be 75% green. Ultimately, the report quantified financial benefit attributable to GR technology as a result of capital and annual savings across a range of categories depicted in Table 6.1. Table 6.1: Benefits of green roof implementation at the municipal level, summarized by Doshi et al. [15].

Category of benefit Stormwater Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) Air Quality Building Energy Uraban Heat Island Total

Initial cost saving $118,000,000 $46,600,000 $68,700,000 $79,800,000 $313,100,000

Annual cost saving $750,000 $2,500,000 $21,560,000 $12,320,000 $37,130,000

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This study marked the first broad-scale quantification of potential benefit of GRs in Toronto and provided guidelines for standards and requirements necessary to ensure policy measures would reflect the modelled assumptions. To follow up, the city of Toronto put forth a Green Roof Strategy entitled Making Green Roofs Happen. This document served as conversation starter for a series of workshops where the city engaged stakeholder consultation in order to determine the most effective approach to citywide implementation of GRs. These engagements initiated a multi-faceted approach focusing on installation incentives, education and publicity, and leveraging the development approval process. Several years later, these initiatives culminated in the forming of the Toronto Green Roof Bylaw, and Eco-Roof Incentive Program [16]. Peck attributes the success of the bylaw to this collaborative engagement process, noting that “without bringing developers to the table, the movement never would have gotten off the ground.”

6.3 Toronto’s Green Roof Bylaw Toronto’s Green Roof Bylaw, established in 2009, was the first policy in North America that mandated GRs on new developments. Chapter 492 of the Toronto Municipal Code provides context, parameters that govern the bylaw, as well as steps that municipal projects must follow to abide by it. The current bylaw has a graduated requirement for GR size based on coverage of available roof space to be allocated for GR as a percentage of the gross floor area (GFA) of the building. The bylaw is enabled on any new development or addition to a building that has a GFA of 2,000 m2 or greater, applicable to buildings across commercial, institutional, industrial, and residential sectors. Table 6.2: Green roof requirements by GFA. Gross floor area (size of building)

Coverage of available space (size of green roof)

,–, m

%

,–, m

%

,–, m

%



%

,–, m >, m



%

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– – – –

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Available roof space is determined by calculating total roof area minus: area designated for renewable energy, residential private terraces, residential outdoor amenity space (maximum of 2 m2/unit), and a tower roof on a building with a floor plate less than 750 m2.

Explicitly requiring a GR for developments sets the city of Toronto’s requirements apart. Bass noted that Toronto bylaw is very unique around the world, not just North America. When Toronto developed the bylaw, we were different from other cities. A lot of the American bylaws were focused to reduce runoff, and it was the developments choice on how to reduce. You will always want to reduce run off, and it doesn’t have to be green roofs. With Toronto’s approach, it kickstarted an industry and enforced that the runoff tool was a green roof.

A rigorous set of construction standards were pre-defined for the GR system construction. These standards were coordinated with the Ontario Building Code (OBC) and determined by Toronto Green Roof Technical Advisory Group. The group comprised a variety of industry professionals ranging from developers, architects, engineers, consultants, landscape architects, and building scientists. Key standards and best practices defined within the Toronto Green Roof Construction standard include: – Wind uplift resistance – Fire prevention – Structural requirements – Drainage requirements – Parapet heights – Occupancy/safety – Waterproofing/leak testing – Water retention – Vegetation performance – Growing media – Irrigation – Maintenance Defining construction standards of GRs was crucial to the success of policy implementation as it standardized GRs within the city. Creating an OBC compliant approach to the bylaw also ensured that there would be less risk of failure in the GRs, and that GRs would not impede overall building quality. Interestingly, total water retention capacity of a green system is not stipulated by the bylaw. Rather, Article IV, Section K notes that “(1) When structurally possible, the growing media shall be at a minimum 100 mm, or (2) the Applicant shall provide a report confirming that the engineered system as designed provides plant

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survivability comparable to that of an un-irrigated system with growing media at minimum 100 mm” [17]. This leaves some question as to the impact of implemented systems relative to their desired performance with respect to stormwater control.

6.3.1 Cash in lieu option It is important to note that, if a development seeks to avoid a GR entirely, financial compensation in lieu of the GR is an option. The “cash in lieu” option is based around a development compensating the city the average cost of a GR at $200 m2. The total amount to be paid to the city will be the average cost of the GR for the area that the development ideally would be implementing a GR on. This option was created as a win/win scenario for the city’s stormwater management planning as funds from the “cash in lieu” option are allocated directly into Toronto’s Eco- Roof Incentive Program.

6.3.2 Eco-Roof Incentive Program The city also provides a substantial subsidy for projects to build GRs that are not mandated. In the form of a grant, applicants have the opportunity to receive financial assistance for construction of a GR. From its origin, the incentive program started at $50/m2 in 2008, increased to $75/m2 in 2013 and had a final increase to $100/m2 in 2016. The GR incentive program effectively brings construction of a traditional GR system to half its average installation price. Also included in the Eco-Roof Incentive Program is a structural assessment grant. Due to the importance of structural capacity to support a GR’s load requirements, proper analysis of existing roof structures is required. The rebate amounts up to $1,000 for structural analysis and was introduced by Toronto’s planning department in 2017 to avoid potential GR projects from being discouraged by the costs of involving an engineer. Patrick Cheung, who is part of the committee that reviews Eco-Roof incentive applications, notes that “the quality of eco-roof incentive applications increased over the years, they are much more concise. Of the applicants utilizing the program, the main reasons why are a combination of aesthetics and meeting environmental benefits.”

6.3.3 Biodiversity guidelines for green roofs Beyond the initiatives that surrounded the GR bylaw, the city of Toronto also incorporated a set of guidelines to create increased biodiversity out of the GRs. The focus of these in-depth guidelines provide insight on how to create a higher environmental

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benefit out of a GR by incorporating native plant species and designing roofs to accommodate animal habitats. Of all the available literature provided by the city of Toronto, the Guidelines for Biodiverse Green Roofs creates a high standard of environmental stewardship for cities as it takes clear consideration of the importance of planting native species. Often forgotten within the GR industry is that species diversity in plants is only a segment of what defines biodiversity; true biodiversity involves the genetic diversity of a given ecosystem and having non-native species can be detrimental to the gene pools of native species [18]. With information accumulated from industry professionals and academics, the guidelines are rich with content on how to create roofs to provide habitat for animals, attract pollinators, and create substrate compositions that cater to the needs of specific native species. The report has an extensive amount of resources, including diagrams, which educate the GR industry on enhancing the environmental impacts of the technology [19].

6.4 Bylaw impact 6.4.1 Industry growth It is estimated that since the inception of the bylaw, nearly 500,000 m2 of GRs have been installed under its mandate [20]. It is difficult to determine an accurate financial summary of the GR projects installed to date; however, it is safe to assume that if all of the GRs were installed at an average of $200/m2, the GR industry has generated at least $100,000,000 since the bylaw was implemented. Although the growth of the industry has been stimulated substantially by the bylaw, projects such as Eglinton West TTC station and Nathan Phillips Square (Figure 6.3) utilized GR systems before the mandate came into effect. In any given GR project, there are multiple stakeholders involved. The benefitting parties from a GR project can include but are not limited to system suppliers, growing media suppliers, plant nurseries, contractors, as well as consultants that provided the design and engineering services. Other industries benefiting from GR industry growth include maintenance companies, irrigation suppliers, irrigation contractors, and the shipping companies that are responsible for the material deliveries of projects. There is limited available data on the economic valuation of the Toronto GR industry itself, but it has been estimated that 1,600 jobs have been created from the implementation of the bylaw [20]. One Toronto development that is a testament to the economic growth of the GR industry is the West Don Lands (WDL). Formerly industrial land, the 80-acre redevelopment of the WDL is one of the first master-planned neighborhood developments that has comprehensive stormwater management plan designed in conjunction with

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Figure 6.3: Nathan Phillips Square Podium Green Roof [21].

the GR bylaw [22]. The development of this neighborhood includes 6,000 residential units spread out across multiple buildings, all of which included or are set to include GRs (Figure 6.4). The economic benefit of this development has provided the GR industry with millions of dollars’ worth of projects and maintenance contracts. As with the growth of any new industry, there is abundant opportunity for entrepreneurs. Despite a large portion of projects being installed by commercial-sized contracting businesses, Toronto has become a hub for small- to mid-sized GR contractors that survive primarily off the installation of GR systems and amenity spaces. Costa Pavlou, owner of Toronto GR company Skyspace, states that “The bylaw enabled me to create my own business and become an expert in a new industry.” More research on the economic valuation of the Toronto GR industry would benefit future policies in other Canadian cities. Aside from the contractors and building owners that have spurred business opportunities out of the Toronto Green Roof Bylaw, GR system suppliers have also prospered. Innovation within the GR supplier market has provided the industry with systems that exceed the expectations defined by the construction standard of GRs. Kees Govers of Liveroof Ontario reflects, “The bylaw widened the marketplace. As a result, the participants and those wishing to enter had both the opportunity and the obligation to become far more professional organizations.” Speaking with

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Figure 6.4: Initial renderings of the West Don Lands redevelopment with green roofs. [23].

the GR suppliers, it is clear that the next step is establishing standards to measure the effectiveness of stormwater control; something that will require the collaboration of academia and industry members alike. Businesses that leverage GRs as income-producing assets are an exciting aspect of Toronto’s GR industry, primarily in the context of urban farming. Carrot Common green roof is a staple project in Toronto, constructed in 1996 and re-vamped in 2018, that generates revenue as an event space and urban farm [25]. Another example of an income-producing GR can be found nestled in Toronto’s Leslieville borough. Avling Brewery, opened in 2019, expertly utilized the Eco-Roof Incentive Program to subsidize the design and installation of a fully functioning rooftop farm system (Figure 6.7). The owner, Max Meighen, was influenced by restaurants in Europe that had a farm to table model and wanted to recreate that sustainable business model for himself in Canada. Not only does he attract environmentally conscious customers that support his rooftop farming practices, he saves money long term by not having to purchase the vegetables he grows on the roof. More information around the economic benefits of a rooftop farm for a restaurant would surely incentive more restaurants to create similar spaces to Avling Brewery as well. One recognition of the positive economic impact the bylaw has had for Toronto is employment opportunities. The industry attracts graduates from diverse academic backgrounds including landscape architecture, commerce, architecture, science, and engineering. Graduates have the opportunity to join the GR industry in Toronto in the

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Figure 6.5: River City Development green roofs [24].

fields of research, supply, installation, or design. In light of the recent COVID-19 pandemic, having the bylaw in place adds an additional layer of economic resiliency for the GR industry in Toronto.

6.4.2 Research advances As interest in GRs increases and implementation continues to grow, the research community has worked to expand the collective knowledge around GR functionality. Of note locally is the Green Roof Innovation and Testing (GRIT) lab located at the University of Toronto. The GRIT lab, associated with the John H. Daniels Faculty of Architecture, Landscape and Design, has produced multiple publications ranging from the ecology of GR plants to affects that plant species have on attracting pollinators [28]. Many Canadian institutions have contributed valuable research including British Columbia Institute of Technology, the University of Guelph, St. Mary’s University, University of Calgary and Ryerson among others. Nearly all of the associated researchers give reference to the utilization and widespread implementation of GRs in the city of Toronto as a primary research motive.

Chapter 6 Green roofs: 10 years after City of Toronto Green Roof Bylaw

Figure 6.6: Hugh Garner Co-op green roof [26].

Figure 6.7: Rooftop farm on Avling Brewery in Leslieville, Toronto [27].

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Figure 6.8: Biodiverse green roof in Danforth village [29].

System hydrology has been a focal point of much of the collective work as stormwater performance is the most prominent of the cited benefits. The initial report to the city [15] assumed implemented GRs would achieve a volumetric run-off coefficient of 0.4, indicating that 60% of all precipitation would be retained and evaporated by the GR over the course of a year. Early work from the GRIT lab supported this assumption for unirrigated extensive systems [30]. They observed that the inclusion of daily irrigation increased the run-off coefficient average to 0.5, and biologically derived planting mediums could reduce the coefficient to an average of 0.3. In this study, no measurable impact on the run-off performance from media depth or plant type was observed. A follow-up work [31] investigated the water balance implication of sedums and meadow species, the latter consisting of native grasses. The study concluded that while meadow species consume 50% more water on average through evapotranspiration (ET), sedum species intercepted 70% more rainfall at the canopy level, due to their leaf structure. The total volume of canopy-intercepted rainfall is observed to be insignificant in magnitude with respect to the transpiration volume. However, researchers note the consideration of timescale, as the process of interception is active during rainfall events, while transpiration is dormant. Researchers elsewhere have observed a wide variance in hydrological performance of GR systems. A review of the hydrological performance of 44 unique GR systems conducted by Ebrahimian et al. [32] observed annual retention ranging from

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11% to 77%. The authors highlight the potential of continuous ET simulations to incorporate microclimatic conditions during the design of green stormwater infrastructure systems. Evaluation of the dynamic ET performance of a prospective GR in the design phase allows the system to be optimized for its operating conditions and ensures that the desired stormwater performance can be achieved. Ebrahimian proposes the Hargreaves empirical model for potential evaporation [33] as a suitable model for continuous simulation due to the relatively low input data requirement and reasonable accuracy. Most modeling studies however elect to apply the physically based FAO-56 Penman-Monteith [34] approach to estimating potential evaporation. One of the challenges in GR ET performance modeling is accurate approximation of water-limited conditions. The aforementioned equations for potential ET were developed for agricultural applications and assume a well-watered reference crop, while basic extensive GR systems are well draining and endure long periods of drought. Water storage in sub-media drainage layers varies among different systems, and its contribution to the ET process is not well understood [35]. Poe et al. [36] achieved a modeling accuracy within 2% PBIAS error by applying a linear reduction in ET proportional to the systems water storage deficit. This proportionality was described as the water-availability coefficient. Alternatively, Cirkel et al. [37] proposed the adoption of a simple groundwater recharge model such as that presented by Ireson and Butler [38] in order to represent the roof system boundary conditions, and contended that ET rates are only reduced below the potential rate once soil reaches a moisture deficit described as the Root Constant. This approach was supported by measurements made by [39]. A modified FAO ET model for refined water budget analysis for GR systems achieved a 37% increase in modeling accuracy in water-limited conditions by eliminating the water availability coefficient from the advection term of the equation, and treating ET by advection with a different crop coefficient than ET by radiation. Sedums have generally been considered the ideal rooftop plant species given their drought resistance and limited nutrient requirement. However, many in the GR community contend that native plant species enable greater biodiversity [40]. They evaluate the claim that GRs contribute to urban biodiversity via systematic literature review. Ultimately, it is concluded that while GRs are successful in supporting a greater volume of generalist species such as insects, there is limited evidence to support their accommodation of rare taxonomic groups, or equivalence to ground level habitats. A novel companion planting strategy is proposed and tested by [41] which suggests that calculated integration of nectar producing plants with sedum species can enable a sustained health condition in nectar producing plants without irrigation, lending to greater support of pollinator species. Similarly, Lundholm et al. [42] studied the effects of plant functional traits in predicting GR ecosystem services. Findings of these works suggest that there is significant potential in expanding the functional trait diversity in GR species mixtures in order to enhance the overall

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quality of ecosystem services across stormwater management, environment, and biodiversity. With extensive research from St. Mary’s University, Lundholm cites the Toronto’s bylaw as influential in inspiring new research and considers it a beacon of hope for urban ecology as a whole. From his academic perspective, he supports that “further research is required from multiple industry participants in order to spur advancement of the industry.” He also contends that “future bylaws will be influenced by the results of green roof research.”

6.4.3 Stormwater persists Multiple flooding events similar to the 2005 event have occurred since then. Almost $80 million in insured damages from a 72-mm rain event in 2018 once again highlighted Toronto’s vulnerability to intense rain events [43]. The event resulted in 13 vehicles being stranded in water over 1 m deep [44]. Despite the 9 years of GR development that preceded this event, it still led to a CSO, with Toronto Water reporting a 127,350 m3 bypass event at Ashbridges Bay correlating to the storm [45]. The costs of this flood were ultimately miniscule in comparison to Toronto’s costliest rain event which occurred on July 8, 2013. This single 126-mm rain event, which was more than July 2013’s total month average, cost a staggering $1 billion in damages [43]. Consistent in all of the flooding events that the city of Toronto has endured is that the rainfall amounts specific to the event exceeded the predicted expectations of rainfall amounts, and that the rainfall amounts were not consistent across the entire city. In some instances, there was a 60 mm variance in the rainfall received in areas that were only 25 km apart; Billy Bishop airport received 70 mm in the 2017 event where Pearson International Airport received 6 mm [44]. The unpredictable nature of Toronto’s rain events and the ensuing costs of flood damage is changing the horizon of home insurance within the city drastically. From the perspective of insurers, stormwater is inherently a risk to their policies. The Insurance Bureau of Canada has highlighted that since 1980, property payouts associated with extreme weather events have doubled every 5–10 years [46]. Home insurance premiums are drastically increasing as a result of the repeated payouts from the flood events, and in some cases, homeowners are unaware that their home insurance does not cover flood damage entirely. Most concerning about the economic danger flooding presents in Canada is that there are approximately 1.7 million Canadian homes that are at risk of flooding; this includes both fluvial floods from rivers and pluvial flooding from surface waters [46].

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6.4.4 Quantifying the effects As Toronto pushes to enhance its GR infrastructure, the city continues to be affected by ever-increasing volumes of stormwater. This raises the question: has the Toronto Bylaw gone far enough? The reported 500,000 m2 of GRs that have been installed in the 10 years since the bylaw make-up only 1% of the implementation case considered in Ryerson’s 2005 report to the city. Considering this volume of implementation, a few insights can be generated with regards to the realized stormwater benefit. It is difficult to estimate with certainty how much stormwater retention capacity has been added to the city as a result of GRs, given variability in system types and performance. While the bylaw does not state a minimum water retention requirement, it can be reasonably assumed that compliance with the plant survivability requirements outlined in Section K of the construction standard [17] would result in systems with equivalent retention to a 100-mm substrate. Assuming the prescribed 100-mm substrate is compliant with FLL media regulations and ASTM E2399 then the resultant field. The capacity of the substrate would be approximately 30 mm. The total installed GR area then provides roughly 15,000 m3 of static stormwater capacity in dry conditions. Relating to the recently observed wet weather events in Toronto, this amount of GR retention capacity equates to 6.75% of the average recorded bypass event at Ashbridges Bay water treatment plant. The annual wastewater offset can be approximated in a similar fashion. This is a significant measure of the bylaw’s efficacy as environmental commissioner of Ontario [47] allocates 18% of total municipal energy consumption to wastewater management processes based on 2011 data. If a volumetric run-off coefficient of 0.5 is assumed for implemented GR systems and the average annual rainfall in Toronto is taken to be 831 mm [48] then the annual volume of wastewater offset would be approximately 207,750 m3. This accounts for 0.1% of the total volume of wastewater treated at Ashbridges Bay in 2018, or 35% of the average daily flow through the treatment facility. Considering these measures as policy performance indicators, it seems that much work remains to realize the potential benefits. However, the performance target for Toronto’s GR initiative remains unclear. The city might have wished to enable as many GRs as possible, in pursuit of the case described in the 2005 Ryerson report. By that measure however, the last 10 years would indicate little progress. Alternatively, perhaps the desired impact relates to a projected volume of stormwater retention capacity. The target then might relate to a volume and distribution of GR retention to offset the average volume of wastewater by-pass during extreme wet weather events. In this regard, some progress has been made, but a more detailed analysis on the local stormwater dynamics would be required to assess the magnitude. It seems clear that greater levels of adoption are required, particularly for existing buildings to achieve the desired benefits and climate resilience pursued by the

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GR bylaw. To achieve this with any urgency, the existing building stock becomes pivotal. Without a consideration for the viability of retrofits, the rate of GR implementation is limited by turnover in building structures. Although the Eco-Roof Incentive Program offers a generous lever for GR proponents, there remains little economic benefit for an existing building owner to invest in. Supporting policies such as a stormwater utility charge may work to enhance the GR value proposition. Otherwise, the city might look to strategically mandate retrofits to buildings that most serve the ultimate implementation target, with support from additional public funding.

6.5 Impact of bylaw on policies around North America As the stormwater issue continues to plague other cities around North America, the Toronto policy serves as a valuable case study in development of new initiatives that seek to address the urban challenges with green infrastructure. GRs have previously been proven as tools to combat the challenges correlated with urban densification and climate change. Many cities have been exploring ways to implement green infrastructure in a similar manner to Toronto with many trying to replicate the bylaw entirely. Policy is an effective way to evoke change, especially when a city is motivated to increase the scalability of GRs. Toronto’s bylaw sets the precedent for a successfully implemented GR policy and has had a positive influence on other North American cities. Halifax, Nova Scotia is one Canadian city currently in the development stage of creating a GR bylaw, although the defining parameters have not yet been determined. Jeremy Lundholm believes that researchers advising the direction are paramount to its success. He suggests that integrated photovoltaic (PV) systems and urban agriculture should be part of the equation as well. Vancouver is in a similar situation with a bylaw currently in development, although there is no expectation as to when a bylaw will be finalized and mandated. The motion of the Vancouver roof bylaw is in conjunction with their Rain City Strategy, which is a comprehensive stormwater plan that aims to capture and treat 90% of rainwater that falls within the city [49]. GR bylaws in Halifax and Vancouver could provide substantial stormwater management benefits, considering both cities average higher amounts of annual rainfall compared to Toronto [48]. Quebec has also been actively pursuing policies that enforce GRs for stormwater management purposes. Gatineau is the most recent French-Canadian city to adopt a GR bylaw. Despite pushback from the development community the city adopted a bylaw that mandates 20% GR coverage on any building over 2,000 m2 [50]. Another GR bylaw was established in 2016 in the Montreal borough of Saint Laurent. This

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policy required vegetation or solar reflective materials on all roofs with a pitch under 2:12 [51]. Both policies highlight influence from Toronto’s Bylaw as they include construction standards that reference the Toronto standards. Table 6.3: Examples of North American cities with green roof requirements. City

Year Policy requirements established

Devens, Massachusetts



Projects requiring an air quality permit must include a vegetated green roof covering % of total roof GFA.

Saint Laurent, Quebec



All flat and low-pitched roofs must be covered in materials with solar reflection or vegetation [].

Chicago, Illinois



All new developments required to reach a certain amount of “points” from sustainable strategies. Green roofs account for  points of the -point minimum requirement if covering % of net roof area; green roof provides  points if covering % of net roof area.

Denver, Colorado



New buildings, new additions to buildings and existing buildings with a GFA greater than , ft must have a cool roof and incorporate a green roof, solar panels, or off-site renewable energy purchases (Denver, ).

Washington, DC



All new buildings that require a certificate of occupancy must meet the Green Area Ratio (GAR) based on zoning district; GAR is the ratio of weighted value of landscape elements. Can be achieved via vegetated walls, vegetated roofs, ground level landscaping, or bioretention elements (DCOZ, ).

San Francisco, California



New buildings are required to have % of roof space as solar panels or % of roof space as vegetated roof (San Francisco Planning, ).

Portland, Oregon



New buildings with GFA of , ft must have an eco-roof that % of the building (Portland, ).

New York City



New buildings and existing buildings undergoing major renovations require % of available roof space for sustainable roofing; either green roof, solar panels or wind turbines (NYC, ).

New York City is the largest city in North America that is utilizing a GR bylaw framework similar to Toronto. As part of two groups of bills (NYC’s Green New Deal and OneNYC 2050), it is now mandated that all new buildings in NYC must outfit the roofs with GR systems, solar panels, or wind turbines [52]. Although the city recognizes Toronto’s motivation to use GRs was in the interest of stormwater management, the NYC mandate is in support of the cities’ greenhouse gas reduction targets, with overall carbon neutrality by the year 2050 [52]. Similar to how Toronto’s GR agendas were pushed

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forward, cities like Washington and Oregon have GR requirements for buildings of a certain GFA; these policies are focused around increased stormwater management as well as supporting bills that are setting carbon reduction goals [53]. On top of the cities that have been influenced by Toronto to mandate the use of GRs, there are also a number of cities that have incentivized GR construction through subsidies. The subsidies, ranging in tax credits and rebates are similar to the Eco-Roof Incentive Program. Currently, there are 18 North American cities that incentivize GRs including; – Austin, Texas – Chicago, Illinois – Hoboken, New Jersey – Marion County, Indianapolis – Guelph, Ontario – Milwaukee, Wisconsin – Minneapolis, Minnesota – Montgomery County, Maryland – New York City, New York – Nashville, Tennessee – Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District – Onondaga County, New York – Palo Alto, California – Philadelphia, Pennsylvania – Portland, Maine – Washington, DC – Seattle, Washington Consistent in all of the policies and incentives for GRs are defined guidelines as to what type of vegetation is being grown on the GRs as well as the depth of growing media. Most cities use guidelines that recommend substrate depths range from 2” to 4”. The justification of the substrate depth requirements is in creating a standardized construction of GR systems based on depths that have consistently produced healthy roofs. Although it is only a guideline in the Toronto bylaw, other bylaws are strict on the construction standards of vegetated roofs to mimic FLL guidelines. FLL guidelines were developed in Germany in 1982 to create an industry wide standard for GRs to utilize low organic and high draining substrates to ensure longevity of the system (Landscape Development and Landscaping Research Society e.V., 2018). Compared to emerging North American standards, FLL guidelines are proven through long-term research which has led to the adoption of these standards globally [54]. As the growth of the GR industry continues, it is important that cities adopting GR policy clearly define performance and construction standards similar to those set out by FLL.

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6.6 The future for green roofs After 10 years of industry and research intersecting, cases for different uses of GRs have expanded, and interests are again beginning to shift. The recently heightened interest in food security has brought urban agriculture back to the forefront. Today, stormwater remains one of the most pressing issues for urbanized areas with the increased frequency of intense rain events due to climate change [55]. Science and innovation have been key drivers in the improvement and development of GRs and their growth in Toronto and other cities in the world. Technological innovations in GR systems were able to solve the limitations of a built-in-place roofing system while providing all the benefits of a GR with an ease of installation and flexibility in design. The advanced technologies in GRs and their applications brought to us the awareness of the potential of GRs which is even greater than what initially imagined. These roofs are capable of supporting urban agriculture, energy generation, and green buildings’ initiatives while they stand as innovative technologies that facilitate the transition of our cities to become cleaner and more sustainable. GRs that support PV systems will also be a concurrent assembly in the future of GRs. Market research from Technavio concluded that the key trend of the global GR market from 2018 to 2022 would be GRs that support PV technology [56]. Many researchers have observed co-beneficial mechanisms in combined PV–GR systems, with efficiency gains in the range of 1–3% due to reductions in operating temperature [57, 58]. Shading effects from PV panels lend to a reduction in ET in shaded areas [59] which has been observed to enhance plant diversity due to local variations in soil moisture content [57].

6.6.1 Advancing stormwater performance In a 2018 modeling study, researchers from the Netherlands showcased the benefit of sub-media storage and capillary irrigation to enhance the evaporation capacity of a GR system, thus improving the rate of recharge and limiting run-off in storm events [37]. These results bring some validation to the advent of Blue Roof systems, which are gaining traction in the sphere of stormwater best practices. Blue roofs are designed to provide predetermined water detention through the use of flow control devices or structures [60]. GRs can now incorporate blue roof technology with the industry development of storage voids, that create a defined space for water retention and detention underneath the GR. GRs inherently provide water retention, however, by including void capacity underneath the GR system the water storage capacities can expand independent of system dead load. Blue roof technologies create enormous opportunity to create enhanced stormwater management as they can also be utilized under hardscaped areas [61].

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Blue roof technologies also shed light on the benefit of passive irrigation to a buildings water balance. Consider a GR that requires a permanent irrigation system. Over the lifetime of that roof, if the roof requires additional water outside of the amounts it retains during rain events, it can be a detriment to the efficient use of the building’s water. Diane Saxe, previous environmental commissioner of Ontario, produced a report on energy consumption and municipal water use stating that 38% of a municipality’s energy consumption can come from wastewater and stormwater processing; decreasing the amount of treated irrigation water would benefit GHG reduction substantially [62]. There is a clear opportunity to create GR systems less dependent on irrigation sources as storage void water can be reused in the GR. It is safe to assume that both climate change and water supplies will pressure GR systems to accommodate higher water reuse requirements.

6.6.2 Urban agriculture returns to the forefront Today, the rapid increase of population in cities is causing significant reduction in agricultural land which by itself is increasing food insecurities and placing urban agriculture on the forefront of the urban challenge. Rooftops make up to 30% of the total land area and hold potential spaces where people can grow food in the crowded areas in the middle of the cities [53]. But still, these spaces are not utilized for local

Figure 6.9: Eastdale Collegiate Rooftop Farm [63].

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urban agricultural purposes and people do not grow food in their rooftops, a fact that is driven by a couple of reasons related to our “mode de vie,” lifestyle of the city. Mostly because people think that planting and growing food require effort, time dedication, and experience all of which conflict with the lifestyle of city dwellers and render such a task hard to achieve if not impossible. Modern advances in technologies by using artificial intelligence, robotics, and automation in urban agriculture are changing the agriculture industry and perhaps they will draw the line in modern urban agriculture. Many potential innovations are on the horizon with smart solutions that respond to the busy lifestyle of city dwellers while answering the weather challenges in order to facilitate growing local food in the rooftops of Canadian cities all year round. Perhaps, in the same way that GRs started in Toronto with a motive of utilizing the under-used spaces on the rooftops to grow food in the city, after a decade of applying the Toronto Green Roof Bylaw, these roofs will return back to provide spaces for urban agriculture within the fabric of the city.

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[21] [23]

[24] [26]

Style, 416. 2007. MEC’s Green Roof Among Others. (Photograph). Creative Commons. Retrieved from: https://search.creativecommons.org/photos/a7e2f907-711d-46df-89a8a59611fc7d76 Padraic. 2010. City Hall Green Roof 2. (Photograph). Creative Commons. Retrieved From: https://search.creativecommons.org/photos/a288df1b-6884-4dad-9760-668923869324 Spacing Magazine. 2009. 06 West Don Lands Aerial View. (Photograph). Creative Commons. Retrieved from: https://search.creativecommons.org/photos/ee382b1f-0c90-4205-8969d0a4fc524b67 ZinCo Canada. Drone Shot of River city Phase 1 and Phase 2 Green Roofs. (Photograph), Toronto, (2017). Lynch, V. 2017. Hugh Garner Co-op. (Photograph). Creative Commons. Retrieved From: https://search.creativecommons.org/photos/b9ccfc10-d85a-4701-a557-84907bf9a1af

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[27] ZinCo Canada. Avling Brewery Rooftop Farm. (Photograph), Toronto, (2020). [29] Lynch, V. 2016. Danforth Gardening. (Photograph). Creative Commons. Retrieved from: https://search.creativecommons.org/photos/b8985303-8a0c-4093-868e-da4667b19367 [63] Stintz, K. 2014. Doors open Toronto: Eastdale collegiate rooftop garden. (Photograph). Creative Commons. Retrieved From: https://search.creativecommons.org/photos/85bd2fb22731-43bc-8f2c-38b0a4c418d9 [64] Francesca, S. 2016. Toronto. (Photograph). Unsplash. Retrieved From: https://unsplash.com/ photos/u8DiM00gIR8

Heinz Plaumann

Chapter 7 From greenfield to chemical production and back to greenfield: a major environmental remediation success Abstract: For decades, the BASF Chemical Corporation had operated with significant presence in Southeast Michigan. This chapter describes some of their “technical” and commercial adventures in the Wyandotte South Works along the Detroit River where significant environmental issues came to the fore in the 1980s. Through tremendous cooperative efforts of the company, civic organizations, and federal government agencies, the resolution of the problem resulted in a clean, safe space, now being used as a public golf course and recreation area. Keywords: mercury, polynuclear aromatics, chlorinated hydrocarbons, Detroit River, BASF Corporation operating costs

7.1 Background Captain John Baptist Ford was an entrepreneur with a flair to start many diverse companies in equally diverse industries. He started from leatherworking in the 1830s in Indiana, and iron, foundry, and shipbuilding during the Civil War. He started glass works in 1865, eventually moving to Pittsburgh where it became the Pittsburgh Plate Glass company. He sought opportunities to secure sources for the required soda ash. In 1890, at the age of 79, Ford bought 40 acres of land along the Detroit River and founded J.B. Ford & Company, shortly thereafter renamed Wyandotte Alkali. In 1895, more than 2,300 employees were engaged. The complex included many production units ranging from a coke plant and a sodium bicarbonate plant completed in 1904, followed by, at that time, the world’s largest dry ice plant in 1939. The corporation was also involved in shipbuilding, and transporting coal and other raw materials critical to the region’s commerce. In 1943, Michigan Alkali and the J.B. Ford & Company consolidated as Wyandotte Chemical Corporation, with a product portfolio including soda ash, sodium bicarbonate, chlorine, caustic soda, synthetic detergents and foundry products. Its world presence in the chemical industry was second only to the Dow Chemical company in 1956. The company also became among the leaders in polyurethane technology.

Heinz Plaumann, Wayne State University, 5050 Anthony Wayne Drive, Detroit, MI 48202, USA https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-007

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Through many changes in the 1950s, the company expanded quickly including sites in Geismar, Louisiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin as well as Belgium, Italy, France, and Venezuela. In 1969, the shares of the Wyandotte Chemical Company were acquired by German Chemical giant BASF AG. Many of the Wyandotte plants were judged obsolete during the 1970s and 1980s. By 1990, all buildings of the South Works had been removed [1].

7.2 The challenge In former times, burgeoning industry was a bellwether for economic well-being and prosperity, and in those former times, “the Solution to Pollution was Dilution.” However, such shocking events, as the June 1969 Cuyahoga River fire, attributed to chemical pollution [2], and information reported in the landmark 1962 book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson [3] (although its focus was on indiscriminate use of pesticides) opened the eyes of the global public. Chemicals can be “good,” but there are consequences for indiscretions. The general pollution at the South Works of the Wyandotte site became the subject of a very significant public project combining forces of industry, local government, and regulatory bodies, to the benefit of all! The principal ground contaminants comprised mercury, polynuclear aromatics, and chlorinated hydrocarbons [4]. In 1980, the State of Michigan filed a lawsuit against BASF, alleging release of hazardous substances via contaminated water to the Detroit River system and the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) ordered BASF to encapsulate the site with a clay cap and forbade future industrial site development. In 1986, BASF installed three groundwater collection systems at the South Works site for ca. $500,000 annually and continues to pay annual operating costs. These projects became a significant chapter in a monograph entitled “Honoring Our Detroit River” [5] as well as also reported in the EPA Brownfield Program reports [5, 6].

7.2.1 The challenge – how to return this property, used “productively” for decades, to a safe condition to serve the surrounding society? 7.2.1.1 First step – stakeholders meet and agree With the aforementioned systems in place to prevent further pollution, officials of the city of Wyandotte, BASF, and Michigan DEQ met to craft a path forward. A number of

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consulting companies were engaged to examine the possible future state, potential risks, and to create options: – Re-purposing the site as a recreation area was indeed feasible if sufficient soil cover was provided to prevent human contact with underlying contamination. – A proposal for a park including a golf facility, open amphitheater, riverfront walkway with observation decks, picnic area, jogging trail, and rowing club was accepted by the Michigan DEQ in a very short order. – The final design included surface drainage from the clay cap to prevent excess irrigation from overloading the groundwater extraction system.

7.2.1.2 Commissioning In September 1995, dedication ceremonies were held to open the golf course and the park during which Michigan Governor John Enlger emphasized how much can be achieved with visionary planning, strong partnership, and long-term commitment. The facilities are under long-term lease from BASF to the city of Wyandotte.

7.3 Key learnings and outlook As is often the case in environmental issues – “We don’t know what we don’t know” – the benefits of vigorous industrial enterprise are now more closely scrutinized by many parties – not just the industry itself through responsible care activities [7], but by government agencies and municipalities alike! The evolution of attitudes and approaches is summarized in Table 7.1 [9]. The general past view that, in industry, “money is everything” has now evolved to more socially responsible business driving forces: If we keep money as an important driver, we are obliged to include in our business analyses the bottom-line cost of acting environmentally irresponsible (law suits, good will, reputation, concerns for public as well as employee health, and welfare). This Case study provides encouragement that, even though we may be “surprised” occasionally by environmental issues (cf. current uproar against plastic bottles and plastics in general by an uninformed populus - plastics generally being such a boon to society over the past century and now viewed as a bane in the minds of many (10)), the open communication of Stakeholders can indeed lead to workable solutions. Here we see industry and society represented by their governing bodies - leading successfully to favorable outcomes. (See Ref. 11 - additional information from one of the projects main drivers, Dr. John Hartig.) The remediation of BASF Wyandotte’s South Works is a prime example serving the watershed of the Detroit River!.

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Table 7.1: Chronological changes in societal and industrial attitudes toward pollution. Time period

Attitude and focus

Pre-s

Ignore and deny

s to mid-s

Reduce polluting releases through “end-of-pipe” regulations

Mid-s to 

Prevent pollution and releases, introduction of product stewardship

 to 

Ensure product design and processes to prevent pollution: cradle to grave

 to present

Cradle to cradle – design products and processes for effective raw material sourcing, recycling, and recovery for optimum environmental benefit

References “Tradition in Transition”, September 22, 1995. Issued by BASF Corporation describing the history and environmental resolution of the Wyandotte Southworks, as presented in this Chapter. [2] Blackmore, E., “The Shocking River Fire the Fueled the Creation of the EPA”. History Channel, April 22, 2019. [3] Carson, R., Darling, L. and Darling, L. Silent Spring. The Riverside Press, (1962). [4] Pepper, E. M., “Lessons from the Field”, Master of Science, University of Michigan, (1997). [5] Bollier, D. How Smart Growth Can Stop Sprawl, a Briefing Guide for Funders. Washington, D.C., Essential Books, (1998). [6] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Brownfields Program www.epa.gov/brownfields/over view-epas-brownfields-program [7] Responsible Care – see for example American Chemical Council Guidelines https://responsi blecare.americanchemistry.com/Guiding-Principles/ [8] Steinmetz, D. C. and Thiel, D. P. Preventing Toxic Substance Problems through Design and Industrial Control of Contaminants at their Source, Honoring Our Detroit River. Hartig, J. Cranbrook Institute of Science, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, U.S.A., (2003), 171–184. [9] Ref. 8, p. 173. [10] For example, Canada Proposes Ban on Single Use Plastics – https://www.nationalgeo graphic.com/environment/2019/06/canada-single-use-plastics-ban-2021/ [11] Hartig, J., Personal communication, June, 2020. The goal of this project was to transform a former shipbuilding and chemical manufacturing site (40 ha or 84 acres) along the Detroit River into a public recreation area (called BASF Park) and a nine-hole golf course. Borwnfield cleanup activities included removal and capping of contaminated soils, and use of purge well systems to capture contaminated groundwater. As part of this project, 390 m of shoreline were stabilized and enhanced for habitat using limestone rip rap. Park redevelopment and brownfield cleanup costs were $9.1 million ($2 million from BASF, $1.9 from the State of Michigan, and $5.2 million from local revenue bonds). In addition, BASF committed $460,000 per year for groundwater monitoring and treatment. Consent Decree signed in 1985; golf course and park opened in 1995 City of Wyandotte, BASF Corporation, Michigan Department of Environmental Quality. [1]

Jacob Napieralski

Chapter 8 Swimming in the desert: the environmental costs of residential pools in arid cities Abstract: As water scarcity becomes increasingly relevant in the Southwest United States, more scrutiny falls on water demand and usage patterns. This is especially true for rapidly sprawling metropolitan areas such as Phoenix and Arizona, which are susceptible to substantial water shortages, yet have the highest number of pools per capita in the United States. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the number and surface area of outdoor pools in four cities in metropolitan Phoenix, and then estimate the volume of water (gallons) lost to evaporation, total amount of chemical input, and energy demand. Keywords: water demand, evaporation, water scarcity

8.1 Introduction The global trend of rapid urbanization has produced drastically altered landscapes as natural blue, green, and brown land use spaces that are replaced with urban structures that accelerate climatic change, accentuate water shortages and degradation, and fragment habitats. This is particularly pronounced when a city booms – both in aerial extent and number of inhabitants – in an arid environment. These newly transformed arid landscapes frequently include an increase in surface water area and non-desert adapted vegetation, which require more outdoor water. For example, the Arizona Department of Water Resources1 estimates that up to 70% of daily water consumption by Arizonians is used outdoors to water lawns, wash automobiles, and maintain swimming pools, while the City of Phoenix uses approximately 66% for outdoor water uses [1]. Outdoor swimming pools are typically indicative of affluence and have become common features in large, sprawling metropolitan areas. In Barcelona, Spain, for example, pool density (pools per housing unit) increases away from the city center as home value, property size, and assets increase [2, 3]. The demand for pools in the United States is continually increasing, from 8.4 million in 2007 to 10.4 million in 1 https://new.azwater.gov/conservation/public-resources Jacob Napieralski, Professor of Geology, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI USA 48128 https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-008

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2019 [4] (Association of Pool & Spa Professionals, 2020). In the Phoenix Metro Area, Arizona (USA), the number of pools added to the region was actually outpacing population growth, with approximately one-third of single family housing units owning a pool and the metro area having a pool per capita of 0.074 [4]. More pools also means a greater demand for water, which can be problematic in arid environments. Housing units with pools use about 37% more water than units without a pool. Los Angeles, California (United States), has more than 43,000 pools [5], each requiring at least 83,000 L of water per year which equates to 3.5 million liters of water annually for all of Los Angeles [6,7]. The environmental impact of maintaining a constant volume of clear, sanitary water in a swimming pool system includes water consumption, chemical use, and energy [4]. In arid climates, evaporation rates are much faster than precipitation rates, meaning the water lost through evaporation must be replaced by municipal city water within a water scarce area. Water is also lost through splash losses, filter backwash (depending on the type of filter system), and the generation of hydroelectric energy to supply water and produce pool chemicals. However, calculating evaporation rate from a pool can be challenging. In the Phoenix Metro Area, a simplistic rule of thumb is approximately 6 mm of water loss per day from a standard pool, which can equate to hundreds of liters of water per day depending on pool surface area. More detailed evaporation models emphasize the role of air movement over the pool: if there is no air movement, then evaporation slowly proceeds by molecular diffusion. In contrast, air movement carries away saturated air immediately above the pool and is replaced by dry air that permits evaporation processes to continue [6]. Air movement within arid, residential communities is dependent on numerous variables, including general climatic conditions, physical geography, amount of urbanization and built environment, relationship and distance between pool and other features, and the general pattern of housing units. For example, Antonelli and Kwok [7] found that evaporation rates were highest in communities with detached front-loaded, attached garages; courtyard houses; and then detached front-loaded, detached garages. Housing units with detached garages had the lowest evaporation rates because the spacing of the detached garages provides more efficient wind protection. Some common equations for determining evaporation rates for swimming pools include the U.S. EPA evaporation, Stiver and Mackay evaporation, and the John W. Lund evaporation equations [8]. While swimming pools have increased in popularity, especially in desert environments, this puts a strain on access to water. The pool “booms” in the Phoenix Metro Area has garnered attention because of the challenges to maintain a sustainable water supply to support a nonessential recreational activity. Therefore, the objective of this study is to: 1. Identify and map residential pools within four cities in the Phoenix Metro area 2. Calculate pool density per area and per housing unit 3. Estimate the surface area of pool water

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4. Calculate evaporation rates for the study area 5. Determine volume of annual water loss due to evaporation

8.2 Study area The Phoenix Metro Area is located in Arizona, United States, and consists of the principal city of Phoenix and many suburbs that include over 4.7 million inhabitants and extends over 37,500 km2. While Phoenix has over 1.6 million residents, the sprawling suburban cities have boomed in the last few decades leading to a densely populated, heavily urbanized, desert landscape. To narrow the geographic extent of this study, four suburban cities were selected for this case study: Chandler, Gilbert, Mesa, and Scottsdale. Each city has experienced a relatively rapid rate of urbanization and is now heavily urbanized (Table 8.1). Table 8.1: Population study of cities in 1950 and 2018, to illustrate the rapid growth, and the percent of city classified as developed, according to the 2011 National Land Cover Dataset. Population ()

Population ()

Urban area %

Chandler

,

,



Gilbert

,

,



,

,



,

,



City

Mesa Scottsdale

The Phoenix Metro area is considered a desirable place to live because of the warm, desert climate. Chandler, Gilbert, Mesa, and Scottsdale average between 23 and 26 cm of precipitation per year and 32 days of measurable precipitation. The metro area averages 295 days of sunshine (approximately 3,832 hours of sun throughout the year) which offers warm temperatures, especially in the summer when daily temperatures can exceed 41 ℃. As a result, the Phoenix Metro area is aptly named “Valley of the Sun.”234 Finally, because the study area is in a desert environment, much of the city water supply is diverted from the Colorado River (Central Arizona Project), a 540 km system that brings Colorado River water to central Arizona and serves 80% of the state’s population, and the Salt and Verde Rivers (Salt River Project). The area has

2 U.S. 1950 Decennial Census 3 U.S. American Community Survey (ACS) estimates, 2018 4 Percent of area classified as developed by National Land Cover Dataset (NLCD), 2011

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developed an extensive effort to reclaim effluent to maintain parks and recharge local groundwater aquifers. However, modifying human behavior and consumption is also a priority, including the reduction of outdoor water demand (e.g., washing automobiles, watering lawns and gardens, and filling residential pools) because evaporation rates are relatively high.

8.3 Methods 8.3.1 Swimming pool identification and mapping By using photographic interpretation processes within Esri’s ArcGIS Desktop 10.7, swimming pools were identified off satellite imagery from DigitalGlobe. The imagery was from November 16 to 17, 2018, and has a ground resolution of 0.31 m. A point was placed on every visible outdoor pool. The identification of most pools was straightforward, but in many occasions, additional imagery (e.g., Google Maps’ satellite basemap) was used to confirm or reject the classification of a pool. A vast majority of pools in Phoenix are in-ground, meaning they typically had a distinct concrete border that appeared as a frame, which increased identification efficiency. Water color varied as well, likely influenced by the chemical composition (i.e., imagery was taken during closed season, when pool maintenance is lowest), varying reflective properties due to satellite viewing angle, the presence of pool covers, and shadowing from trees and buildings. This variability made automating pool identification not possible and required a manual, albeit tedious, process.

8.3.2 Pool surface area and density To calculate the pool surface area for each city, every marked pool (point feature) was spatially joined to the respective U.S. 2010 census block. Pool density was determined by dividing the number of pools in each census block by the census block area (km2). Blocks with no pools were removed from the analysis and the remaining records were sorted by pool density into one of four categories: low, medium-low, medium-high, or high density. Census blocks with the lowest pool density (greater than 0) were classified as “low” whereas those with the highest density were considered “high.” An equal percent of records (25%) were designated to each category for each city. Thirty random pools were chosen from each category, for each city, to manually measure pool surface area using spatial imagery from ESRI’s ArcGIS Desktop 10.7. This produced an average pool surface that could be applied to all blocks in the respective density category and, eventually, create an average for each city in the study.

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8.3.3 Evaporation rates and volume The same factors that make Arizona attractive for year-round pool use also cause relatively high rates of evaporation. It is for this reason that summer months in Arizona whisk away exposed water. Forrest and Williams [4] estimate that for each pool in the Phoenix, Arizona, area approximately 30,000 ± 5,500 gallons (114,000 ± 21,000 L) of water is consumed every year. Half of this water goes to refilling what has been lost to evaporation. Gallion et al. [9] derived a similar estimate for medium-sized pools (39.7 m2) in the Phoenix, Arizona, area, concluding the yearly water footprint of a medium-sized pool is around 30,400 gallons (115,000 L). Using these estimates, we calculated average yearly water consumption in the four cities related to pool use and the amount lost to evaporation.

8.4 Results The number of pools in each city is shown in Table 8.2, including pools per capita and pools per housing unit. Scottsdale and Gilbert have the highest pools per capita and per housing. Mesa, which has the lowest median income of the four cities, has the fewest pools and the lowest average pool surface area in its census blocks (Table 8.3). The average pool surface area for each city’s census block is presented as a percentage based on density condition in Table 8.3. For example, Scottsdale census blocks with a high pool density (top 25% of blocks) have an average pool surface area of 2.4%. Therefore, in a high pool density census block with a total area of 1 km2, total pool surface area accounts for roughly 0.24 km2. Scottsdale has the greatest ratio of pool surface area to census block area and the most pool surface area overall. Table 8.2: Number of pools, people, and housing units in each city (population and housing units from U.S Census Bureau’s 2018 American community survey, 5 year estimates). City

Pool count

Population

Pools per capita

Housing units

Pools per housing unit

Chandler

,

,

.

,

.

Gilbert

,

,

.

,

.

Mesa

,

,

.

,

.

Scottsdale

,

,

.

,

.

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Table 8.3: Summary of average pool surface area shown as a percentage of total census surface area based on the pool density condition of each census block. City

Low

Medium-low

Medium-high

High

Mean

Total pool surface area (km)

Chandler

.

.

.

.

.

.

Gilbert

.

.

.

.

.

.

Mesa

.

.

.

.

.

.

Scottsdale

.

.

.

.

.

.

Between the four cities, there were a total of 125,375 visible pools from satellite imagery. This equates to 14.3 billion liters of water consumed annually, of which approximately 7.15 billion liters are lost through evaporation (Table 8.4). Table 8.4: Cumulative yearly water consumption (billion liters) for pools in each city based on previous studies analyzing Phoenix, AZ, area. City

Study Forrest and Williams []

Gallion et al. []

Chandler

.

.

Gilbert

.

.

Mesa

.

.

Scottsdale

.

.

.

.

Total

8.5 Discussion The results from this study highlight the prevalence of residential pools in the Phoenix (AZ) Metropolitan Urban Area. More than 125,000 pools were identified, which constitutes approximately 25% of the housing units in the four cities of Chandler, Gilbert, Mesa, and Scottsdale. The Phoenix Metro area is estimated to have over 1.6 million housing units; based on this study, there are well over 400,000 residential pools in the urban area. The authors believe the pool count in this study may be an underestimation, as pools hidden under roofs and in the shadows of trees and houses were not counted and, in some neighborhoods, large homes or mature trees made pool identification difficult. Additionally, some pools were empty or halffilled with water, particularly because the date of satellite imagery acquisition was

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off-season for pool use; these pools were still counted. Regardless, with so many pools in an urban area, the environmental impact of pool water is substantial. One environmental impact that was a focus in this study was the amount of water used to replace evaporation losses. While there are many ways to determine evaporation from a pool, as well as numerous variables to consider, our method combined extensive surface area mapping and existing procedures to estimate evaporation water losses to exceed 7 billion liters of water per year. If extrapolated to the entire Phoenix Metro area, then over 40 billion liters of water are evaporated from pools each year. High amounts of evaporated pool water require replacement water, which is already a challenge to manage in the hot and dry climate of Arizona. This problem is likely to get worse, as the most recent 3-month outlook published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration at the time of this writing expects Arizona and the Colorado River Basin to have above-average temperatures and precipitation at or slightly below normal levels for June, July, and August [10]. Long-term models also predict Phoenix’s climate will become even warmer (e.g., more days exceeding 43 °C per year) and have virtually no rainfall, meaning evaporation rates could increase while water security decreases. There are ways to minimize evaporation rates, including the persistent use of a pool cover. In this study, most pools did not appear to have covers, but the identification of pool covers is challenging. Of the 4,470 pools analyzed (approximately 3.6% of pools in all four cities), most were in direct sunlight with limited shade from vegetation or building structures. Pool covers reduce up to 95% of evaporation and also help to retain heat, resulting in both water and energy conservation [11]. If all pools in these cities are covered when not in use, then up to 6.9 billion liters of water can be saved each year. This is an important consideration since water lost to evaporation is not reclaimed and is effectively lost from the urban hydroscape. Other environmental impacts of high densities of residential pools include chemical use and energy demand. The maintenance of pools requires chlorine, acid, and other chemicals, and there are negative impacts associated with chemical use, such as atmospheric emissions of chlorine that contribute to ozone formation and the unintended accumulation of dissolved solids in groundwater. In particular, calcium hypochlorite and trichlor are common pool disinfectants used in Phoenix [4]; trichlor is toxic to humans and aquatic life, and calcium hypochlorite is harmful to freshwater fish and invertebrates [12]. In addition, energy is needed to circulate and treat the pool water with the goal of removing particles and chlorine residuals. In the Phoenix area, this equates to about 2,500 kWh/year [9] and constitutes about 22% of a household’s annual electricity use [4]. For these four cities, that adds up to 313 GWh annually and anywhere from 173,000 to 226,000 metric tons of CO2 a year. Chemical inputs and energy demands mean pools can contribute to environmental degradation and climate change without efforts to minimize their impact.

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8.6 Conclusion Swimming pools in arid, urban areas necessitate an unsustainable demand for water, much of which is eventually lost to evaporation. While many cities in arid regions have initiated aggressive practices to reclaim and recycle urban water, pool water is not a part of that practice because evaporation and splash losses are no longer a part of the managed water system. Efforts to minimize the negative environmental impacts of a high density of swimming pools, such as sustainable urban design and efficient pool management, should be prioritized to reduce evaporation and energy demand.

References [1]

Gober, P., Brazel, A., Quay, R., Myint, S., Grossman-Clarke, S., Miller, A., and Rossi, S. Using watered landscapes to manipulate urban heat island effects: How much water will it take to cool Phoenix?. Journal of the American Planning Association, 76, 1, (2009), 109–121. doi: 10.1080/01944360903433113. [2] Morote, Á.F., Saurí, D., and Hernández, M. Residential tourism, swimming pools, and water demand in the Western Mediterranean. The Professional Geographer, 69, 1, (2017), 1–11. [3] Vidal, M., Domene, E., and Saurí, D. Changing geographies of water‐related consumption: Residential swimming pools in suburban Barcelona. Area, 43, 1, (2011), 67–75. [4] Forrest, N., and Williams, E. Life cycle environmental implications of residential swimming pools. Environmental Science & Technology, 44, 14, (2010), 5601–5607. [5] Gross, B. and Lee, J.K. (2013). The big atlas of LA pools. http://swimminginla.com/post/ 69306211891/the-big-atlas-of-la-pools (accessed 20 April 2020). [6] Shah, M. M. Methods for calculation of evaporation from swimming pools and other water surfaces. ASHRAE Transactions, 120, 2, (2014), 3–17. [7] Antonelli, E., and Kwok, A. (2016). Water-smart Urban design: Conserving potential in swimming pools. Passive Low Energy Architecture (PLEA) on Cities, Buildings, People: Towards Regenerative Environments Conference, Los Angeles, CA, USA, July 13, 2016. [8] Saravanakumar, K., Gokul, S., Palanivelrajan, A.R., and Surendran, S. Determination of mass transfer coefficient for evaporation water from surface of swimming pool and amount of water loss per day. International Journal for Scientific Research & Development (IJSRD), 4, 12, (2017). [9] Gallion, T., Harrison, T., Hulverson, R., and Hristovski, K. (2014). Estimating Water, Energy, and Carbon Footprints of Residential Swimming Pools. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-4116450.00014-6 (accessed 5 May 2020). [10] Climate Prediction Center, NOAA. (2020). Seasonal Outlooks. https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa. gov/products/predictions/long_range/seasonal.php?lead=2 (accessed 29 May 2020). [11] EPA. (2018). Pool Covers. https://www.epa.gov/watersense/pool-covers (accessed 29 May 2020). [12] EPA. (1991). Sodium and Calcium Hypochlorite Salts. https://www3.epa.gov/pesticides/ chem_search/reg_actions/reregistration/fs_G-77_1-Sep-91.pdf (accessed 29 May 2020) [13] Bastin J.-F., Clark E., Elliott T., Hart S., van den Hoogen J., Hordijk I., et al. Understanding climate change from a global analysis of city analogues. PLoS ONE, 14, 7, (2019), e0217592. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217592.

Anum Khan, Darko Joksimovic, Barry Orr

Chapter 9 Defining “flushability” for sewer use Abstract: Determining whether or not a consumer product is flushable is often a matter of some assessment of the package labeling. Unfortunately, consumers are sometimes unaware of whether or not a product can be safely disposed of via flushing. Differences in the composition of fibers and in how products are made can be used to determine if a specific product is flushable. Importantly, consumer awareness should be raised as to how different products can be disposed of, either via flushing or other means. Keywords: flushability, drainline, fiber, disintegration

9.1 Introduction Many consumer products are currently available that are marketed and labeled as being “flushable,” and more such products are continually introduced to the public. In addition to providing confusing labeling to consumers, such as “flushable,” “biodegradable,” “eco-friendly,” and “natural,” the composition of these products is quite diverse and not entirely disclosed to both consumers and the wastewater industry. Concurrently, sewer system operators are reporting a growing problem caused by inappropriate disposal of consumer products, resulting in sewer and pump station blockages due to the lack of dispersion of these “flushable” products under normal operating conditions. While the manufacturers’ associations have developed guidance for assessing both the flushability and labeling of their products [1], it is not clear as to what extent the manufacturers have adopted and are adhering to these recommendations. Thus, a comprehensive study of “flushable” products to cover a wide range of products was required. The International Water Services Flushability Group (IWSFG), comprised water associations, utilities, and professionals seeking to provide clear guidance on what should and should not be flushed down the toilet, has recently finalized the flushability specifications for products that are marketed as safe to flush down the toilet [2].

Anum Khan, Department of Civil Engineering, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3 Canada, e-mail: [email protected]@ryerson.ca Darko Joksimovic, Department of Civil Engineering, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3 Canada, e-mail: [email protected] Barry Orr, Environmental Applied Science and Management, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3 Canada, e-mail: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-009

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An objective added during the course of the study was to conduct an evaluation of the adherence of tested product package labeling to the INDA/EDANA voluntary guidance [1]. Following this, the objective of the study was to conduct flushability testing of a large number and variety of consumer products in accordance with the recently released IWSFG Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 1: 2018 [3]. The IWSFG criteria are grouped into five categories: environmental protection, toilet and drain line clearance, disintegration, settling, and biodisintegration. This study focused on three of these criteria [3] due to budgetary reasons, with a view of implementing other tests in the longer term: 1. Drain line clearance – as outlined in INDA/EDANA 2013, FG501: Toilet and Drainline Clearance Test 2. Disintegration – as outlined in IWSFG 2018: PAS 3 Disintegration Test Methods – Slosh Box 3. Environmental protection – according to TAPPI/ANSI Test Method T 401, Fiber Analysis of Paper and Paperboard. Broader goals of the study are to (1) raise public awareness regarding appropriate disposal methods of products that may misleadingly and incorrectly be labeled “flushable,” (2) provide valuable evidence to municipal wastewater system managers on the disintegration and potential environmental impacts of products following the current, international testing specifications, and (3) facilitate the continuance of evidence-based dialogue between IWSFG and manufacturers.

9.2 Methodology 9.2.1 Product inventory The comprehensive list detailing all 101 products tested during this study can be found in Defining “flushability” for sewer use by Khan et al. (2019) published by Ryerson Urban Water [4]. The selection of products was intended to be representative of consumer products found across local stores in Southern Ontario or available online for purchase by a consumer located in Southern Ontario and may vary considerably in different geographic regions. This section of the report presents various summaries regarding product categories and subcategories, package labeling, and information about manufacturers. The universal “Do Not Flush” (DNF) symbol referred to in the succeeding sections of this chapter is shown in Figure 9.1.

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Figure 9.1: Universal “Do Not Flush” symbol.

9.2.2 Labeling assessment Package labeling was identified in a systematic manner by carefully analyzing the individual product packages and checking off applicable criteria from INDA and EDANA’s Code of Practice [5].

9.2.3 Physical testing using a simulated model The testing in this work followed the IWSFG PAS 3: 2018 Disintegration Test Methods – Slosh Box [6]. In the testing, the two criteria, toilet and drainline clearance, and disintegration, required two fundamental steps: 1) Preconditioning 2) Agitation These fundamental steps were performed for each of the products tested. A complete test for each product required five samples. A physical model consisting of a toilet (6/4.1 L) and a private drain connection was set up in the hydraulics laboratory in the Department of Civil Engineering at Ryerson University. More information regarding the testing methods can be found in Khan et al. (2019).

9.3 Results 9.3.1 Adherence to package labeling Figure 9.2 shows the number of products tested in each of the ten categories displayed. Cleansing wipes represent the largest proportion of products tested, and almost half of the products tested within this category are labeled as “flushable.” While some product packages display a DNF statement and symbol, others display either the statement or the symbol, or neither.

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Figure 9.2: Overview and labeling summary of products tested in each category.

It is important to note that the industry’s code of practice is currently a voluntary measure. However, because it is evident that manufacturers have been making flushability claims on product packaging, it is plausible to state that the code of practice may be followed by manufacturers. The systematic approach to determine whether the products tested adhered to the package labeling criteria utilize the decision tree, exampled in the code of practice. Table 9.1 shows the percentages of each category where a DNF symbol was required versus the percentages of those products which met the specified criteria. As evident from Table 9.1, specific categories, like baby wipes, cleansing wipes, and diaper liners, required that all their products display a DNF symbol. However, none of the products tested adhered to the criteria for package labeling in the code of practice, including those which were required to display the symbol. The results indicate that there is a great deal of inconsistency with package labeling as there are varying percentage compositions that display a DNF symbol. Some product categories, such as cleansing cloths, dog waste bags, facial tissue, and paper towel displayed a DNF symbol even though the criteria do not specify that such is required. Other categories like diaper liners, where 100% of the products are required to display a DNF symbol, showed that none of the products displayed a DNF symbol. The following is a statement extracted from the INDA and EDANA code of practice (2017): Because of consumer confusion, it is highly recommended and strongly encouraged that Baby Wipes should not be marketed as “Flushable”, and all Baby Wipes are required to display the DNF symbol both on the top or front panel of the package visible to the consumer “on shelf” without the consumer having to touch the package, and also a DNF symbol reasonably visible near the point where individual wipes are taken out of their container. From this statement, it can be gathered that

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Table 9.1: Product adherence to package labelings. Product category

% of products requiring a DNF symbol

% of products displaying a DNF symbol

% of products that meet DNF symbol criteria

Baby wipes Bathroom tissue Cleaning cloths Cleaning wipes Cleansing cloths Cleansing wipes Diaper liners Dog waste bags Facial tissue Paper towel



         



   

   

Note: Blank cells indicate that product does not require a DNF symbol based on code of practice or is out of scope (used for comparison only).

regardless of how a baby wipe product performs based on a flushability assessment, it is required to display a DNF symbol. As an example, 56% of baby wipes tested in this study, as presented in Table 9.1, displayed a DNF symbol. As mentioned on the previous page, the code of practice states specific on-pack consumer information regarding the location, color, size, wording, and timing of the DNF symbol. For example, the symbol should not be obscured by packaging seals/folds or obscured by other package design elements [5]. Based on the on-pack consumer information, these baby wipes did not meet the criteria due to a lack of adherence to visual criteria, and failure to meet other specifications. A key visual observation made during the evaluation of product adherence to package labeling was that although 19 products displayed a DNF symbol, the symbol failed the stated criteria because of several reasons. These reasons may have included the following: – DNF symbol appears on plastic wrapper that is designed for removal prior to product usage in which case, DNF symbol is not visible to user after wrapper has been discarded – DNF symbol is either too small or hidden – DNF symbol is displayed under the product fold – Symbol displayed is not the universal DNF symbol

9.3.2 Drainline clearance As per the procedure in the PAS 3 [6], product samples were required to clear the drainline within a 30-min period. The drainline used in the apparatus of this study

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was 20 m in length and consisted of 75 mm and 100 mm PVC pipes with two 90° elbow fittings. Some products were conveyed out of the drainline within the allotted time while others remained inside the drainline. Products that did not clear the drainline within one flush were flushed subsequently every 5 min until they cleared the drainline, for a maximum of six flushes within 30 min. Heavier products, such as those within the product categories of baby wipes, cleaning cloths, cleaning wipes, cleansing cloths, cleansing wipes, diaper liners, and paper towels, often required multiple flushes to clear the line. Based on the tests conducted, cleaning cloths took an average of about four flushes while bathroom tissues used two flushes to clear the drainline. These values represent the maximum and minimum average value between the ten product categories tested. Products with a slightly lower mass, such as those within the product categories of bathroom tissues, dog waste bags, and facial tissues, often cleared the drainline in one to two flushes. Products that required another flush or two would normally flow past the two elbow fittings and stop quarter way through the drainline at about 5 m. Figure 9.3 indicates the percentage of products in each category that required x number of flushes. The figure shows that 100% of diaper liners and dog waste bags required two flushes to clear the drainline, whereas 80% of cleaning cloth products required more than two flushes to clear the drainline. Some baby wipes required more than five flushes to clear the drainline.

Figure 9.3: Distribution of average number of flushes per product category.

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9.3.3 IWSFG disintegration testing As mentioned in Section 1.2, test reports for each of the 101 products were generated using the template provided in IWSFG PAS 3: Disintegration Test Methods – Slosh Box (2018). Amendments were made to the methodology specified in the PAS 3 [6] and are presented later in this chapter. Each test report contains information specific to the five test samples used per product. The results from the testing performed in accordance with the PAS 3 [6] are summarized through the figures and tables presented in this section. Table 9.2 shows that only 17 out of the 101 products tested showed some visible evidence of disintegration. From these 17 products, 11 products fully disintegrated. However, all 11 of these products were from the bathroom tissue category. Other products such as cleansing cloths, cleansing wipes, facial tissues, and paper towels partially disintegrated, whereas products from the categories of baby wipes, cleaning cloths, cleaning wipes, diaper liners, and dog waste bags did not show any evidence of disintegration. Table 9.2: Summary of product disintegration. Product category

Number of evaluated products that fully or partially disintegrated

% of products that fully or partially disintegrated*

Baby wipes Bathroom tissues Cleaning cloths Cleaning wipes Cleansing cloths Cleansing wipes Diaper liners Dog waste bags Facial tissues Paper towels Total

/ / / / / / / / / / 

. . . . . . . . . .

* A summation of the % of materials passing for five test repetitions, as per PAS 3 specification.

Figure 9.4 shows the proportion of products labeled “flushable” that disintegrated. While a total of 23 out of 101 products tested are labeled “flushable,” only 2 products partially disintegrate, and none of these 23 products fully disintegrate. Bathroom tissue is not included in this count of 23 consumer products. It should be noted that bathroom tissue is not labeled “flushable” but is used as a comparison to show that it fully disintegrates. Moreover, from the 101 products assessed for flushability, 90 (out of 101) products were deemed as FAIL (see Figure 9.5) according to the PAS 3 [6], as the specification states that at least 95% or more of the material must pass through a specified sieve to be classified as a PASS (IWSFG, 2018). As

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stated previously and reiterated in Figure 9.5, only 11 (out of 101) products fully disintegrated and were classified as a PASS, and all of the products that passed were toilet tissue controls.

Figure 9.4: Graphical representation of products deemed “Pass” or “Fail.”.

Figure 9.5: Graphical representation of “flushable” products performance.

To illustrate the degree in variance of product disintegration during the agitation period (see Section 1.2 for a brief overview of the preconditioning and agitation periods of testing), figures representing two different consumer products labeled “flushable” are presented in Figure 9.5. Figure 9.6 shows a cleansing wipe labeled “flushable” at the end of the 30-min agitation period. It is visibly evident that this cleansing wipe does not show even partial disintegration. On the other hand, Figure 9.7 is an image of toilet tissue acquired before the 30-min agitation period of the disintegration test was complete. It is visibly evident that the toilet tissue had disintegrated before starting the test. The time was recorded in the slosh box for this product to fully disintegrate was 3 min and 24 s. From the products tested during this work, 89.1% of products remained fully intact after the completed disintegration test. Hence, majority of the products were classified as a FAIL according to the PAS 3 [6].

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Figure 9.6: Example of cleaning wipe disintegration after testing.

Figure 9.7: Example of bathroom tissue disintegration after testing.

9.3.4 Fiber composition As another objective from the IWSFG criteria stated in Section 9.2 of this chapter, an analysis was conducted on the fiber composition of a select number of consumer products. The complete list detailing the 20 products evaluated for fiber composition is provided in Appendix A [10, 11]. Based on the testing results provided in Khan et al. (2019), the most prevalent fiber type among the 20 products evaluated was softwood. The dominant regenerated cellulose material among the consumer products evaluated was rayon, whereas the recessive material used was lyocell. From additional research, an estimation of 20–35% composition of polypropylene was made for products #6 and

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#11, as shown. Overall, 75% of the consumer products evaluated for fiber composition in this work contain at least one type of man-made material – synthetic or regenerated cellulosic material. Nonwovens’ industry claims that the volume of nonwovens converted into wipes for consumer and industrial applications will rise 6.3% per year from 1.20 million tons in 2018 to 1.63 million tons in 2023 [7]. Given this trend, manufacturers may be increasing the usage of regenerated cellulose and synthetic materials in consumer products to make them more durable.

9.4 Conclusions and recommendations 9.4.1 Main findings The key conclusions are formulated based on the quantitative and qualitative data gathered, observations stated, and analyses presented throughout this report. This work included an inventory of over a hundred consumer products, representative of the variety present on store shelves in Southern Ontario and/or online, and aimed to incorporate a variety of products based on their potential to be flushed. However, there exist countless other products in the consumer market that remain untested and unaccounted for with regards to flushability assessments. The findings presented below are based on the portion of consumer products tested in this study only. Most of the products tested for drainline clearance did not clear the drainline in a single flush, sometimes requiring up to six 6-L flushes. Therefore, a consumer product that is potentially incompatible with toilets and plumbing systems may cause delays and blockages in transport to larger sewage conveyance systems [1]. Although the data on causes of drainline blockages are scarce, these types of blockages remain as a significant cost burden on municipalities due to the need to respond to many of these calls for service by utility customers. For example, a quick review of the published City of Toronto 311 data indicates that close to 10,000 events labeled “Sewer Service Line-Blocked” were reported annually over the 2010–2018 period. The flushability assessment based on IWSFG PAS 3: Disintegration Test Methods – Slosh Box showed that bathroom tissue disintegrated within the test time as specified, while some products showed no visible evidence of disintegration [6]. Overall, none of the products labeled “flushable” disintegrated within the allotted time to an extent required to pass the test. From the sample of 20 products drawn from the total of 101 products tested for other criteria and fiber composition, 75% of the test products contain durable manmade material. It is important to note that as mentioned previously, the trend in increasing consumption of wet wipes and other such consumer products may result

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in the production of stronger and more durable versions of these products. Since synthetics may be used as binders in consumer products, like wet wipes, the presence of synthetics in evolving consumer products may be at a rise. In other words, the increasing consumption of consumer products may indicate a growing number of these products in wastewater collection systems. Although it is evident that efforts have been made by manufacturers to distinguish products that are “flushable” from those that are not, it appears that there is no significant distinction in product composition based on the TAPPI/ANSI Test Method T 401, Fiber Analysis of Paper and Paperboard. The similarity in the visual aspect of these consumer products along with the inconsistency in package labeling may be a source of confusion for consumers. The lack of awareness around flushing habits may result in an inability to effectively treat the products prior to their release into the environment and result in sewer overflows that can impact public health and the environment [2]. Currently, different versions of flushability specifications are provided by various industries and associations (e.g., UK Water Industry [1], IWSFG 2018, [8]), which are not consistent with each other. Although these specifications have the shared view on the importance of proper disposal of consumer products, variability between them may be a cause for variability in disintegration performance of consumer products by some manufacturers [8].

9.4.2 Amended methodology for IWSFG PAS 3 (2018) While this application of PAS 3 [6] serves to provide thorough quantitative data for consumer products labeled “flushable,” it may be worthwhile to exclude some steps of the procedure under time constraints. As an example, for 82.2% of the products tested, it was visually evident whether the sample disintegrated or not. As aforementioned, many of the products remained fully intact and this was clear through a visual speculation. Therefore, a visual observation may be enough to classify a product as PASS or FAIL. In this case, the steps detailing the weighing process for the initial dry mass of the samples and the oven drying process for the dry mass of the samples may be eliminated. Moreover, recording the weights of the samples can often become tedious given the number of times the masses are to be recorded. It may be best to include the weighing process only when products show evidence of disintegration. This does not cause any delays in the procedure as the masses are to be recorded after the testing has been performed. Hence, no repetition of procedure would be necessary. A schematic detailing of an amended methodology for PAS 3 is presented in Appendix B [6]. The methodology presented is mainly the same as that presented in PAS 3 [6] with slight modifications. The schematic outlines the procedure for one product sample. However, the procedure should be repeated for five sequential

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product samples to obtain the total dry mass of the retained material from the sieve, and an additional five product samples to obtain the initial dry mass, where necessary.

9.4.3 Recommendations The following recommendations are made based on the results of the testing conducted in this study.

9.4.3.1 Raise public awareness around flushing habits Though many Canadian municipalities have spent time, money, and resources developing and delivering educational programs detailing what is and what is not flushable, the problem may be related to a lack of awareness [9]. An increase in public awareness of appropriate disposal methods, combined with current efforts, may result in consumers taking more care when disposing these products in order to prevent blockages in their homes, which result in inconvenience and expense to the homeowner.

9.4.3.2 Eliminate the use of the word “flushable” on consumer products The use of the word “flushable” indicates that a product is safe for wastewater collection systems. However, based on the results presented in this report, it is evident that none of the products other than bathroom tissues are “flushable.” Therefore, eliminating the use of the word “flushable” from consumer products can help to reduce, if not eliminate, the presence of these products in wastewater collection systems, treatment plants, and the natural environment.

9.4.3.3 Advocate and provide support to government bodies to include the IWSFG specification, and the INDA/EDANA code of practice into legislation Many of the consumer products tested during this work were manufactured outside of North America in countries such as China, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Korea, Poland, and Thailand. The need for a global definition of a “flushable” product exists, and it is vital that it be brought into legislation in an effort to combat misconceptions around consumer products that may exist internationally [5, 6].

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9.4.3.4 Monitor and communicate with manufacturers and their associations (e.g., INDA, EDANA) to ensure policies and guidance are followed As mentioned in Section 9.1, it is unclear as to what extent manufacturers are practicing appropriate methodology in determining the flushability of consumer products as well as their labeling. Regulation of specifications in place may help to ensure that consumer products are correctly labeled with a “Do Not Flush” statement or DNF symbol.

9.4.3.5 Increase efforts to collect the information on the causes of reported sewer blockages Studies often cited to indicate the low content of “flushable” wipes in sewer systems are hardly representative of the potential impacts of many consumer products that are being flushed on the entire sewerage system, starting from private drains to wastewater treatment plants. Work orders completed by crews responding to sewer blockages often contain valuable information on the potential causes, and these should be collected and processed to gain further insight. In the longer term, a methodology needs to be developed to collect the information on blockage causes in a more systematic and easy way in order to better understand this issue and aid in developing effective control alternatives.

9.4.3.6 Continue the testing of consumer products with manufacturers’ input This study should be expanded to include the testing of products sold in other jurisdictions, as well as other consumer products such as feminine hygiene products, kitty litter, and dental floss. The consumer products that are of interest here undergo changes in terms of the manufacturing process and materials used, and these should be accounted for through closer communication with manufacturers and possible retesting. In addition, the products that pass the drainline and disintegration tests should be subjected to the remaining tests under the IWSFG PAS 1: 2018 [3].

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Acknowledgments: This work was funded by the Municipal Enforcement Sewer Use Group of Canada (MESUG). The authors thank MESUG for showing their support throughout the duration of this study by providing insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research. Authors would like to thank Canadian Water and Wastewater Association (CWWA) for facilitating the funds associated with this work. Authors would also like to express our gratitude to Robin Luong, the technical staff in the Department of Civil Engineering at Ryerson University. His efforts in aiding in this study, including the construction of the slosh box and assistance with innumerable technical issues, greatly improved the outcomes. Authors thank the Ryerson University Analytical Centre (RUAC) technical specialist and RUAC coordinator, Shawn McFadden, for providing access and training on the analytical laboratory instrumentation and software, enabling us to carry out additional assessments that were not initially considered in this work. The authors would also like to thank all those who have visited the Water Resources Engineering Laboratory at Ryerson University while the project was in progress. Their comments and helpful suggestions resulted in improvements in the testing apparatus and objectives of this work. Finally, the authors would also like to thank MESUG and CWWA members for their valuable comments on this work.

References [1]

[2] [3] [4] [5]

[6] [7]

Association of the Nonwoven Fabrics Industry (INDA) and The European Disposables and Nonwovens Association (EDANA). Guidelines for Assessing the Flushability and Disposable Nonwoven Products. (2018). International Water Services Flushability Group (IWSFG). (2018a). IWSFG Flushability Specifications. http://iwsfg.org/iwsfg-flushability-specification (accessed 31 January 2019) International Water Services Flushability Group (IWSFG). (2018b). Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 1: 2018 Criteria for Recognition as a Flushable Product. Khan, A, Orr, B, Joksimovic, D, (2019). Defining “Flushability” for Sewer Use. Ryerson Urban Water aka Urban Water Research Center. Association of the Nonwoven Fabrics Industry (INDA) and The European Disposables and Nonwovens Association (EDANA). CODE OF PRACTICE: Communicating Appropriate Disposal Pathways for Nonwoven Wipes to Protect Wastewater Systems, Second Edition 2017, (2017). International Water Services Flushability Group (IWSFG). (2018c). Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 3: 2018 Disintegration Test Methods – Slosh Box. Steed, J and Pira, S, (2018). Four Trends Shaping the Future of Nonwoven Wipe Demand. Nonwovens Industry since 1970. 2019 Rodman Media. https://www.nonwovens-industry. com/issues/20184/view_features/four-trends-shaping-the-future-of-nonwoven-wipe-demand accessed (05 February 2019)

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[8]

UK Water Industry. Fine to flush: Specification for a testing methodology to determine whether a product is suitable for disposal through a drain or sewer system. Fine to Flush, 1, 1, (2019), 30. Water UK. [9] Orr, B. (2013). The Toilet Toll. Water Canada. https://www.watercanada.net/feature/thetoilet-toll/ accessed (31 January 2019) [10] TAPPI. Fiber Analysis of Paper and Paperboard TAPPI/ANSI Test Method T401 om-15. TAPPI, (2018). [11] Shuaeb M. A. M. and Han M. Clogging potential of low-flush toilet branch drain system. Urban Water Journal, 15, 1, (2018), 68–74. doi: 10.1080/1573062X.2017.1395898.

Appendix A: Summary of products evaluated for fiber composition ID

Product type

Category

Subcategory

Manufacturing country

                 

Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Bath/facial tissue Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven Nonwoven

Baby wipes Baby wipes Baby wipes Baby wipes Baby wipes Baby wipes Baby wipes Bathroom tissue Cleaning wipes Cleansing cloth Cleansing wipes Cleansing wipes Cleansing wipes Cleansing wipes Cleansing wipes Cleansing wipes Diaper liners Diaper liners

Flushable Flushable

USA Poland Poland China Israel UK Ireland USA USA USA USA USA USA USA USA Italy China USA

Flushable – body Body Flushable – body Flushable – body Flushable – body Flushable – body Denture Flushable Flushable

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Appendix B: Schematic of proposed amendment to IWSFG PAS 3 (2018)

Meisam Darabi, Yongli Zhang

Chapter 10 Removal of microplastic pollution in water and wastewater treatment Abstract: It should be highlighted that water pollution due to microplastics and addressing emerging public health concerns of microplastics in drinking water treatment systems are top environmental concerns. Due to the presence of microplastics throughout drinking water systems from source to tap, understanding the occurrence and fate of microplastics in drinking water treatment systems is critical. Keywords: microplastics, drinking water, sedimentation and sand filtration, water treatment

10.1 Introduction The production of plastics has reached 300 million tons each year, of which about 13 million tons were released into rivers and oceans, and an estimated 250 million tons of plastics will be released by the end of 2025 [1, 28, 29]. Europe is the second plastic producer (18.5%) after Asia, which is considered as the largest manufacturer of plastics (50.1%). The North American Free Trade Agreement with 17.7% of plastic production is the third major plastic producer in the world [2, 3]. The lifetime of plastics varies from 1 to 50 years, depending on its usage. According to the report, 71% of plastic is lost to the environment, 12% is used for energy production, 9% is recycled, and 8% is disposed of in landfills [1]. Microplastics are defined as environmental pollutants with less than 5 mm in length, and they may be listed as primary and secondary, depending on their origin [4–6]. Primary microplastics refer to the microplastic products that are intentionallymanufactured, such as plastic granulates and microbeads for personal care products. Secondary microplastics are plastic fragments that break down from larger pieces of plastic undergoing abrasion, mechanical, weathering, and microbial decomposition [7]. Abrasion of vehicle tires, brakes, stormwater with plastic fragments, and rubber materials are reported as major sources of microplastics [8].

Meisam Darabi, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Wayne State University, 5050 Anthony Wayne Dr., Detroit, MI 48202, USA Yongli Zhang, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Wayne State University, 5050 Anthony Wayne Dr., Detroit, MI 48202, USA, e-mail: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-010

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Microplastics with various compositions, including polyamide, polyester, polypropylene, polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), and acrylic have been detected in the aquatic environment [9]. Microplastic polymer contaminants contained in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) consist of PE, polyethylene terephthalate, PS, polypropylene, polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyurethane, and polyacrylates, which are used in a range of items, for example, packaging, bags, and toys [3, 7, 10, 11]. Particles reported with the m-FTIR analysis were composed of PVC, polyester, polyamide, PE, and epoxy resin from drinking water treatment plants in Germany in a water survey [12]. Although there are some studies showing that treatment plants are capable of removing more than 95% of microplastic from wastewater, conventional treatment processes do not fully eliminate microplastic pollution from WWTPs and they may be regarded as one microplastic pollution source [4, 13]. Microplastics found in effluent from wastewater are usually derived from microbeads (mostly made of PE) in personal care products, such as soaps, facial scrubs, and shampoos [4]. It is recorded that by using a small amount of skin exfoliate (5 mL), approximately 4,600–94,500 PE microbeads will get to sewage, and each toothpaste use (1.6 g of toothpaste) releases approximately 4,000 PE beads. Another major type of microplastics from WWTPs is microfibers that shed from textiles during washing. A fleece jacket can shed up to 250,000 microfibers during a single wash cycle. These microfibers enter into WWTPs with washing water and cannot be completely removed by current wastewater treatment. Water treatment processes aim to provide a barrier to the entrance of microplastics into drinking water, but microplastics in treated water are not entirely eliminated. As an example, a two-stage sedimentation and sand filtration method was only able to remove an average of 81% of microplastics from raw water [14]. Therefore, drinking water is a potential source of exposure to microplastics, which could pose a risk to human health [9, 15]. Due to their chemical stability, microplastics have been proven to be water-stable for hundreds of years, which might create significant environmental and health issues. Owing to their large surface area and strong hydrophobicity, microplastics are potent carriers of harmful organic chemicals and different heavy metals that can be adsorbed onto their surface [16, 28, 29]. Other pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants, including DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls, and dioxins may be absorbed by microplastics, and even at very low doses, they can increase cancer risk, damage immune system, and cause reproductive disorders [4, 17]. Given the wide presence of microplastics in water and the consequential impact on ecological and human health, it is warranted to understand the removal efficacy of microplastics in water and WWTP. This chapter discusses different water and wastewater treatment processes, how they function, what their role is in removing microplastics, and how treatment plants ought to be changed for improved removal of microplastics.

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10.2 Size, shape, and source of microplastics Microplastics are generally defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, and they are classified into five groups based on size (1–5 μm, 5–10 μm, 10–50 μm, 50–100 μm, >100 μm) and nanoplastics (60 mg alum-equivalent/L) [24]. In two experimental studies, the removal efficiency of microplastics via coagulation/sedimentation was very low, less than 5% of removal at regular coagulant doses [25, 28, 29]. In survey studies of actual water and WWTP, higher removal efficiencies were observed. For instance, Wang et al. [23] found 40.5–54.5% of microplastic removal in an advanced water treatment plant during the treatment of coagulation/sedimentation [23]. Studies also reported up to 81% of microplastic removal via primary and secondary sedimentation in wastewater treatment [6, 20]. Flotation is a process after sedimentation in which smallsize pollutants are attached to the bubbles formed, then float upward and are removed after skimming [6]. This method is more effective in removing small particles with low density, and as such, it could be a potential alternative to removing microplastics.

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For example, Pivokonsky et al. [9] observed the highest removal rate of microplastics (83%) in the water treatment plant that had an additional flotation process compared to two other plants without flotation (70–81% of microplastic removal) [9]. The characteristics of microplastics, water, and coagulants influence the efficiency of coagulation removal [20]. Some studies reported that, due to the negative charge of microplastic surface, the available salts (ferric or alum) decreased and as such, increased amount of coagulants would be needed [1, 28, 29]. On the other hand, weathering processes in the environment could result in microplastic fragmentation, change in the surface chemistry, and increase in microplastic affiliation to coagulants [24]. For different types of coagulants, it has been reported a higher PE removal with Al-based coagulants compared to that with Fe-based coagulants. In addition, higher removal efficiency was documented for the smaller PE particles in their research [28, 29]. Water pH affects alum and ferric salt solubility, so pH could be another important parameter in the performance of coagulation in microplastic removal [28, 29]. Electrocoagulation is an advanced method of treatment utilizing metal electrodes to generate coagulants electrically, making the process of coagulation simple, reliable, environmentally friendly, and cheaper compared with chemical coagulation. Electrocoagulation was reported to remove up to 90% of PE microplastics, and with time, the removal performance improved [15]. In addition, electrocoagulation appears to be working well in removing microbeads in a broad pH range, making this method effective with no need of adding additional chemicals to adjust water pH [26].

10.4.2 Filtration Filtration is widely used in water treatment plants to capture suspended particles by mechanical strain or by physical adsorption. Filters are usually porous adsorbents such as zeolites, minerals, or active carbon that target specific pollutants [27]. Filtration is considered as a much more effective approach to remove microplastics compared to coagulation/sedimentation [25]. Rapid sand filtration (RSF) is an example of a filtration process that operates via three layers of filter media including anthracite grain, silica sand, and gravel [1, 21], reporting a 97% removal of microplastics in the secondary effluent by RSF. Because of their small sizes, microplastics can quickly move through the first layer of anthracite and can be adsorbed by the silica grains through hydrophilic interaction on the silica bed, resulting in the layer becoming clogged and the RSF efficiency decreased. Compared to RSF, Zhang et al. [16] found that sand filtration alone did not reach high microplastic removal, with only 30.9–49.3%, 23.5–50.9%, and 18.9–27.5% removal for fibers, spheres, and fragments, respectively.

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10.4.3 Membrane and membrane bioreactor Membrane processes are one type of the advanced treatment methods that can provide an efficient remediation for water microplastic pollution. Membrane separation methods include ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis (RO) [15]. Advanced treatments such as UF and RO membranes have recorded high-quality effluent with less than 2% of microplastics [22]. The small pore size of UF membranes allows the removal of a significant portion of microplastics from water. The UF membrane is commonly applied along with coagulation as a pretreatment during drinking water treatment [28, 29]. Membrane processing acts as a mechanical obstacle to microplastics. A significant challenge with the membrane separation is membrane fouling, where pollutants (such as microplastics) encounter membranes mechanically and chemically during the treatment process and accumulate on the membrane surface or in the membrane pores [22]. Some physicochemical characteristics of microplastics, such as hydrophobicity and roughness, intensify the contact of microplastics with the surface of the membrane and therefore worsen membrane fouling [1]. Membrane fouling results in prolonged running time, decline of water flux permeation, decreased transmembrane pressure, increased repair requirements, and electricity costs. Therefore, understanding the surface chemistry of microplastics is critical to provide the proper surface treatment to ensure long-term efficiency of the filtration [1, 15]. Compared to conventional wastewater treatment processes, almost all advanced technologies in the final stage of treatment plants, such as membrane bioreactor (MBR), can eliminate more than 95% of microplastics from the influent. MBR is among the most effectively advanced techniques for microplastic removal, with marked improvement in microplastic removal and high effluent quality [2, 15]. The function of MBR in microplastic treatment is to decrease the complexity of the treated water by biodegrading organic compounds contained in water [3]. MBR is reported to remove more than 99% of microplastics [21].

10.4.4 Disinfection Disinfection is intended to destroy parasites and pathogens in water and wastewater through chlorination, ozonation, or UV irradiation. It is suggested that microplastics entering this process may interfere with the disinfection efficiency [1]. The presence of microplastics in water can inhibit the action of chlorine, serving as protective substrates for microorganisms and resisting disinfection. In addition, chlorination and ozonation can generate carbonyl chemicals on the surface of microplastics. This will alter the surface properties of microplastics, influencing the interactions between microplastics and waterborne organisms by selectively accumulating certain type of microorganisms [1]. UV radiation could crack plastics and facilitate the breakdown of microplastics, resulting in a higher number of microplastic particles.

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Dong et al. (2019) observed that the concentration of microplastics tended to increase marginally after the UV disinfection step [2].

10.5 Challenges and future research directions There are many concerns regarding the treatment efficiency of water and wastewater treatment processes and more research is needed. A major issue is the challenge of sampling, identifying, and quantifying microplastics (particularly nanoplastics) in water and wastewater influent. Shear forces in water and wastewater treatment facilities cause fragmentation of microplastics into nanoplastics. However, due to the challenge of detection of nanoplastics, the increased amount of nanoplastics in effluents could be hardly detected, although the concentration of microplastics in effluents showed remarkable reductions [1]. The other challenge is the incomplete removal of microplastics and nanoplastics in treatment processes. It is warranted to develop new approaches to improve the removal of microplastics (particularly, small microplastics less than 10 μm and nanoplastics), since most treatment techniques are not designed to remove microplastics [15].

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Enfrin, M., Dumee, L. F. and Lee, J. Nano/microplastics in water and wastewater treatment processes – Origin, impact and potential solutions. Water Research, 161, (2019), 621–638. Lv, X., Dong, Q., Zuo, Z., Liu, Y., Huang, X. and Wu, W.-M. Microplastics in a municipal wastewater treatment plant: Fate, dynamic distribution, removal efficiencies, and control strategies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 225, (2019), 579–586. Poerio, T., Piacentini, E. and Mazzei, R. Membrane processes for microplastic removal. Molecules, 24, 22, (2019). Bretas Alvim, C., Mendoza-Roca, J. A. and Bes-Pia, A. Wastewater treatment plant as microplastics release source – quantification and identification techniques. Journal of Environmental Management, 255, (2020), 109739. Park, H.-J., Oh, M.-J., Kim, P.-G., Kim, G., Jeong, D.-H., Ju, B.-K., Lee, W.-S., Chung, H.-M., Kang, H.-J. and Kwon, J.-H. National reconnaissance survey of microplastics in municipal wastewater treatment plants in Korea. Environmental Science & Technology, 54, 3, (2020), 1503–1512. Zhang, X., Chen, J. and Li, J. The removal of microplastics in the wastewater treatment process and their potential impact on anaerobic digestion due to pollutants association. Chemosphere, 251, (2020), 126360. Bayo, J., Olmos, S. and Lopez-Castellanos, J. Microplastics in an urban wastewater treatment plant: The influence of physicochemical parameters and environmental factors. Chemosphere, 238, (2020), 124593.

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Siipola, V., Pflugmacher, S., Romar, H., Wendling, L. and Koukkari, P. Low-cost biochar adsorbents for water purification including microplastics removal. Applied Sciences, 10, 3, (2020). Pivokonsky, M., Cermakova, L., Novotna, K., Peer, P., Cajthaml, T. and Janda, V. Occurrence of microplastics in raw and treated drinking water. Science of The Total Environment, 643, (2018), 1644–1651. Koelmans, A. A., Mohamed Nor, N. H., Hermsen, E., Kooi, M., Mintenig, S. M. and De France, J. Microplastics in freshwaters and drinking water: Critical review and assessment of data quality. Water Research, 155, (2019), 410–422. Novotna, K., Cermakova, L., Pivokonska, L., Cajthaml, T. and Pivokonsky, M. Microplastics in drinking water treatment – Current knowledge and research needs. The Science of the Total Environment, 667, (2019), 730–740. Eerkes-Medrano, D., Leslie, H. A. and Quinn, B. Microplastics in drinking water: A review and assessment. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 7, (2019), 69–75. Raju, S., Carbery, M., Kuttykattil, A., Senthirajah, K., Lundmark, A., Rogers, Z., Scb, S., Evans, G. and Palanisami, T. Improved methodology to determine the fate and transport of microplastics in a secondary wastewater treatment plant. Water Research, 173, (2020), 115549. Lam, T. W. L., Ho, H. T., Ma, A. T. H. and Fok, L. Microplastic contamination of surface watersourced tap water in hong kong – a preliminary study. Applied Sciences, 10(10, (2020). Shen, M., Song, B., Zhu, Y., Zeng, G., Zhang, Y., Yang, Y., Wen, X., Chen, M. and Yi, H. Removal of microplastics via drinking water treatment: Current knowledge and future directions. Chemosphere, 251, (2020), 126612. Zhang, Q., Xu, E. G., Li, J., Chen, Q., Ma, L., Zeng, E. Y. and Shi, H. A review of microplastics in table salt, drinking water, and air: Direct human exposure. Environmental Science & Technology, 54, 7, (2020), 3740–3751. O’Donovan, S., Mestre, N. C., Abel, S., Fonseca, T. G., Carteny, C. C., Cormier, B., Keiter, S. H. and Bebianno, M. J. Ecotoxicological effects of chemical contaminants adsorbed to microplastics in the clam scrobicularia plana. Frontiers in Marine Science, (2018), 5. Forrest, S. A., Holman, L., Murphy, M. and Vermaire, J. C. Citizen science sampling programs as a technique for monitoring microplastic pollution: results, lessons learned and recommendations for working with volunteers for monitoring plastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191, 3, (2019), 172. Meng, Y., Kelly, F. J. and Wright, S. L. Advances and challenges of microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems: A UK perspective. Environmental Pollution, 256, (2020), 113445. Skaf, D. W., Punzi, V. L., Rolle, J. T. and Kleinberg, K. A. Removal of micron-sized microplastic particles from simulated drinking water via alum coagulation. Chemical Engineering Journal, (2020), 386. Talvitie, J., Mikola, A., Koistinen, A. and Setala, O. Solutions to microplastic pollution – Removal of microplastics from wastewater effluent with advanced wastewater treatment technologies. Water Research, 123, (2017), 401–407. Ziajahromi, S., Neale, P. A., Rintoul, L. and Leusch, F. D. Wastewater treatment plants as a pathway for microplastics: Development of a new approach to sample wastewater-based microplastics. Water Research, 112, (2017), 93–99. Wang, Z., Lin, T. and Chen, W. Occurrence and removal of microplastics in an advanced drinking water treatment plant (ADWTP). Science of The Total Environment, 700, (2020), 134520.

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[24] Lapointe, M., Farner, J. M., Hernandez, L. M. and Tufenkji, N. Understanding and improving microplastic removal during water treatment: Impact of coagulation and flocculation. Environmental Science & Technology, 54, 14, (2020), 8719–8727. [25] Zhang, Y., Diehl, A., Lewandowski, A., Gopalakrishnan, K. and Baker, T. T. E. Removal efficiency of micro-and nanoplastics (180 nm–125 μm) during drinking water treatment. The Science of the Total Environment, 720, (2020), 137383. [26] Perren, W., Wojtasik, A. and Cai, Q. Removal of microbeads from wastewater using electrocoagulation. American Chemical Society, 3, (2018), 3357–3364. [27] Misra, A., Zambrzycki, C., Kloker, G., Kotyrba, A., Anjass, M. H., Franco Castillo, I., Mitchell, S. G., Guttel, R. and Streb, C. Water purification and microplastics removal using magnetic polyoxometalate-supported ionic liquid phases (magPOM-SILPs). Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English), 59, 4, (2020), 1601–1605. [28] Ma, B., Xue, W., Ding, Y., Hu, C., Liu, H. and Qu, J. Removal characteristics of microplastics by Fe-based coagulants during drinking water treatment. Journal of Environmental Sciences (China), 78, (2019a), 267–275. [29] Ma, B., Xue, W., Hu, C., Liu, H., Qu, J. and Li, L. Characteristics of microplastic removal via coagulation and ultrafiltration during drinking water treatment. Chemical Engineering Journal, 359, (2019b), 159–167.

Audrey Stahrr, Mohammed Dardona, Chandra M. Tummala, Timothy M. Dittrich

Chapter 11 Road dust: composition and effects on urban waterways Abstract: Road dust is the accumulation of fine material on the surface of streets and highways. This material can come from sources that range from brake pad dust to dried windblown dog waste and often includes soil particles, rubber, plastic, and heavy metals. Road dust enters urban waterways when it is washed from pavement during rainstorms. We describe the composition of road dust and the impacts it has on water quality in urban streams. Road dust pollution is a growing problem all over the world. There are multiple factors that influence the amount and the type of road dust that is found on certain roads. In addition, road dust has been found to be associated with negative effects for plants and animals (including humans). We conclude by identifying future research needs to understand and mitigate negative environmental effects of road dust pollution. Keywords: road dust, metal pollution, tires

11.1 Introduction Road dust is found on streets and is known as a non-source pollutant, meaning that it is the result of multiple factors. While road dust can be found anywhere in the world, no matter if the area is urban or rural, it has been found that the amount of road dust present increases along with urbanization. Research into road dust is important not only because of the health effects it can have on nearby plants and wildlife, but it can also get into the drinking system of nearby towns. This means that it can cause problems for humans as well. Specifically, road dust has been found to cause health problems related to the respiratory system for adults as well as cognitive development in children. Road dust has been shown to contribute to these problems because it contains heavy metals such as zinc, lead, iron, and copper. The metal content of road dust depends on what each specific sample contains. Below in Figure 11.1 it shows the breakdown of main components of road dust that

Audrey Stahrr, Mohammed Dardona, Chandra M. Tummala, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Wayne State University, 5050 Anthony Wayne Drive, Detroit, MI 48202, USA. Timothy M. Dittrich, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Wayne State University, 5050 Anthony Wayne Drive, Detroit, MI 48202, USA, e-mail: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-011

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Figure 11.1: Different parts of road dust that have been researched the most.

have been researched the most and the metals that result from them. The main metals found in road dust include iron, lead, zinc, magnesium, copper, manganese, chromium, aluminum, and calcium. These metals are the result of the different components and factors that cause road dust. For example, studies found “concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Ni metals that are commonly released from vehicles and found in road dust” [1]. These are just some of the metals that are put into road dust from vehicles. Tire wear and brake pads add even more metals into the mix of road dust such as lead. Road dust samples from different locations can result in different metals found. For example, one study found that the concentrations of iron and manganese were the highest compared to the other metals [2]. This was true for the sample of road dust that was taken but might be different for road dust sampled somewhere else. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images are needed to find the amount of each material that makes up road dust. SEM images of road dust samples are taken in order to accurately show the different components within the sample, along with their various sizes. The SEM uses electrons to produce microscopic images,, which can show the particles that include the finest sizes found within road dust. Since every road dust’s composition is different the SEM for each sample will be specific to that sample.

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11.2 Components of road dust Road dust originates from many different components that are influenced by many different factors. These can include road components such as the materials used to make the road, and the paint that is used for traffic lines. The type of use that the road sees such as the number of cars as well as the speed of the cars that use it can influence the content. Also, the geographic location of the road, specifically if it is an urban area or rural area, can have an influence. Another factor is the type of usage the road is subjected to, such as if the road is used for entry into a residential area, a commercial area, or an industrial area. Lastly, the weather the road experiences daily can also be a factor, such as the amount of precipitation or the average temperatures of the area. The next sections go into each of the components in more detail.

11.2.1 Car parts Car parts can break down and be left on the side of the road, which then leads to them decaying and the heavy metals become part of the road dust. Additionally, there are other ways that car parts can lead to road dust. For example, “exhaust fumes, tire wear, asphalt erosion, wear of brakes and engines, rusting of car bodywork” [3] can become part of the road dust mixture. Another example of additional car parts that can impact road dust is the exhaust fume. In fact, “while only 7% of PM2.5 pollution from traffic comes from tail pipe exhaust fumes at roadside site” [4] this is still a cause of road dust even if it is a low percentage. There are two car parts that have the highest impact on road dust; brake pads and tires.

11.2.2 Brake pads Brake pads are essential to driving as they are needed to help drivers stop their cars. Unfortunately, this necessity can cause “up to a fifth of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution at roadsides” [4]. This pollution can include metals such as cadmium, chromium, and zinc. In addition, “copper is a component of brake pads while lead is found in brake wear” [3] showing that brakes can cause pollution both because of the pads themselves as well as the wear of them. This wear leads to people replacing the pads at regular intervals, which can then also serve to increase the amount of brake particulate matter in the air and in the road dust.

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11.2.3 Tire wear Another main cause of road dust is tire wear that results from the rubber driving on the road. In fact, road dust becomes “airborne primarily due to the friction of tires moving on unpaved dirt roads and dust-covered paved roads” [5]. This explains that the friction of the tires not only causes the wear of the tires but also the movement of road dust. Specific metals that tire rubber can cause include cadmium, chromium, and zinc. In addition, if tire wear is present, then the concentration of zinc in road dust will be increased [6]. Lastly, not only does tire wear cause lead but so does the tire weights used to balance the tires. This shows that tires in general can increase the amount of road dust that is found on the roadways.

11.2.4 Traffic paint Traffic paint is used on all paved roads in the world and the paint releases toxins that mix into the road dust. In fact, road dust “can contain highly dangerous pollutants like hexavalent chromium, perhaps released by aging yellow traffic paint” [7]. This paint increases the amount of heavy metals that are found in road dust around the world. The reason for this pollution is because traffic paint includes a resin that allows it to melt onto the surface of the road. This resin is mixed with the color pigments and leads to the heavy metals found in the traffic paint and therefore found in road dust. It has been found that the composition of traffic paint can also vary based on the city. This leads to even more variation in the composition of the road dust.

11.3 Factors influencing road dust properties Besides the many components that make up road dust and its metal composition, there are multiple factors that can influence the amount of road dust that is found in an area. These factors, which are shown in Figure 11.2, depend on certain aspects that can increase the amount of road dust. The next sections go into each of the factors in more detail.

11.3.1 Pavement surface The materials used to make a particular road can play a factor in the road dust as well. Common materials that are used on roads are asphalt and concrete. The materials used can cause different roughness in the road surface. In fact, “the roughness of the impervious surfaces had also been found to strongly affect the pollutant

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Figure 11.2: Factors of specific road dust particles.

build-up” on the roads [8]. In addition to affecting the roughness, the materials can also impact the concentrations of road dust. For example, a “concrete highway had higher concentrations levels of the heavy metals than the asphalt highway” [1]. This could be due to the increased roughness, which then leads to an increase in tire wear. In order to decrease the effect that the material composition of the road can have on the concentration of road dust it was found that the road builders can use a moisture product that includes chloride into the roadway as it is being built or they can even apply after the fact [9]. While currently the road composition can influence the road dust, if specific products are applied it can decrease the effect that road composition can have.

11.3.2 Weather The weather of the area the road is located in can also influence the amount of road dust. In fact, areas with less precipitation and drier climates were found to have higher amounts of road dust present. The reason for this is because of the “particle resuspension from the road surface can be very significant especially in dryer climates” [6]. This explains that due to the dry climate the dust is moved around and the exposure increases.

11.3.3 Temperature The temperature of an area, and specifically if the average temperature is considered a warm or cold climate, can impact the road dust composition. It has been

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found that warmer temperatures can result in higher amounts of road dust. As proof, “it was expected that dust loading would be highest in the hotter, drier months and closest to the road” [10]. The reason for this is because when it is hot and dry it is easier for the dust to build up and increases its concentration. Furthermore, the amounts of road dust have been found “higher in the spring and summer than in the winter” [5]. This would be because these months are when warmer temperatures are common.

11.3.4 Environment Not only do factors of the road itself play a part in road dust concentrations but also the environment around the road has an impact. For example, the amount of road dust varies between a residential road and a commercial road. For example, a sample that was taken in Gary, Indiana which is a highly industrial area found high concentrations of metals that are associated with steel production. In fact, a road near a steel plant showed concentrations of many of the metals decreasing the farther away from the steel plant that the sample was collected [7]. This shows that samples taken closer to the industrial site had higher concentrations compared to an area further away. This represents the fact that the environment surrounding the road plays an important role in the amount of road dust.

11.3.5 Geographic location Location of the road related to urban or rural land is also a factor of road dust. For example, roads in urban areas compared to rural areas were found to have higher amounts of road dust. The reason for this is because “the deposition of pollutants on impervious surfaces is a serious problem associated with rapid urbanization, which results in non-point-source pollution” [8]. This shows that as areas become more urbanized the pollution is increasing, including road dust. This cause of road dust specifically in urban areas is due to industrialization that is associated with the urban area. In addition, where the sample is taken on the road can also affect the concentrations of road dust. For example, if a sample is taken at 10 m from the centerline it was found to have higher amounts of road dust compared to a sample taken 80 m from the center. In fact, a “355% increase in dust loading 10 m from the road was found” [10]. This shows that as the distance increases from the center of the road, the amount of road dust decreases. Lastly, road dust also varies based on the location around the world due to the many different factors that can get into road dust that vary from continent to continent. This means that road dust sampled in America could contain different metals than road dust measured from China.

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11.3.6 Road use Road use refers to what types of cars are using the road; meaning is it only semi-trucks or regular cars or even a mix of both. Another factor that can impact road dust is the type of road; is it considered a freeway, a highway, or even an alley. It was found that the highways result in higher concentrations of road dust. This could be because highways have a mix of car types driving on it or even because the cars that use a highway are typically in high volumes and driving at faster speeds. In fact, “the highest concentrations of heavy metals found in road dust were sampled from highways, then rotary areas, and finally the downtown areas” [1]. This shows the ranking in the concentrations found in road dust varies depending on the purpose and use of the road.

11.3.7 Traffic speeds The amount of road dust on a road can also be impacted by the average speed of the vehicles that travel on the road. Additionally, the concentrations of the different heavy metals are also dependent on the vehicle speeds for the road. This relates to the road use since typically highways have higher speeds compared to a road in a neighborhood. It has been found that if a road saw faster speeds from cars then higher amounts of road dust were present. This could be because if cars are traveling at faster speeds then the tires are spinning faster, and more dust gets picked up and moved around and can combine with other dusts. This can result in a change in the concentrations of the heavy metals that are found in the samples of the road dust.

11.3.8 Traffic volume The last factor of road dust is the traffic volume that the road is subjected to on a daily basis. It was found that higher traffic volume roads, like a highway, have higher amounts of road dust compared to less used roads, like an alley. This relates to the other factors of road dust such as road use (the higher used roads typically are the highways in the area) and location (the higher volumes of cars are typically found on urban roads as compared to rural roads).

11.3.8.1 Environmental impacts (why is this important?) Road dust is important because of the effects it can have on society. These effects can be on humans as well as on the water system, plants, and even animals. In fact, the metals that road dust can contain are a major concern since studies have found the dust to be small enough to be both ingestible and inhalable [7]. This

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means that the dust particles can be so small and cannot be seen by the human eye so a person would not even know they inhaled the pollutant until it is too late. It was identified that while one exposure will not affect a person much, that if someone is exposed to the dust for years then the effects can be present [7]. The following calculations were followed to calculate how much of the main components of road dust Americans are exposed to. First, traffic paint is one of the three main components of road dust, so the first step was to calculate how many gallons of traffic paint are used in the United States each year. This high amount of traffic paint leads to the high amounts of road dust. In Michigan, the Department of Transportation uses 16.5 gallons of paint per mile of stripe on the roads [11]. Assuming this value is true for all states in the United States, and using that there are 2,678,000 miles of paved road in America the amount of paint used can be calculated by the following equations: 2,678,000 miles × 16.5

gallons = 44,187,000 mi

gallons of paint used in the United States Assuming the paint lasts about 2 years before needing to be replaced [12], the following equation was calculated to find the amount of paint per year: 44,187,000 gallons = 22,093,500 gallons of paint per year 2 years Second, brake pads are another main component found in road dust. Calculations were then performed to find how many brake pads Americans go through. Since there are two brake pads per wheel on a car and the average car has four wheels per car there are eight pads per car. To calculate how many miles brake pads can last the following equation was used to find an average of miles before they need to be replaced based on the average range a brake pad has been found to last [13]: 25,000 miles + 65,000 miles = 45,000 miles brakepads last until needing replacement 2 Finding that a person travels about 11,100 miles a year [14] the following calculation was done to determine how many years a brake pad can last: 45,000 miles = 4.05 years so approximately every 4 years brake pads get worn out. miles 11,100 year Using that there are 284.5 million registered vehicles in the United States [15], the amount of brake pads used every 4 years can now be calculated: 284.5 million vehicles × 8

brake pads = 2,276,000,000 brake pads every 4 years vehicle

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Lastly, tire wear is the third main component that is found to influence the amount of road dust. The calculations were then performed to find how many tires Americans go through assuming that the average car has four wheels per car. To calculate how many miles tires can last the following equation was used to find the average number of miles before replacement is needed based on the average range a tire has been found to last [14]: 50,000 miles + 70,000 miles = 60,000 miles tires last until needing replacement 2 Using the value of 11,100 miles a year for how much a person travels [14], the following calculation was done to determine how many years a tire can last: 60,000 miles = 5.4 years so approximately every 5 years tires get worn out. miles 11,100 year Using that there are 284.5 million registered vehicles in the United States [15], the number of tires that are used every 5 years can now be calculated: 284.5 million vehicles × 4 tires = 1,138,000,000 tires are used every 5 years This high number of tires, brakes, and paint that are used in America can increase the amounts of road dust that is found. With the high amounts of road dust found, the effect that the dust can have on society can also increase.

11.3.8.2 Effects on humans The heavy metals found in road dust cause many health concerns in humans, especially in the respiratory system. In fact, 18 of 31 studies performed resulted in respiratory effects [9]. This shows that more than half of the studies resulted in respiratory problems including asthma. In fact, “at least 20 different human allergens, including molds and pollen, in dust stirred up from paved road” [5]. These allergens can lead to more serious health problems for some such as asthma which was found in both adults and children. Additionally, road dust can lead to “increased risk off asthma, renal damage, cancer, and negative effects on reproduction” [7]. Unfortunately, the health effects are not only found in adults but children too. It was found that lead, which is present in multiple components of road dust leading to a higher concentration of the metal, is responsible for multiple health concerns. For example, “lead is known to be responsible for deficits in neurobehavioral and cognitive development in childhood. Reports have also found lead exposure to result in dysfunction of the reproductive system, as well as microcytic anemia resulting in conditions such as hypertension and chronic renal failure” [5]. This shows that lead, which is found in road dust, can affect children even at a young age. Different metals have different health

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concerns which make it difficult to find all the exact health effects. Since the concentration of metals in road dust varies due to multiple factors, the effects that the road dust can have also vary.

11.3.8.3 Effect on plants Not only does road dust affect human health, but it can also have an affect on the plants that are found near the roads. Road dust has been found to reduce the crop yields of certain plants as well as “might lead to DNA damage in plants” [2]. In fact, road dust can cause problems for the main processes that plants are able to perform. For example, this dust can cause physical effects in plants such as blocking the stomata and causing destruction of its cells. Road dust can also affect the photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration process that plants are usually able to perform [16]. The stoma is an important opening on the plant that if blocked can lead to the plant being unable to grow. Also, the three main processes of the plant are very important for vegetation growth and reproduction. If these are unable to be performed the plant would not be able to survive. These effects can happen to plants that are being used to produce food for society or even plants that are planted for aesthetic reasons close to the road. Both types are important to society and road dust can affect them.

11.3.8.4 Effect on wildlife In addition to the effect on humans and plants, road dust can also affect wildlife that live near the roads. With the plant damage noted in the section above and with certain animals depending on those plants for nutrition, the diet of these animals can be negatively impacted. Additionally, road dust can negatively impact nearby wetlands, which are home to many animals. In fact, “wetlands are habitats to many different organisms including marshland birds, reptiles, and amphibians” [10]. This shows that road dust can impact habitats for animals resulting in no where for them to live. This can lead to injuries, exposure to predators, and even death. Also, the metals found within road dust can also lead to negative health effects for wildlife animals. For example, “in animals, barium causes cardiac arrest, renal failure, anemia, ototoxicity, hepatic failure, infertility, and birth defects” [5]. This shows that the metals that make up road dust can also affect the animal’s health not just their habitats. Road dust does not only effect land-based animals, but also water-based animals as well. Road dust can get into the water and effect the fish that swim in it. Research shows the liver and the gills of the fish can intake the heavy metals found within the water that contains the road dust [17]. This intake of metals can cause future health problems for the fish. Luckily, some research shows that some wildlife have started to develop a resilience to certain energy changes that are a result of

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road dust. For example, “the results of the study found that wildlife who are found in high-energy agriculture areas were found to be resilient to the energy development unlike the wildlife found in an undisturbed habitat” [18]. This shows that the animals that are born into specific agricultures are adapting to the changes while others are not, and they are being affected.

11.4 Effect on water system The last important effect that road dust can impact is on the nearby water system. This is important since humans drink this water and are ingesting the road dust that can get into the water system. Humans are then exposed to all the health effects due to the road dust that are mentioned above. In fact, the pollution is not only harming the plants and wildlife in the area but also the waterways that humans use [19]. This happens because the road dust can get into the water system by getting into the nearby runoff and flowing into the water. In fact, one of the components of road dust, car parts, can lead to increased contamination of the water from the catalytic converters of cars. For example, because of the use of catalytic converters for cars there has been an increase in the emission of Platinum Group Members and these have been found in the nearby road runoff [17]. This shows that metals are entering the water systems by runoff from the road.

11.5 Conclusion and future research needs There is no one standard type of road dust as the composition depends on many different factors and components. These components can include the materials from car parts, tire wear, brake pads, and traffic paint. The factors influencing the amount of road dust can include weather, temperature, traffic volume, traffic speed, location, environment, road use, and road composition. Road dust contains multiple heavy metals that vary based on the different factors. These heavy metals can cause health concerns not only for humans, but for plants and animals as well. While much research has been done on road dust there are is still more to do, specifically on the exact percentages of the concentrations that make up road dust [20–27]. While research has been done with respect to multiple components of road dust, there is still more research that needs to be done. The most important research that needs to be done is finding the specific percentages of the different concentrations that can be found within road dust. This means not just putting the material through a sieve to know the composition based on particle size, but also to fully analyze the components. This includes finding exact percentage of weight and size fraction of the different components. Finding exact quantifiable amounts of the

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different concentrations can help determine the exact concentration of road dust. This can further help determine the exact effects due to each of the different components based on specific percentage of each component. Knowing more of what exactly road dust is made of can help with determining the best way to decrease the amount of it in the world as well as decrease its effect on society.

References [1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9] [10]

[11] [12] [13] [14]

Duong, T. T. T. and Lee, B.-K. Determining contamination level of heavy metals in road dust from busy traffic areas with different characteristics. Journal of Environmental Management, 92, 3, (2011), 554–562. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.09.010. Aryal, R., Beecham, S., Sarkar, B. et al. Readily wash-off road dust and associated heavy metals on motorways. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 228, 1, (2017) https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11270-016-3178-3. Bourliva, A., Kantiranis, N., Papadopoulou, L., Aidona, E., Christophoridis, C. and Kollias, P. (2011). On the Morphology, Geochemical Characteristics and Magnetic Properties of Urban Road Dust Particles from the Historic Center of the City of Thessaloniki, Greece. EurekAlert. “Brake dust air pollution may have same harmful effects on immune cells as diesel exhaust.” EurekAlert!, www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-01/urai-bda010720. php. Khan, R. K. and Strand, M. A. “Road dust and its effect on human health: a literature review.” Epidemiology and Health, Korean Society of Epidemiology, 10 Apr. 2018, www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC5968206/. Thorpe, A. and Harrison, R. M. Sources and properties of non-exhaust particulate matter from road traffic: a review. Science of The Total Environment, 400, 1-3, (2008), 270–282. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.06.007. Sever, M. “Road dust: A health hazard hidden in plain sight.” Eos, 7 Nov. 2019, eos.org/ articles/road-dust-a-health-hazard-hidden-in-plain-sight. https://eos.org/articles/road-dust-ahealth-hazard-hidden-in-plain-sight Shen, Z. et al. A comparative study of the grain-size distribution of surface dust and stormwater runoff quality on typical urban roads and roofs in Beijing, China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 23, 3, (2016), 2693–2704. ProQuest. Web. 16 Feb. 2020. Frazer, L. Down with Road Dust. Environ Health Perspect, 111, 16, (2003), A893–A895. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3435199. Accessed 2 Feb. 2020. Creuzer, J., Hargiss, C. L. M., Norland, J. E. et al. Does increased road dust due to energy development impact Wetlands in the Bakken region?. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 227, 39, (2016) doi: https://doi.org\10.1007\s11270-015-2739-1. “Traffic paints and their use in pavement marking.” Michigan State Highway Department, 13 Dec. 1955, www.michigan.gov/documents/mdot/R-245_439079_7.pdf. “Parking lot striping, traffic paint.” PaintPRO, 2004. www.paintpro.net/Articles/PP602/ PP602_striping2.cfm. How Long Do Brake Pads Last? | Buy Auto Parts, 2020. www.buyautoparts.com/howto/howlong-do-brake-pads-last.html. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2018 https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/de tail.php?id=36414

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[15] “US VIO vehicle registration statistics, fast quote on car data.” Hedges & Company, 9 Apr. 2020, https://hedgescompany.com/automotive-market-research-statistics/auto-mailing-listsand-marketing/. [16] Spellerberg, I. Ecological effects of roads and traffic: A literature review. Global Ecology & Biogeography Letters, 7, (1998), 317–333. doi: 10.1046/j.1466-822x.1998.00308.x. [17] Sures, B. et al. First report on the uptake of automobile catalyst emitted palladium by European Eels (Anguilla Anguilla) following experimental exposure to road dust. Environmental Pollution, 113, 3, (2001), 341–345. doi: 10.1016/s0269-7491(00)00185-8. [18] Spiess, J. et al. Bird and invertebrate communities appear unaffected by fracking traffic along rural roads despite dust emissions. Ambio, 49, 2, (2019), 605–615. doi: 10.1007/s13280-01901207-9. [19] Bay, Alliance for the Chesapeake. “Scoop the poop.” Reduce Your Stormwater, 2015. www. stormwater.allianceforthebay.org/runoff-busters/scoop-the-poop. [20] Gunawardana, C. et al. Source Characterisation of Road Dust Based on Chemical and Mineralogical Composition. Chemosphere, 87, 2, (2012), 163–170. doi: 10.1016/j. chemosphere.2011.12.012. [21] Deaton, J. P. “How Brake Pads Work.” HowStuffWorks, HowStuffWorks, 11 Nov. 2008, https:// auto.howstuffworks.com/auto-parts/brakes/brake-parts/brake-pads.htm. [22] Haus, N., et al. “Occurrence of Platinum and Additional Traffic Related Heavy Metals in Sediments and Biota.” Chemosphere, Pergamon, 14 Sept. 2007, www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence/article/pii/S0045653506010666. [23] “Thermoplastic Road Marking Paint.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 16 Jan. 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoplastic_road_marking_paint. [24] “Dust Control and Stabilization.” Envionmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/sites/pro duction/files/201510/documents/2003_07_24_nps_gravelroads_sec4_0.pdf. [25] “How Long Will Your New Tires Last?” U.S. News & World Report, U.S. News & World Report, 2018 https://cars.usnews.com/cars-trucks/how-long-do-tires-last. [26] Logiewa, A. et al. Variation in the Concentration of Metals in Road Dust Size Fractions Between 2 Μm and 2 Mm: Results from Three Metallurgical Centres in Poland. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 78, 1, (2019), 46–59. doi: 10.1007/s00244-01900686-x. [27] “Transportation in the United States.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 15 Apr. 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States.

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Chapter 12 Destructive water treatment technologies for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) Abstract: Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic chemicals possessing remarkable properties including oil and water repellency, chemical stability, and heat resistance [1]. They have been used in a broad range of applications such as firefighting foams, electronic and semiconductor device manufacturing, photolithography, aviation industry, household products, and food packaging. To date, more than 3,000 compounds have been identified as part of the PFAS family [2]. However, despite their applicability in multiple fields, PFAS are non-biodegradable and persist in nature. Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid and perfluorooctane carboxylic acid are two of the most widely used PFAS, and both constitute the final nonbiodegradable products after the degradation of commercial products containing PFAS. In this chapter, we will analyze the chemistry behind PFAS and different technologies investigated for the destruction of PFAS within the green chemistry scope. Keywords: perfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, water pollution, treatment

12.1 Chemistry behind PFAS In general, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are fluorinated molecules with multiple carbon–fluorine bonds and a functional group, which is usually carboxylic or sulfonic. At the same time, PFAS can be present in various ionic states, including anionic, cationic, and zwitterionic [3]. The excellent chemical resistance and high stability of PFAS comes from the C–F bond, which is considered as the strongest chemical bond in organic chemistry and their high reduction potential (Eo = 3.6 V) [4]. The charge separation between C and F leads to a high coulombic attraction between the two atoms, making the bonds

Acknowledgments 1. NSF award “Using Plasma Electrolysis for Efficient Manufacturing of Nanoparticles,” Award Number: 1700787. 2. Michigan Translational Research and Commercialization AgBio Program.

Vanessa Maldonado, Qi Hua Fan, Department of Chemical Engineering and Material Science, Michigan State University, Ann Arbor, MI, USA https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-012

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extremely short, but strong. In addition, the high electronegativity and small size of fluorine shields the carbon atom and prevents other species attracted to the partial negative charge of carbon from destabilizing the chemical structure of the molecule. This is the reason why PFAS resist to biodegradation and bioaccumulate in the environment. PFAS, as their name describes, can be classified in two main families: perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances. The difference resides in the number of fluorine atoms present in the fluorinated tail. The former group possesses a carbon tail fully saturated with fluorine atoms, and the latter possesses a partially saturated tail with fluorine atoms. Table 12.1 shows the major PFAS classification. Table 12.1: Main PFAS classification.* Family

Class

Group

General chemical structure: Cn Fn+ R where R =

Perfluorinated

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs)

Perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs)

–COOH

Perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs)

–SOH

N-Alkyl perfluoroalkane sulfonamides (MeFASAs, EtFASAs, BuFASAs)

–SON(R’)H, where R’ – Cm Hm + (m = , , , )

Perfluoroalkane sulfamides (FASAs)

–SONH Polyfluorinated Fluorotelomer substances

n: Fluorotelomer alcohols (n: FTOHs)

–CHCHOH

n: Fluorotelomer sulfonic acids (n: FTSAs)

–CHCHSOH

Fluorotelomer carboxylic acids (FTCAs) –CHCOOH –CHCHCOOH Perfluoroalkane sulfoamido substances

Perfluoroalkane sulfonamido ethanols –SONR’CHCHOH, where R’ – Cm Hm + (FASEs) and N-alkyl perfluoroalkane (m = , , , ) sulfonamido ethanols (MeFASEs, EtFASEs, BuFASEs) Perfluoroalkane sulfonamido acetic acids (FASAAs) and N-alkyl perfluoroalkane sulfonamido acetic acids (MeFASAAs, EtFASAAs, BuFASAAs)

*

Table adapted from [3].

– SONR’CHCOOH where R’ – Cm Hm + (m = , , , )

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Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) can be classified based on the functional group they possess or based on the total number of carbons. For the former criterion, they can be divided in perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs) when having a carboxylic and sulfonic functional group, respectively. For the latter criteria, they can be divided into short-chain and long-chain PFAS depending on the total number of carbons present in the compounds, which can range from 4 to 14. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, long-chain PFAS correspond to PFCAs with eight or more carbons (including the carbon from the functional group), and PFSAs with six or more carbons. By the other side, short-chain PFAS correspond to PFCAs with seven or fewer carbons, and PFSAs with five or fewer carbons. Among all the PFAAS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in the PFCAs group and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in the PFSAs group, with eight carbons each are the most widely studied PFAS. Most of the other groups in Table 12.1 are intermediate transformation products PFOA or PFOS, better known as precursors of PFAS. Figure 12.1 shows the chemical structure of PFOA and PFOS. (a)

(b)

Figure 12.1: (a) PFOA and (b) PFOA chemical structure.

12.2 PFAS in history PFAS were invented after a failed experiment with refrigerants at Dupont’s Laboratory in 1938, that gave as a product a saturated fluorocarbon polymer: polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), better known as Teflon. After this event, a wide range of organofluorine compounds were created. Due to its exceptional physico-chemical properties, PTFE was produced for different applications. However, its synthesis required the use of PFOA as a surfactant in the polymerization process, leading to the initiation of mass production of PFOA in 1947 to fulfill the demand of PTFE for nonstick coatings as the main application. Multiple other PFAS were developed during the following years, including PFOS with its main application “scotch guard,” and aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) containing both PFOA and PFOS, and the range of applications was widely expanded. The results from multiple toxicologic studies showing that both PFOA and PFOS have bio-accumulative nature were ignored for more than 50 years and the

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production never stopped until early 2000 when 3 M voluntarily stopped producing PFOS. Later on, in 2006, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and eight major manufacturing companies in the United States launched a stewardship program to phase out the use of PFOS and PFOA [5]. In 2016, the EPA stablished a recommended health advisory level (HAL) of 70 nanograms per liter (ng/L, equivalent to parts per trillion [ppt]) for the combination of PFOA and PFOS in drinking water [6]. Nowadays, it is known that PFAS are present in the blood of more than 99.9% of the world’s population and they are widespread in surface water, groundwater, solids, sediments, and wildlife. According to a report by ChemRisk, an estimated of 1.7 million pounds of PFOA were released in the environment between 1951 and 2003 [7]. Unfortunately, traditional wastewater treatment technologies are not able to degrade PFAS and they remain in the final treated effluent and return to surface water or groundwater streams with even a higher concentration if precursors were oxidized in the process, creating a never-ending accumulation cycle in the environment. In addition, the biosolids generated from wastewater treatment plants also contain PFAS, as they are easily adsorbed by soil, extending the problem to soil pollution. With this antecedent, PFAS clean-up is considered as the next water utility challenge. Multiple efforts are being conducted globally to develop treatment technologies and clean-up polluted sites with PFAS. Emerging solutions are currently being applied for rapid clean-up, including the use of granular activated carbon (GAC), and ion-exchange resins (IX), which work as adsorptive technologies. Although these solutions are tackling the problem right now, they are not the ultimate or ultimate solutions as PFAS are still present in the environment after the disposal of saturated carbon in landfills for example, or rejection of PFAS concentrated solutions from resins. Therefore, the problem should be targeted by destructive technologies options, to leave PFAS out of the accumulating cycle in the environment that has been growing over the last 50 years, and which will not stop until oxidative technologies capable of degrading PFAS are applied. In the next sections, various water treatment technologies for PFAS destruction in research process will be assessed.

12.3 Destructive technologies for PFAS water treatment Several destructive treatment technologies have been studied to assess PFAS degradation. Advanced Oxidation Technologies (AOPs) have been of the approaches performed to evaluate the degradability of PFAS. The most studied ones will be briefly described in this section.

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12.3.1 Electrochemical oxidation Electrochemical oxidation is an emerging technology for water treatment of recalcitrant pollutants, including PFAS. The process is based on the use of an electrochemical cell (shown in Figure 12.2) that includes an anode and a cathode where oxidation and reduction reactions occur, respectively. A conductive electrolytic media and an external power source that can provide current are necessary for oxidation and reduction reactions to occur. Once the target molecule reaches the anode surface, an initial electron transfer from the molecule to the anode occurs, followed by consecutive oxidation reactions that finalize with a mineralization reaction with carbon dioxide and water as final products. The previous mechanism is called direct oxidation. The oxidation can also occur indirectly with the generation of radical active species such as hydroxyl, persulfate, among others at the electrode surface, which contribute to the oxidation process in the bulk (shown in Figure 12.3).

Figure 12.2: Electrochemical cell.

The electrode material is one of the most influential factors that determine the process efficiency. Active materials such as RuO2–TiO2 or IrO2–Ta2O5 are not stable over time and they can be inefficient as undesired reactions including oxygen evolution. Non-active materials are preferred as they possess a higher oxidation power of the anode, a higher overpotential for oxygen evolution, and are less prominent to adsorption. Some examples are Ti/Pt, Ti/PbO2 and Si/BDD [8]. From the compendium of active and non-active electrodes, boron-doped diamond (BDD) stands as the material with the highest oxidation power and oxygen evolution potential, two desired characteristics for water treatment [9]. Unlike other electrodes, BDD presents a wide potential window, which enables it to oxidize organics compounds with a high oxidation potential including PFAS [10]. BDD has been used to degrade various PFAS in synthetic solutions, including PFOA, PFOS, perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS) with high removal percentages. A few studies have also been performed for the degradation of PFAS in real wastewater [11] and simulated groundwater [12]. Although the results from all

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these studies are encouraging, pilot-scale studies have not been performed yet, as the technology is still under development. With regards to PFAS degradation, multiple studies in bench scale for degrading various PFAS have been conducted. For instance, Schaefer et al. treated PFOA and PFOS present in AFFF-impacted groundwater with Ti/RuO2 electrodes and achieved a degradation percentage higher than 90% after 8 h of treatment [13]. Similar studies have been performed with BDD for PFOA and PFOS degradation in synthetic solutions [14, 15], PFAA-impacted groundwater [12], and wastewater [11]. Furthermore, electrochemical oxidation has been identified as a practical technology for high concentrations and low volume solutions, as the energy spent in the process and the electrode area required for treatment is not justified for trace concentrations and large volumes. In essence, the technology should be considered as a polishing treatment option after pretreatment steps. An example of this idea is the application of electroxidation after the preconcentration of PFAS with ion exchange resins [16] or nanofiltration [17]. One of the drawbacks of electrochemical oxidation is the generation of undesired byproducts such as perchlorate which could be generated if chloride is present in the solution. Although electroxidation has been proven to work at pilot scale for overall oxidation of wastewater [18], it only has be proven at bench scale with small volumes for PFAS degradation. Pilot testing and large scale application have not been addressed yet, as the technology is still under development.

Figure 12.3: Oxidation mechanisms in electroxidation.

12.3.2 Ozonation Ozonation is also considered an ISCO technology. It is based on the addition of ozone through diffusers to the solution to be treated. Ozone is a strong oxidant and, once it is in contact with the solution, the decomposition can happen in two different pathways: Direct attack of molecular ozone or generation of hydroxyl radicals upon decomposition of ozone, which oxidizes the pollutant molecules [19]: O3 + OH − ! − HO2 − + H +

(12:1)

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139

(12:2)

Hydroxyl radicals can also be generated through the combination of ozone and hydrogen peroxide: 2O3 + 3H2 O2 ! − 4O2 + 2OH + 2H2 O

(12:3)

Only a few studies have been conducted for the degradation of PFAS using ozone. However, most of have shown degradation of PFAS only under alkaline conditions (e.g., pH 11) [19]. For example, Lin et al. removed 90% and 85% of PFOA and PFOS, respectively, when the treatment was performed with pH = 11 [19]. Additionally, the generation of hydroxyl radicals has been dismissed for the degradation of particularly PFAS. Instead, it has been hypothesized that the generation of superoxide radicals (O2•−) is more favorable and contribute to PFAS degradation. Some studies have also been conducted in laboratory and pilot scales [1] using additional oxidants such as persulfate and iron-oxide-based catalysts to increase the efficiency of removal. For instance, Franke et al. achieved a removal efficiency of more than 98% for PFAS with a chain length of seven to eleven perfluorocarbon atoms, and a removal efficiency of 55% on average for short chain PFAS [20]. Ozone has also been combined with UV treatment or air fractionation to enhance the degradation of PFAS [21]. However, the ozonation process can generate potential toxic transformation byproducts as the organic compounds are not completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. Therefore, to avoid non-desired intermediates, the technology is usually coupled with UV oxidation.

12.3.3 Activated persulfate Oxidation of PFAS with activated persulfate S2O8 has become of interest due to its high oxidation potential (E = 2.1 V). In addition, with the influence of UV light, temperature, microwave energy, alkaline pH or hydrogen peroxide, S2O8 produces sulfate radicals SO4•− which also act as strong oxidants of PFAS [22–24]. The application of persulfate has been evaluated for the degradation of multiple PFAS with different activation mechanisms. For instance, Hori et al. treated PFOA with heat-activated persulfate at 80°C and achieved non-detect limits of PFOA after 6 h of treatment. However, shorter chains containing less than six carbons were detected in the final effluent [22]. Different doses of S2O8 were also tested and the results showed that the degradation kinetics were favored with the increase of S2O8, with a maximum concentration of 0.5 mmol. Additional experiments to degrade other PFCAs and perfluoroether carboxylic acids were conducted, and the concentrations after the treatment were under the limit of detection (LOD). Additional experiments with a higher temperature (150 °C) were

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conducted, however, the degradation was not improved, due to the reaction of SO4•− with other species and water, according to the author’s hypothesis. Yin et al. studied the degradation of PFOA with activated persulfate in groundwater under acidic conditions and showed that the increase of the defluorination ratio was proportional to the decrease of pH and it was significantly higher with pH lower than 3. Conversely, a pH higher than 5 was be detrimental for the treatment as OH- may act as SO4•− scavenger. The influence of the presence of chloride anions Cl− was also evaluated and the authors concluded that Cl− can also act as an scavenger agent in the oxidation process of PFOA [24]. The degradation of AFFF solutions has also been evaluated for oxidation with activated persulfate. Bruton et al. treated AFFF formulations from 3 M and Ansul in water and sediment slurry systems containing 6:2 fluorotelomer thioether amido sulfonate (6:2 FtTAoS) and PFAA precursors. The authors used aliquots of 50 mM S2O8 heat-activated persulfate (85°C). For the aqueous matrices, the transformation of 6:2 FtTAoS was 100% after 1 h of treatment which led to the generation of other short-chain PFAS including perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), PFHxA, perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA), and PFBA which were further degraded after 7.5 h of treatment. Additionally, the pH drop from 4 to 1.5 which is an indication of the transformation of persulfate to sulfate radicals and the release of H+) [25].) + 2H + 2 O2 Moreover, the authors showed that the generation of short-chain PFAS in the degradation process of PFOA depends on the concentration of solvent (Diethylene glycol butyl ether for that particular study). Although oxidation with heat-activated persulfate has been successful in treating PFCAs, it has shown limited or no degradation for PFSAs [23, 25]. The treatment of 6:2 FtTAoS present in aquifer sediment slurry was also assessed by the previous authors. The results showed complete transformation of 6:2 FtTAoS, but a slower degradation kinetics for short-chain PFAS, probably due to the scavenging of sulfate radicals by inorganic species (e.g., chloride) or organic matter present in the sediments [25]. However, it is important to mention that PFSASs have a great affinity for adsorption in solids, which could diverge the problem in two phases: liquid and solid. Degradation of PFAS with activated persulfate also leads to the generation of byproducts, including short-chain PFCAs. Additionally, if chloride is present in the solution, chlorate is usually generated due to the oxidation of chloride. HF could also be generated as F− from PFAS degradation is released under acidic conditions. Finally, after the treatment, the treated solution should be restored to neutral pH, which adds costs to the treatment.

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12.3.4 Plasma treatment Plasma treatment is also part of AOPs currently being investigated for PFAS degradation. Plasma-based water treatment uses an electrical discharge to convert water into highly reactive species including •OH, O, H•, HO2•, O2•, H2, O2, H2O2, through energetic electrons in the plasma (e −) [26].

Figure 12.4: Laminar jet plasma reactor.

The electrical discharge can be generated between two electrodes, one high voltage located above the liquid interface and another grounded which is in contact with the water to treat. A schematic of a plasma reactor is shown in Figure 12.4. Plasma is generated by the application of a high electric voltage between the two electrodes [27]. Through diffusers, different gases including oxygen, hydrogen, and argon are used to generate bubbles in the solutions containing PFAS, which drive them to the water–air interface in the form of foam, given the surface-active behavior of PFAS. Thanks to the previous step PFAS are directly exposed to the plasma generated at the interface and can be oxidized [28]. Plasma generates both highly oxidative and highly reductive species at the same time, leading to a fast degradation of PFAS. The latter constitutes an advantage of the technology since most of the advanced oxidation processes only generate highly oxidative species [26]. Hayashi et al. tested DC plasma to degrade PFOA and PFOS using oxygen as gas source. They completely degraded PFOA and PFOS after 3 and 8 h of treatment, respectively [28]. Stratton et al. used pulsed discharge plasma to degrade PFOA using a laminar jet with bubbling reactor and argon as the gas for generating bubbles. Additionally, sodium chloride (NaCl) was added to add conductivity to the solutions. Simulated PFOA solutions and real contaminated groundwater containing various PFAS were evaluated. For the synthetic solutions, a degradation percentage higher than 90% of PFOA ([PFOA]0 = 20 µM) was reached after 30 min of treatment with a high rate process. For the case of groundwater containing PFHxS, PFOA, and PFOS, the

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degradation kinetics were slower when compared to synthetic solutions. Furthermore, the increase of the initial concentration of PFOA had a significant effect on the degradation rate; a higher concentration resulted in a slower degradation process. It was also shown that plasma treatment is able to degrade PFOS and at a higher rate than PFOA. Moreover, the aqueous electrons (e −) produced by the plasma was determined as the main contributor for degrading PFOA, followed by the participation of high-energy free electrons and argon ions. The decomposition of PFOA due to the high temperature in the plasma interior (300–350 °C) was also hypothesized [27]. In a further work from the previous research group, the breakdown products that resulted from PFAS degradation with plasma water treatment were investigated. The experiments were performed with less power to allow the formation of byproducts of the degradation of PFOA and PFOS. PFHpA, PFHxA, PFPeA, PFBA, PFHxS, and PFBS were identified during the treatment with PFBA presenting the slowest degradation kinetics [26]. The final products of PFAS mineralization were trifluoroacetate (CF2− − 3COOH), acetate (CH3COOH), formate (HCOOH), fluoride (F ), and sulfate (SO4 ). Additional gaseous cyclic byproducts (perfluoroalkanes) were identified, accounting for 6% (PFOA) and 12% (PFOS) of the total F present, and their total concentration was two orders of magnitude lower than the liquid phase byproducts [26]. To date, there is limited data on the toxicity of both liquid and gaseous byproducts. Overall, plasma water treatment presents the highest power density among different destructive technologies and has proven to be an efficient method for PFAS degradation. Furthermore, as the plasma occurs in the liquid–gas interface, the presence of co-contaminants does not interfere with the process as usually they lack of surface-active properties to allow them migrating to the interface.

12.4 Implemented non-destructive treatment technologies Destructive technologies are still under research and development, which has prevented to apply them at big scale. Consequently, non-destructive technologies such as adsorption with activated carbon, ion exchange, and foam fractionation have been implemented as a rapid solution to the emerging problematic. This section summarizes some of the commercially available technologies and identifies the challenges to overcome.

12.4.1 Adsorption Adsorption with GAC has been one of the fastest and economically viable solutions to treat PFAS present in relatively pure water sources such as drinking water or

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groundwater. It is based on the sorption of the target pollutants in the porous structure of the carbon. The target analytes can be physically or chemically adsorbed. In general, the adsorption of organic contaminants is influenced by the surface chemistry (e.g., elemental composition, surface acidity and basicity, and point of zero charge), and physical properties (e.g., pore size distribution, pore volume, and shape) [29]. For the case of PFOA and PFOS, the hydrophobic effect and electrostatic interactions are the main driving forces for adsorption [30]. The former is dominant when the sorbent surface has low oxygen content and low acidity and is positively charged [29]. Liu et al. tested various carbonaceous adsorbents and found a pseudo-secondorder adsorption kinetics for the adsorption of PFOA with all the samples. They found that the uptake rates of PFOS and PFOA increased with the decrease of the particle size of carbon. However, the surface area alone was not a guarantee of increased adsorption. By the other side, Van der Waals interactions are stronger for PFOS than PFOA due to the higher polarizability of PFOS [29]. The efficiency of activated carbon for the adsorption of PFOA and PFOA has been demonstrated in the past. However, adsorption technologies are not selective for smaller chain PFAS as the breakthrough point is reached extremely prematurely [31]. To assess this hypothesis, Mc-Cleaf et al. investigated the removal of 14 different PFAS using GAC in a continuous process in a municipal water treatment plant for a 217-day period. They found that the removal efficiency decreases with the increase of the carbon length of the perfluorinated compound, while sulfonate functional groups displayed greater removal than carboylic groups. Furthermore, they reported desorption of short chain PFAS such as PFBA, PFPeA, and PFHxA [32]. At the end of the evaluated period, an average removal efficiency of 62% was achieved for total PFAS degradation. A comparison between powdered activated carbon (PAC) and GAC was performed. PAC had slightly higher BET surface area, and a lower total pore volume and micropore volume. PAC removed 56% of PFOS and 68% of PFOA after 10 min of contact time. Meanwhile, GAC presented a lower removal efficiency for the same contact time. The smaller particle size of PAC is associated with a greater surface area and shorter internal diffusion distances. However, with the increase of contact time, GAC became more effective than PAC [33]. Adsorption of PFAS using biochar have also been investigated within the frame of sustainable green technologies, as biochar comes from the pyrolysis of biomass, contrary to traditional activated carbon which comes from the pyrolysis of coal. One of the main challenges with biochar for adsorption is its lack of microporous structure which diminishes its adsorption capacity. Multiple surface modification methods have been evaluated to increase the adsorption capacity of biochar and modify its surface chemistry.

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12.4.2 Ion exchange Ion exchange is an adsorption technology based on a dual mechanism of ion-exchange and adsorption in anion exchange resin and it is considered superior to activated carbon because of the dual function it performs [34]. Its structure possesses a backbone and exchange sites. The hydrophobic backbone is a neutral copolymer that adsorbs the hydrophobic C–F chain. The exchange sites, hydrophilic and positively charged, attract the functional group of the target molecule. Most PFAS possess an hydrophobic part (fluorinated carbon chain), and an ionic head (functional group) which usually is negatively charged. Therefore, the dual mechanism constitutes a great asset for PFAS adsorption [34]. Moreover, the exchange sites can be functionalized to increase the selectivity of adsorption. For the particular case of PFAS, the exchange sites are usually quaternary ammonium anions [34]. Depending on the resin, anion exchange can present different sorption kinetics, generally of pseud-second order. Moreover, the hydrophobicity of the molecule plays an important role in the efficiency and selectivity of the process. For instance, a study performed by Maimaiti et al. showed that the hydrophobic interaction is extremely important in the competitive adsorption of mixtures of PFAS. They conducted experiments with PFOS, PFHxS, PFBS, PFHxA, and PFBA and determined that the removal percentages decreased in the next order PFOS > PFHxS > PFOA > PFBS > PFHxA > PFBA. The selectivity of resins for hydrophobic anions increases with the length of the alkyl chains of the functional exchange group in the exchange sites [34, 35]. The adsorption capacity also decreases with the presence of additional species such as chlorine and natural organic matter. Woodward et al. demonstrated in a pilot-scale comparison that ion exchange reaches the breakthrough point after activated carbon for adsorption of all the PFAS tested [34]. After the resin reaches saturation, PFAS can be recovered and the resin regenerated with a distillation procedure using organic solvents and brine solution. After the distillation, the solvent is recycled and the brine solution containing PFAS (still bottom) concentrated with another distillation.

12.4.3 Foam fractionation Foam fractionation is a physical technology based on the extraction of PFAS from water matrices using the surface-active properties that most PFAS possess. It works simply by generating bubbles in the polluted solution with the desired gas. Surfaceactive PFAS stick to the bubbles and travel to the air–liquid interface where they accumulate in the form of foam (liquid–gas). The foam containing PFAS can be extracted by different mechanisms: Using a low vacuum pump to another reservoir where the bubbles burst due to the low pressure and come back to the liquid phase or creating an overflow to collect the foam containing PFAS. Some of the advantages of

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this technology are the low cost and small volumes recovered of solutions containing PFAS. However, the removal efficiency is lower than ion exchange and some shortchain PFAS can not be removed. The technology has been implemented at large scale for the removal of AFFF-impacted groundwater. To ensure the recovery of short-chain PFAS, foam fractionation is usually coupled with other technologies, such as ionexchange. Several modifications of foam fractionation have been tested while combining it with destructive technologies. For instance, Dai et al. combined UV with foam fractionation using ozone to increase the removal efficiency of multiple PFAS while transforming precursor compounds [21]. In this case, the extraction of the foam is avoided, and instead, the generation of bubbles with ozone couples with UV aims to oxidize PFAS in situ. A removal percentage for total PFAS of up to 97.3% was achieved for the optimum conditions. This combination of technologies was compared with only air fractionation which removed 81.3% of total PFAS; however, the removal efficiency of PFCAs declined as the carbon number was reduced, mainly due to the lower lipophilicity of short-chain PFAS that led to lower affinity for air bubbles. Lastly, it was concluded that none of the methods tested could efficiently remove PFHxA [21].

12.5 A necessary approach to go from bench to scale In this chapter, multiple destructive technologies for PFAS degradation in the process of research and development were addressed and some already implemented non-destructive technologies were briefly described. One of the key factors for the success of destructive technologies is to consider a treatment-train approach when implementing them. AOPs are treatment methods that usually require a high energy input and relatively long treatment times, depending on the matrix, concentrations, and treatment volumes. Therefore, considering them as a solely alternative, is not an option. Traditional wastewater treatment involves the use of multiple physicochemical technologies that are applied in a particular point, with a specific function to remove recalcitrant pollutants that survived to the previous steps. Technologies applied at the end and serve as final polishing step are usually the most costly. The same idea should be followed for the implementation of new emerging technologies. This concept will allow new technologies to advance from bench to scale once the development process is completed. Unfortunately, most of the studies are performed with minimal volumes, ideal solutions with no interferences, and without considering its applicability at large scale. Making the right questions from the beginning could avoid working on non-practical solutions. For instance, if a drastic

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temperature or pH has to be applied for the technology to work, one should wonder if the same procedure might be feasible to implement at large scale, and what energy input is required or necessary resources are associated with it. An engineering approach has to be coupled with new science. Otherwise, new alternatives could only stay in literature.

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Mueller, R. and Yingling, V. Interstate Technology Regulatory Council. History and use of perand polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). (2017), 1–8. Wang, Z., Dewitt, J. C., Higgins, C. P. and Cousins, I. T. Environmental Science & Technology, 51, (2017), 2508–2518. Conder, J. M., De Voogt, P., Mabury, S. A., Cousins, I. T., Buck, R. C., Franklin, J., Berger, U., Kannan, K., Jensen, A. A. and Van Leeuwen, S. P. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 7, (2011), 513–541. Wardman, P. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 30, (2000), 1345. Hamid, H., Li, L. Y. and Grace, J. R. Review of the fate and transfor- mation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in landfills. 2018; https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/re trieve/pii/S0269749117311612. EPA, EPA’s Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Action Plan; 2019. Paustenbach, D. J., Panko, J. M., Scott, P. K. and Unice, K. M. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 70, (2006), 28–57. Comninellis, C. and Chen, G. Environmental Electrochemistry, (2010), 1–563. Cabeza, A., Urtiaga, A. M. and Ortiz, I. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 46, (2007), 1439–1446. Schaefer, C. E., Andaya, C., Burant, A., Condee, C. W., Urtiaga, A., Strathmann, T. J. and Higgins, C. P. Chemical Engineering Journal, 317, (2017), 424–432. Gomez-Ruiz, B., Gómez-Lavín, S., Diban, N., Boiteux, V., Colin, A. and Dauchy, X. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, 798, (2017), 51–57. Schäfers, M. D. 2017, Schaefer, C. E., Andaya, C., Urtiaga, A., McKenzie, E. R. and Higgins, C. P. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 295, (2015), 170–175. Urtiaga, A., Fernández-González, C., Gómez-Lavín, S. and Ortiz, I. Chemosphere, 129, (2015), 20–26. Zhuo, Q., Deng, S., Yang, B., Huang, J., Wang, B., Zhang, T. and Yu, G. Electrochimica Acta, 77, (2012), 17–22. Liang, S., Pierce, R., Lin, H., Chiang, S. Y. D. and Huang, Q. Remediation, 28, (2018), 127–134. Soriano, Á., Gorri, D. and Urtiaga, A. Water Research, 112, (2017), 147–156. Anglada, Á., Urtiaga, A. M. and Ortiz, I. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 181, (2010), 729–735. Lin, H., Niu, J., Ding, S. and Zhang, L. Water Research, 46, (2012), 2281–2289. Franke, V., Schäfers, M. D., Lindberg, J. J. and Ahrens, L. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 5, (2019), 1887–1896. Dai, X., Xie, Z., Dorian, B., Gray, S. and Zhang, J. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 5, (2019), 1897–1907. Hori, H., Nagaoka, Y., Murayama, M. and Kutsuna, S. Environmental Science & Technology, 42, (2008), 7438–7443.

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[23] Dombrowski, P. M., Kakarla, P., Caldicott, W., Chin, Y., Sadeghi, V., Bogdan, D., BarajasRodriguez, F. and Chiang, S. Y. D. Remediation, 28, (2018), 135–150. [24] Yin, P., Hu, Z., Song, X., Liu, J. and Lin, N. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13, (2016). [25] Bruton, T. A. and Sedlak, D. L. Environmental Science & Technology, 51, (2017), 13878–13885. [26] Singh, R. K., Fernando, S., Baygi, S. F., Multari, N., Thagard, S. M. and Holsen, T. M. Environmental Science & Technology, 53, (2019), 2731–2738. [27] Stratton, G. R., Dai, F., Bellona, C. L., Holsen, T. M., Dickenson, E. R. and Mededovic Thagard, S. Environmental Science & Technology, 51, (2017), 1643–1648. [28] Hayashi, R., Obo, H., Takeuchi, N. and Yasuoka, K. Electrical Engineering Japan (English Transl. Denki Gakkai Ronbunshi), 190, (2015), 9–16. [29] Liu, K., Zhang, S., Hu, X., Zhang, K., Roy, A. and Yu, G. Environmental Science & Technology, 49, (2015), 8657–8665. [30] Saeidi, N., Kopinke, F.-D. and Georgi, A. Chemical Engineering Journal, 381, (2020), 122689. [31] Zaggia, A., Conte, L., Falletti, L., Fant, M. and Chiorboli, A. Water Research, 91, (2016), 137–146. [32] McCleaf, P., Englund, S., Östlund, A., Lindegren, K., Wiberg, K. and Ahrens, L. Water Research, 120, (2017), 77–87. [33] Pramanik, B. K., Pramanik, S. K. and Suja, F. Environmental Technology (United Kingdom), 36, (2015), 2610–2617. [34] Woodard, S., Berry, J. and Newman, B. Remediation, 27, (2017), 19–27. [35] Maimaiti, A., Deng, S., Meng, P., Wang, W., Wang, B., Huang, J., Wang, Y. and Yu, G. The Chemical Engineering Journal, 348, (2018), 494–502.

Kathryn Fahy

Chapter 13 HANWASH and its dream for Haiti Abstract: As a leader in sustainable solutions, Rotary International and its 35,000+ clubs around the world have long acknowledged that when it comes to the health, education, economic development, and mortality of a community, there is no greater need than the need for clean water and sanitation. Rotary volunteers are mobilizing resources investing in the infrastructure and essential training to yield long-term change to ensure sustainable access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene worldwide. To most, the challenge would appear too daunting. But to rotarians, the lifechanging results are the only motivation necessary. Keywords: Haiti, clean water, sanitation, hygiene, strategy

13.1 Background What do you do when the greatest challenge you have is to shift the culture rather than build the infrastructure when it comes to delivering water to an entire country? This is a challenge that has not stopped organizations from trying to provide water to the citizens of Haiti, but it has hindered a long-term sustainable program. One such partnership is in the process of changing that. HANWASH – Haiti National Clean Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Strategy – is a multi-decade program with the audacious goal of providing clean potable water and satisfactory sanitation to the entire nation of Haiti. Its projected cost of US $2.3 billion and the task of essentially building an infrastructure are overwhelming tasks in and of themselves. But when you delve in even deeper, the greatest challenge this program is up against is the transformation of a culture. To fully set the stage for what HANWASH plans to accomplish, we first must look at the water and sanitation environment that Haiti has been operating within for decades, if not for centuries. Despite being one of the oldest republics in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued by a constant struggle for democracy, political exploitation, and seemingly endless corruption. Then, to make a volatile climate even more unbearable, Haiti suffered a devastating earthquake on January 12, 2010, that left thousands dead, millions homeless, and even a greater problem – the spread of disease.

Kathryn Fahy, HANWASH Steering Committee (with contributions from Founding Steering Committee member John Smarge), 411 Hill Avenue, Spirit Lake, IA 51360, USA, e-mail: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-013

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The situation remains much the same today. Only 30% of the people in Haiti have potable water within a 30-minute walk from their home. In the rural villages, where most Haitians reside, only 24% have access to a toilet. And even today, 2 million people practice open-air defecation resulting in waterborne illnesses such as typhoid, cholera, and dehydration through chronic diarrhea. This accounts for 50% of deaths in Haiti.

13.2 The challenge Half of Haiti’s water and sanitation infrastructure is simply not functioning. A survey of approximately 3,500 water fountains and kiosks in 2004 showed that only about half were actually working, and 40% of existing wells were nonfunctioning or contaminated (DINEPA, 2013 and Haiti Outreach, 2004). Haiti is, and has been, an out-ofcontrol recipient of aid funding; most of which focuses on creating relief by temporary fixes to the problems that exist, rather than building the systems necessary for the country to function. The end result of this “charity mentality” can be seen in the inoperative kiosks, fountains, and wells that grace the Haitian landscape. Charity in Haiti has failed. HANWASH was established in January 2018 with the core focus of finding a sustainable solution to resolve the water and sanitation dilemma in Haiti and serve as a blueprint for other developing countries as well. HANWASH serves as an umbrella to bring together four main players within the water and sanitation sector in Haiti. These consist of the nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), who dig wells, create city water systems, and build microflush toilets; the donor agencies who are committed to funding water programs; DINEPA, who is the governmental agency in Haiti that is set up outside the politics of the federal government to regulate water and sanitation; and Rotary International District 7020, working in cooperation with The Rotary Foundation and other district and club partners. HANWASH has brought these world players together to do what many have believed to be impossible – to bring potable water, sanitation, and hygiene to an entire nation.

13.3 The solution HANWASH believes this can be achieved with a systemic, technically driven approach to gathering current data through community assessments, from which local, socially driven solutions are created, resulting in a community action plan. This begins with on-the-ground operatives, utilizing a cell phone app called Mwater, walking through communities to map all water sources. Each source’s exact coordinates are recorded via satellite imagery and coded as operational or not

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before being tested for water quality. This data is then overlaid with dwelling maps to establish the level of access to clean water in each community – access being defined as within 500 meters from a water source. By establishing these baselines, HANWASH can establish the water requirements for the whole of Haiti to create socially driven solutions for each of the 144 communes in Haiti. The next step is to meet with commune leaders to review the data and ask them what help they need to provide clean water to their citizens. Each solution must be locally driven to succeed and be sustainable. HANWASH will provide the engineering study, initial funding, and build the infrastructure and framework, but the commune must be committed to take it from there. Each commune is assigned a HANWASH ambassador who helps guide the process, and, together, they build the community action plan which embodies the core values of sustainability, transparency, and accountability. A thoughtfully managed, pay-for-service system is required. For the program to be sustainable, both social and financial buy-ins are necessary by the community and its residents. A professional operator is then hired to collect the fees, pass a small percentage to DINEPA for regulatory services, and hold the rest for future water system upgrades and repairs.

13.4 Sustainable outcomes That wraps up the easy part. Now, the real challenges begin. For example, changing the culture of the Haitian people to embrace the idea of “pay-for-service” and move away from charity. Changing the culture of DINEPA and the local government – that it is their responsibility to serve and care for their citizens and not rely on outside NGOs. And finally, changing the culture of the NGOs themselves who proliferate the Haiti landscape – offering what is referred to as “toxic charity.” Before the 2010 earthquake, there were 4,000 NGOs in Haiti. After the earthquake, that number rose to 22,000. Each of them trying, with good intentions, to make a difference in a little piece of Haiti. Unfortunately, very few of them have embraced what might be best for the country as a whole. Rather than spend the funds to fix an existing system, an NGO or charity will simply drill a new well and install a new pump. This happens each week in every village in Haiti. HANWASH is bringing these organizations together – to think about sustainability and about a national initiative – to move past the idea of simply offering relief to embrace the concept of providing development. Providing potable clean water and satisfactory sanitation to all of Haiti is an audacious goal. But HANWASH will prevail. HANWASH will ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for everyone in Haiti through universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water, access to adequate and

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equitable sanitation and hygiene, and the long-term commitment and engagement of local communities to support and strengthen improvements and management. Our dream is to bring potable water and good sanitation to the entire country of Haiti. Water is essential for good living conditions, and the people of Haiti deserve to have it. Rotary is proud to be an integral part of this venture to partner with the government and other agencies that have the expertise to create a transformational program for the country. Barry Rassin, Rotary International President 2018–2019

Nick Krayacich, Ron Denham

Chapter 14 Rotary WASH and the role of the WASH rotary action group Abstract: Rotary International is a humanitarian, community service organization with various areas of major focus. Its 35,000+ clubs around the world have long acknowledged that when it comes to the health, education, economic development, and mortality of a community, there is no greater need than the need for clean water and sanitation. This chapter summarizes the broad reach of their efforts in the water area. Keywords: water sanitation hygiene international programs, sustainable technology, borehole piping,pumping

14.1 Water, sanitation, and hygiene in the rotary world Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) is one of Rotary’s seven areas of focus (AoF). As such it has encouraged Rotary clubs and districts to seek relevant projects to improve life and livelihood of peoples everywhere. The main regions of interest are subSaharan Africa, Latin America, and south- and southeast Asia. Supported for years by matching grants and, more recently by global grants, coupled with support from governments, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector, it is estimated that Rotarians have led, or participated in, well over $100 million of projects annually. Much of this comes from outside sources. For example, a major WASH project in Mexico received 80% of the funding from the government. Similarly, many WASH projects implemented by Rotary clubs in Germany, working with clubs in West Africa, received funding from the German government. Since 2012, the Rotary Foundation (TRF), in collaboration with the US Agency for International Development (US AID), has been a significant player in major WASH programs. The first phase of the program (2012–2016) saw that TRF commit $1 million, matching an equal contribution from US AID, to each of three programs in the Dominican Republic, Ghana, and the Philippines, respectively. The second phase, still underway, saw a doubled commitment from each party – $2 million for WASH programs in each of Ghana and Uganda. A third country is yet to be identified.

Nick Krayacich, Ron Denham, WASH Rotary Action Group, 10 Bellair St, #1202, Toronto, ON, M5R 3T8 Canada https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-014

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Another significant initiative is the “WASH in Schools” (WinS) program, launched in India, Kenya, and Belize. Based on a UNICEF model, with strong support from the Indian Government, this program has brought safe water and sanitation to over 20,000 schools in India and to many elsewhere. But the numbers, and dollars, are only part of the story. Working closely with the WASH Rotary Action Group (WASRAG), staff at TRF has developed software to ensure sustainability. One such tool is the “Sustainability Index Tool,” first tested on the Ghana program, now being extended to other projects. Another such initiative was the public–private partnership program designed to fund the pre-planning of major projects, especially where local surveys were needed to complete the community assessment. Those large-scale programs catch the attention of the reader, they are newsworthy. But more significant from the viewpoint of Rotary clubs and host communities are the thousands of projects, many as small as $20,000, that are truly transforming the lives and livelihoods of millions of people. They include drilling boreholes, digging wells, providing filters, building small dams, laying pipelines, building toilets and latrines for households and schools, providing hand-washing facilities and soap (so important in these days of the corona virus), training the local community to manage the water system, helping to change attitudes and behavior toward handwashing and sanitation, setting up production facilities to produce bio-sand filters and helping local entrepreneurs set up WASH-based businesses. In short, Rotary clubs, with support from TRF and the WASRAG, have truly transformed the lives of millions of people in the developing world.

14.2 About the WASH rotary action group The Water and Sanitation Rotary Action Group was formed in 2007 by a group of Rotarians who were passionate about the need to help lower and middle income countries gain sustainable access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene. Since then it has facilitated many hundreds of projects – helping clubs find partners, ensuring sustainability, developing best practices, encouraging “ownership” of projects by the host (local) club and community. This support for clubs has been complemented by linking clubs with potential sources of funding for their projects.

14.3 The WASH Rotary Action Group mission Supporting Rotary clubs and districts worldwide to plan, finance, and implement cost-effective and sustainable WASH projects in collaboration with communities and other partners.

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14.3.1 Membership The WASRAG numbers about 1,500 Rotarians and Rotaractors in about 375 Rotary districts. Coverage is concentrated in English-speaking countries, somewhat less in Francophone and Hispanic districts, and virtually none in Japan, Korea, and countries with a non-Latin alphabet.

14.3.2 Technology guides and manuals Members of the WASRAG have compiled guides on “how to” for many activities – drilling boreholes, building latrines, checking water quality, and so on. They are available on the website. In addition, the website lists guides from other organizations that are relevant for current challenges. One such example is the construction of sand dams; another on building toilets.

14.3.3 Professional resource team Fundamental to the WASRAG’s ability to support clubs is a group of members whose profession or avocation focuses on WASH. These people offer specialized skills and knowledge on issues such as water quality, water supply, sanitation, toilets and latrines, rainwater harvesting, well and borehole construction, sand dams, WinS, and WASH in healthcare facilities (WinHCFs). They also offer help in preparing applications for global grants or proposals to outside donors for funding. Located in many countries, these members understand the diverse cultural challenges facing international partners wanting to support clubs in the developing world. They also offer services in several languages in addition to English – French, Spanish, Portuguese, and German.

14.4 Sample of support to clubs 14.4.1 Clubs seeking a partner Local (host) clubs seeking a global grant need an international partner club. In some cases this linkage may occur at a major Rotary event (RI Convention, International Assembly, etc.) In the absence of such linkages the WASRAG fills this gap through its website. There a club can list its project in sufficient detail to interest a potential partner. When the project is listed it is highlighted in the WASRAG Newsletter which goes to almost 50,000 Rotarians.

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An example of this service is seen in the recent case of the Rotary Club of Guelph Ontario, Canada (District-7080) finding a partner to support a WASH project among indigenous peoples.

14.4.2 Assistance in applying for global grants The documentation required for global grants has become more challenging in recent years as TRF and collaborating partners focus on sustainability. Engagement of the host community, rigorous planning, evidence of sustainable funding for operations and maintenance, and a robust approach to monitoring and evaluation are essential. Members of the Professional Resource Team are helping clubs manage this process. As an added inducement to call on the WASRAG for this help, we offer a contribution of $1,000 to the respective global grant. An example of this support is seen in helping Rotary District-6400 get funding for a WASH project in Malawi. The Rotary Club of Santiago Corazon (D-4060) working with the RC Bay City Morning (D-6310) is another example of how this service helped to advance a WASH project.

14.4.3 Outside funding The WASRAG occasionally seeks additional funding, beyond clubs and TRF, for WASH projects. One example was a donation from The Royal Bank of Canada for a Rainwater Harvesting project led by the RC of Bombay Central (D-3141).

14.4.4 Additional funding for WinHCFs The Canadian Rotarian Water Foundation is encouraging clubs to focus on WASH projects in healthcare facilities. As part of this incentive, this foundation, closely linked to the WASRAG, is offering up to $10,000 contribution to any project in which a Canadian club is the lead international partner.

14.4.5 Evaluating optional technology Selection of the “most appropriate technology” is critical for long-term sustainability. It requires a systematic trade-off between low-cost solutions with high risk of failure and more costly solutions. And the trade-offs are not only technological. The attitude and financial collaboration of the host community is part of this equation. Typical of such decisions are:

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Galvanized iron versus stainless steel for borehole piping Mechanized versus manual pumping Bio-flush versus pit-latrines

14.5 Major rotary WASH programs WASRAG members are active members of the Rotary/US AID program in Ghana and Uganda (see above). WASRAG members are participants on the steering committee of these programs. They also play a “hands-on” role within the country, facilitating discussions and monitoring progress. In addition, a member of the WASRAG brought about $62,000 club contribution to the program, thereby releasing the balance of the TRF Annual Fund contribution.

Index Aral Sea 1 Arizona Department of Water Resources 85 BASF Chemical Corporation 81 BASF Corporation 81 biodegradable 93 blue roof technology 73 borehole piping 153 calcium hypochlorite 91 carbon dioxide 31 cellulose material 101 chlorinated hydrocarbons 81–82 chlorine 31, 91 clean water 149 climate change 29 climatic change 85 code of practice 96 Colorado River 1, 87 combined sewer overflow 56 Commission for Environmental Cooperation 56 communication 37 construction costs 30 cyanoHAB 19 daisy-chained reservoir 31 dam 1 design and planning 5 Detroit River 81 Detroit Water Collaborative 5 digital water technologies 37 DigitalGlobe 88 disinfectant 91 disintegration 94 drain line clearance 94 drainline clearance 102 drilling boreholes 155 drinking water 109 eco-friendly 93 Eco-Roof Incentive Program 70 education 37 energy 1 Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) 21

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110597820-015

Environment Canada 55 Environmental Adaptation Research Group 55 environmental protection 94 Euphrates 1 evaporation 86, 89 fertilizer 34 float switch 31 fluorinated pollutants 3 flushable 93 Food Policy Council 54 global grants 156 Great Lakes 2, 5 Green Roof Innovation and Testing 64 green roofs 2 groundwater aquifers 88 Haiti 149 healthcare 37 hydroelectric energy 86 hygiene 149 international programs 153 localized water systems 37 Making Green Roofs Happen 58 meadow species 66 mercury 81–82 metal pollution 119 Michigan Alkali 81 microplastics 2, 109 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 91 native species 61 nutrient loading 20 Ontario Building Code 59 operating costs 81 perfluoroalkyl substances 133 personal mobility 37

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PFAS 133 photovoltaic (PV) systems 73 phycocyanin 19 polynuclear aromatics 81–82 pool covers 91 pool surface area 88 pumping 153

TAPPI/ANSI Test Method T 401, Fiber Analysis of Paper and Paperboard 103 Tigris 1 tires 119 Toledo, Ohio 19 Toronto Region Conservation Authority 56 transmitted measurements 17

Rain City Strategy 70 rayon 101 road dust, 119 Rooftop Gardens Resource Group 54

UNICEF 154 urban agriculture 70 urbanization 85, 87 US AID (Agency for International Development) 157

Salt River Project 87 sanitation 149 science, technology and engineering 5 sedimentation and sand filtration 109–110 Sedums 67 self-sufficient homes 29 sewer 33 Smart Great Lakes’ initiative 17 Smart Great Lakes’ 17 Smart Lake Erie 24 smart sensors 17 softwood 101 stormwater retention capacity 69 strategy 149 surface water. 33 sustainable technology 153 swimming pools 85

Verde Rivers 87 water consumption 86 water crisis 19 water innovation 14 water pollution, treatment 133 water sanitation hygiene 153 water treatment 109 water velocity sensors 19 Water Vision 14 waterfronts 5 waterless urinal 33 waterwheel 1 West Don Lands 61 wetland 32

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