Globalization and diversity: geography of a changing world [4th ed. ; Pearson new internat. ed] 1292039078, 1269374508, 9781292039077, 9781269374507

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Pearson New International Edition Globalization and Diversity: Geography of a Changing World Rowntree Lewis Price Wyckoff Fourth Edition

Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk © Pearson Education Limited 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners.

ISBN 10: 1-292-03907-8 ISBN 10: 1-269-37450-8 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-03907-7 ISBN 13: 978-1-269-37450-7

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Printed in the United States of America

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Table of Contents World- Political Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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1. Concepts of World Geography Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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2. The Changing Global Environment Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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3. North America Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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4. Latin America Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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5. The Caribbean Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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6. Sub-Saharan Africa Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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7. Southwest Asia and North Africa Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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8. Europe Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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9. The Russian Domain Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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10. Central Asia Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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11. East Asia Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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12. Southeast asia Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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13. South Asia Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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14. Australia And Oceania

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Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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World- Physical Les Rowntree/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff

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Index

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WORLD–POLITICAL

From Inside Front Cover of Globalization and Diversity: Geography of A Changing World, Fourth Edition. Les Rowntree, Martin Lewis, Marie Price, William Wyckoff. Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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World–Political

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World–Political

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ConCepts of World GeoGraphy

From Chapter 1 of Globalization and Diversity: Geography of A Changing World, Fourth Edition. Les Rowntree, Martin Lewis, Marie Price, William Wyckoff. Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Globalization and Diversity Globalization affects all people and places throughout the world because it’s everywhere, all the time. While some embrace the changes brought by globalization, others resist and push back, taking refuge in the traditional and familiar. As a result a complex world geography is produced consisting of new and old, containing intertwined and inseparable elements of both globalization and diversity.

Converging Currents of globalization One of the most important and controversial challenges facing the world in the 21st century is associated with globalization— the increasing interconnectedness of people and places through converging economic, political, and cultural activities.

geograPHY Matters

Geography is one of the fundamental sciences with its roots in the Greek word for “describing the Earth”. As a result this discipline has been central to all cultures and civilizations as they seek to better understand the world.

tHe geograPHer’s toolbox

Geographers use many different tools in their study of the world— maps, aerial photos, satellite images, GPS, and digital geographical information systems to name just a few.

environMental geograPHY

Fundamental to world regional geography is an understanding of the physical world—geology, climate, vegetation—as well as analysis of environmental issues like global climate change.

PoPulation and settleMent

The key issues are vastly different rates of natural growth, population migration, and urbanization.

Cultural CoHerenCe and diversitY

Globalization affects people and cultures worldwide, often creating new cultural geographies, but also at times reinforcing traditional ways of life.

geoPolitiCal fraMework

Unquestionably, one of the characteristics of the last several decades has been the speed, scope, and character of geopolitical change in different regions of the world.

eConoMiC and soCial develoPMent

Economic globalization is a driving force behind changing geographies in all parts of the world and understanding and evaluating these processes and changes is central to world regional geography.

➤ An icon of diversity and globalization, Hamburg has been a world trade center since medieval times. Today, Hamburg is not only Europe’s second largest port (after Rotterdam) but also one of Europe’s most ethnically diverse cities.

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ConCepts of World GeoGraphy

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Concepts of World Geography

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lobalization affects the geography of people and places throughout the world, from small rural villages to large bustling cities. Pundits say globalization is like the weather: It’s everywhere, all the time. It is a ubiquitous part of our lives and landscapes that is both beneficial and negative, depending on our needs and point of view. While some people in some places embrace the changes brought by globalization, others resist and push back, seeking refuge in traditional habits and places. As a result, the handmaiden of globalization is diversity: a tension between the global and the local. In Asian philosophy, yin and yang are polar opposites, yet what are seemingly contrary are actually interconnected and interdependent. Indeed, this is the case with the globalization and diversity that make up world regional geography.

Converging Currents of globalization One of the most important challenges facing the world in the 21st century is associated with globalization—the increasing interconnectedness of people and places through converging economic, political, and cultural activities. Once-distant regions and cultures are now increasingly linked through commerce, communications, and travel. Although earlier forms of globalization existed, especially during Europe’s colonial period, the current degree of planetary integration is stronger than ever. In fact, many observers argue that contemporary globalization is the most fundamental reorganization of the world’s socioeconomic structure since the Industrial Revolution. Although economic activities may be the major force behind globalization, the consequences affect all aspects of land and life: Cultural patterns, political arrangements, environment, and social development are all undergoing profound change. Because natural resources are now global commodities, the planet’s physical environment is also affected by globalization. Financial decisions made thousands of miles away now affect local ecosystems and habitats, often with far-reaching consequences for Earth’s health and sustainability. These immense and widespread global changes make understanding our contemporary world a challenging, yet necessary task. World regional geography is central to this task because of its integration of environmental, cultural, political, and economic themes and topics.

Figure 1 Global Communications The effects of globalization are everywhere, even in remote villages in developing countries. Here, in a small village in southwestern India, a rural family earns a few dollars a week by renting out viewing time on its globally linked television set.

economic globalization Most scholars agree that the major component of globalization is the economic reorganization of the world. Although different forms of a world economy have existed for centuries, a well-integrated and truly global economy is primarily the product of the past several decades. The attributes of this system, while familiar, bear repeating: ■

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Global communication systems that link all regions and most people on the planet instantaneously (Figure 1) Transportation systems capable of moving goods quickly by air, sea, and land Transnational business strategies that have created global corporations more powerful than many sovereign nations New and more flexible forms of capital accumulation and international financial institutions that make 24-hour trading possible Global agreements that promote free trade

LearninG Objectives After reading this chapter you should be able to: ■

Identify the different components of globalization, including their controversial aspects, and list several ways in which globalization is changing world geographies.

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Describe the conceptual framework of world regional geography.

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Summarize the major tools used by geographers to study Earth’s surface.

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Explain the concepts and metrics used to document changes in global population and settlement patterns.

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Describe the themes and concepts used to study the interaction between globalization and the world’s cultural geographies.

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Explain how different aspects of globalization have interacted with global geopolitics from the colonial period to the present day.

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Identify the concepts and data important to documenting changes in the economic and social development of more and less developed countries.

Concepts of World Geography

globalization and Changing Human geographies

Figure 2 Global Shopping Malls Once a fixture only of suburban North America, the shopping mall is now found throughout the world. This mall is in downtown Kunming, the capital city of Yunnan Province, China.

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Market economies and private enterprises that have replaced state-controlled economies and services An abundance of planetary goods and services that have arisen to fulfill consumer demand—real or imagined (Figure 2) Economic disparities between rich and poor regions and countries that drive people to migrate, both legally and illegally, in search of a better life An army of international workers, managers, and executives who give this powerful economic force a human dimension

As a result of this global reorganization, economic growth in some areas of the world has been unprecedented during recent decades; China is a good example. But not everyone has gained from economic globalization, nor have all world regions shared equally in the benefits. While globalization is often touted as universally beneficial through trickle-down economics, there is mounting evidence that this process is happening neither in all places nor for all peoples. Additionally, the global recession of 2008–2010 demonstrated that economic interconnectivity can also increase economic vulnerability, as illustrated by the precipitous decline in Hawaii’s tourist trade as the economies of both Japan and the United States went flat at the same time.

Economic changes also trigger cultural changes. The spread of a global consumer culture, for example, often accompanies globalization and frequently hurts local economies. It sometimes creates deep and serious social tensions between traditional cultures and new, external global culture. Global TV, movies, Facebook, Twitter, and videos implicitly promote Western values and culture that are then imitated by millions throughout the world. Fast-food franchises are changing—some would say corrupting— traditional diets, with the explosive growth of McDonald’s, Burger King, and KFC outlets in many of the world’s cities. Although these changes may seem harmless to North Americans because of their familiarity, they are not just expressions of the deep cultural changes the world is experiencing through globalization; they are also generally unhealthy and environmentally destructive. The expansion of the cattle industry, for example, as a result of the new global demand for beef, is doing serious environmental damage to tropical rain forests. Although the media give much attention to the rapid spread of Western consumer culture, nonmaterial culture is also becoming more dispersed and homogenized through globalization. Language is an obvious example—American tourists in far-flung places are often startled to hear locals speaking an English made up primarily of movie or TV clichés. However, far more than speech is involved, as social values also are dispersed globally. Changing expectations about human rights, the role of women in society, and the intervention of nongovernmental organizations are also expressions of globalization that may have far-reaching effects on cultural change. It would be a mistake, however, to view cultural globalization as a one-way flow that spreads from the United States and Europe into the corners of the world. In actuality, when U.S. popular culture spreads abroad, it is typically melded with local cultural traditions in a process known as hybridization. The resulting cultural hybrids, such as hip hop and rap music or Asian food, can themselves resonate across the planet, adding yet another layer to globalization. In addition, ideas and forms from the rest of the world are also having a great impact on U.S. culture. The growing internationalization of American food, the multiple languages spoken in the United States, or the spread of Japanese comic book culture among U.S. youngsters are all expressions of globalization within the United States (Figure 3). Globalization also has a clear demographic dimension. Although international migration is not new, increasing numbers of people from all parts of the world are now crossing national boundaries, legally and illegally, temporarily and permanently (Figure 4). Migration from Latin America and Asia has drastically changed the demographic configuration of the United States, and migration from Africa and Asia has transformed western Europe. Countries such as Japan and South Korea that have long been perceived as ethnically homogeneous now have substantial immigrant populations. Even several relatively poor countries, such as Nigeria and the Ivory Coast, have large numbers of immigrants coming from even poorer countries, such as Burkina Faso and Mali. Although international migration is curtailed by the laws of every country—much more so, in fact, than the movement of goods or capital—it is still rapidly mounting, propelled by the uneven economic development associated with globalization.

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Concepts of World Geography

Figure 4 International Migration Workers from southern India dig a hole to install a street sign in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. This Persian Gulf emirate is experiencing a massive construction boom as it shifts from an oil-based economy to an economy based on real estate, tourism, and international finance. As a result, temporary migrant workers from India and Pakistan constitute much of the labor force.

the past decades, for example, parts of eastern Europe have become major sources of both pornography and prostitution, finding a lucrative, but morally questionable niche in the new global economy.

geopolitics and globalization Figure 3 Global Culture in the United States The multilingual welcome offered by a public library in Montgomery County, Maryland, not only illustrates the many different languages spoken by people in the suburbs of Washington, DC, but also reminds us that expressions of globalization are found throughout North America.

Finally, a significant criminal element also operates in contemporary globalization, including terrorism (discussed later in this chapter), drugs, pornography, slavery, and prostitution. Illegal narcotics, for example, are definitely a global commodity (Figure  5). Some of the most remote parts of the world, such as the mountains of northern Burma, are thoroughly integrated into the circuits of global exchange through the production of opium and therefore into the world heroin trade. Even many areas that do not directly produce drugs are involved in their global sale and transhipment. Nigerians often occupy prominent positions in the international drug trade, as do members of the Russian Mafia. Many Caribbean countries have seen their economies become reoriented to drug transhipments and the laundering of drug money. Prostitution, pornography, and gambling have also emerged as highly profitable global businesses. Over

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Globalization also has important geopolitical components. To many, an essential dimension of globalization is that it is not restricted by territorial or national boundaries. For example, the creation of the United Nations (UN) following World War II was a step toward creating an international governmental structure in which all nations could find representation. The simultaneous emergence of the Soviet Union as a military and political superpower at that time led to a rigid division into Cold War blocs that slowed further geopolitical integration. However, with the peaceful end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the former communist countries of eastern Europe and the Soviet Union were opened almost immediately to global trade and cultural exchange, which have changed those countries immensely (Figure 6). Further, there is a strong argument that globalization—almost by definition—has weakened the political power of individual states by strengthening the power of regional economic and political organizations, such as the European Union and the World Trade Organization. In some world regions, a weakening of traditional state power has resulted in stronger local and separatist movements, as illustrated by the turmoil on Russia’s southern borders or the plethora of separatist organizations in Europe (see “Exploring Global Connections: A Closer Look at Globalization”).

Concepts of World Geography

ARCTIC OCEAN Moscow

Amsterdam Chicago New York

Los Angeles

from Asia

PACIFIC OCEAN

ATLANTIC OCEAN Palermo

Miami Mexico City

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Cayman Islands Various eastern Curacao Caribbean islands Medellin

Coca growing and cocaine production Cannabis production Opium growing and heroin production Cannabis and opium growing Coca, cannabis, and opium growing; heroin and cocaine production Major financial and transit centers Major drug routes

to North

Karachi

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Bangkok

Lagos

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Figure 5 The Global Drug Trade The cultivation, processing, and transhipment of coca (cocaine), opium (heroin), and cannabis (marijuana) are global issues. The most important cultivation centers are Colombia, Mexico, Afghanistan, and northern Southeast Asia, and the major drug financing centers are located mostly in the Caribbean, the United States, and Europe. In addition, Nigeria and Russia play significant roles in the global transhipment of illegal drugs.

Figure 6 End of the Cold War The peaceful end of the Cold War in 1990 greatly facilitated global economic expansion and jumpstarted cultural and political globalization. In this photo, Germans celebrate the opening of the Berlin Wall that divided East and West Berlin from August 1961 to November 1989.

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Concepts of World Geography

exPLOrinG GLObaL cOnnectiOns

A Closer Look at Globalization

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lobalization comes in many shapes and forms as it connects far-flung people and places. While many of these interactions are expected and are common knowledge, such as the global reach of multinational corporations, other global connections are more surprising. Who would expect to find Australian firefighters dowsing California wildfires, or Russians investing in Thailand’s coastal resorts, or Bronx hip-hop music becoming the favored voice of European youth? Indeed, global connections are ubiquitous and often complex—so much so that an understanding of the many different shapes, forms, and scales of these interactions is a key component of the study of global geography.

Figure 1.1 Global use of cell phones Cell phones have revolutionized the way people communicate and interact in a globalized world for today phones are used for far more than simply talking. For example, rural farmers commonly use cell phones to check crop prices so they can take advantage of changing market conditions, while others pay bills and manage their money via cell phones. This woman is of the Swazi tribe in rural South Africa.

the environment and globalization As we mentioned, the expansion of a globalized economy is creating and intensifying environmental problems throughout the world. Transnational firms, which do global business through international subsidiaries, disrupt local ecosystems with their incessant search for natural resources and manufacturing sites. Landscapes and resources previously used by only small groups of local peoples are now thought of as global commodities to be exploited and traded in the world marketplace. As a result, native peoples are often deprived of their traditional resource base and displaced into marginal environments. On a larger scale, economic globalization is aggravating worldwide environmental problems such as global warming, air pollution, water pollution, and deforestation. Yet it is only through global cooperation, such as the UN treaties on biodiversity protection or global warming, that these problems can be addressed.

Controversy about globalization Globalization, especially in its economic aspect, is one of today’s most contentious issues. Supporters believe that it results in a greater economic efficiency that will eventually result in rising prosperity for the entire world. In contrast, critics claim that globalization largely benefits those who are already prosperous, leaving most of the world poorer than before as the rich and powerful exploit the less fortunate. Economic globalization is generally applauded by corporate leaders and economists, and it has substantial support among the leaders of both major political parties in the United States. Beyond North America, moderate and conservative politicians in most countries generally support free trade and other aspects of economic globalization. Opposition to economic globalization is widespread in the labor and environmental movements, as well as among many student groups worldwide. Hostility toward globalization is sometimes deeply

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felt, as massive protests at World Bank and World Trade Organization meetings have made obvious (Figure 7). Pro-Globalization arguments Advocates of globalization argue that globalization is a logical and inevitable expression of contemporary international capitalism and that it benefits all nations and all peoples. Economic globalization can work wonders, they contend, by enhancing competition, allowing the flow of capital to poor areas, and encouraging the spread of beneficial new technologies and ideas. As countries reduce their barriers to trade, inefficient local industries are forced to become more efficient in order to compete with the new flood of imports, thereby enhancing overall national productivity.

Figure 7 Protests Against Globalization Meetings of international groups such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) commonly draw large numbers of protesters against economic globalization. This group of protesters is at a recent meeting of the WTO meeting in Geneva, Switzerland.

Concepts of World Geography

Those that cannot adjust will most likely go out of business, making the global marketplace more efficient. Every country and region of the world, moreover, ought to be able to concentrate on those activities for which it is best suited in the global economy. Enhancing such geographic specialization, the pro-globalizers argue, creates a more efficient world economy. Such economic restructuring is made increasingly possible by the free flow of capital to those areas that have the greatest opportunities. By making access to capital more readily available throughout the world, economists contend, globalization should eventually result in a certain global economic convergence, implying that the world’s poorer countries will gradually catch up with the more advanced economies. The American journalist and author Thomas Friedman, one of the most influential advocates of economic globalization, argues that the world has not only shrunk, but also become economically “flat,” so that financial capital, goods, and services can flow freely from place to place. For example, the need to attract capital from abroad forces countries to adopt new economic policies. Friedman describes the great power of the global “electronic herd” of bond traders, currency speculators, and fund managers who either direct money to or withhold it from developing economies, resulting in economic winners and losers (Figure 8). The pro-globalizers also strongly support the large multinational organizations that facilitate the flow of goods and capital across international boundaries. Three such organizations are particularly important: the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Trade Organization (WTO). The primary function of the World Bank is to make loans to poor countries so that they can invest in infrastructure and build more modern economic foundations. The IMF is concerned with making short-term loans to countries that

Figure 8 The Electronic Herd One aspect of globalization is the rapid movement of capital within the global economic system, movement driven by bond traders, currency speculators, hedge funds, and similar institutions. Here traders work on the Eurodollars Futures floor of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange.

are in financial difficulty—those having trouble, for example, making interest payments on the loans that they had previously taken. The WTO, a much smaller organization than the other two, works to reduce trade barriers between countries to enhance economic globalization. It also tries to mediate between countries and trading blocs that are engaged in trade disputes (Figure 9).

ARCTIC OCEAN

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PACIFIC OCEAN

INDIAN OCEAN

ATLANTIC OCEAN Member of the World Trade Organization

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Figure 9 World Trade Organization One of the most powerful institutions of economic globalization is the World Trade Organization (WTO), which was created in 1995 to oversee trade agreements, encourage open markets, enforce trade rules, and settle disputes. The WTO currently consists of 154 member countries. In addition to these member countries, more than 30 states have “observer status,” including Iran and Iraq.

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Concepts of World Geography

To support their claims, pro-globalizers argue that countries that have been highly open to the global economy have generally had much more economic success than those that have isolated themselves by seeking self-sufficiency. The world’s most isolated countries, Burma (Myanmar) and North Korea, have become economic disasters, with little growth and rampant poverty, whereas those that have opened themselves to global forces in the same period, such as Singapore and Thailand, have seen rapid growth and substantial reductions in poverty. critics of Globalization Virtually all of the claims of the proglobalizers are strongly contradicted by the critics of globalization. Opponents often begin by arguing that globalization is not a “natural” process. Instead, it is the product of an explicit economic policy promoted by free-trade advocates, capitalist countries (mainly the United States, but also Japan and the countries of Europe), financial interests, international investors, and multinational firms. Further, because the globalization of the world economy is creating greater inequity between rich and poor, the trickle-down model of developmental benefits for all people in all regions has yet to be validated. On a global scale, the richest 20 percent of the world’s people consume 86 percent of the world’s resources, whereas the poorest 80 percent use only 14 percent. The growing inequality of this age of globalization is apparent on both global and national scales. Globally, the wealthiest countries have grown much richer over the past two decades, while many of the poorest countries have lost ground. Nationally, even in developed countries such as the United States, the wealthiest 10 percent of the population have reaped almost all of the gains that globalization has offered, while the poorest 10 percent have seen their income decline in recent decades as wages have remained static or jobs have been lost to outsourcing. Opponents also contend that globalization promotes free-market, export-oriented economies at the expense of localized, sustainable activities. World forests, for example, are increasingly cut for export timber, rather than serving local needs. As part of their economic structural adjustment package, the World Bank and the IMF often encourage developing countries to expand their resource exports so they have more hard currency to make payments on their foreign debts. This strategy, however, usually leads to overexploitation of local resources. Opponents also note that the IMF often requires developing countries to adopt programs of fiscal austerity that entail substantial reductions in public spending for education, health, and food subsidies. By adopting such policies, critics warn, poor countries will end up with even more impoverished populations than before. Furthermore, anti-globalizers contend that the “free-market” economic model commonly promoted for developing countries is not the one that Western industrial countries used for their own economic development. In Germany, France, and even to some extent the United States, governments historically have played a strong role in directing investment, managing trade, and subsidizing chosen sectors of the economy. Those who challenge globalization also worry that the entire system—with its instantaneous transfers of vast sums of money over nearly the entire world on a daily basis—is inherently unstable. The British author and noted critic of globalization John Gray, for example, argues that the same “electronic herd” that Thomas Friedman applauds is a dangerous force because it is susceptible to “stampedes.” International managers of capital tend to panic when they think their

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Figure 10 Economic Turmoil in Iceland Protesters burn an effigy of Iceland’s prime minister during a demonstration against the government’s handling of the 2009 economic crisis. Given the relatively small size of Iceland’s economy, the collapse of its bubble economy was the largest downturn in percentage terms suffered by any country in history.

funds are at risk; when they do so, the entire intricately linked global financial system can quickly become destabilized, leading to a crisis of global proportions. The rapid downturn of the global economy in late 2008 seems to support that assertion. Even when the “herd” spots opportunity, trouble may still ensue. As vast sums of money flow into a developing country, they may create a speculatively inflated bubble economy that cannot be sustained. Such a bubble economy emerged in Thailand and many other parts of Southeast Asia in the mid-1990s. Analysts have also used the concept of a bubble economy to explain the tragic collapse of the Icelandic and Irish economies in 2009 (Figure 10). a Middle Position Not surprisingly, many experts argue that both the anti-globalization and the pro-globalization stances are exaggerated. Those in the middle ground tend to argue that economic globalization is indeed unavoidable. They further contend that, while globalization holds both promises and pitfalls, it can be managed, at both the national and the international levels, to reduce economic inequalities and protect the natural environment. These experts stress the need for strong, yet efficient national governments, supported by international institutions (such as the UN, World Bank, and IMF) and globalized networks of environmental, labor, and human rights groups. Unquestionably, globalization is one of the most important issues of the day—and certainly one of the most complicated. While this text does not pretend to resolve the controversy, nor does it take a position, it does encourage readers to reflect on these critical points as they apply to different world regions.

Diversity in a globalizing World As globalization increases, many observers foresee a world far more uniform and homogeneous than today’s. The optimists among them imagine a universal global culture uniting all humankind into a single community untroubled by war, ethnic strife, or resource shortage—a global utopia of sorts.

Concepts of World Geography

review QuestiOns 1. Describe and explain five components of economic globalization. 2. What is the relationship between the end of the Cold War in 1990 and economic globalization? 3. Summarize three elements of the controversy about globalization.

geograpHy Matters: environMents, regions, lanDsCapes Figure 11 Local Cultures This market place in Ghana, Africa reminds us that although there are few places beyond the reach of globalization, nevertheless, many unique local landscapes, economies, and cultures still exist.

A more common view, however, is that the world is becoming blandly homogeneous as different places, peoples, and environments lose their distinctive character and become indistinguishable from their neighbors. Diversity may be difficult for a society to live with, but it also may be dangerous to live without. Nationality, ethnicity, cultural distinctiveness—all are the legitimate legacy of humanity. If this diversity is blurred, denied, or repressed through global homogenization, humanity loses one of its defining traits. However, even if globalization is generating a certain degree of homogenization, the world is still a highly diverse place (Figure 11). You can still find marked differences in culture (language, religion, architecture, foods, and many other attributes of daily life), economy, and politics—as well as in the physical environment. Such diversity is so vast that it cannot readily be extinguished, even by the most powerful forces of globalization. In fact, globalization often provokes a strong reaction on the part of local people, making them all the more determined to maintain what is distinctive about their way of life. Thus, globalization is understandable only if we also examine the diversity that continues to characterize the world and, perhaps most important, the tension between these two forces: the homogenization of globalization and the reaction against it in terms of protecting cultural and political diversity. The politics of diversity also demand increasing attention as we try to understand worldwide tensions over terrorism, ethnic separateness, regional autonomy, and political independence. Groups of people throughout the world seek self-rule of territory they can call their own. Today most wars are fought within countries, not between them. As a result, our interest in geographic diversity takes many forms and goes far beyond simply celebrating traditional cultures and unique places. People have many ways of making a living throughout the world, and it is important to recognize this fact as the globalized economy becomes increasingly focused on mass-produced retail goods. Furthermore, a stark reality of today’s economic landscape is unevenness: While some people and places prosper, others suffer from unrelenting poverty. This, unfortunately, also is a form of diversity amid globalization (Figure 12).

Geography is one of the most fundamental sciences, a discipline awakened and informed by the long-standing human curiosity about our surroundings. The term geography has its roots in the Greek words for “describing the Earth,” and as a result this discipline has been central to all cultures and civilizations as they explore the world, seeking natural resources, commercial trade, military advantage, and scientific knowledge about world environments. In some ways, geography can be compared to history: Historians describe and explain what has happened over time, whereas geographers describe and explain the world’s spatial dimensions, how it differs from place to place. Given the broad scope of geography, it is no surprise that geographers have different conceptual approaches to investigating the world. At the most basic level, geography can be broken into two complementary pursuits: physical and human geography. Physical geography examines climate, landforms, soils, vegetation, and hydrology. Human geography concentrates on the spatial analysis of economic, social, and cultural systems. A physical geographer, for example, studying the Amazon Basin of Brazil, might be interested primarily in the ecological diversity of the tropical rain forest or the ways in which the destruction of that environment changes the local climate and hydrology. A human geographer, in contrast, would focus on the social and economic factors explaining the migration of settlers into the rain forest or the tensions and conflicts over resources between new migrants and indigenous peoples. Another basic division is that between focusing on a specific topic or theme and analyzing a place or a region. The theme approach is referred to as thematic or systematic geography, while the regional approach is called regional geography. These two perspectives are complementary and by no means mutually exclusive. This text, for example, draws upon a regional scheme for its overall organization, dividing the globe into 12 separate world regions. It then presents the information thematically, examining the topics of environment, population and settlement, cultural differentiation, geopolitics, and economic development in a systematic way. In doing so, it combines four kinds of geography: physical, human, thematic, and regional geography.

areal Differentiation and integration As a spatial science, geography is charged with the study of Earth’s surface. A central theme of that responsibility is describing and explaining the differences that distinguish one piece of the world from another. The geographical term for this is areal differentiation (areal means “pertaining to area”). Why is one part of Earth humid and lush,

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Concepts of World Geography

Figure 12 The Landscape of Economic Diversity The geography of diversity takes many expressions, one of which is economic unevenness, as depicted in this photo from New Delhi, India, where squatter settlements of the poor contrast with the hi-rise office buildings and apartment houses of the more affluent.

while another, just a few hundred kilometers away, is an arid desert (Figure 13)? Geographers are also interested in the connections between different places and how they are linked. This concern is one of areal integration, or the study of how places interact with one another. An example is the analysis of how and why the economies of Singapore and the United States are closely intertwined, even though the two countries are situated in entirely different physical, cultural, and political environments. Questions of areal integration are becoming increasingly important because of the new global linkages inherent to globalization. Global to Local All systematic inquiry has a sense of scale, whatever the discipline. In biology, some scientists study the smaller units of cells, genes, or molecules, while others take a larger view, analyzing plants, animals, or whole ecosystems. Geographers also work at different scales. While one may concentrate on analysis of a local landscape— perhaps a single village in southern China—another might focus on the broader regional picture, examining all of southern China (Figure 14). Other geographers do research on a still larger global scale, perhaps studying emerging trade networks between southern India’s center of information technology in Bangalore and North America’s Silicon Valley or investigating how India’s monsoon might be connected to and affected by the Pacific Ocean’s El Niño. But even though geographers may be working at different scales, they never lose sight of the interactivity and connectivity among local, regional, and global scales. They will note the ways that the village in southern India might be linked to world trade patterns or how the late arrival of the monsoon could affect agriculture and food supplies in different parts of India.

regions: formal, functional, and vernacular The human intellect seems driven to make sense of the universe by lumping phenomena together into categories that emphasize similarities. Biology has its taxa of living organisms, history marks off eras and periods of time, and geology classifies epochs of Earth history. Geography, too, organizes information about the world, by compressing it into units of spatial similarity called regions. Sometimes the unifying threads of a region are physical, such as climate and vegetation, resulting in a regional designation like the Sahara Desert or the Amazonian rain forest. Other times the threads are more complex, combining economic and cultural traits, as in the use of the term Corn Belt for parts of the central United States. People commonly compress large amounts of information into stereotypes, and in a way geographic regions are just that—a spatial stereotype for a portion of Earth that has some special signature or characteristic that sets it apart from other places. Geographers designate three types of regions: formal, functional, and vernacular (Figure 15). Formal regions take their name from the fact that these regions are defined by some aspect of physical form, such as a mountain range, valley, or climate. Cultural features can also be used to define formal regions. An example is the area where a certain language is spoken or a specific religion dominates. Many of the maps denote formal regions. In contrast, a functional region is where a certain activity (or cluster of activities) takes place. The earlier example of America’s Corn Belt fits this terminology because it forms a region where a specific economic activity dominates. The Bos–Wash (Boston to Washington, DC) megalopolis of the eastern

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Concepts of World Geography

Figure 13 Areal Differentiation In this satellite photo, the California– Mexico border is apparent because of the different sizes of agricultural fields. The larger red pattern in the upper left is the irrigated fields of the United States, while in the bottom right the much smaller and less irrigated fields of Mexico have a different landscape signature when seen from space. Explaining such differences is a central focus of geography.

United States is another example, as are newspaper circulation areas and the spatial dimension of a sports team’s fan base (think of the line somewhere in the Midwest between Chicago and St. Louis that divides baseball and football fans of each city). Last, vernacular regions are defined solely in people’s minds as spatial stereotypes that have no visible boundaries in the physical landscape. Examples abound: the South, the Midwest, southern California, New England, and so on.

the Cultural landscape: space into place Humans transform space into distinct places that are unique and heavily loaded with meaning and symbolism. This diverse fabric of placefulness is of great interest to geographers because it tells us much about the human condition throughout the world. Places can tell us how humans interact with nature and among themselves; where there are tensions and where there is peace; where people are rich and where they are poor. A common tool for the analysis of place is the concept of the cultural landscape, which is, simply stated, the visible, material expression of human settlement, past and present. Thus, the cultural landscape is the tangible expression of the human habitat. It visually reflects the most basic human needs—shelter, food, and work. Additionally, the cultural landscape acts to bring people together (or keep them apart) because it is a marker of cultural values, attitudes, and symbols. As cultures vary greatly around the world, so do cultural landscapes (Figure 16).

Figure 14 Global to Local Just about all places in the world are connected in someway because of globalization, and because of that, global affairs affect local peoples and places. Here a farmer in rural China uses the village laptop to check world grain prices to determine if the time is right for selling their crop.

Increasingly, however, we see the uniqueness of places being eroded by the homogeneous landscapes of globalization—shopping malls, fast-food outlets, business towers, theme parks, and industrial complexes. Understanding the forces behind the spread of these landscapes is important because they tell us much about the expansion of global economies and cultures. Although a modern shopping mall in Hanoi, Vietnam, may seem familiar to someone from North America, this new landscape represents yet another component of globalized world culture that has been implanted into a once remote and distinctive city.

review QuestiOns 1. Explain the difference between areal differentiation and areal integration. 2. How do functional regions differ from formal and vernacular regions? 3. How is the concept of the cultural landscape related to areal differentiation?

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Concepts of World Geography

205

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Figure 15 Geographic Regions This map Oakland S TA San Francisco San Ramon illustrates three different kinds of geographic A CO NTR O 580 C SAN regions: vernacular, formal, and functional. A FRANCISCO 880 vernacular region is an abstraction that has San Leandro 580 Daly City indistinct cognitive borders, as shown by the Livermore 101 San Francisco general outline of what the public considers Hayward Pleasanton Pacifica Bay to be Silicon Valley. Other vernacular regions 92 San Bruno would be “the Midwest,” “the Deep South,” 680 and “the Pacific Northwest.” In contrast, formal San Mateo Fremont 84 regions have distinct boundaries, such as that for 880 the Santa Clara Valley, defined as the lowland ALAMEDA Redwood Half Moon between two bordering mountain ranges. A SANTA City Bay CLARA Milpitas Palo Alto functional region is based on a certain activity or organizational structure, such as the civic 1 government of San Jose, bounded by its legal Sunnyvale 280 city limits.

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Figure 16 The Cultural Landscape Despite globalization, the world’s landscapes still have great diversity, as shown by this village and its surrounding rice terraces on the island of Luzon, Philippines. Geographers use the cultural landscape concept to better understand how people interact with their environment.

tHe geograpHer’s toolbox: loCation, Maps, reMote sensing, anD gis Geographers use many different tools to represent the world in a convenient form for examination and analysis. You will need very different kinds of images and data if you’re studying vegetation in Brazil or mining in Mongolia; population density in Tokyo or languages spoken in Europe; religions practiced in the Middle East or rainfall in southern India. Today’s modern satellite and communications systems offer geographers an array of tools not imagined 50 years ago.

latitude and longitude To navigate their way through their daily tasks, people generally use a mental map of relative locations that locate specific places in terms of their relationship to other landscape features. The shopping mall is near the highway, for example, or the college campus is near the river. In contrast, map makers use absolute location, often called a mathematical location, that draws upon a universally accepted coordinate system giving every place on Earth a specific numerical address based upon latitude and longitude. The absolute location for the Geography Department at the University of Oregon, for example, has the

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Concepts of World Geography

N

circles, at 66.5 degrees north and south latitude, respectively, mathematically define the polar regions. These regions experience 24 hours of daylight in the summer and 24 hours of darkness during the winter.

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S Figure 17 Latitude and Longitude While latitude locates a point between the Equator and the poles and is designated as so many degrees north or south, longitude locates a point east or west of the Prime Meridian, which is located just east of London, England.

mathematical address of 44 degrees, 02 minutes, and 42.95 seconds north and 123 degrees, 04 minutes, and 41.29 seconds east. This is written 44° 02′ 42.95″ N and 123° 04′ 41.29″ E. Lines of latitude, often called parallels, run east–west around the globe and are used to locate places north and south of the equator, which is 0 degrees latitude. In contrast, lines of longitude, referred to as meridians, run from the north pole, located at 90 degrees north latitude, to the south pole, located at 90 degrees south latitude. Longitude values locate places east or west of the prime meridian, located at 0 degrees longitude at the Royal Naval Observatory in Greenwich, England (just east of London) (Figure 17). The equator divides the globe into northern and southern hemispheres, whereas the prime meridian divides the world into eastern and western hemispheres; these latter two hemispheres meet at 180 degrees longitude in the western Pacific Ocean. The International Date Line, where each new solar day begins, lies along much of 180 degrees longitude, deviating where necessary to ensure that small Pacific island nations remain on the same calendar day. Each degree of latitude measures 60 nautical miles or 69 land miles (111 km) and is made up of 60 minutes, each of which is 1 nautical mile (1.15 land miles). Each minute has 60 seconds of distance, each of which is approximately 100 feet (30.5 meters). From the equator, parallels of latitude are used to mathematically define the tropics: the Tropic of Cancer at 23.5 degrees north and the Tropic of Capricorn at 23.5 degrees south. These lines of latitude denote where the Sun is directly overhead at noon on the solar solstices in June and December. Also, the Arctic and Antarctic

Global Positioning systems (GPs) Historically, precise measurements of latitude and longitude were determined by a complicated method of celestial navigation, based upon one’s location relative to the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars. Today, though, absolute location on Earth (or in airplanes above Earth’s surface) is achieved through satellite-based global positioning systems (GPS). These systems use time signals sent from your location to a satellite and back to your receiver to calculate precise coordinates of latitude and longitude. These systems were first used by the U.S. military in the 1960s and then made available to the public in the later decades of the 20th century. Today GPS guides airplanes across the skies, ships across oceans, private autos on the roads, and hikers through wilderness areas, to name only a few of many uses. While most smartphones use locational systems based upon triangulation from cell phone towers, some smartphones are capable of true satellite-based GPS that is accurate to about 30 feet (9 meters).

Map projections Because the world is spherical, mapping the globe on a flat piece of paper creates inherent distortions in the latitudinal, or north–south, depiction of Earth’s land and water areas. Cartographers (those who make maps) have tried to limit these distortions by using various map projections, which are defined simply as the different ways maps are projected onto a flat service. Historically, the Mercator projection was the projection of choice for maps used for oceanic exploration. However, just a brief look at the inflated Greenlandic and Russian landmasses shows its weakness in accurate depiction of high-latitude land areas (Figure 18). Over time, cartographers have created literally hundreds of different map projections in their attempts to find the best and most accurate way of mapping the world. Without going into the details of this vexatious quest, in the last several decades cartographers have generally used the Robinson projection for their maps and atlases. In fact, several professional cartographic societies tried unsuccessfully in 1989 to actually ban projections such as the Mercator because of their spatial distortions. Like many other professional publications, in this text we use only the Robinson projection for our maps.

Map scale All maps must reduce the area being mapped to a smaller piece of paper. This reduction involves the use of map scale, or the mathematical ratio between the map and the surface area being mapped. Many maps note their scale as a ratio or fraction between a unit on the map and the same unit in the area being mapped, such as 1:63,360 or 1/63,360. This means that 1 inch on the map represents 63,360 inches on the land surface; thus, the scale is 1 inch equals 1 mile. Although 1:63,360 (1 inch equals 1 mile) is a convenient mapping scale to understand, the amount of surface area that can be mapped and fitted on a letter-sized sheet of paper is limited to about 20 square miles. At this scale, mapping 100 square miles would produce a bulky map 8 feet square. Therefore, the ratio must be changed to a larger number, such

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Concepts of World Geography

(b)

Figure 18 Map Projections Cartographers have long struggled with how best to accurately map the world given the inherent distortions when transferring features on a round globe to a flat piece of paper. Early map makers commonly used the Mercator Projection on the left, which while distorting features in the high latitudes worked fairly well for sea-going explorers. On the right is the Robinson Projection that was developed in the 1960s and is now the industry standard because it minimizes cartographic distortion.

(a)

as 1:316,800. This ratio means that 1 inch on the map now represents 5 miles (8 kilometers) of distance on land. Based upon the representative fraction, which is the cartographic term for the ratio between the map and the area being mapped, maps are categorized as having either large or small scales (Figure 19). It may be easy to remember that large-scale maps make landscape features like rivers, roads, and cities larger, but because the features are larger, the maps must cover smaller areas. Conversely, small-scale maps cover larger areas, but to do so, these maps must make landscape features smaller. A bit harder to remember is that the larger the second number of the representative

fraction—the 63,360 in the fraction 1:63,360 or the 100,000 in the fraction 1:100,000, for example—the smaller the scale of the map. Map scale is probably the easiest to interpret when it is simply portrayed in a graphic or linear scale, which visually depicts in a horizontal bar distance units such as feet, meters, miles, or kilometers. Most of the maps in this text are small-scale maps of large areas; thus, the graphic scale is in miles and kilometers. Distances between two points on the map can be calculated by making two tick marks on a piece of paper held next to the points and then measuring the distance between the two marks on the linear scale.

Figure 19 Small and Large Scale Maps A portion of Australia’s east coast north of Sydney is mapped at two scales, one (on the left) at a small scale, and other (on the right) at a large scale. Note the differences in distance depicted on the linear scales of the two different maps. While there’s more close up detail in the large scale map, it covers only a small portion of the area mapped at a small scale.

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Concepts of World Geography

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Figure 20 Choropleth Maps Two different cartographic techniques are shown in these maps. The population density of India is mapped using different categories of density, from sparsely populated to very high densities, depicted with increasing intensity of colors so that one sees immediately the gradients from low to high population density. In the second example, the climates of Sub-Saharan Africa, different climate categories are given different colors, with drier colors represented with sand-like tan, and wetter climates in darker colors.

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Map patterns and Map legends

aerial photos and remote sensing

Maps, quite obviously, come in a wide array of colors and patterns, which depict everything from the most basic representation of topographic and landscape features to complicated patterns of population, migration, economic conditions, and so forth. Whether the map is a simple reference map that shows the location of certain features or a thematic map that displays more complicated spatial phenomena, the map legend provides the details by explaining the different map patterns. Many maps in this text are choropleth maps, which map different levels of intensity of data, such as per capita income or population density, placed within discrete spatial units, such as countries, cities, counties, or cultural regions (Figure 20). Along with choropleth data, many of our maps contain flow arrows that depict the movement of people or the flow of trade goods.

Although maps are a primary tool of geography, much can be learned about Earth’s surface by deciphering patterns on aerial photographs taken from airplanes, balloons, or satellites. Originally, these photographs were only in black and white, but today color aerial photographs are common. Even more information about Earth comes from electromagnetic images taken from aircraft or satellites referred to as remote sensing (Figure 21). This technology has many scientific applications, including monitoring the loss of rain forests, tracking the biological health of crops and woodlands, and even measuring changes in ocean surface temperatures. It is also central to national defense issues, such as monitoring troop movements or the building of missile sites in hostile countries. In simple terms, aerial photographs are merely photographs taken from balloons, airplanes, or satellites, whereas remote sensing gathers

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Concepts of World Geography

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Figure 22 GIS Layers Geographic Information Systems (GIS) maps usually consist of many different layers of information that can be either viewed and analyzed separately or as a composite overlay. This illustration is of a typical environmental planning map where different physical features (such as wetlands and soils) are combined with zoning regulations.

Figure 21 Remote Sensing of the Dead Sea This NASA satellite image of the Dead Sea, the lowest spot on Earth at 1300 feet (400 meters) below sea level, uses false color remote sensing to capture different elements of the environment. Black is deeper water, with light blue showing shallow waters. The green areas along the shoreline are irrigated crops, while the white areas are salt evaporation ponds.

electromagnetic data that then must be processed and interpreted by computer software to produce images of Earth’s surface. The Landsat satellite program launched by the United States in 1972 is a good example of both the technology and the uses of remote sensing. These satellites collect data simultaneously in four broad bands of electromagnetic energy, from visible through near-infrared

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wavelengths, that is reflected or emitted from Earth. Once these data are processed by computers, they display a range of images, as illustrated in Figure 22. The resolution on Earth’s surface ranges from areas 260 feet (80 meters) square down to 98 feet (30 meters) square. Landsat 4 and 5 pass from north to south over the equator at an altitude of 440 miles (700 kilometers) each day at about 10 am, which allows detection of change to the environment on a continual basis. Of course, cloud cover often compromises the continuous coverage of many parts of the world.

geographic information systems (gis) Vast amounts of computerized data from different sources, such as maps, aerial photos, remote sensing, and census tracts, are brought together in geographic information systems (GIS). The resulting spatial databases are used to analyze a wide range of resource problems. Conceptually, GIS can be thought of as a computer system for producing a series of overlay maps showing spatial patterns and relationships (Figure 22). A GIS map, for example, might combine a conventional map with data on toxic waste sites, local geology, groundwater flow, and surface hydrology to determine the source of pollutants appearing in household water systems. Although the earliest GIS dates back to the 1960s, it is only in the last several decades—with the advent of desktop computer systems and remote sensing data—that GIS has become absolutely central to

Concepts of World Geography

geographic problem-solving. It has a central role in city planning, environmental science, earth science, and real-estate development, to name only a few of the many activities using these systems.

review QuestiOns 1. Explain the difference between latitude and longitude. 2. What does a map’s scale tell us? Describe three different ways map scale is portrayed. 3. What is a choropleth map? 4. Explain how GPS works.

Figure 23 World Regions

This map illustrates the 12 world regions. 150°W

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Figure 24 World Population This map emphasizes the different population densities in the areas of the world. East Asia stands out as the most populated region, with high densities in Japan, Korea, and eastern China. The second most populous region is South Asia, dominated by India, which is second only to China in total population. In North Africa and Southwest Asia, population clusters are often linked to the availability of water for irrigated agriculture, as is apparent with the population cluster along the Nile River. Higher population densities in Europe, North America, and other countries are usually associated with large cities, their extensive suburbs, and nearby economic activities.

population anD settleMent: people on tHe lanD Currently, Earth has more than 7 billion people, with demographers forecasting the addition of another half billion by 2025. Most of this increase will take place in Africa, Asia, and South America (Figure 24). Because of high rates of population growth in developing countries, difficult questions dominate discussions of many global issues. Can these countries absorb the rapidly increasing population and still achieve the necessary economic and social development to ensure some level of well-being and stability for their populations? What role, if any, should the developed countries of North America, Europe, and East Asia play in helping developing countries with their population problems?

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Population is a complex and even contentious topic, but several points may help to focus the issues: ■

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Very different rates of population growth are found in different regions of the world. Some countries, such as India, are growing rapidly; others, such as Italy, have no natural growth at all, with all population growth coming from in-migration. The current rate of population growth is now half the peak rate experienced in the 1960s. At that time, talk of “the population bomb” and “population explosions” was common, warning that the world either was very close to or had already passed a sustainable carrying capacity for Earth. Still, even with slower growth, about 20 percent of the world’s population is undernourished.

Concepts of World Geography

PACIFIC OCEAN

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Figure 25 Family Planning Policies Many countries in the developing world have concluded that unrestrained population growth may keep them from realizing their development goals. Therefore, they have put family planning policies in place that promote birth control. This billboard is in China and encourages citizens to continue the state’s policy of family planning.

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Population planning takes many forms, from the fairly rigid oneor two-child policies of China and other countries attempting to slow population growth, to the family-friendly policies of nogrowth countries that would like to increase their natural birth rates (Figure 25). Not all attention should be focused on natural growth because migration is increasingly the root cause of population growth in the globalized world. Although most international migration is driven by a desire for a better life in the richer regions of the developed world, millions of migrants are refugees from civil strife, political persecution, and environmental disasters. The greatest migration in human history is going on now, as millions of people move from rural to urban environments. As of 2009, a landmark was reached when demographers estimated that more than half the world’s population now lives in towns and cities. As with natural growth, the most rapid rates of urbanization are in the developing regions of Africa, South America, and Asia.

population growth and Change Because of the central importance of population growth, this text includes a table of population data for the countries in that region (Table 1). Although at first glance these statistics might seem daunting, this information is crucial to understanding the population geography of the regions. natural Population increase A common starting point for measuring demographic change is the rate of natural increase (RNI), which provides the annual growth rate for a country or region as a percentage. This statistic is produced by subtracting the number of deaths from the number of births in a given year. Important to remember is that population gains or losses through migration are not considered in the RNI. Also, instead of using raw numbers for a large population, demographers divide the gross numbers of births and deaths by the total population, thereby producing a number per 1,000 of the population. This is referred to as the crude birthrate or the crude death rate. For example, in

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Concepts of World Geography

w O r k i n G t O w a r D s u s ta i n a b i L i t y

A Concept with Many Meanings

T

he idea of “sustainability” seems to be everywhere, as we hear about sustainable cities, agriculture, forestry, businesses, corporations, lifestyles—even a sustainable world. The list seems endless at times, and since we see so many varied usages we can rightfully ask, whether the term has any substance? Or is sustainability overused to the point where it’s merely a superficial buzzword for expressing general concern about the environment? The dictionary tells us that sustainable has two main definitions. The first meaning is to endure and be able to maintain something at a certain level so that it lasts. The second refers to something that can be upheld or defended, such as a sustainable idea or action. Resource management has long used terms such as sustained-yield forestry to refer to timber practices where the amount of tree harvesting is attuned to the natural rate of forest growth—so that the resource is not overused, but is able to renew itself over time. Moral and ethical dimensions were added to this traditional usage in 1987 when the UN World Commission on Environment and Development addressed the complicated relationship between economic development and environmental deterioration. The commission stated that “sustainable development is development that meets the

needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This cautionary message expands the notion of sustainability from a narrow focus on managing a specific resource, such as trees or grass, to include the whole range of human “needs,” present and future (Figure 2.1). Fossil fuels, for example, are finite, so we should not consume them greedily in the present without considering their availability for future generations. Similar cautions are given about the sustainable uses of all other resources—air, water, soil, genetic biodiversity, wildlife habitats, farming, and so on. Achieving the sustainable use of a specific resource can be extremely difficult, however, because it requires knowing the total amount of the resource in question, as well as the current rate of consumption, and estimating the needs of future generations. These challenges have given rise to the new field of sustainability science, which emphasizes measuring and quantifying these factors. Because of these measurement difficulties, many researchers suggest that sustainability is better thought of as a process, rather than an achievable state. Regardless, even as a process, the concept of sustainability is still infused with strong ethical and moral dimensions in terms of constraint and stewardship.

2011 the crude birthrate for the whole world was 20 per 1,000, with a crude death rate of 8 per 1,000. Thus, the natural growth rate was 12 per 1,000. Converting that figure to a percentage produces the RNI; therefore, the global RNI in 2011 was 2 percent per year. Because birthrates vary greatly amongst peoples and cultures (and between countries and regions of the world), rates of natural increase also vary greatly. In Africa, for example, several countries have crude birthrates of more than 40 per 1,000 people. Because in these countries death rates are generally less than 11 per 1,000, the rates of natural increase are often greater than 2.9 percent per year, which are the highest population growth numbers found anywhere in the world. total Fertility rate Although the crude birthrate gives some insight into current conditions in a country, demographers place more emphasis on the total fertility rate (TFR) to predict future growth. The TFR is an artificial and synthetic number that measures the fertility of a statistically fictitious, yet average group of women moving through their childbearing years. If women marry early and have many children over a long span of years, the TFR is a high number. Conversely, if data show that women marry late and have few

26

Figure 1 Sustainable Energy Most of the world’s energy comes from fossil fuels, mainly oil and coal, which, because those supplies are finite, is by definition unsustainable because at some point in time they will be completely used up and unavailable to produce energy. In contrast are sustainable energy sources such as solar, wind, biofuels, hydro, and, as shown in the photo, geothermal. Because of its abundant supplies of water and geothermal heat, Iceland promotes itself as only the country that runs completely on sustainable energy, with 25 percent of its energy coming from geothermal sources, and the rest from hydroelectricity. This, however, is not quite true since Iceland’s large fishing fleet, which contributes considerably to the country’s economy, is powered by fossil fuel.

children, the number is correspondingly low (Figure 26). Important to note is that any number less than 2.1 implies that a population has no natural growth because it takes a minimum of two children to replace their parents, with a fraction more to compensate for infant mortality. From population data collected in the past decade, the current TFR for the world is 2.4. While that is the average for the whole world, the variability among regions is striking. To illustrate, the current TFR for Africa is 4.7, whereas in no-growth Europe it is only 1.6. young and Old Populations One of the best indicators of the momentum (or its lack) for continued population growth is the youthfulness of a population, since this shows the proportion of a population about to enter the prime reproductive years. The common statistic for this measure is the percentage of a population under age 15. Currently, the global average is that 26 percent of the population is younger than age 15. However, in fast-growing Africa, that figure is 41 percent, with several African countries approaching 50 percent. This strongly suggests that rapid population growth in Africa will continue for at least another generation, despite the tragedy of the AIDS epidemic.

Concepts of World Geography

table 1

Country

POPuLatiOn inDicatOrs Population (millions) 2012

Population Density (per square kilometer)

Rate of Natural Increase (RNI)

Total Fertility Rate

Percent Urban

Percent 65

Net Migration (Rate per 1000) 2010–15a

China

1,350.4

141

0.5

1.5

51

16

9

–0.3

India

1,259.7

383

1.5

2.5

31

31

5

–0.2

United States

313.9

33

0.5

1.9

79

20

13

3.1

Indonesia

241.0

127

1.3

2.3

43

27

6

–0.8

Brazil

194.3

23

1.0

1.9

84

24

7

–0.2

Pakistan

180.4

227

2.1

3.6

35

35

4

–1.4

Nigeria

170.1

184

2.6

5.6

51

44

3

–0.4

Bangladesh

152.9

1,062

1.6

2.3

25

31

5

–0.1

Russia

143.2

8

–0.1

1.6

74

15

13

1.2

Japan

127.6

338

–0.2

1.4

86

13

24

0.4

a

Net Migration Rate from the United Nations, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision Population Database.

Source: Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet, 2012.

In contrast, Europe has only 16 percent of its population under 15, and North America has 19 percent. The other end of the age spectrum is also important, and it is measured by the percentage of a population over age 65. This number is useful for inferring the needs of a society in providing social services for its senior citizens and pensioners. In Japan, for example, about a quarter of the population is over the age of 65. Population Pyramids The best graphical indicator of a population’s age and gender structure is the population pyramid. This graph depicts the percentage of a population (or, in some cases, the raw number) that is male or female in different age classes, from young to old (Figure 27). If a country has higher numbers of young people Figure 26 Total Fertility Rate Birthrates and death rates vary widely around the world. Fertility rates result from an array of variables, including state family-planning programs and the level of a woman’s education. This family lives in the state of Rajasthan, India.

than old, the graph has a broad base and a narrow tip, thus taking on a pyramidal shape that commonly forecasts rapid population growth. In contrast, slow-growth or no-growth populations are top-heavy, with a larger number of seniors than younger age classes. Not only are population pyramids useful for comparing different population structures around the world at a given point in time, but also they can capture the structural changes of a population in time if it transitions from fast to slow growth. Population pyramids are also useful for displaying gender differences within a population, showing whether or not there is a disparity in the numbers of males and females. In the mid-20th century, for example, population pyramids for those countries that fought in World War II (such as the United States, Germany, France, and Japan) showed a distinct deficit of males, indicating those lost to warfare. Similar patterns are found today in those countries experiencing widespread conflict and civil unrest. Cultural preferences for one sex or another, such as the preference for male infants in China and India, also show up in population pyramids. Because of their usefulness in showing different population structures, comparative population pyramids are used in this text. Life expectancy Another demographic indicator that contains information about health and well-being in a society is life expectancy, which is the average length of a life expected at the birth of a typical male or female in a specific country. Because a large number of social factors—such as health services, nutrition, and sanitation—influence life expectancy, these data are often used as an indicator of the level of social development in a country. In this text, life expectancy is used as a social indicator; thus, these data are found in the economic and social development tables instead of in the population data tables. Not surprisingly, because social conditions vary widely around the world, so do life expectancy figures. In general, though, life expectancy has been increasing over the decades, implying that the conditions supporting life and longevity are improving. To illustrate, in 1975 the average life expectancy figure for the world was 58 years,

27

Concepts of World Geography

RAPID GROWTH

SLOW GROWTH

Nigeria. RNI 2.6% 2012 population: 170.1 million 2025 pop. (projected): 234.4 million

male

9

8

age 85+ 80–84 75–79 70–74 65–69 60–64 55–59 50–54 45–49 40–44 35–39 30–34 25–29 20–24 15–19 10–14 5–9 0–4

female

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

1

2

3

NEGATIVE GROWTH

United States. RNI 0.6% 2012 population: 313.2 million 2025 pop. (projected): 351.4 million

4

5

6

7

8

9

male

5

percent of total population, 2012

4

Germany. RNI -0.2% 2012 population: 81.8 million 2025 pop. (projected): 79.2 million

age 85+ 80–84 75–79 70–74 65–69 60–64 55–59 50–54 45–49 40–44 35–39 30–34 25–29 20–24 15–19 10–14 5–9 0–4

female

3

2

1

0

1

2

3

4

percent of total population, 2012

5

male

5

female

4

3

2

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

percent of total population, 2012

Figure 27 Population Pyramids The term population pyramid comes from the shape of the graph assumed by a rapidly growing country such as Nigeria, when data for age and sex are plotted as percentages of the total population. The broad base illustrates the high percentage of young people in the country’s population, which indicates that rapid growth will probably continue for at least another generation. This pyramidal shape contrasts with the narrow bases of slow- and negative-growth countries, such as the United States and Germany, which have fewer people in the childbearing years.

whereas today it is 70. In Sub-Saharan Africa, however, life expectancy has changed very little over the last 30 years because of the HIV/ AIDS epidemic. As a result, the life expectancy for the region is just about the same (55) as it was in 1975 (52). the Demographic transition The historical record suggests that population growth rates slow down similarly over time. More specifically, in Europe, North America, and Japan, population growth slowed as

countries became increasingly industrialized and urbanized. From these historical data, demographers generated the demographic transition model, a conceptualization that tracked the changes in birthrates and death rates over time. Originally, this model had four stages; however, a fifth stage is now commonly added to characterize the fact that many countries have slowed still further to a no-growth point (Figure 28). In the original demographic transition model, Stage 1 is characterized by both high birthrates and high death rates, resulting in a very low

Births and deaths (per thousand per year)

40 Birthrate

30

Stage 1: Preindustrial

Stage 2: Transitional

Stage 3: Transitional

Stage 4: Industrial

Stage 5: Post-Industrial

20 Total population

Death rate

10 Time

Figure 28 Demographic Transition As a country goes through industrialization, its population moves through the five stages in this diagram, referred to as the demographic transition. In Stage 1, population growth is low because high birthrates are offset by high death rates. Rapid growth takes place in Stage 2, as death rates decline. Stage 3 is characterized by a decline in birthrates. The transition was initially thought to end with low growth once again in Stage 4, resulting from a relative balance between low birthrates and low death rates. But with a large number of developed countries now showing no natural growth, demographers have recently added a fifth stage to the traditional demographic transition model, one that shows no or even negative natural growth.

28

Concepts of World Geography

rate of natural increase. Historically, this stage is associated with Europe’s preindustrial period, a time that predated common public health measures such as sewage treatment, an understanding of disease transmission, and the most fundamental aspects of modern medicine. Not surprisingly, death rates were high and life expectancy was short. Tragically, these conditions are still found today in some parts of the world. In Stage 2, death rates fall dramatically, while birthrates remain high, thus producing a rapid rise in the RNI. In both historical and contemporary times, this decrease in death rates is commonly associated with the development of public health measures and modern medicine. Additionally, one of the assumptions of the demographic transition model is that these health services become increasingly available only after some degree of economic development and urbanization takes place. However, even as death rates fall and populations increase, it takes time for people to respond with lower birthrates, which happens in Stage 3. This, then, is the transitional stage in which people become aware of the advantages of smaller families in an urban and industrial setting, contrasted with the earlier need for large families in rural, agricultural settings or where children worked at industrial jobs (both legally and illegally). Then, in Stage 4, a low RNI results from a combination of low birthrates and very low death rates. Until recently, this stage was assumed be the static end point of change of a developing, urbanizing population. However, as mentioned earlier, that does not seem to be the case. In many highly urbanized developed countries, such as those in Europe, the death rate now exceeds the birthrate. As a result, the RNI falls below a replacement level, as attested to by a negative number. This negative growth state argues for the addition of a fifth stage to the traditional demographic transition model. Of the world’s largest countries, Russia and Japan fall into this category. Remember, though, that the RNI is just that—the rate of natural increase. Thus, it does not capture a country’s growth from in-migration. In the United States, for example, although the RNI is below the replacement level, the overall population continues to grow because of immigration from other countries, both legal and illegal. The same is true of many other developed countries, particularly those in Europe.

global Migration Never before in human history have so many people been on the move. Today more than 190 million people live outside the country of their birth and thus are officially designated as migrants by international agencies. Much of this international migration is directly linked to the new globalized economy because half of the migrants live either in the developed world or in developing countries with vibrant industrial, mining, or petroleum extraction economies. In the oil-rich countries of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, for example, the labor force is composed primarily of foreign migrants (Figure 29). In total numbers, fully one-third of the world’s migrants live in seven industrial countries: Japan, Germany, France, Canada, the United States, Italy, and the United Kingdom. Moreover, most of these migrants have moved to cities; in fact, 20 percent of migrants live in just 20 world cities. Further, because industrial countries usually have very low birthrates, immigration accounts for a large proportion of their population growth. For example, about one-third of the annual growth in the United States is due to in-migration.

Figure 29 Net Migration Rate While this photo of autos and people waiting to cross from Mexico to the United States at the Tijuana border station exaggerates the case since they’re mostly U.S. day-trippers returning home, nevertheless data on the net migration rate is an important demographic indicator because in- and out-migration is generally more important to the growth of developed countries than the natural birth rate.

However, not all migrants move for economic reasons. War, persecution, famine, and environmental destruction cause people to flee to safe havens elsewhere. Accurate data on refugees are often difficult to obtain for several reasons (such as individuals not legally crossing international boundaries or countries deliberately obscuring the number for political reasons), but UN officials estimate that some 35 million people should be considered refugees. More than half of these are in Africa and western Asia. Push and Pull Forces Although its causes may be complicated, the migration process can be understood through three interactive concepts. First, push forces, such as civil strife, environmental degradation, or unemployment, drive people from their homelands. Second, pull forces, such as better economic opportunities or health services, attract migrants to certain locations, within or beyond their national boundaries. Connecting the two are the informational networks of families, friends, and sometimes labor contractors who provide information on the mechanics of migration, transportation details, and housing and job opportunities. net Migration rates The amount of immigration (in-migration) and emigration (out-migration) is measured by the net migration rate, a statistic that indicates whether more people are entering or leaving a country. A positive figure means the population is growing because of in-migration, whereas a negative number means more people are leaving than arriving. As with other demographic indicators, the net migration rate is provided for the number of migrants per 1,000 of a base population. To illustrate, the net migration rate for the United States is 2 per 1,000 people, whereas Canada, which receives even more immigrants than the United States, has a net migration rate of 7. In contrast, Mexico, the source of many migrants to North America, has a net migration rate of −2.5. Some of the highest net migration rates are found in countries that depend heavily on migrants for their labor force. These include Qatar, with a net migration rate of 19, and Kuwait, at 15. Countries with the highest negative migration rates are Tonga, 215.4;

29

Concepts of World Geography

Samoa, 213.5; Micronesia, 212.8, and several Caribbean islands with rates close to 210.

settlement geography Population Density The average number of people per area unit (square mile or square kilometer) is referred to as population density. This statistic conveys important information about settlement patterns and landscape in a specific area or country. In Table 1, you can see the striking difference between the high population density of India and the much lower figure for the United States. Flying over these two countries and looking down at the settlement patterns explains this contrast (Figure 30). Much of the United States is covered by farms covering hundreds of acres, with houses and barns several miles from their neighbors. In contrast, the landscape of India is made up of small villages, distanced from each other by only a mile

or so. This results in a population density three times higher in India than in the United States. Japan has a similar settlement pattern to India, even though it is primarily an urban, industrial country. Bangladesh, one of the most densely settled countries in the world, must somehow squeeze its large and rapidly growing population into a limited amount of dry land built by the delta of two large rivers, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. Because population densities differ considerably between rural and urban areas, the gross national figure can be a bit misleading. Many of the world’s largest cities, for example, have densities of more than 30,000 people per square mile (10,300 per square kilometer), with the central areas of Mumbai (Bombay) and Shanghai easily twice as dense because of the prevalence of high-rise apartment buildings. In contrast, most North American cities have densities of fewer than 10,000 people per square mile (3,800 per square kilometer), due largely to the cultural preference for single-family dwellings on individual urban lots. an urbanizing world Cities are the focal points of the contemporary, globalizing world—the fast-paced centers of deep and widespread economic, political, and cultural change. Because of this vitality and the options cities offer to impoverished and uprooted rural peoples, they are also magnets for migration. The scale and rate of growth of some world cities are absolutely staggering. Estimates are that between natural growth and in-migration, Mumbai (Bombay) will add over 7 million people by 2020, which, assuming growth is constant throughout the period (perhaps a questionable assumption), would mean that the urban area would add over 10,000 new people each week. The same projections would have Lagos, Nigeria, which currently has the highest annual growth of any megacity, adding almost 15,000 per week. Based upon data on the urbanized population, which is the percentage of a country’s population living in cities, as mentioned, at least half the world’s population now lives in cities. Further, demographers predict that the world will be 60 percent urbanized by 2025. Also included is data on the urbanization rate for each country. To illustrate, more than 80 percent of the populations of Europe, Japan, Australia, and the United States live in cities. Generally speaking, most countries with such high rates of urbanization are also highly industrialized because manufacturing tends to cluster around urban centers. In contrast, the urbanized rate for developing countries is usually less than 50 percent, with figures closer to 40 percent not uncommon. Urbanization figures also show where there is high potential for urban migration. If the urbanized population is relatively small, as in Zimbabwe (Africa), where only 29 percent of the population lives in cities, the probability of high rates of urban migration in the next decades is high.

Figure 30 Contrasting Settlement Density: U.S. and India In the U.S. the population density is 33 per square kilometer, contrasted with 383 per square kilometer in India. Besides the difference in the size of each country’s population, another factor in the contrasting densities is the difference in settlement patterns. In the United States people commonly settle on dispersed farms on large acreage, as illustrated by the landscape in Iowa, whereas as in India there is dense settlement in both towns and rural landscapes.

30

review QuestiOns 1. How is the rate of natural increase calculated? Given an example. 2. What is the total fertility rate? 3. Describe and explain the demographic transition model. 4. How is a population pyramid constructed, and what kind of information does it convey?

Concepts of World Geography

Cultural CoHerenCe anD Diversity: tHe geograpHy of CHange anD traDition Social scientists like to say that culture binds together the world’s diverse social fabric. If this is true, one glance at the daily news suggests this complex global tapestry could be unraveling because of widespread cultural tensions and conflict. As noted earlier, with the recent rise of global communication systems (satellite TV, films, videos, etc.), stereotypical Western culture is spreading at a rapid pace. Although some cultures accept these new cultural influences willingly, others resist and push back against these new forms of cultural imperialism through local protests, censorship, and even terrorism. The geography of cultural cohesion and diversity, then, entails an examination of tradition and change; of the new cultural forms produced by interactions between cultures; of gender issues; and of global languages and religions (Figure 31).

Culture in a globalizing World Given the diversity of cultures around the world, coupled with the dynamic changes connected with globalization, traditional definitions of culture must be stretched somewhat to provide a viable conceptual framework. A very basic definition provides a starting point. Culture is learned, not innate, and is behavior held in common by a group of people, empowering them with what is commonly called a “way of life.” In addition, culture has both abstract and material dimensions: speech, religion, ideology, livelihood, and value systems, but also technology, housing, foods, and music. These varied expressions of culture are relevant to the study of world regional geography because they tell us much about the way people interact with their environment, with one another, and with the larger world. Not to be overlooked is that culture is dynamic and ever changing, not static. Thus, culture is a process, not a condition—an abstract, yet useful concept that is constantly adapting to new circumstances. As a result, there are always tensions between the conservative, traditional elements of a culture and the newer forces promoting change. Figure 31 Ethnic Tensions Unfortunately, much contemporary cultural change is characterized by violence among different ethnic groups. In this photo, a commuter in the Indian state of Gujarat passes by a car burned during rioting between Muslims and Hindus.

when cultures collide Cultural change often takes place within the context of international tensions. Sometimes, one cultural system will replace another; at other times, resistance by one group to another’s culture will stave off change. More commonly, however, a newer, hybrid form of culture results from an amalgamation of two cultural traditions. Historically, colonialism was the most important perpetuator of these cultural collisions; today, though, globalization in its varied forms is a major vehicle of cultural tensions and change. The active promotion of one cultural system at the expense of another is called cultural imperialism. Although many expressions of cultural imperialism still exist today, the most severe examples occurred in the colonial period. In those years, European cultures spread worldwide, often overwhelming, eroding, and even replacing indigenous cultures. During this period, Spanish culture spread widely in South America, French culture diffused into parts of Africa and Southeast Asia, and British culture overwhelmed South and Southwest Asia. New languages were mandated, new educational systems were implanted, and new administrative institutions replaced the old. Foreign dress styles, diets, gestures, and organizations were added to existing cultural systems. Many vestiges of colonial culture are still evident today. In India, the makeover was so complete that pundits are fond of saying, with only slight exaggeration, that “the last true Englishman will be an Indian.” Today’s cultural imperialism is seldom linked to an explicit colonizing force, but more often comes as a fellow traveler with economic globalization. Though many expressions of cultural imperialism carry a Western (even U.S.) tone—such as McDonald’s, MTV, KFC, Marlboro cigarettes, and the widespread use of English as the dominant language of the Internet—these facets result more from a search for new consumer markets than from deliberate efforts to spread modern U.S. culture throughout the world. The reaction against cultural imperialism is cultural nationalism. This is the process of protecting and defending a cultural system against diluting or offensive cultural expressions, while at the same time actively promoting national and local cultural values. Often cultural nationalism takes the form of explicit legislation or official censorship that simply outlaws unwanted cultural traits. Examples of cultural nationalism are common. France has long fought the Anglicization of its language by banning “Franglais” in official governmental French, thereby exorcising commonly used words such as weekend, downtown, chat, and happy hour. France has also sought to protect its national music and film industries by legislating that radio DJs play a certain percentage of French songs and artists each broadcast day (40 percent currently). Many Muslim countries limit Western cultural influences by restricting or censoring international TV, an element they consider the source of many undesirable cultural influences. Most Asian countries as well are increasingly protective of their cultural values, and many are demanding changes to tone down the sexual content of MTV and other international TV networks. cultural Hybrids As noted above, the most common product of cultural collision is the blending of forces to form a new, synergistic form of culture, a process called cultural syncretism or hybridization (Figure 33). To characterize India’s culture as British, for example, is to grossly oversimplify and exaggerate England’s colonial influence. Instead, Indians have adapted many British traits to their own circumstances, infusing them with their own meanings. India’s use of English, for example, has produced a unique form of “Indlish” that often befuddles

31

Concepts of World Geography

ARCTIC OCEAN

ARCTIC OCEAN

R FR

A R A B I C

NI

S Sino-Tibetan

Dravidian

Tai-Kadai

Eskimo-Aleut Indo-European Japanese

Uralic Sparsely inhabited

AR

AB

HIND

IC

INDIA OCEA

GUESE

Caucasian

0 0

Figure 32 World Language Families Most languages of the world belong to a handful of major language families. About 50 percent of the world’s population speaks a language belonging to the Indo-European language family, which includes languages common to Europe, but also major languages in South Asia, such as Hindi. They are in the same family because of their linguistic similarities. The next largest family is the Sino-Tibetan family, which includes languages spoken in China, the world’s most populous country.

visitors to South Asia. Nor should we forget that India has added many words to our English vocabulary—khaki, pajamas, veranda, and bungalow, among others. Clearly, both the Anglo and the Indian cultures have been changed by the British colonial presence in South Asia. Other examples of cultural hybrids abound: Australian-rules football, hip-hop music, fusion cuisine, Tex-Mex fast food, and on and on.

gender and globalization Gender is a sociocultural construct, linked to the values and traditions of specific cultural groups that differentiate the characteristics of the two biological sexes, male and female. Central to this concept are gender roles, which are the cultural guidelines that define appropriate behavior for each gender within a specific context. In a traditional tribal or ethnic group, for example, gender roles might rigidly define the difference between women’s work (which often consists of domestic tasks) and men’s work (which is done mostly outside the home). Similarly, gender roles might guide all other social behaviors within a group, such as child rearing, education, marriage, and even recreational activities (Figure 34).

32

N

RTU

Paleo-Siberian Papuan

A

PO

Nilo-Saharan

Austro-Asiatic Austronesian

S N I S H PA

Aboriginal Australian

I

Arabian Sea

WORLD LANGUAGE FAMILIES Khoisan Korean Niger-Congo

S

FARSI

H

Afro-Asiatic Altaic Amerindian

S

H

ATLANTIC OCEAN

S PA

PACIFIC OCEAN

ENC

U

Figure 33 Cultural Hybrid The hybridization of culture is clearly shown in this photo of South Asian (India vs Pakistan) cricket, a game that before the colonial period was a uniquely British sport played only in the United Kingdom. Today, though, it’s played throughout the world in those countries with a British colonial history. Note, too, that that commercial globalization has also become part of cricket as the playing field and the players themselves display the logos of global culture.

1,000 1,000

2,000 Kilom

Concepts of World Geography

N

JAPANESE

MA ND AR IN

BEN

PACIFIC OCEAN

GA

HINDI

LI Bay of Bengal

Figure 34 Women Protesting Muslim women played a major role in the 2011 Arab Spring protests against autocratic rulers, as shown here in this photo of Egyptian women during a Cairo demonstration.

M A L AY - I N D O N E S I A N

INDIAN OCEAN

0

Coral Sea

2,000 Miles

cultural groups and societies that practice blatant discrimination against women. This topic is discussed later in the chapter within the section on measures of social development.

language and Culture in global Context

,000 Kilometers

The explicit and often rigid gender roles of a traditional social unit contrast greatly with the less rigid, more implicit, and often flexible gender roles of a large, modern, urban industrial society (Figure 35). More to the point, globalization in its varied expressions is causing significant changes to traditional gender roles throughout the world. Global apparel firms, for example, often locate sewing factories in areas of the less developed world. They do this to gain economic advantage by paying low wages to female workers, who are often the first generation to work outside the home. However, because of traditional gender roles, men do not always pick up the domestic tasks formerly done by these new factory workers; instead, the women often put in what is commonly called a double day, returning to their homes from the factory to then put in hours of work doing cooking, child rearing, and housecleaning. In contrast to providing new work opportunities for women in less developed countries, there is also a gender dimension to the economic effects of globalization in many developed countries. In the United States, for example, male workers have suffered more from unemployment than have females, as industrial and technology jobs have been outsourced to China and India. To compensate, many females who previously did not work outside their homes have now taken fulland part-time jobs to provide support for their families. Many males, meanwhile, have taken on new roles in domestic activities. Globalization has also spread the notion of gender equality (and inequality) around the globe, calling into question and exposing those

Language and culture are so intertwined that often language is the major characteristic that differentiates and defines cultural groups (Figure 32). Furthermore, because language is the primary means for communication, it folds together many other aspects of cultural identity, such as politics, religion, commerce, and customs. Language is fundamental to cultural cohesiveness and distinctiveness, for language not only brings people together, but also sets them apart from nonspeakers of that language. Therefore, language is an important component of national or ethnic identity, as well as a means for creating and maintaining boundaries for group and regional identity.

Figure 35 Traditional Dress and Gender Roles Women’s gender roles—much more so than for men—are reinforced by appropriate dress and traditional clothing, as shown here for these Muslim women in Zanzibar, Tanzania.

33

Concepts of World Geography

Because most languages have common historical (and even prehistorical) roots, linguists have grouped the thousands of languages found throughout the world into a handful of language families. This is simply a first-order grouping of languages into large units, based on common ancestral speech. For example, about half of the world’s people speak languages of the Indo-European family, a large group that includes not only European languages such as English and Spanish, but also Hindi and Bengali, the dominant languages of South Asia. Within language families, smaller units also give clues to the common history and geography of peoples and cultures. Language branches and groups (also called subfamilies) are closely related subsets within a language family, usually sharing similar sounds, words, and grammar. Well known are the similarities between German and English and between French and Spanish. Additionally, individual languages often have very distinctive dialects associated with specific regions and places. Think of the distinctive differences, for example, among British, North American, and Australian English or the city-specific dialects that set apart New Yorkers from residents of Dallas, Berliners from inhabitants of Munich, Parisians from villagers of rural France, and so on. When people from different cultural groups cannot communicate directly in their native languages, they often agree on a third language to serve as a common tongue, a lingua franca. Swahili has long served that purpose for speakers of the many tribal languages of eastern Africa, and French was historically the lingua franca of international politics and diplomacy. Today English is increasingly the common language of international communications, science, and air transportation (Figure 36).

the geography of World religions Another important defining trait of cultural groups is religion (Figure 37). Indeed, in this era of a comprehensive global culture, religion is becoming increasingly important in defining cultural identity. Recent ethnic violence and unrest in far-flung places such as the Balkans, Iraq, and Indonesia illustrate the point. Universalizing religions, such as Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism, attempt to appeal to all peoples, regardless of location or culture. These religions usually have a proselytizing or missionary program that actively seeks new converts throughout the world. In contrast are ethnic religions, which are identified closely with a specific ethnic, tribal, or national group. Judaism and Hinduism, for example, are usually regarded as ethnic religions because they normally do not actively seek new converts; instead, people are born into ethnic religions. Christianity, because of its universalizing ethos, is the world’s largest religion in both areal extent and number of adherents. Although fragmented into separate branches and churches, Christianity as a whole has 2.1 billion adherents, encompassing about one-third of the world’s population. The largest numbers of Christians can be found in Europe, Africa, Latin America, and North America. Islam, which has spread from its origins on the Arabian Peninsula east to Indonesia and the Philippines, has about 1.3 billion members. Although not as severely fragmented as Christianity, Islam should not be thought of as a homogeneous religion because it is also split into separate groups. The two major branches are Shi’a Islam, which constitutes about 11 percent of the total Islamic population and represents a majority in Iran and southern Iraq, and the more dominant Sunni Islam, which is found from the Arab-speaking lands of North Africa to Indonesia. Probably in response to Western

34

Figure 36 English as Global Language A bilingual traffic sign in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, is a reminder that English has become a universal form of communication for transportation, business, and science.

influences connected to globalization, both of these forms of Islam are currently experiencing fundamentalist revivals in which proponents are interested in maintaining purity of faith, separate from these Western influences. Judaism, the parent religion of Christianity, is also closely related to Islam. Although tensions are often high between Jews and Muslims, these two religions, along with Christianity, actually share historical and theological roots in the Hebrew prophets and leaders. Judaism now numbers about 14 million adherents, having lost perhaps onethird of its total population due to the systematic extermination of Jews during World War II. Hinduism, which is closely linked to India, has about 900 million adherents. Outsiders often regard Hinduism as polytheistic because Hindus worship many deities. Most Hindus argue, however, that all of their faith’s gods are merely representations of different aspects of a single divine, cosmic unity. Historically, Hinduism is linked to the caste system, with its segregation of peoples based on ancestry and occupation. Today, however, because India’s democratic government is committed to reducing the social distinctions among castes, the connections between religion and caste are now much less explicit than in the past. Buddhism, which originated as a reform movement within Hinduism 2,500 years ago, is widespread in Asia, extending from Sri Lanka to Japan and from Mongolia to Vietnam (Figure 38). There are two major branches of Buddhism, Theravada, found throughout Southeast Asia and

Concepts of World Geography

ARCTIC OCEAN

PACIFIC OCEAN

ARCTIC OCEAN

ATLANTIC OCEAN Arabian Sea

Bay of Bengal

DOMINANT RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS Sunni Islam Shi’a Islam Judaism Eastern Orthodox Coptic Christian Roman Catholic Protestant Christian Mixed Christianity Buddhism Buddhism mixed with Taoism and Confucianism Buddhism mixed with Shinto Hinduism Sikhism Complex mixture of Christianity, Islam, and indigenous African religions Indigenous religion (animism) Syncretic Catholicism mixed with Amerindian religious traditions Syncretic Catholicism mixed with African religious traditions Uninhabited

PACIFIC OCEAN

INDIAN OCEAN Coral Sea

0 0

1,000 1,000

2,000 Miles

2,000 Kilometers

Figure 37 Major Religious Traditions This map shows the regions dominated by major religions throughout the world. For most people, religious tradition is a major component of cultural and ethnic identity. Christians of different sorts account for about 34 percent of the world’s population, but this religious tradition is highly fragmented. Within Christianity, there are about twice as many Roman Catholics as Protestants. Islam accounts for about 20 percent of the world’s population; Hindus make up about 14 percent.

Sri Lanka, and Mahanyana, found in Tibet and East Asia. In its spread, Buddhism came to coexist with other faiths in certain areas, making it difficult to accurately estimate the number of its adherents. Estimates of the total Buddhist population range from 350 million to 900 million people. Finally, in some parts of the world, religious practice has declined significantly, giving way to secularism, in which people consider themselves either nonreligious or outright atheistic. Though secularism is difficult to measure, social scientists estimate that about 1.1 billion people fit into this category worldwide. Perhaps the best example of secularism comes from the former communist lands of Russia and eastern Europe, where, historically, overt hostility occurred between government and church, dating from the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917. Since the demise of Soviet communism in the 1990s, however, many of these countries have experienced religious revivals. Recently, secularism has also grown more pronounced in western Europe. Although historically and to some extent still culturally a Roman Catholic country, France quite possibly has more people attending Muslim mosques on Fridays than it has attending Christian churches on Sundays. Japan and the other countries of East Asia are also noted for their high degree of secularization.

Figure 38 Buddhist Landscapes An array of buildings—temples, monasteries, and shrines—produce a distinctive landscape throughout Asia, as is illustrated by this photo from Chiang Mai in northern Thailand.

35

Concepts of World Geography

review QuestiOns 1. Define cultural hybridization and give an example. 2. What is cultural imperialism? Give an example. 3. Define gender roles and illustrate your answer with examples from both modern as well as traditional cultures. 4. What are the two subcategories of Islam? Describe the geographies for each. 5. What is a lingua franca? Provide two examples.

geopolitiCal fraMeWork: unity anD fragMentation The term geopolitics is used to describe the close link between geography and politics. More specifically, geopolitics focus on the interactivity between political power and territory at all scales, from the local to the global. Unquestionably, one of the global characteristics of the last several decades has been the speed, scope, and character of political change in various regions of the world; thus, discussions of geopolitics are central to world regional geography. With the demise of the Soviet Union in 1991 came opportunities for self-determination and independence in eastern Europe and Central Asia, resulting in fundamental changes to economic, political, and even cultural alignments. Religious freedom helped drive national identities in some new Central Asian republics, whereas eastern Europe was primarily concerned with new economic and political links to western Europe. Russia itself still wavers perilously between different geopolitical pathways.

Globalization, however, has weakened the vitality of the nationstate concept because today most of the world’s countries are questionable fits with the traditional definition of nation-state. International migration, for example, has led to large populations of ethnic minorities within a country who do not necessarily share the national culture of the majority. In England, for example, large numbers of South Asians form their own communities, speak their own languages, have their own religions, and dress to their own standards. Similarly, France is home to a mosaic of peoples from its former colonial lands in Africa and Asia. In North America, Canada and the United States also have large immigrant populations who are legal citizens of the political state, yet who have changed the very nature of the national culture by their presence. The fact that states such as the United States, Canada, and Germany officially embrace cultural diversity with policies declaring themselves as multicultural states underscores these changes. Also, within many nation-states are groups of people who seek autonomy from the central government by advocating the right to govern themselves. This is the case with the French-speaking people of Quebec Province in Canada, the Catalonians and Basques of Spain, and numerous tribes of Native Americans within the United States (Figure 39). A closer look at France, Italy, and the United Kingdom would also reveal separatist groups within the state who seek some sort of autonomy or even independence from the larger political unit. Not to be overlooked is how giant multinational firms and regional political organizations have eclipsed the power of traditional political states. This is certainly the case for the 27 member states of the European Union. Finally, some cultural groups lack political voice and representation due to the way political borders have been drawn. In Slovakia, for instance, a group that traces its cultural heritage to adjacent Hungary agitates for redrawing the political border between the two states. In Southwest Asia, the Kurdish people have long been considered a nation without a state because they are divided amongst the political borders of Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran (Figure 40).

the nation-state revisited A map of the world shows an array of 200 or so countries, ranging in size from microstates like Vatican City and Andorra to the huge geopolitical expanses of Russia, the United States, Canada, and China. All of these countries are regulated by governmental systems, ranging from democratic to autocratic. Commonly, these different forms of government share a concern with sovereignty, which can be defined geopolitically as the ability (or its lack) of a government to control activities within its borders. The notion of sovereignty is closely linked to the concept of the nation-state. In this hyphenated term, nation describes a large group of people with shared sociocultural traits, such as language, religion, and shared identity. The word state refers to an internal political entity with clearly delimited boundaries, control over its internal space, and recognition by external political states. Historically, France and England are often used as the archetypal examples of nation-states. Contemporary countries such as Albania, Egypt, Bangladesh, Japan, and the two Koreas are more modern examples of countries where there is close overlap between nation and state. The related term nationalism is the sociopolitical expression of identity and allegiance to the shared values and goals of the nation-state.

36

Figure 39 Ethnic Separatism A major aspect of contemporary geopolitics is the way ethnic groups are demanding recognition, autonomy, and often independence from larger political units. These Basque women in southwestern France are protesting the outlawing of a Basque youth group that French and Spanish authorities suspected of aiding Basque terrorists.

Concepts of World Geography

Ca

involves violent struggle. Similar wars of independence became increasingly common in the mid-20th century, particularly in Southeast RUSSIA Asia and Africa. Consequently, most EuroKAZAKHSTAN pean colonial powers recognized the ineviBlack Sea table and began working toward peaceful GEORGIA Cyr disengagement from their colonies. In the u late 1950s and early 1960s, for example, Britain and France granted independence to ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN Yerevan their former African colonies. This period of Ankara European colonialization was symbolically s R. Haly AZER. completed in 1997 when England turned s e Arax Van TURKEY over Hong Kong to China. Lake Lake Urmia Van Diyarbakir However, decades and even centuries of colonial rule are not easily erased. The inAl-Qamishli fluences of colonialism are still commonly Tehran Mosul found in the culture, government, educaKirkuk CYPRUS tional systems, and economic life of the SYRIA Mediterranean Bakhtaran former colonies. Examples are the many conph Sea ra IRAN temporary manifestations of British culture Beirut Damascus tes R. Baghdad LEBANON in India and the continuing Spanish influIRAQ ISRAEL ences in South America. Jerusalem In the 1960s, the term neocolonialism Amman came into popular usage to characterize the JORDAN many ways that newly independent states, particularly those in Africa, felt the continuing control of Western powers, especially in KUWAIT SAUDI ARABIA an economic and political matters. To receive 0 150 300 Miles financial aid from the World Bank, for example, Kurdish national area 0 150 300 Kilometers former colonial countries were often required Red Sea to revise their internal economic structures to become better integrated with the emerging global system. This economic restructuring may seem Figure 40 A Nation Without a State Not all nations or large cultural warranted from a global perspective, but the dislocations groups control their own political territories. As this map shows, the Kurdish caused at national and local scales led critics of globalization to charpeople of Southwest Asia occupy a large cultural territory that lies in four acterize these external influences as no better than the formal control different political states—Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Iran. As a result of this by historical colonial powers—hence the currency of the term neocopolitical fragmentation, the Kurds are considered a minority in each of these lonialism. four countries.

sp

ian

. sR

R.

Sea

R. Tigris

Eu

i rs f Pe G u l

Colonialism, Decolonialization, and neocolonialism One of the overarching themes in world geopolitics is the waxing and waning of European colonial power in South America, Asia, and Africa. Colonialism refers to the formal establishment of rule over a foreign population. A colony has no independent standing in the world community, but instead is seen only as an appendage of the colonial power. The historic Spanish presence and rule over parts of the United States, Mexico, and South America is an example. Generally speaking, the main period of colonialization by European countries was from 1500 through the mid-1900s, with the major players being England, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, and France (Figure 41). Decolonialization refers to the process of a colony’s gaining (or, more correctly, regaining) control over its own territory and establishing a separate, independent government. As was the case with the Revolutionary War in the United States, this process often

global Conflict As mentioned earlier, challenges to a centralized political state or authority have long been part of global geopolitics as rebellious and separatist groups seek independence, autonomy, and territorial control. These actions are referred to as insurgency. Armed conflict has also been part of this process; the American and Mexican revolutions were both successful wars for independence fought against European colonial powers. Terrorism, which can be defined as violence directed at nonmilitary targets, has also been common, albeit to a far lesser degree than today. Until the September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States by Al Qaeda, terrorism was usually directed at specific local targets and committed by insurgents with focused goals. The Irish Republican Army (IRA) bombings in Great Britain and Basque terrorism in Spain are illustrations. The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon (as well as the thwarted attack on the Capitol), however, went well beyond conventional geopolitics as a small group of religious extremists attacked the symbols of Western culture, finance,

37

Concepts of World Geography

Figure 41 The Colonial World, 1914 This world map shows the extent of colonial power and territory just prior to World War I. At that time, most of Africa was under colonial control, as were Southwest Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Australia and Canada were very closely aligned with England. Also note that in Asia, Japan controlled colonial territory in Korea and northeastern ARCTIC OCEAN China, which was known as Manchuria self-governing at that time. ATLANTIC OCEAN

PACIFIC OCEAN

PACIFIC OCEAN

INDIAN OCEAN

ATLANTIC OCEAN

self-governing

self-governing 0

1,000

2,000 Miles

self-governing

0 1,000 2,000 Kilometers

COLONIAL POSSESSIONS, 1914 Belgium

Spain

Japan

Portugal

United Kingdom

Austria Denmark

Germany Italy

Netherlands Ottoman Empire (Turkey)

Russia France

United States

and power (Figure 42). Experts believe the goal of the Al Qaeda terrorists was less to disrupt world commerce and politics and more to make a statement about the strength of their own convictions and power. Regardless of motives, those acts of terrorism underscore the need to expand our conceptualization of the linkages between globalization and geopolitics. More to the point, many experts argue that global terrorism is both a product of and a reaction to globalization. Unlike earlier geopolitical conflicts, the geography of global terrorism is not defined by a war between well-established political states. Instead, the Al Qaeda terrorists appear to belong to a web of small, well-organized cells located in many different countries. These cells are linked in a decentralized network that provides guidance, financing, and political autonomy and that has used the tools and means of globalization to its advantage. Members communicate instantaneously via mobile phones and the Internet. Transnational members travel between countries quickly and frequently. The network’s activities are financed through a complicated array of holding companies and subsidiaries that traffic in a range of goods, including honey, diamonds, and opium. To recruit members and political support, the network feeds on the unrest and inequities (real and imagined) resulting from economic globalization. The network’s terrorist acts then target symbols of those modern global values and activities it opposes. Even though the 9/11 attacks focused terror on the United States, the casualties and resultant damage were international, as citizens from more than 80 countries were killed in the World Trade Center tragedy.

38

Although Al Qaeda is the most visible and possibly the most threatening of contemporary global terrorist groups, the U.S. State Department names 45 groups on its list of foreign terrorist organizations. While most of these groups are clustered in North Africa and Southwest and Central Asia, this list also includes insurgent groups in all other regions of the world.

Figure 42 Global Terrorism The September 11, 2001, attacks by Al Qaeda terrorists on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon and the thwarted plan to destroy the U.S. Capitol building resulted in more than 3,000 deaths. These attacks were not targeted at local places of dispute, but were aimed at global symbols of Western power.

Concepts of World Geography

Rise and fall of the global economy Crude oil Baltic Dry Index

140

11100 8880 6660 4440

105 3330

11

12

20

20

10

20

09

20

08

20

07

20

05

06

20

20

3. Describe the differences between counterterrorism and counterinsurgency.

04

2. Explain the differences between colonialism and neocolonialism.

20

1. Why is it common to use two different concepts—nation and state—to describe political entities?

1110

03

review QuestiOns

2220

20

02

20

The military responses to global terrorism and in70 surgency involve several components, ranging from the neutralization of terrorist activities, known as counter35 terrorism, to counterinsurgency. The latter is a more complicated, multifaceted strategy that combines military warfare with social and political service activities, 0 designed to win over the local population and deprive insurgents of a political base. Counterinsurgency activities include, first, clearing and then holding territory held by insurgents, followed by building schools, medical clinics, and a viable (and legal) economy. Often these nonmilitary activities are referred to as nation-building, since the goal is to replace the separatist insurgency with a viable social, economic, and political fabric more complementary to the larger geopolitical state. This is the strategy employed by the United States recently in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Baltic Dry Index

5550

Crude oil (US$)

Figure 43 The 2009 Global Recession Two indicators of global economic activity—the price of crude oil and the Baltic Dry Index (BDI), which is linked to world shipping activity—show the expansion of the global economy since 2000, then the sudden contraction in 2009. More recent data show the slow recovery from the 2009 collapse.

Year

growth, however, has been the geographic unevenness of prosperity and social improvement. That is, while some regions and places in the world prosper, others languish and, in fact, apparently fall farther behind the more developed countries. As a result, the gap between rich and poor regions has actually increased over the past several decades in many areas. This economic and social unevenness has, unfortunately, become one of the signatures of globalization. Today, according to the World Bank, about half the people in the world live on less than $2 a day, the commonly accepted definition of poverty (Figure 44). These inequities are problematic because of their inseparable interaction with political, environmental, and social issues. For example, political instability and civil strife within a nation are often driven by the economic disparity between a poor periphery and an affluent industrial core—between the haves and have-nots. Such instability throughout a country can strongly influence international economic interactions.

eConoMiC anD soCial DevelopMent: tHe geograpHy of WealtH anD poverty The pace of global economic change and development has accelerated dramatically in the past several decades. It ascended rapidly at the start of the 21st century and then slowed precipitously in 2008 as the world fell into an economic recession. Currently, the world economy has returned unsteadily to a postrecession state (Figure 43). Given the far-ranging global ramifications of these recent economic fluctuations, the overarching question remains: Do the positive changes of economic globalization outweigh the negative? Answers vary considerably, as discussed earlier in this chapter. Consequently, returning to some basic assumptions about economic and social development is an appropriate starting point. Economic development is commonly accepted as desirable because it generally brings increased prosperity to people, regions, and nations. Following conventional thinking, this economic development usually translates into social improvements such as better health care, improved educational systems, and more progressive labor practices. One of the most troubling expressions of global economic

Figure 44 Living on Less than $2 a Day More than half the world’s people live on less than $2 a day, which is the UN’s definition of poverty. In South Asia, where these workers are making bricks, about three-quarters of the population is considered impoverished.

39

Concepts of World Geography

More and less Developed Countries

The third world is another term often erroneously used as a synonym for the developing world. This phrase implies a low level of economic development, unstable political organizations, and a rudimentary social infrastructure. Historically, the term was part of the Cold War vocabulary used to describe countries that were independent and not part of either the capitalist first world or the communist second world, dominated by the Soviet Union and China. In short, in its original sense the term third world spoke to a political and economic orientation (capitalist vs. communist), not to the level of economic development. Today, because the Soviet Union no longer exists and China has changed its economic orientation considerably, the term third world has lost its original political meaning. Therefore, in this text we avoid that term. Instead, we prefer relational terms that capture a complex spectrum of economic and social development—more developed country (MDC) and less developed country (LDC). This global pattern of MDCs and LDCs can be inferred from a map of gross national income (Figure 45), one of several indicators commonly used to assess development and economic wealth.

Until the 20th century, economic development was centered in North America, Japan, and Europe, with most of the rest of the world gripped in poverty. This uneven distribution of economic power led scholars to devise a core–periphery model of the world. According to this scheme, the United States, Canada, western Europe, and Japan constituted the global economic core, centered in the northern hemisphere, whereas most of the areas in the southern hemisphere made up a less developed periphery. Although oversimplified, this core–periphery dichotomy does contain some truth. All the G8 countries—the exclusive club of the world’s major industrial nations, made up of the United States, Canada, France, England, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Russia— are located in the northern hemisphere. (China—which is unquestionably an industrial power, located in the northern hemisphere—is currently excluded from the G8.) In addition, many critics postulate that the developed countries achieved their wealth primarily by exploiting the poorer countries of the southern periphery, historically through colonial relationships and today with various forms of neocolonialism and economic imperialism. Following this core–periphery model, much has been made of “north–south tensions,” a phrase implying that the rich and powerful countries of the northern hemisphere are still at odds with the poor and less powerful countries of the south. However, this model demands revision because over recent decades the global economy has grown much more complicated. A few former colonies of the south—most notably, Singapore—have become very wealthy. A few northern countries—notably, Russia—have experienced very uneven economic growth since 1989, with some parts of the country actually experiencing economic decline. Additionally, the well-developed southern hemisphere countries of Australia and New Zealand never fit into the north–south division. For these reasons, many global experts conclude that the designation north–south is now outdated and should be avoided. We agree.

indicators of economic Development The terms development and growth are often used interchangeably when referring to international economic activities. There is, however, value in keeping them separate. Development has both qualitative and quantitative dimensions. Common dictionary definitions use phrases such as “expanding or realizing potential” and “bringing gradually to a fuller or better state.” When we talk about economic development, then, we usually imply structural changes, such as a shift from agricultural to manufacturing activity that also involves changes in the allocation of labor, capital, and technology. Along with these changes are assumed improvements in standard of living, education, and political organization. The structural changes experienced by Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand and Malaysia in the past several decades capture this process.

ARCTIC OCEAN

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PACIFIC OCEAN

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GROSS NATIONAL INCOME, 2012 (GNI PER CAPITA, $PPP) Low-income countries ($2,500 or less) Lower-middle-income countries ($2,500–9,999) Upper-middle-income countries ($10,000–24,999) High-income countries ($25,000 or more) No data

INDIAN OCEAN

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Figure 45 More and Less Developed Countries Based on GNI per capita, PPP adjusted, you can see the global pattern of more and less developed countries (MDCs and LDCs). Africa and the different parts of Asia stand out as the regions with the greatest number of developing countries.

40

Concepts of World Geography

table 2

DeveLOPMent inDicatOrs GNI per Capita, PPP 2010

GDP Average Annual % Growth 2000–10

China

7,640

10.8

.687

29.8

75

48

18

94

0.209

India

3,400

8.0

.547

68.7

65

115

63

63

0.617

47,310

1.8

.910

—

79

11

8

—

0.299

4,200

5.3

.617

46.1

72

85

35

92

0.505

Country

United States Indonesia Brazil

Human Percent Development Population Living Index 20111 Below $2 a Day

Life Expectancy 20122

Under Age 5 Mortality Rate 1990

Under Age 5 Mortality Rate 2010

Adult Literacy (% ages 15 and older)

Gender Inequality Index (2011)3,1

11,000

3.7

.718

10.8

74

59

19

90

0.449

Pakistan

2,790

5.1

.504

60.2

65

124

87

56

0.573

Nigeria

2,170

6.7

.459

84.5

51

213

143

61

—

Bangladesh

1,810

5.9

.500

76.5

69

143

48

56

0.550

Russia

19,240

5.4

.755