Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship 1839095032, 9781839095030

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GLOBAL STREET ECONOMY AND MICRO ENTREPRENEURSHIP

CONTEMPORARY STUDIES IN ECONOMICS AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS Series Editor: Simon Grima Volume 90: Privatization in Transition Economies: The Ongoing Story Edited by Ira W. Lieberman and Daniel J. Kopf Volume 91:  Personal Injury and Wrongful Death Damages Calculations: Transatlantic Dialogue Edited by John O. Ward and Robert J. Thornton Volume 92: Moving Beyond Storytelling: Emerging Research in Microfinance Edited by Todd A. Watkins and Karen Hicks Volume 93: The Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Emerging Financial Markets Edited by Jonathan A. Batten and Peter G. Szilagyi Volume 94: Derivative Securities Pricing and Modelling Edited by Jonathan A. Batten and Niklas F. Wagner Volume 95: The Developing Role of Islamic Banking and Finance: From Local to Global Perspectives Edited by Fouad Beseiso Volume 96:  Risk Management Post Financial Crisis: A Period of Monetary Easing Edited by Jonathan A. Batten and Niklas F. Wagner Volume 97: Contemporary Issues in Bank Financial Management Edited by Simon Grima and Frank Bezzina Volume 98: Contemporary Issues in Finance: Current Challenges from Across Europe  Edited by Simon Grima, Frank Bezzina, Inna Romānova and Ramona Rupeika-Apoga Volume 99: Governance and Regulations’ Contemporary Issues Edited by Simon Grima and Pierpaolo Marano Volume 100:  Contemporary Issues in Business and Financial Management in Eastern Europe Edited by Simon Grima and Eleftherios Thalassinos Volume 101: Contemporary Issues in Behavioral Finance  Edited by Simon Grima, Ercan Özen, Hakan Boz, Jonathan Spiteri and Eleftherios Thalassinos Volume 102: Contemporary Issues in Audit Management and Forensic Accounting Edited by Simon Grima, Engin Boztepe and Peter J. Baldacchino

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS  VOLUME 103

GLOBAL STREET ECONOMY AND MICRO ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDITED BY

SIMON GRIMA

University of Malta, Malta

OSMAN SIRKECI Giresun University, Turkey

KAMURAN ELBEYOĞLU Toros University, Turkey

United Kingdom – North America – Japan India – Malaysia – China

Emerald Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2020 Copyright © 2020 Emerald Publishing Limited Reprints and permissions service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-83909-503-0 (Print) ISBN: 978-1-83909-502-3 (Online) ISBN: 978-1-83909-504-7 (Epub) ISSN: 1569-3759 (Series)

CONTENTS List of Figures and Tables

ix

List of Abbreviations

xi

About the Contributors

xiii

Forewordxxi Frank Bezzina Prefacexxiii Introduction1 Kamuran Elbeyoğlu and Osman Sirkeci PART I STREET ECONOMY AND MICRO ENTREPRENEURSHIP: THEORETICAL APPROACHES Chapter 1.  The Importance of Street Economy from Malta Perspective Justyne Caruana

7

Chapter 2.  Actors and Functions of Street Economy Osman Sirkeci

11

Chapter 3.  Core Economy and Streets Halim Kasim

29

Chapter 4.  Street Economy from Economic, Political, Social and Ecological Perspectives Shahnaz Rafique

39

v

vi Contents

Chapter 5.  Towards an Integration of the Streets and Their Inhabitants Kamuran Elbeyoğlu

45

Chapter 6.  The Management of Street Economy Kurtuluş Yılmaz Genç

53

PART II IMPLICATIONS OF STREET ECONOMY Chapter 7.  Slightly Above the Syrian Refugees: Media Representation of Street Vendors in Turkey Huriye Toker

63

Chapter 8.  Micro Entrepreneurship Is a Macro Step Taken for Development and Democracy Betül Karagöz Yerdelen and Işın Çetin

75

Chapter 9.  The Importance of the Smart Manufacturing Design at 4.0 Industrial Vision in Street Economy Merve Yildirim

89

Chapter 10.  Rehabilitation of Children Working on the Street Mustafa Sarı

97

PART III STREET ECONOMY CASE STUDIES Chapter 11.  Organising the Street Vendors in India: Issues, Challenges and Successes Arbind Singh

103

Chapter 12.  The Effects of Street Vendors on the Security and Social Life of the Afghanistan Economy Abbas Karaağaçli

115

Chapter 13.  Education and Employment Among the Romani as a Social Category in the Spatial Use of Cities Alper Yağlıdere

123

Chapter 14.  Wealth of Streets: Roma and Media Semir Bolat

139

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Chapter 15.  Producer Women’s Neighbourhood Markets Sibel Gelbul

143

Chapter 16.  The Story of the Recycling Workers Association Mehmet Göçer

145

Chapter 17.  Effect and Importance of Green Logistics Towards Purchase Behaviours of Consumer in E-Commerce Emine Kavas

147

PART IV SUMMING UP Chapter 18.  Dignifying of Self-workers in Five Continents Kamuran Elbeyoğlu and Osman Sirkeci

161

Chapter 19.  Supplement: The Manifesto of the Global Street Economy Simon Grima, Osman Sirkeci and Kamuran Elbeyoğlu

165

Index

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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURES Fig. 8.1. Share of Informal Employment in Total Employment (Including Agriculture). Fig. 8.2. Share of Informal Employment in Total Employment (Excluding Agriculture). Fig. 8.3. Composition of Informal and Formal Employment. Fig. 8.4. Employees and Entrepreneurs in Informal Employment as a Percentage of Total Employment. Fig. 8.5. Informal Employment Level of Education. Fig. 8.6. Incidence of Time-related Unemployment and the Informal and Formal Nature of Employment. Fig. 8.7. Shares of Informal Employment and Human Development Index Values. Fig. 9.1. Benefits of Street Economists’ Vehicle Design. Fig. 9.2. Designed Vehicles by Merve Yıldırım.

78 78 79 79 80 80 81 92 93

TABLES Table 2.1. Table 2.2. Table 2.3. Table 2.4.

Global Employment and SE. Selected Countries and Global SE. SE Micron Initiatives – Street Vendors. Share of Recycling Employees in Waste Collection.

17 19 20 21

Table 7.1. Table 7.2. Table 7.3. Table 7.4.

The Tone of the News. The Placement of the News. The Theme of the News. Actors in the News.

68 69 69 70

Table 13.1. Gender Distribution. Table 13.2. Place of Birth. Table 13.3. Age Distribution. Table 13.4. Educational Background. Table 13.5. Having Children. Table 13.6. Number of Children. Table 13.7. Number of Household Members. Table 13.8. Marital Status. Table 13.9. Reasons for Dropping Out. Table 13.10. Dropping Out Due to Exclusion and Solutions for Exclusion at School. ix

126 127 127 127 128 128 128 129 129 130

x

List of Figures AND TABLES

Table 13.11. Non-educational Institutions Applied for the Solution of the Exclusion Problem. Table 13.12. Dropping Out of School in Terms of Educational Stages. Table 13.13. Profession Distribution. Table 13.14. Having an Income-bearing Job within the Last Month. Table 13.15. Distribution of Individuals Having an Incomebearing Job within Last Month. Table 13.16. Average Monthly Income of the Household. Table 13.17. Encouraging Children to Choose Certain Professions in the Context of Ege. Table 13.18. Association of the Romani with Certain Professions.

130 130 132 133 133 133 134 134

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CEO

Chief Executive Officer

CHP

Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi - Republican People’s Party

ÇOGEM

Child and Youth Center

FEMA

Faculty of Economics, Management and Accountancy.

GBM

General Body Meeting

GDP

Gross domestic product

GLOSEP

Global Street Economics Platform

GNP

Gross national product

HDI

Human Development Index

ICT

Information and communications technology

ILO

International Labor Organisation

IMF

International Monetary Fund

IoT

Internet of Things

ITCILO

International Training Centre of the ILO

ITUC

International Trade Union Confederation

LPG

Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation

MGNREGA

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Act 2011

MHUPA

Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation

MSMEs

Medium, small and micro enterprises

NAC

National Advisory Council

NASVI

National Association of Street Vendors of India

NCEUS

National Commission on Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector

NGO

Non-governmental organisation

NREGA

National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005

NULM

National Urban Livelihood Mission xi

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

OECD

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

RWA

Recycling Workers Association

SE

Street Economy

SMEs

Small and micro enterprises

SVA 2014

Street Vending Act 2014

SWG

Self-Workers Global

TDU

Berlin Turkish German Businessmen Association

TESK

Turkish Tradesmen and Artisans Confederation

TIDAF

European Federation of Turkish Businessmen

TUIK

Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu

TURKSTAT

Turkish Statistical Institute

TVC

Town Vending Committee

UN

United Nations

US$/USD

US Dollar

USA

United States of America

WIEGO

Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS Frank Bezzina, PhD, is the Dean of the Faculty of Economics, Management and Accountancy at the University of Malta. He teaches in the fields of management science, decision modelling, research methodology and evidence-based management and has a keen interest on investing phenomena in the organisational sciences. In 2012, one of his articles received the Emerald Literati Network Highly Commended Paper Award for Excellence. Semir Bolat was born in Mersin in 1959. He graduated from Karaduvar Primary School, Mersin Secondary School, Mersin Atatürk High School and the Eskişehir Academy of Economics and Administrative Sciences. He has educated in the fields of medical pharmacology, medical appliance, international marketing and commerce. During his secondary and high school term in Mersin regional theatre, he was among the team members who received an award in the ODTÜ Amateur Theatre Festival. Since 2004 apart from marketing, he has been taking part in culture, art and media activities. He received fine arts education from Beirut University in Lebanon, fine arts education from Damascus University in Syria and education on theatre in Russia. He studied private theatre and art education in Baku–Azerbaijan, Tiflis–Georgia and Moscow–Russia. He worked as a Person In-charge of World Diabetes Federation’s social committee with his international GAPDİAB project. During his leadership of the Turkey Diabetes Foundation in activities executed by SB, MEB and Universities and Turkey Diabetes Society in Eastern and South-eastern Turkey in 21 cities, he received many awards for his plays concerning the importance of culture and art to children and diabetics. As an Area Manager and an Operating Personnel, he served the series whose name is ‘Adanın Kadınları ve Adada ki Hayalet’ which consisted of 13 episodes and was prepared with Nedim Hazar Bora and his team in NTV. He executed actuator and dramaturgy. While he was taking lessons as Ferdi Merter Fosforoğlu and Kaan Erkam’s student in İstanbul Oda Theatre and Cansın Theatre, he served as an actor, a writer and the director in stage works. He lectured drama and theatre lessons in public education centre in Adana, Adana–Seyhan and İstanbul–Adalar. Justyne Caruana, PhD, has been the Minister for Gozo since June 2017. She was first elected to Parliament in 2003 and successively in 2008, 2013 and 2017, always from her native Gozo constituency. She served as the Parliamentary Secretary for the Rights of Persons with Disability and Active Ageing from 2014 to 2017. In Opposition, she was a Spokesperson for Youth, Culture, Sports, Family, Children and Persons with Disability. As the Head of the Maltese Parliament’s delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean, she also serves on the gender equality task force and is a Rapporteur of the first committee on xiii

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political affairs. She was a Regional Representative of the UK, British Isles and Mediterranean Region on the Steering Committee of the Commonwealth Women Parliamentarians and currently represents Malta on its Regional British Isles and Mediterranean Steering Committee. In 2016, she was nominated as Malta’s Ambassador in the Women in Parliaments Global Forum. She has travelled widely for study and parliamentary purposes and represented Malta at various ministerial meetings and other high-level international fora. She is a Member of Social Affairs Committee, a Former Member of the Public Accounts Family and standing Committee for the Family, which was set up by virtue of a motion in Parliament which Hon Caruana co-sponsored with another two members of Parliament. As a Lawyer by profession, she specialises in family law, canonical and civil litigation, and is an Examiner at the University of Malta. Işın Çetin is an Assistant Professor of Econometrics at the University of Giresun. She has completed Doctorate Programme in the University of Uludag. She has published several studies and papers in various academic journals on the topic of applied econometrics. Her research interests are in the area of macro econometrics, spatial econometrics, financial crisis, non-linear econometric analysis, forecasting, qualitative and quantitative econometric techniques, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and European financial studies. Kamuran Elbeyoğlu was born in 1960 in Ankara. She graduated from the Department of Philosophy and Psychology in the School of Letters at Ankara University in 1981. She completed the Master’s degree from the Department of Psychological Services in Education in Educational Faculty at Ankara University in 1985, the Master’s degree in 1990 and the PhD degree in 1994 in Philosophy. In 1986, she was awarded a doctoral scholarship from the Ministry of National Education. In 1996, she was an Assistant Professor with the Department of Philosophy in Mersin University, where she became an Associate Professor in 2007. From 2009 to 2013, she worked in Çağ University, and then she was appointed as a Professor with the Psychology Department in Toros University in July 2013. In 2003, her book on Logic of Reasoning was published. In 2010, she published the book The Philosophy of Mind for the distance education programme in the Department of Philosophy in Anadolu University and, Sören Kierkegaard, written for the Idea Architects series for Say Publishers. She is a field editor for the Urban Academy Journal. She is both the founder of Global Street Economy Platform and the Street Economy Department in Izmir Municipality in Turkey. Her research interests include the philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, women’s philosophy, existentialism and philosophical therapy. She developed an eclectic therapy concept by combining cognitive behavioural therapy, solution-oriented short psychotherapy and schema therapy with philosophical therapy. Sibel Gelbul was born on 23 August 1972 in Mersin. She studied Banking at the Mersin High School of Business and Commerce, Economics at Anatolian University and Social Sciences and International Trade at Mersin University. She is currently doing her customs consultant internship. She is currently the partner of Lobut Fumigation and Disinfection Company. She has been

About the Contributors

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a Member of Mezitli Lions Club which she has found, and a Leo Advisor. She contributed many projects as a trainer and a counsellor. She gave trainings on motivation, effective communication and sense of belonging in many organisations. She is a Member of executive committee of Çukurova Young Business Entrepreneurs Association, ADD, TEMA and Kızılay, Global Street Platform; an Organisational Coordinator of the Department of Logistic at Toros University; is the Chairperson of Mezitli City Council; and writes columns for a number of journals and local newspapers. She gave international trade courses at Armani Private Teaching Institution five years ago. She published her first book Sibel’den in 2018. She donated the income from her book to ZİÇEV. She has been a Modern Folk-Dance Coordinator for four years and organised dance shows for the benefit of ZİÇEV and LÖSEV. Kurtuluş Yılmaz Genç is an Associate Professor of Management at the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Giresun University, Turkey. He obtained the Bachelor’s degree from Faculty of Political Sciences, Department of Business Administration, Ankara University and the Master’s and PhD degrees from Black Sea Technical University, which is in Trabzon province in Turkey. He also worked as a Research Fellow for a post-doctoral study at Exeter University, UK. His research areas focus on strategic management, strategic human resource management, environmental management, organisational behaviour, and entrepreneurship. He has published many articles, conference papers, book chapters, and edited books on these topics. Mehmet Göçer was born in Adıyaman, Turkey, in 1958. He completed his elementary and middle school education in Adıyaman. He worked as shepherd, agricultural labourer until 2012. Then he moved to Ankara and started to work as a waste picker. In 2013, he founded the Recycling Workers Association then, under the supervision of Ankara ILO, he received an invitation as the representatives of the Recycling Workers Association under the Project of Cooperatives Potential and the role of waste collectors in the recycling sector. On 20 and 21 December 2016, a meeting was held in Ankara Monek Hotel with the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, Ministry of Cooperatives and Trade, Ministry of Treasury and Finance and Ministry of Interior Affairs. He is currently the Vice President of the Recycling Workers Association. Simon Grima, Ph.D (Melit.), MSc (Lond), MSc (BCU), B.Com (Hons) (Melit.), FFA, FAIA (Acad), is the Head of the Department of Insurance, in charge of the Bachelor of Commerce in Insurance, the Bachelor of Commerce (Honours) and Master’s degrees in Insurance and Risk Management and a Senior lecturer at the University of Malta. He set up the Insurance Department in 2015 and started and coordinates the MA and MSc Insurance and Risk Management degrees. He served as the President of the Malta Association of Risk Management (MARM) between 2013 and 2015, and President of the Malta Association of Compliance Officers (MACO) between 2016 and 2018. Moreover, he is among the first Certified Risk Management Professional (FERMA), is the chairman of the Scientific Education Committee of the Public Risk Management Organization

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About the Contributors

(PRIMO) and a member of the curriculum development team of Professional Risk Managers’ International Association (PRMIA) in 2014. His research focus and consultancy is on Governance, Regulations and Internal Controls (i.e. Risk Management, Internal Audit and Compliance) and has over 30 years of experience varied between Financial Services and with public entities in academia, Internal Controls, Investments and IT. He acts as an Independent Director for Financial Services Firms, sits on Risk, Compliance, Procurement, Investment and Audit Committees and carries out duties as a Compliance Officer, Internal Auditor and Risk Manager. He has acted as co-chair and is a member of the scientific program committee on some international conferences and is a chief editor, editor and review editor of some Journals and Book Series. He has been awarded outstanding reviewer for Journal of Financial Regulation and Compliance in the 2017 Emerald Literati Awards. Abbas Karaağaçlı, PhD, was born in 1956 in Marend, Azerbaijan, Iran. He completed his primary, secondary and high school education in Iran. He received the Bachelor’s degree from the Faculty of Communication at Istanbul University, and the Master’s and PhD degrees in International Relations from the same university. In 2002, he worked as a Faculty Member and the Head of the Department of International Relations and Journalism at Ahmet Yesevi International Turkish Kazakh University in Turkestan, Kazakhstan. Since the beginning of 2009, he has been working as a Faculty Member with the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of International Relations, Giresun University, and he also worked as the Department Head for a term. He has published many articles and books in Turkish, Kyrgyz, Persian and Kazakh. His book Middle East to Central Asia was published by Yeniyüzyıl Publications in 2013. He is the Director of Wise Men Center for Strategic Studies, the Institute of Central Asian Studies and Ahmet Yesevi Culture Association. He is also a Member of the Academic Council of the Eurasian Economic Relations Association, and the Arbitrator and an Academic Advisor of the KafKassam and Turansam Strategic Magazines. He also has been serving as the Manager of the Black Sea Strategic Research and Application Center since 5 May 2016, and as the University Rector Advisor at Giresun University since 10 August 2016, and as the Dean of the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at Giresun University since 19 December 2016. He has been attending many national and international congresses, and he has been participating in some national and local radio and television foreign policy programmes as expert and commentator especially for TRT Ankara Radio Agenda Program. Halim Kasim was born in Delčevo, Macedonia, in 1952. He finished Izmir Çınarlı Technical High School Electronics Department and graduated from Electrical Faculty Engineering Department, Yıldız Technical University. He worked in the Municipality of Çamdibi as an Electrical Engineer. He is a Co-Founder of Kasım Leather Confection, Ren Leather Confection and Akom Machinery and Electrical Industry and Trade JSC. He is an Electrical Engineer, Occupational Health and Safety Specialist and Construction Control, Project and Application Auditor. His research interests include, among others, the conversion of energy

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from sunlight into electricity (solar power), heating–cooling, generating electricity from domestic and industrial wastes or generating solar power in solarfree areas, especially strengthening collective solidarity, so that the poor and deprived people gain their self-confidence and express their thoughts and wishes. He currently working as a Freelancer on projects drawing and application. Emine Kavas was born in Germany–Reutlingen in 1975. She graduated from Aydin High School in 1992. She received the degree from the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Business Administration, Selcuk University, in 2004,the MBA degree from the School of Business MBA, Cologne University, in 2007 and the PhD degree from the School of Business Administration, Avrasya University, in 2016. She started her career as a Branch Manager with Aras Kargo. From 1999 to 2005, she was a Branch Manager and a Regional Manager with Aras Kargo in different regions of Turkey, where she was also assigned as the Aegean Region Coordinator of DHL Worldwide during the last two years and also Aras Kargo’s partnership. From 2006 to 2010, she was the Manager in a German Logistics Company and a Cleaning Company. From 2010 to 2017, she was the CEO of a textile company in Bosnia and Herzegovina which started with the establishment process of a factory in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2014, she established her own textile production company in Istanbul and also continued her academic life as the Director of the Doctorate Program at Southern University and also as an Academician at the same time, with her business life. Shahnaz Rafique was born on 30 January 1965 in Delhi, India. In 1972, she started studying at Carmel Convent School, Rourkela. She received Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree, Bachelor of Education in the Field of Study Education Grade in 1982. She started studying at Sambalpur University in 1983 and graduated in 1987. From 2003 to 2009, she worked at Indian National Trade Union Congress and at the Department of Juvenile Justice. In 2013, she started a new job at IndustriALL Global Union where she is a Self-worker. She is a Coordinator (Textile & RMG) of South Asia – IndustriALL Global Union South Delhi, Delhi, India. Since 2016, she has been a National Secretary of the National Platform of Labour Health and Environment, New Delhi, India, which is a labour organisation. She is a Social Entrepreneur and have been actively involved in social field since schooldays. Basically, she has been interested to work for women and children education, health welfare and sustainable development. She has been in teaching profession for the past 17 years. She resigned last year from Jusco School for her greed to enhance her skills and to focus more independently in social sector activities and societies: Ex-Board Member Juvenile Justice Board, Adult Literacy, SHG Formation, Master Trainer HIV/AIDS, Ex-Juvenile justice Board, Red Cross Society, INTUC, INMF, International Training Centre of the ILO. Mustafa Sarı is a Deputy Director in Family Work and Social Services Directorate, a Coordinator of projects in Mersin, Turkey. He graduated from Finance Faculty, Anatolian University, in 1988. He worked as a General Secretary in Konya Selcuk University Kulu and Ermenek Vocational School. From 2004 to 2014, he worked as the Director of Child and Youth Center (ÇOGEM) for 10 years.

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He is currently working as ‘Child Protection Mobile Team Coordinator’ and ‘Provincial Directorate of Children’s Rights’ towards the protection of children working on the streets for 14 years. He worked as the Manager and a Coordinator in over 10 national and international projects for the children at risk at the street. He published news about children’s rights and rehabilitation of disadvantaged children. He worked as an Honorary Correspondent for many years in media organs such as TRT-İHA-AA. Finally, he took part in the founding committee of the ‘Street Economy Platform’ (GLOSEP). Arbind Singh is an Activist and a Social Entrepreneur. He has been empowering informal workers by getting new laws, policies and programmes and by securing their access to markets, financial services and technology organising the informal workers across India and has been his forte along with building collaborations to set up new models of development of informal workers. He played a pioneer role in getting a Street Vendors Act in India which empowers millions of street vendors against eviction and harassment. He was elected as an Ashoka and Eisenhower Fellow in 2007. He was a recipient of the Social Entrepreneur Award of the Year 2008 by the Schwab Foundation at World Economic Forum, the Award at the first innovation forum set up by the Government of Bihar in 2007, the Skoll Award by the Skoll Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship in 2012, and many awards at various levels. He is on board of many government and non-government committees at national and state level. He is the Head of NIDAN and is also the National Coordinator of National Association of Street Vendors of India (NASVI) and the Secretary of StreetNet International, a Durban based Global Federation of Street Vendors. He holds a Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in Sociology from the Delhi University. Osman Sirkeci was born on 21 January 1959 in Bulgurca, İzmir, Turkey. He finished high school in İzmir and graduated from Dokuz Eylül University in 1984. After 20 years, he completed the Master’s degree in Germany in 2005. He received the PhD degree in Finance from Dokuz Eylül University in 2011. He worked as an Accountant and the Manager in companies such as Cumaovası Chamber of Craftsmen, Izmir Chamber of Agriculture and Istanbul Airlines. He was the Head of Textilbank Germany, CB-Bank Cologne and Düisburg Branch. He served as the Vice President of the European Federation of Turkish Businessmen. He has been sharing his 40 years of experience through various educational activities with a vision and mission of being the source of motivation and guidance for young entrepreneurs as creating awareness both in Turkey and in Germany in the occupation of Financial Consulting and Enterprise Consulting. He started his academic career at Hakkari University in 2011 and continued his academic career as an Associate Dean at Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences in Eurasian University. Since 2015, he has been a Faculty Administrative Coordinator at Giresun University. He is currently working in Izmir Municipality and the founder of Street Economy Department in Izmir Municipality in Turkey. He conducts his scientific and academic projects with an innovative entrepreneur life and thought style and in accordance with this approach, he has been given conferences and

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trainings in different settings. Since 2013, he has been developing and spreading his new approach of Global Street Economy – Micro Enterprises and Street Entrepreneurship with national and international conferences and projects. He is the Founder and the Honorary President of the Global Street Economics Platform, which is an example of an academic and social entrepreneurship. He has been developing his trainings and conferences in ‘Society 5.0’ vision with a team of both national and international researchers, administrators, activists and workers in the field and academicians. Huriye Toker, PhD, is an Associate Professor, a Member of Communication Faculty at Yaşar University. She earned the MA degree in 2001 from the Journalism Department at Ege University, the Master’s degree from the Media Department at Oslo University in Norway and the PhD degree from the Department of European Studies at Dokuz Eylül University in Turkey. She has been participated in various national and international projects. In 2017, she was awarded a Jean Monnet Module by her course on integration of Turkish public sphere to EU and media. Her academic interest areas are corporate social responsibility, European Union and media, gender, disability studies and disadvantaged groups, elections and politics. Alper Yağlidere was born in İzmir in 1981. He worked in the administration department of Celal Bayar University, Anadolu University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Public Administration, Dokuz Eylül University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Department of Public Administration in the Department of Environment and Urbanization after completing his Master’s degree Adnan Menderes. He took the Formation Education at the University of Adnan Menderes. His master’s thesis (‘The Roma Category as a Social Category in the Use of Urban Spaces – The Case of Konak District Ege Mahallesi’) was published as a book. He worked as an Expert Trainer under the Ministry of National Education. He held influential positions in Romani Studies in Turkey. Since 2004, he has been active in the struggle for the rights of the Roma community both in academic and in civil society. He was a Founding Member of the Roma Culture Anatolia. He founded the first Roma Associations Federation of Social Assistance and Solidarity Association in Izmir, Turkey, in 2005. He has been the coordinator of many European Union projects and grant projects on Roma culture. He has been working as the Secretary General of Konak City Council in Konak Municipality, where he did his internship in 2000, and he is the Director of Roma associations in various districts of İzmir. Betül Karagöz Yerdelen completed the Bachelor’s degree in Technology Education at Gazi University and continued her academic career at Ankara University. She holds two Master’s degrees in Culture and Art Sciences (1999) and in Political Sciences (2003) and two PhD degrees in Culture and Art Sciences (2003) and in Political Sciences (2008). Since 2009, she has been an Academic Fellow with the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of International Relations, University of Giresun. From 2011 to 2012, she was a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow in Political Sciences at the University of Kansas, where she became an Associate Professor in Political Life and Institutions – Regional Studies in

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2012. She is currently the Dean of the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences. Prior to joining to the University of Giresun, she worked as a teacher, a writer, the director and the production manager on educational broadcasting at the Ministry of National Education in Ankara. She has authored many articles, papers and books. Her main fields of research are political institutionalisation and state transformation; comparing the founding conditions of constitutions and their international effects; imperialism and hegemony; the problem of failed states, social movements, humanitarian intervention; cultural-political violence and trans-boundary identity problem; regional-global studies in the fields of the concept of global ural altay, economy-politics of Turkophone and international nationalism. Merve Yildirim was born in Ankara and lives in Giresun. She received the degree from the Faculty of Vocational Education, Department of Graphic Design, Gazi University in 1995, the Master’s degree with the Department of Fine Arts Education, Institute of Educational Sciences at Gazi University in 2010 and the PhD degree from the Fine Arts Department, Gazi University Educational Sciences Teaching in 2013. The reflection of symbols to the art of ex libris in the historical background and the model proposal in the Department of Visual Communication and Graphic Design in the Faculty of Fine Arts. In 2014, she was an Assistant Professor. She has opened personal national and international exhibitions and also attended in many group exhibitions. She is the Founding Member of the Global Street Economics Platform who is working on the design of streets. She is currently the Head of the Graphic Design Department at the Faculty of Fine Arts, Giresun University.

FOREWORD We congratulate Dr Osman Sirkeci who chose to carry out his post-doctoral research on the global street economy at the University of Malta. During this time, he organised an international conference which attracted various academics of international repute. The event was also attended by Dr Justyne Caruana, the Honorable Minister for Gozo, who emphasised, during the opening speech, that although Malta is a small island state, the street economy has played an important role in the socio-economic life of the Maltese people. As Dr Sirkeci argues, the street economy has always had a crucial impact on the externalities and failures of market economies, and hence it deserves much more attention from a global perspective than it currently has. The aim of this publication is to highlight the increasing importance of the street economy in the economic literature and to investigate this phenomenon from different perspectives. I wish success to all street economy employees and researchers, and hope that this volume will generate more interest on the global street economy phenomenon. Prof. Dr Frank Bezzina, Dean of FEMA, University of Malta

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PREFACE This study has emerged as a collective result of 30 years of observation and five years of intensive research and investigation. Concepts of street economy and street entrepreneurship have emerged through the micro-scale craftsmanship, which is a part of Osman Sirkeci’s own life for decades, the direct execution of peddling and marketing and the simultaneous observation of the data obtained as a result of the compilation and analysis of information obtained. Dr Sirkeci has come up with the concept of street economy, by compiling his own experiences as a child, selling vegetables in the streets with his father, with data obtained from hundreds of face-to-face interviews with local and foreign street workers, who are working as a peddler, street artist, street worker in the streets, sidewalks, at the beaches and in the markets in countless countries around the world. The originality and importance of the concept of street economics stems from the in-depth examination of the failures of the market economy and the externalities of the market economy, which are seen as superficial problems in the science of economics, and finding its counterexamples in the field. Global trade-based market economy and capitalism reached global domination in the sixteenth century, after six centuries of development and maturation. Since then, many problems that have been entrusted to the skill of the ‘magic hand’ of the market economy have not been solved for 150 years, and these problems have produced their own solution on the streets, partly inside and outside the market economy. It is known from the databases of various institutions, such as the International Labour Organisation (ILO) or the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, that 3.5 billion people are currently employed worldwide. However, according to estimates, 2 billion people are working in the streets. Global developments show that the state sector and big companies cannot create more new jobs. Another known fact is that world population is increasing day by day, and this fact has had different consequences such as immigration problems, increasing unemployment and social problems in the European countries, US, India and some other countries in the last 15–20 years. They have begun to implement various measures and produce incentive and support programmes to create new business opportunities. Currently, together with these 2 billion street vendors, 7.5 billion people in the world continue to pay a wide variety of taxes every day. But these incentive funds, which are generated from the same taxes, provide support and incentives exclusively for the registered sectors. These 2 billion ‘StreetPreneurs’ are excluded from all supports, consultancy services and other incentives. This unequal application is also contrary to the principles of fair use of tax. It is not possible to accept this view as an equitable, just and egalitarian situation. xxiii

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In this case, it is primarily the task of the scientists to work on this giant cluster that is externalised by the market economy in order to clarify their role and importance. Two billion people, who are not included in the registered economic activities in the free market economy, are the subject of this work. The project fundamentally investigates how we can get the real tax information from the 2 billion street vendors by voluntarily registering as successful businesses. The aim of Dr Sirkeci in developing the concept of street economics is to investigate a group of entrepreneurs who are called ‘the tax evaders’, ‘the informal economy’ and ‘the shadow economy’ outside the known reality of the established economy. Main idea behind this project and Dr Sirkeci’s lifelong dream is to establish a Global Street Workers Union – Self Workers Global (SWG) to integrate street workers worldwide into urban life, accreditation and recognition at national level, legal status, being able to organise in appropriate forms of organisation and having health and social security opportunities. As we are writing this book today, Global Street Workers Union – SWG has already been established within ILO and announced to the world on the 18th of June in Geneva. Coming to this point required industrious and consistent work and effort both in national and international levels. At the national level, with the meetings held on the role and function of the street in various provinces in Turkey, the subject has been brought to the attention of numerous media representatives, academicians, politicians, mayors, non-governmental organisation representatives, city council presidents and Roma association managers. Thus, the importance of the street economy and the fact that it is an integral part of urban life has become widely accepted. In the recognition of this project, there are three events, which are worth to mention as important milestones. The first one, which is also the birthplace of the idea of Global Street Workers Union, is the First International Global Street Economy and Third Democracy Conference held in Malta on 1–3 October 2018 under the honorary presidency of Dr Justyne Caruana, the Honourable Minister for Gozo – Malta. The main objective of this conference was to contribute to the global unity of street workers. The second one was the Street Economy Workshop held in Ankara by the main opposition party in Turkey with wide participation on 15 February 2019. Being invited as a guest to the Street Food Festival and 150th anniversary of Indra Gandhi’s birthday, organised by the national coordinator of the Indian street vendors confederation, once again confirmed the international content and importance of the work. The final event, which is worth to mention as a revolutionary step in local governments is the foundation of Street Economy Department in Izmir Municipality in Turkey. This research and project topic ‘Street Economics’, is being carried out with the support of both University of Malta through the help of governmental institutions and relevant ministries and also Giresun University. We give our warmest thanks to Dr Simon Grima who opened the doors of the University of Malta for us to carry our study to global dimensions, Dean of the Faculty of FEMA. Dr Frank Bezzina and Dr Justyne Caruana for hosting and supporting the First International Global Street Economy and Third Democracy Conference held in Malta.

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We also thank to Giresun University Rector Prof. Dr Cevdet Coşkun who support us among all the difficulties of academic life in bringing these studies to these dimensions and to Prof. Dr Betül Karagöz Yerdelen, Dean of the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, who has given us an important depth especially in terms of political science. Last but not the least, we also thank our Indian friends, Arbind Singh, Anurag Shanker, Shri Ram, Anuradha Singh, Kumar Sapkota from Nepal and the countless silent heroes of the streets. We would like to thank the founders of SWG, Argentina’s Oscar Silva and Spain’s Cesar Garcia Alan, for their contribution to the globalisation and institutionalisation of the work. Dr. Simon Grima, Dr Osman Sirkeci, and Prof. Dr Kamuran Elbeyoğlu Giresun, Turkey, 2019

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INTRODUCTION Kamuran Elbeyoğlu and Osman Sirkeci

Street economy is the exchange of goods and services in public places. It includes trade, artisanal small services or various artistic and mental performances, with or without a closed and fixed space, with or without a bench and a vehicle, sitting, standing or walking on the streets or by staying fixed in a place on the street. In the literature, economic activities employing less than 10 workers are referred to as micro-enterprises. Our global streets provide employment for half of the global employment of four billion people. Our streets and sidewalks are the world’s largest businesses. This study includes all social, cultural and vital activities offered on the streets. It has been predicted that with globalisation in the last 50 years, the microscale street economy would be downsizing and shrinking. However, rapid population growth and urbanisation have also quickly increased many numbers of micro-scale street enterprises, which have been the sole supplier of the needs of the poor. The estimated number of street vendors has risen from 1 billion to 2 billion in the last 20 years. The street vendors estimated to reach 3 billion in the next 10 years. The street vendors are primary suppliers of low-income citizens. Open markets should be dealt with shop canters as well. Open markets are the most convenient places where mass products can meet the consumers who need it. However, open markets and street vendors have wide range of problems, such as health, cleanliness, quality, licensing, reliability, transparency, control and so on. In some regions and cities there is disagreement or ‘war’ between local authorities and street vendors. The street economy is a global reality, the most important issue of today and the agenda item. The globalisation has been under the influence of even the most remote streets in a short time. The role and importance of this socio-economic and political reality in the shadow of the street, which is called the street economy, has begun to gain more weight every day. Fifteen years ago, the experts of the sector like Arbind Singh had estimated the number of the street vendors approximately at 500 million around the world. In the last few years, the street economy has begun to take a very important place in agenda of India, USA, Malta and

Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 1–4 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103025

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other countries. At the same time, the increased roles and importance of the street economy with global dimensions have begun to take place on the agenda of several international organisations like International Labour Organization (ILO), World Bank, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, etc. Considering the next 10–20 years, street economy will continue to be the most important issue of the future all over the world. Fiscal and para-fiscal policies and measures should be determined according to these facts. The survey results and face–to-face interviews show that the negative perception of the street economy is superficial. Street economy and all its actors, services and products are an indispensable part of modern society. Street economy is completing and filling up shortfalls in the free market. It can easily be seen that street economy is not as insignificant and marginal sector as it is undermined in classical economics books and courses. Especially street activities, which are expressed as informal sectors, are not negligible enough to be underestimated.

THE GLOBAL REALITY IN THE SHADOW OF THE STREETS When the world met with market economy, its population was only 1 billion; today it has increased eight times. The 150-year market economy model has not been a solution to humanity’s problems, as claimed. Before moving to market economy, wars, hunger, poverty and misery were still in the world. The market economy and its magical hand would put an end to all these problems. But it didn’t happen. These dreams have not become a reality for 150 years. It failed. Neither the wars ended nor hunger diminished. Nor the people escaped from poverty. The capital accumulation-indexed market model has made a handful of wealthy richer by the day. It has sentenced billions of people to poverty while sweeping all material wealth into a very small minority. The market economy showed them as the cause of poverty. It blamed them. It ignored them. It despised them. It justified exploiting them. Well, what fell on the share of the poor? First, they waited with great enthusiasm. They were disappointed when their expectations didn’t happen. They didn’t sulk. They didn’t give up. They looked for solutions. They created a beautiful future like a lotus flower from the swamp of this exploitation and crisis for all of us. They fought with their own resources, with their own talents, to make this life liveable. They are the ones who turn the waste in the streets into the food on the table. They are the ones who produce solutions to the failures of the market economy.

STREETS ARE NOT A PROBLEM, BUT A SOLUTION Market economy means overproduction and excessive consumption. It means low employment and unemployment. More profit produces ambition, unfair competition and inequality. It means wasting. The open market, which promised high

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welfare, failed to achieve fair distribution. Unfair and unsuccessful distribution could not deliver over-produced goods to the poor. In order to share the markets, unfairly competition and wars encompassed the world. The streets also got their share. Police forces started to chase the street workers. The streets become almost like a battlefield. The law was gone. The Mafia took its place. The poor have found a solution to this problem. Poor street entrepreneurs introduced the products of the rich in the streets of the slums, in subway entrants to the market. Instead of begging for help, the unemployed established their own business. Street entrepreneurship was reborn. And it swept all the global streets of the world. Their humble magical hands brought their needs to the side of their doors, which billions of narrow incomes could not afford, which they could not buy from the luxury shops. Globalising streets became a new light of hope for the poor. They did not exploit poverty. They socialised injustice, inequality and poverty by sharing them with scarce possibilities. They created solutions to the problems of all the people while creating employment in megalopolis. These silent heroes of the streets, shown as the cause of this colossal global problem, presented themselves as the key to the solution. Street workers repaired the market’s deficiencies. The market economy still continues the process of monopolising a small minority of unfairly created surpluses by all the world’s workers. The poor inhabitants of the streets and slums supported each other by mass socialization in public places. They presented each other’s needs in the cheapest way, with zero bureaucracy, and to each other in the nearest. They covered the disabilities of the market. They fixed its mistakes. They had hope like a precious lotus flower that grew up in a market bog. Today, Street Business, Street Entrepreneurship is recommended for the unemployed and young people as alternative business opportunities. The street economy, which has been underestimated until yesterday, has become valuable today. Street food, street arts, street robots and street automatons have become the focus of interest. We need to know the value of this area. While super markets and shopping centres reach the satisfaction point, global streets are the new address of micro-enterprises. Not only the streets provide employment for millions of small entrepreneurs, but also give a light of hope to all of us. Global street workers face bans in many parts of the world. They are exposed to double exploitation. They give tribute. In spite of all these negativities and impossibilities, they set up their business on their own small machines with their very small capitals without any support. They clean our streets. By collecting and decomposing billions of dollars of waste thrown into the trash, they are turning them into value-added. By helping to recycle natural resources that the upper-class people waste, they bring them to life and economy. They are volunteers of the natural environment. While the rich are wasting, they protect nature and the environment. Today, global street economy provides employment to 2 billion street workers. These silent heroes of the streets meet the essential needs of 5 billion people. Street workers provide 24 trillion dollars value-added to the global economy. Streets produce 30 per cent of the world economy of 80 trillion dollars. This is even bigger than the US economy.

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The world becomes more liveable if the world’s street vendors move along with the poor of the world. In addition, a city life in which the poor are able to express themselves and to get the place they deserve according to their skills and abilities would be possible. The struggles of Indian street workers to achieve the law and peace in the streets provide an example for the whole world. Street Vendors Act, 2014, has been a new source of motivation and hope for all of us. Our work on the establishment of the Self-workers Global Union affiliated to the ILO is a motivational example. Once this union is established, we will recommend these successful implementation examples to all countries of the world. Our hope is that street workers’ assemblies would be established in all cities of the world to provide a solution to the problem where it occurs.

PEACE IN THE STREETS IS THE WARRANTY OF PEACE IN THE WORLD Legal protection of the rights of the silent heroes of the streets all over the world is a duty that cannot be postponed. The magic hand of capitalism was supposed to establish the social welfare system, but it failed. Legal protection of the rights of them all over the world will facilitate the establishment of the social welfare system. Democracy which is not carried out from top to bottom will reach its true meaning with the participation of the bottom.

STREET ECONOMY IS THE BASIS OF PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY Thousands of pages of commercial codes are in force for one and a half billion businesses in the world. However, there are very few codes or regulations covering two billion street workers with three billion customers shopping at the streets. Surveys show that street workers want to be legal and registered. Street workers are integral components of city life. They demand social security with their own contributions. As in the case of India and other good example countries, the constitutional law of street vending will compensate for the failures of democracy. Democracy cannot be completed until it internalises street economy. Instead of the illegitimate law that prevails on the streets, the legitimate rule of law around the world will provide peace on the streets. And it will secure everybody on the streets, whether man and woman, old or young. Finally, peace in the streets and the legitimate legal order to be established in the streets will be the guarantee of world peace and democracy.

PART I STREET ECONOMY AND MICRO ENTREPRENEURSHIP: THEORETICAL APPROACHES

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CHAPTER 1 THE IMPORTANCE OF STREET ECONOMY FROM MALTA PERSPECTIVE Justyne Caruana

ABSTRACT The need for policy to focus on Gozo in the overall developmental needs of Malta is justified on the basis of the indispensable contribution provided by Gozo to the national economy as well as its positive economic growth and welleducated labour force. This indicates that Gozo is not a region to be abandoned but one that requires policy actions to support the growth of micro and small business, facilitate employment, improve residential attractiveness in the territory and develop innovative approaches towards the sustainable development of the island region. The Gozo success story must be extended further, and there is more in the pipeline to sustain and support the restructuring of existing businesses as well as attract new small and micro business that has a strong strategic fit with Gozo’s development model. Keywords: Street economy; local business; micro entrepreneurship; Gozo; sustainability; Gozitan agriculture

I was pleased to address the First Global Street Economy and Street Vendors Conference at the Valletta Campus of the University of Malta this week. The event was a unique international collaboration between Giresun University of Turkey and Malta University. Several scholars, from many fields, were invited to attend, along with business, academic, cultural and political leaders. It is intended

Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 7–10 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103001

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to form a global alliance dedicated to rethinking and integrating street economy issues into management practice, education and development. It gave me time to delve into the economic challenges and opportunities of our island region within the wider spectrum of national economic performance and beyond. The ‘street economy’ encourages self-sufficiency on a regional basis and advocates renewable energy. It also promotes the region as an economic unit with a lower reliance on imports. Buying locally matters, because it keeps wealth and jobs flowing within the community and revitalises the local economy.

LOCAL BUSINESSES A growing body of research is proving that small-scale, locally owned businesses are important community assets, creating more prosperous, entrepreneurial, connected and generally better-off communities. In particular, local businesses recirculate a larger proportion of every euro in the local economy, as they create locally owned supply chains and invest in their employees. Buying locally reduces the fuel necessary to acquire goods, reducing the carbon footprint and ensuring fresh produce. In addition, a community’s level of social capital, civic engagement and general well-being is positively related to the proportion of its economy that is held by local businesses. In order to ensure the sustainability – as well as gain the benefits – of the street economy, regions must continuously work to invest in and improve the things that will attract people, along with their ideas and investment, to live there, work there, raise their families and build long-term, rewarding careers there. Successful local businesses – mainly small and micro firms – allow owners to remain in place and generate opportunities for inward migration and more opportunities for other entrepreneurs. A diversity of businesses becomes the soil from which the next step is to grow a critical mass in a certain area, based on identified strengths and resources. To this end, initiatives and grants provided by governments are advocated to support the street economy. The market failures typically faced by local businesses and prospective entrepreneurs are addressed to better enable them to develop economic activity and create jobs, based on the fact that strong local communities contribute to the national economy.

GOZO’S INSULARITY The concept of the street economy is applicable to the island of Gozo which is the smaller of the two islands which comprise the Maltese territory. Gozo has a land area that is 25 per cent of the mainland and yet is home to around 7 per cent of the population. Gozo’s insularity and peripherality distinguish it from Malta mainly due to its smaller size and relatively smaller-scale economic development. Micro-firms are disproportionately the predominant form of business in Gozo, accounting for over 96 per cent of all businesses.

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Despite the large influx of foreign workers in Malta – which has had some spill-over effect on the island region, micro firms in Gozo still encounter certain barriers in order to grow and gain access to higher value-added activities. The promotion of the street economy is consistent to the socio-economic development of the Maltese archipelago with a number of provisions in the European Treaty, and is consistent with the spirit of accession negotiations, particularly with respect to overcoming the specific double insularity handicaps faced by Gozo.

DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATION The need for policy to focus on Gozo in the overall development needs of Malta is justified on the basis of the indispensable contribution provided by Gozo to the national economy as well as its positive economic growth and welleducated labour force. This indicates that Gozo is not a region to be abandoned but one that requires policy actions to support the growth of micro and small business, facilitate employment, improve residential attractiveness in the territory and develop innovative approaches towards the sustainable development of the island region. Gozo has its own success story when it comes to promoting the ‘street economy’. Efforts have been made, through investment in resources and talent within small and micro businesses, to ensure sustainable and inclusive growth. On the basis of a clear vision, the Government has provided a number of pro-active measures and has embarked on projects to attract investment in Gozo. These include more preferential tax credits to undertakings in Gozo under the micro invest scheme to encourage them to invest in their business, innovate, expand and develop their operations and the implementation of a new job schemes which provide fiscal incentives to employers when recruiting new workers. A Malta Enterprise Office has been established in Gozo aiming to bring business incentives closer to where they are most needed. Initiatives are also in place to encourage all-year round visitors with diversified interests. Various projects have also been implemented which are in line with the ‘Street economy’. Amongst these one may mention the hubs in the Xewkija industrial estate aimed at small and medium-sized enterprise, start-ups and the digital economy, the approval of the alternative fibre optic cable to ensure that Gozo is never cut off the grid as well as the restoration of the Citadel and works in the Gozo Museum, ports, beaches, roads and village squares – just to mention a few.

BUILDING ON SUCCESS The Gozo success story must be extended further, and there is more in the pipeline to sustain and support the restructuring of existing businesses as well as attract new small and micro business that has a strong strategic fit with Gozo’s development model. To this end, there are plans to materialise in the future covering

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physical, human and environmental capital in a context where framework conditions are improved. Some examples include the enhancement of national business schemes for Gozo, incentivised training for the self-employed, the provision of office space and business incubation as well as further promoting start-ups and the showcasing of business angles. The creation of an information and communication technology media platform is envisaged to promote the various aspects of the Gozitan lifestyle that can serve as bases for sustainable development, by enabling access to business, governance and non-government organisations to media resources in an organised set up, whilst in itself creating ‘new economy’ activity in Gozo. During the past five years, the Government’s annual budgets have focussed on the requirements of Gozitan business and this is the route we will follow, with the Gozo Ministry constantly consulting local entrepreneurs and raising our expectations on the national agenda.

SUSTAINABILITY AND COMPETITIVENESS Last but not least, the contribution of Gozitan agriculture to the Gozitan culinary tradition, its evolution and future sustainability, is also recognised. Incentives to enhance the creation of value between Gozitan agricultural producers and foodsellers as well as producers by valorising the quality of food produced using ingredients from Gozo are envisaged. These aim to improve cost competitiveness and stimulate innovation in production, which are considered to be vital for sustainable development. It is an accepted fact that the resilience and business acumen of Gozitan businesses can ensure genuine products for the local market and can reach out to wider markets, as has already been the case with several Gozitan producers. In my speech at the Global Street Economy Conference, I reiterated that the Government recognises that a sustainable ‘street economy’ ensures that the community is not only consulted but is also involved in decision-making. This is the foundation on which the ‘street economy’ concept in Gozo is based. The Government looks forward to working further to build on this solid foundation and to strengthen it in the years to come.

CHAPTER 2 ACTORS AND FUNCTIONS OF STREET ECONOMY Osman Sirkeci

ABSTRACT Street economy (SE) is defined as the exchange of all kinds of goods and services in public areas, streets, street corners and squares. As in all sectors, SE is composed of two main parts as registered and unregistered. Again, it is divided into two parts as legitimate and illegitimate social and economic activities, in the extent of the limitlessness of human needs and the relatively limited resources. SE consists of all kinds of economic, social, cultural and artistic activities that are carried out on the streets. Virtual streets are added to real streets with globalisation and digitalisation. It is observed that the very small-scale street trade, which is expected and predicted to disappear in the last century, has become more widespread and effective in contrast to all these predictions and expectations. In this chapter, it is foreseen that the SE, with all its sub-sectors, has not yet been measured with its sub-sectors, and with its global buyers and sellers having reached the enormous dimensions that affect the daily life of 5 billion people out of the 8 billion world population. Quantitative indicators compiled from databases show that this set of street traders has reached a global trade volume of $30 trillion under the common denominators. With a volume of $30 trillion, SE has attracted the attention of the producers and investors of street robots as well as other entrepreneurs and researchers. SE, which has been expected to be eliminated and not seen as worthy by economists and politicians, has been the sole supplier of the needs of the poor, with hundreds of sub-sectors. It is seen as the easiest, most common job opportunity of the unemployed. In this chapter, the functions, its place in the city life, its

Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 11–28 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103002

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added value at the local and national levels and its problems and global solution proposals of the SE, which is expected to become more important in the world agenda, will be discussed. Keywords: Street economy; street artisan; micro-entrepreneurship; SE entrepreneurship; hawker; open market

INTRODUCTION A few years ago, while there was a very limited literature on street economics and it has a limited place on the global agenda, it has gradually crossed national borders and reached global levels (İha, 2018). Since the advent of the topic on the agenda, it has been met with a positive approach and active participation of the academics, researchers and practitioners throughout Turkey from various fields such as education, philosophy, painting and design. The local and national boundaries of this subject have been greatly extending by the participation of academicians and researchers from various universities and foundations as well as through the invitations for projects and conferences by city councils, civil organisations and politicians. With this strong participation and acceptance, studies on the subject have the opportunity to move to global dimensions. From the outset, the work was already taken over with a global vision. The hypothesis of this approach and study in observing and detecting the very smallscale street trade, which was expected and predicted to disappear in the past century, has become more widespread and effective in contrast to all these predictions and expectations. It is possible to collect all kinds of social and economic benefits on the streets under the title of global street economy (SE). The aim of this approach is to reveal the meaning and importance of streets in contemporary human life more clearly, and to understand the importance of street activities in the daily life of modern society. This approach will also make it possible to see and recognise the crises of the free market economy of capitalism and its own unresolved problems. It is possible to identify and correct the failures of the system, the areas that turn into depressions and to eliminate the failures by identifying these economic activities carried out in the streets which are defined as informal. In this chapter, it is foreseen that, with all sub-sectors on the basis of these indicators, the SE, with its not yet measured volume, has reached enormous dimensions affecting daily life of 5 billion people out of the 8 billion world population with its buyers and sellers globally. Functionally, with a volume of $30 trillion, SE has attracted the attention of street robots producers and investors as well as other entrepreneurs and researchers. With this dimension, the SE has even surpassed the US $24 trillion economy, the largest economy in the $100 trillion world economy. Street economics with hundreds of sub-sectors, which is not seen as notable and expected to be disappeared by politicians and economists, has been the sole

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supplier of the needs of the poor. Studies on SE have been carried out on global levels from Europe as in First Global Street Economy Conference hosted by Justyne Caruana in Malta, to Africa as in the invitation for observation and joint work by the president of Sierra Leone Informal Employees Union, to India as in the invitation as a representative of global SE for joint work with National Association of Street Vendors India (Timesofmalta, 2018). The Global Union of Street Workers, whose preparations for the establishment within International Labor Organization (ILO) has been scheduled for 17 June 2019, will become one of the most important achievements of the works on SE on a global scale.

FROM THE FAILURES OF COMMERCIAL CAPITALISM TO THE MONOPOLY CAPITALISM Capitalism or market economy first appeared in Arabian cities in the sixth and seventh centuries (Koehler, 2014). Parallel to this, the basis for the development of capitalism was prepared in years 1000 and 1500, when the trade in Europe developed rapidly, within the internal contradictions and transformations of the feudal production and consumption society (William & McNeill, 1967 in Erdendoğdu, 2013, p. 4). In addition to the feudal structures dispersed by mercantilism starting in the eleventh century, the towns that developed along with the old system have played a conservative role against the development of trade capitalism. More efficient use of productive forces in the sixteenth century reduced the production costs of consumer goods. Overseas trade triggered this. Consumption and living standards began to rise. Capitalist production replaced the traditional production and distribution system. The sixteenth century European trade reached a new stage of growth and international trade was replaced by world trade. This marks the time when capitalist modern globalisation has begun (Erdendoğdu, 2013, pp. 9–11). The dominance of the central militant empires until the eleventh century, which were suppressed by the forces of production and consumption, with the city states of the early ages, have started to change. With the Magna Carta, which was signed between the King John of England and the churches and barons at the beginning of the thirteenth century, commerce gained legal freedom; and it will reach monopoly in the last 350 years. Privileged Russian troupe in 1553 and Turkey troupe was established in 1581. These foreign trade companies, which had a monopoly license, collected lucrative jobs in the hands of elite people. Monetary restrictions were imposed on craftsmen producing goods for these companies. In 1881, an edict issued in France restricted the excessive spending that poor craftsmen had to achieve to achieve mastery, or they were asked to travel for five years to advance mastery in some German cities. This hard fight in the guilds suited big companies, since they were able to press them to buy goods at lowered prices. This process has created a growing class of wage servants and masters. Until the end of the sixteenth century, the possibility of earning capital and accumulating capital by investing in wage labour, even if not significant, began to appear (Erdendoğdu, 2013, pp. 9–11).

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EXTERNALITIES OF CAPITAL ACCUMULATION The global trade-based market economy and capitalism reached a global dominance in the sixteenth century at the end of a six-century development and maturation process. In those years, a significant rural population was not included in the exchange and distribution relations of the market, especially the unemployed within world population up to half a billion. The world population has now increased 15 times. A 500-year trade and market economy model has not been a solution to humanity’s problems as alleged (Yücel, 2006, p. 27). Before moving to market economy, wars, hunger, poverty and misery were still in the world. The market economy and its magical hand would put an end to these problems. But it didn’t happen. These dreams have not become a reality for 150 years. It failed. Neither the wars ended nor hunger diminished. Nor the people escaped from poverty (Arpacıoğlu & Yıldırım, 2011, p. 60). The capital accumulation indexed market model has made a handful of wealthy richer by the day. It has sentenced billions of people to poverty while sweeping all material wealth into a very small minority. The market economy showed them as the cause of poverty. It blamed them, marginalised them and despised them for not benefiting from the environment of competition and opportunities. It justified to exploit them. These unequal conditions and emerging opportunities were seen as justified grounds of abuse (Sambur, 2011). Well, what fell on the share of the poor? First, they waited with great enthusiasm. They were disappointed when their expectations didn’t happen. They didn’t sulk. They didn’t give up. They looked for solutions. They created a beautiful future like a lotus flower from the swamp of this exploitation and crisis for all of us. They fought with their own resources, with their own talents, to make this life liveable. They are the ones, who turn the waste in the streets into the food on the table. They are the ones who produce solutions to the failures of the market economy.

THE DEFINITION OF SE SE is defined as the exchange of all kinds of goods and services in public areas, streets, sidewalks, corners and squares (Bhowmik, 2013, pp. 31–33). The insertion and extension of fixed spaces on the streets is outside the scope of SE. As in all sectors, there is both a registered part of the SE and there is also an unregistered part. There is also a portion of social and economic activities which are legitimate in terms of the limitation of human needs and relatively limited resources. SE encompasses real and virtual activities that produce all kinds of economic, social, cultural and artistic benefits carried out in the streets (wiego, 1997). SE offers commercial, artistic goods and services on the streets, sidewalks and public areas, without being in a fixed space, standing or walking. SE is a microscale business. It produces economic and social benefits. It encompasses physical and mental activities. Investment capital is micro-scale. It includes registered or unregistered activities, which sometimes require permission and sometimes not. Street jobs require education, knowledge and skills at a limited level or are based on skills and expertise in areas such as handicrafts.

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It is estimated that 2 billion people in the world are working in the streets. SE includes the production of goods and services to meet a wide range of basic needs in developing countries. In addition, in the central market economy countries, the street market has been extended to include street music and all kinds of activities carried out in the streets from visual arts to other artistic activities. Food sector is one of the main sectors of street activities in advanced and developing countries. The food sector is also divided into various sub-sectors. It is seen that the durable consumer goods sector follows the food sector. Textile products sales have an important place in street activities. In countries such as India, which has a very large population, it is seen that a wide variety of sectors ranging from street logistics to street tailoring to street ironing, which are not seen in developed countries, find a place in the streets.

EVOLUTION OF SE SE is the part of modern urban life that is neglected, ignored, despised, underestimated and looked at with prejudices. On the surface, it is generally stated by the city dwellers that it is not desired to benefit from the products and services offered on the streets as well as mental and artistic activities, neither we see street activities as a business for ourselves or our children. While the perceptions change in the process, a street musician is seen as a fugitive beggar, as in 15–20 years ago, graffitiers were perceived as anarchists and terrorists. However, in small and big urban life where all the rural areas are emptied and 55% of the 7.6 billion world population is gathered, these billions of people do not have the same purchasing power. In other words, millions of city dwellers in fact, provide a wide variety of goods and/or services from the streets. In the developed metropolitan cities of the world from Japan to America, mega shopping malls meet the needs of middle- and upper-income groups. However, the street entrepreneurs, or street economists as they also called street tradesmen, meet the needs of the large neighbourhoods, where the poor people who have doubled the population of the cities live. This low-income people spend a significant part of their time in the streets, at the bus stops, in buses and subways from very early in the morning until the late hours of the day as cheap labour of urban centres. The daily needs of this lowincome cluster from nutrition to dressing are met by street vendors, who stand in the front and end doors of subways, tunnels, bridges, in front of big business places, schools, bus stops and parks (Fırat, 2010, p. 164). The increasing importance of the streets also affected and changed the consumption habits of the cities. In many countries and also in Turkey, it is seen that almost 30% of the population engaged in street activities such as peddling, bagel salesman, newspaper salesman at one time in their lives (Gündoğan, 2019; Kühn, 2018). As mentioned in some examples and interviews, there are executives of the Chamber of Industry and Commerce, managers of taxpayers and five-star hotel managers, some of whom wipe out these street activity sections from their past, where these kind of activities are underestimated, whereas some others tell

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their street vending stories when they are young with pride. Although there are countless examples like this, we are confronted with the fact that the potential of this reality, in which millions of people are employed and the added value of the billion-dollar value is produced, is not wanted to be understood.

FUNCTIONS OF SE It can easily be seen that SE is not as insignificant and marginal sector as it is undermined in classical economics books and courses. Especially street activities, which are expressed as informal sectors, are not negligible enough to be underestimated (Açıkalın, 2010, p. 607). For example, employment in the streets is estimated to have reached 6 million people in the Republic of Turkey with a population of 82 million (Ağbaba, 2019, p. 3). According to surveys conducted by us in recent years, at least 70% of respondents are buying their needs from street vendors. In another example, in a country that has a population close to one and a half billion, such as India, it is estimated that the middle- and low-income populations buy around 30% at least one meal a day from vendors (Amit & Rajul, 2015, p. 11). SE is an integral part of daily life and future. It is the externalised basic functions of the market economy. It is the repairer of the troubles of the market economy, the remedy of its deficiencies. It is the only supplier of low-income citizens. It is the safeguard of the market economy and the guarantee of its extended life. It is the servant of market economy and its automatic motivator. SE is the largest social, global product and service sector. It is a guarantee of natural micro-scale agriculture. SE is a low-cost, primary source of employment. It is the warranty of low cost, micro-scale, mass production and distribution of goods and services. Street economics turns the benefits and support to the benefit. It is the most common entrepreneurial school. SE is the easiest entrepreneurial sector with zero bureaucracy in the free market. It is the birthplace and living space of entrepreneurial climate.

SE AND INFORMALITY SE, which includes the employment of millions of people and billions of pounds of value-added, but in the daily language called unregistered employment or economy and seen as something to be eliminated, must be seen as an inseparable part of modern society, not an external phenomenon (Little, Milgram, & Hansen, 2013, pp. 1–3). SE is an inseparable part of the neglected and ignored urban life. In fact, even though it is launched as the problem, it is a spontaneous solution to the problems produced by modern society. It is a national value that is pushed out of the mainstream, marginalised and wasted. It is a socioeconomic and political wealth. In the face of all these negativities, it is a statelessness that is pushed out of the mainstream and out of law.

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Actors and Functions of Street Economy

The eeriness of the bureaucracy and the complexity of information have made it impossible to apply the concept and application of the ‘Tradesman Exemption’ to this one million set of mini-scale traders, who can benefit from the advantages that the law provides them. (Gelir Vergisi Kanunu, 1961, pp. 4–5). Therefore, tradesmen whose status cannot be defined, cannot benefit from the advantages of being registered, recognised and accepted (gib, 1999, p. 1). As seen in Table 2.1, even though a total population of 5.66 billion workingage population is available in the global range, only 3.3 billion of this total population can find employment, and 62% of that is unregistered. The situation is not much brighter in Turkey. The working-age population is 61.7 million, of which only 31 million are seen as employed. According to TUIK data, as 19.5 million are registered, only 28.2 million can work. Working-age population complies with world average, however, while 43.3% of the total world population is working in the world average, only 34.3% of the ‘hardworking’ country people seem to work. About 40.8% of the population do not seem to work together with job seekers. This situation leads to ignore the country’s realities with the concern of producing a statistically positive table. All activities that create value-added of the working population can be measured and taken into account, regardless of their return. It is inevitable to include all kinds of activities that generate social and economic benefits and regardless of type, time or place of the activity generated with dependent or independent with full or part-time classification scales, in the employment data.

LABOUR MARKET ON GLOBAL STREETS The ILO’s report states that global unemployment will remain at last year’s level in 2018, as while the global economy is getting better, and the labour force is growing. According to ILO General Director Guy Ryder, while global unemployment has stabilized, a decent job gap remains widespread. The global economy is still not creating enough employment. Further effort is needed to improve employee work quality and ensure fair share of growth returns. (UN News, 2018)

Table 2.1.  Global Employment and SE. (1000)

World Population

Population Can work (15+) Working Unemployed registered Not working – not included Registered unemployed + Not included Street worker

7.637.740 5.662.773 3.310.465 188.182 2.164.126 2.352,308 2.000.000

Turkey % 74.1 43.3 28.3 30.8 26.2

Population 82.280 61.789 28.249 3.542 29.998 33.540 6.000

% 75.1 34.3 36.5 40.8 7.3

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According to ILO economist Stefan Kühn, unprotected employment is increasing and the rate of decline in working poverty is decreasing. Considering 1.4 billion workers in unprotected jobs in 2017, this means that 35 million people will join them by 2019. In developing countries, unprotected employment affects three of every four workers. The report states that the number of working very poor people will reach 176 million in 2018, that means, 7.2% of all employees. In developing countries, progress in reducing employee poverty is weak in meeting the growth of the labor force. The number of working poor is expected to remain over 114 million in the coming years, affecting 40% of all employees in 2018. (Kühn, 2018, p. 4)

Women’s labour force participation rates are much lower than men and at the same time, they work with lower quality jobs and lower wages than men. In the future, structural changes and aging will increase pressures on the labour market.

LEGAL STATUS OF STREET TRADES The fact that SE is an integral part of modern society and urban life has been understood. What is missing is the legal integration of the SE to the city life by putting an end to keeping SE outside of the law and its illegal position. To restore its legal status is urgent. In this context, in recent years in Turkey, the organisation of self-employed people in the public domain, in TESK as their independent ‘Street Chamber of Craftsmen’ as ‘street tradesmen’ has gained widespread acceptance. It is also stated that there are possibilities of being organised under the name of ‘Street Workers Union’ as ‘public employees’, who work almost like public service, unidentified, but de facto have the public responsibility (Türk Ticaret Kanunu, 2011, p. 6). In addition, organisations such as local associations and cooperatives established by the employees of various sectors of the SE, which have already existed for years, continue to be the representative institutions of the sector. India SE councils such as TVC, SVA 2014 bear similarities with Turkey and has produced unique solutions to similar problems (Ministry of Justice and Legality, 2014, pp. 1–3). In addition, examples of good practice in various countries (Gazette of India, 2014, pp. 2–3) can play a facilitative role in gaining status in Turkey’s SE. The streets have an important place in the maturation of democracy due to the fact that there are free living spaces offered to millions. A legitimate legal order and the state of social law that do not include the streets cannot be expected to mature. Therefore, the activities that generate economic social benefits in the streets should be legalised.

TWO BILLION EMPLOYMENT IN GLOBAL SE According to the data of the World Labor Organization (ILO), despite the billions of dollars of support and incentive packages, the free market economy models provide employment opportunities to only 3.5 billion of the world’s population, which is close to 8 billion in the 150-year sovereignty. The poor and the hungry

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people of the world, who find themselves in the failures and externalities of the market economy, develop solutions to their problems with their own methods and opportunities. Both the ghettos of the world and the low-income people of the cities maintain their lives by utilising the services and products of the new street shopkeepers who grow up with small opportunities and financial supports among themselves to meet their immediate needs. Two billion street shopkeepers, who meet the needs of 5 billion of the world’s population, provide an added value of $100 billion to the daily world economy on the assumption that they earn an average of $50 gross income per day. Two billion street shopkeepers, who are assumed to work 300 days a year, provided 33% of the world’s national income approaching $90 trillion in 2018 and added $30 trillion annually to the world economy (see Table 2.2). While the world’s 250 gigantic retail chains face a turnover of $4.5 trillion, adding new profits to their high profits (Deloitte, 2019, p. 9), the street workers, world’s silent heroes, by contributing to the increase of the purchasing power of the world poor by exhibiting social solidarity, have reached a volume of $30 trillion worldwide.

EMPLOYMENT FUNCTION OF SE IN TURKEY In the SE, which reached a total of 6 million people over the years, however, it is understood that those who create their own employment are not taken into consideration in labour statistics, labour economics and labour market discourse and literature. According to TURKSTAT Reports (Tüik, 2019, pp. 1–2), 29.5 million people, 19.5 million of whom are under Social Security, and 10 million are unregistered, appear to be working. Based on the data collected from the field and TUIK reports, it is clear that hawkers, street vendors, paper collectors and those engaged in similar jobs, especially child workers, are or may not be within this unregistered figure of 10 million. These statements are consistent in itself. Considering 10 million unregistered workers, including a relatively limited number of workers, such as bagel sellers, National Lottery sellers, neighbourhood marketers, who were part or full time registered at the time, it can be said that only 500,000 of the cluster estimated to be 6 million people, or with a more optimistic estimate, 1 million are included in the employers’ cluster provided by TURKSTAT. However, when we take into account the remaining 5 million, which consists of mainly Syrian migrants, but also African or from other countries of Asia, living in our country and working in the streets as peddlers, street vendors registered Table 2.2.  Selected Countries and Global SE. Current Prices – 2018 Turkey Turkey SE United States World World SE

GNP ($) 909 billion 75 billion 21 trillion 90 trillion 30 trillion

Source: Created by Osman Sirkeci from ©IMF, imf.org, 2019.

% 8

33

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or unregistered, it will be seen that we are facing a huge cluster, only 10% of whose is partially registered. These clusters are not numerically included in our employment tables for various reasons (Lagarde, 2019, pp. 4–7). But in a world where Germany even includes workers, who are employed in mini-scale jobs in its employment reports, whether they are secure or insecure, or whether they are registered or unregistered, it is inevitable that these 6 million workers should be evaluated as mini-scale, micro-scale job and employment position holders.

SECTORAL FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF SE Acting on the principle of meeting the customer, supplier and manufacturer under the most favourable conditions with very small scale capitals such as 500 liras, 1,000 liras, zero (0) bureaucracy, reacting very quickly against market fluctuations, without the need of any special consultancy service, any service and infrastructure services, street entrepreneurs, who do not require very high education, arise only with the skill and courage of street entrepreneurship and take advantage of these advantages, fulfil the role of the rescuer and resource of the poor, low-income and middle-income urban population. Street economists, street entrepreneurs, against a gigantic social state apparatus that can only provide employment opportunities for 29.5 million people registered and unregistered, with its huge organisations, huge budgets and investments, by combining the social communication and sharing power of the streets in the smart society denominator without the need of any institution and institutionalism, they create part-time or full-time jobs for 6 million people in the world of poor, which is 20% of total employment in the global streets of limited or scarce resources. At the same time, the collective actors of the SE add 180 billion Turkish liras (TL) annually to the country’s gross national product (GNP), whether or not it is estimated within the GNP. They provide goods and services below the prices to 50 million people, who are outside of 29.5 million employees in TURKSTAT data and who do not have any direct income, and also to people, who are employed, but who have to live only at minimum wages, who cannot reach in boutiques, shopping malls and supermarkets (Table 2.3). Table 2.3.  SE Micron Initiatives – Street Vendors. Turkey General Total and Sectoral Examples SE

1 2 3 4

No/Person organisation

Peddler–Street Vendor et al. Home works Begging Waste and paper collector Other street works

Daily Revenue Annual Revenue (300 days)

Annual Earnings

İnitiative

TL

Billion TL

Billion TL

6.000.000 700.000 100.000 200.000 5.000.000

100 50 50 50 100

180 10.5 1.5 3.0 150

90 8.4 1.2 2.7 75

Source: Compiled by Osman Sirkeci from 1980 to 2018 data on street workers (4 November 2018).

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As a result of the data obtained from the face-to-face interviews and surveys, the results of the other studies and the comparisons with the figures reflected in the media and the groupings made on the lowest, highest and average values, assuming that 6 million people work 300 days a year and earn 100 pounds daily, GNP has reached 180 billion annual turnover. When average of 50% of the various costs are deducted, it is evident that the annual income has reached 90 billion TL. In this respect, street entrepreneurs close the deficits of the state, social state and organised society and complete their deficiencies. They make poverty unbearable. This cluster prevents the deepening of poverty by carrying out the function of delivering goods and services to the low income and the poorest at the lowest cost, at the most affordable price, without causing market changes such as official salary increase and trade income, independent from inflation. With this specificity, they assume an anti-inflationary position and role. They perform a function to reduce the reflection of the unjust burden of indirect taxes, which is one of the most important indicators of the failure to achieve tax justice, especially on the poor- and low-income groups. With their indirect role in the fair distribution of the tax burden, they contribute positively to tax justice. These millions of people who earn their livelihood on the streets also protect the urban inhabitants and nature from the non-social consequences of the current social life, urban life, local government understanding, industrialisation, consumption-indexed, wasteful life habits and activities that harm the environment and nature, almost unconsciously cleans and recycles. It is possible to reach the estimated results about the sector by benefiting from the data obtained from the interviews with recycling employees, sector employees and association representatives, whose numbers and rights are not sufficiently informed. These data indicate that this cluster, which is estimated to be 500,000 in various sources, defines themselves as volunteer environmentalists and is qualified as free street workers, recycles 1.98 million tonnes of waste paper and 330,000 tonnes of pet and plastic for recycling (Table 2.4). Data on paper waste recycling show that approximately 3 million tonnes of waste paper is recycled in Turkey, where there are 6–7 million tonnes of annual paper consumption. In this context, volunteer environmental recycling employees perform a very important task in bringing about 70% of this national value back into the economy. At the same time, they contribute to GNP with an added value of 1.2 billion annually as an important component of the SE. Together with their family members, they generate employment and earnings for tens of thousands of people and generate added value from waste. The wastes in the streets as a waste of natural resources, which are left out of use by the rich-, middle- and upper-class citizens of the cities consciously and unconsciously as part of a waste culture, are converted to added value by Table 2.4.  Share of Recycling Employees in Waste Collection. Paper Recycling (Year/Ton) 3.000.000

Waste Collector (Year/Ton)

Total Share in Recycling (%)

1.980.000

66

Source: Compiled from 2018 TURKSTAT and Sector Employee Data.

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hundreds of thousands of, so-called volunteer environmentalist, recyclers. This enormous externalised resource of raw material is brought back to nature and environment by these voluntary environmentalists who have not received any education or have no information about environmental responsibility, environmental awareness, environmental education and environmental culture.

200 BILLION TL VALUE ADDED FROM STREETS TO NATIONAL ECONOMY The world of the poor and low income, which provides 6 million unemployed, young people and the poor with new jobs on the streets with their own scarce resources, also adds significant added value to the GNP. This 6 million street entrepreneur, such as hawker, bagel seller, balloonist, fortune teller, marketer, violinist, eases the difficult life of the poor against inflation and costly life. It brings low-cost goods and services to the gates of the suburbs. It is frequently mentioned in the surveys and daily media that street workers as SE actors operating in nearly 200 sectors provide an average daily income of 100 TL (turnover, total revenue and revenue). Another aspect of the fact is that the streets are full 365 days a year. Assuming the relatively quiet 52 Sundays as half-days, total income is calculated over 330 working days per year, a street shopkeeper makes a turnover of 33,000 TL per year with a daily gross of 100 TL. When this is calculated on 6 million street shopkeepers, the figure reaches approximately 200 billion TL. Although there are many differences, the fact that street workers do more labour-based or long-hour jobs ensures the cost of the goods sold low. Therefore, profit rates are calculated around 50%.

PROBLEMS IN THE SE SE and actors are despised, scorned and excluded from all urban life. Authenticated education is one of the most important problems of the child workers of the SE. The value of labour in the SE is less than its value in the market economy. The SE lacks all kinds of trust and security. In addition, defining and characterising the activities carried out in public spaces with approaches that do not reflect facts such as unauthorised, unregistered, unlicensed and unqualified, causes uncertainties and chaos in the streets. This chaotic and uncertain environment leads to the formation of the unwritten ethics and law of the street other than legitimate law and the establishment of unlawful organisations fed by this uncertainty. The fact that the local and central administrations cannot implement the legal and administrative arrangements simultaneously in the face of the developments that arise according to the conditions of the millennium and the fact that the streets and public spaces offer their own solutions according to the changing needs accelerate the growth of the problem.

Actors and Functions of Street Economy

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One such example is the serious contradictions and struggles between the smaller scale peddlers and the marketers clustered around the relatively streamlined neighbourhood markets. Another example relates to waste collectors. In the last decade, various changes in the laws on environmental pollution and waste collection were put into effect by the central government in the Republic of Turkey. Before it came into force, it turned out that the laws and regulations in question had been regulated without taking into account the interests and opinions of all stakeholders in the field, and as a result, they were still born because they would not put into effect. As the issue was not analysed correctly, the problem became more enlarged rather than producing solutions. The free market economy has been centralising and reaching mega scales for 150 years, and it is often said that today is the most advanced period of monopoly capitalism. SE with its different components has been perceived as a field of activity that should be deleted from the market in the process besides large-scale production and distribution networks. However, it is understood that the free market economy, which proclaims world sovereignty with its global dimensions, has not been able to cover totality of the world’s population approaching 8 billion, despite the fact that almost all its competitors have been eliminated. The simplest indicator of this is the SE, which includes street activities that are of increasing importance in terms of content, quality and function. At the same time, increasing number of street entrepreneurs, craftsmen and artists preferring the streets, shows that the works carried out in public spaces are becoming widespread.

SPONTANEOUS SOLUTIONS OF SE As the SE was predicted to disappear with the transition to large-scale production and distribution networks, for decades, it was anticipated that the streets would be cleared of peddlers and Street workers by police measures and laws. However, it has been understood in many countries of the world that the streets cannot be cleared of this huge group by police measures for the last 150 years. It is another reality that the global monopoly capitalism the state and the public sector that surrender to the increasingly cumbersome bureaucracy cannot offer the desired solution to the 8 billion world population in either developed or developing countries. In the areas where the public sector and large-scale production and distribution sectors cannot find a solution and where this market is hampered, the districts and areas that contain the middle- and low-income population produce their own solutions with their own limited opportunities. This spontaneous solution, of course, arises with the limited possibilities and resources of both the poor masses who need a solution and the street entrepreneurs who produce this solution. For this reason, it is another aspect of the reality that these self-shaping distribution and small-scale production of goods and services on the streets do not or cannot comply with the health rules and regulations set by law. In particular, the activities related to the production and distribution of goods and services produced on the streets also emerge as the easiest field of entrepreneurship since they do not require intensive costs and also

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registration and bureaucracy which take too much time and effort. This positively enhances the competitiveness of street activities against small-scale activities carried out in accordance with classical legal regulations. These street activities, which can be started very easily without being attached to bureaucracy and other formalities, also emerge as an effective entrepreneurship school. Considering the large number of successful entrepreneurs who grow from the streets, it can be said that street activities also play the role of nurseries of successful entrepreneurship. A unique training programme should be offered to the actors of the SE. Child and women’s labour in the SE must be urgently protected. SE actors should be provided with health and social security. The product and service quality should be improved by the effective integration and social internalisation of the actors of the SE into the city life. SE actors should benefit from specific financial incentives and advisory incentives. SE entrepreneurship should be rewarded and encouraged. Virtual or real chambers, associations and associations of SE should be established. Street entrepreneurs must unite for peace, tranquillity, trust and a liveable world!

NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR SE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS In accordance with the spirit of the new era, local government approaches are among the main stakeholders and interlocutors of all street employees, whether they are immigrants or locals. It is only possible with the responsibility and initiative of local administrations that street entrepreneurs get the status they deserve considering their contribution to the economy, working and sociocultural life. It is an undeniable need to provide physical security opportunities along with the social security of the street. Local social and financial support and incentive programmes for the street workers should be established. Integration with urban life should be ensured by legal arrangements and physical security and education opportunities appropriate for alternative work and life opportunities should be provided urgently. Every positive step in this direction will increase the success of local administrations.

GLOBAL SUGGESTIONS

• The aim of this study is to make this material reality visible, as well as to bring hidden employment figures into the working statistics. • Currently, street entrepreneurs, street artists, street vendors, bagel sellers,

fortune-tellers, etc. are addressed as a result of the prevailing understanding of the streets, by condemning, ignoring, scorning, marginalising and trying to destroy with insufficient power laws and regulations with approaches to clean the streets. However, this phenomenon should be defined on the basis of the role that street entrepreneurs play in urban life, the responsibilities they undertake, the contributions they offer to the city life, the problems they face, solutions to their marginalisation and the optimal benefit of all stakeholders.

Actors and Functions of Street Economy

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• Since where legitimate law cannot be extended, illegitimate law and non-written • • • • •

• • • • •

street law apply, street entrepreneurs should be given legal status appropriate to their situation. Street entrepreneurs, despite their important contributions to urban life, are subjected to intense abuse and are condemned to illegitimate rules of law as a result of this illegality. This abuse is more intense when it comes to women’s labour, child labour and refugee labour. The state of law should also include this cluster, which is a part of the society with its own means and scarce resources on the streets, within the context of their own living conditions, and provide them with the human values they deserve. If in this persistent economic and social crisis, the persecution and oppression of these people, which they undeservedly face, is not ended, the bottom-up democracy can neither encompass the whole society nor encompass the peace and tranquillity we desire in the world and on the streets actualised. The establishment of security and peace in the streets is only possible with the inclusion of these masses who live on the streets into the city life in a social law state. Therefore, with the participation of all policymakers, professional organisations, trade unions, lawyers, academicians, related ministries, the associations or unions of those people who spend their lives in the field or directly themselves, panels should be made where, problems will be expressed, presented and analysed, and solutions will be presented. In these panels, working groups should be formed on the basis of thematic, sectoral or specific problems in the second part of the activity by selecting the priorities of the issues discussed and with all stakeholders in the first session. These working groups should evaluate legal aspects of the case with lawyers, political aspects with politicians, economical aspects with labour economists and lawyers, and in terms of organising with the participation of association presidents, union presidents and international organisations. Results-oriented work should be carried out with other street entrepreneur groups such as food vendors, solid waste collectors and other main actors of the streets. The results of these studies should be considered as solution steps by government representatives, parliamentarians, political parties, trade unions and related ministries. Subsequently, the main actors of the streets should fulfil the decisions taken together with their own associations, institutions and organisations that will support them around the solutions they have developed against the specific problems of their sectors.

GLOBAL RESULTS One of the indirect and important results of these studies and the global vision to be established is that the sustainable global-oriented solution proposals applicable to different countries and sectors in an international level, which are specific

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for Turkey but bearing similarities to other countries, are known by the relevant institutions and organisations and lead the implementation in other countries. In addition, the proposals of implementing ‘Mediterranean Basin Countries Street Economy Congress’ with the initiatives of various institutions in Mersin, ‘Black Sea Basin Countries Street Economy Congress’ in Giresun by Giresun University and with Berlin Turkish German Businessmen Association and GRU – FEAS cooperation ‘Migrant Entrepreneurship and Street Economy’ in Berlin are the most important indicators of the sustainability of the project. The ‘Street Economy and Insecurity Panel and Workshop’ held on 15 February 2019 in Ankara, which continues to be one of the most important issues on the agenda for many months in the national and local media, is another indicator of the problem being an important and crucial issue. In addition, the adoption and establishment of a sector-specific institutional structure under the name of Self Worker Global Union within the ILO is another important global outcome.

REFERENCES Açıkalın, N. (2010). Toplumsal değişim Projesi Olarak Mikro kredi Uygulaması [Micro-Credit Practice as a Social Change Project] (pp. 599–610). İstanbul: TC Başbakanlık. Ağbaba, V. (2019). Güvencesizler ve Sokak Çalışnaları Çalıştay Raporu [Precariat and Street Workers Workshop Report]. Ankara: CHP Emek Büroları. Amit, C., & Rajul, J. (2015). Property rights of street vendors. Centre for Civil Society. Retrieved from www.ccs.in. Accessed on June 15, 2019. Arpacıoğlu, Ö., & Yıldırım, M. (2011). Dünyada ve Türkiye’de Yoksulluğun Analizi [Poverty Analysis in the World and Turkey]. Niğde Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, 4(2), 60–76. Retrieved from http:// dergipark.gov.tr. Accessed on January 21, 2019. Bhowmik, S. K. (2013). Street vendors in the global urban economy. New Delhi: Routledge. Caruana, J. (2018, October 7). The Importance of Street Economy from Malta Perspective. Independent. Retrieved from http://www.independent.com.mt. Accessed on February 15, 2019. Deloitte. (2019). Global Powers of Retailing 2019. London: Deloitte. Retrieved from https://www2. deloitte.com. Accessed on May 10, 2019. Erdendoğdu, F. (2013). Kısa Kapitalizm Tarihi [Short History of Capitalism]. Denizli. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu. Accessed on January 21, 2019. Fırat, S. (2010). Yoksulluğun Azaltılmasında Yerel Yönetim Sosyal Yardım Projelerinin Önemi [The Importance of Local Government Social Assistance Projects in Poverty Alleviation]. In M. Kardaş (Dü.), Uluslararası Yoksullukla Mücadele Stratejileri Sempozyumu [Poverty Alleviation Strategies Symposium] (pp. 159–173). İstanbul: TC Başbakanlık Sosyal Yardım ve Dayanışma Genel Müdürlüğü. Retrieved from https://sosyalyardimlar.aile.gov.tr. Accessed on January 21, 2019. Gazette of India. (2014, May 1). Extraordinary, Part II, Sec. 3(ii). (Prodüktör). Retrieved from http:// legislative.gov.in. Accessed on February 15, 2019. Gelir Vergisi Kanunu. (1961, January 1). Retrieved from http://www.mevzuat.gov.tr. Accessed on March 17, 2019. gib. (1999, January 1). Retrieved from http://www.gib.gov.tr. Accessed on March 16, 2019. Gündoğan, B. (2019, February 15). Sokak Ekonomisi Çalıştayı [Street Economy Workshop]. Retrieved from https://www.aa.com.tr. Accessed on February 16, 2019. İha. (2018, August 10). Retrieved from https://www.iha.com.tr. Accessed on March 10, 2019. Kühn, S. (2018). Dünyada İstihdam ve Sosyal Görünüm: Eğilimler 2018 [Employment and Social Outlook in the World: Trends 2018]. Cenevre: ILO. Retrieved from https://www.ilo.org. Accessed on November 10, 2018. Lagarde, C. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ar/2018/eng/. Accessed on February 20, 2019.

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Little, W. E., Milgram, L. B., & Hansen, K. T. (2013). Street economies in the urban global south. In W. E. Karen Tranberg Hansen (Eds.), School for Advanced Research (pp. 3–16). Santa Fe N.M: SAR Press. Ministry of Justice and Legality. (2014, May 1). The Street Vendors (Projection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014. Accessed on February 12, 2019. Sambur, B. (2011, June 12). Hür Fikirler [Free Ideas]. Retrieved from http://www.hurfikirler.com. Accessed on January 21, 2019. Timesofmalta. (2018, January 21). Retrieved from https://www.timesofmalta.com. Accessed on February 15, 2019. Tüik. (2019). İşgücü İstatistikleri, Kasım 2018 [Labor Force Statistics, November 2018]. Ankara: Tüik. Retrieved from http://www.tuik.gov.tr. Accessed on January 21, 2019. Türk Ticaret Kanunu [Turkish Commercial Code]. (2011, January 13). Retrieved from http://www. ticaretkanunu.net. Accessed on December 21, 2018. UN News. (2018, January 22). Retrieved from https://news.un.org. Accessed on May 15, 2019. wiego. (1997, April 15). Retrieved from http://www.wiego.org. February 15, 2018. William, H., & Neill, M. (1967). Dünya Tarihi [The History of the World] (3b). Ankara: İmge Kitabevi. Yücel, İ. H. (2006). Türkiye’de Bilim Teknoloji Politikaları ve İktisadi Gelişmenin Yönü [Science and Technology Policies and Aspects of Economic Development in Turkey]. Ankara: DPT.

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SUPPLEMENT 1. SE SECTORS Profession Coachman Scrivener Shoe Painting Shoe repair The painter/Painter Fisherman Balloon Seller Barmaid Grinder selling in a bundle Pie Boza Lighter Acrobatics Performance Tea server Core Celep/Cambaz çerçi Flower seller Liver caterer Gin/Sorcery Euphoric Scavenger the destance Beggary Dentist iceman pasty Manici Masseur Manager the Mendilc Midyeci National Piyangocular Mısırcı Muhabet Tellali Muskacılık Cotton/Wool Shooting pazarcılık Pizza seller Rise seller Rukyecilik Dreaming Watchmaking Gun seller Salat seller Şambalı sweet

Meslekler Arabacı Arzuhalci Ayakkabı Boyacılığı Ayakkabı Tamirciliği Badanacı/Boyacı Balıkçı Balonculuk Bar Kadınları Bileyici Bohçacılık Börekçi Bozacı Çakmakçılık Cambazlık Performans Çaycı Çekirdekçi/Çerezci Celep/Cambaz Çerçici Çiçekçilik Ciğerci Cincilik/Büyücülük Efsunculuk Çöpçü Destancı Dilencilik Dişçi Dondurmacı Macuncu Manici Masör Menajer Mendilci Midyeci Milli Piyangocular Mısırcı Muhabet Tellalı Muskacılık Pamuk/Yün Atıcılık Pazarcılık Pideci Pilavcı Rukyecilik Rüya Tabirciliği Saatçilik Sakızcı Salatacı Şambalici

Profession Baker Essential dealer junk Prostitution Fortune telling Photographer Crispian/Bretzel seller Invisible Entrepreneurs Hijamat Kupacı Leecher Hallacar Hambali Junkman peddle Paper Scrapper Tinsmith the Cassette Ceramic maker Chestnut Bookselling Osteopath/masseur Köfteci the Kokoroçc Hostess Peasant the Kumpirc Blatter tige Sandwich shop Sorbet seller Silent Trade Street Vendor Magic Bretzel seller Street Musician Street Painter Street Arts Water seller Circumciser Table seller Weigher Chicken seller Bandana Seller Toast seller Salamur seller Web designers Circumciser Table seller

Meslekler Ekmekçi Esasnsçılık Eskici Fahişelik Falcılık Fotoğrafçı Gevrekçi/Simitçi Görünmez Girişimciler Hacamatçı Kupacı Sülükçü Hallaç Hambal Hurdacı İşportacılık Kağıt Hurdacı Kalaycı Kasetçilik Keramikçi Kestaneci Kitapçılık Kırıkçı/Çıkıkçı Köfteci Kokoroçci Konsomatris Köylü Kumpirci Lahmacunculuk Sandviçci Şerbetçi Sessiz Ticaret Seyyar Satıcılık Sihirbazlık Simitçilik Sokak Müzisyeni Sokak Ressamı Sokak Sanatçılığı Sucu Sünnetçi Tablacılık Tartıcı Tavukçu Tokacı/Bandanacı Tostçu Turşucu Web tasarımcılar Sünnetçi Tablacılık

CHAPTER 3 CORE ECONOMY AND STREETS Halim Kasim

ABSTRACT Core economy is defined as the economic activity, which is mostly underestimated as the non-market economy. As a result of certain concurrent studies, it is however estimated to be 25% of the economy of the USA with 1.91 trillion USD for the year 1998, which can’t be measured directly in spite of generating direct benefits. District bazaars and marketplaces and the street economy, an intersection point of the ones tired of suppression and tyranny of the Landowners and Sheikhdom, snowed under the sectarian conflicts, the ones feeling outcasted from the society, who would like to enjoy the benefits of modern life, the ones without the sufficient capital to establish a business or a regular business, the ones who would like to contribute to their families, the ones who are outside and excluded from the professional life; some of the ones are thugs and ramblers and lumpen, and the ones with no jobs and got nothing as defined as ‘Bosiacs’ by Maxim Gorki. Keywords: Capitalism exogeneities; modern marketplaces and bazaars; street economy; district marketplaces and bazaars; bourgeoisie; core economy; oeconomica

INTRODUCTION The major attribute that is salient and prominent in the history of mankind is the fact that many fundamental economic, societal and ideological organizations are based on way beyond their history, most of them on the period of transition to civilized society and a certain part on the darkness of the periods of primitive societies that are even further back in the history. (Şenel, 1982, p. 2)

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CORE ECONOMY We can refer to market as a despicable economy. Neighbourhood relations, social trust and confidence ensured by friendship and amicable relations, elderly care, children care, moral support, the entire endeavours with the purpose of  contributing to one’s life and the lives of the relatives and the endeavours and works supporting domestic economy are all included within this context. In short, home, family, districts and neighbourhoods comprised the neighbours, societies, communities and civil society, social domains and the economical endeavours for the purpose of satisfaction of the natural requirements of the household that constitute this domain.

STREET ECONOMY AND DISTRICT BAZAARS AND MARKETPLACES Street economy and district bazaars and marketplaces are the main domains of the core economy. They define the entire economic activities and operations that are executed and performed in the public spaces and public areas. Generally, those activities are executed and performed on streets, avenues, pavements, street ­corners and squares. Those activities can also be performed on indoors such as fortune telling. It may and can further be legal or illegal such as gambler-like character performing three-card shuffle. Some street vendors seek for customers for the manufactured products; anticipate acclaimed reward by performing talents; and even sell the product manufactured by the producer or may release the consumer surplus products into the economical circulation, for example cold-water vendor during summer or umbrella vendor during rainy days. This might be an endeavour to sell on a barter deal to fulfil requirements or might be an extensive-scale commercial activity or operation. The purpose of some street vendors is to save the day while that of others is to be a result of a more comprehensive and extensive endeavour. District bazaars or marketplaces have more functional characteristics among others within the scope of the street economy in terms of economic magnitude and scale, regularity and domains producing social relations and affairs. There are many direct producers available in the market. Street vendors continue to be more concentrated in district bazaars or marketplaces because their aim is to generate income for their household. In these activities, traditions, customs and precedent practices spring to life from the past to the present. These are performed by reconciling with their inner worlds by adapting them to the actual conditions of the present day. These are implemented and practiced and further defended not as a result of conscious effort, but as a spontaneous pre-acceptance and recognition.

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CORE ECONOMY AND STREETS FROM PAST TO PRESENT: WE HAVE LEARNED SOLIDARITY BY DIVISION OF LABOUR Mankind was in the hunting phase when the Ice Age began to end. Previously developed tools that were used as means of defense were then used as means of hunting. However, women’s gathering and child bringing up were the first division of labour during which men became competent and skilled in the process of hunting. The seeds of merchandising and bartering were sown. One form of inter-communal merchandising and exchanging during expert hunting period is that, especially upon the emergence of tools making tools, certain tools made of stone were discovered to be sold at locations that are way too far from the quarries or places in where they were made. (Şenel, 1982, p. 74; Childe, 2018, p. 63)

Division of labour led to a major advancement and improvement. Cooperation was further improved and developed among men on mutual defense and hunting. Women became competent in child care with the development of gathering process. Seeds of household or domestic economy and certain crafts were sown. In this period, natural conditions were very determinant; together with the Ice Age, extraordinary environmental conditions have also faced changes and alterations. Former expert hunter communities were not the ones keeping the pace with the change and laying the foundations of the new producer era. Because they have become too specialized in hunting. Specializing is some sort of ossification, therefore, fails to yield flexibility and accordance under the changing and altering conditions. Hunter and gatherer communities that were able to adapt themselves to these changes successfully transitioned to production economy, but the ones that failed to adapt themselves were not able to. (Şenel, 1982, p. 83)

WE HAVE LEARNED MERCHANDISING BY BARTERING GOODS Competence and maturation resulting from the division of labour ensured the acquisition of surplus products that were bartered with the surplus products of other communities. Precious mines and money that mediated the process of bartering led to the increase in merchandising. Settled civilisations were established and founded around the cities and towns. Trading and artisanship were improved and developed. Also, merchandising was accelerated by means of the established marketplaces and bazaars. It has cut across all boundaries accordingly. Then, it was terminated with the trade in human beings. Primarily wars and later the debts led to the enslavement of mankind. Then, civilisations and slaver states were established by the slavery and the slave markets. Division of labour had transformed into a tool or means for certain people to enslave others just like how the defense means had transformed into tools of offence. Merchandising of goods were started to be performed along with the trade of people.

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Slavery was started for the very first time by the Sumerians (the cradle of civilisations). Slaves had no legal rights and were freely merchandised and traded at marketplaces. Slavery and the slave trade were born and existed in the Sumerian–Akkadian– Babylonian–Assyrian–Egyptian–Hittite Civilisations and in the Indian and Chinese Civilisations. The slaves with deteriorating conditions until the era of Hittites had begun to be entitled to certain legal rights. The slaves of the governors or aristocracy and soldiers had became distinctive among the others. The slave trade was one of the most important elements of economic activity. In Ancient Greece, slaves could work as workers and masters in the fields of farming, housework, clerkship, agriculture, animal husbandry, medicine, art, and so on. ‘The public order and the security of Athens was ensured by 1,200 slaves’ (Bozkurt, 1981, p. 88).

FROM SLAVER STATES TO SLAVER EMPIRES In domestic politics, the slaver states had followed and implemented the same policy. They fought to make their own similar structures and to dominate over others. The victorious ones in the wars dominated others accordingly. Empires were established on the basis of enslaved people as well as on the nations. The enslaved nations and folks were then joined to the slaves. The slave trade and bargain were the main factors of the established marketplaces. Markets were established at regular intervals. The slavery order and structure of the Roman Empire had sustained its existence based on legal grounds. The slave trade was also performed based on these legal grounds. The marketplaces that were established in Ancient Greece and Rome have became the main locations of slave trade along with the merchandising of goods.

ARISTOTLE AND OECONOMICA The observations and opinions of Aristotle on the Economy were the witnesses of the slaver state. Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle has endeavoured to justify the slavery by stating, ‘certain people have only minor intelligence just enough to let them be administered and controlled by the intelligence of others’. Thomas Hobbes and Hugo Grotius have confronted Aristotle in terms of intellectual and ideational reckoning. Our main point of interest is their opinions and views on the economy. The slavery system was a substantial source for important philosophers, and the works of art in addition to the structure thereof damaging the dignity of the mankind. These works and philosophers are the common properties of today’s humanity. Aristotle and Oeconomica are among these works. The Oeconomica was translated into Latin by Cicero in the Roman Republic after nearly two centuries. The works of art gained popularity during the Renaissance Period.

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Certain opinions and conceptions defended in Oeconomica are capable of standing the test of time in today’s time. Some of them are as follows. Economy consists of two main factors. First, household economy, namely the core economy and the second, economic activities, which is the beginning and essential of the economy. The natural and daily activities of maintaining the household are the principle of the core economy. Making money out of money accumulates wealth, however, does not produce any value. Such a wealth accumulation drives mankind apart from values. Second, there should be direct sales between the producer and the consumer. Those c­ onceptions are also the basic grounds of defenders of the core economy.

FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHARACTER OF THE DISTRICT BAZAARS, MARKETPLACES AND STREET ECONOMY The street bazaars and marketplaces, just like other entire social elements, incorporate the synthesis of the past and the present at the heart. The most basic feature thereof is its mediation role in bartering process. Sometimes, it is a direct exchange tool for the product. It is also an indirect activity as a commercial activity after the effective use of money. There are certain serious opinions and thoughts that the bartering process starts with the hunting and gathering communities. For the character analysis of today’s marketplace and street economy, it is quite beneficial to set forth by the times with more accurate and precise data. The district marketplaces and bazaars, which the bourgeoisie emerging right from the heart of the feudal communities consisting of the source, are among the main factors in today’s market tradition and customs. On the one hand, the producer and the consumer are able to come together. On the other hand, sections of the society that are left out of economic life find a way out through. Two distinct market structures attract attention when we ­consider the recent time period of the past.

MARKETPLACE AS THE FACTOR OF THE FEUDAL TOWN Markets are the indispensable factors of the town. It is one of the basic elements for defining a place as a town. In the feudal towns, generally supervised bartering or merchandising of non-agricultural and agricultural products within the guild system takes place. Fair markets are more effective in feudal cities. However, it would be quite accurate to say that fairs were the pioneers of trade fairs rather than markets of today’s time. Mediation for the international trading and providing services to major tradespeople are essential. These street fairs were given a religious character and quality by being established on birthdays of the Saints.

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Max Weber has also stated that the marketplaces or bazaars are the distinctive and characteristic of the towns. He further defines the town as: a dwelling unit in where the habitants or settlers thereof produce non-agricultural good, commodities and services subject to division of labor and merchandise those for their immediate circles or for a wider environment. (a)  Settlers and inhabitants living in towns are capable of ensuring their own security. (b)  Certain institutions and organisations are developed based on partial a­ utonomy to be capable of administering and governing themselves, and thus, this leads to the construction and establishment of city walls, r­ amparts, marketplaces, administration and governance buildings and general ­gathering areas as the distinguishing and distinctive venues and locations within the town. (Ergenç, 2013, p. 7)

TOWNS AND MARKETPLACES IN THE OTTOMANS The layout is organised in accordance with the triangle of mosque, marketplace and Hamams (Turkish Baths). In certain places, Imarets (Poorhouses-Alms Houses) have become prominent. The centrum or the town centre is named as Sehristan. The marketplaces, bazaars and the districts’ quarters are located in the direction of the town gates, far from the towns. The Ottomans define the towns and boroughs as location with ‘Friday prayers are performed and the marketplace exists’. According to the Ottoman Law, if inns, taverns, hamams (Turkish Bath), covered bazaars and caravanserais are built, then that location is considered as a town, borough. As non-agricultural p ­roduction is performed, land within the boundaries of towns and boroughs are not considered as ‘demesne’ (Ergenç, 2013 pp. 94–95). The conditions of the marketplace economy are weak. The prices and profit margins are determined and set as official fixed prices.

ESTABLISHMENT OF BOURGEOIS MARKETPLACE AND TOWNS Coşkun Üçok in his book Outlook on the Historical Development of German Law (1950) states that in the XV century, a state based on castes has replaced the previous one based on land. In this state, both prince and the castes secure their benefits and interests, and seldom if ever, they were able to build consensus for the resolution of certain issues. Autonomous towns were started to be established along with the autonomous princedoms and principalities. Those have left the marketplaces and moved to the plazas. When a market place was fortified and a court was established, that place was now considered a town. The Bey (prince-like governor) who established and erected the town previously was entitled to the rights to fortify the town, establish marketplaces and judge. Minor tradespeople and craftspeople were against the bey of the town. Those would participate and attend the

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administration and governance by means of the meetings of townspeople and town council with the mayor. The substantial ones of the rights granted to the town bey were transferred to the municipality and local governments in due time and the town has become a community based on the principle of equality of the townspeople. Townspeople were no longer under the rule of the town bey and each and every newcomer to of the town was able to benefit from the rights. When a landowner settled in a city, his former lord could no longer take him back after six weeks and three days. Towns were based on a new economic system: the basis of this system was money. (Üçok, 1950, pp. 304–305)

CORE ECONOMY, STREET ECONOMY AND DISTRICT BAZAARS AND MARKETPLACES IN TODAY’S TIME Core economy is defined as the economic activity, which is mostly underestimated as the non-market economy. However, as a result of certain concurrent studies, it is estimated to be 25% of the economy of the USA with 1.91 trillion USD for the year 1998; in spite of generating direct benefits, it can’t be directly measured (Stephens, Ryan, & Boyle, 2008). District bazaars and marketplaces and the street economy, an intersection point of the ones tired of suppression and tyranny of the Landowners and Sheikhdom, snowed under the sectarian conflicts, the ones feeling outcasted from the society, who would like to enjoy the benefits of modern life, the ones without the sufficient capital to establish a business or a regular business, the ones would like to contribute to their families, the ones who are outside and excluded from the professional life; some of the ones are thugs and ramblers and lumpen, and the ones with no jobs and got nothing as defined as Bosiacs by Maxim Gorki.

LIFE GOES ON BUT THERE ARE STILL SOME ISSUES If love, empathy, responsibility, care, helping each other, education and training are main humane values, then do where these values come to life? In economic domain that we name as marketing?

• At home, family, or districts and neighbourhoods established by neighbours? • Or are the experiences, energy, knowledge, time, wisdom and skills of mankind going to be wasted? • Are they going to be incorporated in the mutual treasure of the mankind? • Is it really feasible to establish the network of civil society without these ­values? • Can it be said that a mood that everything purchased by money is a good state? The danger stated by Aristotle ‘Dehumanization’, ‘the accumulation of money itself is an unnatural activity that dehumanizes those who practice it’ (Aristotle, 1920) processes beg for solution as a hot topic and agenda.

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CONCLUSION Street Economy and District Bazaars and Marketplaces Street economy and district bazaars and marketplaces moderated and paved the road to the Capitalist System of the contemporary era. Serfs that got rid of their chains partially or entirely had influence on the creation and formation of the initiatives of the apprentices and assistant foremen which could break away and be released from the guilds. Furthermore, they provided the basis for the development and establishment of the distinct and exclusive districts within the feudal towns and distinct and exclusive towns. In modern times, the bourgeoisie excludes the district bazaars and marketplaces and the street economy that paved the road for its development, justifying Ibn Khaldun. Barbarians have become settlers on the location they invade. After some time, they endeavor to protect what they acquired. However, there are new ones approaching their place to replace them. Now the ones that arrive start to call them Barbarians. (Khaldun, April 1977)

The components of the core economy create values on a daily basis for the training of the vital requirements of millions of children. Also uninterruptedly, the cognisance that evaluates everything by material values is silent regarding this issue. The futurist Alvin Toffler has said to the CEOs of the Fortune 500 Corporations: ‘If your employees have lacked toilet training, how would you perform manufacturing? Have you ever thought of that?’, now this question is quite meaningful in this regard (Stephens et al., 2008). Now, let’s hear what the German economist and philosopher F. List says regarding the same matter: Someone who raises pigs is regarded as productive based on the Classical Ecole. Someone who educates people is a non-productive member of the society. Newton or Watt is not more ­productive than a horse or another animal used for plowing. 79 Hülya DERYA Doctoral ­dissertation – SCHOOL OF GERMAN HISTORIAN, Ankara 2014 And

Excluding and isolating those people who produce life values and experiences by slogging their guts out to sustain their lives do not yield accurate outcomes. It is required to listen, understand and appreciate them. Maintaining human values is only feasible by expanding and growing core economic areas. The beginning of the end for the Feudal Beys (Governors) started on the day when they said to their serfs to take care and save themselves and then it was ended. They reserved their place embedded in the depths of the history. The ones that do not want to see the very same ending, are required to review their responsibilities.

REFERENCES Aristotle, P. (1920). In E. S. Forster (Ed. & Trans.), Oeconomica. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Childe, V. G. (2018). Tarihte Neler Oldu, (trans. A. Şenel), İstanbul: Kırmızı Yay. Derya, H. (2014). German Historian School (unpublished doctoral thesis). Ankara: T.C.Gazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Iktisat Anabilimdali.

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Bozkurt, G. (1981). Eski hukuk sistemlerinde kölelik [Slavery in old legal systems]. Journal of Ankara University Faculty of Law, 38(1), 65–103. Ergenç, Ö. (2013, Kasım). Some thoughts about city history research. In D. Önder (Ed.), Şehir, toplum, devlet-osmanli tarihi yazilari [City, society, state-ottoman historical writings] (1st ed.) (pp. 6–24). Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yayınlan. Haldun, İ. (1977, Nisan). T. Dursun (Trans.), Mukaddime [Muqaddimah] (1st ed., Vol. 1). Ankara: Onur. Kalaycı, H. (2010, Nisan). Ulus-Devletin Başağrısı-Ayrılıkçılık (1st ed.). Ankara: Liberte Yayınları. Stephens, L., Ryan, J., & Boyle, D. (2008). In M. Murphy (Ed.), Co-production a manifesto for growing the core economy. London: NEF – New Economics Foundation. Şenel, A. (1982). İlkei Topluluktan Uygar Topluma. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Yayınları. Üçok, C. (1950). Alman Hukukunun Tarihi Gelişmesine Bir Bakış [Outlook on the Historical Development of German Law]. Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesİ Dergisi, 7(1), 292–321.

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CHAPTER 4 STREET ECONOMY FROM ECONOMIC, POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Shahnaz Rafique

ABSTRACT Street economy encouraging self-sufficiency at the local, village and district levels could be considered as a viable alternative to the neoliberal model of globalisation of social production and services. In a way street economy resembles pre-industrial agrarian economic institutions being centres of local production/manufacturing and marketing with very less cash inputs, mostly based on exchange of goods. Labour intensive tasks like creating infrastructure for water harvesting, drought relief and flood control are preferred. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Act 2011 is a great success with all its limitations and drawbacks as it has prevented internal migration during off-season of agricultural work and providing succour to families in the villages. Street Vendors Act 2014 is another landmark legislation aimed at providing social security and livelihood rights to street vendors, has its origins in the street vendors’ policy introduced in 2004, which was later revised as National Policy on Urban Street Vendors 2009. Keywords: Alternative models; street economy; self-sufficiency; Vendors Act; small farmers; migration

The boom in billionaires’ wealth globally and nationally is not a reflection of a thriving economy but a manifestation of failing economic system. Four decades of neoliberalism made the world more unequal and its consequence being the Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 39–44 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103004

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1% of the population appropriating 82% of the wealth generated during the year 2017. In India, the top 1% garnered 73% of the wealth generated during the year 2017, whereas 670 million Indians comprising the poorest half of the population saw their wealth rise by just 1% during the same year. Revolutionary strides in information and communication technologies, innovations in artificial intelligence and robotics, machine learning and deep learning, smart manufacturing and growing deployment of humanoids and Industry 4.0 are leading to the spectre of unemployment. Climate change and ecological concerns have taken a backseat due to the retrograde and ultra-conservative attitude of some of the industrialised countries, though the developing countries have put forward proposals and action plans to save the planet from ecological disaster. Further corporates in their greed for profits over people and monopoly/dominance/scramble for raw materials, energy sources, markets and cheap labour are damaging nature and biodiversity; uprooting indigenous people and communities; negating time-tested traditional knowledge and sustainable ways of life; and destroying cultures and livelihoods.

NEED FOR ALTERNATE SUSTAINABLE MODELS The present mode of social production is increasingly becoming unsustainable from economic, political, social and ecological perspectives. Concerned citizens, social activists, committed intellectuals and motivated policymakers are making efforts to find alternative models of development that promote just, equitable and ecologically sustainable societies. Though global capitalism has been innovative and came up with solutions to tide over the crisis time and again, but it is an undeniable fact that it could do only with the unflinching support and backing of the nation states and at the cost of taxpayer’s money. During the boom periods profits appropriated and during the crisis periods losses nationalised! Increasingly people are realising the bankruptcy of the system and looking for alternatives which are people centric.

STREET ECONOMY Street economy encouraging self-sufficiency at the local, village and district levels could be considered as a viable alternative to the neoliberal model of globalisation of social production and services. In a way street economy resembles pre-industrial agrarian economic institutions being centres of local production/manufacturing and marketing with very less cash inputs, mostly based on exchange of goods. Now with phenomenal growth of global finance with easily accessible instruments leading to cashless digital economy, the street economy holds relevance, but the dynamics need adaptation to the prevailing conditions.

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THE INDIAN CONTEXT In the year 1991, the Indian state unleashed economic reforms popularly known as Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation as part of the global trend to pursue neoliberal agenda. The government was conscious about the consequences of such paradigm shift from the path of mixed economy, therefore, brought an enactment titled National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (NREGA). NREGA 2005 – MGNERGA 2011: Livelihood Security through Right to Work The Act aims to enhance livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. The Act was first proposed in the year 1991 but finally accepted in the Parliament in the year 2006 and commenced its implementation in 625 districts of India. It was extended to an additional 130 districts with effect from 01 April 2007. Later the remaining 285 districts were covered from 01 April 2008. The National Rural Employment Guarantee (Amendment) Act 2009 (NREGA) was renamed as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Act 2011 (MGNREGA) on 16 August 2011. Apart from providing economic security and creating rural assets, MGNREGA did contribute in protecting the environment, empowering rural women, reducing rural–urban migration and fostering social equity, among others. MGNREGA is to be implemented mainly by grama panchayats and the involvement of contractors is banned. Labour intensive tasks like creating infrastructure for water harvesting, drought relief and flood control are preferred. The MGNREGA is a great success with all its limitations and drawbacks as it has prevented internal migration during off-season of agricultural work and providing succour to families in the villages. Street Vendors Act 2014: Street Vending Source of Livelihood Street Vendors Act 2014 is another landmark legislation aimed at providing social security and livelihood rights to street vendors, has its origins in the street vendors’ policy introduced in 2004, which was later revised as National Policy on Urban Street Vendors 2009. In the same year, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation circulated a draft bill titled Modern Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Bill 2009. As the bill had no binding upon the States and Union Territories, very little progress was made in his regard. In the year 2010, the Hon’ble Supreme Court recognised street vending as a source of livelihood and directed the Ministry to work out on a central legislation, and a draft of same was made public on 11 November 2011. The salient features of the bill were: protection of legitimate street vendors from harassment by police and civic authorities; demarcation of ‘vending zones’ on the basis of ‘traditional natural markets’; proper representation of vendors and women in

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decision-making bodies; and establish effective grievance redressal and dispute resolution mechanism. The bill was drafted with the help of National Advisory Council and after two years of negotiation the bill was passed with some changes and enacted by the Parliament of India on 4 March 2014. Policy initiatives, such as MGNREGA and Street Vendors Act, enacted by national government against stiff resistance from vested lobbies to protect and safeguard the marginalised people is a small step in the right direction. Growing Informalisation: Circles within Circles Since 1991, informalisation is growing at a phenomenal pace; even within the formal sectors, informalisation is taking place. Industrial activity like mining or processing, production or manufacturing and other services from both Indian and multinational corporates are able to successfully decentralise processes with the help of information and communication technologies, management practices, investment and marketing strategies. For instance, the big mills have given way to small producers and almost all operations outsourced to petty contractors and home-based workers. Except for few operations done by machines essential for brand identity most of the manufacturing is outsourced sometimes under the same roof. As much of it is semiskilled or involving little skills, steady army of migrant workers is kept all the time through hostels or indentured labour available in the vicinity to meet the demands of the market. The employment conditions of these workers is either contractual or piece rated without invoking any of the provisions of the labour legislation. Job security, statutory minimum wages, accident insurance, occupational health and safety and statutory compliance of leaves and holidays, etc., are followed more in breach than in compliance. Informal working and service conditions catering global and national brands! It is strange but true, there is little difference between workers of the street economy and home-based workers as part of the global supply chains of these global corporations! Well-organised supply chains but informal working relations progressively diminish incomes and in some cases lead to starvation wages.

MANUFACTURING Even today 80–85% of manufacturing in India is done by medium, small and micro (MSMEs) enterprises with minimal support from the governments/state. According to one estimate, the share of informal economy in the developing countries is upto70%. These units can be part of a larger global supply chain created by giant global corporation or family owned units producing for the street economy. Manufacturing in MSME’s is the same, the only difference being quality regulation in case of corporates, whereas, of the local market the quality meets affordability. The working and living conditions for the workers is the same whether they work for the corporates or family owned businesses. Household products like utensils, furniture, tools, equipment, leather goods, garments, detergents, health products, etc., are produced and manufactured for

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these local markets. Street economy is the backbone of India and many other developing countries. Interestingly cheap goods, especially electronic, electrical, plastic, products, etc., from China made a dent into these local markets. Traders find these Chinese goods have greater profit margins than local products as such this competition exists at the local level.

FARM PRODUCTS Small farmers are the backbone of India’s agriculture, in spite of continuing agrarian crisis they contribute for local markets making available farm products at cheaper rates for sustenance of vast majority of India’s population. Wellorganised systems for production, distribution and marketing of farm products through daily or weekly markets, are very popular throughout the country, even in large metropolitan cities. Production of vegetables, fruits, dairy products, etc., is done locally catering to the needs of the local communities. These markets are successfully competing with the big megastores without support from the governments. These farm products are seasonal, healthy and cost effective. Of late, indiscriminate usage of pesticides, insecticides and chemicals for higher yields are a growing concern, nevertheless, vast majority of the population survives on these products. Weekly markets selling these products are very popular even in large metropolitan cities. Cash transactions is the hallmark of this business, slowly plastic currency is making a head way.

FOOD INDUSTRY Street food industry an urban phenomenon is constantly innovating to meet the growing demands of urban population. Mobility and availability is the strength of this industry. It is remarkable that food is made available very early as well as very late in the day to meet the demands of the working people. Though hygiene and quality is under question, nevertheless, affordability is the guiding principle as vast majority of the consumers are low-paid. It is no surprise that at the IT industrial parks food vendors are selling the food at midnight and very early hours of the day. Food is transported on bicycles, motorbikes, cars and vans, etc., in many ingenious and innovative ways. This is a fast-growing industry and the vendors are constantly improvising to meet the growing demands. It is the great achievement of this industry that nobody goes hungry at any time of the day provided they have money in their pockets!

MIGRATION Migration both internally and globally is growing either in search of livelihoods or for survival from discrimination. Global capitalism in search of raw materials, energy sources, markets and cheap labour has made it violent and discriminatory. Though migration is as old as civilization, except for natural disasters migration

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never happened on such vast magnitude. Needless to mention, women, old and children are the worst victims of migration. Migration within India is occurring on a large scale in search of livelihoods and agrarian crisis. However, legislation such as MGNREGA has contributed significantly to reduce migration during off-season in the rural areas. Policies to provide employment opportunities locally and nationally could be a strong deterrent to prevent migration. Migration at the high end of the skills ladder is welcome but migration to escape poverty or fear is a matter of global concern. BREXIT, Donald Trump’s Nationalism, growing xenophobia and ultranationalist tendencies among the industrialised countries, intolerance on the basis of language and religion and job opportunities in India are a natural consequence of the neoliberal policies pursued in the last four decades. Global capitalism has failed as a social system to provide a just and equitable society for all people to live in peace and harmony.

WAY FORWARD Street economy could be a relevant alternate model, provided it can address the challenges of technology and multinational capital. This model has some preindustrial traits, tenets of green movements and egalitarian economics as such needs popular support and strong policy initiatives for successful implementation and sustainability.

CHAPTER 5 TOWARDS AN INTEGRATION OF THE STREETS AND THEIR INHABITANTS Kamuran Elbeyoğlu

ABSTRACT The integration of the urban people to the city is on the one hand the integration of the physical and natural structure of the city with human element, and on the other hand, integration of urban people with each other by acquiring urban culture. City streets are mostly inhabited by street residents, which include street vendors, who sell products changing from food to textile, arts and crafts or music in an affordable price to city dwellers, and also people who, for economical, psychological or sociological reasons, live in the streets such as beggars and homeless people. If the spirit of a city can exist within the common production and living space of the people who make that city, then it means that the cities lose their souls to exclude those who choose to live on the streets or those who earns their living on the street. If no one can exist without the other, then the existence of the mainstream labour market of the city would only be possible by accepting street residents, whether the ones who choose to live in the streets or earns a living in the streets, who it has marginalised by ignoring and pushing outside the orthodox norms of the city life. Keywords: Street residents; city dwellers; modernism; urbanisation; otherness; prejudices

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INTRODUCTION In the history of humankind, modern era constitutes one of the important milestones. In the first and middle ages, the individuals entwined together with nature in the rural areas. In the modern age, they began to settle in cities by leaving the land, animals and rural areas. This phenomenon of urbanisation brings the fact that the individual recognises him/herself as an individual by distinguishing him/ herself from the others, from the society in which he/she lives, in other words, that the notion of the othering. The philosophical foundations of the concept of other are based on the subject–object distinction, which begins with Descartes and is the hallmark of the modern philosophy tradition. Harvie Ferguson in his study Modernity and Subjectivity, on the impact of Cartesian meditations on modernism, argues that modern autonomy, which manifests itself in the context of subject– object distinction, stems from the method of Cartesian methodical doubt. Descartes’ doubt, according to Ferguson, means that the subject who carries out the unceasingly act of doubt is constantly aware of him/herself (self-awareness). The subject–object distinction occurs exactly in this subjective consciousness’ act of doubt (Ferguson, 2000, pp. 18–19). The philosophy of Descartes, since Heidegger, has been conceived as, through technical transformation, the subject’s domination of the object in modern sense, the reduction of the object to the subject matter of its design and the architect of bringing the object to the status of the Other. Modernity, which expresses economic, social and political change that started in Europe with Enlightenment, is therefore a paradigm based on the subject–object distinction. According to Giddens (1991), modernity can be defined by four main institutions. The first of these is capitalism. As a product of capitalism, the instrumental reason operates according to cost–benefit analysis and with a pragmatist point of view and considers everything withs its end value, including human beings. The second important concept is industrialisation. The main objective of industrialisation, based on instrumental reason, is the transformation of nature; for this, it also prioritises the use of machines for the production of goods. The third important concept is surveillance. Surveillance is multidimensional and primarily means the control of the activities of the communities in the political and social spheres. As the last institutional dimension of modernity, military power refers to the control of the means of war and the industrialisation of war. In this four-dimension axis, a dramatic social change has occurred with modernism, and industrialised, urbanised nation-states have emerged in many parts of the world starting from Europe. ‘Nation states are generally formed at the cost of assimilated, oppressed, marginalized “lower people”’ (Habermas, 2004, p. 50). Hence, living in a modern society, within modernity, means living in rationality, which is an area of application of instrumental reason to find the most appropriate means for a certain purpose, to control nature and society. The foundations of rational thinking stems from the notion of synthesis, suggested by Kant (1781/1999) in Critique of Pure Reason. This notion of synthesis bears to the fact that how we develop theories, which establish coherent and explanatory ties between facts are no longer given by cosmos or a divine power, but which need to

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be brought from outside by humans. Thus, the experimental method of modern science has brought industrial production within the rationalisation of production. Together with these transformations, while capitalism is organised in order to achieve profit in a calculated, systematic manner, law is organised to represent the social organisation of justice (Bilton et al., 2009). The pressure of the global economy and the world market created by capitalism affect the state organisations and how people are positioned in this state order.

MODERNISM AND URBANISATION Living in modernity means being in a modern society, being exposed to rational ways of thinking and rationally organised social organisation. As Henri Saint Simon says: ‘The Golden Age of the human race is not before us but in front of us; this age lies in the perfection of social order’ (in Kumar, 1978, p. 13). The perfection of the social order, that is, its organisation in a rational order has made the private space–public sphere distinction in the modern societies clear. Urbanisation, as a perfect example of this, has thus emerged as a vital dimension of the formation of modern societies. Undoubtedly, there were cities in Antiquities and Middle Ages, although they developed in pre-industrial and pre-capitalist order in a different way from today’s big cities: ‘but the rise of cities in the modern age is not independent of the emergence of modern machine technology, large-scale production and capitalist enterprise’ (Wirth, 2002, p. 78). As L. Wirth (2002) correctly stated in his ground-breaking article ‘Urbanism as a Way of Life’ in the field of urban sociology, ‘the degree of urbanization that can be used for the modern world’, cannot be measured with the proportion of the total population living in cities. The effects of cities on social life or on people are greater than the effect of proportion of urban population. The city is not only a place that offers a greater proportion of work and settlement opportunities to modern people, at the same time, it is a centre attracting the most distant places of the world, shaping different regions, people and events in an order, a pioneer and an inspector of economic, political and cultural life’ (Wirth, 2002, p. 80). Wirth (2002) states that defining cities only on the basis of physical structuring means ignoring the fact that cities are a social phenomenon rather than a material fact: we cannot develop an appropriate concept for urbanization as a way of life as long as we think that urbanization is defined by the physical existence of the city, it is strictly limited to space, and urban attitudes could suddenly be cut off in places where arbitrary legal limits are over. (p. 81)

What makes the city a city is not only sidewalks, roads, apartment buildings, skyscrapers, but also a combination of people with different ethnic, religious, socio-cultural and socio-economic characteristics living together in that city. The integration of the urban people to the city is on the one hand the integration of the physical and natural structure of the city with human element, and on the other hand, integration of urban people with each other by acquiring urban culture. The integration of people with the city they live in and the city people is

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an important point in terms of protecting and developing cities and ensuring the continuity of urban life. As Malik (1998) has aptly stated: the loss of the individual’s feeling of belonging and having roots in the city, the disappearance of local arts and crafts, and finally the loss of neighbourhood and trust. For this reason, people are looking for solutions to restore the lost sense of city, social integrity and solidarity, and the lost sense of space by means of local colour, language and meaning. (p. 145)

Malik’s solution is only possible by considering cities as living processes, first understanding how they work, and then developing strategies that can improve this process within the framework of this understanding. By considering the cities as organised complexity problems rather than simple problems, thinking about processes, reasoning from particular to general, by looking at non-average quantities to understand how average quantities work, we can understand how the cities we live in actually operates (Jacobs, 2011). Jacobs, in her book The Death and Life of Great American Cities, which is the forerunner of urban planning, points out that the use of sidewalks and streets, which are one of the most important building blocks of the city, are extremely important for children’s upbringing, safety and, most importantly, for the contact of the inhabitants of the city with each other. She states that ‘following the strategy of watching closely the most mundane events and landscapes’ (Jacobs, 2011, p. 13) we can understand what the seeming behaviour of cities means, and whether any principal links would appear between them. According to Jacobs, the only strategy that enables cities to survive and to stand against the collapse is to preserve the diversity of the city, which is actually the richness of a city: This ubiquitous principle is the need of cities for a most intricate and close-grained diversity of uses that give each other constant mutual support, both economically and socially. The components of this diversity can differ enormously, but they must supplement each other in certain concrete ways. (Jacobs, 2011, p. 14)

The city is a large-scale cultural environment in which groups representing different races, languages, religions and economic structures throughout their existence develop their own unique coexistence strategies in daily life, in the direction of constantly conflicting, compromised and constantly renewed negotiations of power relations. ‘The fact that urban space has many social experiences indicates the existence of a collective consciousness. With this collective spirit, the urban space is owned, adopted and kept alive’ (Karaca, & Kiper, 2011, p. 76). Cities have a spirit and if the spirit of the city separates from the city then the city loses its identity. Cities are places where the power of a society’s culture coexists. Cities with a wide variety of colours exhibit a structure in which social relations are diversified and complex. In this sense, urban culture can be possible through a collective consciousness created through the common experiences of those living in that city. However, one of the most important social divisions, especially in the socioeconomic context, in contemporary industrial societies is those living in the streets. Streets are where the different colours of a city meet and in a mutual understanding coexist side by side. City streets are mostly inhabited by street residents, which include street vendors, who sell products ranging from food to textile, arts and

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crafts or music in an affordable price to city dwellers, and also people who, for economical, psychological or sociological reasons, live in the streets such as beggars and homeless people. Street economy, in this sense, is an integral part of daily life and the future of city life. Street economy is classified as, from the point of view of global capitalism, informal economy, and consequently, street vendors as sociologically subclass as they are considered outside the upper, middle and lower class – added to the list when it is applicable as an additional group – occupations that are not specified or improperly defined, or cannot be classified for unidentified reasons (Bilton et al., 2009, p. 102). This group, which is considered to be psychologically inconvenient, susceptible to crime and worthless, appears as the other of the cities. However, urban life and street life are the elements that form the identity, spirit and culture of the city. As Jacobs (1992) says, the way to understand the cities is to examine not its separate uses, but the combinations of uses: the look of things and the way they work are inextricably bound together, and in no place more so than cities …. It is futile to plan a city’s appearance, or eculate on how to endow it with a pleasing appearance of order, without knowing what sort of innate, functioning order it has. (p. 14)

Therefore, it is important to examine the underlying mechanisms of prejudice against street residents by city dwellers. Once we understand what kind of contributions, street residents provide for the commonwealth of the city life, what are their functions, only then, we can start working on the prejudices and the process of othering by city dwellers towards these people.

PREJUDICES, THE CONCEPT OF OTHERING AND STREET RESIDENTS The category of people who are living in the streets, that is street residents, include a wide range of class from homeless people, who, by detaching from the settled life due to psychological, economic or social reasons, are living in parks, under bridges, sidewalks to street vendors, who make their living by selling goods on the street, peddlers, bagel sellers and waste collectors. Social divisions refer to the broad patterns and processes that produce social inequality and disadvantage forms. In our individual lives, we construct our personal life stories that tell both ourselves and others inevitably and in a completely natural way, why we are in the situation that we are in the society. Each of us has backgrounds that reflect our own personal story and our strengths; we think it is in our own hands to change our weaknesses and improve our strengths. Inequality, therefore, appears to be a consequence of the advantages or disadvantages that each individual has created for themselves, not as something that is being experienced collectively and must be explained. However, all modern industrial societies have inequality structures that reflect unequal economic positions. Class-based social divisions are closely related to property ownership as wealth, and material and cultural advantages and disadvantages of different professional positions. Those who are deprived of both are among the poor and socially excluded, philosophically marginalised. One of the most important reasons for this socio-economic-based marginalisation is that in

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modern industrial societies, the labour market is increasingly strongly differentiated by the change in the nature of existing work, and hence resulted in the decline of transitions between the existing classes. The othering is the behaviour of the dominant structure, the dominant thought and the dominant behaviour against the individuals or communities that they do not see or want to see within their own criteria. An important fact to remember is that inequality in status nourishes prejudice and prejudice prepares the ground for marginalisation. Modern society person has been pushed to win, to spend and to win again for the sake of physical comfort. The system is based on the exaltation of the work and the marginalisation of non-working or not working properly within the system by considering them outside of the system. The prejudice under the concept of informal economy requires devaluation of non-system labour. The concept of the other is a concept that is frequently addressed in the twentieth century feminist philosophy literature, especially in the context of ethical positioning. Şeyla Benhabib (1987) criticises classical theories of ethics or, in her own words, universalistic moral theories within the framework of the relationship between the Other and Me, which can be positioned in two different ways as ‘generalized other’ and ‘concrete other’. Benhabib states that the concepts of generalized other and concrete other expose two irreconcilable understandings about the subject and the object or the relationship between Me and the Other. According to Benhabib, the position of generalised otherness requires us to isolate the individuality and the concrete identity of the Other and to see it as having the same rights and duties that we want to assign each individual as we assign to ourselves. Although the generalised other is regarded to be separate from Me, just as I, as an entity that has needs, desires and affections, what makes the Other a moral individual is not what separates between Me and the Other, but rather as talking, behaving rational agents, what holds them together. The relationship between Me and the Other is governed by formal norms of equality and reciprocity. Every individual has the right to expect and assume from us what we can expect and assume from him/herself. Therefore, the norms of the interactions between me and the other are primarily public and institutional norms. Within such norms, when the I is in contact with the Other, one’s humanity would be approved in the other’s personality, and in return one legitimately expects the other to behave the same. ‘The categories of morality that accompany such interactions are the categories of rights, obligations and authority, and the moral feelings corresponding to them are respect, duty, merit, and dignity’ (Benhabib, 1999, pp. 215–216). According to Benhabib, our relationship with the concrete other is governed by equality and complementary norms of reciprocity. This means that each individual waits and expects behaviour from the other that the other feels and recognises him/herself as a tangible, individual entity with specific needs, capabilities and capacities. In this case, the differences complement each other rather than being mutually exclusive. The norms of the interactions between the I and the Other are mostly private, non-institutional friendship, love and care norms. While I treat the Other within these norms, I confirm not only the other’s humanity but

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also his/her humanistic individuality. ‘The moral categories that accompany such interactions are responsibility, commitment and sharing, and the corresponding moral feelings are love, care, sympathy and solidarity’ (Benhabib, 1999, p. 216). Benhabib states that the modern moral theory, and especially the universalist moral theories, emphasise our dignity and value as moral subjects at the expense of forgetting and suppressing our fragility and dependence as minds embodied in a body (Benhabib, 1999, p. 251). However, the life we live as concrete entities with our needs and weaknesses, feelings and desires takes place in the networks of care and dependence. According to Gilligan (1987), everybody is sensitive to oppression and abandonment, for this reason not only justice ethics but also ethics of care emerge again and again in human experience. Gilligan (1987), by saying ‘moral commandments that advise not to be unfair to others and not to turn back on what they need, catch these different interests’ (p. 20), points to the experiences that care and justice correspond to each other in the formation of human existence. The autonomous self is not the abstract unembodied self, contrary, on the contrary, the generalised other of the justice perspective is also a concrete other; in order to recognise this concreteness, it is sufficient to remember the care, sharing and reciprocity in human relations within the society.

TOWARDS A UNIFIED SOUL OF A CITY People have to assume the role of others, that is, the role of the Other, in order to be able to obtain and understand themselves. People who engage in social interaction with this necessity build the I in that field of joint action. Therefore, the Other is a dialogue centre and source for Me; and the I do the same for the Other. In this dialogue, the I and the Other occupy each other’s horizons mutually. It is the dialectical relationship between them that makes both sides mutually existent. This is the state of sociality that transforms their existence into coexistence. Dialogical communication is an open-ended, bi-lateral and an experience between equals. To recognise the existence of the other requires recognition of the legitimacy of the existence of the Other. When the problem is approached in terms of human nature and structure, the relationship between I and the Other is an obligatory relationship that connects I to the Other, because it includes universalism. As Camus said, nothing can be more natural than people, who share the same fate, acting together. Human beings can only sustain their natural existence through others, that is, nature obliges people to be in solidarity. Solidarity is a form of a relationship, and if the effort of the I towards the Other is intended to understand the Other, to form face-to-face relationship by talking with the Other, then it can produce positive results. If the residents of the city, as they realise that they share the same pavements as street residents, that is, people living on the streets, collecting waste, selling various products, and thus realise that they share the same fate, become curious about the different thoughts and designs of the Other, and consequently, seek to know it, they can begin to accept them through similarities as well as differences. This awareness is also an understanding of the fact that city life is a whole and

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that streets, skyscrapers, big shopping centres all serve to the same purpose, the unified existence of the city and the city dwellers. So the difference between the world of values of the I and the Other, if not approached by the acceptance of the other, can be a source of tension, and in an environment of acceptance, it constitutes the sine qua non-existence of a democratic society. What is important is to create a mentality that will enable this to be understood not as a cause of tension but as the reason for being a harmonious democratic society. Therefore, if the spirit of a city can exist within the common production and living space of the people who make that city, then it means that the cities lose their souls to exclude those who choose to live on the streets or those who earns their living on the street. If no one can exist without the other, then the existence of the mainstream labour market of the city would only be possible by accepting street residents, whether the ones who choose to live in the streets or earns a living in the streets, who it has marginalised by ignoring and pushing outside the orthodox norms of the city life.

REFERENCES Benhabib, Ş. (1987). The generalized other and the concrete other: The Kohlberg–Gilligan controversy and moral theory. In E. F. Kittay & D. T. Meyers (Eds.), Women and moral theory (pp. 65–79). Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield. Benhabib, Ş. (1999). Modernizm, Evrensellik ve Birey [Modernism, Universality and the Individual] (çev. M. Küçük), İstanbul: Ayrıntı-Yayınları. Bilton, T., Bonnett, K., Jones, P., Lawson, T., Skinner, D., Stanworth, M., & Webster, A. (2009). Sosyoloji [Sociology] (çev. K. İnal, Y. Kartal, N. Özkale, K. Toraman, Y. Özkan, & A. R. Güngen). Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi. Ferguson, H. (2000). Modernity and subjectivity: Body, soul, spirit. Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia. Giddens, A. (1991). The consequences of modernity. Cambridge: Polity Pub. Gilligan, C. (1987). Moral orientation and moral development. In E. F. Kittay & D. T. Meyers (Eds.), Women and moral theory (pp. 121–139). Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield. Jacobs, J. (2011). Büyük Amerikan Şehirlerinin Ölümü Ve Yaşamı [Death and Life of Great American Cities] (çev. B. Doğan). İstanbul: Metis Yay. Habermas, J. (2004). “Öteki” Olmak, “Öteki”yle Yaşamak (Being the “Other”, Living with the “Other”) (trans. İ. Ata), İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Kant, I. (1781/1999). Critique of pure reason. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Karaca, S., & Kiper, N. (2011). Kentsel Mekânda Kamu Yararı Arayışı Ve Kültürel Planlama. Tematik Yazılar [Searching for Public Interest in Urban Space and Cultural Planning. Thematic Articles], Society and Democracy, 5(11), 75–96. Kumar, S. (1978). The concept of political development. Political Studies, 26(4), 423–438. Malik, E. (1998). Çağdaş Kentler ve Çevre [Contemporary Cities and Environment], 2010 Yılının İstanbul’una Doğru Kent Zirvesi. İstanbul: İ.B.B. Yay. Wirth, L. (2002). Urbanism as a way of life. In B. Duru & A. Alkan (Eds.), 20. Yüzyıl Kenti (pp. 114–128). İstanbul: İmge Yay.

CHAPTER 6 THE MANAGEMENT OF STREET ECONOMY Kurtuluş Yılmaz Genç

ABSTRACT This study analyses the management of street businesses by their owners. In this chapter, it is aimed to discuss the street economy from a managerial perspective. Accordingly, the planning, organising, coordinating, leading, and controlling processes of street economy were the focal points of this study. Again, the business functions such as marketing, purchasing, production, finance, public relations, and research and development are the dimensions evaluated in this context. Accordingly, the answer of ‘Do the sole proprietorships have a management?’ is analysed. ‘The management of street economy’ or ‘the management in street economy’ has different elements. The concept includes the management of the street enterprises by their owners or founders. At the same time, the term also can have the meaning which is linked with the governments: the management of a hidden, or a shadow economy. Keywords: Street enterprises; management; street economy; management functions; business functions; strategy

THE CONCEPT OF STREET ECONOMY The street economy includes the economic actions from itinerant trade to beggary. In other words, any activity at the streets to get income is accepted as a part of street economy.

Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 53–59 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103006

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BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF STREET ECONOMY The basic characteristics of street economy can be given as: non-necessity of infrastructure, accessibility for everyone, non-necessity of specific qualifications for many branches, low to middle level of income, being an area of employment especially for low-income individuals, to be seen in any country from high income to low income, widely being seen especially in low-income countries, openness to any age group or gender; no tax, or low-tax, illegality for some sectors, low cost for establishment, being an one-man business; and no barriers for entrance, minimal operation costs, minimal costs for planning, organising, coordinating, leading, and controlling, minimal or no advertisement spending, high adaptation capacity for changing situations or environments, openness to any type of consumption, openness to any market segment, being a shadow, hidden or an underground economy. These characteristics demonstrate a wide framework for the street economy. Thus, the volume of this economy is very high. Then, it is one of the most important areas of national or international trade to enter new markets, and to diversify markets or market segments. On the other hand, as a shadow, or hidden economy, it is area of employment which makes countries more governable. It decreases the internal security spending of governments, in general. As a contrast, it also can increase especially the spending of municipalities. The street economy reflects a historical phenomenon for trade. It is one of the oldest areas, or techniques of trade, all over the world. This is because of its simple structure, and easy entrance, and the low volume of economies throughout the centuries, or even ages.

THE MANAGEMENT OF STREET ECONOMY ‘The management of street economy’ or ‘the management in street economy’ has different dimensions. The concept includes the management of the street enterprises by their owners or founders. At the same time, the term also can have the meaning which is linked with the governments: the management of a hidden, or a shadow economy. This study will focus especially on the management of businesses by their owners. Also, the role of governments on the management of street businesses will be discussed. The majority of street enterprises reflect a sole proprietorship or a ‘one-man business’, which is founded and operated by only one man. So, at this point a question appears: Is there a management for one-man businesses? This question also creates another question: Are these establishments are organisations or not? Do they have organisational structures? The answer of the first question can be given by analysing the functions of management (Certo, 1997; Daft, 2008; Fayol, 1916; Wren, 201; Harvey, 1988; Cook, & Hunsaker, 2001; Johnson, et al., 1963; Luthans, 1976; Taylor, 1911; Woodward, 1965). As the planning, organising, coordinating, leading, and controlling are essential functions of management, it should be evaluated that, which areas of these frame of activities are done by the one-man businesses of streets, or street businesses in general. It is clear that, planning is essential not only for businesses but also for individuals. A formal or informal daily, weekly, monthly, or yearlong plan

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has to be done by all types of businesses. The organising of businesses can include an internal focus, or the organising of relationships with stakeholders: suppliers, distributers, state, customers, and consumers. Accordingly, even the one-man businesses are organised. Again, the coordination also occurs in the same lines with the organising. All of the relationships and functions have to be coordinated to achieve the harmony in activities. Also, there is no question that, any establishment requires leading. Finally, if there is planning, then, the outcome has to be controlled. The targets and goals should be checked to assess the performance and to evaluate whether the strategy or tactics are appropriate. An organisation includes at least two individuals, who come together for a special goal, with principles and rules. Many street enterprises are established by one individual. However, they have links with many stakeholders, including suppliers and distributers. So, from a wider perspective, they also present an organisational body. Planning in Street Economies The planning is about the answer of questions: What? Who? When? Where? Why? The costs? How? The duration? It is obvious that these questions interest any businesses. Any firm has to answer these questions at the beginning of its activities, or during its activities, formally or informally. Every business has a formal or informal mission and vision. On the other hand, without targets and goals, gain would be the minimum. Therefore, every establishment has plans, so the street economy members also have. They have to plan where and when they will supply. Again, they should answer, where and when will they sell. Besides, they should consider the uncertainty to behave in the most rational and optimal way. They have to take into account the business environment: especially the law, the policies of government, and the economy as a whole. The total quality demand levels of consumers should be followed by the owners of street enterprises. Every enterprise should have a philosophy as a part of its mission. The target market segments are required to be identified. Thus, it will be easier to design and implement the best plan. Organising in Street Economies The organising of street businesses is a reality that depends on internal and external dimensions. A business owner has to organise her or his business activities. The business functions should be realised by the owner. So, marketing, purchasing, production, finance, public relations, and research and development are the duties of street entrepreneurs. These duties can be completed as functions which are under shadow (or hidden) units. This process requires all of the functions to be organised. Hence, the sole proprietorships also have organising functions as a part of management function. Coordinating in Street Economies As mentioned above, there are many functions even for one-man enterprises of streets. Therefore, when these functions are organised, coordination is also required. A street business owner has to coordinate all of the business activities

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and business functions. This is the coordination of marketing, purchasing, production, finance, public relations, and research and development. A business owner who works himself, operates himself, has to put his business functions in a harmony to work efficiently. Leading in Street Economies The leading is another reality for street economy businesses. The production activities start after planning, organising, and coordinating. A business owner set up links with stakeholders. He observes the business environment to compete strongly and satisfy customers. A self-motivation can be seen at the street economies, which depends on having a job, operating a business, or earning money. Controlling in Street Economies If there is planning, there should also be controlling. The targets and goals have to be checked; whether they were achieved or not. The controlling step is essential for the measurement of performance. The street enterprises should measure what they planned, targeted, and what they have achieved. The controlling can be based up on the following measures: position at the market, innovation, efficiency, money inflow, and profitability (Harvey, 1988).

THE STRATEGIES FOR STREET ENTERPRISES The street enterprises also can have a strategic perspective (Mintzberg, et al 2003; Mullins, 2002; Noy, 1998; Paxton, 2011; Porter, 1990; Rowe, et al., 1985; Saloner, et al., 2001). As the concept of strategy can be defined like the method or technique to overcome competitors and to achieve goals, the street businesses can also have strategies that can strengthen them in the competition. These strategies can be designed by following these phases (Saloner, et al., 2001):

• Environmental analysis, the analysis of internal strengths and weaknesses, and external opportunities and threats. • The development of mission and the identification of goals. • The identification of strategies. • The transformation organisation for the required necessities of strategy. • The implementation of strategies. • The strategic control. These phases should be realised by the business owners to achieve a stronger position in the competition and avoid the negative results of uncertainty at the business environment. On the other hand, an environmental analysis will create an opportunity to follow the developments in the sector or related sectors. In other words, it is essential for integration to the economy in a rational way. In addition, benchmarking, learning from competitors, can be done through this process, and the competitive advantage can be achieved.

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The street businesses should create valuable, rare, not perfectly imitable, and non-substitutable processes, products, and a culture to achieve competitive advantage (Barney, 1986; Barney, 1991). This internal resource perspective proposes to focus on internal strengths to compete in sophistication. The street enterprises can implement three basic strategies (Porter’s generic strategies): these are differentiation, cost leadership, and focus strategies (Mintzberg, et al 2003; Mullins, 2002; Noy, 1998; Paxton, 2011; Porter, 1990; Rowe, et al., 1985; Saloner, et al., 2001). Differentiation Strategy The street enterprises can implement a differentiation strategy which might provide them a superior position in the competition. This strategy can be practiced in the main business process or linked processes. So, a street business can differentiate its functions of marketing, purchasing, production, finance, public relations, or research and development to gain a superior position against its competitors. Any type of innovation will lead a change in the total product that might attract more customers or higher market share. The differentiation strategy would allow an establishment to achieve a higher profitability level that reflects the achieved competitive advantage. Briefly, this strategy might create new opportunities for a street enterprise to widen their markets and to achieve new markets to strengthen its position. Cost Leadership Strategy The cost leadership strategy includes producing with lower costs than the competitors and also selling cheaper than them. This strategy requires reducing costs in any phase of any process. This strategy will also provide a barrier for new enterprises which will attempt to enter the market. Again, it creates new probabilities to reduce the purchasing costs depending on a strong bargaining power against suppliers. The cost leadership strategy is very valuable for street economies which target especially the low-income market segments. It might create street economy sectors which can be more attractive for consumers. Focus Strategy The focus strategy can be implemented as cost-focus and differentiation-focus strategies. The cost-focus strategy includes targeting a market segment with low prices depending on low production costs. Focussing on a specific market segment might lead the specialisation on the quality demand level or expectations of that segment. Again, this focus would allow a firm to influence the market segment for its preferences. The second form of focus strategy includes the differentiation-focus. This depends on the consideration of the expectations of a specific market segment in innovation related business activities. Through this way, the efficiency of practices can also be provided. The street enterprises can implement both types of focus strategies for the different segments of market that can demonstrate homogeneity for age, gender, income level, geography, culture, or profession. This is a realistic view because of the increasing volume of street business customers from any part of society.

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CONCLUSION This study has analysed the management of street economy businesses. The basic finding of this study is that the one-man establishments of streets also have management. In other words, these street enterprises also have management functions of planning, organising, coordinating, leading, and controlling. Again, these management functions are useful for the business functions: marketing, purchasing, production, finance, public relations, and research and development. It is obvious that, a business owner realises many of the functions of business and all of the functions of management. The street enterprises can focus on internal resources which are valuable, rare, imperfectly imitable, and non-substitutable to be stronger at the market. On the other hand, differentiation, cost leadership, and focus strategies can be implemented to achieve a superior position at the street markets. The governments should provide a legal base for street businesses. Accordingly, the related law is required. At the same time, appropriate places or appropriate infrastructure have to be established for the street enterprises which totally reflect one of the most important dynamics of economy. If this practice of economy is done in a free atmosphere, the employment rate will increase. As a result, the income level will increase and the economy will grow. This will decrease the security related problems that can lower the governmental spending.

REFERENCES Barney, J. B. (1986). Organizational culture: Can it be a source of sustained competitive advantage? Academy of Management Review, 11(3), 656–665. Barney, J. B. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17(1), 99–120. Certo, S. C. (1997). Modern management – Diversity, quality, ethics, and the global environment (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Environment. Cook, C. W., & Hunsaker, P. L. (2001). Management and organization behavior (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin Publications. Daft, R. L. (2008). Organization theory and design. Mason, OH: South-Western/Cengage Learning. Fayol, H. (1916). Administration industrielle et generale [Industrial and general administration]. Paris, France: H. Dunod et E. Pinat. Harvey, D. F. (1988). Strategic management and business policy (2nd ed.). Princeton, NC: Merill Publishing Company. Johnson, R. A., Kast, F. E., & Rosenzweigh, J. E. (1963). The theory and management of systems. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Luthans, F. (1976). Introduction to management: A contingency approach. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Miller, A., & Dess, G. G. (1996). Strategic management (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Mintzberg, H., Lampel, J., Quinn, J. B., & Ghoshal, S. (2003). The strategy process (4th ed.). Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Mullins, L. J. (2002). Management and organizational behavior (6th ed.). London: Prentice Hall Publications. Noy, E. (1998). Total business strategy – The missing link. Long Range Planning, 31(6), 927–932. Paxton, J. (2011). Taylor’s unsung contribution: Making interchangeable parts practical. Journal of Business Management, 17(1), 7–10. Porter, M. E. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. New York, NY: The Free Press. Rowe, A. J., Mason, R. O., & Dickel, K. E. (1985). Strategic management & business policy. Reading, MA: Addision-Wesley Publishing Company.

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Saloner, G., Shepard, A., & Podolny, J. (2001). Strategic management. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Taylor, F. W. (1911). The principles of scientific management. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. Woodward, J. (1965). Industrial organization. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wren, D. A. (2011). The centennial of Frederick Winslow Taylor’s the Principles of Scientific Management. Journal of Business Management, 17(1), 7–10.

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PART II IMPLICATIONS OF STREET ECONOMY

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CHAPTER 7 SLIGHTLY ABOVE THE SYRIAN REFUGEES: MEDIA REPRESENTATION OF STREET VENDORS IN TURKEY Huriye Toker

ABSTRACT Does the media through its news convey us their categorisation, have particular lexical choices, give less space or voice to the actors regarding the news that mentioned street vendors in Turkey? The research question of this study is that whether or not the print media covers street vendors in their news? What is the tone of these news articles? In which pages do they cover? What are the news themes related with street vendors and who are the main actors in this news? This chapter presents a systematic study of 100 news articles which were published between 2016 and 2018 in Turkey’s mainstream, popular newspaper Hürriyet. The 100 news which included the word ‘street vendor’ in the texts were selected from the Hürriyet’s database and categorised and the content of the news articles were analysed. Findings of the of 100 news articles which mentioned ‘street vendor’ were researched and analysed totally. The analysis already reveals that the word choice of the news articles regarding street vendors are often conflict stories between the vendors and municipality police forces namely ‘Zabıta’ in Turkey. In sum, there were 19 news articles that referred street vendors with positive tone and wording, but 68 news articles still depicted street vendors in negative framing and use negative attribution in the text of the news. Totally 16 news articles included by-line and the rest of the 84 news articles did not include the journalist’s name and were covered as

Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 63–73 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103010

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anonym. Out of the 100 news articles only a handful focussed on the advocacy and rights of street vendors. Keywords: Media representation; street vendors; informal economy; other; stereotyping; news coverage

INTRODUCTION It is not a rare scene in the main street of Turkish cities that a street vendor might often be chased by constabularies and at the same time try to sell his or her goods in this chaotic situation. We the academicians call it as informal economy but actually they are the real founders of the entrepreneurship which we are offering fancy and glossy courses about the subject in many business departments or faculties in nearly every university in Turkey. The phenomenon of the informal economy is both deceivingly simple and extraordinarily complex and even capable of overthrowing the economic and political order of nations from East to West. With simple and taken for granted activities we encounter it in our daily life as buying some vegetable or a bunch of flower from a street vendor, arranging a Syrian painter to paint our house, polish our shoes by a boot polisher in the next street corner or refusing the street children to wash the window of our car at the traffic lights. Such attempts seem as unworthy of attention but, these innocent informal buying activities cumulate a great amount of unreported income and also have a strong interdependence with social structures and the cultural practices of national states. The concept of informal economy also called ‘untamed market’ (Hart, 1990, p. 158) was born in Africa. It defines the economic actions that is out of boundaries of formal economy that bypass the costs of, and are excluded from the protection of, laws and rules included ‘property relationships, commercial licensing, labor contracts, torts, financial credit, and social security systems’ (Feige, 1990 p. 992). However, these definitions distinguish informal economy from criminal activities, some defining elements between the state and civil society determine the character of informality and this relationship is in constant flux across countries and over time (Portes & Haller, 2005. p. 419). Generally, the informal economy has expanded across developing countries during the last decades and the paradoxical character of informal economic activity and the way in which social structures decisively affect its onset and development (Portes & Haller, 2005, p. 403). Focussing on the Turkish case, the neoliberal reforms produced a sharp transformation in the regulatory environment both positively and negatively in the country. The decline in public employment caused weakening of labour unions and resulted in the growth of informally operating private enterprises (Kus, 2014, p. 278). This new economic reality leads to the decrease in the regulatory barriers of private entrepreneurship and gives more space to informality. However, the informal economy has expanded in its participants and volume, the media representation of street vendors, who are the actors of this fast-growing

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informal economy, is a sociological problem in Turkey. The worst part of it is that the discrimination towards the street vendors is a taken-for-granted issue where which neither media nor the society are aware of the problem. Researchers in both economics and communication fields mostly ignore the issue that societal prejudice towards the street vendors creates an important barrier to mainstream the issue. The existing research will examine the media coverage of street vendors in Turkey in order to understand the societal image through the media representation of this ancient occupation and its actors in Turkey. The intention of this chapter is to analyse the news media coverage in Turkey and present fresh data for the researchers about representation of the street vendors, the most vulnerable entrepreneurs in the world. The chapter is divided into four parts. The first two parts are devoted to explain the current situation of the street vendors, with a special focus on media-related researches and agenda-setting theory. After discussing the data and methodology, the last part of the chapter presents the qualitative and quantitative results of the media analysis by giving possible explanations as well as the solutions of this phenomenon.

MEDIA AND REPRESENTATION OF THE ‘OTHER’ Today media is the shortest description of various communication vehicles that operate on large scale to the masses in a society and have different forms and genres such as newspapers, magazines, film, radio, television, music and Internet. The production of the mass media saturates our daily life with its TV ads, social media shares, YouTube videos or twitter texts. According to the body of the agenda-setting theories since 1970s, ‘the public learns the relative importance of issue from the amount of coverage in the news media’ (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). Selection of the topics, placing them in the front page which is priming and covering the issue from a different aspect is called framing (Entman, 1993), and giving the issue with diverse actors in the news stories will definitely ‘change in the standards that people use to make their evaluations’ (Iyengar & Kinder, 1987, p. 63). Furthermore, there are a lot of researches which clearly indicate relationship between the news coverage of current events and their impact on shaping public opinion (Dog˘anay, Özturk, & Çalıs¸kan, 2018; KhosraviNik, 2010; Kokkonen, 2017; Van Dijk, 1991). As a powerful information agent it sets our agenda by its content and defines our everyday lives. Moreover, it serves as an arena for the visibility of the social actors in the eyes of public with a great variety of coverage on themes, issues and events. In short, what we mostly know about society we get through the mass media. Beside its ultimate existence, the media has fundamental role to bring important issues to the attention of the community (Fourie, 2007, p. 202) and constituting reality and representing ‘other’ with its coverage. Through its representation, the media is an important part of the twenty-first-century democracy and has a lot of ties with the social structure within which it evolves. The social structure produces norms and attitudes that define aspects of social life which create interest for citizens.

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Denis McQuail (2002) distinguished two main media approaches within the theories depending on the media’s role in society (p. 6). The first version proposes that the media either reflects the status quo, thus contributing to its maintenance in society, or that they reinforce it. From these contradictory perspectives, this study focusses on liberal-pluralist approach that says that media functioning as the ‘fourth estate’ play an important part in the democratic process which creates an independent information source for society regarding monitoring the actions of government (Bennett, 1982, p. 31). Moreover, among the media products, news which is the ‘central ingredient of the newspaper’ needs to be analysed to understand the development of societal phenomenon. According to Tunstall (1977), the newspaper is ‘the archetype as well as the prototype of all modern mass media’ and ‘news’ is the most important part of the newspapers (p. 23). Interestingly, Tuchman (1978) defines news as a window on the world, but she adds that the view through a window depends upon whether the window is large or small, faces a street or a backyard (p. 1). Newspapers interact with their environment, and they are themselves affected by the very changes in the social world that they claim to record. Although newspaper presentations are not, and can never be, synonymous with everyday reality, they report a tiny part from the daily reality of events and institutions. Similarly, Hall (1973) stated that millions of events occur every day in the world, but only a tiny proportion have chance to be called ‘potential news stories’ and from them again only a small fraction constitute the day’s news in the media (p. 181). As such, we try to assert that mass media in general and news content in particular have an important power and responsibility. Besides their power of influencing the perceptions of society, they are also responsible for making representations of society in all its diversity. They have to inform citizens on events and processes taking place in that society; in that way, they should provide a forum for critical debate on matters of interest. When the media do not fulfil any or all of their prescribed roles, they not only reflect default of the reality but also help to reproduce the relations of injustice and inequality. The representation of the others namely ‘street vendors’ is in this grey zone. That said, the media have a critical role to play in the transition towards inclusion of others in the society. Media’s understanding and sustained intelligent coverage of street vendors are a necessary precondition for real progress of the society. The media’s handling of this group of people will mainstream the representation of others and more importantly this will determine whether the issue move into political, economic and cultural mainstream. Given the enormous influence that the media have on public opinion, public interest and, ultimately, public behaviour is a well-defined research finding in many scientific publications and opinion polls. The media-related analysis in Turkey reveals the problematic and ideological coverage which signs the politicisation of the ‘others’. The current example of it is the refugees and their representation in Turkish media. There are many researches which have highlighted the problematic coverage with criminalising, hegemonic discourse and even hate speech in Turkish media regarding Syrian refugees (Ataman, 2014; Dog˘anay et  al., 2018). Another well-known example of the group who have been labelled as others are the street vendors in Turkey.

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However, similar with the society, the street vendors and their integration to the society is mostly ignored by academic circles in Turkey as well.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY As the theory stated that news selection is at the heart of the agenda-setting process since the issues that fail to pass through the gatekeepers of the news also fail to give salience cues regarding the relative importance of the issues. Departing from this perspective, the number of news articles which is devoted to street vendors and their existence and problems in Turkey will be an important indicator to show the level of media’s interest towards the issue and thus will affect the public opinion in the long run. The main objective of this research is to answer the question how the mainstream/popular media in Turkey have discursively constructed and mediated the accounts of street vendors. We would like to search whether or not there are evidences of representation pattern regarding the street vendors in Turkish media. Does the media through its news convey us their categorisation, have particular lexical choices, give less space or voice to the actors (KhosraviNik, 2010) regarding the news that mentioned street vendors in Turkey? The research question of this study is that whether or not the print media covers street vendors in their news? What is the tone of these news articles? In which pages do they cover? What are the news themes related with street vendors and who are the main actors in these news? This chapter presents a systematic study of 100 news articles which were published between 2016 and 2018 in Turkey’s mainstream, popular newspaper Hürriyet. The paper is selected as a reference paper which has the nation-wide and highest circulation in Turkey. The 100 news which included the word ‘street vendor’ in the texts were selected from the Hürriyet’s database and categorised and the content of the news articles was analysed. The oldest news was published on 15 April 2016 and the newest one on 31 May 2018. The basic reason to select the newspapers is that they are still the main information source for the general public on many issues and the medium, historically are the oldest and contain more news item than the other media. To some extent, radio and television were modelled on the newspaper, with regular news as their chief anchor point (Toker, 2004). Therefore, newspapers were chosen as first and traditional research medium under this study because of this special attribute. However, the general tendency declares that social media has powerful mediated effect among the masses, it still has limited affect – among younger generation – and needs technological literacy to reach in every segment of population in developing countries like Turkey. The news content of the dailies has been regarded as reliable evidence of the culture and society in which it is produced. Therefore, the point of departure in this study was news of the selected media. To monitor the representation of street vendors in the news of Hürriyet we employed first quantitative then qualitative content analysis and then we evaluated the findings. We selected first 100 news articles which were published between April 2016 and May 2017 and categorised the news and created categories which

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deal street vendors-related topics. The variables of the analysis were the language used to describe street vendors, placement of the news, the existence of the byline, patterns of sourcing (the first two actors in the news), negative or positive attribution in the news/headlines and the news which centred the street vendors as a main topic or side theme within the news content. In order to reach universal statements, an objective, systematic research technique is needed (Berelson, 1952, p. 18), therefore we found it more useful to employ quantitative methods of data collection and conduct both quantitative and qualitative content analyses to the research material. For the purpose of enquiry, quantification of the data as well as qualitative text analysis to better evaluate the mediated representation of street vendors in Turkey are important.

FINDINGS OF THE RESEARCH Totally 100 news articles which mentioned ‘street vendor’ were analysed. The research sample included the mostly repeated words such as ‘street vendor’ (48 times), ‘constabulary’ (32 times), ‘injury’ (10 times), ‘fight’ (nine times), ‘police operation’ (six times) and ‘brawl/riot/protest’ (eight times). The analysis already reveals that the word choice of the news articles regarding street vendors are often conflict stories between the vendors and municipality police forces namely ‘Zabıta’ (constabularies) in Turkey. The tone of the news which are categorised as positive, negative or neutral clearly shows that street vendors-related news were mostly represented with negative tone in the media. Nearly 70% (68 news) of the news included negative attribution to the issue (Table 7.1). Only nine news stories included the rights of street vendors within 100 news items. The journalists mostly depicted the story as a struggle, brawl or fight between police forces/constabularies and the main actors are the criminal street vendors who are selling their goods without legal permission in the main streets of the cities. The scarce news coverage (only nine news articles) is devoted to the rights and struggles of the street vendors. There were also a few news stories (19 news item) and headlines which represented street vendors with positive tone. In sum, there were 19 news articles that referred street vendors with positive tone and wording, but 68 news articles still depicted street vendors in negative framing and use negative attribution in the text of the news. Table 7.1.  The Tone of the News. Positive news Negative news Neutral news Rights-based news Total

10 68 13 9 100

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The placement of the news is also an important variable which gives us some information regarding the representation of the issue. In Hürriyet and other Turkish dailies street vendors-related news were still trapped mostly in local news pages (56 news) or current affair pages (40 news) (Table 7.2). This finding reveals that street vendors-related news do not attract as an issue and find a place mostly in local pages or supplementary pages of the dailies. The very low representation in economy sections of the daily reveals the fact that the issue is attracted only as a conflict story for the Turkish media. Besides their words, the news was also categorised under distinct themes and frames. From 2016 to 2018 street vendors were mostly covered under the policeand crime-related theme (53 news article) in Hürriyet. This theme allocation clearly reveals the fact that they were framed as crime-related actors against the municipality police forces in Turkey. The second important frame is security-related theme which was different from police- and crime-related stories. The municipality forces mostly send press releases to tell the readers about their accomplishments and their facilities in the cities. To avoid the street vendors to sell their products, not giving permission to their entrance, some parts of the cities were pictured as success of the constabularies and the journalists cover their stories as security action of the municipality forces (18 news article) mostly in touristic cities in Turkey (Table 7.3). The street vendors and their existence mostly find themselves as soft news theme in 18 news articles, but however their rights and problems are covered only in four news articles within three years of time span. Again, their invisibility as an economic actor clearly identified the low level of existence in economy-related themes (three news article) in three years. Street vendors were depicted as a criminal or rebellious ‘the other’ or actors of the feature/soft stories in the news coverage in Turkish dailies. As Aeron Davis (2007) stated, ‘journalists can be all but captured by their sources’ in their news because they are already embedded in the ‘issue communities on which they report’ (p. 5). Therefore, the actors of the news coverage are an Table 7.2.  The Placement of the News. Local news page Current affair page Economy page International news page Total

56 40 2 2 100

Table 7.3.  The Theme of the News. Police- and crime-related theme Security-related theme Feature/soft news theme Rights-based advocacy theme Economy theme Others Total

53 18 18 4 3 4 100

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important signifier to understand the coverage and its characteristics. The most visible category was the presence of criminal street vendors (with its names) as the first actor in the news coverage (18 actors) of 200 actors in Hürriyet. This type of actor coverage connects street vendors with criminality and increase their stigmatisation within the society. Hürriyet in specific and Turkish media in general tend to identify street vendors and constabularies as a general faceless category. Out of the 172 identified actors, the most depicted actor categories were general identification of street vendors (33 actors) and constabularies (33 actors) in the news coverage. The third important actor category was the identification of street vendors as criminals (22 actors) with their names which again underline the negative coverage of this societal group in media. The fourth important actor group is the street vendors as victims (with name) (18 actors). Street vendors as criminals were depicted more than three times more as an actor category than the negative reflection of constabularies in the coverage. However, we encounter as an everyday reality the homeless children, beggars and female street vendors who were weakly represented as actor category in the coverage (Table 7.4). Even the name of the journalist would be an indicator for the news coverage. However, giving a by-line is not a frequent practice for the Turkish dailies. The journalist’s name appearing in the article also gives us some important details regarding the level of interest towards these coverages. Totally 16 news articles included by-line and the rest of the 84 news articles did not include the journalist’s name and were covered as anonym. This finding also shows us that the street vendors-related news are still treated as soft news and do not contain any names of journalist under the coverage.

CONCLUSION The undeniable fact that media content, in all its forms, touches the daily lives of almost every human being on the planet. From revolutionary pamphlets, which Table 7.4.  Actors in the News. News Actors

1 Actor

Street vendors as victim (name mentioned) Street vendors as criminals (name mentioned) Street vendors as victim (no name) General category of street vendors Street vendors with positive tone Constabulary (with negative tone) General category of constabulary Police/security team, etc. Citizen/tourists Others (NGOs, municipality etc.)) Street vendors as women and children Homeless children, beggars No actor available Total

13 18 8 14 9 2 15 3 4 9 3 2 0 100

2 Actors 5 4 0 19 0 5 18 1 12 6 2 0 28 100

Total 18 22 8 33 9 7 33 4 16 15 5 2 28 200

% 9.00 11.00 4.00 16.50 4.50 3.50 16.50 2.00 8.00 7.50 2.50 1.00 14.00 100.00

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are the first form of the printing press in the sixteenth century, to the present day social media clearly show us the power, but sometimes with the controversial nature of media content. Today, we all are aware of the unique contribution of the media sector in shaping public debate, changing behaviours and promoting sustainable lifestyles (Toennesen, Hodgson, & Mimmack, 2013, p. 7). To reach the great masses, command larger audiences with frequent contact for longer hours of exposure and direct cultural influence are the main differences between the influence of the media sector and that of other sectors. In the same vein, the vast majority of agenda-setting researchers emphasise the interdependence between the public which give attention to certain issues and the amount of coverage devoted to the same issue in the news media. According to the related theory, by making some issues more salient in people’s mind, media with its diverse form and genre can also shape the basic thinking patterns of the audience. In the long run, it can change the societal standards of people when making judgements about events or issues which is far more dangerous for society. For example, the prejudice regarding Syrian refugees in Turkey which is supported by the media can easily create hostility in the society regarding these people and lead a negative discourse in the long run. The main findings of the analysis stated that street vendors mostly depicted stereotypical news framing in Turkey. The characteristic of popular dailies featured less reporting of street vendors and the articles were placed in local sections of the papers and with shorter and less detailed texts and have limited number of the sources. The unreliable sources, untrained journalists, addiction to the press releases and government statements, accounting on one source to build the news story or even unverified news stories seem the possible explanations of the problem, but partly. However, the existing study finds that the coverage reflects the issue as a policeand criminal-related story in Turkey. We could not find a clear focus upon the positive contribution of street vendors to Turkish society and how Turkey might tackle impediments to their integration. Police and crime or security emphasised themes were extremely overrepresented in the news coverage. Their life struggles and problems were ignored. Street vendors were represented either as criminal or faceless group which risks the security in Turkey. As a result, street vendors were perceived as ‘other’ and media maybe not creator but an important contributor to these stereotypical images in Turkish setting. Reporting as news is an interpretation of the reality which includes construction of the meaning and our understanding to help us make sense of the world. Thus, how vulnerable societal groups are framed, labelled, categorised and represented matters. With its agenda setting and framing function, the mass media has a direct impact on public and elite political attitudes towards representation of ‘others’. In this chapter, we discussed media as an additional societal actor, Hürriyet from the written media environment were chosen to represent popular media outlets in Turkey. Words have immense power to create a sense of identification, influence perception and opinion. The findings of the analysis show that the word choice in Hürriyet mostly identified street vendors as criminal and marginal group of people. Moreover, Hürriyet constantly use the term ‘street vendors’ as a general category to refer the disadvantaged people in streets which can be an

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indicator of the journalists’ ignoring the rights of these people or might be adopting of a neutral position against them. The invisibility of street vendors with their names as an actor category shows the tendency that popular media do not carry the words of individual street vendors in the coverage, and moreover give very limited voice to advocacy efforts of them which is an important challenge for their future integration efforts in society. In sum, the media coverage about street vendors is a salient theme as only a conflict story between the municipality forces and the vendors. Media do not cover the street vendor’s reality from a rights-based perspective. Moreover, the news coverage-related street vendors mostly focussed on the symptoms of the crisis – improving municipality operations and giving them extra punishments – rather than on the push factors to street vending and their entrepreneurial efforts. Out of the 100 news articles only a handful (four articles) focussed on the advocacy and rights of street vendors. The informal economy is growing sector in the world and street vendors are the main actors of this economy. Providing clear, unbiased and rights-based information to the public underlines the privileged position and responsibility of media about the vulnerable group of people namely, street vendors. A failure to do this is very serious indeed and can have wide-ranging consequences, impacting public opinion and attitudes and even response policies regarding this group and widen the societal gap. In sum, the responsibility of the journalist is to cover the story not to solve the problem. The continuous coverage, the ‘repetition’ which creates ‘drip-drip-drip effect’, is the responsibility of journalists which remind the audience that the situation is still out there and hasn’t been solved yet.

REFERENCES Ataman, H. (2014). Yazılı Basında Ayrımcı Söylem, Suriyeli Mülteciler. In Medyada Nefret Söylemi ve Ayrımcı Dil. Hrant Dink Foundation Report. Retrieved from http://www. nefretsoylemi.org/rapor/mayis-agustos-rapor-final.pdf. Accessed on January 2017. Berelson, B. (1952). Content Analysis in Communication Research. Glencoe: The Free Press. Bennett, T. (1982). Theories of the media, theories of society. In M. Gurevitch, T. Bennett, J. Curran, & J. Woollacott (Eds.), Culture, society and the media (pp. 287–308). London: Methuen. Davis, A. (2007). The mediation of power: A critical introduction. New York, NY: Routledge. Dog˘anay, U., Özturk, K., & Çalıs¸kan, S. (2018). Media monitoring, media discourse on refugees and migration. Research Report I, I˙GAM. Retrieved from https://drive.google. com/file/d/1dR1UM04LvaGuDih1VdnCgYkLsHOmd0LU/view. Accessed on May 2018. Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Towards clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), 51–58. Feige, E. L. (1990). Defining and estimating underground and informal economies: The new institutional economics approach. World Development, 18, 989–1002. Fourie, P. J. (2007). Moral philosophy as the foundation of normative media theory: The case of African Ubuntuism. Communications, 32, 1–29. Hall, S. (1973). The determination of the news photographs. In S. Cohen & J. Young (Eds.), The manufacture of news: A reader (pp. 176–190). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Hart, K. (1990). The idea of the economy: Six modern dissenters. In R. Friedland & A. F. Robertson (Eds.), Beyond the marketplace: Rethinking economy and society (pp. 137–160). New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter. Iyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters: Television and American opinion. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

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Kus, B. (2014). The informal road to markets: Neoliberal reforms, private entrepreneurship and the informal economy in Turkey. International Journal of Social Economics, 41(4), 278–293. KhosraviNik, M. (2010). The representation of refugees, asylum seekers and immigrants in British Newspapers: A critical discourse analysis. Journal of Language and Politics, 9(1), 1–28. Kokkonen, O. (2017). A faceless threat or vulnerable individuals? Representations of refugees in British newspapers during the European refugee crisis. Unpublished bachelor thesis, Jyvaskyla University, Jyvaskyla, Finland. McCombs, M., & Shaw, D. (1972). Agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176–186. McQuail, D. (2002). Origins and development of the field of study. In D. McQuail (Ed.), McQuail`s reader in mass communication theory (pp.1–25, part I). London: Sage. Portes, A., & Haller, W. (2005). The informal economy. In N. J. Smelser & R. Swedberg (Eds.), The handbook of economic sociology (2nd ed., pp. 403–421). New York, NY: Princeton University Press and the Russell Sage Foundation. Toennesen, C., Hodgson, S., & Mimmack, F. (2013). Mirrors or movers? Framing the debate about the impact of media content. London: Media CSR Forum and Carnstone Partners LLP. Retrieved from www.mediacsrforum.org. Accessed on May 2016. Toker, H. (2004). Two countries one pattern: A comparative study of gender representation in the news of Norwegian and Turkish newspapers. Unpublished C.Phil. thesis, Department of Media and Communication, University of Oslo. Tuchman, G. (1978). Making news: A study in the construction of reality. New York, NY: The Free Press. Tunstall, J. (1977). The media are American. London: Constable. Van Dijk, T. A. (1991). Racism and the press: Critical studies in racism and migration. London: Routledge.

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CHAPTER 8 MICRO ENTREPRENEURSHIP IS A MACRO STEP TAKEN FOR DEVELOPMENT AND DEMOCRACY Betül Karagöz Yerdelen and Is¸ın Çetin

ABSTRACT The issues of development and democracy have ceased to be the internal problems of the countries and have become a dynamic factor in the international relations as regional and global issues. The problems that are difficult to solve such as the production insufficiency overwhelming the countries just like a national nightmare most of which have the roots that actually go out in one way or the other, the lack of economic capacity, the low technology level, the lack of qualified school curriculum, the private sector which is not sufficiently developed in many areas, the state and private sector relations having remained away from the plural capacity and governance and that the injustice revenue distribution and the opportunities to obtain unfair wealth wear down the working and undertaking desires of the productive population are the primary development problems. This study aims to criticise the street economy, micro entrepreneurship and how can it be a macro step for development and democracy and to determine the importance of street economy and street vendors for global economy. Keywords: Street economy; street vendors; micro entrepreneurship; democracy; unregistered economy; own-account workers

Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 75–87 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103011

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INTRODUCTION The issues of development and democracy have been emerging all over the world in an increasing rate instead of getting decreased. The issues of development and democracy have ceased to be the internal problems of the countries and have become a dynamic factor in the international relations as regional and global issues. A severe development problem and democracy defect has been experienced in many countries of the world such as in Africa, Central and South America and in quite a large part of Asia. In other words, being economically underdeveloped and being governed by a politically defective democracy still exists as the most important criterion that distinguishes the countries from each other in the twenty-first century. The problems which are difficult to solve such as production insufficiency overwhelming the countries just like a national nightmare most of which have the roots that actually go out in one way or the other, lack of economic capacity, low technology level, lack of qualified school curriculum, the private sector which is not sufficiently developed in many areas, the state and private sector relations having remained away from the plural capacity and governance and that the injustice revenue distribution and the opportunities to obtain unfair wealth wear down the working and undertaking desires of the productive population are the primary development problems. The fact that these huge problems cannot be solved in a systematic programme, discipline and process can lead to the emergence of large economic, political, social and cultural problems, along with the national security problems, that fall behind and become increasingly difficult to solve. As a matter of fact, low income level, poor income distribution, poverty, unemployment, inequality, population growth where basic needs cannot be met, environmental degradation and rural problems encountered are the most common examples of development problems in many regions of the world (Tüylüog˘lu & Çes¸tepe, 2008, p. 35). More than 60 per cent of the world’s employed population earn their livelihoods in the informal economy. Informality exists in all countries regardless of the level of socio-economic development, although it is more prevalent in developing countries (Öztürk & Bas¸ar, 2018, p. 42). The two billion women and men who make their living in the informal economy are deprived of decent working conditions. Evidence shows that most people enter the informal economy due to the absence of other means of livelihood (ILO, 2018). The main challenge for the transition to the formal economy is finding the right policy mix that corresponds to the diversity of characteristics and drivers of informality. Reliable and relevant statistics are needed to better understand these complex aspects of informality and monitor progress towards formalisation. In June 2015, the International Labour Conference adopted the Transition from the Informal to the Formal Economy Recommendation, the first international labour standard which focusses on the informal economy in its entirety. In the same year, in September, the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which included the transition to formality in the targets for Sustainable Development Goal 8. The the deficiencies in economic development and democracy determines the level of internationality and limits the entrepreneurship of the countries as a problem

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of underdevelopment. These important problems also signify a rather complex structural problem. Since the underdevelopment and defective democracy affects not only the national conditions, but also the international conditions, the international solutions should be sought likewise that the national solutions are sought for the problems. As a matter of fact, both the theories of economic development and the theories and studies of democracy focus on the problems of underdevelopment and defective democracy. By creating a concept pair, the level of development and democracy reflecting the structural and institutional development levels of the countries also makes the micro and macro targets distinctive. However, another issue, which is as obvious as there is an observable link between development and democracy, is that it is difficult to achieve the micro and macro targets. Both the problems in the structural point and the congestion and method inaccuracies at the institutionalisation stage affect just as the lack of resources and information; countries are often not able to utilise the development and democratisation aids efficiently. This case indicates the depth of structural and institutional problems in the developing countries. The global conditions changing since the beginning of the twenty-first century have also been changing the regional and national systems and producing new development forms and democratisation conditions. Despite the destructiveness of war and violence environments experienced in some parts of our world, the humanity shows its determination to overcome economic weakness, inequality of opportunity and lack of democracy in the whole world. Like the criteria of development, the criteria of democracy have also provided all of the world countries with a system in which they will be able to supervise their own countries. The countries are in a position that they can control themselves and identify their deficiencies, their defective sides by taking advantage of these universal criteria. However, as a matter of fact, the international organisations and networks, which are interactive, subject the internal conditions of all countries to an external audit and enable even the most closed countries to become open to the public. The global conditions enable more transparent, more measurable and more easily understandable country profiles to be formed. In the last period, while it is considered that the whole world has been recorded with a measurable, transparent and understandable evaluation, it has been realised that there is a street life which is not recorded and used for ranking the conditions of development or conditions of democratisation of the countries, and that this life is more important both economically and politically than it is supposed. The street people who managed to escape the boundaries of market economy and representative democracy seemingly live in imprisonment within their own surroundings, and have made an unexpected huge economic move and built an unpredictable form of democratic organisation. In a way, the street entrepreneurs and street democrats have tried to solve the development and democracy problems of their countries on the street; even with the knowledge of neither the state nor the non-governmental organisations.

GLOBAL OVERVIEW Two billion of the world’s employed population aged 15 and over work informally, representing 61.2 per cent of global employment. The proportion of informal

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employment varies in different regions. Among the five main regions, the vast majority of employment in Africa is informal. Asia and the Pacific and the Arab States have almost the same level of informality (Figs. 8.1 and 8.2). Apart from contributing family workers, all of whom are considered as informal by statistical definition, the employment status category with the highest percentage of informality is own-account workers, both globally and regionally. Globally, 86.1 per cent of own-account workers are informal. Only in Europe and Central Asia, the rate of informal employment among own-account workers is lower than the global average (Figs. 8.3 and 8.4). The level of education is another key factor affecting the level of informality. Globally, when the level of education increases, the level of informality decreases.

Fig. 8.1.  Share of Informal Employment in Total Employment (Including Agriculture).

Fig. 8.2.  Share of Informal Employment in Total Employment (Excluding Agriculture).

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Fig. 8.3.  Composition of Informal and Formal Employment.

Fig. 8.4.  Employees and Entrepreneurs in Informal Employment as a Percentage of Total Employment.

Those who have completed secondary and tertiary education are less likely to be in informally employed compared to workers who have either no education or completed primary education (Fig. 8.5). The comparison of incidence of time-related underemployment between workers in informal employment or in formal employment suggests an absence of other available options rather than a choice for those working informally. The proportion of workers in time-related underemployment is higher among workers in informal employment in most countries with available data (Fig. 8.6).

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Fig. 8.5.  Informal Employment Level of Education.

Fig. 8.6.  Incidence of Time-related Unemployment and the Informal and Formal Nature of Employment.

Informality is related to the level of economic and social development. A measure of social development is Human Development Index (HDI), which combines the indicators of long and healthy lives, knowledge and a decent standard of living. Comparing national data on informal employment as a share of total employment with HDI values shows that countries with higher informality also have a lower HDI value (Fig. 8.7). In all the cities covered, street trade is rampant and a source of employment and income for many urban dwellers. However, in most of the countries, it is unaccounted and unrecognised in national economic statistics. Street trade has, in the past, been viewed as an underground activity that undermines the healthy

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Fig. 8.7.  Shares of Informal Employment and Human Development Index Values.

function of the formal economy. This perception has resulted in conflicts with urban authorities over licensing, taxation, site of operation, sanitation and working conditions. Mainstream economists are perceived as lacking an understanding of street vending, and hence its lack of coverage in economic measurement in all the countries and cities covered. Even the local authorities who collect substantial revenue from the sector do not maintain records of the numbers and the contribution of the sector to urban economy. This implies that the local authorities cannot adequately plan since they have no representative statistics of the sector. There has also been minimal research in the area of street vending. For example, in Ghana a number of studies have been done on market trade, but the case study was the first study on street vending. Thus, the case studies do not provide estimates of street vendors. The negligence of the street vending activities has resulted in the lack of accurate estimates of the numbers of street traders. Charmes (1998) in his work provides some figures that can be used for assessing the importance of vending activities. In 1999, street-based workers in Kenya were estimated to number 416,294. This accounted for 5.2 per cent of the non-agricultural labour force of which women were 3.9 per cent (Charmes, 1998). Although it has been argued that vending attracts those who have limited opportunities for obtaining formal employment and/or prestigious business and minimises chances of social exclusion and marginalisation; street vending is increasingly becoming an option for many citizens. It is no longer limited to the lower social groups, especially the underprivileged who carve out a living in an environment full of harassment by urban authorities as experienced in the case studies. A number of entrepreneurs have entered the trade as an option, especially since the beginning of the structural sdjustment programmes that resulted in the retrenchment of civil servants across Africa.

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THE DEVELOPMENT PROBLEM AND DESPAIR OF THE STREET The development problems of the countries have the appearance by which the daily life is extremely affected and therefore they are up-to-date. These problems primarily refer to a series of current inconveniences such as poverty, misery, insufficient income distribution, unemployment, cheap labour surplus, unqualified personnel surplus, extreme population increase, failure to meet even the most essential needs from time to time, infant mortality, poor health conditions, drinking water and food shortage, environmental problems and education. These problems, which actually make the lives of citizens unbearable, may not be the problems specific only to the third world countries. Especially in the countries where the mafia, organised crime gangs and violence groups are able to be active, the back streets surrounding the background of the cities can turn into the disgrace of the developed countries. In the countries where separatist terrorism is experienced, while expressing the local or national underdevelopment in the context of ‘underdevelopment’ just as the problems of non-development and underdevelopment, on the other hand, shows that the economic growth alone does not bring development. Although it is observed that the countries which have completed the process of industrialisation have largely solved their development problems, it is not possible to attribute development to the economic growth and industrialisation. Since development requires structural and institutional development, it also requires social transformation in this context. A social transformation which is caused by development bears the meaning of cultural change. The transition from feudal society to industrial society, from industrial society to post-industrial society takes place by forming a multi-dimensional and complex problem ball. While the old form of society is being renewed, a series of radical politically, economically and culturally structural and institutional transformations are being achieved. Those who are able to achieve this are less than they are supposed to be. Most of the world, even the most developed countries, still face the problems which are specific to underdeveloped societies. In other words, the vast majority of people in the world do not live in a developed world and they struggle with many problems in their own world where they live. The severe natural or human based conditions such as wars, catastrophes, migrations, culture times, etc., the conditions of economic or political crisis exacerbate the problems of development. In this context, an inflation will be felt throughout the country, or worse than that, economic recession occurs. Sometimes inflation and stagnation occur together (stagflation) and severe depression years lead to serious losses. The concept of development consists of ensuring the economic improvement, establishment of profitable enterprises and increase of income level. Beyond the economic performance, the concept of development is explained today by the fact that more people should be able to lead a better life (Tüylüog˘lu & Çes¸tepe, 2008, p. 37). This means ensuring a general effect that improves the quality of life and life span of the individuals. Then, development, on the one hand, is the realisation of multi-dimensional structural and institutional improvements such

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as minimising unemployment, inequality of opportunity, establishment of the health, education, housing, schooling and stable economic conditions. Defeating the underdevelopment to a very large extent is having been able to put the rights and freedoms of the individuals as well as the economic living standards under guarantee. This evokes the developed countries (G20), which today have completed their enlightenment and modernisation criteria, institutionalised their industrialisation, and even criticised themselves by considering those to be insufficient. That the level of development has increased in the countries where low income level has become high, capital accumulation has occurred and the economic performance in the country has increased is noteworthy. However, in the countries that have not been able to achieve similar conditions, the economic and humanitarian problems based on underdevelopment maintain their existence (Whoole, 2003). The major industrial sector and the local subsistence economy sector, that is the street economy area, which constitute the basis for development, do not create a major problem in terms of meeting the basic needs in the countries which completed their economic development. That the developed capitalist economy is able to meet the basic demands suppress the emergence of big problems. But in the countries where capitalist economies are not sufficiently developed, apart from the structural and institutional problems experienced by the large industrial sector, especially the local subsistence economy sector is confronted with very big problems; an increase in the crime trends primarily as massive unemployment, poverty, homelessness and beyond those, intolerance due to social desperation, violence and theft has been experienced. The failure of the industrial sector to extend the development to the general by covering up the unemployed and poorly paid section in the local subsistence economy sector transforms the local subsistence economy sector into an army of unemployed ones with a high labour power. When the labour depending on soil which has been subjected to loss of value is taken into account, the unemployed labour-force holders who are unproductive and often with no equivalent which has become a massive power occupy the cities. Especially in developing countries, that transition from the classical style of subsistence economy, that is from the agricultural and craftsmanship activities to the industrial sector and failure of the industrialization, cover up all sectors; sometimes remaining inefficient against various pressures and proceeding with low capacity have often made the people remain in the subsistence economy, of which even the basic needs cannot be met desperate. The inequality in income distribution specific to the underdeveloped countries makes this desperation difficult to be eliminated by the state. As a result, those who have taken shelter in the cities upon breaking up with the soil, but who have not been able to find a place in the opportunity circle of the capitalist economy getting stuck in the subsistence economy have had to find a new element for firm hold. This firm hold has been the street salesmanship. People who initially started out the work by selling tiny small goods and services on the streets have managed to establish a street economy and street organisation over time. Today, including the most developed countries, a growing street economy, street politics and street democracy have reached stunning dimensions all over the world.

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STREET ECONOMICS The street inhabitants who are not comprised by the growing national capitalism, moreover the state cannot find a solution to local despair, thus who are obliged to determine their fate through their struggle have unexpectedly begun to grow stronger. The employees of this small-volume economy trapped inside their own globes have managed to achieve a volume of economy at global dimension. The street economy entrepreneurs who are already begun to be called the ‘economy giants’ of the future promise hope both in the economic and in the social and democratic fields. The economic activities surrounding the streets that the capitalist industrial sector does not include, even the state does not consider their activities to be worth registering, have been transformed into a street economy sector. The small jobs called ‘unregistered economy’ have been a sector in which giant turnovers increase exponentially, requiring no technological investments, and from which large capitalist investors emerge. Today, it is known that two billion people provide employment from the street sector. This is referred to as unregistered employment. Considering this situation solely in terms of tax losses has also been considered as that the current economy cuts down the bough on which it has climbed. Of course, the daily local economic activities that the state does not consider to be worth registering due to its small volume; these economic activities concealed from the state should not be understood as furtive and illegal just because of considering them to be unregistered. The term of street economy (global economy) is now used to distinguish between the legal and illegal unregistered (non-taxable) such as handkerchief sales and drug sales. Robert Neuwirth (2012) also uses a highly appropriate term such as ‘Unrestricted Entrepreneurship’ (pp. 31–87). The street vendors are not considered to be guilty because they do not pay taxes and that the state does not expect taxes from them (Tilly, 1978). The street vendors carry out a one-by-one small but totally a very large economic activity sometimes by creating their own business opportunities, sometimes by taking advantage of the available opportunities, without receiving any support for this from the state and non-governmental organisations. They have been growing rapidly all over the world, especially in the developing countries. The companies that are suitable for the system are struggling with laws, taxes, bureaucracy and sometimes corruption; the unregistered small entrepreneurs are tangent to all of this. Moreover, they offer products or services with affordable prices which will satisfy the masses of consumers. There is no high price and big profit margin, because of being unregistered it is not affected too much by the economic crisis. According to the data of the Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation, it is expected that the street economy system which provides 10 trillion dollars of income today will constitute two-thirds of the global employment in the 2020s. In the countries struggling with the economic crisis, street economy also functions as a life preserver. It is asserted that the street economy may have a promising volume in capturing a commercial volume in which the current economy will run without the need to borrow from any institution. It is estimated that the countries that are under crisis and have strong street economy can have

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employment and trade opportunities that they can overcome the economic crisis through current street trade without going under a debt burden. With no doubt, the street economy is replacing the International Money Fund (IMF), but it cannot be denied that the economic power of the street is and will be the life preserver of the countries. At this point, even though the street entrepreneurs are poor, it is obvious that their personalities are strong and combative representations. The calm but powerful walks of the ordinary smart people have echoed all over the world. The street entrepreneurship is not a struggle carried out by the individuals themselves who are separated from each other, on the contrary, it is based on the street organisation into which the state, the markets and the non-governmental organisations do not enter. In addition, the street entrepreneurs cannot be considered as the individuals who reject their citizenship duties just because of being excluded from the commercial tax (Randall; 1973). The street entrepreneurs are the individuals admitting the rights and the duties as being the good citizens of the country. It is appreciated that street entrepreneurs can act harmoniously in the context of locality, for example, local governments and the general government of countries and rights and duties, as well as commercial success. While the type ‘peddler’ of the previous years has been replaced by the ‘street entrepreneur’, the reliable citizenship qualities have been approved by the public almost completely as well. Street entrepreneurship is gradually becoming a reliable face of everyday life. The concept of ‘street’ has been reborn as an ‘identity-venue’; thus, that a strong and permanent economic life has achieved existence in the streets has led to exciting developments for the whole world in the name of democracy. The management of the streets has never been so important. The streets of the world where a business volume of trillions of dollars is involved have suddenly become very important in the twenty-first century. Therefore, the control and management of the streets have become equally important. The mafia-type organisation model that dominates the street in traditional peddling has been subjected to the wrath of both the state and the markets and civil society. The determination to sweep the mafia off the streets and the post-modern daily life has mobilised the state bodies, market makers and the civil society representatives. The defenders and the guardians of the street economy also oppose the mafia-type organisation model that has haunted the streets. In many countries of the world, the struggle for liberating the street economy from the control of the mafia has been carried out. This struggle has basically led to four different approaches. Maintaining the individual rights and free enterprise: (1) Supervision of the street economy should be ensured by the form of guild organisation inherited from the Feudal Period. (2) Supervision of the street economy should be ensured by council-like organisations to be established with local authorities. (3) Supervision of the street economy should be ensured by establishing a chamber of street economists like market organisation. (4) Supervision of the street economy should be ensured by establishing local and general assemblies of street economy. The quest for an inclusive model continues all over the world.

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CONCLUSION The street economy and the street entrepreneurship, which have been able to exhibit a very strong presence and attracted a great deal of attention all over the world, have been influential in a concept of ‘street politics’ to gain power. The work of the Iranian writer Aref Bayat (1998), subject point of which is the ‘street politics’, depicts the domination of the silent and the poor masses of the street on the street as a domain, that is, their domination on the street against the state. The street entrepreneurs have become rich, vocal and powerful by overcoming this poor and silent mass; moreover, they have now got out of being from the third world. For this reason, the subject point is the management of this power of the strong street appropriate to the democracy and the state of law, besides establishing the unity harmonious with the market and the civil society; not the war of existence of the ordinary people on the street against the state power. The actors of the state, the market, civil society and the street would never like a conflict in any form that would reverse the obtained gains. For example, the state intends to maintain its flexibility in the issue of taxation, the market that is the legal and registered business world is away from a plan to include the street and the civil society does not claim any rights on the street. While the strong entrepreneur inhabitants of the streets want to get rid of the mafia-type organisations on the one hand, they want to establish their own organisations in accordance with democracy and the state of law on the other hand. Apart from the state, the market and the nongovernmental organisations, they aim to build the street economy institution as a fourth domain. In other words, they expect to have the street entrepreneurship which already exists in practice but has a mafia-like management attain the legal and democratic administration. The institutionalisation of the collective action on the street in the light of the principles of law and democracy and accomplishment of this without disrupting the harmony of the streetare of great importance both economically and politically. Before the atmosphere of conflict and resistance arises, the stage has been arrived at which the authority has to be mobilised in the pursuit of the common good. Each country has started to produce various formulas according to its level readiness. Different street models are produced in different countries for a strong street economy and street management by putting the street together. The common goal of all these is to increase the interests, to share the advantages and disadvantages, to achieve a good organisation in order to realise the production of resources and services.

REFERENCES Charmes, J. (1999). Contribution of informal sector to GDP in developing countries: Assessment, estimates, methods, orientations for the future. London: Institute of Research Development. ILO. (2018). Women and men in the informal economy: A statistical picture (3rd ed.). Geneva: International Labour Office. Neuwirth, R. (2012). Stealth of nations – The global rise of the international economy. New York: Random House USA Inc. Öztürk, S., & Bas¸ar, D. (2018). Türkiye’de Kadınların I˙s¸gücü Piyasasına Yönelik Tercihleri: Kayıt Dıs¸ı Sektör Özelinde Bir Analiz. Social Security Journal, 8(2), 41–58.

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Randall, J. (1973). Relations in public: Microstudies of the public order by Erving Goffman. Sociological Quarterly, 14(Winter), 135–143. Tilly, C. (1978). From mobilization to revolution. London: Longman Higher Education. Tüylüog˘lu, S¸., & Çes¸tepe, H. (2008). Kalkınma Teorilerinin Temelleri ve Gelis¸imi. M. Kar ve S. Taban (Eds.), Kalkınma Ekonomisi Seçme Konular (pp. 35–87), Bursa: Ekin Yayınevi. Whoole, H. (2003). Urban open spaces. New York, NY: Spon Press.

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CHAPTER 9 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SMART MANUFACTURING DESIGN AT 4.0 INDUSTRIAL VISION IN STREET ECONOMY Merve Yildirim

ABSTRACT In advanced market economies, multinational companies have 4.0 concept for their international value chain. In this study, some of the distinguishing features of 4.0 are discussed as follows: smart products’ development which has location information; realisation of new business models such as using new services for employees in the workplace; individual differences in social infrastructure; sensitive new job structure; and better work–life balance. Low cost, rapid deployment, longevity, low maintenance costs, high quality of service to the application conditions, design of components and features of the platform and application of a low laborious platform-related monitoring with re-all design levels, are focussed on the launching properties. With this approach, it attracts ‘consensus’ phenomenon; and art market price changes of the street stock market movements are at risk from external factors, such as the ‘consensus’ which can manipulate and sign the market prices largely. Keywords: Industry 4.0; design; art; street economy; industrial robot; robotic technology

Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 89–95 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103012

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INTRODUCTION The First Industrial Revolution refers to the break from the old economic systems. This revolution is mainly due to factory production instead of workshop production. In factory production, people used machine, but in workshop, people used human power. Factory production provides growth for the economy and shows dual class structure. The Second Industrial Revolution is generally accepted to be first implemented in Henry Ford’s car factories and especially during World War II, after the post-World War II, Keynesian spending policy of the age of mass production is widely recognised. This term is called Fordism. During this period, competitive intensity and diversity in consumer choice are the only offers of Fordism that has started to push the tool manufacturing, and after this, in 1973, this system collapsed. In 1968, developed programmable machines became preparer for the Third Industrial Revolution. In this period, Fordism stayed away and post-Fordism emerged. Programmable machines turned into industrial robots.

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF INDUSTRY 4.0 The companies and countries highlighted with this term showed the flexibility to respond to consumer choices. The Fourth Industrial Revolution showed new paradigm in production. Although it is discussed now, it was first known in USA in 2006, but it actually brought more powerful voice at Hannover Fair in Germany in 2011 (Alçin, 2016, p. 47). The starting of Industry 4.0 is based on Kagermann, Lukas, and Wahlster’s (2011) article which is also named as the Fourth Industrial Revolution. This Industrial Revolution is based not only on the development in the automation, but also includes smart observation and decision-making processes. The main thought of Industry 4.0 was shown in 2011 by Kagermann but the German National Academy of Science and Engineering (Acatech) published manifesto about this topic; therefore, it had a theoretical frame. However, Industry 4.0 still has some arguments. Conversely, some people think that it is a revolution in industrial process but some others think that it is just an evolution in industry. The final report on the forum of Acatech Industry 4.0 (Acatech, 2013) is distinctive in bringing innovations in this new era which are listed as follows: (1) Storage systems and sources of global interaction. (2) Development of unique smart products which have location information. (3) Provided the intelligent factories which are adaptable to the characteristics of products and have resource optimisation. (4) Coming out with new working styles (using Big Data). (5) Designing a new sensitive job structure for the employees, who are coming from different social infra-structures. (6) Better work–life balance and responding to individual customer’s needs. (7) Instant engineering and intelligent software are developed to instantly respond to problems.

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This means that producer verged an organisation. In this organisation, producers want to respond to customers’ need as quick as possible. Therefore, they organise factories and machines automations. This system will be shaped itself in Industry 4.0 (Ramanathan, 2014, p. 28). However, in today’s productions, using robots is common, especially in China and Japan, but in the future, usage of advanced robot will be preferable in manufacturing plants. Robots can be connected with each other using sensor or Wi-Fi in advanced level robotic technology. This means that, due to Industry 4.0, big investment spendings will be low and hence cost saving will be done (Ramanathan, 2014, p. 29). When we think about salesmen in street economy, it is not difficult to guess about future works and their place. Street economy can take varying roles like its value and will be ready to a new market place in the city culture. In addition, states and sectors need to invest in new employment opportunities, equipping with different skills of the workforce for the new industrial structure. Within 10 years, young people who have raised children of the digital and virtual world will not be challenged for new working conditions, skills required and new business models.

STREET ECONOMY FUNCTIONS Street economy functions and information and communication technologies are changing logistics, designs and fabrication formats significantly while the street economy is necessary to take change also. We need to look at the supply–demand relationship in street economy. In street economy, all the factors that contribute to the creation of competitive advantage can provide economic strength to grow. A country’s development can be determined with patent and information technology analyses. Street economy is very important for a country. It is the first step of changing dynamic economy. Increasing the standards of street economy is a guarantee of the trust for state. It keeps the economy lively. It provides work without looking work power. It is a representative of micro-level with its equipment, advertising and sales and marketing.

STREET ECONOMISTS’ TOOLS DESIGN Design refers to part or all pieces of products’ ornamentation, line, shape, form, colour, texture, material or flexibility of human senses. Industrial product design increases competitiveness by using charming and personalised products, so that companies’ sales can raise up. New and distinctive quality designs save the rights of the manufacturer. It is done in the registration office. The European Union supports industrial design to contribute to the economy. It supports registration protection method. We live in an age of information and communication technology, increasing the importance of the design. Technologically advanced countries are giving importance to research and development (R&D). Innovation and invention move forward with the development of continuous restoring of ourself, taking designs protected

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under registered design of intensive industrial uses. Design firms in the industryintensive works are more global, and import and export volumes are high, it is more efficient in production and profit shares. Design has a direct contribution to unemployment, staff salaries and gross domestic product values. European Union promotes information and communication technology, invention, design and innovative production so that R&D activities do not remain behind only in Japan, America and China who are using technology and innovation perfectly. Peddlers are called street economists who are like a driving force in Turkey. Street economy is available for all people with services of suitable fees and products. Therefore, it has neither great profit margins nor high prices. When people buy from streets, this system also gets bigger. It means that this system is not affected from global fees down or up. Using technological opportunities is inevitable for the continuation and sustainability of civilisations. For example, in the future, an intelligent fridge can understand which food is decreased or when would it end up and it will give an information to people who are at work using the internet. Moreover, for instance, smart unmanned autonomous running commercial taxis will be produced and people will call a cab where their locations are identified over the internet and then pay again in the near future. It will be possible to imagine on the internet. It is also possible to imagine this system in street sellers’ car. The basic principle of the ongoing business processes in a factory sensor detected with the necessary information is stored in cloud computing on the internet. This information is obtained around a certain distance and it can be accessed from any internet-connected points of observation and smart decision-making processes through more intelligent systems and will allow people to join the production of machines. Internet of Things (IoT) is an architecture of all to be used in the production of structures and in touch with each other. This transfer of information is obtained by sensors on the internet as it eliminates many difficulties resulting from any point with internet access. This access presents the possibility of information transfer. This intelligent system will facilitate our access to information about what we want about street vendors, car design and sales revenues. For example, in recent years, we come across frequently in our daily life the so-called smart stops in

Fig. 9.1.  Benefits of Street Economists’ Vehicle Design.

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Fig. 9.2.  Designed Vehicles by Merve Yıldırım.

transportation by bus or metro stops’ locations of IoT that will arrive at the stop where the service is presented. Especially the so-called Metropolitan (Metro) in major cities will monitor the traffic density control in real time, and IoT has brought many benefits to our service. Transiently, the traffic density on the roads is known by a simple mobile application to drive. Street vendors need to eliminate the physical and visual pollution. Urban life and the dynamics of the way to serve our industry will come when the city is equipped with a 4.0 technology, which is a century with an excellent new face where old face is not as modern and the age takes the place of appropriate advertising and marketing network. Also, they will be the safe observers. To create the image of the city culture aesthetic, the design of product sales of street economists stands in the complicated structure of the industry which is essential to vision 4.0. Street design and the availability of tools which individuals purchase for a new vision was referring to action safe route that will be a profile. It will be determined as new roles in international work sharing.

RESULT The design of the street tools includes reinforcement in cost, rapid deployment, longevity, low maintenance cost, high service quality, advertising property and compatibility of climate change, such that potential buyers will make standard and will be ready to pay the price of the brand that covers person’s work. Knowledge, experience and creativity and competition with the concept of street vendors, tools and evaluation to be strong in the market is a prerequisite. Smart products’ development has location information, realisation of new business models (Big Data) such as using new services for employees in the workplace, individuals with differences in social infrastructure, sensitive new job structure and better work–life balance. Instant engineering and intelligent

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software are developed to instantly respond individual consumer requests. In this integration, 4.0 concept affects the city culture, sales economists’ aims to reveal differences in the design of the stands which are not only a vehicle but also services. It will determine the new roles in work sharing. In this way, a simple purchase–sale transaction in the street economy is much more complicated than the function of a network system. This networking set intersects with each other, that is each commercial player’s activity. In the market place, all salesmen differ from each other but they all agree when they choose a product and its advertising. This approach attracts ‘consensus’. Benefits are open to debate.

SUMMARY In advanced market economies, multinational companies have 4.0 concept for their international value chain. This concept represents manufacturing and services which are largely important in this world. This new process is named as the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Advanced engineering systems should actually integrate industrial competition based on cheap labour force in the international arena 4.0, instead have brought competition based on high value-added production. In this study, some of the distinguishing features of 4.0 are discussed as follows: smart products’ development which has location information; realisation of new business models (Big Data) such as using new services for employees in the workplace; individuals with differences in social infrastructure; sensitive new job structure; and better work–life balance. Instant engineering and intelligent software are developed to instantly respond individual consumer requests. In this integration, 4.0 concept affects city culture and sales economists’ aims to reveal differences in the design of the stands which are not only a vehicle but also services. It will determine the new roles in work sharing. Low cost, rapid deployment, longevity, low maintenance costs, high quality of service to the application conditions, the design of components and features of the platform and application of a low laborious platform-related monitoring with re-all design levels are focussed on the launching properties. Observation and management of climate changes and environment are very important in the design. In this way, a simple purchase–sale transaction in the street economy is much more complicated than the function of a network system. In market place, all salesmen differ from each other, but they all agree when they choose a product and its advertising. With this approach, it attracts ‘consensus’ phenomenon; and art market price changes of the street stock market movements are at risk from external factors, such as the ‘consensus’ which can manipulate and sign the market prices largely. The most striking example of the manipulation phenomenon is the application of economics to business strategy, and marketing activities and street designs that will be moving oneself forward, bringing them into a brand name, such that potential buyers will be ready to pay the price of the brand. There is some need for being multidisciplinary to educational deviancies and approaches of the producer.

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REFERENCES Acatech. (2013). Acatech: Recommendations for implementing the strategic Initiative Industrie 4.0. Final Report of the Industry 4.0 Working Group. Alçin, S. (2016). Endüstri 4.0 ve İnsan Kaynakları. Popüler Yönetim Dergisi, (63), 47. Kagermann, H., Lukas, W., & Wahlster, W. (2011). Industry 4.0 – Mit dem Internet der Dinge auf dem Weg zur 4. Industriellen Revolution. Berlin: VDI Nachrichten. Ramanathan, K. (2014). Industry 4.0: Implications for the Asia Pacific manufacturing industry (pp. 24–29).

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CHAPTER 10 REHABILITATION OF CHILDREN WORKING ON THE STREET Mustafa Sarı

ABSTRACT First of all, street economy should be accepted as an economical power by everybody, and the legislations should be arranged according to developing conditions of the country and the world. However, children under the age of 15 should not be involved in formal or informal street economy in any case. For this issue, occupations that will contribute to mental and psychological developments of children can be provided by adults and experts in vocational skill courses. Children who are oriented towards the occupation should develop their vocational education in the fields of hobby and art in Children and Youth Centers. For example, children with a hobby of music and playing should learn their hobbies in controlled courses. Keywords: Children; youth centers; child workers; street economy; vocational education; education

Street economy is the whole of visible, known and experienced in reality; however it is invisible in formal records and unregistered economic movements. Although its economic potential is not registered in the official records of the countries, it is seen as a serious power in the money mobility in the economy of countries. Actually, street economy can be assumed like the capillaries of the registered economy. However, a large part of the areas where money mobility moves such as street trading, begging, street cleaning, etc. can sometimes have to face the obstacles of local or international legislations. Although public services are conducted, these Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 97–99 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103013

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sectors are usually considered to be contrary to legislation and they are exposed to sanctions such as criminal sanction, extraction of the area and confiscation. There may be some justifications of these sanctions in the point of human rights. For instance, the exploitation and employment of young children cannot be accepted in anyway and it is strictly banned by human rights international conventions.

WHAT IS THE SOLUTION? First of all, street economy should be accepted as an economical power by everybody, and the legislations should be arranged according to developing conditions of the country and the world. However, the children under age of 15 should not be involved in any form of formal or informal street economy in any case. For this issue, occupations that will contribute to mental and psychological developments of children can be provided by adults and experts in vocational skill courses. Unfortunately, adults generally act with the motive in order to ignore and push street workers out of the system. However, we are still not aware of the economic power that we push out of the system or we may sometimes act with the motive in order to save the day instead of communicating with every aspect of the complex structure within the system. Nevertheless, there is economic power in the name of street economy what or however we do, and it is intertwined with the countries in terms of informal money, good and service. It is possible to see the children in the foreground in all stages of street economy, because if we consider the presence of working children estimated to be 80,000 or 100,000 in our country and to be 250 million in the world, it is observed that children have important role in this economy. If we accept or not, the children and adults in different occupations like garbage collectors, beggars, handkerchief sellers, window wipers, street vendors and unrecorded stallholders are the members of street economy in our country. The perception of their job as a crime in various legislations in the daily life takes away from the instinct that employees should be recorded in this area. Because the most important factor is that they see the job as a crime. With half a century’s city police law and similar laws, we try to prevent the work of employees. However, this is not the case in the world countries as well as in human rights. Taking pennies from the peddler’s hands and cutting the penalty are not easy in our country, which has passed ID number recently. It is known that the penalties written couldn’t find the addressee and remained in the middle, even if it is found, the collection couldn’t be done in most of the time. This is an important factor to unregister these people with this application. Because it remains unrequited to the legislation of their occupation. They see themselves as being shifted and pushed out of registered system. They think that this situation is a favour to them in many ways. They always prefer to stay away from registration. Therefore, there are no studies on the number of these people. Despite the fact that the beggars with the exploitation of emotions are greater economic power, they continue to beg. However, it has turned into a structure that has been organised in itself and has become a gang-up. For example, considering that the garbage collectors share the streets, becoming gang is widespread alongside informality.

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In general, there is a sector with money circulation, and this unregistered economy, i.e. the street economy, has become competitive with the registered economy.

SOLUTION The first thing is to accept the presence of informal employees and reorganise our legislation accordingly. In these areas, we have to start a new study named as a new formation. At first, we must agree that young children’s status is not in accordance with the laws of our country and with international legislations in any way. In addition, we should widespread Children and Youth Centres from metropolitan cities to the most remote settlements for eliminating the reasons that pushed the children to the streets. The children having problems with the family, school lessons and poverty for various reasons should receive service from these centres. Children in the negative layers of the informal economy should be withdrawn from this area rapidly. Children who are oriented towards the occupation should develop their vocational education in the fields of hobby and art in Children and Youth Centres. For example, children with a hobby of music and playing should learn their hobbies in controlled courses. Then, the tax legislation should be simplified in countries to register non-child actors in the formal economy, and the most taxpayer’s understanding of law taxes will enable the national economy to gain from the release and will enable the employees to register and pay tax. This situation will provide the integration of excluded occupations and those who do, and it also makes them to be members of the society with the sense of responsibility. Therefore, countries should accept the existence of professions to record these layers of society and seek ways to incorporate them into the system by minimising bureaucratic procedures. Basketry, which is the profession of the century, will live and will increase the use of people’s basket that has positive contribution to the environment with the facilitating production conditions of profession named basket maker and regulation of market areas.

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PART III STREET ECONOMY CASE STUDIES

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CHAPTER 11 ORGANISING THE STREET VENDORS IN INDIA: ISSUES, CHALLENGES AND SUCCESSES Arbind Singh

ABSTRACT This chapter discusses The Context of Street Vendors in India: A Tale of Invisible Visibility in August during the Executive Committee Meeting of National Alliance of Street Vendors of India (NASVI). During the Mumbai workshop, a vendor talked about the idea of a Natural Market, as a place where buyers naturally congregated, such as at a temple or a hospital, as opposed to places where municipal authorities attempted to rehabilitate evicted vendors where buyers did not come automatically. The Street Vending Act states that no existing street vendor can be displaced until the local authorities conduct a census of street vendors in the concerned urban centre and prepare a City Vending Plan. Representatives of street vendors will constitute 40 per cent of its membership and women will comprise at least 33 per cent of the street vendors’ representatives. Another factor which brought vendors closer to NASVI is its holistic understanding of vendors’ needs. Keywords: India; NASVI; Street Vending Act; street vendors; public policy; policy making

THE CONTEXT OF STREET VENDORS IN INDIA: A TALE OF INVISIBLE VISIBILITY In August during the Executive Committee Meeting of National Alliance of Street Vendors of India (NASVI), a Street Vendor leader from Lucknow Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 103–114 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103014

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vented his frustration saying no progress has taken place in his city and the Street Vendor Law has been a waste of opportunity. He went on to add that the mandatory Town Vending Committee (TVC) has been constituted by the Municipal Corporation but meetings are not conducted. Municipal Authorities continue to act on their whims and fancies. The money under National Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM; followed the Street Vending Act) meant for capacity building has been squandered through a local organisation without benefitting the vendors. He added that they went to the court but the local government implemented the first part of the order and set up the TVC and thereafter have been maintaining ‘Golden Silence’ and have been doing whatever they want. India has often been termed as a Soft State, unable to enforce its own laws and more so the laws and policies meant for the poor. Thus, the Jury is still out as to the impact of the Street Vendor (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act 2014 enacted by the Indian Parliament, the fact remains that when NASVI began organising the Street Vendors in 1999 the street vendors did not even exist in the official records of municipal bodies though they were all over the town and cities of India. There was very little organising on the ground and no systematic mode of struggle. In the 1990s, the Indian economy opened up as a consequence of the adoption of policies of liberalisation and privatisation. Global and globalising macroeconomic processes, which necessitated these economic reforms, opened a floodgate of opportunities in Indian cities. The new opportunities created in cities and the simultaneous erosion of the rural livelihood base pushed people out of villages, leading to an accelerated rate of urbanisation. While street vendors have always been there providing goods and services to millions at an affordable rate on their doorsteps, growing informalisation and unabated urbanisation suddenly increased their numbers in Indian cities. For want of any other alternative, a large number of rural migrants ended up joining informal economy as street vendors. Close on the heels of these developments came a series of elitist plans and court judgements to give a so-called ‘facelift’ to the urban landscape and transform Indian cities into ‘the next Hong Kong or Shanghai’. A number of over-enthusiastic municipal administrators took it upon themselves to clean cities of street vendors, earning nicknames like ‘Bulldozer Man’. At the same time, in some areas, street vending was being declared a cognisable and non-bailable offence. Due to unrealistic licence ceilings in other cities, most vendors became illegal by default which made them more prone to bribery and extortion. Few cities which had hitherto giving licence to vendors stopped issuing fresh licences. Despite the fact that they had contributed significantly to the urban economy, they faced humiliation, continual harassment, confiscations, and sudden evictions on a regular basis. There come any large-scale events such as elections, visits by the Prime Minister or President, or even community festivals, they were first to be displaced without any notice. Despite working for more than 12 hours a day, they remained impoverished and thus underfed and malnourished. Furthermore, since they spent most of their working time on open roads, they are vulnerable to different types of diseases. Their vulnerabilities are

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exacerbated by lack of toilets and sanitary facilities, having a particularly adverse impact on women vendors. Despite this incessant exploitation, the growing vulnerabilities and deprivation, street vendors were everywhere, yet they were nowhere. They were on the sidewalks, along the streets, across the roads, but not in the statistics, the media or research publications. They were inseparable parts of the city landscape, but not in the consciousness of urban planners. They were inextricably linked with the daily lives of the city dwellers, but they were miles away from the hearts and minds of municipal administrators. They were everywhere, yet they were nowhere: omnipresent, yet invisible! In a context where collective bargaining power of workers in organised sector had been dwindling, the precarity was yet more extreme for street vendors who were marginalised and unorganised. A social actor was urgently needed who could facilitate their unionisation possible and thereby advance advocacy of their rights through the formulation of appropriate policies, the enactment of relevant laws and the provision of adequate social protection benefits. They needed to organise; to influence policies and programmes; Formation of NASVI: An Alliance. The need of the hour was to effect a change of perception regarding street vendors in the minds of administrators, legislators, elected representatives, urban planners and the public at large. This could only happen if a national movement were established with a view to fostering a holistic and comprehensive policy in favour of street vendors. It was felt that a national network of street vendors should be formed which would work as a core actor, facilitator, aggregator and a catalyst. As a consequence, NASVI was formed.

THE ALLIANCE AT WORK At that time, networking had earned a bad name, primarily because of lack of democratic decision making, financial transparency and the consistency in its efforts. Aware of such pitfalls, NASVI aimed at building a credible organisation and ultimately making a national policy for street vendors a reality. Immediately after formation, the biggest task was to identify and associate organisations working with street vendors. Contact was naturally established with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and trade unions, but surprisingly very few of them worked with street vendors, leading the search to a different category of organisations – membership and community-based street vendor organisations. Some were registered under the Societies Registration Act. One or two were registered under the Trade Union Act. They were not affiliated to any central trade unions, though some had political affiliations. The first task was to bring together these vendor organisations and to make the Alliance truly national in form and character. A series of four regional multi-stakeholder meetings were organised in Mumbai, Bangalore, Delhi and Patna – the four corners of the country. Each meeting was attended by street vendors, vendor leaders, municipal administrators, and elected representatives, as well as civil society organisations and the media. These meetings broke new ground for NASVI. Out of many outcomes, the following warrant special mention:

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(1) Perhaps for the first time, all the stakeholders shared a common platform and listened to each other’s perspective. Most of the participants who attended these meetings became partners or allies of NASVI and stood by it in all of its future initiatives. (2) During the Mumbai workshop, a vendor talked about the idea of a Natural Market, as a place where buyers naturally congregated, such as at a temple or a hospital, as opposed to places where municipal authorities attempted to rehabilitate evicted vendors where buyers did not come automatically. This phrase was instantly picked up by NASVI and it became part of the activist lexicon, every document which came up afterwards, be it research paper, policy note or the drafted bill, talked about developing natural markets. (3) In the states in which these meetings were organised, advocacy for vendors’ rights accelerated. (4) These meetings were covered extensively in the media, and suddenly, the issues of street vendors started to gain a national identity. This conglomeration of membership organisations enabled NASVI to trigger the process of organising and at the same time raise the pitch of advocacy with urban local bodies, state governments and national government. NASVI helped the street vendors to register their organisations and strengthen them by investing a great deal of energy in leadership development. At the same time, NASVI realised that in order to advance policy interventions, it is important to engage with administrators and planners, with the professed problem all these stakeholders were full of prejudiced opinions and held to the pattern of the fewer the facts, the stronger the opinion. A robust dataset was needed to frame the issues, articulate the arguments for an effective dialogue and advocacy. Keeping this in mind, NASVI commissioned a study by late Sharit Bhowmik entitled ‘Hawkers in the Urban Informal Sector: A Study of Street Vending in Seven Cities’ (Bhowmik, 2001). This landmark report became the basis for all ensuing dialogue and interventions on street vendors, not only in India but internationally as well. After the survey was completed, NASVI discussed the findings with the concerned Ministry of the Indian Government and pressed for serious steps to improve the conditions of street vendors. Due to NASVI’s persistent efforts, in May 2001, the ministry organised a National Workshop on Street Vendors in Delhi. The Cabinet Minister as well as the Minister of State attended the workshop along with senior bureaucrats. NASVI mobilised members from almost every street vendor organisation in the country as well as some NGOs to attend the workshop. The findings of the survey were presented at the workshop and during the two days, representatives of the street vendors deliberated on their problems. In the valedictory session, the Minister announced that his Ministry would establish a National Task Force to draft a National Policy on Street Vending, which in turn was formed in August of the same year. Besides the Minister of State, the members comprised senior officials of the ministry, mayors, municipal commissioners, senior police officials and representatives of trade unions. After meetings held in Delhi and Ahmedabad, the Secretary of the Ministry proposed that a Drafting Committee should be formed to prepare the draft policy document. This seven-member committee was formed

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in April 2002 and included the author of the NASVI study. Much of the content and approach of the policy can be attributed to the presence of activists and representatives of the vendors’ movement in the Drafting Committee. This draft national policy on street vendors was circulated to all states and union territories (UTs), with concerned ministries and departments of government and other stakeholders soliciting their comments. On the basis of the inputs received, final draft policy was prepared and approved by the Cabinet on 20 January 2004. The state governments were requested to adopt the policy with or without any change to suit local conditions and also respecting any court decisions which may impinge on the issue. NASVI not only influenced the policy as a part of the drafting committee, but also helped its partner organisations in influencing the documents containing inputs from their respective state governments.

NASVI: FROM ALLIANCE TO ASSOCIATION Given the magnitude and complexities of its work, NASVI was finding it difficult to function as a network now, but it was not clear what form should it take in the future. A consultation was organised with all stakeholders towards the end of June 2002. Various options were deliberated upon. The majority felt that if NASVI chose to register as a trade union it would come into competition with existing trade unions. Furthermore, since many trade unions are affiliated to various political parties, it would not have been palatable for them and entire exercise would have been counterproductive if NASVI came in to conflict with them. Hence, it was decided that, in its new avatar, NASVI would be a membership-based organisation registered under Societies Registration Act 1860 with membership open to trade unions, community-based organisations, NGOs and individuals working with the street vendors. At the same time, under the Societies Registration Act, members could participate in its general body, be elected to positions, thereby promoting democratic norms and the participation of the members. A 25-member Executive Committee with one-third women and one-third street vendors was envisaged. The Executive Committee was to be elected every third year by the General Body. Rechristened as the National Association of Street Vendors of India (NASVI), the new organisation was ready to focus on the work at hand.

NATIONAL POLICY ON URBAN STREET VENDORS, 2004 While the newly registered NASVI was holding its maiden General Body Meeting (GBM), the Indian cabinet met to discuss the draft policy. Soon after the conclusion of the GBM, cabinet decided to adopt the National Policy on Urban Street Vendors, a moment of great historic significance. For the first time in the history of India, street vendors were officially described as contributors to the urban economy and not as encroachers into public space, a paradigm shift in true sense of term. At the same time, it was a landmark for the informal urban economy in general, because for the first time the government had taken steps to regulate a significant portion of self-employed workers. The Policy aimed to ‘provide and

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promote supportive environment for earning livelihoods to the street vendors, as well as ensure absence of congestion and maintenance of hygiene in public spaces and streets’ (Government of India, 2004). This goal was expected to be achieved through a series of measures to:

• Create legal status for street vendors, laying the groundwork for the creation and enforcement of a zoning scheme; • Provide civic facilities for spaces identified as vending zones in accordance with city master plans; • Use nominal fee-based regulation to control access, basing occupancy limits • • • •

on previous occupancy and eschewing numerical limits created by discretionary licences; Promote street vendor organisations; Create a participatory planning service that incorporates civil society, local authorities and street vendors themselves; Encourage street vendors to self-regulate and self-organise, particularly with respect to issues of hygiene and waste disposal; and Promote access to skill development programmes for street vendors.

Interestingly, adoption of this policy gave a new, more tangible incentive to the street vendors to organise themselves, largely because they could see a road map for securing better conditions for themselves, they could easily use the policy as a reference point to protest forced evictions and other harassment. Small and locally active street vendors’ organisations even sought to federate at state level in order to put a combined pressure on the respective state governments and municipal bodies for implementation of the policy.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE POLICY For NASVI, one crucial phase of its journey was over, since its prime mandate was to push for a national policy. NASVI’s membership base swelled and it felt more strengthened for further action with a changed agenda. The next challenge was to ensure implementation of the policy. Since India is a federal country, policies serve merely as guidelines. For implementation, they need to be adopted by the state and municipal bodies. Invigorated with newly found visibility of vendors’ issues, vendors’ organisations started mounting pressure on municipal bodies to implement policy in letter and spirit. NASVI provided resources, ideas and encouragement to its partners. While few states made sincere efforts for effective implementation, the process of implementation did throw interesting and innovative ideas for example, while Odisha created 52 vending zones in its state capital, Madhya Pradesh identified numerous hawkers’ corners across the state, and Delhi came up with a two-tier independent grievance redressal structure headed by district judges. Innovative ideas such as the setting-up of women’s markets also came up. One of the major advantages of the policy was that the contract system of collection of municipal taxes by private contractors across India was abolished. This step freed the

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vendors from organised crime where vendors’ organisations were strong and was a concrete discernible success for NASVI members. NASVI could also collect stories of many local victories where policy was used effectively. Small but significant local victories build the credibility and strengthened its position in local politicoadministrative environments and paved the way for stronger future actions.

TOWARDS AN ACT When the National Commission on Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (NCEUS) was set up, it was assigned the task of reviewing the Policy of 2004. The commission consulted street vendors through NASVI and based on their vital inputs, a chapter on street vendors was added in the first major report by the commission (NCEUS, 2007). Later, in 2009, the Policy was revised and accompanied by a model law on street vending which could be adopted by state governments with modifications suited to their geographical and local conditions. The Prime Minister wrote to all the provincial governments to implement this policy. However, since the implementation of policy had not been satisfactory in several states, in 2009, NASVI decided to fight for both policy implementation and the enactment of a central law to protect the livelihood and social security of street vendors. Until this point, NASVI had been headquartered in Patna in the eastern Bihar State, but Delhi is the centre of administration in India. Following a suggestion made by external consultants, NASVI moved to New Delhi in order to intensify its efforts for central legislation. This strategic shift helped NASVI tremendously in the ensuing years. In the meanwhile, a verdict of Supreme Court of India in October 2010 came as a shot in the arm for NASVI. The verdict said that the vendors had fundamental right to carry on their businesses under Article 19 (1) g of the Indian Constitution and that this right must be protected by a law (Supreme Court of India, 2010). The Court directed the ‘appropriate’ government to enact law for vendors by 30 June 2011, although the term ‘appropriate’ government engendered conflicting interpretations. Bureaucrats argued that a central law was not possible because local urban issues, according to the Constitution of India, were a responsibility of the state governments and only they had the authority to modify or change municipal rules. This view was challenged by NASVI and it argued that street vending should not be seen as an issue of urban policy, but rather, as an issue of livelihoods. This implied that there could be a central law. Earlier, in 2005, the Government of India had taken a similar policy decision by introducing the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act which provided for 100 days of employment in rural areas. This was a central law which was implemented by the local self-governing bodies within the states. This reframing helped create an enabling environment for the enactment of a law. Close on the heels of Supreme Court verdict, NASVI started to approach the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (MHUPA) to press for a central law. A 10-member delegation met the minister and put forward the demands. To exercise additional pressure, encouraged by NASVI, more than

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100,000 postcards were sent to the minister demanding a central law. NASVI, along with its members in different states, organised a series of demonstrations and strategic meetings of street vendors in all its constituents in the states to create pressure from below for a uniform law to protect street vendors. As NASVI affiliates across India lobbied their respective Members of Parliament to exercise pressure within their parties and within Parliament, it organised a Ratha Yatra Campaign, chariot journeys in the form of processions, to attract the attention of state governments for policy implementation and law-making. It yielded significant results. Several states governments formulated policies and enacted state laws in favour of street vendors. NASVI took up the issue of the central law with the chairperson of the National Advisory Council (NAC), a body set up to advise the Prime Minister on policy matters. The NAC deliberated on the issue in its several meetings, and in May 2011, it recommended a central law to the Government of India. While the central leadership of NASVI was busy meeting with political parties of all hues, vendor organisations across India posted hundreds of memoranda and petitions in June 2011 to the Prime Minister demanding early initiation of the process of law-making. NASVI urged all its member organisations to organise protests in their cities on the 14 July 2011, mounting pressure on the government to initiate the process. The protests were held in at least 30 cities simultaneously. In the next month, thousands of vendors surrounded the parliament to demand a central law, and a 7 member NASVI delegation met MHUPA Minister with a 10-point charter of demands. The minister agreed that the problems of vendors could only be solved through a law. In October 2011, the Ministry of Law sought the opinion of the Attorney General of India. The Attorney General gave his opinion in favour of central law for street vendors in November 2011. NASVI organised a huge national convention of street vendors on the theme of ‘Cities for All’ on 19 November 2011 in Delhi. The MHUPA Minister inaugurated it and announced that the government would bring in central law for street vendors. The Bill was drafted with vital inputs from NASVI. On the 17 August, 2012, the Union Cabinet approved the Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Bill, and on the 6 September, the Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian parliament. The Bill had many key provisions enabling vendors to access to rights and entitlements, but also had several shortcomings which attracted discontent from the street vendors, who expressed their desire for amendments. Subsequently, the Bill was sent to the Standing Committee of the Parliament. NASVI presented its concerns and points of amendment to the Bill before the Standing Committee. To gain further momentum, on 13 March 2013, when the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Urban Development tabled its report on the floor of the houses, a huge Rehri Patri Sansad, or street vendors’ parliament, took place in Delhi. In May, NASVI organised an event ‘Dialogue of Street Vendors with Political Leaders and Civil Society Representatives to Convert Street Vendors’ Bill into Act in Delhi. This dialogue, which was attended by leaders from different political parties, helped to develop a consensus over the provisions of the Bill. On the same day, the union cabinet approved the amended Street Vendors Bill. In August, the

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street vendors across states again sent thousands of letters to the president of the ruling party and chairperson of the ruling coalition urging her to ensure the passage of the Bill. The Lok Sabha passed the Bill in September 2013. Now, NASVI had to sustain the momentum to ensure its passage in the Rajya Sabha or the upper house of the parliament. It campaigned vigorously. Another round of a huge Rehri Patri Sansad was called. A series of meetings were held with speaker of the Lok Sabha and leaders of ruling and opposition parties. Then, 30 vendors drawn from different parts of the country sat on an indefinite hunger strike in Delhi which lasted for four days, and were supported by many thousands more, exerting yet more pressure. Yielding to this pressure, the Rajya Sabha also passed the Street Vendors’ Bill on 19 February 2014. The Bill became Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act 2014 after the formal ascent from the President of India. It was a historic occasion, another key milestone in NASVI’s journey. Many described it as ‘a unique innovation in urban governance within the global South’. This landmark legislation, perhaps first of its kind in the world, accorded an unprecedented power to the cause of street vendors which is destined to affect more than 10 million individuals. The Act states that no existing street vendor can be displaced until the local authorities conduct a census of street vendors in the concerned urban centre and prepare a City Vending Plan. All existing vendors have to be provided with permits for conducting their business, and a TVC will supervise the activities of the vendors. This committee, which will be the main policy making body on street vending, comprises municipal authorities, police, the health department and other stakeholders. Representatives of street vendors will constitute 40 per cent of its membership and women will comprise at least 33 per cent of the street vendors’ representatives.

NATIONAL URBAN LIVELIHOOD MISSION As the pitch for Street Vending Law was being raised continuously by NASVI, the Government of India was also in the process of framing the National Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM). NASVI ensured that a chapter on street vendors be included in the mission document on NULM. Under NULM, 5 per cent of the funds have been earmarked for street vendors. The funds are to be utilised for surveys; developing city level vending plan; financial inclusion; and capacity building (MHUPA 2013). Thus, the earlier complaint of State Governments and Municipal Authorities citing lack of financial resources as reason for nonimplementation of 2004 Policy was done away with.

NASVI’S WORK POST-ENACTMENT Under sections 36 and 38 of the Act, state governments were expected to frame rules and schemes within one year. NASVI uses the power at its disposal to ensure that rules are framed quickly and justly. It provides relevant input to both the state governments as well as vendor’s organisation. It also ensures that provisions

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which are not in favour of vendors are not inserted into the rules. For example, the scheme being formulated by the Delhi state government had a number of provisions which we not vendor-friendly. NASVI had to put up a spirited fight to get the leading authorities to make the desired amendments. According to the Government of India, by February 2019, Rules have been notified by 30 states/UTs; Scheme notified by 21 states/UTs; 2,777 TVCs have been formed in 21 states; 270 Town Vending Plan have been completed in 14 States; States like Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Telangana and Uttar Pradesh have sanctioned proposals for infrastructure development in vendor market. Vending zones have been set up in many cities across India. It is envisaged in the Act that local urban bodies will conduct training programmes to school the street vendors on aspects such as their rights and responsibilities about specific polices or law related to street vendors, on food safety, maintenance of hygiene, waste disposal and similar issues. NASVI is pursuing efforts in this regard as well, namely surveys of vendors and the issuing of identity cards have begun in numerous cities. Identity cards have made a quantum change in the vendors’ confidence, used to conduct their business without fear.

WHAT WORKED FOR NASVI? People say that NASVI has been successful because it could press the ‘right buttons at right time’ and things worked out for it. Yes, it did press the ‘right buttons’, but not always and not easily. In some instances, there weren’t even any ‘buttons’ to press, and NASVI developed those pressure points. In some cases, the points of access were not immediately obvious, and in others NASVI was unaware of how to pursue them to its favour. NASVI achieved what it did because it kept on learning and reinventing its methods,

FEW INSTANCES WOULD NOT BE OUT OF PLACE As pointed out earlier, it was not easy to bring street vendors together primarily because they were absent from statistics and they were mobile, fragmented and spatially dispersed due to the very nature of their occupation. In most cases, they were not organised. In instances where vendors’ organisations existed, they were small, temporary and unregistered. NASVI started to help street vendors form and register unions and bring them under the national umbrella, provide all kinds of support to fight on local issues through legal aid, informational input and a capacity-building programme. A series of training programmes were held on negotiations, organisation building, leadership development, accounts management, promotion of co-operatives and so on. Local victories drew other members to its fold. Of course, adoption of National Policy made NASVI a household name in this sector and rate of unionisation of street vendors increased (See the details of its membership profile in Fig. 11.1).

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Attracting members was important, but ensuring cohesion between existing members was of greater importance. It was ensured by attending to their calls; supplying them with requisite documents; arranging for material resources; providing them with legal aids whenever needed; and most importantly building their capacities through awareness, skills training and exposure visits. In local struggles, NASVI always remains in the background and pushed the local organisation to the centre stage. It not only enhances the stature of that organisation but also bolsters their confidence and self-esteem; enhances their image in the local media; and most importantly, helps them to become them self-reliant. Members are now taking up all the responsibilities of their city and sometimes even pursuing advocacy at the state level. The promptness with which NASVI acts has also brought vendors closer to it. For example, NASVI does not just concentrate on issues brought by the partner organisations alone. The core team has a tradition of producing a weekly internal ‘Hotspots’ digest of news from the street vending sector. Picking up these issues for its own cognisance has not only helped NASVI to keep a hand on the pulse of the sector, but also has reduced reaction time and thereby improved efficiency. Another factor which brought vendors closer to NASVI is its holistic understanding of vendors’ needs. NASVI does not only take care of their emergent legal and regulatory concerns, but it also looked at their health issues and the provision of microcredit, as well as enhancing their employability through skill training, health insurance and related facilities. The comprehensiveness of its concern has earned tremendous respect for NASVI. The togetherness has been further cemented through the publication and distribution of NASVI’s fortnightly bilingual newsletter ‘ Footpath Ki Awaaz, Voices from the Sidewalk’, which is now only published in electronic edition though it started in print form. WhatsApp has enabled easy circulation. It provides information about ongoing local struggles, news related to successes and failures, and examples of good practice, informing, inspiring and educating its readership and developing a sense of camaraderie among them – a bond emanating from a sense of shared lives and struggles. It also publishes stories of leaders of vendor organisations which motivated these leaders further. Leadership recognition has been the cornerstone of NASVI’s strategy. Any association is only as good as its people. NASVI can safely boast of a team of motivated, professionally qualified and tactful individuals. Due to their sincerity, they could attract quality people and partner organisations by acting as bridges over the years. For instance, NASVI has identified a fleet of lawyers who fight for the street vendor issues pro bono; researchers who have done ground breaking research; and sympathetic administrators and policy makers who have promoted the cause of vendors at every possible platform. NASVI always looks for innovative ways to instil a positive image of street vendors in the minds of public at large. One unique way to achieve this was through a National Street Food Festival, which fostered an appreciation of vendors’ lives and legitimate contributions to the city’s fabric and gave vendors confidence that when food could be prepared in hygienic way and presented aesthetically, it could command premium price. Vendors could earn more money in the three days of

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the festival compared to what would have taken months to earn. Having held the 10th edition, the food festivals have enhanced the self-esteem of the vendors exponentially. They have not only realised power-to and power-with, but these festivals have given them a deeper sense of power-within as well. Taking it to the next level, the NASVI Street Food Private Ltd has been established with street food vendors as shareholders. Now the street food vendors participate in international street food festivals as well, and there are state chapters. An initiative has been launched in collaboration with Food Safety Departments, the Food Safety and Standard Authority of India and the Skill India Mission to skill and certify all the food vendors of India. The media have played a pivotal role in making NASVI what it is today. Every activity conducted by NASVI was given due coverage both in print and electronic media. Rightly being a tool of mass communication, it not just raised awareness but informed the public. Social media and NASVI’s website have played a similar role.

CONCLUDING COMMENTS Positive positioning steered by a visionary leadership has been key to NASVI gradually gaining ground, first through a policy, then a series of court judgements, and finally an act to safeguard the rights and promote interests of street vendors. While its efforts over the years have given voice and visibility to street vendors, NASVI is not going to rest on its laurels. As a way forward, it has three core objectives to work towards: to enlarge its reach by expanding into new areas; to ensure effective implementation of the provisions of Act by maintaining pressure on state governments and municipal authorities; and to strengthen its internal organisation. Additionally, it aims at focussing on another hugely important constituency of railway vendor who do not come under the purview of the current Act and thus stand neglected. The team feels that it is important to provide technical support to municipal bodies; develop business models to help vendors benefit from the market; and document and share best practices available in the different parts of the country. With 952 affiliate organisations and 658,129 members, NASVI is poised to synergise energy of all stakeholders to secure better deal for the street vendors of India.

CHAPTER 12 THE EFFECTS OF STREET VENDORS ON THE SECURITY AND SOCIAL LIFE OF THE AFGHANISTAN ECONOMY Abbas Karaağaçli

ABSTRACT Afghanistan has been a country that has a long history of combating against the wars, civil and otherwise, and where the people, who escape from the terrorist organisations and the vulnerable state authority, predominantly migrate to its capital. The number of people, who leave their lands and possessions behind just to reach the capital city of Kabul, reaches to millions. Those people, who escaped from the oppression, persecution and terror, make their living as street vendors. The number of people, who live by working as street vendors and who seriously contribute to the national economy, is considerably high. In this study, in addition to the positive contributions of the street trade on the national economy, employment and socio-cultural life, its positive aspects that are reflected upon the security, health and culture and the problems and ways to solve those problems shall be identified. Keywords: Street trade; peddler’s trade; Afghanistan; civil wars; economy

INTRODUCTION In Afghanistan, which has been subjected to attacks, from within and from outside, millions of Afghani citizens, who were running away from the incompetence of the state authority and the terrorist organisations, had to migrate to the capital city. Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 115–122 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103015

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Although the statistical figures are not strictly and reliably based on the exact data, 6–7 million citizens, out of its total population of 35 million, live in the capital city of Kabul. Those people, who migrated to the capital city after leaving behind their villages, towns, homes, lands, in short, their wealth, due to the lack of the safety of their lives and properties, virtually overran the capital city of Kabul as they try to carry on their life at the outskirts of the mountains, in the slums of the city and in almost every unoccupied area in makeshift houses. Those people live in areas that are not a part of standard urbanisation with no opportunity or utility for roads, running water, social areas or parks or health and educational facilities in primitive, single room residences, where the access is only provided by footways. They acquired street trade as a profession due to the fact that they are deprived of any kind of social security and the fact that they have no chance to work in a regular job. When the social texture and religious aspects of Afghanistan are taken into account, virtually the entirety of the women and girls are deprived of the education and work life. Millions of Afghani women, who work on lands and orchards in agriculture and stockbreeding, are busy with domestic chores in Kabul under primitive conditions in slums. Due to the lack of proper schools for girls in the shantytowns and the outskirts of the mountains and because of the ultraconservative attitude of their families, hundreds of girls are confined to their homes. The ones on the streets are in pursuit of contributing to the family economy by dealing with panhandling or by selling simple items such as Kleenex. The men of a house, provided that they are not already a casualty in a conflict or not disabled during the civil wars, are forced to earn the family bread in the streets due to the lack of any factories or any industrial facilities. That is why, millions of people leave their slums in the very early morning with their virtually junk minibuses, bikes or motorbikes and spread to all four corners of the city as street vendors. Since it is not possible to gather reliable data or statistics regarding any subject in Afghanistan, many figures are actually based on guesses. According to some experts, the capital city of Kabul currently houses around 500,000 – 750,000 street vendors. Furthermore, this figure does not include the children, who sell items like wipes, cigarettes, who clean the windshields at traffic lights or who work as beggars. In addition to various social, economic and security-related negative impacts of such a large mass of people working as street vendors, there are positive effects as well. Despite the fact that this mass of peddlers, who may reach to 4–5 million people with their families, have no social security and no regular and constant work, millions of people make their living in this way. Therefore, food, albeit insufficient, and shelter, even if under unfavourable conditions, for millions of people are provided in a matter of way. And this is only made possible thanks to the cash obtained by peddling. The indicated millions of street vendors also obtain their whole supply of merchandise, from food to clothing and any other needs, from the streets as well. As a matter of fact, those low-income citizens do not have the opportunity to shop from stores or in markets. Therefore, they obtain almost all of their needs from other street vendors.

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Food and vegetables, cereals, live animals and all other commercial goods are supplied to the customers by street vendors and therefore, a substantial contribution is made to the national economy and production is made. On the other hand, merchandise, legally imported or smuggled in from the neighbouring countries, especially from Pakistan, Iran and China, supplied to the customers in the streets by peddlers. Therefore, it is also a fact that the street vendors contribute to the foreign trade in addition to the domestic trade.

STREET ECONOMY IN KABUL The fact that the merchandise is supplied to the consumers with lower profit margins because of the complete lack of various cost items such as rents, withholding tax, personnel costs, fuel, taxation, etc. is a very important factor for the lowand middle-income residents of Kabul to choose those vendors for shopping. Millions of Afghanis, who live in Kabul, prefer doing shopping from the street vendors thanks to their cheap prices. Therefore, areas such as squares, streets, alleys, where the street vendors are situated, overflow with people. However, in addition to the above-indicated positive aspects, we should not overlook the hardships that those people face every day and the negative aspects of the street vendors that they reflect upon the urban lifestyle. First of all, the street vendors themselves work under almost hostile conditions. They try to sell their items with almost no shelter under a scorching 40 °– 45 Celcius in the summer and freezing −40 °/−45 ° in the winter. Due to the lack of state authority in the country and the negative security concerns, the vendors, pour into streets when the sun rises, desert the streets and return to their homes when the sun sets. Those people who try to sell their merchandise or their services to their customer for all day under heavy weather conditions are deprived of all kinds of social security, meaning that they do not have access to the main principles of a social state such as health, pension, occupational accident compensation, etc. The state of Afghanistan does not grant free education or health services, social security or pension rights to this mass of people that reach to millions with their families. In any case, hundreds of thousands of Afghani veterans, who became disabled and lost their limbs in other Afghani cities as the result of civil wars, terror attacks or the attacks of foreign powers, unfortunately, make their living by begging on the streets. In plain words, because of the civil wars, occupations of foreign powers and the insufficiency of the state in almost all areas, the majority of Afghani people do not have access to the services such as education, health, housing, social security and pensions, which are the main requirements of a social state. This also includes millions of small children, who should be at school but who are in fact at work on the streets, in workshops or in other areas of manufacturing. The most important handicaps in the social life of undeveloped countries are the poverty, corruption and the lack of democracy and transparency. In such countries, bribery corrupts the very fabric of society like a disease. Millions of workers, who try to make their living by working as street vendors in Kabul

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despite harsh conditions, generally face two kinds of exploitation, bribery and rackets. One of them is the racketeers in the outfit of civil servants. This phenomenon is encountered in almost all undeveloped countries. Municipal officers, police officers, tax collectors, etc. put pressure on the street vendors by using the influence and the means of a state and demand rackets and tributes from them under several guises. If or when they fail to collect the rackets, they ask by exercising pressure on the peddlers, they hinder or prevent the activities of vendors or they sometimes destroy or seize their stands or commandeer them on behalf of the municipality, all of which lead to very dramatic scenes. Almost all of us, at some point in our lives, witnessed the aggressive behaviour of the municipal police or the police officers towards the street vendors and the scenes in which the officers confiscated the stands, goods or carts of the vendors by force. Without a doubt, Kabul has its own fair share of this. Another mechanism of the pressure and violence that the street vendors of Kabul face is originated from the organised gangs and street thugs. The criminal organisations, which are well aware of the incompetence and insufficiency of the state regarding its duty of providing security in every aspect of the city, shake the street vendors down and forcefully seize some of their hard-earned income in the guise of protection from outside attacks. According to some reports, some organised gangs act together with a number of police officers and municipal police, thereby exploiting and racketeering the street vendors. In some city centres, apart from the capital, as well as in some towns and small settlements, all of which have no state authority or control whatsoever and which are under the control of Salafi–Wahabi terror organisations, some of the income of the street vendors are confiscated by the terrorists. In the territories, which are under Taliban, Al-Qaeda, ISIS or Hakkani control, rackets are collected from the street vendors along with the artisans, artists, villagers, farmers and breeders under the guise of taxation and those who resist against such racketeering are severely punished. As you may know, Afghanistan is ranked as number one in terms of the production of drugs and opium. The terrorist organisations, warlords, local officers, drug lords and smugglers, who deal with the production of narcotics, seem to consider the street vendors as an important instrument to deal with the drugs. In this frightening equation, in which, the organised crime is also an important player, the street vendors constitute the base of the drug pyramid. Therefore, an adverse environment in terms of the general health of the society and initiating the youngsters to the drugs is formed. According to some figures, Afghanistan has over 4 million drug addicts. Women in Afghanistan are one of the most important pillars in the street trade. They sell fruit and vegetables in the streets. Some sell second-hand goods and items. Some women market the vegetables that they grow in small gardens that they form around their houses, some women display the milk and eggs that they obtain from a couple of ovine or chickens. As a matter of fact, after 2001, which market the dethroning of the Taliban, some positive developments also occurred in terms of the working conditions of the women. We should remember that under Taliban rule, women were restricted to their homes by the Sharia police.

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From time to time, we witness initiatives towards the improvement of the working conditions of the street vendors. For example, the politicians, who wants the vote of the public right before every election, inform the public that they will look into the problems of the issues of the street vendors, which constitute one of the most prominent economic and social problems of the society, and that they even share their initiatives towards the solutions in this regard. Without a doubt, electoral promises like this are quickly forgotten right after the election day. Sometimes, we witness initiatives for the purpose of calming down the society and finding solutions to economic problems. For example, last year, a workshop, titled ‘The Rights of the Street Vendors’ was held in the Continental Hotel in Kabul with the participation of the local administrators and the officers from the Ministry of Social Security in Kabul. During the workshop, a recommendation for issuing a law regarding the street vendors, especially the vendors who undertake sales at the street sides, was made. As Mr Hurmen Ulumi, the member of the provincial committee of Kabul, reported, Kabil sports over 800,000 street vendors. According to him, if a law in relation to this group of people is passed, the street vendors will acquire legal security and the state acquires a legal taxation channel. According to Ulumi, we can list the rights of the street vendors under six main titles: 1. Improving the economic conditions of the people with poverty. 2. Exercising laws in any and all areas. 3. Listening to the representatives of the street vendors. 4. Passing new laws towards the protection of the rights of the street vendors. 5. Granting the work permits based on laws. 6. Creating new fields of work. In the same meeting, the representative for the street vendors, Mr Hulam Rabbanikuhsar asked for granting legal status for the street vendors and for providing constant work for them. According to him, currently, the street vendors are taxed under various schemes and it is not clear whether this income goes straight to the treasury or not. According to him, the street vendors in Kabul are facing with many types of pressure, legal or otherwise. As in all other countries, the municipalities strive for building clean parks and spaces, building culture houses, sports complexes, playgrounds, etc. in order for its citizens to live in a better city and to have a better life with peace and tranquillity. During a recent visit in Kabul, I closely witnessed that the Municipality of Kabul was incapable of even providing the simplest of urban services and that the streets, avenues, parks and other public access areas of Kabul, which is the capital city, was very inadequate and lacking in terms of municipal services. Without a doubt, the economic, security-related and administrative issues are the most important factors that can be attributed to the very poor management and administration of the capital city. In order to study the problems of Kabul and to create solutions in this regard, a meeting was held in September 2017 with the participation of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the municipality, the council members, scholars and opinion leaders. During the meeting, in addition to the other issues, the problems that the street vendors caused for the city were dissected

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and the breach of the pedestrian priorities due to the street vendors, undertaking sales at the city squares and pavements were analysed. As the result, the municipality was recommended to assign proper areas for the indicated vendors. The street vendors bring some negative aspects in terms of the city dwellers. Great waves of migration are constantly happening from all four corners of the country to the capital in order to flee from the terror. According to the report, titled ‘The Reconstruction of Afghanistan’, compiled by the Afghanistan Reconstruction Special Inspector General, currently the Afghani Government has complete control only on 50% of the country and has established only 75 of the 407 counties as it is able to establish control on 151 counties from time to time and this corresponds to 226 counties in total. It should be remembered that 65% of the total population of the country live outside of the indicated areas. As it is widely known, in addition to the control of the major terrorist organisations such as Al-Qaeda, Taliban, ISIS and Hakkani Group, there are hundreds of extremist terrorist organisations as well. Out of those indicated Salafi–Wahabi organisations, Al-Qaeda and Taliban are of Afghan and Pakistan origins. Other terrorist organisations were the result of the security weakness and the lack of a state authority. Due to the fact that the borders are easily passable (especially the border with Pakistan), the members of the terrorist outfits are able to cross to Pakistan easily through the Waziristan and the Torabora Mountains in the North. On the other hand, while all of the indicated terrorist organisations try to create their own areas of influence within the different regions of Afghanistan, they expand their influence to Tajikistan from the Badakhshan Region and to Central Asia from the Northern Territories. In the entirety of the country, villages, towns, small settlements and even the city centres from time to time go under the control of terrorist organisations such as Al-Qaeda, Taliban, ISIS, etc. The terrorist organisations exercise a Sharia-based administration at these settlements according to their own belief systems. Under this type of archaic Sharia-based administrations, basic human rights, especially the rights of the women, the environmental rights and children’s laws, in short, all citizenship laws are usually suspended by the extremist organisations. Since there is no security for the human life or material assets, people leave their villages, lands and even their ancestral burial grounds and migrate with a couple of things that they can carry to the capital city that is relatively safer compared to the rural areas. Therefore, those people head to the capital city of Kabul on the truck haulages, buses or sometimes by almost scrapped cars and end up being in the slums, where their relatives had already been settled. Those families who settled in makeshift shanty houses with no official job that come with any security resort to working on jobs such as street trade, hawking and to working in odd jobs such as the manual labour as a sole source of income. Mr Abdulkadir Arzu, the spokesperson for the Municipality of Kabul, after acknowledging this fact, voiced his opinion regarding this ever-increasing wave of migration and the issue of street trade. According to the spokesperson, Kabul, while it is capable of providing housing and jobs for only 500,000 immigrants, currently hosts more than 5 million people living off like this. Therefore, this puts a great cultural and economic burden to the city administration.

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The street trade, conducted outside a legal ground without the supervision of the treasury or the municipality, reached to a significant economic scale compared to the overall economic size of Afghanistan despite the fact that it is still counted as a black, off the book economic activity. This market, which holds a true economic potential in terms of production, imports, customer base and other aspects, is in a position to be the collection area of rackets for the street gangs as well as the police, municipality and even for some public officials. Many street vendors constantly complain about this type of public officials. A street vendor named Serdar Mohammad, who gave a press statement to a local press outlet, indicated that they are forced to give bribes to around 700 Afghani traffic polices and municipal officers per day. He added that if he does not come up with his bribe, he would not be allowed to continue his trade. Another street vendor named Zebihullah, who gave his statement to the same outlet, told that the rates of bribery for conducting business on a busy street are much higher. Another aspect of this subject in terms of the overall security is that the city is completely under the siege of the street vendors. Especially the grand bazaar at the centre of the city and the street and alleys around it was completely overrun by the street vendors. According to the Mayor of District 1 of Kabul, Mr Sayid Hessen Aga Masumi, they are having a hard time to provide municipal services due to the increase in the population in its own district and this situation leads to big problems as well. According to Masumi, every day, an average of 2 million people go on to conduct street trade in Kabul and this leads to a spike in traffic. According to him, the sales markets, prepared for the street vendors in Kabul are not well liked by the vendors. Again, according to the Deputy Mayor of Kabul District 2, Mrs Sukriye Naib, the municipal officers are threatened by the street vendors. In any case, according to the member of the city council for the State of Kabul, Mr Ali Yezdanperest, each day, an average amount of 60,000 Afghani is collected by the municipal officers from the street vendors as bribery. One of the worst situations in this regard is what the orphan children have to get through in the streets. According to data, tens of thousands of Afghani children chase bread for themselves and for their family in various tough jobs. Human trafficking, sexual abuse, drug trading and being initiated into contract killing gangs are some of the potential dangers that such children have to face. Children between 5 and 16 flood the streets of the large cities due to the widespread poverty and political instability. According to some data, 6 million children are subjected to a kind of crime in Afghanistan. Children who are able to find an ordinary job have to work in heavy works shift exceeding 10–15 hours without any security for pension or healthcare from an underage status.

CONCLUSION The negative conditions that the street vendors are subjected to, the sub-standard products that the street vendors’ trade, the unhealthy production conditions for those products, especially for food items, etc. to be presented to the consumers in a non-hygienic way, etc. can be listed as major health problems.

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Due to the fact that the streets, alleys, squares, the historical sites, etc. are under the siege of the street vendors, the free movement of the citizens in the streets becomes restricted and this poses a problem in terms of urban planning. Hundreds of problems such as the visual and noise pollution of the city, increased crime rates, etc. are directly related to street vendors. On the other hand, the problems that this mass of people experiences along with their families constitute one of the most important social, economic and security problems of the country just like a social scar. In a country such as Afghanistan, where the family and tribal ties are strong and where the religious beliefs, the customs, the manners, and in general, the traditional family type still forms the prominent social fabric, millions of Afghani citizens, who had to abandon their homes, lands and whose primary concern is to be able to keep their families together, create great handicaps for people who need to solve all economic, social and even the security-related issues on their own. Under normal conditions, in western countries, which are run by democratic administrations, the needs of the citizens such as the social security, pensions, health, education, etc. that are resulted from the social characteristics of the states are assumed by the states but in countries like Afghanistan, individuals have to come up with solutions to all of such needs on their own. The problems that resulted from the bad political administration of the country, poverty, corruption, lack of democratic institutions and insufficient or even non-existent constitutions for social subjects such as press, union rights, worker rights, rights of women and children and environmental rights also force individuals to provide alternative livelihoods for their families and for their future. In Afghanistan, which has been ravaged by the civil wars that have been ongoing for 40 years, foreign occupations, ethnic, denominational and religious battles, the street trade seems like the only source of income for the families, especially the ones who migrated to the capital city of Kabul. Unfortunately, those people, who only seek to provide a living for their family are under constant pressure from the environment, security forces, municipal officers, terrorist organisations and organised gangs and are forced to pay bribes under many guises. While nobody has any hope that there will be a solution for the above-indicated issues in the short term when the country is viewed as a whole, in my opinion, those issues shall be solved by ensuring the internal security of the country as a first step then by providing the basic services such as jobs, education, health, housing and social security to its citizens as the primary obligations of a social state by a national government to be formed as the result of a process of democratisation after the civil society movements begin and the secularism is established.

CHAPTER 13 EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT AMONG THE ROMANI AS A SOCIAL CATEGORY IN THE SPATIAL USE OF CITIES Alper Yağlıdere

ABSTRACT Izmir, the third largest city of Turkey, is an important trade hub and port. Since its early years, the city has been the home of many civilisations, nations and cultures. The Romani people can be counted among these cultures. In the centre of Izmir city, there are around 500,000 Romani inhabitants. The increasing number of migrants to Izmir and the obligatory settlement options, usually in poorer neighbourhoods, aggravates the situation. Within this context, the focus of administrative authorities on poorer neighbourhoods with a significant Romani majority and its effects to and connections with the urban improvement programme must be re-evaluated considering the benefit of the city and social-institutional support, including non-governmental institutions, must be maintained. Keywords: Izmir; Romani; urbanisation; urban improvement; education; Employment

Izmir, the third largest city of Turkey, is an important trade hub and port. It has many strategic qualities in addition to being the gateway for exports to the Western world. Since its early years, the city has been the home of many civilisations, nations and cultures. The Romani people can be counted among these cultures. Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 123–137 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103016

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ALPER YAĞLIDERE

Izmir is a province with a significant Romani population. In a study on Izmir from 1873, the inhabitants were categorised under the title ‘population’ as urban residents, rural residents, Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Yuruks, Roma, Catholics and Europeans; the difficulty of providing exact information on population was mentioned; however, regarding the issue, the number of Romani people was indicated as 200,000 Turkmens and Roma (Von Scherzer, 1873; translated by Pınar, 2001, p. 26). As Turkmens and Roma are counted as a single group, it is not possible to give an exact figure about the Romani population. In the centre of Izmir city, there are around 500,000 Romani inhabitants. When other districts are also taken into consideration, the figure rises to around 650,000–700,000. These figures are not official and calculated by multiplying the number of households with three (number of members in a nuclear family). When compared with other provinces, Thrace and Aegean region have a higher number of Romani inhabitants. The reason behind this is the impact of the population exchange in 1929. In Turkey, the number of Roma accounts for around 10% of the overall population (e.g. 8 million for a population of 80 million) (Toprak & Yağlıdere, 2005, p. 3). Upon analysing the relation between the Roma and the city, particularly regarding urbanisation and community, 31 neighbourhoods come into the forefront. This number might increase, but some of these neighbourhoods with a significant Romani population are as follows: 2. Kadriye, Barış, Boğaziçi, Cengiz Topel, Ege, Emir Sultan (Kuruçay), FaikPaşa, Ferahlı, Güney, Halkapınar, Hilal, İsmetpaşa, Murat, Sakarya, Süvari, Tan, Tuzcu, Ulubatlı, Ülkü and Zeytinlik within the district of Konak. Göksu in the district of Buca; Dedebaşı, Örnekköy and Yalı in the district of Karşıyaka; Maltepe, Güzeltepe and Şirintepe in the district of Çiğli (the population is disconnected); Erzene in the district of Bornova and Gazi and Irmak in the district of Gaziemir are also among these neighbourhoods with a high Romani population. In districts like Konak, Karşıyaka and Bornova, even though the Romani preferred residing in the periphery of the administrative zones of municipalities during their transition to permanent settlements, some of them were within the municipal administrative zones gradually becoming metropolises. The historical street culture and marginal economic activities of the Romani survive to this day despite modernisation and industrialisation. This is also true for Izmir. Even though the buildings in neighbourhoods where Romani citizens constitute a significant majority are generally constructed with an official permit, shanty houses are also present. Neighbourhoods with a noteworthy Romani presence are located close to the zones generating high unearned income. Within the framework of urban renewal projects, Romani citizens expect participatory roles in decision-making concerning their neighbourhoods. Upon analysing the Romani in Izmir, some similarities between them and the Romani living in other countries are observed. Due to economic and social disadvantages, the Romani prefer living together in Izmir as it is the case in the rest of the world and feel the power of co-operation. However, they tend to relocate to have better incomes. Furthermore, because of low income levels, it is possible to talk about groups drawn to these communal neighbourhoods and who threatens

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125

urban security. Necessary actions regarding education, employment and healthcare, which are all seen to be in correlation with security, are being taken in parallel with international efforts (Yağlıdere, 2007. pp. 15–16). The research area of this study is Ege, a neighbourhood in the district of Konak. Its proximity to the centre of the city, its location between zones generating high unearned income and modern buildings and its closeness to the research area are among the factors contributing to its selection. It is indicated that there are around 3,500–4,000 inhabitants and 700 households in Ege (citing Memduh Ercihanlı, mukhtar of Ege). Although the streets are narrow and people living nearby feel uneasy while passing through, the traffic circulation on the main street is unproblematic. There are grocery stores, traditional coffee houses, barber shops and peddlers along the main street. A point of view aiming to understand the world of the Romani is used in this study on the Romani. The study seeks to comprehend the neighbourhoods that are described as ‘other’ by non-Romani individuals and that many people are afraid of going. Furthermore, the objective is to understand how Romani neighbourhoods, parts of metropolises, resist against the dynamic structure of big cities as well as the changing and globalising world, to state that the problem in these neighbourhoods in Izmir concerns every citizen in the city, to determine a starting point for the resolution of the problem and to ensure social integration. The data upon which the research relies are gathered mainly through surveys and interviews. Moreover, some rituals regarding the lives of the Romani such as weddings and festivals are also observed during these interviews and surveys. The literature review showed that only a few works or statistical information on this topic are published in Turkey. Generally, according to the information collected from the literature, a common Romani profile with problems regarding education, healthcare, housing, employment and unemployment in the context of Turkey is visible in communities identifying themselves as Roma. This study aims to evaluate this identification within the context of Ege. A total of 56 people surveyed in Ege, the research area for the study, expressed their gladness for the interest in them and facilitated the research process in any means possible. Only a few people voiced their dissatisfaction concerning the study and reacted against it. It is thought that the wish to hide connected to the psychological aspects of a closed society is the main reason behind this reaction.

EDUCATION AMONG THE ROMANI The analysis of the Romani in Izmir, especially those living in Ege, demonstrates the necessity for improvement concerning issues like education, employment, housing and healthcare, as it is the case in other countries as well. Furthermore, regarding these issues, multi-dimensional policies including the participation of public bodies, the private sector, the non-governmental organisations and the Romani citizens in decision-making processes must be implemented in a local and national scale urgently without any bureaucratic obstacles.

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The induction method reveals the similarity between the education problem of Roma in Ege, the neighbourhood in İzmir and that of the Romani living in similar neighbourhoods in Turkey and abroad. Primary school graduates form the majority in the neighbourhood while some retired civil servants also live there. The analysis of the educational structure shows that primary school students, particularly 3rd or 4th-grade students had to quit their formal education. Relevant authorities have similar statements regarding the issue. This fact may indicate that the increasing difficulty of school subjects, financial inadequacies and economic factors all impact the education of these individuals. Instead of attending school, these children go to work with their parents to provide financial support for their households, or they perform various low-cost activities with the thought that people passing by would help them (e.g. selling napkins or water). When they become adults, they usually work in unskilled jobs in their neighbourhoods. These jobs are marginal activities such as porterage, freight, cleaning or paper and garbage collection. Despite the common belief, there are not musicians among these individuals. The demographic and educational features of Ege are as follows.

DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES In the gender distribution of the neighbourhood selected for the field study with random sampling method, it is seen that 32.1% (18) of the participants are women and 67.9% (38) are men; therefore men account for around one-third of 56 interviewees. Due to the nature of the sample, even though the equality of frequencies between men and women was taken into consideration, the number of men was higher as it was easier to communicate with men (at doorsteps and places like traditional coffee houses) (Table 13.1). A total of 75% of 56 participants were born in Izmir; the share of interviewees born in Balıkesir, Manisa and Niğde are each 3.6%. As seen in Table 13.2, other cities have individual shares of 1.8%. The sample shows that people come to Izmir mainly from cities like Çanakkale, Edirne, Manisa and Balıkesir where there is a significant Romani population. The youngest participant is 16 years old while the oldest is 70 years old. The age average of interviewees is around 43 (Table 13.3). The analysis of educational backgrounds indicates that 58.9% of 56 participants are primary school graduates, 19.6% are illiterate, 10.7% are literate but do not hold a diploma and 8.9% are middle school graduates. A total of 1.8% of the interviewees hold an associate degree. This proves that the literacy rate is Table 13.1.  Gender Distribution. Frequency Valid Total

Female Male

18 38 56

Percentage 32.1 67.9 100.0

Valid Percentage 32.1 67.9 100.0

Cumulative Percentage 32.1 100.0

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Table 13.2.  Place of Birth. Frequency Valid

Balıkesir Bursa Çanakkale Diyarbakır Edirne Erzurum Istanbul Izmir Kırklareli Manisa Muğla Niğde Total

Percentage

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 42 1 2 1 2 56

Valid Percentage Cumulative Percentage

3.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 75.0 1.8 3.6 1.8 3.6 100.0

3.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 75.0 1.8 3.6 1.8 3.6 100.0

3.6 5.4 7.1 8.9 10.7 12.5 14.3 89.3 91.1 94.6 96.4 100.0

Table 13.3.  Age Distribution. No.

Age

Valid

Missing

55

1

Average

Minimum Age

Maximum Age

42.75

16

70

Table 13.4.  Educational Background. Frequency Valid

Illiterate Literate but didn’t graduate Primary school Middle school Associate degree Total

11 6 33 5 1 56

Percentage 19.6 10.7 58.9 8.9 1.8 100.0

Valid Percentage 19.6 10.7 58.9 8.9 1.8 100.0

Cumulative Percentage 19.6 30.4 89.3 98.2 100.0

considerably low among the Romani. In addition, there are students failing in classes due to absenteeism and primary school students, starting from 3rd and 4th grades, are encouraged to get jobs like selling napkins or collecting garbage in order to earn income for the household. The inability of Romani students to communicate with other students and its reflection on parents also creates alienation. Factors such as the lack of sufficient parental attention devoted to children’s education and the low education level of parents also create a vicious cycle concerning the insufficient education levels among the Romani (Table 13.4). The average number of family members in a Romani household is four or five. The new generation prefers having a single child due to economic circumstances and planned parenthood. A total of 83.9% of 56 participants indicated that they had children while 16.1% stated that they did not have any children (Table 13.5).

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ALPER YAĞLIDERE

Table 13.5.  Having Children.

Valid

Yes No

Total

Frequency

Percentage

Valid Percentage

47 9 56

83.9 16.1 100.0

83.9 16.1 100.0

Cumulative Percentage 83.9 100.0

A total of 38.3% of participants answering this question have two children, 27.7% have three children and 19.1% have only one child. It is seen that 85% of the respondents have three children. In the sample group, the share of families with five children is 10.6%. Adverse living conditions among the Romani, concerns regarding the future and the difficulty of providing education for children contributed to the decline of the tendency of having multiple children (Table 13.6). While 33.9% of respondents have a family of four, 23.2% have three people in their households, 16.1% have five family members and 10.7% have a family of two. Besides the number of children, the tendency of women who are divorced or whose husbands are either in prison or killed to return to their families along with their children contribute to the high number of household members (Table 13.7). A total of 67.9% of survey participants are married, 10.7% are widowed and 8.9% has never married. The rate of divorced individuals is 8.9%. Observations Table 13.6.  Number of Children. Frequency Valid

1 2 3 4 5 7 Total

9 18 13 1 5 1 47 9 56

Missing Total

Percentage 16.1 32.1 23.2 1.8 8.9 1.8 83.9 16.1 100.0

Valid Percentage Cumulative Percentage 19.1 38.3 27.7 2.1 10.6 2.1 100.0

19.1 57.4 85.1 87.2 97.9 100.0

Table 13.7.  Number of Household Members. Frequency Valid

Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10

3 6 13 19 9 3 1 1 1 56

Percentage 5.4 10.7 23.2 33.9 16.1 5.4 1.8 1.8 1.8 100.0

Valid Percentage 5.4 10.7 23.2 33.9 16.1 5.4 1.8 1.8 1.8 100.0

Cumulative Percentage 5.4 16.1 39.3 73.2 89.3 94.6 96.4 98.2 100.0

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Education and Employment among the Romani

Table 13.8.  Marital Status. Frequency Valid

Never married Married Living together Living separately Divorced Widow/widower

5 38 1 1 5 6 56

Total

Percentage 8.9 67.9 1.8 1.8 8.9 10.7 100.0

Valid Percentage Cumulative Percentage 8.9 67.9 1.8 1.8 8.9 10.7 100.0

8.9 76.8 78.6 80.4 89.3 100.0

made outside the framework of the survey showed that a majority of participants got married at an early age. The impact of the social environment and the examples of parents marrying at an early age increases the tendency of early marriages (Table 13.8). While poverty is the leading reason for children to drop out of school, the high expenses for education lead to 14.29% of the cases and 7.14% of the participants give failing classes and other reasons (e.g. not being allowed to receive education by their social environment, peer effect, unwillingness of the individual, illnesses, absenteeism, domestic conflicts, the belief that girls are not supposed to receive education and unwillingness of family) for dropping out. The children living in Ege, the neighbourhood selected as the sample of the study, left school for these reasons. Furthermore, as schools are located within the neighbourhood, transportation is not regarded as an issue (Table 13.9). When this question was asked, 92.9% of participants (52 people) stated that they did not drop out of school due to exclusion. While 3.6% of the interviewees (3 people) indicated that they applied to the school but the problem remained unsolved despite the attention paid by the school, one person expressed that their child refused to go to school. These rates signify that exclusion at schools is not an important factor for dropping out of school. However, even though the rate is low, there are claims regarding a problem of exclusion in the sample used for the research. In this respect, individuals approached the governor’s office, directorates for national education, municipalities and mukhtar’s offices for a solution (Table 13.10). As it is seen in the sample, there is a small rate of exclusion. According to the claims made by the respondents from Ege, two applications made to the Table 13.9.  Reasons for Dropping Out. Frequency High expenses Failing classes Social exclusion Poverty Lack of attention from teachers Cultural disharmony Difficulty of transportation Hygiene and order Other

8 4 2 9 0 1 0 1 4

Percentage 14.29 7.14 3.57 16.07 1.79 1.79 7.14

Total 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56

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ALPER YAĞLIDERE

Table 13.10.  Dropping Out Due to Exclusion and Solutions for Exclusion at School.

Valid

I applied to the school, attention was paid and the problem was solved I applied to the school; attention was paid but the problem remained unsolved My child refused to go to school Total

Missing Total

Frequency

Percentage

Valid Percentage

Cumulative Percentage

1

1.8

25.0

25.0

2

3.6

50.0

75.0

1

1.8

25.0

100.0

4 52 56

7.1 92.9 100.0

100.0

governor’s office were disregarded similar to those made to Ministry of National Education, a single application made to the mukhtar’s office did not result in a solution and an application to the municipality proved to be useful in the solution of the problem (Table 13.11). A total of 35% of the individuals answering this question stated that they left school due to various reasons during 1st grade, for 30% it was during 2nd grade and for 20% it was during 3rd grade. The number of individuals leaving schools during 1st grade is the highest among the first three educational stages (Table 13.12). Table 13.11.  Non-educational Institutions Applied for the Solution of the Exclusion Problem. Exclusion – Governor’s Office

Exclusion – Directorate for National Education

Exclusion Mukhtar’s Office

Exclusion – Other

Total

2

2

1

1

6

1

1

No attention was paid to the problem Attention was paid and the problem was solved I did not apply

1

1

1

3

Table 13.12.  Dropping Out of School in Terms of Educational Stages. Frequency Valid

Missing Total

1st grade 2nd grade 3rd grade 4th grade 5th grade Total

7 6 4 1 2 20 36 56

Percentage 12.5 10.7 7.1 1.8 3.6 35.7 64.3 100.0

Valid Percentage 35.0 30.0 20.0 5.0 10.0 100.0

Cumulative Percentage 35.0 65.0 85.0 90.0 100.0

Education and Employment among the Romani

131

EMPLOYMENT AMONG THE ROMANI The marginal economic activities of the Romani survive to this day in Turkey and other countries despite modernisation and industrialisation. As the Romani tend to live together as a community, they do their unskilled jobs, produce rapidly and attend to the economic needs of the household together. Experts focussing on the reasons for having unskilled jobs claim that they are gatherers for they are nomads and the jobs given to them are mainly ones given to slaves in Europe, therefore the jobs require no particular skills. It is also expressed that when the Romani first emerged in the Balkans, they had distinctive positions in the society; they were sought after not for their criminal conducts but for their skills; not only respectable musicians but also craftsmen like tinsmiths, locksmiths, coppersmith and blacksmiths were distinguished individuals; sometimes non-Roma (gadje) even fought for Roma. Appealing to both peasants and landowners in that period, the Romani created their unique economic area. In social life, they were excluded due to their reservedness. Like their languages, their professions led them to separation from others in society and co-operation among themselves. Their professions played the key role in their survival in that period (Fonseca, 2002, p. 112) According to Martinez (1992), a researcher/author, The sense of adaptation and interpretation of gipsies brings cultural continuity and hypotheses other than creation to the mind; in fact, both peasants and nobles in entire Europe cast them the role of entertainers. (p. 110)

Regarding the professions of the Romani, in their work titled ‘Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire’, writers Elana Marushiakova and Popov state that according to the tax records of 1522 and 1523, Roma worked as tinsmiths, farriers, jewellers, bladesmiths, carpenters, shoemakers, slipper makers, pin makers, leather dealers, tailors, carpet dealers, hardware dealers, halva makers, cheese makers, butchers, kebab chefs, gardeners, mule skinners, rangers, guardians, butlers, monkey raisers, excavation workers and sometimes as military officers, janissaries, doctors and surgeons (Marushiakova & Popov, 2001, p.44). In Turkey, observations on the current economic status of the Romani beg the question of whether the persistence of economic weakness throughout history is the destiny of these individuals. Upon looking at the professions frequently held by Romani men and women, it can be observed that men work as craftsmen, porters, junk dealers, animal dealers, peddlers, shoe shiners, musicians, workers, fair crew, rafflers, drummers, tinsmiths and basket weavers. Meanwhile, women are generally seen as cleaners, peddlers, musicians, dancers, fortune-tellers, beggars and garbage collectors (Coşkun, 1998, pp. 8–21). As it is the case in Turkey, in other countries, particularly in Europe and the Balkans, if the unemployment rate is 10–15%, the rate is eight to nine times higher among Roma and reaches 80–90%. In a general sense, the high number of Roma doing unskilled jobs, the inability of the Romani to adapt to the developments brought about by the transition in older professions to industrial production and globalisation, the lack of swift reactions to technological developments and the consequent economic difficulties result in challenging times for these individuals. The Romani, however, pursued their professions and maintained their expertise despite all these adversities

132

ALPER YAĞLIDERE

Table 13.13.  Profession Distribution.

Valid

Missing Total

Shoeshiner Shoemaker Bicycle repairer Detergent seller Detergent selling Retired Shopkeeper Housewife Waiter Porterage Porter Porterage Unemployed Paper collector Traditional coffee house owner Welder Meatball cook Hairdresser Printer Musician Turkish pizza maker Freelancer Peddler Cleaner Tailor

Frequency

Percentage

Valid Percentage

Cumulative Percentage

1 3 1 1 1 6 3 10 1 1 1 1 3 1 1

1.8 5.4 1.8 1.8 1.8 10.7 5.4 17.9 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 5.4 1.8 1.8

1.8 5.4 1.8 1.8 1.8 10.7 5.4 17.9 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 5.4 1.8 1.8

12.5 17.9 19.6 21.4 23.2 33.9 39.3 57.1 58.9 60.7 62.5 64.3 69.6 71.4 73.2

1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 2 1 6 56

1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 8.9 1.8 3.6 1.8 10.7 100.0

1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 8.9 1.8 3.6 1.8 10.7 100.0

75.0 76.8 78.6 80.4 82.1 83.9 92.9 94.6 98.2 100.0 10.7

provided that they could adapt to the requirements of the new age. For instance, a research on the historical connection between basket weaving and Roma revealed that if individuals collecting materials like chaste tree branches weave in-demand products like parasols and fences rather than traditional baskets or brooms, they might be able to earn their living through this profession as it is the case for a few households in Örnekköy, Izmir and for 500 households in Söke, Aydın. A total of 17.9% of the interviewees from Ege responding to this question stated that they were housewives while 8.9% work as freelancers and 10.7% are retired. The general outlook Table 13.13 shows that some traditional activities for the Romani like basket weaving, flower-selling, music and garbage collecting which do not require professional training are still ongoing. While 71.7% of the interviewees responding to this question stated that they had not had an income-bearing job within the last month, 28.3% said that they had such a job. A total of 5.4% of the participants did not work in any job within the last month. It can be seen that the rate of people who did not have a job is high. As it is shown in (Table 13.14), involuntary employment may be descriptive of the situation.

133

Education and Employment among the Romani

Table 13.14.  Having an Income-bearing Job within the Last Month. Frequency Valid

Yes No Total

Missing Total

Percentage

15 38 53 3 56

26.8 67.9 94.6 5.4 100.0

Valid Percentage

Cumulative Percentage

28.3 71.7 100.0

28.3 100.0

Table 13.15.  Distribution of Individuals Having an Income-bearing Job within Last Month. Frequency Valid

Missing Fishing Detergent selling Shopkeeper Porterage Porter Traditional coffee house owner Welder Hairdresser Turkish pizza maker Salesperson Peddler Heating stove repairer Textile sector Tailor

42 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 56

Total

Percentage 75.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 100.0

Valid Percentage 75.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 100.0

Cumulative Percentage 75.0 76.8 78.6 80.4 82.1 83.9 85.7 87.5 89.3 91.1 92.9 94.6 96.4 98.2 100.0

A total of 75% of the participants did not respond to this question. There are various professions in Table 13.15 demonstrating the situation for the remaining 25%. These individuals stated that they had jobs which do not require professional training such as coffee house owner, porter or Turkish pizza maker. The minimum average monthly income for the participants was TL 20 while the maximum value was TL 1,200 (Table 13.16). While 37% of the interviewees answering this question leave the choice to their children, 30.4% chose the option ‘other’, 13% chose ‘civil service’ and 10.9% stated that they encourage their children to play professional sports. It can be seen Table 13.16.  Average Monthly Income of the Household. n = 56

Average monthly income

Valid

Missing

44

12

Average

Std. Deviation

Minimum

Maximum

403,068

248,325

20

1,200

134

ALPER YAĞLIDERE

Table 13.17.  Encouraging Children to Choose Certain Professions in the Context of Ege. Frequency Valid

Arts Craftsmanship Civil service Sports I let him/her choose his/ her own profession Other Total

Missing Total

Percentage

Valid Percentage

Cumulative Percentage

1 3 6 5 17

1.8 5.4 10.7 8.9 30.4

2.2 6.5 13.0 10.9 37.0

2.2 8.7 21.7 32.6 69.6

14 46 10 56

25.0 82.1 17.9 100.0

30.4 100.0

100.0

Table 13.18.  Association of the Romani with Certain Professions. Profession Music Dance Fortune-telling Flower-selling Basket weaving Tinsmithing Garbage collector Peddling None of the above Other

Frequency

Percentage

30 13 9 17 5 9 9 6 9 18

53.5 23.2 33.9 30.3 8.9 16.7 16.7 10.7 16.7 32.1

Total 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56

that the choice is not left entirely to children and professions which may contribute to the family budget are encouraged (Table 13.17). The analysis of the answers given to this question concerning self-perceptions of the Romani living in Ege shows that 53.5% of the interviewees associate themselves with music as a professional field. This is followed by the people choosing the option ‘other’ with a share of 32.1%. While 30.3% of the participants regarded themselves as flower-sellers, 23.2% chose the option ‘dance’. Participants who do not associate themselves with the options given in the survey account for 16.7% of the interviewees. Participants choosing the option ‘other’ work as civil servants, cleaners, farmers, shoe shiners, workers, porters, wageworkers, repairers, automobile upholsterers, and may be participating in illegal activities (Table 13.18).

CONCLUSION The Romani, having existed in the global scene for approximately a millennium, are on the agenda of Turkey and Europe with the impact of the awareness brought about by globalisation. The topic regarding Roma is being reproduced in many

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forms ever since the creation of the field of Romani studies and literature. In line with global developments, the Romani have become a major topic in the context of Turkey. The Romani are thought to be originated from India. Yet the date of their departure from India and the main migration routes through which they spread across the world are questioned within the scope of Romani studies. Even though there is not a fixed date, the time of departure is stated as fifth to ninth centuries ce. As it is the case in the date of departure from India, contributing factors to the migration are not fully explained. Furthermore, routes followed by the Romani after their departure from India and the spread of the people across the globe are evaluated according to the map constructed on the basis of linguistic evidence. One of the significant features of the Romani is that they are nomadic people and that they managed to preserve their language considerably despite living alongside different cultures due to their nomadic lifestyles. An effort for standardisation of the Romani language is visible even though different dialects and changes are present. Studies on the grammar of the language and for the creation of a dictionary support these efforts. The analysis of labour and profession distribution in the sample chosen for the survey reveals that the Romani generally work as cartwrights, flower-sellers, tinsmiths, fortune-tellers or musicians, enabling them to work in a more flexible manner. In a general basis, these results show the characteristic fields of work for the Romani. Demographics, education, employment and the phenomenon of exclusion are taken into consideration as the main research topics in this study on the Romani settled in Ege. The difficulty of participating in administration and politics along with the issues regarding education, healthcare, housing, employment and unemployment makes it easier to consider the Romani as a disadvantaged group. However, the gradual organisation among the Romani, the increase in number of associations including the phrase ‘Romani Culture and Co-operation’ in their names from one in 2004 to seven as of 2007 in Izmir and the fact that there are currently 56 similar associations in Izmir make the argument regarding the future increase in the participation of the Romani in public life a more plausible one. Firstly, the phenomenon of poverty is generally associated with the Roma. Apart from unskilled jobs, the rate of labour force participation is low. As far as housing is concerned, the majority of the Romani in Ege live in council houses constructed in the 1970s. Shanty houses also exist apart from legally registered residences. Unlike other Romani neighbourhoods, Ege, being close to the ­centre of the city, has an outward-oriented and dynamic social structure; however, for other residents living nearby, the neighbourhood is a security concern. This phenomenon is used as a valid excuse for removing these individuals from spaces where they had been settled for many years. On the other hand, in the interviews conducted with Romani people living in Ege, it was revealed that they are also affected by threats to urban security. Another threat against Romani settlements is ‘urban transformation projects’. Ege, being close to the zones generating high unearned income, is surrounded

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by public buildings, private schools and private hospitals. Urban transformation projects create a certain fear among the people of Ege. The underlying reason behind this fear is the fact that the local government makes decisions on its own without understanding or consulting the Romani. However, as discussed in Chapter 3, ‘social dimension’ must be taken into consideration in urban transformation projects, particularly regarding social reconciliation. In fact, with respect to international relations, European Urban Charter, a non-contract document offered to local governments for signing on 17–19 May 1992 by the European Council Congress of Local and Regional Authorities, of which Turkey is a member, includes the necessity of consulting the public regarding any important projects affecting the future on the society under the title ‘public participation, urban administration and urban planning’ (Toprak, Yavaş & Görün, 2004, pp. 199–203). Due to the above-mentioned international stance, if a necessity of implementing an urban transformation project in, for example, Ege, decisions must be taken with the consent of participants and citizens living in the said zone in accordance with democratic obligations in order to avoid any problems for Turkey in the political arena. While making administrative decisions regarding transformation projects with a social dimension, the inclusion of residents of the neighbourhood concerned with the project, private sector and non-governmental organisations contribute to the feasibility of urban transformation projects and to the solution of administrative and social problems. Participants must define goals clearly in such a project. Social, cultural, political and economic indicators of living standards are of importance for sustainable cities and functional urban life. Poverty and other related issues are not to be disregarded, especially in the present day; they are fundamental topics as far as local and regional administrative relations and strategies on humanitarian improvement and societal development are concerned. The indicators of living standards of the individuals in the sample of the study do not seem to have a positive effect on the way to the sustainable development of the city. In fact, it creates negative effects such as urban safety as discussed within the scope of the study. The increasing number of migrants to Izmir and the obligatory settlement options, usually in poorer neighbourhoods, aggravates the situation. Within this context, the focus of administrative authorities on poorer neighbourhoods with a significant Romani majority and its effects to and connections with the urban improvement programme must be re-evaluated considering the benefit of the city and social-institutional support including non-governmental institutions must be maintained.

REFERENCES Coşkun, N. (1998). Romanlarve Antalya Zeytinköy Romanlarının Toplumsal Bütünleşmeleri [Social Integration of Roma and Antalya Zeytinköy Roma]. Unpublished master’s thesis, Sakarya University Institute of Social Sciences. Fonseca, I. (2002). Beni Ayakta Gömün Çingeneler ve Yolculukları [Bury Me Standing Gypsies and Their Journeys]. Istanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Martinez, N. (1992). In Ş. Aktaş (Trans.). Çingeneler (Les Tsiganes). Istanbul: İletişim Yayıncılık. Marushiakova, E., & Popov, V. (2001). Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press.

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Von Scherzer, K. (1873). In İ. Pınar (Trans.). İzmir 1873. Kent Kitaplığı Dizisi 14 [City Library Series 14]. Istanbul: İBB Kültür Yayını. Toprak, Z., & Yağlıdere, A. (2005). Kentlerin Mekansal Kullanımında Geri Dönüşümü Zor Adacıklar İzmir Örnekleminde Roman Mahalleri [Islets Difficult to Recycle in Spatial Use of Cities Roma Locations in the Izmir Sample]. In First international gipsy symposium [First International Gypsy Symposium], 4–6 May 2005, Edirne (Proceedings Book – Unpublished Paper). Toprak, Z., Yavaş, H., & Görün, M. (2004). Yerel ve Bölgesel Yönetimler Kongresi Anlaşmalarında Avrupa Konseyi [Council of Europe in Local and Regional Governments Congress Agreements]. Bornova: Birleşik Matbaacılık. Yağlıdere, A. (2007). Kentsel Mekanların Kullanımında Sosyal Kategori Olarak Romanlar [Roma as Social Category in the Use of Urban Spaces]. İzmir: Ozan Yayıncılık.

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CHAPTER 14 WEALTH OF STREETS: ROMA AND MEDIA Semir Bolat

ABSTRACT When we are going to talk about the streets, we cannot start without mentioning the real owners of streets. Who are the real owners of streets? While speaking about the street economy, during the presentation in the International Romani Symposium in Mersin, Dr Osman Sirkeci said that Romani are the real owners of streets. Romanis, who immigrated from India to all around the world a thousand years ago and were forced or abandoned to live in streets, are the real owners of streets. They were forced to earn their life in the jobs which are the most difficult and reprehensible in the known sites. However, they were assigned to make in such works as pin, spear, sword, groom, cart, wheel, iron, steel, which were used in wars; they were tinsmith, blacksmith, coppersmith, handworkers, entertainers and musicians. Keywords: Wealth of street; Roma; media; actors of streets; street economy; street artist

When mentioning a folk, it is not the right not to mention their homeland, and when mentioning their homeland, it is not the right not to touch upon its folk. When mentioning a life, it is not the right not to look how it is being earned, and when looking at its earning, it is not the right not to look how it is being lived. For example, it is not the right thing that when telling Turkey not to talk about Turks, when telling India not to talk about Indians and when telling Malta not to talk about Maltesers. Or vice versa it is supposed to do that when telling Turkey to talk about Turks,

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when telling India to talk about Indians and when telling about Malta to talk about Maltesers. We are going to tell the streets too. Telling the streets, we cannot start without mentioning the real owners of streets. Who are the real owners of streets? While telling the street economy during the presentation in the International Romani Symposium in Mersin, Dr Osman Sirkeci said that the Romani are the real owners of streets. Also, because of coinciding the millennium of Romani immigration, I dedicate this speech to the Romani, who emigrated from India to all around the world a thousand years ago and were forced or abandoned to live in streets, and who are the real owners of streets. We are going to talk about gloomy and problematic subjects of streets. The streets are the place where mothers don’t let their children go alone and protect them. We are going to talk about a place to where ownerless cats and dogs are abandoned, where trees that are not irrigated, not grown are thus withered up for not having an owner. We are going to talk about the sex worker, waif and peddler who are obliged to work in streets to earn their lives because of a nowhere job. If we don’t talk about the art which changes our faces with ungracious smile and changes our irritated state, this topic will be unbearable. You being Scientific who my dear teachers, my dear journalist friends who are making their news, the representatives of the sector turning “remnant into food” with recycling and lives in streets and dear you all listeners caring this, garbage, baggers, polices, guards, crashes, demonstrations, gas bombs, sirens of ambulances… who knows how much we get bored while listening all these. I think that’s why my dear teacher Dr Osman Sirkeci and dear arrangement committee members called me. Joking apart! They called me because of remembering those playing violin, reading poems, playing roles, drawing graffiti, dancers and painters who make wonderful things with their tableaus. Yes, while I am even ranging these; images arousing in front of your eyes, arias and melodies sung in streets and Works appealing you no matter which mood you are in they get you to there that puts the emotion. I am getting this from your smiles. You scientist must find and tell the truth all the time and always. But we artist are not like that. We move from realities, life, history, dreams, rumours and present Works which appeal to souls with our emotions and enrich them with thoughts for contributing people’s social life to improve their peace. By the way, I’m going to talk about not a scientist but an artist. You know! There are important immigrations but three of them are crucial. Jews, Turks, Romani, the consequence of immigrations after the hundreds of years these first two managed to establish states and has been known publics living their lands. I’m not going to talk about these immigrations and its reasons. Our time is not sufficient for this as well as it is not my duty. This is your part, dear scientists. but because of millennium and we are in Street conference I have brought the topic into there for drawing attention onto interesting lives of streets’ real owners as an artist. While leaving their homeland, the Romani set out for good. But Jews had always been describing their homeland starting from the day when they were

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forced to leave and left an anonymous narration to go back there when the time would come. Although the Romani had a lot of skills, wherever they went local folks did not allow Romani to fuse with them, suppressed Romani’s, forced them to live the places and thought they deserved that. They were forced to earn their life in the jobs which are the most difficult and reprehensible in the known sites. But they were assigned to make in such works as pin, spear, sword, groom, cart, Wheel, iron, steel which were used in wars; they were tinsmith, blacksmith, coppersmith, handworkers, entertainers and musicians. These folks when required immediately applied but after getting jobs done, seen as gypsy in spite of this, they did not go back. Neither promoted their children to go back. Whatever situation they were in they did not revolt. Even though all abilities and skills, the public that lived in poverty line adapted a harmony with and respected this country. On the other hand, in everywhere there are Jews who raise the most prominent scientists, researchers, employers and accumulate in all areas. Their dream is to go back their homeland and establish their own country. However, the Romani who tried to adapt the place where they lived and find a statute were not accepted as citizens. And unfortunately, they who did not revolt and not think to go back and dreamt to be citizen where they live could not have any one of these. On the other hand, there is an interesting situation of Jews who implemented the most effective marketing, earned money, succeeded every branch of science and became prominent figures in countries where they live and therefore gained citizenship. They always pointed out the place where they came out and wanted their children to go back and accepted this as right and made it accept. The matter which interests us as artists is the story of immigration and opposite position of these two folks who has common. And the reason is these two folks exposed to genocide during the World War II. The common point of these two folks, while one of them just want to be citizen in the country where they live and other one wants to go back their homeland, is horrible massacres. It is the Works which was made to inspire artists and to be accepted after many years with these Works. And again, one of the topics is the position and the results gained by one of these two folks who do not live in the streets in spite of living same horrible destruction of these two folks. It is right thing for us either to make whoever responsible pay for before history what they did to Jews and to rehabilitate. The Jews brought this to book and gained their rights. But same results were not easy for Romani who live in streets. However, it was admitted a genocide what they lived after the struggle by researchers, journalists, intellectuals and lawyers. But except for acknowledging their right (this is very important too) there is no differences before it was accepted and almost no change in their normal life, they have been living same streets. Forgive me for drawing attention to these examples in order to make those living in the streets think. But if we did not pay attention on these subjects, it would make no sense of being journalists and artists. It means that we ignore the rights of people who are in poor conditions and have big problems. Nevertheless, we know that the most prominent figures of arts, sports, authors, thinkers, journalists have come out from such poverty after a

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harsh life struggle. It will be enough to remember to such names as Pablo Picasso, Juan dies de Ramirez, Quaresma, Charlie Chaplin, Julee Brynner and the solidarity with the wealth of different combined ideas by every colour of people who has to survive in streets and the problems of every person in there. Moreover, if I try to count the artists, sportsmen, musicians, dancers and film makers from all kind of races and sex who created great works time will not be efficient. Some of Works made by these people fermented in streets are priceless. Just an example, La Reve (“The Dream” Pablo Picasso) found a buyer for a 155,000,000 USD. In our country especially Mersin in which I live, there is a situation which results from firstly Romanis then those who lost their jobs because of industrialisation, Kurds obliged to immigrate from south Eastern Turkey and lastly 400,000 Syrians. And I am sorry to say that they cannot afford to survive and earn their lives in anywhere other than streets. Having different cultures make difficult for them to live together. And unfortunately, politicians do not have any solution for these problems. As aforementioned, since they have not chance to tell their problems, they cannot solve these problems on their own.

CHAPTER 15 PRODUCER WOMEN’S NEIGHBOURHOOD MARKETS Sibel Gelbul

ABSTRACT In Mezitli, there are many projects contributing to the street economy. As a good example, let me talk about Women Market, the bazaar where only women can put up their products for sale. In different regions, Mezitli has nine different bazaars in which 600 women open their stands. Women contribute their own house economy by selling their own products including fresh fruits and vegetables, knitting and handmade objects. The municipality doesn’t request any payment or rent from those women for their stands and electricity they use during their stay. The prices and quality and hygiene conditions are ensured with the help of a professional from the municipality. Keywords: Mezitli; women market; municipality; street economy; city council; handmade

I am delivering the best regards of Neşet Tarhan, the Mayor of Mezitli, for one more time, and I will talk about the projects that our municipality have conducted so far. In Mezitli, there are many projects contributing to the street economy. As a good example, let me talk about Women Market, the bazaar where only women can put up their products for sale. In different regions, Mezitli has nine different bazaars in which 600 women open their stands. Women contribute their own house economy by selling their own products including fresh fruits and vegetables, knitting and handmade objects. The municipality doesn’t request any payment or Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 143–144 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103018

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rent from those women for their stands and electricity they use during their stay. The prices and quality and hygiene conditions are ensured with the help of a professional from the municipality. As Mezitli City Council, we organise different pieces of training and information sessions for women and other groups. Besides that, we also organise cultural trips and social activities such as dance and street music in order to support them in social life as well. Also, in Viranşehir, seaside of Mezitli, there are mobile stands by which people can sell a different kind of foods. These mobile stands are given the numbers, number one is sweet corn, number two is mussel, number three is a bagel and so on. The owners of these mobile stands are paying only 60 ₺ monthly to the municipality. The food control is maintained by the authorities. So far, we have come across with very high demand for mobile stands. As the council, we organise many summer events in the street such as street music, dance shows and concerts; basically, the street economy has already been for a long time in Mezitli. Mr Tarhan visits the associations of disadvantaged groups and encouraged them to participate in all those social and street economy events. Sembol Tarhan, dear wife of Mr Tarhan, delivered a handmade knitted bag made by Mezitli women in knitting house to woman minister in Malta, we found a chance to talk with her about the street economy structure of Mezitli and social awareness projects conducted by Mezitli Municipality. Also, I would like to proudly say that Women Market run by Mezitli Municipality is the semi-finalist of the 2018 Guangzhou International Award for Urban Innovation in China this year. In India, street trading has become legal, even the Federation of Street Trading was established. The remarkable point of achievement is that all these developments are due to the street traders. In Mezitli, street trading is highly supported by the municipality itself, and in this sense, Mezitli is fortunate. As a final word, we were very honoured to be in the symposium in Malta, and I would like to thank Dr Osman Sirkeci who supported us during the organisation of events.

CHAPTER 16 THE STORY OF THE RECYCLING WORKERS ASSOCIATION Mehmet Göçer

ABSTRACT Recycling Workers Association (RWA), founded in 1993, has been the oldest associations in Turkey advocating the rights of recycling workers and conducting studies to ensure the security of their business through organisation. There were more than 2,000 families in Ankara, who emigrated from Gaziantep and lived in the Çankaya district of Ankara. We, as RWA, gained legal status by integrating with Çankaya Municipality’s licenced waste collection company. In the same year, the company we worked with was successful and received an award. Our work in this business, as being the first one in Turkey, has become known throughout Turkey and some provinces (Antalya, Gaziantep, Konya and Adana) began to implement the project. Our project was heard in foreign countries such as Norway and Germany. Keywords: Recycling; waste pickers; association; municipality; waste collection; self-workers global

The Recycling Workers Association (RWA), founded in 1993, has been the oldest associations in Turkey advocating the rights of recycling workers and conducting studies to ensure the security of their business through organisation. The Foundation of Recyclers Association founded after a long and tiring process. When I emigrated from Gaziantep to Ankara, I knew that my relatives were living in Ankara, collecting packaging waste on the streets and making a living by dealing with scrap. I started collecting paper on the street with my children to Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 145–146 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103019

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make a living as everyone else did. Police officers were following us because it was forbidden to collect waste on the streets. We were held guilty of crimes committed in the streets where we collected paper. Therefore, I started looking for a solution and founded the Association of Recycling Workers in 2013, but the situation did not change. As a result of my research, in the same year, I met Dinçer Mendillioğlu and asked him to lead us by helping us become legal. Because there were more than 2,000 families in Ankara, including me; all of these families were relatives who emigrated from Gaziantep and lived in the Çankaya district of Ankara. With his help, in 2016, we gained legal status by integrating with Çankaya Municipality’s licenced waste collection company. In the same year, the company we worked with was successful and received an award. My work in this business, as being the first one in Turkey, has become known throughout Turkey and some provinces (Antalya, Gaziantep, Konya and Adana) began to implement the project. My research and my project were heard in foreign countries such as Norway and Germany. At the moment, I still continue as the Vice President of RWA. In all major cities and many of the small towns in Turkey, 50% of all the daily universal and industrial waste is recycled. Approximately 500,000 people work as waste collectors in the collection of these recycled wastes and their transportation to separation plants. In a way, recyclers are voluntary environmentalists who contribute to the cleaning of urban waste all over the world. However, in Turkey, there is no social and health security of most of these waste collectors. These difficult living conditions, that hundreds of thousands of recycling workers and their families up to 2.5 million without any incentives and education are facing, are among the most important problems that must be solved. We regularly provide information flow to all parties and media organisations of all types, to protect the legal rights of waste collectors, to ensure their safety and to improve their health conditions. It should be noted that the problems of the waste collectors living in Turkey is an integral part of the waste pickers in the world, who earn their living from waste, estimated at 250 million overall. In this book, we are honoured to be represented as recycling workers along with other workers working on the streets. We wish that the Global Workers Union will be beneficial for all street workers and recycling workers all over the world.

CHAPTER 17 EFFECT AND IMPORTANCE OF GREEN LOGISTICS TOWARDS PURCHASE BEHAVIOURS OF CONSUMER IN E-COMMERCE Emine Kavas

ABSTRACT In this research, the effect of green logistics in e-commerce on consumer purchasing behaviour is examined. Companies that have adopted green logistics are thought to be effective on consumer’s product preferences. Businesses are sensitive to changing environmental conditions and changing consumer behaviour and that they adopt green logistics in line with their development goals is a factor that can affect the purchasing behaviour of consumers. Therefore, ‘adoption of the green principle’ becomes a social and global phenomenon. When consumers evaluate a product or service, they look at not only product performance and quality, but also the environmental impact of the product. The fact that the enterprises realised this, their responsibilities in terms of environmental impact, their achieving competitive advantage, and their aim to strengthen their brand image in the market led them to adopt the green principle. In this respect, the importance of R&D studies has been understood and activities related to this subject have increased. These activities ultimately reduced both living conditions and lifecycle costs. Green brand awareness has increased in consumers. The use of technology in commerce has expanded e-commerce and has become a part of life. In this context, it should be investigated whether the development of environmental consciousness of the consumer in e-commerce has an effect on the product selection. According to the

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findings of the research about the effect of green logistics practices on the buying behaviour of firms, it is determined that the environmental awareness and demands of the consumers are highly effective in the adoption of green logistics and that the green logistics practices in e-commerce affect the purchasing behaviour of the consumers. At this point, a green approach in national or international commercial activities has been exhibited and also needs to be executed. Keywords: Green logistics; E-Commerce; Consumer; Purchase behavior; Service network; Environmental friendliness

INTRODUCTION Consumption is as old as human history and people have consumed throughout history (Bauman, 2012). Every consumption type pollutes the environment. Resources have been extensively used both to meet basic needs and to make profit. On the other hand, nature has renewed itself and offered its resources to the service of human being again and again (Güner & Coşkun, 2013). Nature, consumed for centuries, can no longer prevent consumption in the process of selfrenewal. Thus, products and policies that are green for the protection of the environment are needed. All individuals need to be more environmentally conscious. The damages caused by the nature for many different reasons have shown the negative effects of the most intense form of today which has become a threat to the future of human beings and has caused the emergence of global environmental problems (Güner & Coşkun, 2013). In green logistics, the aim is to use the limited nature product in long term and thereby minimizing the environmental damage. In addition to being nature friendly, this aim is a factor that can be used by the consumers in choosing their products. The increase in the education and awareness levels of consumers, increasing the preferability of green products in products and applications (Vahrenkamp & Kotzab, 2012) as well as increasing the firm in this area (Sadowski, 2010) are stated as the solution to the environmental problems, if problems are related to consumption rather than production. What consumers choose and for what reason, how much they consume and postconsumption behaviours have become an important issue (Çabuk, Nakıboğlu, & Keleş, 2018). In this aspect, the effect of green logistics on the brand preferences of consumers in e-commerce should be examined. Individuals who are conscious of protecting the environment will act with this awareness during works related to daily life and during purchasing and consumption (Gök & Türk, 2011). Green consumers are trying to choose natural and unadulterated organic foods; recycled materials (paper, etc.) or reusable containers (dishwashing detergent, etc.), low-emission and fuelefficient cars as well as refrigerators and washing machines (Yaraş, Akın, & Şakacı, 2011). The recycled goods goes back to the manufacturer as a raw material with its reverse logistics system, and it is put back into production (Gilanlı, Altuğ, & Oğuzhan, 2012). All these indicate the necessity of green products and the continuity of development in applications.

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E-COMMERCE E-commerce is the consumer’s usage of electronic media in product purchase. In the late twentieth century, e-commerce started as a result of the rapid development of information and communication technologies and continued in the twenty-first century (Guven, 2013). It is an attractive shopping centre (Pelenk, Velioğlu, & Değirmencioğlu, 2011). Since e-commerce has its own objectives, it is a sector that needs special regulation attempts (Kantarcı, Özalp, Sezginsoy, Özaşkınlı, & Cavlak, 2017). As communication technologies and internet use are increasing rapidly, a new economic order has emerged in the world. International markets, where geographic boundaries disappeared and where the seller met the buyer, began to shift their business activities to web-based systems (Guven, 2013). Logistics costs, products coming from a market that consumers do not know, customs duties, transportation period are the barriers that stand in front of cross-border trade in the world (Kantarcı et al., 2017). It is possible to say that the rate of online shopping has increased rapidly (Guven, 2013). Over the last decade in the world, e-commerce has grown more than 10 times, reshaping consumers’ shopping habits and business models of companies, especially retailers. E-commerce, which will continue to grow rapidly in the near future, has numerous benefits to society and economy. Thanks to these benefits, which are quickly recognised by businesses and consumers as well as by governments, e-commerce continues to grow/expand and reshapes the trade understanding in the world (Kantarcı et al., 2017). Global retail e-commerce volume reached 1.6 trillion USD as of 2016. In 2011, developing countries accounted for 32% of the volume, compared to 59%. In 2020, 64% of the total volume is expected to be created by developing countries. China has the biggest e-commerce market in the world.

BENEFITS OF E-COMMERCE Consumers can surf on the internet for various purposes, and sometimes they can travel around the world for gaining general information in order to obtain preliminary ideas to support the purchase from around the world, as well as in a specific plan, sometimes unplanned, for entertainment purposes (Gerlevik, 2012). Online shopping is a new marketing area (Pelenk et al., 2011). Consumers are expected to prefer green products through the formation of consumer awareness. The cost of producing green products can be reduced by the use of new technologies developed in production with clean technology approach, by reducing the amount of input and the amount of pollution and waste produced (Gök & Türk, 2010). The passion to create competitive advantage, improve the brand image, increase the value of the product and market the product to a new customer in a new market (Chen, 2010) are the main reasons why companies follow their green marketing strategy. In recent years, many countries are encouraging companies to comply with the green principles in order to minimise environmental damage in

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social, economic, political and legal terms. Benefits of e-commerce are as follows (Kantarcı et al., 2017):

• Reduces informality in the economy, increases employment, competitiveness and employment with the support of enterprises. • Develops the sectors, such as logistics and information technology, in which it interacts and serves. • Ensures that small and medium-sized enterprises can compete with large companies due to the lack of many costlier elements required in the physical world. • Increases the export potential of companies while decreasing input costs and ensuring that products are promoted more easily, quickly and cost-effectively.

GREEN LOGISTICS For the green economy, it can be defined as economic activities and systems with renewable energy, convertible waste, financial continuity and eco-innovation for the continuity of human and ecosystem services (Allen & Clouth, 2012). The management of the process developed for reduction purposes is called green logistics (Bolat, Bayraktar, Ozturk, & Turan, 2011). Owing to the consumers’ sensitivity to the environment, businesses have found themselves in competition with other firms in the direction of being renewed and green (Karaca, 2013). Companies that want to gain competitive advantage in environmental issues have gone to merger (Tiwari, Tripathi, Srivastava, & Yadav, 2011). The warehouses built as a green building are provided with the opportunity to save a considerable amount of costs like electricity and water, and can be effective in the evaluation of wastes. There are also solar energy projects made about energy usage (Taha, Tokur, & Gülbahar, 2016). The sale of products from the internet is not sufficient in terms of compliance with the green principles in e-commerce. For successful and sustainable e-commerce activities, it is important for companies to recover their logistical processes from the traditional structure and adapt them to the green principles (Kantarcı et al., 2017). There are many customers who make their purchase decisions according to their environmental friendliness (Vahrenkamp & Kotzab, 2012). The most important factor that plays a role in this choice is the environmental concern. In this context, individuals have changed their habits to buy and have preferred products that do not harm the environment or cause the least damage to the environment (Uydaci, 2011). Green applications in e-commerce companies need to digitalise all processes such as storage areas, supply chain, product tracking and replenishment in accordance with green principles and revise them in accordance with the requirements of the e-commerce sector (Kantarcı et al., 2017). Consumers are most sensitive about if the raw materials of the products are sensitive to the environment or not (Kardeş, 2011). According to the EU consumption report, 10% of consumers pay attention to the green energy signs and ecological product marks on the products in supermarkets (Boztepe, 2012). Although this rate seems to be low, it is important that the consumer’s determination and products reach to 10% of the mass.

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GREEN ADVERTISEMENT Green advertisement is evaluated as the advertisement of green activities in the process of announcements of the activities of the enterprises to the consumers to prevent the environmental pollution from their production to the distribution (Uydaci, 2011). Today’s industry is focussed on attracting and persuading (Bauman, 2012). Today, conscious green consumers are interested in the environmental impacts of production systems, products and wastes of enterprises consuming scarce resources (Varinli, 2012). Consumer behaviour also plays a key role in planning of advertisement companies. Green marketing strategy, as well as being an environment-oriented marketing strategy, is a modern approach that targets the human element (Ekinci, 2007). In green marketing, the consumer buys emotions and perceptions about whether to make any difference with the environmental buying movement, and purchasing eco-friendly products is one of the main determinants of intention to buy (Tirkeş, 2008). If the consumer believes that there will be an environmental difference related to the product he/she receives, he/she will be more demanding against the product. Although environmental problems can be perceived as a threat to marketers, they can become an opportunity to be turned in favour of marketers. Increasing environmental sensitivity among consumers is reflected in purchasing decisions, but there may also be an increase in the conversion to purchase. Thus, for marketers, a new target group is formed by consumers who prefer green products in their purchases (Çabuk et al., 2018). Green logistics in e-commerce is a factor that will attract the attention of the consumer and strengthen the brand image. An average 65% of Turkish consumers indicate that they are particularly sensitive to environmental issues and that the source of the products is ethical. The business world is looking for ways to positively affect consumer preferences with innovative product designs and responsible marketing approach (Deloitte, 2007). Thanks to this understanding, marketing of environmentally friendly products has been started with green marketing techniques (Türkoğlu, 2016). By using the green logos on the internet, seller companies can attract the attention of consumers and provide the consumers with the product information. On the other hand, it can be remarkable that the green certificates are provided with the brand logo on the internet from the sales sites. These are different from the other manufacturers of green producers with the consumers to focus on their own brands. Green advertising is meaningful with the principle of continuity. This brand positioning may not be enough to create a brand choice alone, although consumers’ awareness of protecting the environment is increasing and the image of green brand is high (Kardeş, 2011). The enterprises that guarantee the buy-back of the product are more preferred by consumers (Uydaci, 2011). Green advertising activities make brand image strong. Public relation activities in the promotion of the green product or green enterprise and press conferences, if any, should be taken into consideration (Akdeniz, 2011). In this respect, the sustainability of the brand’s green principles and the ability of users to reach e-commerce applications safely should be at a sufficient level.

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CONSUMER BEHAVIOURS AND SENSITIVITY TO ENVIRONMENT The consumer is defined as the real person who buys marketing components (goods, price promotion and distribution) in order to satisfy the wishes, needs and desires of himself and his family (Güner, 2016). Consumption is defined as the produced goods and services and its usage by people to meet their needs and requirements (http://en.wikipedia.org/). Bauman (2012) states that our society is a consumption society. Consumption takes place through the purchase and use of a wide range of products from meeting basic needs to desirability. Developing economy, new products, continuously increasing consumption and consumerist philosophy of life, reinforces the idea that societies are in ‘consumer society’ (Cakir, Cakir, & Master, 2010). There are many factors that affect our purchasing behaviour (Güner, 2016). Among the internal variables that are effective in the buying behaviour of the individual, psychological factors can be considered as the main determinants of behaviour. They include subjects such as learning, motivation, perception, personality and attitude. External variables are socio-cultural determinants. They include topics such as family, social class, culture, subculture and personal effects. Demographic variables include age, income, education and geographic location. Marketing efforts are another factor affecting purchasing behaviour. It is the group of strategies applied by marketers. Advertising, price, distribution and product characteristics constitute this group of variables. Situational impacts can be cited as examples of physical environment, time, reason of purchase, emotional and financial situation (Akdeniz, 2011). The decision of consumers to buy new technologies with each passing day is no longer a price alone; factors like convenience, personalisation, community, gathering information, etc. have also started to affect (Kantarcı et al., 2017). There are significant relationships between the green buying behaviour of consumers and their gender, marital status, age, education and income. Consumers who buy green products are women, married, young, educated and have high household income (Çabuk et al., 2018). Yılmaz and Arslan (2011) determined that the students’ environmental sensitivities increased depending on environmental protection promises and the environmentally friendly consumption behaviours are changing depending upon gender, place where family lives and parents’ education level. Factors affecting consumers’ purchasing behaviour include culture; subculture; social class; reference groups; family factors; social factors such as motivation, personality, perception and learning; and external factors such as technology, economy and politics (Güner, 2016). Green consumers are generally defined as people who are friendly to the environment and live above the standards and are receiving green products. Green consumers think that individual consumption is an effective way to protect the environment (Boztepe, 2012). Green consumers can contribute to sustainable development with conscious consumption behaviours (Gök & Türk, 2011). Aslan and Çınar (2015) determined that green friendly products have been found to be indecisive about getting green products

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and students have insufficient information about the green network activities. Yildiz and Kilic (2016) examined the attitudes and behaviours of the students taking tourism to the environment-friendly products. It has been determined that tourism students’ attitudes and behaviours towards environmentally friendly products are positive. Karaca (2013) has reached the conclusion that consumers are sensitive to environmental awareness and use of environmentally sensitive products. In order to name individuals as environmentally conscious consumers, institutions and organisations need to complete their duties and responsibilities related to the environment as well as to encourage them to choose the green ones in their products (Kükrer, 2012). The network managers’ mission should help consumers to trust the brand, and in purchasing moment they should make the brand among other preferred brands (Kardeş, 2011). In recent days, consumers prefer products that cause the least environmental pollution (Karaca, 2013).

E-COMMERCE AND PURCHASE BEHAVIOUR The astonishing change in technology has been met in the field of e-commerce as in all trade formats, and trends that have not been in our lives 10 years ago have reshaped e-commerce today (Kantarcı et al., 2017). Today, it is possible to have better access to goods, services and other people with less physical transportation needs in cities which are connected to each other continuously through intelligent communication system and transportation networks compared to past (Gerçek Zeren Gülersoy, Cılız, & Altan Ocakverdi, 2011). In order to enable the brand to be kept in the mind of the consumer and to increase its preferability, its image must be consistent, brand discourse in the promotional campaigns should be consistent with what the brand actually presents to the consumer and the brand promise must match the expectations of the consumer (Kardeş, 2011). Environmental commitments made under short-term sales’ promotions are not effective in consumer awareness (Uydaci, 2011). Green purchasing means that any company pays special attention to research, determination, selection and resource use of products and services, which have less impact on the environment than its rivals. In our country, some retailers give importance to the protection of the environment and make various attempts. However, in addition to individual approaches on the retailer basis, adopting a common attitude and implementing policies can provide more useful results (Gök & Türk, 2011). First of all, it is necessary to establish a website that will attract the attention of consumers and to catch and maintain the necessary traffic after doing so. Before this process, which requires intensive effort, the market places come into play in bringing together its products with more customers and testing the operational processes and competencies (Kantarcı et al., 2017). Thanks to online channels, entrepreneurs have started to deliver their products not only to domestic markets, but also to overseas markets. In 2017, the use of digitalisation and technology has become more important than ever before in

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the lives of consumers and businesses. With digitalisation and adaptation of new technologies, companies have the opportunity to optimise their processes and make a difference in competition while also meeting the changing customer needs and expectations (Kantarcı et al., 2017). In many activities that can be evaluated within the scope of social responsibility, the environmentally friendly practices of firms are increasing (Kardeş, 2011). The legal and social responsibilities of the enterprises and the environmental awareness of the individuals have forced the firms to be green in many areas from production to transportation (Karaca, 2013). In our country, the green product market is growing day by day, conscious consumers prefer to buy green products when they have the chance to choose (Gerçek et al., 2011, p. 79). A total of 58% of consumers think that environmentally friendly products are too expensive and 33% think that they are not functional enough (Trendwatching, 2011). A total of 80.3% of the people who participated in a survey named ‘Consuming Habits and Environment’ responded to the ‘Do you use ecofriendly products?’ question as ‘Yes’ (Yesilbilgi, 2011). On the other hand, it can be said that the orientation towards environmentally friendly products has been handled more carefully by the consumers with the highest level of income and education (Gerçek et al., 2011). Hussein and Cankul (2010) determined that although university students worried about the destruction, it was stated that they could not reflect on the behaviours they exhibited while purchasing the product. It can be thought that consumption habits may play a role in this situation. Kardeş (2011) researches about the effect of brands on the brand preference of environmentally friendly applications, the result of which stated that the choice of environmentally friendly brands is above average. It was emphasised that consumer awareness should improve in this regard. Although consumers believe in the necessity of environmentally friendly applications, they prefer to buy their favourite products when they need to choose between their loved ones and the environmentally friendly rival brand. Although the environmental awareness of consumers is increasing and the ‘environmentalist’ or ‘green’ brand image is high, this brand positioning alone is not sufficient in producing the brand preference.

RESULT SUGGESTIONS In this research, the effect of green logistics in e-commerce on consumer buying behaviour is investigated. E-commerce has become a part of life. E-commerce has affected many processes such as the shopping habits of consumers, the production of companies, storage, marketing, distribution and service network. When consumers evaluate a product or service, they look at not only product performance and quality, but also the environmental impact of the product. The fact that the enterprises realized this, their responsibilities in terms of the environmental impact, the ideas of achieving competitive advantage, aiming to strengthen the brand image in the market, led them to adopt the green principle. In this respect, the importance of R&D studies has been understood and activities related to this

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subject have increased. These activities ultimately reduced both living conditions and lifecycle costs. Green brand awareness has increased in consumers. According to the findings of the study, the effect of the firms on the purchasing behaviour of green logistics applications is as follows. It is determined that the environmental awareness and demands of the consumers are highly effective in the adoption of green logistics and that the green logistics practices in e-commerce affect the purchasing behaviour of the consumers. In this context, a greener approach in national or international commercial activities has to be exhibited and needs to be executed. There are many factors that affect our purchasing behaviour. In addition to internal variables such as learning, motivation, perception, personality and attitude, socio-cultural factors such as family, social class, culture, subculture and personal effects also affect the purchasing behaviour. For this reason, consumers’ green consumption awareness is a factor that influences the purchasing preferences of products. Among the demographic variables in the preferences of consumers, it is effective on factors such as age, income, education and geographic location. The marketing policies and methods of the companies are another factor that influences the consumers’ finding, recognition and purchasing behaviours of green products. On the other hand, it can be remarkable that the green certificates are provided with the brand logo on the internet from the sales sites. These are different from the other manufacturers of green producers with the consumers to focus on their own brands. The fact that enterprises are sensitive to changing environmental conditions and changing consumer behaviour and that they adopt green logistics in line with their development goals is a factor that can affect the purchasing behaviour of consumers. For this reason, the adoption of the green principle has become a social and global mandatory phenomenon. In order to enable the brand to be kept in the mind of the consumer and to increase its preferability, its image must be continuous. Considering the fact that consumers prefer products that have the least environmental pollution, it is necessary for the firms to fulfil the infrastructure and responsibilities that will enable it to increase its competitiveness. First of all, companies should follow the investments and policies required for e-commerce in order to increase the preferability of green products. In this regard, it can be suggested that the government should be encouraging and provide tax facilitation in e-commerce applications. Furthermore, by increasing accessibility to internet networks, it can be ensured that the consumer can reach the internet easily and cheaply from any environment. If the consumer believes that there will be an environmental difference related to the sensitivities of the product, it may show more demand against the product. Firms that will start e-commerce activities need to digitalise the processes such as storage, supply chain, product follow-up and revise them in accordance with the requirements of the e-commerce sector. Another reason for the usage of environmental-friendly brands is not so high that the environmentalist practices of the companies are not perceived by the consumers as very convincing and sincere. The companies should make more effort on environmentalist applications.

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REFERENCES Akdeniz, Ar. A. (2011). Green marketing: Examples from textile industry. Istanbul: Beta Publishing. Allen, C., & Clouth, S. (2012). A guide book to the green economy; Issue 1: Green economy, green growth, and low-carbon development – History, definitions and a guide to recent publications. New York, NY: UN Division for Sustainable Development, UNDESA. Aslan, F., & Çınar, R. (2015). A study on determining the trends of using the environment-sensitive products of the Caucasus University students in the context of green marketing activities. KAU Journal of Business Administration, 6(9), 169–184. Bolat, H. B., Bayraktar, D., Ozturk, M., & Turan, N. (2011). A model proposal for the vehicle routing problem in the green logistics chain. XI. Within the Production Research Symposium (pp. 536–548), June 23–24. Boztepe, A. (2012). Green marketing and economic developments. European Journal of Economic and Political Studies, 5(1), 5–21. Bauman, Z. (2012). In A. Yilmaz (Trans.), Globalization. Istanbul: Detay Publications. Chen, Y.-S. (2010). The drivers of green brand equity: Green brand image, green satisfaction, and green trust. Journal of Business Ethics, 93(2), 307–319. Çabuk, S., Nakıboğlu, B., & Keleş, C. (2018). Investigation of consumers’ green (product) purchasing behaviors in terms of socio-demographic variables. Ç.Ü. Journal of the Institute of Social Sciences, 17(1), 85–102. Cakir, M., Cakir, F., & Master, G. (2010). Determining the factors affecting consumption preferences of university students. Journal of Organization and Management Sciences, 2(2), 87–94. Deloitte. (2007). Year-end shopping expenditure survey 2007. Change of consumer and seller. Retrieved from https://www.deloitte.com/. Ekinci, B. T. (2007). Problems in green marketing applications and a case study. M.Sc. thesis, Marmara University, Institute of Social Sciences, Istanbul. Gerçek, H., Zeren Gülersoy, N., Cılız, N., & Altan Ocakverdi, H. (2011). Vision 2050 Turkey, TUSIAD 09/518. Gerlevik, D. (2012). Effect of shopping through internet on consumer behavior. Master thesis, Atılım University Institute of Social Sciences. Gilanlı, E., Altuğ, N., & Oğuzhan, A. (2012). İşletmelerde İleri Ve Ters Lojistik Karşılaştırması. Trakya University Journal of Social Science, 14(1), 149–166. Gök, A., & Türk, M. (2011). A research on the consciousness of protecting the environment in Parakendeci enterprises. Süleyman Demirel University Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 16(2), 125–152. Güner, M. (2016). Development of internet and special shopping websites. Journal of Social Sciences, 3(6), 594–606. Güner, S., & Coşkun, E. (2013). Environmental perceptions of small and medium-sized enterprises and effect of supplier relations on environmental practices. Aegean Academic Perspective, 12(2), 151–167. Guven, A. (2013). Expectations of the private shopping sites of consumers and determining the factors affecting the choice of consumers’ private shopping sites: Ünye case. M.Sc. thesis, Karadeniz Technical University, Institute of Social Sciences. Hussein, A. T., & Cankul, D. (2010). A research for determining the behavior of university students on environmental behavior within the scope of green marketing activities. Journal of the Faculty of Commerce and Tourism Education, 1, 50–67. Kantarcı, Ö., Özalp, M., Sezginsoy, C., Özaşkınlı, O., & Cavlak, C. (2017). The driving force of the economy in the digitalized world: E-commerce, TÜSİAD-T/2017, 04-587, Istanbul. Karaca, Ş. (2013). Elik investigation of consumers’ attitudes towards green products incel. Ege Academic Review, 13(1), 99–111. Kükrer, Ö. (2012). The effects of consumers’ environmental responsibilities towards attitudes of the green advertising: A sample in Eskişehir. Journal of Yasar University, 26(7), 4505–4525. Pelenk, A., Velioğlu, Ö., & Değirmencioğlu, G. (2011). New focus of consumption: An investigation on private shopping. Academic Journal of Information Technology, 2(4), 1309–1581. Retrieved from http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki. Accessed on September 27, 2018.

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PART IV SUMMING UP

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CHAPTER 18 DIGNIFYING OF SELF-WORKERS IN FIVE CONTINENTS Kamuran Elbeyoğlu and Osman Sirkeci

Dreams of establishing the Street Workers’ Association started 10 years ago. It is a very important indicator that the number of single-person enterprises in micro enterprises increase numerically. Most of these one-man initiatives were informal. Various country or city surveys and emerging literature have already shown the global dimensions of self-workers. It is possible to be informed about the subject through the press releases of academic researchers, industry representatives and professional representatives from various countries like Africa and Asia, from virtual media pages where academic studies take place or from messages shared by various national street vendors’ organisations on their pages, public announcements, conference texts and conference announcements. In some countries, as in the example of the National Association of Street Vendors of India (NASVI) in India, street workers can become members of trade unions. Besides, we know that craftsmen and street vendors are organised in different countries as craftsmen chambers and craftsmen unions. Nevertheless, the organisation of this cluster, where the exact number of informal employment and working conditions cannot be known, remains an important problem, except for the workers who have the right to become members of official trade unions and the chambers where officially registered artisans are members.

SIX BILLION OF THE WORLD’S POPULATION IN WORKING AGE According to International Labor Organisation data, there are around 3.5 billion registered and unregistered employees worldwide. According to world social security data, there are 1.6 billion people in formal employment as dependent or Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 161–164 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103022

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independent workers; from this, it is seen that 1.7 billion people work informally. This means 3.3 billion employees in total. According to the unemployment data, the number of unemployed in the scope of narrow unemployment, namely the number of unemployed who are currently seeking jobs or registered in the unemployment offices, is around 200 million. But, 6 billion out of the world’s population of 7.8 ­billion is in working age. When we count together 200 million people seekşng for jobs with the working 3.3 billion, 3.5 billion people are included in the labor force. In this case, what do 2.5 billion people of working age do? These 2.5 billion people are not looking for jobs according to the unemployment records; neither they are working or looking for work, according to the employment agencies.

BETWEEN 1 AND 2 BILLION PEOPLE ARE WORKING AS SELF-WORKERS IN GLOBAL STREETS It is seen that millions of people are working in this field which is defined as street economy and street activities which do not enter into any statistics in the world. This number can be 1 billion or 2 billion. What is important is that these millions of people are an integral part of urban life. This cluster meets all the needs of citizens with low income in the most practical, simplest and cheapest cost. The market economy presents this cluster as a worldwide problem. The use of police forces against street vendors is on the agenda all over the world. These informal, unorganised groups working in the streets are being cleaned and thrown away from the city streets with the pressure of local organised trade’s organisations. There are even talks of measures and struggles against street workers. Today, poverty, hunger and unemployment are the three global problems to be solved. The existence of people living on the streets is not a problem; it is a solution that the system produces itself. Hundreds of millions of people seek to meet their needs under conditions of poverty. This quest also provides new job opportunities for the unemployed. As a result of the rapid urbanisation of the last hundred years, the city streets filled with the poor, also bring innovative and creative business opportunities. Street arts, graffiti and street performances are the best examples of this.

DEFINING THE LEGAL STATUS OF STREET WORKERS These indicators led us to the idea that all formal and informal activities and activities carried out on the city streets, regardless of location, could be handled around a common denominator. According to this view, all activities carried out in public places, such as streets, street corners, etc., regardless of a specific location, should be considered within the activities of the street economy. All the people in the streets playing violin, selling roses, painting, selling toys, selling bagels, all street artisans, artists, and so on can be addressed in the cluster. Defining the legal status of street workers constitutes the legal basis of their organisations such as trade unions, associations, chambers and cooperatives. This definition of legal status and the possibility of legal organisation and social and health assurance of this cluster is our most important duty.

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As these ideas are shared with trade union representatives, organisation and association representatives, academicians, researchers, journalists and media representatives from various countries of the world, they are enriched with different perspectives. In the past decade, the fact that we have received broad support from the mayors and experts from local governments and politicians, especially from the media, is an indication that we are on the right track. Our propositions are taken in a transdisciplinary approach by academicians in philosophy, art, economy, design, finance, business etc. in Turkey, from north to south, east to west from dozens of universities; and studies and participations continue to increase. With developments in the past eight years in Turkey, both visual and written media approaches and perceptions towards street workers have changed rapidly. Tens of members of the media pay close attention to the issue and start to adopt it positively. In the past eight years, the subject has been handled in hundreds of media, virtual media, television channels and radio programmes; and it has also begun to receive intense interest from local and national government representatives.

FIRST NATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR SELF-WORKERS IN ANKARA The actual peak was realised in February 2019. In 15 February 2019, with the leadership and the participation of the CHP’s leader, a national workshop was carried out in Ankara with the participation of artisans from all over the streets across Turkey. The street economy declaration presented at the workshop was widely covered in the media and remained on the agenda for months after the workshop. The issue was put on the agenda by the party’s president and representatives on a variety of platforms. Moving the subject to Ankara with these dimensions is an indicator of the accuracy of the timing and content of the issue. With this sound rising from Turkey, the topic has begun to attract wide interest all over the world, from Ghana to India, from Malta to Lithuania, also with the speed impact of social media. These days the issue is handled in much wider and richer dimensions.

FIRST INTERNATIONAL STREET ECONOMY CONFERENCE HELD IN MALTA The First International Street Economy Conference held in Malta in October 2018 was carried out under the honorary presidency of Dr Justyne Caruana, the Honourable Minister for Gozo – Malta. The main objective of this conference was to contribute to the global unity of street workers. Today, we are gathered here to realise the launch meeting of this union, which was a dream that day.

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FOUNDING OF SELF-WORKERS GLOBAL Speaking for NASVI at the Malta conference, Arbind Singh emphasised ‘the need to address the issue urgently and to establish a global union for street workers’. Self-Workers Global (SWG) has been established with the participation of representatives of street workers’ organisations from various countries who took action with the proposal of establishing the global union of street workers discussed in the Malta conference. As a result of seven months of intensive work, SWG has been established and announced to the world today. As a result, the SWG plays the role of the visionary global organisation of street vendors, street artisans, street artists, whose numbers are not fully known worldwide. With this mission, there are tasks waiting for us immediately. We need to provide for the Global Street Workers:

• integration into urban life; • accreditation and recognition at national level; • have legal status; • to be able to organise in appropriate forms of organisation; • have health and social security opportunities; and • individual or corporate membership of the Street Workers Global (SWG). To the extent that this task can be accomplished, human rights and legitimate legal order on the streets of the world and the formal organisation of street tradesmen will be established. The exploitation of disadvantaged groups, migrants, women and children on the streets will be prevented. The living conditions of the street workers who meet the needs of the world’s poor in the most practical way, in all climatic conditions and completely precarious conditions, will improve. They will be secured and in return they become the guarantee for the poor. The quality of the services they provide to billions of citizens will increase. The health and hygiene conditions of the products offered on the street will be of a higher quality, and this will directly contribute to public health.

CHAPTER 19 SUPPLEMENT: THE MANIFESTO OF THE GLOBAL STREET ECONOMY Simon Grima, Osman Sirkeci and Kamuran Elbeyoğlu

The Global Reality in the Shadow of the Street – StreetPreneurs must unite to ensure peace, serenity and a safe and livable world. Street economy (SE) is the exchange of goods and services in the public area. It offers commercial, artistic goods and services on the street, sidewalk, and public streets, without standing in a fixed space. It is a micro-scale business. It produces economic and social benefits. It includes physical and mental activities. Investment capital is micro-scale. Permission is required or not required, activities are registered or not registered. Education is knowledge and skill. It is estimated that 2 billion people in the world are working in the streets.

FUNCTIONS Street economy:

• is an integral part of ones life and future; • is the externalised basic functions of the market economy; • is the repairer of troubles of the market economy, the remedy of its deficiencies; • is the only supplier for low-income citizens; • is the safeguard of the market economy and the guarantee of its extended life; • is the servant of market economy and automatic motivator; • is the largest social, local product and service sector; Global Street Economy and Micro Entrepreneurship Contemporary Studies in Economic and Financial Analysis, Volume 103, 165–166 Copyright © 2020 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1569-3759/doi:10.1108/S1569-375920200000103024

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• is a guarantee of natural micro-scale agriculture; • is a low-cost, primary source of employment; • is a guarantee, low-cost, micro-scale, mass production and distribution of goods and services; • benefits and supports the mass; • is the most common entrepreneurial school; • has the least barriers and bureaucracy; • is the birthplace and living space of many. PROBLEMS

• The street economy has been externalised, despised and denied. • Education is the biggest problem for StreetPreneurs. • Labour value in the street economy is lower than the market economy. • Street economy is insecure and unprotected. SOLUTIONS

• The street economy should be supported by a special education programme. • Children and women in employed street economy must be protected. • Street economy players should benefit from health and social security. • Product and service quality should be upgraded with effective integration and social internalisation of street economy. • The street economy should benefit from special financial incentives and consulting incentives. • StreetPreneurship should be rewarded and promoted. • The virtual chambers, media platforms, unions and associations of street economy should be established.

INDEX Actors in news, 70 of street economy, 12–26 Afghanistan economy, 115 street economy in Kabul, 117–121 street vendors, 116–117 Al-Qaeda, 120 Alliance at work, 105–107 Aristotle, 32–33 Art, 90 Basketry, 99 Bourgeois Marketplace and Towns, 34–35 Capitalism, 13, 46 Children, 98–99 City dwellers, 49, 52 Civil wars, 116–117 Class-based social divisions, 49 Climate change, 40 Commercial capitalism, 13 Competitiveness of street economy, 10 Consumers, 151–152 behaviour, 153–155 Consumption, 150, 154 Core economy, 30, 35 merchandising by bartering goods, 31–32 from slaver states to slaver empires, 32 and streets, 31 Cost leadership strategy, 57 Criminal organisations, 118 Critique of Pure Reason, 46 Death and Life of Great American Cities, The, 48 Dehumanization, 35 Democracy, 4, 76–77 Design of manufacturing, 92–94

Development problem of street, 82–83 in street economy, 9 Digitalisation and technology, 155–156 District bazaars, 30, 35–36 factors determining the character, 33 E-commerce, 151 benefits of, 151–152 consumer behaviours and sensitivity to environment, 154–155 green advertisement, 153 green logistics, 152 and purchase behaviour, 155–156 result suggestions, 156–157 Education, 117 among Romani, 127–128 Employment among Romani, 133–136 function of SE in Turkey, 19–20 in global SE, 18–19 Environmental friendliness, 152 Farm products in India, 43 First Global Street Economy, 7 First Industrial Revolution, 90–91 Food industry in India, 43 Fordism, 91 Fourth Industrial Revolution, 90–91 Free market economy, 23 Functions of street economy, 12–26 Global Street Workers, 166 Global Workers Union, 148 Globalisation, 41 Golden Silence, 104 Gozo’s insularity, 8–9 Green advertisement, 153 consumers, 150, 154–155 167

168 INDEX

logistics, 150, 152–153 marketing strategy, 153 purchasing, 155 Hakkani Group, 120 Handmade, 145–146 Hawkers, 19 Human Development Index (HDI), 80 Hunger, 164 Hürriyet, 69–70 India alliance at work, 105–107 implementation of policy, 108–109 instances, 112–114 manufacturing in, 42–43 NASVI, 107, 111–112 National Policy on Urban Street Vendors, 107–108 NULM, 111 street economy in, 15 street vendors in, 103–105 worked for NASVI, 112 Industrial robot, 91 Industrialisation, 82 Industry 4.0, 90 designed vehicles, 94 development process, 91–92 result, 94–95 street economists’ tools design, 92–94 street economy functions, 92 Inequality, 3 Informal economy, 64–65 Informal employment, 78 Informality, 76, 80 SE and, 16–17 Innovation in street economy, 9 International Labour Conference, 76 International Labour Organization (ILO), 2, 4, 13, 17–18 ISIS, 120 Izmir, 125–126 Kabul, street economy in, 117–121 Legal status of street workers, 164–165

Livelihood Security through Right to Work, 41 Local businesses, 8 Magna Carta, 13 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Act 2011 (MGNREGA), 41 Malta, first international street economy conference in, 165 Manufacturing in India, 42–43 Market economy, 2–3, 13 Marketplaces, 30, 32, 35–36 as factor of feudal town, 33–34 factors determining the character, 33 in Ottomans, 34 Mass media, 66 Media, 141–144 Media representation, 65–67 findings of research, 68–70 research design and methodology, 67–68 Medium, small and micro enterprises (MSMEs), 42 Merchandising by bartering goods, 31–32 Metropolitan, 93 Mezitli, 145–146 Micro entrepreneurship, 76–77 development problem and despair of street, 82–83 global overview, 77–81 street economics, 84–85 Migration in India, 43–44 Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (MHUPA), 109–110 Modernism, 47–49 Modernity, 46 Modernity and Subjectivity, 46 Monopoly capitalism, 13 Municipal officers, 118 Municipality, 145–146, 148

169

Index

Narcotics, 118 National Alliance of Street Vendors of India (NASVI), 13, 103–105, 163 from alliance to association, 107 central leadership, 110 work post-enactment, 111–112 worked for, 112 National Association of Street Vendors of India (see National Alliance of Street Vendors of India (NASVI)) National Commission on Enterprises in Unorganised Sector (NCEUS), 109 National Policy on Street Vending, 106 National Policy on Urban Street Vendors 2009, 41, 107–108 National Rural Employment Guarantee (Amendment) Act 2009 (NREGA) (see Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Act 2011 (MGNREGA)) National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (NREGA), 41 National Street Food Festival, 113 National Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM), 104, 111 Neoliberalism, 39–40 News, 66, 68 actors in, 70 placement, 69 reporting as, 71 theme, 69 Oeconomica, 32–33 One-man businesses, 54–55 Online shopping, 151 Open markets, 1–3 Opium, 118 Organised crime, 118 Othering, 49–51

Paper collectors, 19 Peddler’s trade, 116–118 Pensions, 117 Police officers, 118 Poverty, 3, 131, 164 Prejudices, 49–51 Purchase behaviour, 155–156 Racketeers, 118 Ratha Yatra Campaign, 110 Recyclers, 22 Recycling Workers Association (RWA), 147–148 Rehabilitation of children working on street, 97–99 Research and development activities (R&D activities), 93, 156–157 Robotic technology, 92 Roma, 141–144 Romani, 125–127 demographic features, 128–132 education among, 127–128 employment among, 133–136 Salafi–Wahabi terror organisations, 118 Second Industrial Revolution, 91 Self-sufficiency, 8, 40 Self-workers, 163 between 1 and 2 billion people working as, 164 first international street economy conference in Malta, 165 first national workshop for selfworkers in Ankara, 165 legal status of street workers, 164–165 six billion of world’s population in working age, 163–164 Self-Workers Global (SWG), 166 Sierra Leone Informal Employees Union, 13 Slavery, 32 Small farmers, 43 Social divisions, 49 interaction, 51

170 INDEX

security, 117 transformation, 82 Societies Registration Act (1860), 1071 Street artist, 142–144 Street businesses, 3, 56–57 Street economics, 12–13, 84–85 Street economists, 20 tools design, 92–94 Street economy (SE), 1–2, 12, 35, 36, 40, 43, 53, 97–98, 142, 146, 167 area, 83 building on success, 9–10 characteristics, 54 definition, 14–15 and district bazaars and marketplaces, 30 employment function in Turkey, 19–20 employment in global SE, 18–19 evolution, 15–16 factors determining the character, 33 farm products, 43 food industry, 43 functions, 16, 92, 167–168 global employment and, 17 global reality in shadow of streets, 2 global results, 25–26 global suggestions, 24–25 Indian context, 41 and informality, 16–17 in Kabul, 117–121 labour market on global streets, 17–18 legal status of street trades, 18 from Malta perspective, 7–10 management, 54–56 micron initiatives, 20 migration, 43–44 new opportunities for, 24 and participatory democracy, 4 peace in streets, 4 problems in, 22–23, 168 sectoral financial aspects, 20–22 sectors, 28

share of recycling employees in waste collection, 21 solutions, 168 spontaneous solutions, 23–24 streets are not problem, but solution, 2–4 200 billion TL value added from streets to national economy, 22 Street residents, 49–51 Street Vending Act, 104 Street vendors, 19, 65, 69–70, 81, 84, 94, 116–117, 119 in India, 103–114 Street Vendors Act 2014, 41–42 Street workers, legal status of, 164–165 Street Workers’ Association, 163 StreetPreneurs, 167–168 Taliban, 120 rule, 118 Tax collectors, 118 Trade unions, 105 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 76 Unemployment, 164 Unregistered economy, 84 Unregistered employment, 84 Untamed market (see Informal economy) Urbanisation, 46–49, 126 Violence, 118 Waste collection, 148 Waste pickers, 148 Wealth of street, 141–144 Weber, Max, 34 Women Market, 145–146 Youth centers, 99