Glider Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge [January 2021 ed.]

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GLIDER PILOT'S HANDBOOK OF

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Russell Holtz

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Aeronautical Knowledge Progress Record Student Name:

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1- Glider Familiarization The Glidert I 1.1 {1.2 Flight Manual} Documentation}

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for Aviation Completion

of Phases 1 and II required before solo.

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Items marked + required for transition pilots.

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Medical Factors 8.1

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Physiological Issues Mental Issues Chemicals

Certification of General Accident

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13 -

Radio Communications 13.1

II

113.2

13.3

Radio Technique Who Are You Talking To? When to Use the Radio

Duties 16 -

Aeronautical Decision Making II

16.1

Situational Awareness

116.2

Judgment

16.3

_Self-Discipline

Completion of Phases I and II required before solo.

Items marked + required for transition pilots.

So

GLIDER PILOT'S HANDBOOK OF AERONAUTICAL KNOWLEDGE

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCLCCCCCCCCCCC,

Russell Holtz ~

White Oak Communications, LLC 6713 Candlewood Drive Raleigh, NC 27612 (919) 676-5707 [email protected]

www.GliderBooks.com January 2021 Edition

33333323332333232233332333333333333333333333

Copyright © 2021 by Russell Holtz All rights reserved. No part of the contents of this book

may

any form or by any means without the written permission of

be reproduced in author.

the

Some materials in this book are based upon, or reproduced from, works of the

United States Government including but not limited to the Federal Aviation Regulations (CFR Title 14), the Aeronautical Information Manual, the Glider Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-13), the Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), Aviation Weather (AC 00-6), Aviation Weather Services, (AC 00-45), Computer Testing Supplement for Recreational Pilot and Private Pilot (FAA-CT-8080-2), Aviation Instructor's Handbook (FAA-H-8083- 9), and various Advisory Circulars. These materials were prepared by an officer or part of that person's official duties employee of the United States Government and are therefore in the public domain, as defined in 17 U.S.C. sec 101.

as

In any discrepancy between the information presented in this book and the FARs (Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations), or the AIM (Aeronautical Information Manual), the FARs and AIM are to be considered the final authority.

Tr TE Tg Te pm an TTC

CONTENTS AT A GLANCE

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1: GLIDER FAMILIARIZATION

1

CHAPTER 2: AIRPORT FAMILIARIZATION

11

CHAPTER 3: AERODYNAMICS

23

CHAPTER 4: PERFORMANCE

41

CHAPTER

5: FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND SYSTEMS

53

CHAPTER 6: WEATHER FOR SOARING...

85

CHAPTER 7: AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES

143

CHAPTER 8: MEDICAL FACTORS

169

CHAPTER 9: REGULATIONS

183

eceececcececeecececeecececeeceecececeeeeccececececececcecceccece

CHAPTER 10: FLIGHT PUBLICATIONS CHAPTER 11: AIRSPACE

197

..

203

.

CHAPTER 12: AERONAUTICAL CHARTS AND NAVIGATION

213

CHAPTER 13: RADIO COMMUNICATIONS......

239

CHAPTER 14: PERSONAL EQUIPMENT

259

CHAPTER 15: CROSS-COUNTRY SOARING

.

267

CHAPTER 16: AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING

295

GLOSSARY

305

INDEX..

309

REVIEW QUESTIONS...

313

ANSWER KEY

411

...

-

Contents at a Glance

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Contents at a Glance

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

saab sees sass ssss sun nse ses INTRODUCTION

I i

csrerenasue

,

Using This Handbook... Aeronautical Knowledge Training Progress Record Getting Your License

ii

PLETOQUISILES.....c.ccvuucreecesrcesesessstsesssassssasssssssssesssssssssssssessassssssssssassssens

Procedure ..........coo.envrvunen The Sport of Soaring TYPES Of

Lift

eerseeeserese

iuvoressiovisessinasnonenbiistaies

assess neesasesnens ii

desis snare

iii

sansasasiensen

iv

o...coverertiiiciitcecentincactereesssnsesessssssssssstssssssasassetssssssessesssesasassssssenssssessessenes

Types of Soaring..........cocecvevcnncirennenee. Your Feedback

About the Author

sivas

rreseneannnesinene

Vv

Vii

..

viii 1

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The Glider Wing Configurations ...........cecerseeserseeessssnsssssssssssssasssssens Tail Configurations .........cccecvcvcrreresrsenieseciniccrcnnsecceccans

v

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CHAPTER 1: GLIDER FAMILIARIZATION ‘1.1

i

:

1

:

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—2 1

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ceasnsbessaiasasnes

vous

Tow HOOK CONfIGUIAtIONS.......coviiiniiiienincisintisiaciseeissssnsessssssasnsssassesssssssessesssssasssssssasssssssssses 3 Wheel /Skid CONfiGUIAtioNnS ........cceevereuremseeeecrnrnsssesesasssnssessssssssssssensasesens 4 eseivesios is Glide SI0Pe CONLTOL ........coviirirititricriniirisiesicssasassssesesssesisesesssesssstssssssssssassssessssssenssssses 5 FLAPS

ececcececececeeeceeececcececececceccececceccecceccecceccececcce

cvvvvuerrrsseessesssnsssssssssssanesssssssssssssssssssssssassnessssssssssssssesssssssssmssessssssssssssssssnsassssisssmmmsnsessssssnssnsese

6

Flight Manual eb AIISPEedS....c.cuuereiririniieiiisss nena evisssiesassnenasisnisssisasesresnertns esas asasasase 6 reesssssecsseasassassessnsinsssaisosesO Stall /Spin Recovery Procedures..... cecusenenaenens Checklist.........cccoeveverrvccncucnee. Preflight satis 6 bas asp rreassessnsasessasansrs santas Instructions ‘Assembly / Disassembly cetrsbiesasasa atta asta ts sts sR ert a SER sR ese soa ebb pes adams 6 1.3 Documentation 7 Airworthiness Certificate reerrtesssnsnsasestsssasasasnsnsesenes 7 veesssessessansdusasis . oetreesa Registration Certificate.........c.cccoceeeururuncnce. spas nase str ES tb sn Reba bebe r Shans thease ini 7 Operating LIMES ........coiiiiiiiiiniiiiecinsenciieennsssesssssssssssssesssssssssssssssasnsstsasesssntasasssessses 8 Weight and Balance ..........cocouceecmimecnencnninnnecnscniscnssnnnne eersusesressassinsaeseressenssiserasiasus 9 CHAPTER 2: AIRPORT FAMILIARIZATION 11 . 2.1 Operating Procedures 11 2.2 Airport Markings § on esviiibinnmniiasssnines 12 Runway Designations ...........ccueumirnnincencncinesnnsnsisinesesinans revererireresmsaenerenaeians 1.2

ensassesee

eases

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SEEMENLEA CUICLE

autres

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12

13

Sivesiees Wind / Active Runway Indicators................... . Closed Runway .......... . ceesrressnsasasiesesssntasasns esata sober is asaesesees 14 14 TRIeshold.........iimiiniiciiisessesisssasssesssessasesiesssesssssssesisens Displaced viesnias ...14 Taxiway Lines....... verveseenesnssrensnsinsnsenas rrseesssesnsssssnsssnensrnsases beesnsaeneasnenee 15 Hold Short Marking we cevessasesrrssaens

CREVIONS

coerce cesses

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racseenssssssasssasscassesesnsssissssasssssstnssssssessnsssssassessssassasses

TaXIWAY SIGNS ...ccvviririiiectiritcetcrciitcnecesi

Table of Contents

esesssassesss

sens

sssersssssssssenssssasasasasssonessnes

16

16

sss ras rss ae es as .....ccccveuemresicimnsusestistssisstissssssssesssussusinsssssinnsrmssisssaseasesasess Runway Holding POSION SIGNS SIGM.r..c.rrsumrrmmssrmsssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss REMAINING sss ssssssasssesss DiStance Runway 2.3 Airport Lighting 2.4 Airport Traffic Types of Aircraft and Pilots .....cuininesnrisnioncnesesencsinn.

16

17

17 18

18

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ass

covvvreuerrerrianssinsssmssssussesnsssssssssssssssassssssesssssssasss

ssssssssssensssssassosasanissssnssacss

er 19

Avoidance. cresgasusessaseas 2.5 Wake Turbulence........... VOIteX GENETAtON

19

..covereeeeerenrrcesseasscesisissississessosssssnsessanssnsssssssssststencssessssssassnsasasans

Vortex Strength..........cceeeuue.

19

Rs

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.. 20

bees

VOIEEX BERAVIOL

20

ceasaiassaesesansunaase

20

..eevieeeeecrersrnissnsesnsnsasissensssassssssassssensasssssasnsssssassessassesssssessnsnsssnsasass

Wake Turbulence Avoidance CHAPTER 3: AERODYNAMICS 3.1 Nomenclature

21

sesaseR ssstss sense esses Airfoil

23

AXIS...vvvvrvveereeeesesssssssssssssassasssssssssseseseessssssssssssses

Three Forces Lift

reveueseesesseattreretstsae

Drag

WEIGHE

3.3

23

Nomenclature..........coeeeierinenennsicssinenisionsssnsiossecanas

GUAGE

3.2

.........coooeeveverneneenncs vevassienesasaserersssnsacasresqasisasanaeses resssesisaiiatassasaeanes

assoc ssesss

ss

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eR

EERE

Rss

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28

vr

31

sasssssssasasnsssnaesns

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Airspeed Limits SLALl SPEEA.

24 25

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cornices sree

23

sess

....corcvucuecmriiriasiaserssnsnsesrssssssssssasssssssseasesssnssuastsssnsssasiasrisssrsnss

32

MaNEUVETING SPEEA ....cucuvruirirerireniisinssrstsssssssesssssessnstsssssssssssssstssssssssssassssmssstsssssssmssssnsastasss 32

Rough Air Speed Maximum AETOtOW

Ceressusesnraenssasnenssnspensaneetussainsasionsiderenasisseseiserbrerminisonianss

SPEEA

.......uueiuciiererrinnrentsssnensesesssmsssnssustsssssssssssssssmssssssionsssssrasassssssssnscss

NEVET-EXCEEA SPEEA

3.4

@

TUIT

SIPS ANA SKIAS 3.5 Load Factor

Stability Pitch Stability

33

33

Turning Flight FOTCES iM

3.6

....occuvrrrnrrnniurnsrtseninsnissssssssnsssnsnscsssssssascssasisonisisssssssssssssssssssssssssssssessesss

33 33

...covereeeeceeeeeeneenncrcsitssetntcssesssssessessasssnesnessissassasasnasesssessissassassnsssrssnsssssssssassanns

33

cuuvvrrrnernsinrersissrssssssasssassssssasesssossssnsssaersssssssssssnsiassssssnssssssssasssssssssasssssssssssssenasens

35

35

36

ssssssessessasessissensissassassassassssssasssssassssesassases

......ccocvemecninineniieincsiininerssnses

36

SEADILILY

....covviniriirerernrsiniesstsiissnsissssssssssesesssncssessssissinsssssassansassisssarssnstsssasasssssssnssasessusssssnscs

38

YAW STEADILY

..ooeoeececrcreesinennimeisesnrnsnsnsessessisssssssssnsnssssssssssssssssssasssssssssssssssasssessssensssasssssssasises

40

ROI

41

CHAPTER 4: PERFORMANCE

41 Glide Ratio 41 DISEANCE ..........oeeerieieeiniinnstsensessnssnscssessisessiinmssmsississsssissssssssssisssessassssnses Determining Glide videiesssanaeisnsanenseneaes 41 Altitude... Required Determining 42 4.2 Glider Polars 43 Maximum Glide Ratio .... wr vr 44 SINK SPEEA ......c.cvicurueueinniernetsninsssnsscssssnsessssmsrsssssessssssisesninsisessassasasens Minimum 44 4.3 Effects of Wind ..45 Headwind............... 4.1

:

TAIIWINA

c.ovveenenreienceressesesscesenensssenensasasecstsststsesesensssesissssssssssesssssasasssasassssusssnssssnsssssssssassessssssssens

Crosswind.........

Table of Contents.

47 47

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WV)

48

Seiibanaeieiabe

aches boss eases asta ech sassansessasseneas 48

‘4.5 Effects of Wing Loading 50 Effect of Wing Loading on Best Glide Speed ...........ccccceeonicerrnrerivenereerenseesenennens tersasnesssasnanions 50 Effect of Wing Loading on Minimum Sink Speed .........cccceveivineeirncerecseesnnsiensssssesssssssessssens 50 Effect of Wing Loading on the Polar ..........c...cemrniernsiensessessnsissssssesnssssssioses eretenesaaeesaseane 50 Altitude Lost DUNG @ TUMuuurvevvvernennnreseeenene sense sssssssssssssssinsssssssssnossssmssnsssesssssedossessssmeens 52 CHAPTER 5: FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND SYSTEMS 53 5.1 The Atmosphere 53 Properties of the AtMOSPRETE ..........c.ciccimmrinrecerinrenresietsisssisessissssssissssssssssstessssessessssasssssess DO The Standard AMOSPRETE. ........c.c.eerreensmsissssnnessasss sass ssesssssessssssssasmssssmsssssssssssnsssssssssssssesses 54 :

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MEASUTING PIESSUTE

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5.2

AINELET........cooveeserreseecssinsesssssssssesissssssessssessssssssssasassssssssssmenes

Airspeed INAQCAtOr VATIOMELET

Yaw String /

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.........ccceeireivccvinincincscnnnenasencerecseens

....ocererirrietcttncei Secondary Instruments

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wv

bores

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sess

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revrnerssnns

66

sasasessasastsnssastsssssssssssssenssasatsnsssasarens

67

matt sessest ss

sseeesesesssssnssisssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssasssannns

sats ssessas

56

:

ereresenraennane eiteassiensasiasssassessasassiaerens

sass assess stats s bass tessa

71

:

GMELET ....eeeeeerereteeeectcacese estas seaesestasasss senses nessasasassesseiessasssnssesesssssssssssasessssasssasssesenssensnssassseses 71 GyroSCOPIC INSITUMENES ......ucecureiriieeiireniiicrseensecscnnisssiiess sens ssssssssssersassssssssessssnsssssssessase 72

VOR

tsnsnasssscsetsss assess ssassssssssesssssassassatasssstanesssssasssassessseassssnsesenesensassens

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

i Transponder... ssssaseaes

5.4 Other Flight Systems RAGIO

seinsimimertaiomoennasoose,

essa

c.coieimcerririiiitctnenectcniseasasesetsesasesesssssssssasssssensasassnens

79

drbassesensasieniossissssasanssesssisnsnssnses

79

ceeniensenssssnssnssssissessassassanenssss

79

Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)/ Personal Locator Beacons

BarOGraph.........cvcuriniisetnstns

74

........ouiiniceciiennmcnisnsisescninsssssssessssssssssssssisesssesseses 77

(PLB).coooceeeererirrceenienne

Raabe

80

en 81

Global POSIHONING SYSLEM.....c..ourerercusirrranstansssesssassissssssssssasisessssassssssssssossssasssassasssnsssessessseses 81 Electronic Flight COMPULET .......ooumcvcrmmimniermmmnssceneissssenssissssssssssnssssssrissssssssssssssssssssssinsssess B2

FLEE RECOTAET ......eeeiuimrinireicisinseinrensnasiseeenstns sss ios ssassessssssasssesssssssssasssissssssassassessssssssssessoses 82 Oxygen EQUIPMENL........ciiiiiciitniicisinnnisicssitstsitsssssenssssstssssssssssssssssssassssessasassesssssssens 82 CHAPTER 6: WEATHER FOR SOARING 85 6.1 The Atmosphere — 85 . Composition of the Atmosphere.............cccoovcvenirvircecrirerunenns Cassiaserirasinniessaiasissessnsesansesesrsssnsasess 85 The State of the AtIOSPhETe .........ciiciiectcercressnsesssrssssssssesssessessssass es sses 86 6.2 Dew Point 89 DeW and FIOSt ......cccevruvnrsiversnesnnsssanssssssssessasseessenes reerenans ..89 : _— 6.3 Atmospheric Stability 89 89 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate .........oouuvmmiireii sssssassessssssasss Rate.........cuiivvirinimiriiciniincsinieninnsccnenseceescsasesessssssssnsssessssassens 90 Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Temperature / Dew-Point CONVEIZeNCe............ovceeueeurvriverreseeseresesssersesassessenes terentsesaenennenenees 90

iiss sistas

SEADIILY

...o.ecveniinccntscne

escent sas

esses sess sse senate sass sass ss bene reveenenstnsaesssnsnstans 91

wv

“

—

Primary Instruments

|

w

55

........couuirereniisneccassrsssisisneessesserssssisssssssssssssssssusssssssisssssstssmssssssssssssissssinsssasass

Table of Contents

6.4 Clouds

91

RA sR .

CompoSition.........ceveereeerecnseserinsessueacnenes

errensasassasnas

91

92

evesisessassibrsssrsnansasssrssssases

-

95

sorinai

96

Precipitation Rain/Drizzle/Virga ....c..cccorecnvirieneecs . Freezing Rain/Drizzle...........envennnisincrcrscrcversinns veveveens Ice Pellets/ Hail .......c.cocucuvrenrnrecnnne.

6.6

. 91

.

—

Classification According to Height Range..........coocuueuunne. Classification According to Appearance ve 6.5 Fog

versssusnsiressensensrssacs

... 96

eee

.s

96

RRSe asasts RRA RRR SSA esse sass SNOW

....uvtrrrerrrstecnetenee caresses

estesaessnesnenessnenae

cereeenens

6.7 Weather Systems Convection....... revesesusseressasesaraebs . Effect.........ccovevuvvrernvviierrnnnnns Coriolis Air Mass Migration ..........ccccccvcevivrrneenennee cereneessesniane

97 97

Chtbrmiieeeronsrisssosssssnsases

97

:

:

sss snsrasaiasba

sar sera ener sass

reba

se

dens ssnasen

een 97

seseerensaesensanerersneaeans

cereraens

.

FLONES..c...oeeeeeeeeeeeeererreeteeersrrereeeenrereseiessasssseressssansesssssssssseesessasessssnsanssseressssstesessastsessssssrnssosssnaas

Cyclonic LOW-Pressure SyStemis............cocovieeininrecirineteinnsisnisieisessssssssssssssnssssssssssssssnsnsssses The Jet Stream ........cccvceeciiccicncecccnsecnncsenenns renesnens .

Describing the Weather

6.8

WEALhET MAPS

Satellite Photos

RAAT

6.9

.....coururreerrisiensnisssensessensssasesssessssssssssesssesssssessssssssassssssnsssssesssessesssssssessssasssssesases

cette

teas sas

ensaststasasas

ssa sss

.covvereeererrerersesssssssssssessssssssessssssesssssssssosssssssssmsssssmssssssaes

tivsinnssnsnanssssassens

ssssssssssssssssssssses

Thermal Soaring Weather Thermal StrUCHUTE. .........ccueeveruesiesrensecresaersensssesnssssessassassaesanees evivnassrenieassnessesass sbeas as assaserssnsseees Thermal LIfECYCIE sets asasssssssssnesesssssscsesisessssesinsssasasssssossasssssrareas Air Masses Conducive to Thermal SOaring ..........ccccuussuvenicsesimscssissmcassseiscssssssssnscasssssmsssessens AtMOSPhEric SOUNAINEGS ....c.cviivririiriiisinireicrsisiscssiss sass sesssssasssssesssssssssssesesasses

curtis

SKeW-T /LOg-P

DIaGram...........ccouurecencrimirseirnrisisnisisissssnssssisssessassserssssssnsssasssasssassssssssssses

99

101

101

104

107

108

109

111 111

OPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP

111

112

115

115

116 116

Determining Thermal Conditions from a Skew-T/Log-P Diagram ..........ccccovcevcuecneurenncn. 122 Indices for Predicting Thermal Strength and Cloud Levels.............ccccuimmumsrnscscssssenns 125 TRUNAEISEOITIS

eoeveenererrrerreessssseeeeemmeeeneerees

Ridge Soaring Weather Wave Soaring Weather Understanding Mountain Wave ...................... Clouds Associated with Mountain Wave..... 6.12 Convergence Lift

6.10

eeeeessesessaesosssssenes

ve

Sea Breeze Fronts......................... Mountain Lee Convergence...

:

-—

6.11

126

130

:

131

sessesssesssassasasinnssisasansrnsanssasninssssnrasssnnses rrerlesesesasasnsssasasasasasassensasasnens

131

135

137

verssnstsnarariasasns

vee

amersieesesanseinasossamssirisesssssesaesatAse

ESR"

137

138

Mountain TOP CONVEIZENCE .......ccvemrririererrcrusrisiiisnnecsisisisisessssssssrssssssissssssisisesssssnsssrsssssnsasas Valley Convergence .........cccccovuvuruenne ereseuiees sera RRA EAE RA RR 139 139 6.13 Predicting Soaring Weather too Scale and Timing of Weather EVENts.........cuiienniniininisiinsssrsciseissssssesesssne 139 138

R

Sample

Predictions...........coveieeeecrinnneenincinncienennnns

Practicing Forecasts.......c..coeuvuees

RRA

er

soeeensssssernesns

Table of Contents

-

ereessaeessssaasessssstaane

139

141

DDB

SS Rs

TTR IRR

ERR

CHAPTER 7: AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES 7.1 Types of Weather Information Observations...........icceeueuesee.

ANALYSES... Forecasts

esse .

S—

ONLINE...

|

sass tsa esse tse eases nase

n

beasts 143

ereressesnsassnsasarsninssnsaaesasuisanes esaeseestssensassassntnsaes

143 143 144

assess sssssssssssssasassesssassssssssssssssasasarssasasbanssesssnsaone

144 sss 145

sss esses sass estes assesses bts Telephone - Preflight Weather Briefing ..........coicvvuiuecrcnresincnresesecsnsseasenresssssessessssnssesssessssnens Weather Service Products Surface Prognostic CRaTt............ccoveiiecnencriecnnenessnsssenesssssssssntssinsesssssssssssetessssssessssssssesssssosaes Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METAR)..........ccoirnrrrenrncnesennanssesnanescessesesssisnssnsnns Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF).....cueveeicecivesoneeseesseresees Cveesreserssrsssessstsserantasiresstesaens Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FD).................... saeeessscassesssnsesseieesesesressaresanes

RAAIO

7.3

143 143

orspussssemenesnens

cates corners

Accessing Weather Services

143

w

enmeeseniensisassessinssosinbeossismssssnie

.......ccouiiiciinnircccnnecnnencnesesnesensnnenns

7.2

OPI

osnshesiiios

145 146 147 152 155

WEAher AdVISOTIES ......cuvuimiericsineiineiessnesessissssesesssessssessssssssssssesssssssmsssssssessssessssessesorses ....158 Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPS)........cccccccvvenermnenrrrnsnereresserssecassesssens iiiiteasedusanniaitesanassinssasasssn 160 7.4

Preflight Weather Briefings BEANE

163

TYPES..vvvvvvrrrerssmrrnnsnssnssssssssssssnssssssssssssssssssssmssnssssesssssssssssssmmssssssssssssssssssssmsssnnnnosssssoseeios:

Briefing...

Obtaining a Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA) CHAPTER 8: MEDICAL FACTORS 8.1 Physiological Issues Middle Ear and Sinus Problems .............cccoouveruivenneen. Spatial Disorientation (Vertigo).. tts sstsaenstes 7.5

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCreeeeeeeeCeeeeCceeecCcecccc,

162

MOLION SICKNESS

Dehydration HEAESITOKE

esisisssssbenenessasasssssssasasnessssssssssssassesses 164 164

:

169

eassineneness eeeesenn

certs i cts ste

169

ciessnsssersiiveasnnsarestesnssssbainnses 169

171

iresasiissesnsissassensasinsasrtassestss

173

.....ccoruerererereessrnsrssissessssssssssssssssssssassessssssensssssessesssessesssssasssssssssssssstassasesessassasens eesiseeiienatasnesssessussosiosmiusssi

...........cccoeeenennisenesesseessescsnesesssnens

.....oecevrtttt

tte

reeessenscasensninneness

174

eestsssnesstesesasssasesnssssnsssasarssssssnssssssseres

SUNDUIT

covvvccvvvveescssesssssesssssssissamsassasssssssssssessassmssssastasssssssesesssssssssssssassssssssssassssssssassins

HYPOXIA

«.oovcnninrnncinsennresennceseasensssenessessessenserssesssssses

eens anata

cesses 174

esterases reas sasseanes 174

Diving... reese

tae

175

HyPerventilation...........ciiiniiiicnisecsiscseesssiscscsssiasssasensessssssssessssasssssssssensasseses

Decompression Sickness After Scuba G-Loading ................u...... eerereaeiessr setae 8.2 Mental Issues :

:

SELESS

...vircriiitcittcte a casetbsass

FALIGUE

ss

sa

eee

bebe ease

Extreme Emotion..............

8.3 Chemicals Alcohol/ Recreational

RE SRS

ESR

assesses

a

SREB

Sees besarte 176

esate ae

ett

177

an annes

erestusasnasa

asa

ssa

sears ASRS

RRS SR RSS b are SRA Haagensen nat

o.oo sssr sh

suesssesstassnssnssnsnsstine neasensesessaisie as

179

snnenetes

:

Table of Contents

179 179

esas

sssae

sass sess sssnanes 179

earaseesinrasseinnntasantaresisti

sevoness

sh

177 178

sesasssssssasssssossanssessassssssnsssssssssensssssmueses

crest

sinsrens

cea Definitions and Abbreviations —eersssaassssee, . 9.2 Maintenance Requirements Preventive Maintenance. ..........uieiiiiiniineicstssseiseststssssssssssssssssesssnssstsssosssssssesss Approving Return to SEIVICE .......emiriiirciniciiinnncncnsisicessssissssassssssessssasans Record of Required INSPeCIONS.......c.cveeviiniviusnienenisiaiisesisiecsnesasesssssessassssesssssssssesssssssssssssssss

9.1

176

aresesnaasenesseinsenenssassstssesans rasitesiiasentanenssarasnsseemasssnanartonerers sien areresisasa srs

DIIUGS Medications..........coueererecreerenees

CHAPTER 9: REGULATIONS

R

tse asa sbeebs se ses sass seen ess seas eas

«...cvvevonserrasrsssssssssssasnssssssssssssssssssssssssesssssasss

Anxiety ......ieiieinnenns

SRSA E se RRS RSE eR

173

180

183 184 185 186 186 186

.

srs Rs sb sa st 9.3

186 Certification of Pilots sis ares basses sas enees 186 Required Documents ..............ooeeeererneeene. Certificate............cccooerruunnecns Limitations on a seseesessisesinsisenaressasrensasaess 186 Alcohol Use cereretersaere stra asa snp assaesesases 187 Denying or Revoking Certification for Drug and of Certificates...... Duration Pilot ses eRe SRR ERR seas 187 Solo sas bene naene 187 Prerequisites for Student Pilot Certificate/ Student Pilot LIMItations.........ciieiiviinninininicniiciinisireeisissssssessssesisssnsssssssssans 187 Prerequisites for the Knowledge Test...........cocuuircvcrennirsivmesssisessmisiscsssmssesssssssaens 188 Prerequisites for the Practical Test ..........c.cicuieerimcsenuciesusiniesisisssissieinsssessssssssessssassssens 188 188 Private Pilot Limitations........ccccovevveervennneeeecenne cerestrevecesnnens eerensasies Ren

sesssaesssessresnabinssasastsaras

ses

beste SRR tebe sass sae seeebesssssss

be

RCE

RR

resesuisissnsnsisrsssas

PHlOt LOGBOOK

189

c...ccevventirritintctitnisisintssineniesssssssssssesssmssssassnnssssssssssnsssesssssssssssassessrssssesens

Medical REQUITEMENLS ........cuuuiieniiriiiitiiiisiiinnissesitesssssasasismsstbassssssesesssssssssassssssssssssanes Flight Review Requirements........... oe i” os .. Recent Flight Experience...........cccccoeueueiecncnee. everesencusssssassanthesssasisIsre LIS ORR sR aS erases Re essen Change of Address..........cconeeeicnmrrinescccsnenencsssenssssssenssssssesass ... .“ Tow Pilot Requirements.................c.c..... Certificate Issued Based on a Foreign Pilot License RSH

R

—

SE

9.4 General Operating Rules Responsibility for Operation of the Aircraft

189

189

190

190

190

190

190

:

190

rsRsnsassass revssssreensasnssecssasassesasasaataen

.

-

Limits.........ccoceeeinieceniiieeeninicsncrssssssssssssessssesens

Operating Dropping Objects from Aircraft...........cooivecvncrvvncncncs AICONOL OF

DIU

USE

erases assess

.

sssoesnaenein

Portable Electronic Devices.........coeeerueerruececuriseensescaes ereserereiensnerersnsasies Required Preflight Actions..................... Use........orvvinmnrsinrrircenrcreennnnnns

stam

vesones

saat

rreseanens

191

reeserssasasnsasaesataens

191

.. 191

rensnes

Formation Flight, Operating Near Other Aircraft........cc.cccooeevenerenerervneissrissiessnsiessssssnsene. Right of Way Rules.........cccoocoecuneurerecunnne reese RRA R ARRASRRS RR So eveeessrsnsssasssssrenas Minimum Operating AHtUAES ............c..mmerrresseserenmessssssnsnssssssenes Inspections, Maintenance, Repairs, Alterations.............cccouvvvicvirrnncnnnncnnsccnsensnsesaesenens Required Documentation............ cere sata esses aRa sess aaa ema ssesmas vevesesesesssnsssasasarasnantaens Altimeter Settings............ccovvrucnnene wostasemesasisseresnisiiasasiaianssssanessnessasesaianass .

sess

RRR

e

vee

ATC ATC

ClEATaNCe.......uucventirireniiitiserctcnenisestssesssasssscsassistsesssossasasstserssssstessssssssasstssenssssasassensasens

Lit Aircraft Position Lights.. SIGNALS

sevessresssninessessbaressrtb

sonst s ines stan Stes sR

sR

192

192

192

193

193

193

193

194

...vvvveeeermerererrrresssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss

vr

191 191

.....ccceuirrnrncrrrneeessasssnsesssensessesssstssssssssussssssssnsusssssssnsasssssssessssasssessssssssenss reressssiommstespie

Seat Belt

191

Rs saree en

194

Oxygen REQUITEMENES .........c.coviiruiiiiniiiinniinsiteestsnessentssacssestsssssstesssnesssnsssstenscsstasassesssnes 194 Aerobatic Flight ........ 194 cossseseasisetensesaasestessis assests sas ts basse ses 195 Glider Towing .......cccoeveveruircrucecenne. ceessensnersaseenes vr .. Experimental Category nsissssesssssesssssnssessssses 195 9.5 Accident Reporting 196 CHAPTER 10: FLIGHT PUBLICATIONS 197 10.1 Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) 197 10.2 Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) 197 Notices 10.3 to Airmen (NOTAMs) 198 10.4 Chart Supplement 198 10.5 Advisory Circulars (ACs) 200 san nd

Aircraft...

Table of Contents

2322222022522275222222222322322222323232232322223232323223

REAR

TERRA

ARTE

EE

CHAPTER 11: AIRSPACE

.

203°

vesenes

11.1 Why Have Airspace?. The

203 203

sss 11.2

AQrSPACE EIUVATONINENE

.vvvvvvvvvsessssssesssssssssssesssssesssssssessessssssssessessessosessessesesseessesseerseneeeesseesees

Controlled Airspace Class Class Class Class Class

A

AIISPACE

B

Airspace

204

.......cuvuiriiisinriiicnsisisiessesissssssasasssscsssersassosssssesssssssssisssesssssessssssenstessssasssases

.........ococveeeuresescercsnnennseccsens

evinesssivinsssains sesesnssinsssrsesss sete inas sensu saree senses reens

204

205

seen

C Airspace................ rresseeserinanrass sbeebs sere Reber nessa anne 206 teersseeretare D AIISPACE .....cuciiiicniiiiinitsiciisectenssssssesessssssasesssssnsssssssssssnssssassnsssnsssssssnssssssesssnsssssne 207

cians bess sass sate E AIISPACE

.....cuuuueiviniiinirciiiniisessssessssssessssssssssssessssisssasssasssasssssassosssssesssasssssssnsssns

208

Uncontrolled Airspace 209 Class G Airspace Pietetssuanentsenstasnsnsersessususs srs snsansrasani net nsatensas ness ansiissetitsisintorestsrsinssissons wsnivenneis 209 11.4 Special Use Airspace 210 11.3

eeeees

PORIDItEd.......oeorrnccssincnctesnciensesssssen sts ssnssssssssesssesssasssassasassasasssessassase sas saaseans 210 Restricted.............. 210 v— tersrerberessasbe reas sas ass sasasaensnes Vaivivbussenareninsisnisnrnasasusasasonsases

Warning........eivnincrecscsnenanns

Military Operations Areas

Censraeseesisnsaesnernessssresnssaasrssisissnenisnensansissssaosassnsnsranass

.........cccceecremennaee

Ceiessrsasnisesesrassiinsassesaiisensissnnssestassresissnsasasssoes

210

210

csessbss

CCCCCCCCCCeeceeeeeeceececececcecececeececececcceccce

ALETt

ATES

....uecerrercericniisrtitiesipnsassessasesssassssiasasssssssssssssassssssnans

areceiasenssaiassasssnnnsnisainiestsrnes

210

Other Airspace... 210 Siasssisenistansnsenios 210 ATEAS AAVISOTY Airport ......cucecurueurenneneesessesesssassessissassassssssssssssssssssssssss 211 Military Training Routes (MTR) ......ccccciceiviiererernneseneienensssssesesssssenesesssessassssnssssssesssssesssssens Restrictions (TFR) Flight Temporary ........cccveeevrinererienrssssnrressosssssseissssssnssenssssosssesssssessesses 211 ATEas........cviueeviicininniienincsicssisesiensessisesasessssssssssstssssssssssssssssssesssssssessese Parachute JUMP 211 Published VFR Routes criuisesirasnanaitosabedinsionsssarensisassnessasistasieseres 211 erererssessssaebenasaenens Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSA)......u co iiviieereereeeensiessesessessssossesacsssssasnsossasssssnsssasessedl 1 National SECUTity ATEas .......c..ccourerrmsrrrmmrmssereessssssensssnsssanns srreeeeensessesasessesssssssssesassssssssassenssss 212 CHAPTER 12: AERONAUTICAL CHARTS AND NAVIGATION 213 . 12.1 Latitude and Longitude 213 — . 11.5

:

ZONES... Aeronautical Charts

TIME

12.2 VFR

SECHONALS

:

ssseassssestsasesasasssssssssesssasasassssssssasassosssnsssnssssssasns

.....cvvrrrcrcrrctcncttrr

scares

"4

216

se

.

nens

Terminal Area Charts (TAC) .......coimincnininsinncssicnsnsessissasisesesseosssesssssssssensessssssss World Aeronautical Charts (WAQC)........civeevineeeeeieesessescsssssesesssessessessonsssssssessensensessssss 12.3 Reading Aeronautical Charts...... VER

Physical

FEQtUres...........cocvurureecrercecmrerereeevcncnsnrencssssesssssmassssssssssesssans

AGTPOIES..ccueiiiiineirctitsesaisassaistessasasasssassssssesessassesssssssssrsssnassesssaninsas

.

217

218

assstsenenes

eens

224

ceereseeneanerenarase

AR 227

crores bb fe

Airspace...........cccevuenee.

217

218 restraints cerrersereieranase

Controlled AIrSPACeS .........cuivierirccsisincecnirenecircsnesesiescescasssssncssasmssssssesassassiasssssssasess Radio Aids to Navigation (NAVAID).........cccceerrerrrrrinns Special Use

214

idonsssisennaien

230

ereanens

232

Other Airspace Areas............ . sersassbensarronssanssnessastortinessonbaiesatnenisnsnisasons veveseneens 232 12.4 Navigation 234 Determining the Course Bearing .............cccceeeecseernsensesinceecnns Greusseiiveiessstoransaeinsnsaiarsnsabeinsonns 235 235 Determining Wind Correction Angle crirresmeisasssnestasasiainiines wesesssaeainsaeansienens 236 . Determining Time en Route. Dead sasaessiessassssssssssssssssnsssssasssssssssssasass 237 eens

...............cccnncnnninnnicnsscasesissssassssseseass

siesta ........oeet etnias

RECKONING...

POA ......co everett LOSE PTOCEAUTES

Table of Contents

bese s

ssasse

as

ess b

nesses

sant

bse

as tte netaes 237

sts ssas assesses ssssessnensass

237

es as CHAPTER 13: RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 13.1

239

Radio Technique TRE

RAI...

239

isssscsecstsnseescessessssssssscseseesenessssssasssssassessssssesissesssssssasssssssensass 239

Ene asta tess nes ssa ses sss 240

Procedure.........eceensrevennnseisinnsessinsecsesees

13.2

Who Are You Talking To? Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF)

242

.......ccirisnsircnisessunesnsssssisissscssesssesesens 242

UNICOM .....covvvriincnnrinrncnenencncsenens ..243 CONIOL Traffic (ATC) cocuueevireeereeivieienessesnessessssssssessessessessssessessssssebesssasesesssssssssnsensssssosses 243 AIL Flight Service Station (FSS) ........revveuerrrrmssmsssssssmessssssssssssasnssssssssessssssnssssssssssssssnesessssssssssssssns 244

basses besser shins antes Seas bass esas nest Air Guard.........cvinncienirninnreccseeninnes 13.3 When to Use the Radio Position Reports from Other Gliders................ GHAET £0 CTEW

er 244

245

245

245

....eetiiitrcrricnstnniessssassisessaissassssssssssssassssssassssssssisssssssssssesssssasssssassssasnsases

Relay to Ground CIEW

246

........ciiiicciiinecsienirnisiiesssisassisisessissssesassissssssissssisesssasssssiassssssasasss

eeesnestrsnesssesasenssusast ese esssasinsassnstasenessnres 247 Operating Around Uncontrolled Airports... 250 Operating Around Controlled Airports.............ccoerueunenee. Use In Special AIISPace ..........cueiniriiciinisinussnisnninesiinsnsisisssssssssssessesssess 253 Operating 254 Obtaining Weather Reports................ reereeereaeassenensaeaes eusseesesssassasaensnsasasiisasas ..254 Flight FOLOWING........oovversrersrsnrernseessensssnsssnesennes

... LOSt WHILE AQIDOTNE. .....vveveurcreessanerrissassrassssesessssssissassssissssmssssissssssssssssssssssasssssnssssssssasssssss

257 257

EMETZENCY PIOCEAUTES

258

Land-Out........ccoenirinernrnnnricicensennessaisesseossessssasnssassssenns

.

:

......cvrurrreoerassesessesesesssssssssssssasssssssanssssssssssssssssssmssssssssssssassssssssssssssans

CHAPTER 14: PERSONAL EQUIPMENT 14.1 Attire for Flying Hat nssrssssstsissssessasssssssssssssssasssasssssssnses

o.oo

Sunglasses.........coeevrveniisnisesnsaianas

Clothing

........cccoenrnencrncnnnccsiecnenes

Food and Water

14.2

tsi sees

FOO... WALLET

reesestaenens

cotter cnn

SROES....cuiuiuirctiinciisenti

259

sestimesesessisstsnsissasssisiinbonnsasassas

259

riereseassinesntensrsesisnissessensansssatentases

259

259

cree

sass assests

t

259

sass esses sass

sre sees

ssa sa

ssa sRRsb

esses

anes

aetna

260

260

sass

sesananes

260

..

260

260 Parachutes Parachute Storage cesaibsrentae rasan asa ss sass eases senses senesass 261 261 Parachute Preflight Inspection .. esasnssesassnstaisssneninssnsesissasniisbbisedessseitsuanssssmtestssen Parachute Fitting.........cccocevcnencnsnencscscnsnnnresennene. ..263

14.3

Bail-OUt

PrOCEAUTE

Survival Kit FOO ANA WALT

14.4

. ~

Shelter

Medical

sates

263

..ev.eeveereeeneeeeeessenseessssssessssesssssssesesssssssssesssssasssssssasesnssssasesasesssssssssssesesssanes

264

......cuveimnereeeereenisssasssssnssssesssssisssssssssssssissssssssssssssasssesssassssssssssssinns

wr

CONCEINS

......uccrneerencrrinrcniscriacecsserereseasanas

Signaling / Communications ............ Miscellaneous..................... ceeaeaes Suggested Survival Kit Items

265

265

........ccocuiueciirermecrenneeenesenseensnssssiensasnsensaseas

sentaenssssassinssesisses tbe besea sas iassbe bade nasa bisa sidsus

Table of Contents

... 265

esas adsas sen bans

265

266

266

3353322322532232323252213133333332332323252323323223232

4

PE SASTRY

:

:

wen

man

.

r

ew

Trae

-

A

CHAPTER 15: CROSS-COUNTRY SOARING 15.1

Glide Slope Management

TTI nr

,

TITINR

ST

(I

.

Te

mes

LETC

in

CT

ew

267

cerenenes

bo

267 Safety Factor.........occoevvuiucencncurucennnnnc, eeiseeststsars asa eas eben t iS ea senda eres b sess asa sea bes besa seas ne 267 Safe GHAE ZONE .......cvvirroreneniveesnsensesesssnssessssssssssssssssssssseses ceveraeenen essere seen sastsnesrneas 267 The Glide Slope Ruler...........ccoouvcriemmierunrrcnisenessinsressassnsssssssesenes eibessisiureta sien etsa sede ssrisnssonsens 268 Using @ Glide SI0PE RUIET .........c.oemrvverervrerencseteessesessssssssssssssesssssssssssssssssssassssssssssasssssssssin 269 isiesissseisnssimntiaessstossd 270 Safe Glide Circles ................. einer ibseesinersss arsine iklieimmisensine iensnsisinncsesensnsnssessesesssssssosss 272 Constructing a Glide S10pe 15.2 Cross-Country Supplies 274 n

ae

Ruler...

PErSONAl [LEMS

..274

«......cveveueruneessrassssnsunsssssssrissesesasssasssesssssssessssssessesssnses

Navigation . ves ssssessseasisaisbeseiisnensresnssiossisaberanis 275 15.3 Speed-to-Fly Theory 276 Made GOoOd.........coirnirironionnserennissieninstssnssressensens Speed 277 riedsasnressinessnnsasnassnsnarasssases Maximizing Speed Made GOOd ............uiciirisiininsinieneiisisssesssessassssssessisssssssessasessssnss 277 Items...........ccecevvucecnnenes

:

veree

Using a Speed Ring.........oocecurrivcncesiinenscsessannnssceen. Selecting a Speed Ring Setting .........ccccceeuciicnes The Speed Ring and Maximizing Distance Covered........ 15.4

278

deinseaes

278

vrreenesn

280

Getting Started

281

|

PreTeqUISILES........coiimiunrcrcinsisecscieninisesensesscsecncnssassesssnsssssesseses

Practicing

SKillS

.......cc.cuuevuumecemsemercesseruescessssenessssesssssssssssassesssessssios

Choosing a Route 15.6 Flying the Route 15.5

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCeeeeeeccecececc

ceresaeaeeeienes

Determining Winds Aloft.......................

-

a

restssesatssseresasbssssenssaees

282 282 .283

SOREN. .

.

'GO/NO-GO DECISIONS.......coeereerrenirinrsnsssnssssensnesssssnene Pilot Attitude ..........ccceeseneee tssesmaesesesressesssssssesssassseseneenesie Landing.......coueeinnnnincneniisnisicnessssessssssnanee

281

sronsianrssasseensessrersseiiensisonissasassse

285 286

sessions ins

15.7 Off-Field Landing Recognizing and Accepting the SItUAON

X.

286 286

sssssone

oe

..........ccoveiiimrcnineeeniseirccericcnaeseaseensecsrensesssnneens 287 Wind Determining Speed and Direction ..........cco.ceeeemseesseeseerereneeen. rests aessasea sass eas sas sassaansias 287 Selecting a Suitable Landing Field..........cccovevimniininniisiiiininccinnncssnnsssinsssescssasense ern

288

Pattern and Landing ...........iiriiciiiiiiininsnisciiiisssississsssssssssasessssasssssssssssssses 289 15.8 Retrieve 291 Ground RetTIEVe..........cuiiirecteticti tsseststs srssens sss ssassssssstsnssssnsssasasssss 291

nists cts

ACTO-RETIEVE........covrirrtsssc

15.9

Crew Duties

Pre-FLight........oomiciiiccninniccncnnncesinisensessenassssannseses DULING

FLL

POSt-FlIght

sets sees

sassssssssasssssans

eens 292 293

Cersssrsensassensensasetrtasasitseasassassasanantt

....couviiiciiiiccctiicitnscncniiscsissnessessnessessssnsnee

resets vos

293 294

assis ea as 294 295

295 Situational Awareness What is Situational AWArENEeSs?..........ccvueiecmrureriereeecesseusesustesescssesessascssssssessssssssserssssssssasases 295 Areas Requiring Situational AWareness............eiciiivensicniesieseesmesassencsssasssacscass 296 Obstacles to Good Situational AWareness...........cuiiieiiisnersiseisiesies 296 Enhancing Situational AWAIENESS..........c.ecueeecsseenesereecscsaseesensasesssessssaseserersssesssssssssssssssess 297 Situational Awareness Self-ASSeSSIMENLt .........ccccuciiierrncninseseiseinisininessissssessssnsscsssasasssses 298

Table of Contents CC

sess

«.o..oeirieiiitiiceiisntessitctsicssessecsimsrsssessastsessnsessssassssenscssssssasessssssesssssassssrnss

CHAPTER 16: AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING 16.1

se

ssbsssas

16.2 Judgment A Systematic Approach to Decision Making ..............

ve

ao

299

“ snsasassst sunsets

299

eushensressaerensasrsastete

300 ...300 Obstacles to Good Judgment ............viieeniiresinesrncseesssisinsncsicssisnenssnes . Enhancing Good JUAGMENL.......cverrerrerrsmiessssenssnssnssesescsseninsisssssssssesssssssisasssssassassasesssssscssess 302 ValUES...ceoeeeerniricriinirinnssssesenssssenssesesssesssssassssssssesssscassnnes

16.3

Self-Discipline Obstacles to Self-Discipline....

Enhancing Self-DiSCIPHNe

...........cc.seeressussees

vevenens

.

rene

cos

eemssvmissisesssseraststasssives

one

seone

J

302

302

.... 304

-

ssavossonss

icssnionas

GLOSSARY INDEX

sesinsidsssasasessnsrenasan

305

309

:

anaes nena REVIEW QUESTIONS...

Chapter 1: Glider Familiarization Chapter 2: Airport Familiarization Chapter 3: Aerodynamics Chapter 4: Performance Chapter 5: Flight Instruments and Systems Chapter 6: Weather for Soaring.......... Chapter 7: Aviation Weather Services. Chapter 8: Medical Factors Chapter 9: Regulations Chapter 10: Flight Publications Chapter 11: Airspace Chapter 12: Aeronautical Charts and Navigation Chapter 13: Radio Communications Chapter 14: Personal Equipment Chapter 15: Cross-Country Soaring ‘Chapter 16: Aeronautical Decision Making

313

SE

..313

SE

Table of Contents

323

329

334

ossoncusis

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INTRODUCTION Glider pilot training can be divided into two parts; knowledge training and flight training. Knowledge training includes topics such as aerodynamics, weather, regulations, and airspace, and is covered by this handbook. Flight training is covered in this book’s companion, the Flight Training Manual for Gliders.

a

Private Pilot This handbook was written specifically for students pursuing for aid useful is Certificate with a Glider rating, although it a preparing for a Commercial or Instructor rating as well. |

Using This Handbook

The knowledge training is mostly self-study, with the students reading the book and doing the review questions on their own. The instructor will then answer

any questions the student has, check the student's answers, and ask questions to confirm that the student understands the material.

Aeronautical Knowledge Training Progress Record CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeecccccccaccc

Inside the front cover of this handbook you will find a list of topics titled “ Aeronautical Knowledge Progress Record”. The progress record includes every knowledge area that the student must master before taking the Private Pilot Knowledge Test, often referred to as the “written test”. For every topic in the progress record, there is a corresponding section in this handbook. It is recommended that you and your instructor keep a copy of the Aeronautical Knowledge Progress Record, so that you will know which subjects have been completed and which will be coming up. Extra copies can be downloaded for free from www.GliderBooks.com. |

The training is divided into three phases. Upon completion of Phase 1, you will be able to perform a complete flight unaided, including takeoff, tow, pattern, and landing. When you complete Phase 2, you are ready to solo, and when you

complete Phase 3, you are ready to get your license.

Following is a guideline for using the columns on the Knowledge Training Progress Record: Read — The instructor should circle this box when the section is assigned as homework. The student marks this box as completed after reading the section in the Glider Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Review Questions — The student should mark this box after completing the review questions for this section. Introduction i

Instruction — The instructor should mark this box after reviewing/correcting the student's answers, and giving the student ground instruction about the section.

|

Complete — The instructor should mark this after thestudent demonstrates acceptable knowledge of the topics covered in this section. Note that transition pilots (pilots who already have either a fixed or rotary wing private pilots certificate) are not required to complete all of the subject areas covered in the Knowledge Training Progress Record.

Getting Your License The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates the licensing of pilots in the United States. A Private Pilot Certificate with a Glider rating allows you to act as pilot-in-command of a glider without being under the supervision of an instructor. You are also allowed to carry passengers, but not for hire.

Prerequisites

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There are no age limits as to when you can begin training to be a pilot. However, students will not be able to fly alone (“solo”) until they are at least 14 years of age. Older students typically have the advantage of having more life experience to draw on, while younger students usually possess better hand-eye coordination. Older students may also typically grasp concepts more quickly, but younger students often progress more rapidly in learning to control the glider. Whatever their age, through study, practice, and determination, almost anyone can become a safe and competent pilot. No “medical certificate” is required of glider pilots. The FAA only requires that you have no medical conditions that would limit your ability to safely conduct a flight. This means that the decision to fly is made by the pilot, and must be made each time the pilot flies. If you have a medical condition that would prevent you from safely conducting a flight, it is your responsibility not fly. If you have a condition that requires medical care, such as a heart condition or diabetes, would be wise to discuss your plans to become a glider pilot with your doctor, or Ea oo FAA-designated Aviation Medical Examiner.

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Introduction ii

Procedure The diagram below outlines the general process of obtaining pilot certification. (If you already have a pilot certificate for airplanes, you do not have to take the FAA written test.) |

Flight Training

|

Knowledge Training

Pre-Solo Written Test

‘Student License

|

_

|

|

v |

Instructor Solo Sign-off

SOLO!

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v Flight Training

Knowledge Training

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Instructor Sign-off for Written Test

FAA Written

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|

Vv

Instructor Sign-off for Practical Test

Practical Test

i

LICENSE!

Pre-solo Training

I

Pre-solo flight training starts with your first lesson. As you continue with your flight training, you will also begin your knowledge training, in which you will cover information necessary for operating the glider safely in the vicinity of your home airport under the supervision of your instructor.

L

Introduction iii

first solo flight you Sometime between the beginning of your training and will need to obtain a student license from the FAA. youris a simple matter of to the FAA. completing an application (online or paper) and presenting

it

This

Once you are proficient at the necessary flight skills, have passed a pre-solo written test, and have your student license, your instructor will sign you off for your first solo flight. Your

first solo flight will be one that you will always remember!

Post-solo

Training

In your post-solo flight training, you will learn more advanced skills, and master the basic skills introduced in your pre-solo training. Knowledge training will continue, covering information that you will need to know in order to make safe decisions when flying solo beyond the local area. When you are ready, your instructor will give you a sign-off to take the FAA written test. This multiple-choice test must be taken at an FAA-designated testing center. You must score at least 70% to pass the test. Once you have passed the written test and are competent at all the required flying skills, your instructor will give you a sign-off to take the practical test. The practical test is administered either by an employee of the FAA or by an FAAdesignated examiner. The test consists of oral questioning and a flight test. Post-license

After you have earned your license, the sky is the limit! You will certainly want to introduce some of your friends to this fascinating and beautiful sport by taking them along on flights. Maybe you would like to try to earn your Silver, Gold, or Diamond Badges, or learn aerobatics. There are also local, regional, national, and international racing competitions in which you can participate. You may also wish to get your Commercial Certificate, so you can give glider

rides to paying customers, or obtain your Certified Flight Instructor rating in gliders (CFI-G) so that you can teach others to soar. Whatever you choose to do after you get your license, rest assured that you have started on a path that will provide years and years of enjoyment.

The Sport of Soaring Soaring is using lift to sustain flight in a glider. The term “lift” in this case refers to rising air. The glider is always descending through the air, but if the air rises the faster than the glider descends, the glider will be able to climb with respect ground. Imagine that you are starting at the bottom of an upward-moving escalator, but are walking down. As long as the escalator is moving up faster than you are walking down, you will rise.

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Introduction iv

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Types of Lift You have probably seen hawks circling in the sky on a warm day or seagulls flying back and forth along a seaside cliff, both staying aloft without flapping their wings. The hawks are using thermal lift, while the seagulls are using ridge Thermal

Thermal lift is a result of the sun's heating the ground, and then the ground subsequently heating the overlying air. Since warm air is less dense than cool air, the warm air next to the ground starts to rise. It keeps on rising as long as it is warmer than the surrounding air. Thermals over mountains often reach altitudes of over 18,000 feet. The majority of the lift used by soaring pilots is thermal lift. Ridge

a

Ridge lift is caused by wind being forced up over terrain feature, such as a cliff, ridge, or mountain. Ridge lift can be very consistent, but usually does not go as high as thermal lift.

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|

Wave

Wave lift is formed by a complicated interaction between wind and terrain. Wave lift has been used to obtain altitudes of almost 50,000 feet. Convergence

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lift

is created when two air masses collide. Usually one air mass Convergence will ride over the other. Convergence lift is usually found along a narrow band, often referred to as a “shear line”. |

|

|

Using these sources of lift, you can stay aloft for many hours, climb thousands of feet, and cover hundreds of miles. Types of Soaring One of the beauties of this sport is that it can be incredibly enjoyable and rewarding no matter which level you choose to participate at. Many pilots enjoy hanging out at the gliderport on a weekend, going on a flight or two, and perhaps taking a friend up for a ride. Other pilots find nothing more enjoyable racing around a course of hundreds of miles, testing their skills against nature and each other. Cross-Country

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Cross-country flying is a goal for many pilots. On a cross-country flight, you are out of glide range of the home airport for most of the flight. You may head out with the goal of completing a predetermined course and returning to the launch point, or you may head out with a ground crew following you with a trailer, ready to pick you up wherever you land.

RI

Introduction

Badge Flying

In order to encourage cross-country soaring and to acknowledge internationally recognized levels of soaring achievement, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) established the soaring badge program. The FAI badges start with the Silver Badge, and advance to the Gold and Diamond Badges. The FAI also awards diplomas for flights of 1000 and 2000 kilometers. The Soaring Society of America (SSA) administers the FAI badge program in the United States. FAI badge flights must be documented according to guidelines set out in the FAI

Sporting Code. Badge requirements are as follows:

SILVER BADGE

|

|

*

1,000 meter (3,281 feet) altitude gain

*

5

e

50 km (31.07 miles) cross-country flight

hour flight time after tow release

GOLD BADGE *

3,000 meter (9,842 feet) altitude gain

*

5 hour flight time after tow release 3332332323323232323333233333323233333232323333323233323

*

300 km (186.4 miles) cross-country flight

DIAMOND BADGE *

5,000 meter (16,404 feet) altitude gain

*

300 km (186.4 miles) cross-country goal flight(following a predetermined

out-and-return or triangular course)

*

Co

|

500 km (310.7 miles) cross-country flight

In addition to the FAI badges, the SSA has established its own badge program to recognize a student's accomplishments during training. The “A” badge is awarded in recognition of your first solo flight. The “B” badge recognizes your first soaring flight (1/2 hour after release). The “C” badge is awarded after your first one-hour soaring flight. The Bronze badge is awarded when the you have “made two soaring flights of at least two hours duration, and have passed a written exam and a flight test demonstrating your readiness to fly cross-country. Records and Contests

Once you have earned your badges, you may want national, or world records. Introduction vi

to start trying to set state, pe

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if

head-to-head competition is more to your taste, you may want to Alternatively, fly contests. At a contest, a course, usually 100 to 300 miles long, is declared by the contest director. Once all of the gliders have been towed up, they go through a start gate and head out on course. The winner the glider that has the fastest speed around the course.

|

|

is

|

Aerobatics

pilots

pursue aerobatic training after becoming licensed. Besides being fun, aerobatic training builds your confidence by allowing you to safely push the envelope of your skills. Many

|

Your Feedback We are very interested in getting your feedback on the books. The Glider Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge and the Flight Training Manual for Gliders are

printed in small quantities to give us the ability to quickly incorporate corrections and revisions suggested by both students and instructors. Our desire is to have the textbooks evolve into a tool that will make thetraining process quicker, cheaper, more thorough, and more enjoyable, both for the student and the instructor. You can email the author directly at [email protected]. Thank you for choosing our books!

2%

Russell Holtz

Introduction vii

About the Author Russell Holtz grew up in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering. He obtained his Private Pilot Certificate in gliders in 1995, in airplanes in 1996, his Commercial Certificate in Gliders in 1998, and his Certified Flight Instructor rating in gliders in 1999. He completed the FAI Silver Badge requirements in 1997, and the Gold and Diamond requirements in 1998. Russell has given over 2,500 hours of instruction, including primary, crosscountry, contest, and aerobatics, and has over 4,000 hours total time in gliders. In 2000, he helped to create the Youth Soaring Academy in Hollister, California, and was the volunteer instructor for the organization from 2000 until 2004. Most of the material in this book was first developed for presentation to the Hollister YSA students. Since then, Russell has instructed at glider operations in California and Nevada.

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Introduction viii

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CHAPTER 1: GLIDER FAMILIARIZATION (also referred to as a sailplane) is the piece of equipmentthat enables transformation into a pilot. In this chapter, you will learn about its your soaring design, parts, and limitations so at you can develop confidence in its ability to keep you aloft. The

glider

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|

The Glider

Gliders

vary in size, shape, configuration,

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truction material, and the number

of occupants that they can carry. However, most gliders are more alike than different. The standard configuration is that of a long, relatively narrow wing, a fuselage with passenger compartment in front of the wing, stabilizing fins and control surfaces at the tail, a main wheel centered near the balancing point of the glider, and a tow hook located somewhere between the nose and the main wheel. Horizontal Stabilizer Right Aileron

(Fixed)

Elevator (Movable)

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Rudder (Movable)

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|

Parts of a typical glider

The wing provides lift for the glider. The tail provides stability. The elevator provides pitch (nose up and down) control, the rudder provides yaw (nose side to side) control, and the ailerons provide roll control. The fuselage holds various parts together and gives the pilot a place to sit. The tow hook and

the

landing gear are necessary for getting the glider in the air and back on the ground.

While the parts of any glider are basically the same, there are several possible

configurations for those parts.

|

|

Wing Configurations The wing is one of the most important components of the glider; it determines the glider’s performance, strength, as well as its aesthetics. Many variables go into wing design. Here we will consider two: wing placement and the aspect ratio. |

|

Glider Familiarization 1

Section 1.1

Wing Placement

Glider wings are usually of a “mid-wing” configuration, meaning that the spar of the wing runs through the center of the fuselage. A few gliders use a “highwing” configuration in which the wing is mounted at the top of the fuselage.

Figure 1.2

—

A high wing glider with struts (left) and a mid-wing glider (right)

Often, high-wing gliders have struts that brace the wings. This allows the wings to be relatively light; however, struts contribute to drag, making the glider less efficient.

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Aspect Ratio The aspect ratio is a measure of how “long and skinny” a wing is. It is the ratio of the wingspan to the average chord of the wing. Wings with a high aspect ratio have lower induced drag (see Chapter 3: Aerodynamics) and are therefore more efficient.

Tail Configurations There are three basic styles of glider tails: conventional, T-tail, and V-tail. The conventional tail, in which the vertical and horizontal stabilizers intersect the fuselage, has the advantage of simplicity. Its main disadvantage is that at certain flight attitudes, the wake from the wing can interfere with the flow over the tail control surfaces, thus decreasing their effectiveness. Additionally, the horizontal stabilizer, being close to the ground, can be damaged by brush or boulders in an off-field landing.

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Glider Familiarization

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In a T-tail, the horizontal stabilizer sits on top of the vertical stabilizer and is thus both out of the wake of the wing and out of harm's way in the case of an off-field landing. The disadvantage of this configuration is that the vertical stabilizer, as well as the rear the fuselage, must be stronger, and thus heavier.

of

The V-tail configuration has the advantage of having most of the tail surface away from the ground; this minimizes the risk of damage in an off-field landing. The disadvantage is that the pitch and yaw controls must be mixed: both control surfaces deflect in the same direction, up or down, for pitch control, and in opposite directions for yaw control.

Stabilizer/Elevator

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Figure 1.4

—

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Stabilator

|

Elevator/stabilator

On conventional or T-tailed gliders, there is also an option of how the pitch control surface works. On most gliders, there a fixed horizontal stabilizer and a movable elevator. On other gliders, the entire horizontal surface pivots; this is known as a “stabilator”.

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|

Tow Hook Configurations Tow hooks are usually located either very near or at the nose of the glider (nose hooks), or further back on the fuselage, near the center of gravity of the glider (C.G. hooks).

Either a C.G. or nose hook can be used for aerotowing. However, only hook can be used for ground launching (e.g. winch, bungee, or auto-tow).

a C.G.

Many gliders have more than one tow hook installed. In this case, you should use the nose hook for aerotowing and the C.G. hook for ground launching.

Glider Famitiarization

3

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—

Tow hook locations

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The farther forward the tow hook is, the more stable the glider will be on aerotow. When aerotowing with C.G. hook, you must be careful not to over-control

a

the glider.

Wheel/Skid Configurations Most gliders have at least two wheels: a main wheel and a tail wheel. Many also have a nose wheel (or skid) and wheels the tips of the wings. Wheels naturally add drag, so it is desirable to have them faired as opposed to hanging in the i wind. Of course, the best way to minimize drag is to use retractable landing gear.

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Nose Skid Figure 1.6 ~

—

Wheel/skid configurations

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Many gliders have a tail dolly with swivel wheel that attaches to the rear of the fuselage to make them easier to move around on the ground. Section 1.1

Glider

Familiarization

4

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—

Tail dolly

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Because the tail dolly allows the glider to pivot freely,

unattended with the tail dolly attached.

Of course, thetail dolly must be removed before

a glider should not be left

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flight.

Glide Slope Control All gliders need a way to control their glide slope (angle of descent) when coming in for a landing. High drag devices are used for this purpose. The terms “airbrakes”, “dive brakes”, and “spoilers” are often used interchangeably describe these devices. Specifically, dive brakes are deployed from both the top and the bottom of the wing, while spoilers are deployed only from the top.

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Dive Brakes

Figure 1.8

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Spoilers/dive brakes.

The advantage of dive brakes is that they create more drag, but since they extend below the wing, they are more likely to be damaged in an off-field landing.

Glider Familiarization

5

Section 1.1

~

Flaps Additionally, some gliders have flaps. These control surfaces are attached to the tailing edge of the wings and move in unison. The flaps are lowered to decrease the stall speed, allowing the glider to slow down more before landing or to fly in tighter circles when thermaling. Lowering the flaps increases the drag of the glider, allowing it to descend more steeply without increasing the airspeed. Raising the flaps slightly (“negative flaps”) can make the glider more efficient at high speeds.

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|

1.2 Flight Manual Each glider comes with a flight manual, or Pilot Operating Handbook (POH), provided by the manufacturer. The manual will include such things as preflight checklists, and information on airspeed limitations, spin recovery techniques, and assembly / disassembly procedures specific to that glider. £7 Airspeeds There are several airspeeds that you should memorize forthe glider that you will use for training. Be aware that performance speeds will vary according to the total weight of the glider (see Chapter 4: Performance). You should learn these speeds for the weight of the glider with both you and your instructor onboard, and for the weight of the glider when you are flying solo. The airspeeds that you should memorize include the limit speeds—such as the maximum aerotow speed, ‘the stall speed (Vs), the maneuvering speed (Va), and the never-exceed speed (Vne)—as well as the performance speeds, which are the minimum sink speed and best-glide speed. These speeds will be explained in Chapter 3: Aerodynamics and Chapter 4: Performance. If applicable, you should also know the maximum speed to operate the flaps, spoilers, or landing gear. |

Stall/Spin Recovery Procedures Most gliders call for similar stall and spin recovery techniques. However, some gliders have unique stall or spin characteristics that require specific recovery methods. You should study the flight manual of the glider which you are using for training and learn its particular recovery technique.

Preflight Checklist

A preflight inspection checklist developed by the manufacturer should be included in the glider’s flight manual. Often, the owner of a glider will develop an additional checklist that is carried in the glider. If this is the case, you should

verify that the preflight checklist in the glider one in the flight manual.

is at least as comprehensive as the |

|

Assembly/Disassembly Instructions A The first step in assembling or disassembling a glider is to read the instructions! If the proper procedures are not followed in the proper order, at the very least the process will be frustrating and difficult; at worst, the glider may be damaged. |

Section 1.2

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Glider Familiarization

6

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1.3 Documentation The FAA requires that certain information be in the glider at all times. You should be able to locate the following required documents in the glider:

Airworthiness Certificate Registration

SM Operating limits

~

Weight and balance information

The acronym AROW provides an easy way to remember the documents.

Airworthiness Certificate The Airworthiness Certificate is issued when the glider built. It certifies that its design and construction meet the requirements of the FAA.

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|

The Airworthiness Certificate is valid for the life of the glider as long as the glider is maintained and operated according to Federal Aviation Regulations. |

Registration Certificate The registration certificate states the name of the glider s legal owner. This responsible for maintaining the glider in a safe manner and is liable for person any taxes on it.

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|

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Glider Familiarization

7

Section 1.3

REGISTRATION CEPARTMENT

CERTIFICATE NATIONALITY

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Operating Limits As the term implies, the operating limits are the extremes of the parameters of operation of the glider. Critical operating limits are the never-exceed speed, the maneuvering speed, the aerotow speed, the minimum approach speed, and the stall speed.

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Operating limits placard

The operating limits can be documented by either having the flight manual

stored in the glider or having the limits posted on placards.

Section 1.3

Glider Familiarization

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Weight and Balance The maximum weight and the location of the balance point are determined by the design of the glider. The weight affects the structural loads on the glider, while the balance point affects the stability (see Chapter 3: Aerodynamics). Like the operating limits, weight and balance information can either be placarded or stated in a glider flight manual stored in the glider. |

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~

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Determining the balance point, or center of gravity (C.G.), of a glider relatively simple if you know its empty weight, the empty center of gravity location, and the weight and location of the occupants. In Figure 1.12, the glider has empty weight Wg, and its empty center of gravity lies a distance Dg behind the nose. The front-seat pilot weighs W; and is located a distance D; behind the nose. The back-seat pilot weighs W, and is located a distance D; behind the nose.

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A displaced threshold may be put in place when the pavement that area is not force the also of traffic. It may be landing strong enough to support applied to keep landing traffic high enough to clear obstacles when approaching the runway. |

|

Taxiway Lines Taxiway centerlines are solid yellow. The boundaries of the taxiway may be marked by either a solid or dashed yellow double line. If the double line is solid, the area outside of the taxiway isnot to be used by aircraft. If the double line is dashed, the area may be used by aircraft. |

|

|

|

Section 2.2

Airport Familiarization 14

|

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—

Taxiway markings (yellow)

The edge of the taxiway pavement will often be unmarked.

Hold Short Marking A hold short marking indicates where you must stop on a taxiway before entering a runway. The mark consists of four yellow lines: two dashed, two solid. The solid lines are on the side where the aircraft must stop. You should notcross a hold short marking unless you have clearance (at a controlled airport), or have made sure that you have adequate separation from other aircraft (at an uncontrolled airport).

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Figure 2.7 — Hold short marking. You must hold short when approaching from the side of the solid lines.

For gliders, this means that you should not pull a glider across the lines onto the runway unless you have verified that no one is landing or taking off on that runway. |

Airport Familiarization 15

Section 2.2

Chevrons Chevrons painted on the pavement indicate an taxiing, takeoff, or landing.

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areathat may not be used for 2

Figure 2.8 — Chevrons indicate pavement that should not be used for taxiing, takeoff, or landing.

The pavement marked by chevrons may be un-reinforced, unstable, damaged, or otherwise unsuitable for use. Lo

Taxiway Signs Taxiways are designated by a letter. The taxiway sign consists of a yellow letter on a black background. |

Figure 2.9

—

Taxiway Signs

Taxiway signs are placed near all intersections of taxiways and. taxiways and runways. |

Runway Helding Position Signs This sign is located next the hold short line where a taxiway crosses or enters runway, or where one runway crosses another. The sign consists of white numbers on a red background. The numbers correspond to the runway ‘designators.

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Section 2.2

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Airport Familiarization 16

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Figure 2.10 — Runway holding position signs

When there are two numbers on a runway holding position sign, the number on the left indicates that the beginning of that runway is to the left (likewise for the right). |

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Runway Distance Remaining Sign Some runways have distance remaining signs. The number on this sign indicates the distance to the end of runway in thousands of feet.

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Figure 2.11

—

Runway distance remaining signs

The sign consists of white numbers on a black background. :

2.3 Airport Lighting

Differently colored lights are used to designate different parts of the airport. White lights are positioned on either side of the runway. On some runways, last 2,000 feet of runway are amber. lights located along

the

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A line of green lights across the runway indicates the beginning of the runway; a line of red lights indicates the end. Blue lights designate taxiways.

Airport Familiarization 17

|

Section 2.3

Amber: Last 2,000 feet

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Green:

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White:

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0 ©

Runway Lights ©

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Figure

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Green/White Rotating Beacon: When on during daylight, indicates conditions below VF minimums

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2.12- Airport lighting

Civilian airports are marked by a green and white rotating beacon. This is to find at night. If the beacon is operating during daylight make the airport easier hours, this indicates that local conditions are below visual flight rules (VFR) minimums. However, if the beacon is not operating during daylight, it does not necessarily indicate the conditionsare above the minimums.

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2.4 Airport Traffic

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There are many kinds of pilots, each enjoying the : om offyingin different ways. When you share an airport with other types:of aircraft, it is a good idea to have an understanding of their needs and limitation so that you can operate more safely. If everyone works together, we canall sharethe’ airport and the skies without endangering or unduly iinconvenigneing one another.

-

Types of Aircraft and Pilots

As glider pilots, we have one main restriction, which is that we cannot extend our landing pattern indefinitely, or “go around” because someone else is on the

runway.

Other aircraft have their own limitations. Jets (commercial, private, civilian, or military) and “warbirds” (antique/restored military aircraft) are very expensive to operate. The pilots of these aircraft will appreciate your helping them to minimize the time that they arerunning their engines. Ultralight pilots are not required to have a license, and therefore they may not be as familiar with the FARs and the right-of-way rules as we might like. They also may not be using a radio, and even if they are, they may not be able to hear it because of engine and wind noise. The same holds true for any open-cockpit aircraft.

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The majority of light-plane traffic at most results from student training operations. Keep this in mind when dealing with power pilots (airplane pilots) in the pattern. If you have just landed and are in the middle of the runway and a Section 2.4

Airport Familiarization 18

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power pilot asks if it is OK to land and get stopped before you, think twice before giving him “permission.” What if this is his first solo flight? Do you trust his ability to get stopped in time? Also, remember that many power pilots are not familiar with gliders. If necessary, gently remind them that in the air, we have the right of way over powered aircraft unless they are in distress (see Chapter 9: Regulations).

Another type of pilot you may have to deal with is the “hot dog”. These are the pilots with more money than brains, who buy expensive toys and like to show off in them. The best policy for dealing with this type is to see and avoid (and more importantly, to avoid becoming one!). Looking for Traffic While you should be looking for traffic at all times and in all directions, when you are near an airport you must be particularly vigilant. Keep an eye not only on the sky, but also on the ground. At your home airport, is there a lot of ground (non-aircraft) traffic? Are pedestrians, bicyclists, dogs, cows, or other hazards ever on or near the runway? If so, plan ahead so that if you see one of these hazards, you have a “plan B” in case the runway is still occupied when you need it.

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Avoidance Once another aircraft has been seen, is easy to avoid a collision. Since as gliders we are about the slowest thing in the sky without feathers, our main concern not of overtaking someone in front of us, but of being overtaken by someone behind us. When flying straight for prolonged periods, you can perform occasional S-turns to increase your visibility to other pilots.

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When you are in the traffic pattern, make sure that traffic behind you has you in sight. Use your radio to announce your position on each leg of the pattern (preferably just before you turn to a different leg, so that other pilots can look for you as your wings are banked and you are therefore more visible). Continue announcing your position, with your altitude, until any traffic behind you has you in sight. (You will learn about using the radio in Chapter 13: Radio Communications.) |

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To avoid collisions on the ground, you should always scan the approach area for possible landing traffic and monitor the radio before positioning the glider on the

runway in preparation for takeoff.

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2.5 Wake Turbulence All aircraft generate a wake while in flight. This disturbance is caused by a pair of counter-rotating vortices trailing from the wing tips. The wake from large aircraft can pose a considerable hazard to a glider by imposing rolling moments roll control authority. In addition, the turbulence generated within that exceed

its

Airport Familiarization 19

cc

Section 2.5

the vortices can damage the glider if encountered at close range. you must avoid the wake of large aircraft.

For

this reason,

Vortex Generation All aircraft produce vortices behind their wings when they generate lift. These vortices form as the high-pressure air beneath the wingcurls around the wing

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tip.

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Figure 2.13

—

The aircraft wake consists of two. counter-rotating vortices.

At a distance of a few wingspans behind the aircraft, the wake consists of two counter-rotating vortices. Most of the energy is concentrated within a few feet of the center of each vortex, but you should generally avoid the entire region of the vortex core. Vortex Strength CL The strength of the vortex depends on the weight, speed, ‘and shape of the wing of the generating aircraft. The greatest vortex strength occurs when the generating aircraft is heavy, clean (without flaps deployed), and slow. Vortex Behavior Vortices are generated from the moment an aircraft leaves the ground and cease as soon as the aircraft touches down. The two vortices are spaced slightly less than a wingspan apart. They slowly descend below theflight path of the aircraft and drift with the wind. In calm air, it can take several minutes for the vortices from a large aircraft to dissipate.

Figure 2.14 — The vortices from an aircraft spread out as they descend close to the ground. A light crosswind will keep the upwind vortex over the runway for a longer period of time. A crosswind can also cause vortex to drift onto a parallel runway. |

Section 2.5

Airport Familiarization

20

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When the vortices of an aircraft sink close to the ground (within 100 to 200 feet), they tend to move laterally over the ground at a speed of 2 or 3 knots. A crosswind will decrease the lateral movement of the upwind vortex and increase the movement of the downwind vortex. A tailwind can move the vortices of an aircraft forward. Wake Turbulence Avoidance If you must land after a large aircraft has landed, you should stay at or above the aircraft's approach flight path and land beyond the point where touched down. If you are waiting to take off, you should wait several minutes for the wake to dissipate, or start the tow past the point where the larger aircraft touched down.

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Figure 2.15 — The wake hazard zone for a landing aircraft includes the area under the flight path up point where the aircraft touches down. ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccec

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If you are taking off after a large aircraft has taken off, it is a good idea to wait several minutes for the wake to dissipate, and then to take off before the point on the runway where the larger aircraft left the ground, and climb above or turn to avoid the flight path of the departing aircraft. If you are landing, you should touch down and preferably come to a stop before the point where the larger

aircraft took off.

Figure 2.16 — The wake hazard zone for a departing aircraft includes the area under the flight path after the aircraft lifts off.

Airport Familiarization 21

Section 2.5

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Section 2.5

Airport Familiarization

22

CHAPTER

3:

AERODYNAMICS

If you understand the aerodynamic principals offlight there is less chance that you will be unpleasantly surprised by the behavior of the glider. In this chapter, you will learn about the forces acting on a glider, how those forces are created, and how they affect the stability of the glider. |

3. 1 Nomenclature

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-

There are some terms which are either unique to aerodynamics or which we use in unique ways when discussing it. In this section, you will learn some of these terms. Airfoil Nomenclature The shape of the cross-section of a wing is called an airfoil. The rounded end of the airfoil is known as the leading edge. The sharp end is known as the trailing edge. The line connecting the leading and trailing edgesis called the chord line.

glider veloc

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Angle of Attack Setative

Wind

The angle of attack is the angle between — The relative wind is a result of the glider’s velocity. chord line and the relative wind.

Figure 3.1

the

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is said to experience “relative As the airfoil moves through the air, wind”. (Note that the relative wind is not related to what we normally mean by “wind”.) wind Since the glider typically moves forward and downward, the relative typically comes from in front of and below the airfoil. The angle formed by the ‘relative wind and the chord line is called the angle of attack.

Glider Axis To discuss the glider's movements, we need to define its three axes of rotation. The axes intersect at the glider’s center of gravity. The center of gravity is the distributed is “balance point” of the glider. The mass of the

giider

around the center of gravity.

equally

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Aerodynamics

23

Section 3.1

The pitch axis is parallel to the wings, the roll axis is parallel to the fuselage, and the yaw axis is perpendicular to both the wings and the fuselage.

Figure 3.2

—

The glider’s axes

When the glider rotates about the pitch axis, the nose moves up or down. When it moves about the yaw axis, the nose moves from side to side. When the glider moves about the roll axis, one wing moves up, the other down.

3.2 Three Forces Three forces act on the glider

in flight; lift, drag, and weight. Lift

Weight Figure 3.3 — The three forces acting on the glider in un-accelerated flight.

When the glider flies in a straight line at constant speed (i.e. when it is not accelerating), these three forces balance each other out. Section 3.2

Aerodynamics 24

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Lift Lift is produced as the airfoil deflects the airflow downward. The lift is always

perpendicular to the relative wind.

For a given angle of attack, the airfoil produces more lift as the airspeed increases. The amount of lift created is proportional to the square of the airspeed. For example, the airspeed doubles and the angle of attack is held constant, the lift increases by a factor of four.

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—— ———

Relative — Wind

Figure 3.4 — Lift acts perpendicular to the relative wind and is a result of the deflection of airflow. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCeeeeeceececec

As the angle of attack increases, the incoming air is deflected more, resulting in lift created at a constant airspeed is proportional to increased lift. The amount the angle of attack. For example, if you double the angle of attack while holding the airspeed constant, you double the amount of lift.

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This relationship is expressed in the following equation. L stands for lift, V velocity, and a the angle of attack. (“«” means “is proportional to.”)

Lx Va Since most of the time the lift is equal to the weight of the glider (i.e. it is

constant), we can rearrange this equation to get a relationship between the angle of attack and the velocity.

ox 1/V?

to

the inverse of the This equation tells us that the angle of attack is proportional the other words, as velocity increases, the angle of square of the airspeed. In attack decreases. Conversely, as the airspeed decreases, the angle of attack must increase if the lift is to remain constant. The relationship between velocity, angle of attack, and lift is illustrated in Figure 3.5.

Aerodynamics 25

Section 3.2

EN Attack

Iof

Lift

b

N gle

N

An

7

¢I / Critical

7

Angle of Attack

Figure 3.5 — As the angle of attack increases, lift increases until the critical angle of attack is exceeded.

Notice how lift increases as the angle of attack increases until the airfoil stalls at the critical angle of attack (see below) at which point, it drops off. Also, notice that for any angle of attack, the lift is four times greater at 100 knots than it is at 50 knots. |

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Stall

As illustrated in Figure 3.5, the relationship between lift and the angle of attack has a limit. Once a certain angle of attack is exceeded, the air can no longer “turn the corner” around the top of the airfoil and will separate from the airfoil. When this happens, the airfoil said to have stalled. The angle of attack at which this called the critical angle of attack. happens

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When the airfoil stalls, airflow is no longer deflected, so the airfoil does not produce nearly as much lift. The drag also increases dramatically.

Figure 3.6 -A stalled airfoil produces less lift and much more drag. oo

An airfoil is more likely to stall at low airspeeds, because in order to create the required lift, the airfoil must operate at a high angle of attack. Nevertheless, at any airspeed, the airfoil will stall if the critical angle of attack is exceeded. Section 3.2

Aerodynamics.

2%

The critical angle of attack is determined primarily by the shape of the airfoil. However, can also be affected by the surface condition of the airfoil. An airfoil that is coated with rain, frost, bugs, or dirt will typically stall at a lower angle (i.e. clean. oo at a higher airspeed) than one that

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Washout

Most aircraft wings are designed so that the root, or inboard, part of the wing stalls first, before the stall extends toward the tip. This allows the ailerons to remain effective even after part of the wing has stalled, and gives the pilot stall. opportunity to recognize that the entire wing is about

the

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Washout Angle

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Tip

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— Lines A-B and A’-B’ are parallel. The washout is the angle between the tip chord line and root chord line. Washout causes the wing root to operate at a higher angle of attack and to stall before the tip does.

Figure 3.7

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To make sure that the wingtip stalls last the wing is twisted so that the wing tip is at a lower angle of attack than the wing root. This twist, called washout, will always cause the root to be at a higher angle of attack and thus stall first. (An interesting side note: when the glider is flying upside down, washout becomes “wash-in”, and the wing tip stalls first. It is quite clear why you do not want this hard—and the glider to happen in normal flight: the tip will immediately will flip over very quickly.)

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drop |

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Spin

A spin can occur when both wings are stalled, but one wing stalls more than the other. The wing that stalls more lags behind and falls because it produces less lift and more drag. The other wing, being less stalled, will be creating more lift and less drag. The less stalled wing will in effect fly in circles around the inside wing.

In a spin the glider’s nose drops well below the horizon and the glider rotates about the lower wing. The forces in a spin are mild, since the glider must be stalled for it to develop. To recover from a spin, you must pitch nose down, the

Aerodynamics 27

Section 3.2

~~

thereby reducing the angle of attack on the wings, and apply the opposite rudder, which stops the rotation. Once the angle of attack is reduced, the glider should quickly recover. You will learn more about spins, their cause, and ways to avoid and recover from them in Lessons 4.22 and 4.23 in the Flight Training Manual for Gliders. Drag

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Drag is the glider pilot's enemy. Modern glider designers go to great lengths to ensure that their designs will experience minimum drag.

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LT

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———— Figure 3.8

—

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Drag acts parallel to the relative wind.

Drag acts parallel to the relative wind. It has two components: parasite drag and induced drag. Parasite Drag

Parasite drag is proportional to the square of the airspeed. If the airspeed is doubled, parasite drag increases by a factor of four. Parasite drag can in itself be divided into two categories: skin friction and profile drag. Skin friction is a result of the viscosity of air. You can think of it as the friction between the surface of the glider and each “particle” of air that passes over

it.

Figure 3.9

—

Skin friction drag

Skin friction can be reduced by keeping the glider as clean and smooth as possible. A dirty or bug-covered glider will experience more skin friction drag than a clean, polished one. Profile, or form drag is the result of the airflow separating from a surface as it is forced to flow around obstacles. These obstacles can be as large as the main Section 3.2

Aerodynamics 28

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DJJ

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wheel, or as small as rivets. This type of drag increases dramatically when an airfoil stalls.

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Figure 3.10 — Profile drag from landing gear

Much work has been done to reduce the profile drag experienced by modern gliders. Retractable landing gear, internal radio antennas, and faired control connections are all such efforts. Induced Drag

Induced drag is a by-product of producing lift. Near the tip of a wing, the airflow curls around from the lower surface, which is at higher pressure, to the upper surface, which is at lower pressure. This creates a vortex that trails behind the wingtip. In Figure 3.11, the vortices would extend from the tips, back into the page.

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Low High

Pressure

Ty

yyy

——

vy

y AA

t

AA

behind the wing, as High-pressure air swirling around the tip forms a vortex that trails the left. The vortex induces a downdraft along the wing that is large at the tip and decreases

Figure 3.11 shown on inboard.

Pressure

Induced Velocities

—

This trailing vortex induces vertical velocities both inboard and outboard of the tip. A downdraft is produced inboard of the tip, and an updraft outboard. (This is why geese fly in a V formation. Every goose except the leader gets to flyin slight updraft. And yes, they take turns being leader!)

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The induced velocity decreases the angle at which the relative wind approaches the airfoil, tilting the lift vector slightly to the rear. It is this rearward component of the lift that is induced drag.

Aerodynamics

29

Section 3.2

Induced Drag

Resuitant Lift

Resultant Relative Wind Induced

Figure

3.12 — Induced flow near the wing tip. The velocity induced by the tip vortex tilts the relative wind, and therefore the lift vector to create induced drag.

Induced drag is higher for higher angles of attack. inverse of the square of the airspeed. |

It

is proportional to the |

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The only way to eliminate induced drag is to eliminate wing tips, i.e. to have an infinitely long wing. Due to cost and the difficulty of fitting them in a trailer, infinitely long wings are rarely built! The next best solution is to have very long, skinny wings. The ratio of the wingspan to the average chord length is called the aspect ratio. Wings with high aspect ratios experience less induced drag. However, the downside of high aspect ratio wings is that they are very long, which means they must be stronger, and therefore heavier. Very long wings also make a glider more difficult to maneuver. The design of a glider is a compromise

between performance and handling.

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Ground Effect

When the glider is within about a wingspan from the ground, the ground interferes with airflow around the wing tips, weakening the trailing vortices. This increases the lift and decreases the induced drag acting on the wings. On takeoff, you will experience this as the glider becomes airborne but has not yet reached flying speed. If you try to climb out of ground effect at this speed, the glider may stall. On landing, the glider will seem to float along, not losing speed as rapidly as when it was higher above the ground. Pn |

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Adverse Yaw

When both wings create the same amount of lift, the induced drag on each wing is equal. However, when one wing creates more lift than the other because the ailerons are deflected, that wing will also experience increased induced drag. The Section 3.2

|

Aerodynamics

30

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difference in induced drag between one wing and the other causes the gliders nose to yaw towards the wing with more lift. This phenomenon is called adverse yaw. |

Increased Lift Increased Induced Drag

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Right rudder

required to counteract adverse yaw

Rolling Moment

Decreased Lift Decreased Induced Drag

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Lr

Adverse Yaw

Figure 3.13 — Adverse yaw. Deflecting the stick to the right deflects the left aileron downward, increasing both the lift and induced drag on the left wing. The increase in lift creates the desired rolling moment, but the increase in induced drag creates an undesirable yawing moment, called adverse -

yaw.

For example, when you try to raise the left wing to start a right turn, the increased induced drag on the left wing will cause the nose to swing to the left. Likewise, when you are in a turn to the right and try to raise the right wing to stop the turn, the right wing will create more lift and the nose will swing to the right. Adverse yaw occurs only when there is a difference in lift between the two wings. |

Use the rudder to counteract adverse yaw. The amount of rudder required is proportional to the amount of aileron deflection used. Since induced drag is greater at slower speeds, adverse yaw is also more pronounced at lower speeds. Weight Finally, the third force acting on the glider is the glider’s weight due to gravity. The component of weight that acts parallel to the gliders flight path is what allows the glider to overcome drag. The weight acts on the center of gravity of the glider. |

Aerodynamics 31

=

.

;

Section 3.2

-

Component of weight along flight path

Weight

Figure 3.14 —

Weight

to

align the flight path with the weight vector. other words, you have to put the nose down and dive.

To accelerate a glider, you have

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3.3 Airspeed Limits The operating envelope of a glider is limited at one extreme by how slow the glider can fly without exceeding the critical angle of attack, and the other extreme by how much load the wing can handle before breaking. In this section,

at

you will learn how these airspeed limits are determined. Stall Speed

As mentioned in the previous section, an airfoil stalls at a certain angle of attack, the critical angle of attack, independent of airspeed. Thus, it makes sense to speak of the stall speed for a specific configuration—for instance, the stall speed associated with un-accelerated flight in smooth air, at a given weight. Often the glider manual will indicate a “stall speed” specific to the glider. Remember that there is no guarantee that flying faster than this speed will keep you from stalling. It just means that this is the slowest speed at which you can expect to fly straight and level in smooth air. |

Maneuvering Speed The maneuvering speed is the speed at which full deflection of the controls will not overload the glider. To see why this is so, consider the following thought experiment. |

|

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Imagine a glider flying along just below the critical angle of attack (i.e. about as slowly as it can go). If we yank back on the stick, the glider will immediately stall because of the increase in the angle of attack. The lift on the wings therefore could not increase. Section 3.3

Aerodynamics 32

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Let's suppose that our glider weighed 1,000 pounds. If we were flying along at half the critical angle of attack and again yanked back on the stick, the most lift the wing could create would be 2,000 pounds. At this point, if we forced the glider into a higher angle of attack, it would just stall and not generate any more lift.

Now let's suppose that the glider’s wing is capable of lifting just over 5,000 fails. We could fly along at an angle that a fifth pounds, beyond which point of the critical angle of attack without worrying about overloading the wing when yanking the stick back, since we know that the wing will stall before it breaks. The maneuvering speed for this glider would be the speed at which we would fly to achieve an angle of attack that is one-fifth of the critical angle.

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is

Rough Air Speed If in the previous discussion we replaced “yanking back on the stick” with “hit a strong vertical gust”, you can see why for most gliders the rough air speed is the is desirable to have same as the maneuvering speed. The theory is the same: the glider stall before it overloads.

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Maximum Aerotow Speed Now it should be obvious that while on tow, we also want the glider to stall before breaking. For most gliders, the maximum aerotow speed is therefore the same as the maneuvering speed. However, because of the location of the tow hook, the maximum aerotow speed is different from the maneuvering speed for be sure. some gliders. Check your glider’s flight manual

to

Never-Exceed Speed In case it is not clear: you should never exceed the never-exceed speed! Should you do so, the glider may suffer a structural failure for a variety of reasons. For some gliders, the never-exceed speed is a function of the true airspeed (the actual speed at which the glider is moving through the air) and not the indicated airspeed. (See Chapter 5: Flight Instruments and Systems, for a complete

discussion of true and indicated airspeeds.)

3.4 Turning Flight Unlike in level flight, in a turn the forces acting on the glider are not in equilibrium. Instead, the glider accelerates in a direction perpendicular to the flight path.

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Forces in a Turn In order to make the glider turn, the lift vector must be tilted in the direction of the turn. The horizontal component of lift causes the glider to turn.

Aerodynamics 33

Section 3.4

Lift

Turning Force

_-~.

~

§

Weight

Figure 3.15 — The horizontal component a glider to turn.

of lift causes

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|

In Figure 3.15, you can see that the lift vector is tilted to the left because of the the lift balances the weight bank angle. The vertical component the glider, and the horizontal component makes it turn.

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Lift

Figure 3.16 — In a steep banked turn, the total lift must increase so that its vertical component remains equal to the weight of the glider.

|

The more the lift vector is tilted (i.e. the greater the bank angle), the faster the

glider will turn. No matter what the bank angle, the vertical component of lift must remain equal to the weight of the glider for the glider not to fall. This means that the total lift must increase, which means either the angle of attack or the airspeed must also increase. |

Section 3.4

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"Aerodynamics 34

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Slips and Skids In a properly coordinated turn, the glider remains aligned with the airflow. If it is in a slip or a skid. When a glider slips or is not aligned with the airflow, skids, is said to be in uncoordinated flight.

it

it

Uncoordinated flight can be the result of errors in applying the rudder to correct for adverse yaw, inappropriate use of the rudder during a turn, or insufficient lift being created by the wing. Because the glider is not aligned with the airflow, uncoordinated flight is much less efficient than coordinated flight. |

Slip

can

A slip occurs when the glider’s nose is pointed to the outside of a turn. This occur if not enough rudder deflection is used to counteract adverse yaw while entering the turn, or if insufficient back pressure is kept on the stick during the Skid

A skid occurs when the glider’s nose is pointed to the inside of a turn. This usually occurs when the pilot forces the glider to turn with the rudder, or when. the pilot does not remove the rudder input along with the aileron input after desired bank angle has been reached. A skid is particularly dangerous because the inside wing will be more likely to stall, which can cause the glider to enter a spin. To recover from a skid, simply remove the rudder input that is causing the

the

3.5 Load Factor

the

You will notice that as the bank angle is increased, the load on your body and called the load factor. In straight and level flight, the glider also increases. This load factor is 1. In a 45° bank angle, the load factor is 1.4. At 60°, it is 2. This means that in a 60° bank turn, the glider has to produce twice as much lift. An aircraft operating at a load factor of 2 is said to be pulling 2 G’s (i.e. the load is twice the force of gravity).

is

at

As the load factor increases, so does the stall speed. The stall speed increases the square root of the load factor. For example, at a load factor of 4, the stall speed will be twice what is at a load factor of 1.

it

|

It is important that the critical angle of attack not be exceeded as the load factor increases. If the airspeed is not increased in a steep bank turn, then the critical stall. angle of attack will likely be exceeded, which will cause the glider

to

Aerodynamics 35

Section 3.5

Steep Bank Turn

Pull Up from

|

a Dive

Him Vertical Gust

Figure 3.17 — An increase in the load factor can result from maneuvering or gusts.

As the load factor increases, the sink rate of the glider also increases because of the increase in both induced and parasite drag. The induced drag increases because the lift must increase, and the parasite drag increases because of the higher airspeed. 22223323233333533333333323333332331333233223232

3.6 Stability

|

Stability is the tendency for the glider to return to its initial state upon being disturbed. a glider stable about pitch axes, when it hits a gust of wind that increases its airspeed, will start to slow down without any nose will rise and

If

input

is

its

its

it

from the pilot. An unstable glider would continue to speed up until the pilot took action, or the wings tore off. An unstable glider not fun to fly!

is

In terms of stability, a glider can be designated positive (unstable), or neutral.

(stable), negative

|

|

Pitch Stability The pitch stability is determined mainly by the location of the center of gravity. The manufacturer of the glider will specify the forward and aft limits of the center of gravity range in the glider manual. |

|

Correct Center of Gravity Location

In Figure 3.18, the center of gravity (indicated by the @ symbol) is properly located, slightly ahead of the center of lift of the wing. Because the center of gravity lies in front of the center of lift, the tail will have to provide a slight downward force in order to keep the glider from pitching nose-down. Section 3.6

Aerodynamics 36

CC

ccecececcecececececececceccececececcecececcecceccccecccececccecccccec

Lift resulting from

Moment Resulting From

Gust

gust Tail "Lift"

oo

Wing Lift

:

Lift

:

resulting

from gust

Figure 3.18 — Correct center of gravity location. A horizontal gust will increase the lift on the wing and on the tail as shown by the gray arrows, resulting in a nose-up pitching moment that makes this glider stable.

Now suppose that this glider is disturbed by a gust that suddenly increases its airspeed. The lift on the wing and on the tail will both increase. The distance between the center of gravity and the wing's center of lift is so small that the increase in lift on the wing will only have a slight effect on the pitch of the glider. However, the increase in downward lift on the tail acting over a very large moment arm works to pitch the nose of the glider upward, thus slowing the stable in this configuration. glider down. The glider

is

Aft Center of Gravity

|

Now consider the glider in Figure 3.19. Its center of gravity is slightly behind the center of lift of the wing. In this case, the lift from the tail must be upward, to keep the glider from pitching up. Lift

Lift

resulting from gust

resulting gust

from Tail "Lift"

MomentResulting From Gust

.

Wing

Lift )

= — Aft center of gravity. A horizontal gust will increase the lift on the wing and on the tail as shown by the gray arrows, resulting in a nose-down pitching moment that makes the glider unstable.

Figure 3.19

Aerodynamics

37

Section 3.6

Consider what happens when this glider is disturbed by a gust of wind that increases its airspeed. Once again, because of the small moment arm, the lift acting on the wing will not have a strong effect on the pitch. But this case, the increase in the upward lift on the tail will make the glider pitch nose-down, which causes a further increase in airspeed. This configuration is unstable.

in

In addition to being unstable, it can be hard to recover from a spin if the glider center of gravity too far aft. To create the necessary upward lift on the tail, the elevator is already deflected downward somewhat. This means that there will be less elevator travel available to create the nose-down pitch moment needed to recover from a spin. has

its

Forward Center of Gravity As you can see in Figure 3.20, when the center of gravity is too far forward, the tail must create a significant downward force to keep the nose from dropping. A

glider with its center of gravity too far forward will be very hard to slow down.

You will either run out of elevator, or the elevator will stall.”

Tail "Lift" 2222323233333325231533133I33I33333323323323233223233232230)

Figure 3.20 — If the center of gravity is too far forward, the tail may the nose from dropping at normal airspeeds. :

not

be able to create

enough lift to keep

When the glider’s center of gravity is too far forward, the glider will be too stable. You will notice that the controls feel very heavy and that the glider responds slowly to control inputs. Roll Stability Roll stability is the tendency of a glider to maintain its bank angle. Most gliders have positive roll stability up to about a 45° bank angle. At around 45,° they become neutrally stable and much beyond 45° they become mildly unstable in

roll.

Section 3.6

|

Aerodynamics

psn

Li ———

Co

—

1 TT a ;

Figure 3.21

—

The dihedral angle

Roll stability is mainly a function of the dihedral angle of the wings. The dihedral angle is the angle between the wing and the horizon as shown in Figure 3.21. A perfectly flat wing has no dihedral, and is therefore neutrally stable at all bank

oo

angles.

|

is

|

When a glider disturbed so that a wing is raised, the lift is tilted to the side. This causes the glider to slip in the direction of the lowered wing as shown in Figure 3.22. The slip, coupled with the dihedral, increases the angle of attack on the lowered wing. The increase in the angle of attack produces more lift, which causes the lower wing to rise.

flaws

©

1

cceceeceececeeeeeeeceeeceeceeceeeececececececeeeecccacc

Tilted Lift

~~

Decreased

1

Side Slip

Increased

Relative Wind

—r

——— Return to Initial Bank Angle

~

Figure 3.22

—

Dihedral effect

Note that the glider has to enter a slip before the dihedral effect will roll it back into its original state. The yaw stability created by the vertical stabilizer will act to align the glider with the airflow, decreasing the magnitude of the slip. in yaw, the less stable it is in roll. Therefore the more stable a glider

is

Aerodynamics 39

Section 3.6

Yaw Stability Yaw stability is a simpler concept than pitch or roll stability. A side force will develop on the vertical stabilizer it is not aligned with the relative wind. The force creates a restoring moment that realigns the glider with the relative wind. |

if

on Vertical Stabilizer

Lift -

Ne,

Restoring Moment

eel

Figure 3.23 — When the vertical stabilizer is not aligned with the relative wind a side force is created producing a restoring moment.

The larger the vertical stabilizer and the longer the fuselage, the more stable the

glider will be in yaw.

Section

3.6

|

Ee

Aerodynamics.

22732323315313323231532323332323I332323I32332323232322322322322323

CHAPTER

4:

PERFORMANCE

Soaring is all about performance. When you are flying an aircraft without an engine, efficiency counts! In this chapter, you will learn about the factors that that performance so affect your glider’s you will be better equipped to get the flight most out of each oo

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Gt

Ratio

4.1 Glide The glide ratio is the distance the glider travels through the air divided by the altitude lost. It is a measure of the glider’s performance. The glide ratio varies with airspeed. As the airspeed increases, the glide ratio decreases due to Co increasing parasitic drag. oo

fi

Determining Glide Distance

If you know the glide ratio, you can determine how far the glider canglide from a given altitude. Simply multiply the altitude above the ground by the glide

ratio.

For example, consider a glider with a glide ratio of 23:1 flying 2,000 feet above the ground, as shown in Figure 4.1. |

2,000 feet

-

—y

23

T- *

-

-y

~~




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Figure 4.1 — From an altitude of 2,000 feet, the glider can cover a distance of 23 x 2,000 feet, which is 46,000 feet, or 7.6 nautical miles.

To determine the distance the glider will cover over the ground, you multiply the altitude of 2,000 feet by the glide ratio of 23, to get a distance of 46,000 feet, or 7.6 nautical miles (there are 6,076 feet in a nautical mile). -

Determining Required Altitude Suppose that you are climbing in a thermal and want to know how high you must climb in order to glide 12 nautical miles. Also, assume that you want to reach your goal with 1,000 feet of altitude left for a pattern. This situation is shown in Figure 4.2. |

Performance 41

oo

Section

4.1

CS.

23

A 1,000 feet

y

:

Figure 4.2 — To fly 12 nautical miles at a glide ratio of 23:1, you will need 1/23 of 12 nautical miles, or 3,170 feet, plus 1,000 feet for a pattern, for a total required altitude of 4,170 feet. |

in

Since we want our answer feet, the first thing we need to do is to convert the distance of 12 nautical miles into feet, by multiplying it by 6,076. This gives us a distance of 72,912 feet. Next, we divide the distance in feet by the glide ratio, to get the required altitude of 3,170 feet. We then add the pattern altitude of 1,000 feet get the altitude which we should climb to, 4,170 feet.

23,

to

4.2 Glider Polars

its

A polar is a plot of a gliders sink rate versus airspeed. Most glider flight manuals include a polar. Each glider has a different polar, and various external factors, including dirt, bugs, and rain on the wings, or the weight carried by the glider, will affect the polar. Of course, the polar given in the glider manual is for brand new, polished wings. Your actual mileage may vary! |

~

20

30

40

Airspeed (Knots) 50 60 70

80

80

100

110

120

WN

(Knots)

ULHE

Rate NO

Sink

WOOO

wh

Figure 4.3

knots.

—

Section 4.2

©

Sample glider polar. When flying

at an

airspeed

of 80 knots, the glider will be sinking at 3 BONS

Performance 42

2722321333151523232315333223I323332I33332322233232323323232322D

ccecececececcc

Using the polar, you can determine what the sink rate will be (in straight and level flight through calm air) for any airspeed. For instance, the sink rate for the glider whose polar is shown in Figure 4.3, is about 3 knots when the airspeed is 80 knots. The glide ratio is determined by dividing the airspeed by the sink rate. In this case the glide ratio at 80 knots is 80+3, or approximately 27. Sometimes, the sink rate is expressed in feet per minute. 100 feet per minute is approximately equal to 1 knot. The airspeed can also be expressed in statute miles (5,280 feet per statute mile) instead of nautical miles (6,076 feet per nautical

Just make sure that when calculating the glide ratio, you convert both speeds to the same units.

mile).

Maximum Glide Ratio

its

The maximum glide ratio of a glider is probably the most important measure of performance. A glider with a high glide ratio can travel further for a given altitude than a glider with a low glide ratio. |

The slope of a line from the origin to any point on the polar curve is the glide slope at that airspeed, since the ratio between horizontal speed and vertical speed is the same as the ratio between horizontal distance traveled to vertical distance traveled. This gives us a way to determine the maximum glide ratio do is draw a line from the origin directly from the glider polar. All you have the polar curve (i.e. the line just touches the curve); this line will have tangent the shallowest slope possible. The speed you must fly to achieve the maximum glide ratio is the speed indicated by the point of tangency. This is referred to as the best glide speed, and in the example below, occurs at about 55 knots. The sink rate at this speed is 1.6 knots, resulting in a glide ratio of 34:1 (55+1.6).

to

to

55 Knots

ccccecceccceccececcececcecececececeeeececeeccc

(Knots) |

10 1.6 Knots

20

30

40

50

[60

70

|

9

80

|

100

110

120

WN-

(Knots)

bh

Rate NOOO

Sink

OO

©

10

to

the tangent — To determine the maximum glide ratio from a polar, draw a line from the origin the ratio this ratio. In the glide determine case, the to sink rate glide the Divide by airspeed resulting curve. is 55+1.6, or 34.

Figure 4.4

Performance

43

Section 4.2 |

IDI

ID

The ratio between the airspeed and sink rate is the same as the ratio between the lift and the drag. For this reason, the best glide speed in calm air also referred is to as the best L/D (spoken as “best L over D”)

Ce

speed.

Minimum Sink Speed

The minimum sink speed is the airspeed speed at which the glider is descending slowly as possible through the air. In still air, flying at minimum sink speed is

as how

you achieve maximum flight

time.

|

IDIDIDIDID

DID

In Figure 4.5, a horizontal line has been drawn which is tangent to the highest ‘part of the curve. The point of tangency marks the minimum sink rate, which is about 1.5 knots. By extending a vertical line to the horizontal axis, you can see that the airspeed needed to achieve this sink rate is about 45 knots. If you fly at this speed, you will be coming down through the air as slowly as possible. If you fly faster or slower, you will come down more quickly. |

45 Knots 10 wade

0

XN

-Q

ip nn

20

30

Airspeed (Knots) 50 60 70

40

80

S80

100

110

120

N=

W (Knots)

UH

Rate

Sink

ONO

© lh

©

2223333333313333333132333313313232333232)

Figure 4.5 — To determine the minimum sink speed from a polar, draw a horizontal line tangent to the highest part of the curve. This is the minimum sink rate. At the point of tangency, extend a line vertically to the horizontal axis. For this glider, the minimum sink rate of 1.5 knots is achieved at an airspeed of 45 knots.

:

_

Gl

4.3 Effects of Wind Notice the disclaimer “in calm air” that keeps popping up in this discussion of the glide ratio. As you may have guessed, the performance of the glider with respect to the ground will change if the air is moving, whether horizontally (wind) vertically (lift/sink). While wind ‘does not affect the gliders performance through the air, does affect the distance the glider can travel over the ground.

or

Section 4.3

it

Le

Performance 44

ee

Figure 4.6 — No, matter what the wind speed or direction, the glider will arrive underneath the balloon at the same altitude. However, both the balloon and the glider will drift with the wind, so that the distance the glider travels over the ground is dependent on the wind speed and direction.

air

cceccecececceccececcececececcccecccceeccceccccccccccccccc

balloon flying in the same air mass, at the same Imagine a glider and a hot If the altitude. glider flies directly towards the balloon, it will arrive at the balloon a certain distance below it. This distance will be dependent only on the speed that the glider flies through the air, not on the wind speed. However, the wind will have an effect on where the balloon is when the glider arrives, and thus on how far the glider has traveled with respect to the ground. |

Headwind A headwind (or headwind component) will decrease the distance the glider can its best L/D speed travel. As an example, imagine that you are flying a glider

at

of 55 knots into a 55 knot headwind. The glider would come straight down. Clearly,the best L/D speed will not give you the best glide ratio.

You can calculate the effect of a headwind on the glider by again using the polar. A headwind decreases the groundspeed of the glider by the amount of headwind. For example, if a glider is flying at an airspeed of 55 knots into a 20 knot headwind, its groundspeed will be 35 knots.

the

To determine the glide ratio over the ground, you divide the groundspeed of 35 knots by the sink rate, which is about 1.6 knots (at 55 knots airspeed), to get a ratio of 22. This significantly worse than the still-air glide ratio of 34:1 that we

is

-

calculated earlier.

You can see this graphically in Figure 4.7. The 20 knot wind has the effect of shifting the origin of the graph 20 knots to the right. If you draw a line from the “new” origin through the point on the curve corresponding to 55 knots, the line will be steeper than in the case of still air. |

Performance 45

iliac

|

Section 4.3

|

LE a i

°

40

|

//

;

4 5 6

e «©

Es

20

Headwind

°

T

30

|

Airspeed (Knots) 50 60 70

A= ob 10

[|

|

80

90

NoWind

100

120

110

ict gre J

Glide Slope

_

xX ~~ YU

C— N

--

. 20 Knot Headwind Glide Slope

7

NE

8 9

AN

10

Figure 4.7 — A headwind decreases the performance of the glider. A 20 knot headwind effectively shifts the origin of the polar 20 knots to the

right.

is

|

no longer tangent to the polar curve. This means that a better Note that the line glide ratio can be obtained by flying at a different speed.

222732233323331313323D0223I3I3133332313232323232323232

Instead of flying the best L/D speed, you would want to fly a new “best glide” that you can determine by drawing a line from the new origin tangent to speed e curve. The point of tangency indicates the best glide speed for a 20 knot headwind.

EE

-

|

As Figure 4.8 shows, for this configuration the best glide speed for a 20 knot headwind about 63 knots, or 8 knots faster than when in still air.

is

63 Knots 10

WN

i.

20

30

40

Airspeed 60] 50

(Knots) |

70

80

90

100

110

120

:

Headwind

(Knots) HB

UO

Rate

Sink

ONO

~

9

10

ED

Figure 4.8 — To determine the best glide speed into a 20 knot headwind, displace the origin 20 knots to the right and draw a line from this point tangent to the polar curve. Extend a vertical line from the tangent point to the horizontal axis to determine the best glide speed.

Section 4.3 |

Performance 46

DIDIDIDIDID

Most pilots of course do not carry their gliders polar, a pen, and a ruler when flying! Instead, there is an approximation that works quite well for most gliders in headwinds of up to about 30 knots. If you add one half of the headwind to the best L/D speed, you will get a number very close to the optimum speed. Using this approximation in the previous example, you would have added half of the wind speed, or 10 knots, to the L/D speed to obtain a best glide speed of 65 knots. This is fairly close to the value we obtained in our calculations, 63 knots.

Tailwind While a headwind hurts the glider’s performance, a tailwind helps it. To see by how much, you will shift the origin of the polar as you did for a headwind, only in this case, to the left. As you can see in the Figure 4.9, this has the effect of slightly decreasing the best glide speed. In this case, a 20 knot tail wind (we should all be so lucky!) only decreases the best glide speed by about 2 knots, from 55 to 53 knots. A good rule of thumb is to subtract 1/10th of the tailwind from the best L/D speed to get the best glide speed in a tailwind. However, no matter how strong the wind, you should never fly slower than the minimum sink speed. |

|

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCeeeecececececcecec

53 Knots (Knots) 10

20

30

40

50]

60

70

80

90 100

110

120

=

Tailwind WN

(Knots)

OVE

Rate

Sink

ONO

©

10

Figure 4.9

—

Determining the best glide speed in a 20 knot tailwind

Ls

Crosswind

If a glider flies directly into the wind, then 100% of the wind speed will affect the the wind is at an angle to the glider’s path, things are more glider. However, The complicated. major effect on the best glide speed will come from the headwind component. As shown in Figure 4.10, a 40 knot wind forming a 30° angle with the desired flight path has a headwind component of about 35 knots. Notice that the crosswind component is 20 knots. Fortunately, the effect of the crosswind component on the best glide speed is relatively small, and can,for the

if

~

most part, be ignored.

|

cceccecccc

Performance

47

Section 4.3

aa Wn

Component

0°

10

oo

5 Ww

o

nN

o

Headwind

So

10

Crosswind

Component

Figure 4.10 — Headwind/crosswind component. Example: a 40 knot wind at 30° to the flight path. The headwind component is 35 knots; the crosswind component is 20 knots.

The rule of thumb given earlier for headwinds also applies to the headwind component of a crosswind. To obtain the best glide speed, add half of the headwind component the best L/D speed.

to

|

|

4.4 Effects of Lift/Sink Just as wind can increase or decrease the distance that a glider can travel over the ground, rising and falling air also affects the performance of a glider. Falling air, or sink, causes the glider to descend faster than expected, thus decreasing our glide slope. Rising air,or lift, can extend our glide, or even allow us to climb. Lift

|

|

Finding rising air, or lift, is what the sport of soaring is all about. If you encounter lift while cruising, you can optimize your performance by slowing down to minimum sink speed. This will keep you in the lift as long as possible and increase the amount of altitude that you gain. Of course, if the lift is particularly strong, you will probably want to take further advantage of using techniques appropriate for that type of lift.

it

Sink Sinking air has a profound effect on the performance of a glider. Because modern gliders have such low sink rates—about 100 to 200 feet per minute—it doesn’t take much sink to cut the glide ratio in half. Luckily, strong sink is usually confined to a small area. |

Section 4.4

|

Performance 48

|

222220203232323232322323233333I32313233I3I323223I32222223222232)

Suppose that we are flying along at best L/D speed, which for our sample glider is 55 knots. From the polar, you know that the sink rate is about 1.6 knots. If you were fly into an air mass sinking at 3 knots, the glider would come down at 4.6 knots. The still-air glide ratio of 34:1 would be reduced to 12:1!

to

Te

Airspeed - 55

Kts Glider Sink Rate -1.6 Kts

Air Sink Rate - 3 Kis

Figure 4.11 — Sink can have a profound affect on the glide slope. If the air is sinking at 3 knots, the total sink rate will be 4.6 knots. The glide ratio is reduced from 34:1 (55+1.6) to 12:1 (55+4.6).

To find the best glide speed when flying in 3 knots of sink, you draw a line from the displaced origin, 3 knots above the old origin, and tangent to the curve, as

shown in Figure 4.12. At the point of tangency, you read off the airspeed—in this case, 72 knots. This speed will allow you to lose the least amount of altitude while getting though the sink. |

Sink Rate of Air

|

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCeCeeecccc,

72 Knots

Airspeed (Knots) 50 60 70] =

| |

80

90

|

100

110

120

|

1

AWN

(Knots)

OL

Rate

NOD

Sink

WB

©

10t Figure 4.12

—

Effect of 3 knots of sink on the best glide speed

Notice that for this glider, 3 knots of sink has the same effect on the performance as a 40 knot headwind! This is why it is so important to speed up and get out of sink as quickly as possible. A rule of thumb for flying in sink is to add 5 knots to the best L/D speed for every knot of sink. In our example, given 3 knots of sink, you would fly 15 knots faster than 55 knots, or 70 knots. This is relatively close to the 72 knots we obtained using the polar. Performance 49

Section 4.4

4.5 Effects of Wing Loading The polar is dependent on the wing loading of the glider. The wing loading can the glider or by increasing the load factor. be increased by adding weight

to

Effect of Wing Loading on Best Glide Speed The maximum lift to drag ratio for a glider does not change when the wing loading is changed; however, the speed at which it occurs does. This is because the best L/D ratio corresponds to a specific angle of attack. If the wing loading is increased but the angle of attack is held constant, the airspeed must be increased to create more lift at that angle of attack. Remember that the lift increases at the square of the airspeed. Therefore, the airspeed must increase by the square root of the increase in wing loading.

if

For example, the best L/D speed for a glider at 1,000 Ibs is55 knots, then if the wing loading is increased by a factor of 1.4 to 1,400 Ibs, the best L/D speed will be the square root of 1.4 (approximately 1.18) multiplied by 55 knots, or 65 knots.

333333333333333223333333325325)

The sink rate at this speed will also increase by the same factor. Since the sink rate for the glider at 1,000 Ibs and 55 knots is 1.6 knots, the sink rate at1,400 lbs and 65 knots will be 1.6 times the square root of 1.4, or 1.9 knots. Effect of Wing Loading on Minimum Sink Speed The speed corresponding to the minimum sink rate also increases at the square root of the load ratio. In this example, with the wing loading increasing by a factor of 1.4, the minimum sink speed would increase from 45 to 53 knots (45 times the square root of 1.4), and the sink rate would increase from 1.5 to 1.8 knots (1.5 times the square root of 1.4). Effect of Wing Loading on the Polar Any point on the polar can be re-plotted for a different wing loading by multiplying both the airspeed and the sink rate at the point by the square root of the wing loading factor. :

oo

For example, consider a glider with a sink rate of 2.3 knots and a weight of 1,000 pounds at an airspeed of 70 knots. If the wing loading is increased by a factor of 1.4 (for instance, by increasing the weight to 1,400 pounds), the new airspeed will be 70 knots multiplied by the square root of 1.4 (about 1.18), which is 82.6 knots, and the new sink rate will be 2.3 knots multiplied by the square root of 1.4, or 2.7 knots. |

3333333333333

Section 4.5

Performance 50

70 x14 = 82.6 Knots

| ccececceccececcc

40

30

Ob

so] 90

100

110

120

by

the circle.

= 2.7 Knots

Rate

Sink

Airspeed (Knots) 70 60 50

ONO

©

10

2

e

Figure 4.13 A load factor of 1 4 moves the point marked Note that the point moves along the glide ratio line. —-

ty

the

square

to the point 1marked

Notice that the glide ratio stays the same, since both the sink rate airspeed were multiplied by the same value.

and the

To determine the entire polar curve for a different wing loading, we simply

multiply airspeed and sink values from the original polar by the square root of the ratio ofthe wing loadings. If we do this for enough points, we can plot the polar for the new wing loading, as shown in Figure: 4.14.

30

40

Airspeed (Knots) 60 50 70

80

90

100

110

120

cceccececececcecececececceceeccecececcececececccecccec

WN

(Knots)

Hh

Rate

ONO;

Sink

© -h

o

Figure 4.14 — Increasing the wing loading moves each point on the polar down, and to the right. To determine how much, multiply the airspeed and sink rate values for each data point by the square root of the ratio of the new wing loading to the old wingloading.

Performance 51

-

Section 4.5

Ld

Competition and cross-country pilots often use ballast to increase their speed. If they were to just fly faster without the ballast, they would pay a high price in decreased performance. |

The ballast also comes with a price, however. The extra weight makes it harder for the glider to climb because it must fly faster, which increases its minimum sink rate, and increases the size of the circles flies, which makes it harder to stay in small thermals. The glider also becomes less maneuverable because the ballast is carried as water in the wings, which causes the roll rate to be slower than when the wings are empty. Usually, is not worth carrying ballast unless the expected climb rate at least 4 or 5 knots.

it

it

is

Altitude Lost During a ~

EE

Turn

The altitude lost during a turn is the product of the minimum sink rate (which depends on the load factor) and the time required to complete the turn. Both the

turn rate and the load factor increase with increasing bank angle. High bank angles will result in a high turn rate, but with a high sinkrate. Low bank angles will result in a low sink rate, but at a low turn rate. A graph of the resulting altitude lost in a 360° turn as a function of bank angle is shown in Figure 4.15. 140 120

2223273333315232323333I333I323I33I332322323232232232222)

100 (Feet)

Lost

Altitude

80

60 40 20.

10

20

30

40

60

50

70

80

Bank Angle (Degrees) |

Figure 4.15 — Altitude lost as a function of bank angle for a 360° turn ( calculated for a Grob 103)

The minimum loss in altitude occurs at a 45° bank angle. You can see from the graph that between bank angles of 30 to 60°, the altitude lost during the turn only varies by a small amount. At angles less than 30°, or greater than 60°, the altitude loss increases rapidly. Section 4.5

:

Performance 52

—-—

ccc ~

CHAPTER

5:

FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

AND SYSTEMS The airspeed indicator, the altimeter, the variometer, the yaw string, and the

compass are your primary tools for tracking the glider’s position and movement through the air. Because of their crucial role, is important that you understand how these instruments work and how you should interpret the information they Go

it

provide.

:

Several secondary instruments may also prove useful in particular situations. When flying over unfamiliar terrain, a Very high frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR) receiver or Global Positioning System (GPS) unit may come in handy to provide navigation assistance. For motor-gliders that are permitted to fly in clouds, gyroscopic instruments such as an attitude indicator, a turn coordinator, or a turn and slip indicator are required. |

Additionally, many modern gliders are equipped with other flight systems, such as radios, emergency locator transmitters, and oxygen systems. In this chapter, you will learn about the various flight instruments and systems that you may encounter a glider.

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The Atmosphere

Most of the primary flight instruments use properties of the atmosphere to provide information about the glider’s speed, altitude, and vertical movement. In order to understand how these instruments work, we need to first understand the atmosphere. |

Properties of the Atmosphere Air has weight. The higher you are in the atmosphere, the less air there is on top of you pressing down. Therefore, the pressure in the atmosphere decreases as you increase your altitude. Air is also compressible, meaning that it will change in density and volume as the pressure changes. If you raise a parcel of air, it will expand because of the decreasing pressure, and its density will decrease. The temperature of any compressible gas will increase as the pressure is increased, and decrease as the pressure is decreased. These processes are called adiabatic heating and cooling. You have probably noticed this effect if you have ever used a spray can. The can gets colder as you use it. This is because the

pressure in the can decreases as you let the contents out, and the decrease in pressure causes the decrease in temperature. The opposite effect can be observed Flight Instruments and Systems

53

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Section 5.1

2220)

when using a bicycle pump. As you work the pump, you will notice it warming up because the air inside is being compressed. ~~

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The same effects apply to the atmosphere. As the pressure decreases with altitude, the temperature decreases. The Standard Atmosphere The actual atmosphere can be quite chaotic, with the temperature and pressure varying considerably with location and altitude. To provide a common reference with which to compare aircraft performance, the Standard Atmosphere was defined. At sea level, the standard temperature is 59° F (15° C), and the standard pressure is 29.92 in. Hg (inches of mercury). |

Since temperature and pressure change with altitude, standard lapse rates were also defined. (A lapse rate is the change in a value with altitude.) |

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As Figure 5.1 shows, the standard pressure decreases nearly linearly from sea level up to about 10,000 feet. The pressure lapse rate in this range is roughly -1.0 in. Hg per 1,000 feet increase in altitude. Section 5.1

Flight Instruments and

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The standard temperature lapse rate is linear from sea level up to 35,000 feet. The

temperature lapse rate is -3.6° F per 1,000 feet increase in altitude. Above 35,000 feet, the standard temperature is constant at -70°

F.

|

|

Keep in mind that the real atmosphere is never standard. There are always variations in temperature and pressure due to weather.

Measuring Pressure Pressure is the force that air exerts over an area. Still air has an associated ambient pressure that results from the weight of the air above it. Moving air, when brought to a stop, has additional pressure that results from its kinetic energy. The ambient pressure is called the static pressure. The combination of the ambient pressure and the “kinetic” pressure is called the total or pitot pressure.

Flight Instruments and Systems

55

Section 5.1

Static

Pitot

Pressure Figure 5.3

Pressure

- Measuring static and pitot pressure.

Static pressure is determined by measuring the pressure of the air without disturbing the airflow. Typically, a pair of small static ports, which are usually less than 1/8" inch in diameter, are located on either side of the fuselage. Using

two ports helps to average out any errors that might be caused flying perfectly straight through the air.

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Pitot pressure is normally measured using a pitot tube. A pitot tube points into ‘the flow, that the airflow is brought to a stop at the mouth of the tube. The pitot tube is usually located on the vertical stabilizer or in the nose of the glider. Pitot pressure is never less than static pressure.

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|

5.2 Primary Instruments

Altimeter The altimeter measures the static pressure. Since the static pressure changes with altitude, the altimeter can be calibrated to display the height the glider above a given level. Usually, this level is chosen to be mean sea level (MSL). :

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How it Works A schematic of an altimeter is shown in Figure 5.4. The altimeter consists of an aneroid barometer, or bellows, which is sealed so that no air can flow into or out of it. This bellows is located inside a sealed case that is connected to the static

pressure ports on the glider. When altitude increases, the static pressure decreases, and the bellows expands, driving the indicating pointers through a : series of gears.

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Section 5.2

Flight Instruments

56

and Systems

|

Static Pressure

Figure 5.4

—

Altimeter schematic

Of course, the altimeter will not function correctly if the static ports are blocked or clogged. Reading the Altimeter cccccccceccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

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Most altimeters have three pointers. The large pointer indicates hundreds feet, the middle pointer indicates thousands of feet, and the small pointer indicates feet. tens of thousands

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9,500 feet Figure 5.5

—

10,500 feet

14,500 feet

Reading the altimeter

Adjusting the Altimeter Since weather systems will cause the pressure to change, the altimeter is equipped with an adjustment knob that can be used to set it for current atmospheric conditions. This knob can be seen in Figure 5.6 on the lower left corner of the altimeter. Notice also the Kollsman window on the right side of the altimeter Flight Instruments and Systems

57

Section 5.2

where the number 29.9 is indicated. This is the sea level barometric pressure in inches of mercury. Kollsman Window

Adjustment Knob IIIIIDIDIIIIIIIIIIIIDIDIDIIIIIIIIIIIDIDIIIIID

Figure 5.6

—

The altimeter

Federal Aviation Regulations require that below 18,000 feet, you set the altimeter to the current reported setting from a station located within 100 nautical miles of the aircraft. If no station report is available, you can set the altimeter to the elevation of the departure airport. If you have been flying for a long time or over a long distance, the atmospheric pressure will probably have changed, so you should obtain a new pressure setting from a ground station if you need to know your precise altitude.

Above 18,000 feet, you should set the altimeter to 29.92 in. Hg. (Note: you should only fly above this altitude while in a “wave window, or with Air Traffic Control clearance.) If all pilots in a given area have their altimeter set the same, temperature and pressure variations will affect all the altimeters the same, so that separation between aircraft can be maintained. Altimeter Errors Clearly, if the atmospheric pressure changes, the altimeter reading will be affected. If you think of the atmosphere as a layer of constant density but varying thickness, is easy to see how different pressures affect the altimeter. Where the layer is thick, the pressure is high, and where the layer is thin, the pressure is low. (While technically incorrect, this assumption greatly simplifies the discussion, while not detracting from its applicability.)

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Remember, the altimeter measures pressure, which is essentially the weight of the air above you. It doesn’t so much measure how high you are above sea level as how far you are below the “top” of the atmosphere.

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Section 5.2

Flight Instruments and Systems

58 DJ)

Now consider the glider in Figure 5.7. At the first position, on the left, the glider is at an altitude of A; above sea level and a distance D below the top of the still a distance D below the top of atmosphere. At position 2, since the glider the atmosphere, the altitude indicated on the altimeter will be the same as in position 1. However, the true altitude, A,, will be less.

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High

Pressure

"Top" of

Atmosphere

Low

Pressure

Figure 5.7 — Flying from high to low pressure. The altimeter will read the same indicated altitude long as you are at the same distance below the “top” of the atmosphere. Your true altitude, however, will decrease.

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In other words, when you fly from high pressure to low pressure, your true altitude will be less than the indicated altitude. The saying “High to low, watch out below” is a way to help remember this phenomenon. The glider following the dotted line in the figure will have a constant indicated altitude, even though the true altitude is decreasing. Since gliders always fly with visual reference to the ground, this should not cause you to run into terrain, but can cause you to land short of your goal you think you have more altitude than you actually do.

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Now let's assume that our hypothetical atmosphere has constant pressure and is thus a layer of constant thickness. If we heat the atmosphere, it will get less dense. This means that the layer would bulge up where it was heated, as shown in Figure 5.8. If you are flying from an area of high temperature to one of low temperature in this ideal atmosphere, the ratio of your distance from the top of the atmosphere, D, to your true altitude, A, will remain constant. This is a bit different from the case of flying from high to low pressure. In that case, no matter what your starting altitude, you will have flown the same curve as you would fly going from high to low pressure. Furthermore, in this case the lower you are in the atmosphere, the less the temperature will affect your true altitude. At the surface, you would not notice any difference in indicated altitude if you traveled from point 1 to point 2.

Flight Instruments and Systems

59

Section 5.2

Warm Air

Cool Air

Figure 5.8

—

Flying from warm

to cool

air

Suppose that standard conditions exist halfway between the warm and cool air areas in Figure 5.8. Where the air is warmer than standard conditions, the true altitude will be greater than the indicated altitude; where the air is cooler, the true altitude will be less than the indicated altitude. Altitude Definitions We have already used two different definitions of altitude. True altitude is the distance from the glider to mean sea level (MSL). Indicated altitude is the value

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shown on the altimeter. There are several other altitude definitions that you should be aware of:

Absolute altitude is the vertical distance from the glider to the ground. This is the difference between the true altitude and the elevation of the ground. equal Absolute altitude is what you use when calculating how far you can glide.

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the Pressure altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere where pressure the where In is standard altitude atmosphere, pressure same as always you are. equal to indicated altitude. (Of course, in the standard atmosphere all altimeters are always set to 29.92 in. Hg). To determine what the pressure altitude is at your location, just set the altimeter to 29.92 in. Hg. Density altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere where the air density is the same as the density where you are. The performance of an aircraft is often stated as a function of density altitude. On a hot day at high altitude, the density altitude would be very high. On a cold day at sea level, the density altitude would be low. The density altitude is the pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature.

Section 5.2

Flight Instruments and Systems

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Plotted sounding data

Weather for Soaring 118

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The temperature is plotted with circles connected by the black line. The dew point is plotted with squares connected by the gray line. Notice that the dew point curve and the temperature curve nearly intersect at the 600 mb and 700 mb levels. As we learned earlier, when the dew point and temperature are the same, condensation forms. From this plot, we can assume that there will be a layer of clouds between 9,900 feet and 13,800 feet. Lapse Rate Lines

Now we want to know what will happen when a parcel of air changes altitude. This is where the dotted lines come in. The dotted lines show the dry adiabatic lapse rate, the saturated adiabatic lapse rate, and the dew point lapse rate, as shown in Figure 6.38.

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) >) Figure 6.48 — A down-burst made visible by dust on the desert floor. The diameter of the front is on the order of a few miles.

The down-burst shown in Figure 6.48 was not visible until it hit the ground, kicking up dust. The down-burst hit the ground and spread out to form the gust

front.

Hail is created when frozen rain travels up and down through a thunderstorm, carried by strong up and down drafts. It builds up in size until it is too heavy and falls from the cloud. Hail can sometimes come out of the top or the side of a Section 6.9

Weather for Soaring 128

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cloud, having been lofted there by strong updrafts. Hail can damage gliders (and pilots) in the air or on the ground. If you encounter hail in the air, slow down if possible to minimize the impact speed. You should alsoturn around and head away from the area. oo |

If you have been flying at high altitudes, the outside air temperature, and therefore the temperature of your glider, can easily be well below freezing. If you encounter rain, can instantly freeze to your glider. You are more likely to meet these conditions near thunderstorms. An ice-covered glider is heavy and has

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very poor aerodynamic performance.

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Heavy precipitation, low-level clouds, and blowing dust and debris can all lower the visibility around a thunderstorm. Any time thatvisibility is low, is easier to get disoriented and possibly lose control of your glider. Poor visibility makes it difficult to navigate, and can make finding an airport or suitable landing field problematic.

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Lightning is a hazard that is always associated with a thunderstorm. Without lightning, there is no thunder! Lightning often follows the path of the falling rain, but can also shoot out the side of a cloud, often traveling significant distances. Lightning has damaged and destroyed gliders in the air. The danger lightning should not be underestimated. Remember continue to take precautions against lightning once you are on the ground.

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Multi-Cell Thunderstorms |

Sometimes the down draft from one thunderstorm can trigger a new one. As a multi-cell ‘thunderstorm moves along, it sucks up unstable air into its leading edge. The air travels through the thunderstorm into a mature cell, and then is dumped out the back through a dissipating cell. A multi-cell thunderstorm, also referred to as a steady-state thunderstorm, can last for hours and travel hundreds of miles.

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|

Squall Line

A squall line is a non-frontal narrow band of thunderstorms. Squall lines can extend over many, many miles, making it impossible to detour around. If a squall line is approaching, it is best to get your glider on the ground and tied down well before it arrives. Squall lines are usually comprised of multi-cell thunderstorms and present the most intense hazard to all aircraft. cca

Predicting Thunderstorms Two indices commonly used to forecast the likelihood and severity of thunderstorms are the K-Index (KI) and the Lifted Index (LI). These indices use the

temperature and dew point data from the morning sounding.

A table of K-Index values and the corresponding probability of thunderstorm development is : shown in Figure 6.49. The K-Index forecasts the probability of thunderstorms. |

Weather

for Soaring 129

|

Section 6.9

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|

K-Index

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Figure 6.49

—

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The Lifted Index forecasts thunderstorm severity, if one were to occur. If the KIndex is very low, but the Lifted Index is less than -6, there is a slight chance that a thunderstorm would form, but if it did, it would probably be a strong one. A table of Lifted Index values and the corresponding thunderstorm severity is oo shown in the Figure 6.50. |

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Having access to a measured or forecast sounding and knowing how to interpret a skew-T/log-P diagram, you should have a very good idea of whether thunderstorms are likely to form. You should use the K- and Lifted Indices to confirm your own interpretation. Heeding the Warning Signs If you suspect that thunderstorms are possible, get informed. Examine sounding data and remain alert. It doesn’t take much time for a thunderstorm to develop from an innocent-looking cumulus cloud. If you notice any signs that the cloud starting to overdevelop, it is wise to leave. If you you are thermaling under clouds that notice neighboring are towering or forming anvils, is wise to leave. If you notice lightning from any clouds in the area, the best time to leave has

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6.10 Ridge Soaring Weather

To have ridge lift, you simply need a ridge with the wind blowing roughly rpendicular to it. The ridge deflects the wind up, creating a zone of lift on the upwind face of the ridge. |

|

Section 6.10 |

Weather for Soaring 130

Figure 6.51

— Ridge lift is created when the wind is deflected over a ridge. |

For ridge lift to be usable, the wind needs to be at least 10 to 15 knots. Source winds for ridge lift can come from the flow into areas of low pressure, or out of areas of high pressure, or from a local sea breeze. When trying to predict whether winds will be favorable for ridge lift, remember

that friction with the ground reduces the Coriolis effect, so that low-level air flows almost directly into a low, and away from a high. The higher the ridge, the less this will be a factor.

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The stability of the atmosphere can greatly affect the development of ridge lift. If the atmosphere is too stable, air will have a hard time climbing over the ridge, and will instead find every way it can to flow through the low points and gaps in the ridge. If the atmosphere is unstable, the air that is lifted by the ridge will continue to climb and produce thermals above the ridge crest.

6.11 Wave Soaring Weather Mountain wave lift is created when winds aloft interact with low-level winds that have been displaced by terrain features. Wave provides some of the strongest, smoothest, highest, and widest-spread lift you will find. Wave flying also presents a unique set of hazards, which are covered in Lesson 7.2, Mountain Wave, of the Flight Training Manual for Gliders. |

Understanding Mountain Wave

|

|

|

lift are more complicated than Conn

The conditions required for good mountain wave

those for thermal or

ridge

lift.

Simplified Mountain Wave

Let's start out by considering the simple situation of a wind blowing over an isolated mountain ridge, as shown in Figure 6.52. The wind speed does not change with altitude, as shown by the wind profile on the left side of the figure. Weather for Soaring 131

Section 6.11

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Figure 6.52 ~ A stable air mass that flows over a mountain ridge will form a wave that quickly decays.

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If the air mass stable, it will be deflected up by the mountain, and then descend behind it. Inertia will cause the air to descend past the equilibrium point. Some vertical oscillation will occur, but the wave motion will soon decay as it gets further downwind of the mountain. The effect the mountain has on the airflow directly above it decreases with increasing altitude. Notice that the air is moving through the wave, but the wave itself is not moving with respect to the moun-

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Wave Amplification

lift

can be explained How this small perturbation can turn into mountain wave examining a familiar process, the formation of waves on water. See Figure by 6.53, which shows a wind blowing over a “bump” in a body of water. Because the stream lines are compressed at point B, the local velocity will be greater there than at point A. |

Lower

Pressure

~~

Figure 6.53 — Air deflected by a wave of water speeds up from A to B, which causes lower pressure at B and pulls the surface of the wave up.

Section 6.11

|

:

Weather for Soaring 132

|

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When air speeds up, its pressure decreases (as described by Bernoulli's equation). Therefore, the pressure at B will be lower than at A. This will have the effect of lifting the high part of the wave even higher. Instead of water, imagine that Figure 6.53 represents two bodies of air, the one on top less dense than the one below. If the air above is flowing faster than the air below, the same mechanisms will come into play, amplifying the wave. Imagine further that on top of this layer is yet another layer with an even higher wind speed. This layer will lift both layers below it even higher, as shown in Figure 6.54.

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Figure 6.54

—

Wind that increases with altitude will amplify a wave.

Now imagine an infinite number of layers of air. You can see that so long as the wind speed increases with altitude, the wave will continue to grow. Conditions for Mountain Wave

Now let's look at the conditions necessary for a mountain wave. First, the is lifted by a mountain, it will try to atmosphere must be stable so that when return to its previous level, setting up a wave motion. Second, the wind speed must increase with altitude, so that the wave can be amplified as we just described. When these conditions are met, a flow pattern similar to the one shown in Figure 6.55 will be produced.

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Weather for Soaring 133

Section 6.11

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Figure 6.55 — Wind speed increasing with altitude amplifies the wave ig pattern initiated by the mountain ridge.

Notice that with altitude, the wave is amplified asthe wind speed increases, and dies off quickly as the wind speed drops. Often, the wave will “lean” into the wind, with the area of best lift on top of, or even in front of the mountain ridge.

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it travels further downwind. However, In general, the wave will decay 10 unusual for a wave to survive for or 20 oscillations.

it is not

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The circular pattern below each wave peak iscalled rotor. The rotor is created by the interaction of the wave with the ground. Therotor has lift on its upwind

edge and sink on its downwind edge. The rotors in Figure 6.55 would be rotating clockwise. While the air in wave lift is very smooth, the air in rotors can contain turbulence severe enough to damage a glider.

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perpendicular, or nearly so, The strongest waves are created by winds that blow the mountain needs to be at to a mountain ridge. The wind speed at the top of least 15 to 20 knots for wave to form. The wavelength (the distance between the peaks of the wave) can vary from 2 to 20 miles.EEIt decreases with increasing LE stability of the atmosphere. |

Terrain Effects

of

mountain wave. Long, Terrain is rarely ideally suited to the formation the mountain prevailing wind direction straight, steep ranges perpendicular to are best. Consecutive mountain ridges can amplify or reduce wave depending on the wavelength of the flow and the distance separating the ridges. Individual peaks, branching ridges, and curving ridges all complicate the flow pattern.

Section 6.11

Weather for Soaring 134

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Clouds Associated with Mountain Wave There are three main cloud types associated with mountain wave. These are the lenticular cloud, the roll cloud, and the cap cloud. Often, however, the sky can be completely clear and blue when wave lift is present. Lenticular Clouds

Lenticular clouds, often called lennies, are the classic indicator of mountain wave. Lenticular clouds form when rising in a wave is cooled adiabatically to the dew point. As the air continues through the cloud and begins to descend, warms up, and the cloud evaporates. Often, is below freezing at the altitude where lenticulars form, so that the cloud consists of ice crystals. Since these take longer to evaporate than liquid water, the clouds may have a tail made of ice crystals extending from their trailing edge.

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Figure 6.56

—

Clouds associated with mountain wave

Lenticular clouds may form at more than one level. “Stacked” lennies are caused by multiple bands of moist air at different altitudes. Foehn Gap

A down slope flow that is warmed by adiabatic heating is referred to as a foehn flow. The foehn flow on the downwind side of a wave often creates a gap between lenticular clouds. However, if the amount of moisture in the air mass increases, the foehn gap may close up. This can be a particular problem for the glider pilot soaring above the clouds!

Figure 6.57 — Foehn gap between lenticular clouds

Weather for Soaring 135

Section 6.11

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When you soar above lenticular clouds, you should keep a close eye on the foehn gap. You should always have a plan in case the gap starts to close. Flying through the clouds is never a good idea. Even if you don’t hit the ground before coming out of the clouds, you may fly into the rotor or become disoriented and unable to control your glider. |

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Figure 6.58

—

Closed foehn gap

Roll Clouds

Roll clouds only form if there is sufficient moisture at lower altitudes. Two factors contribute to their formation. First, the leading edge of a rotor consists of contains to rising air, which can cool to the dew point, causing the water vapor of low the motion condense. Second, a rotor creates spinning pressure at its center, further lowering the temperature. A roll cloud can take many forms. Some roll clouds look like a long cumulus with a flat bottom, while others look like a solid cylinder on its side. Often the cloud on the descending side of a rotor is shaggy and broken.

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Figure 6.59

—

Isolated roll cloud

A classic example of an isolated roll cloud is shown in Figure 6.59. Notice how the glider is higher than the cloud. This would not be the case if the cloud were a

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cumulus.

Section 6.11

Weather for Soaring 136

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Cap Cloud

A cloud can form which covers, or “caps”, the mountain creating the wave. The cap cloud can obscure the mountain top. Often, rotor clouds and cap clouds form simultaneously, since they both require moisture in the lower levels of the

atmosphere.

6.12 Convergence Lift

When two streams of air come together, one or both of them must deflect up. We have already discussed examples of convergence, such as when two air masses meet at a front. When we talk of convergence lift for soaring purposes, we tend to be interested in smaller air masses rather than large-scale fronts. Terrain has a large influence on convergence lift, often steering air masses into one another. As with all forms of lift, if enough moisture is present, convergence zones can be marked by clouds. Sea Breeze Fronts As discussed earlier, sea breeze fronts are mini-cold fronts that travel inland from cool coastal waters. These air masses can be a few hundred to a few thousand feet deep. If a weather system is producing an off-shore flow, the sea breeze and the flow can collide, leading to a convergence zone. ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

Especially on the west coast of the United States, sea breezes fronts travel many miles inland, helped along by the prevailing westerly winds. Often, mountainous terrain creates obstacles to this flow. Since the sea air is cool and dense, it will tend to stick to the valleys instead of climbing over hills and mountains. A common occurrence is for two sea breezes originating in different locations to converge once they infiltrate an inland valley. This can happen when cool sea air spills through gaps in a coastal mountain range, as shown in Figure 6.60.

Figure 6.60

—

Inland valley sea breeze convergence

Weather for Soaring 137

Section 6.12

Here one sea breeze has found a gap to the north, another to the south. As the sea breez es fill in the valley, they collide, forming a convergence.

Mountai n Lee Convergence

as

A sea bre eze may split into two separate streams it travels around a mountain. The two streams can then reunite in a convergence zone on the lee side (i.e., downwind side) of the mountain. An example of this is shown in Figure 6.61. This type of convergence can also occur when a stable air mass not associated with a se a breeze is split by a mountain.

Stable Win

Figure 6.61 — A stable wind, such as a sea breeze, split by a mountain reunites behind it, creating a mountain lee convergence zone.

Mountain Top Convergence

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Often the best lift is found almost directly over a mountain or ridge top. This especially true if the sun is shining on the downwind side of the mountain, causing a thermal to develop.

Figure 6.62 — Mountain top convergence between a thermal and the prevailing wind

Section 6.12

Weather for Soaring 138

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The thermal and the prevailing wind converge at the peak of the mountain, intensifying the lift.

Valley Convergence When the sun gets low in the sky at the end of the day, the ground starts to cool off. The insulating effect of denser at the lower altitudes causes the valleys to cool off more slowly than the mountain tops. The cool air sinks down the sides of the mountains, converging in the valley, as shown in Figure 6.63.

air

— Valley convergence occurs when cool air descends down the sides of a valley, meeting at the bottom.

Figure 6.63

is

This usually a very weak convergence, but it can sometimes be strong enough to kick off the day’s last thermal, or perhaps extend your final glide back to the

airport.

ccccccccccccecccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

6.13 Predicting Soaring Weather It is easy to explain the conditions that produce a great soaring day after the fact. What is harder, and much more rewarding, to be able to predict an epic soaring

is

day.

Scale and Timing of Weather Events The process of determining when weather will be favorable for soaring requires that you consider the timing and scale of weather events. When you are looking for a good day to go soaring a week or so in advance, you will be looking at large-scale features such as frontal boundaries and pressure systems. A couple of days ahead, you will be interested in air mass stability and moisture content. The day of a soaring flight, you will mainly be looking at the lapse rate, predicted

high temperature, dew point, and winds.

Sample Predictions Let’s look at an example of how we can forecast soaring weather using the series of forecast weather maps shown in Figure 6.64.

Weather for Soaring +

139

Section 6.13

One Forecast ‘Da Sas SE Figure 6.64

—

ay Two Forecast

Three Forecast

Sample weather forecasts

First, assume that the gliderport is marked by the X near the center of each map. Second, notice the symbols for thermal £2, ridge —~—, and wave lift that have been added to the maps. (If I were in charge of things, all weather maps would have soaring weather symbols!) The forecast calls for a low-pressure move through the area, from the northwest to the southeast, passing system just north of the gliderport on day two.

~~

to

Day One

I0I02I39I39I39I3I39I99I3I9I3I9I3I9I3I3II39I3939I3999290

Forecast

On day one, the gliderport will probably be experiencing warm weather, with perhaps moderate lift, depending on the stability and moisture content of the air. current sounding indicates much moisture, day one will probably be If the plagued by high cirrus or stratus as the warm front moves in, cutting down on thermal development. Since the upper-level winds to the west of the gliderport will come from west to east, and the air mass behind the warm front should be stable, there will be a of wave on the east side of the mountain range to the west of the possibility gliderport.

North of the gliderport, just to the east of the low, surface winds will be blowing from the east. This creates a possibility for ridge lift on the east side of the ridge in this area. Day Two

Forecast

a

the low is forecast to have moved directly north of the gliderport. The cool air behind the cold front should provide good thermal soaring to the

On day west.

Ridge lift is possible east and west of the low, on the west side of the ridge to the west and on the east side of the ridge to the east. The air behind the cold front will most likely be too unstable to support wave. However, there may still be some wave present in the warm air to the southeast of the gliderport. JDJ

Section 6.1 3

Weather for Soaring 140

2)

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Day Three Forecast This will probably be the best day of the three for thermal soaring. A wide area of cool, unstable air behind the front just waiting to be heated up and turned into strong thermals with nice cumulus clouds marking their position.

is

There may be some ridge lift on the west side of the slopes just to the east of the: gliderport. |

Practicing Forecasts The best way get better at forecasting soaring weather to practice. Get in the habit of looking at weather maps everyday and figure out when you think there will be good soaring weather. Then, look at the measured soundings and see if you were right.

to

is

cacccacc

cca

Weather for Soaring 141

Section 6.13

cee

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

Section 6.13

Weather for Soaring 142

CHAPTER

7:

AVIATION WEATHER

SERVICES

The Federal Aviation Administration coordinates the delivery of aviation

weather services to pilots to assist them in making flight-related decisions. ‘Weather data is obtained from several different government agencies, including the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and National Weather Service (NWS), as well as private companies working under contract to the federal government. CCCCCCeeeeeeCeeeeeceecceececc.

In this chapter, you will learn about the different weather products available to pilots, how to interpret them, and how to access them. This chapter does not attempt to cover all of the weather services accessible to pilots, but only those that are of interest to glider pilots.

a.

While other sources of weather data are available, pilots should be cautious when using unfamiliar products, or products not supported by FAA/NWS technical specifications. This chapter only covers weather products provided by the FAA.

oo

7.1 Types of Weather Information

The FAA has identified the following three distinct types of weather information that may be needed to conduct aircraft operations: observations, analyses, and forecasts.

B

a.

Observations Observations are raw weather data collected by sensors. The observations can either be taken at the surface or using airborne sensors (i.e., sounding balloons) or remote sensors (i.e., weather radars, satellites, profilers).

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Analyses Analyses of weather information are an enhanced depiction and/or interpretation of observed weather data. Examples of analyses include the charting of such things as the location of fronts, cloud coverage, or flight category on a weather map. Forecasts Forecasts are the predictions of the development and/or movement of weather phenomena based on meteorological observations and various mathematical models.

7.2 Accessing Weather Services There are three main ways that you can

your radio while in the air, or over the

access weather services: online, using

telephone.

cca

Aviation Weather Services 143

Section 7.2

Online Aviation Weather Center (AWC) All of the weather products described in this chapter can be found on the Aviation Weather Center website, at www.aviationweather.gov. The website provides a tutorial that can be found under the ABOUT tab in the “Help” section. Users can extensively customize how information is presented on this site. All of the descriptions given in the following material assume that the

default configuration is being used.

:

EN

|

As the weather products in the following section are described, you will learn where to find them on the AWC website. For each of the products, there is an

“Info” button in the upper right corner where you can get more information about the product. |

|

oo

Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA) The Graphical Forecasts for Aviation is a relatively new web-based tool that became operational on October 10, 2017. The GFA is intended to provide aviation weather information to give users a complete picture of the weather that may impact flight in the continental United States. It presents much of the same material as the AWC website, but in a different format. The last section in this

chapter gives an overview of how to use the GFA.

=

EE

Radio

233231325251522232322232332322327322322220022322222222J22D

You can listen to your radio in-flight to access recorded weather observations at

airports equipped with observation systems, or find out about any hazardous weather using the Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory Service. You can also speak with a Flight Service Station (FSS) to get up to date weather information.

Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS) and Automated Surface Observation System (ASOS) These systems consist of various sensors, a processor, a computer-generated voice subsystem, and a transmitter that broadcasts local, minute-by-minute weather data directly to the pilot. AWOSs and ASOSs transmit a computer-generated voice over discrete VHF radio frequencies or the voice portion of a local NAVAID. AWOS and ASOS reports typically include the location and time of the

observation, the altimeter setting, the wind speed and direction, the density altitude, the visibility, the ceiling and sky cover, and information on current precipitation. The ASOS is an improved version of the AWOS and provides slightly more information.

on sectionals (see Chapter 12: the Charts and respective airport's data. Most Navigation) below Aeronautical AWOS sites also have a dial-up capability so that current weather information can be accessed via telephone. Their numbers can be found in the Chart Supplement (see Chapter 10: Flight Publications). AWOS and ASOS frequencies are printed

Section 7.2

Aviation Weather Services 144

Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) HIWAS is a national program for broadcasting hazardous weather information continuously over selected Navigational Aids (NAVAIDs). These broadcasts are only a summary of the information, and pilots can contact an FSS for detailed information. NAVAIDs that broadcast HIWAS have an “H’* in a circle in the upper right-hand corner of the communications box, as shown in figure 7.1 for the Mina VOR. HIWAS would be broadcast on a frequency of 115.1 in this area.

Figure

7.1

—-

NAVAID (Mina VOR) that transmits HIWAS

The HIWAS broadcast area is defined as the area within 150 NM of HIWAS outlets. The service is provided 24 hours a day. Hazardous weather information is recorded if it is occurring within the HIWAS broadcast area. An announcement is made for no hazardous weather advisories. ccccccccccccceccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

NOTE: In July of 2018, the FAA started considering discontinuing HIWAS. Flight Service Station (FSS) You can contact an FSS using your radio while airborne to request current weather updates. The FSS frequencies can be found on a sectional (see Chapter 12: Aeronautical Charts and Navigation). The procedures for speaking with an FSS are covered in Chapter 13: Radio Communications).

Telephone - Preflight Weather Briefing A preflight weather briefing is an individual report tailored to your specific flight. It is given over the telephone by a specialist at an FSS, AFSS, or the NWS. To obtain a weather briefing call 1-800-WX BRIEF from anywhere in the United States. Later in this chapter, you will learn the process used for obtaining a weather briefing.

7.3 Weather Service Products In this section, you will learn about the different weather products that are of interest to glider pilots. You will be given a description of the product, an explanation for how to decipher its meaning, an example of the product, and

instructions on where the product can be obtained.

Aviation Weather Services 145

Section 7.3

+ Surface

Prognostic Chart

The Surface Prognostic Chart displays the forecast positions and characteristics of pressure systems, fronts, and precipitation.

tab

You can find this chart on the AWC website under the FORECAST in the 7.2. shown will in Figure then need to scroll down You “Prog Charts’ section, as to the bottom of the page and click on the “Surface Plot” image to see the Surface

Prognostic Chart.

Map) Figure 7.2

Accessing the Surface Prognostic Chart

DIIDIIDIDIIIIDIDIIIDIIIIIDIIIIDIDIIIIDIIIDIDIIIIIDII

An example of a Surface Prognostic Chart is shown in Figure 7.3. Notice the navigation bar at the top that allows you to access different forecast periods. WPC Surface Prog Charts

Home] [Prog

Time: (4)

vr —-Cold

Warm

Figure 7.3

—

Fronts

oC eee Occluded

Stationary

Trough

Pressure

H

High

L

Low

(0000

UTC

High

Sat 29 Jun 20103) (3)

[id

Low

fig]

into]

[Enlarge

Weather Types

hs SORE Rain Snow Mix

Ice

T-Storm

Hurricane

Example of a Surface Prognostic Chart

DID

Section 7.3

Aviation Weather Services 146

DJ)

cececcececececceeecccecececcececcececcecceccecccceccccceccecc

A legend at the bottom of the Surface Prognostic Chart explains what the different symbols mean. In addition, you can click on the “Info” button on the upper right corner of the chart to get a complete description of the information

presented on the chart.

Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METAR) The METAR is a report of observed weather conditions. The report consists of the report type, the station indicator, the issuance time, a report modifier, the wind speed and direction, the visibility, the runway visual range, the current weather conditions, the cloud cover, the temperature, the altimeter setting, and any remarks.

a

|

METARs are provided in a coded format. This is a holdover from when

communication bandwidths were limited, and the abbreviated codes allowed for more information to be transmitted with fewer characters. However, the FAA still requires that you be able to decode the raw METARs. The METAR in Figure 7.4 shows

rr Fg «F

&i

the different groups that make up the report.

@

«®

FY 11

&

-

EF &

&

«&

»

>

©

7 |

I

&

Ni

&

&

TI

KPIT 0919552 COR 22015G25KT 3/4SM R28L/2600FT TSRA OVC010CB 18/16 A2992 RMK TSRAB24

METAR

IL

L

Figure 7.4

I

L

|

1

]

- METAR format

Report Type: METAR in this field indicates a normal, hourly report. SPECI indicates a special report. |

Station Indicator: Every station is identified by a four-letter code established by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). U.S. station codes always begin with the letter K. Issuance Time: The first two digits of this field are the day of the month. The last four are the time the report was issued, which is always given in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC, or Zulu time), as indicated by the Z at the end of the field.

Aviation Weather Services 147

Section 7.3

ID

ID ID

ID Modifier:

ID

~~ |

This field denotes whether the report was an automated (AUTO, AQ], or AO2) or corrected (COR) report.

a

ID

Wind:

ID

The wind is reported as a five-digit code (unless the wind exceeds 99 knots, in which case the code is six-digit). The first three digits indicate the wind direction from true north. the wind direction is variable, this field reads

ID

VRB.

If

ID ID

The last two (or three) digits indicate the wind speed in knots. If the wind is gusting, the letter G is followed by the peak gust.

ID

Visibility:

ID

i

The visibility is reported in statute miles, as denoted by the!letters SM.

ID

Runway Visual Range: (optional)

At times, the runway visual range will be reported. This field begins with the letter R, followed by the appropriate runway number and a forward slash. The visual range is then reported in feet.

(

This field is used to describe weather phenomena such as rain, hail, snow, drizzle, be used in this field. etc. Figure 7.5 lists the two-letter weather codes that

tmay

b

DZ Drizzle

BR Mist

RA Rain

FG Fog

SN

Snow

FU

Smoke

SG

Snow Grains

DU

Dust

SA Sand

Ice Crystals

Pellets

PL Ice GR

ID

ID

IDIDID

Weather: optional)

IC

ID

ID

1

d

~

ID

Hail

GS Small

Hailor

~~

ID ID

PO Dust/Sand

SQ Squalls "FC Funnel Cloud

~

+FC |

|

Tornado or

waterspout

HZ

Haze

SS

Sand Storm

PY

Spray

DS

Dust Storm

VA Volcanic Ash

EERE

Snow Pellets

UP

~

Unknown

IDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDID

Precipitation

Figure 7.5

—

Weather phenomena codes used in METARs

code and a The weather codes may be preceded by an intensity or vicinity descriptor code. The intensity codes are “+ for heavy, (no qualifier) for the moderate, and “~" for light. The code “VC” used to indicate weather

is

in

vicinity but not at the airport. The descriptor codesare given in Figure 7.6.

Section 7.3

.

Aviation Weather 148

Services PIP

MI

Shallow

SH Showers

Patches

TS Thunderstorm

BC

DR Low Drifting

FZ Freezing

BL Blowing

PR Partial

Figure 7.6 — Weather descriptor codes used in METARs

Clouds:

is

Information on clouds reported in the following order: amount, height, and type. The amount of cloud cover given using one of the codes shown in Figure 7.7.

is

CLR* or SKC Clear (0/8ths

cccccCccccccccccca

Coverage)

FEW Few (0/8ths to 2/8ths Coverage)

SCT Scattered (3/8ths to 4/8ths Coverage)

BKN

Broken (5/8ths to 7/8ths Coverage)

OVC Overcast (8/8ths Coverage) *Used in automated below 12,000 feet.

Figure 7.7

—

METAR

reports to

indicate sky clear

Cloud cover codes used in METARs

The height of the clouds is given by a three-digit code indicating the height

in

hundreds of feet above the ground. The type of cloud is indicated only in the case of towering cumulus (TCU) and cumulonimbus (CB) clouds.

|

While the ceiling is not specified in a METAR, for aviation purposes, it is defined as the height above the earth’s surface of the lowest broken or overcast layer (i.e., greater than 5/8ths sky coverage), or the vertical visibility into an obscuration. Temperature: |

The temperature and dew point are given in °C, separated by a forward slash. Altimeter Setting: The altimeter setting, in inches of mercury, is reported as a four-digit code preceded by the letter A. Remarks: ( optional) cea

The remarks section always begins with the letters RMK. A02 in the remarks section indicates that the site is automated and has a precipitation sensor, while A01 indicates the site does not have a precipitation sensor. ‘Remarks are limited to reporting operationally significant weather, the beginning and ending times of certain weather phenomena, and low-level wind shear of Aviation Weather Services 149

Section 7.3

ID ED

ID

significance to aircraft landing and taking off. Many different remarks can be included in this section, but Figure 7.8 lists the mainones of interest to glider pilots.

ID

GR_][size]

Hailstone Size (inches)

ID

VIRGA_[direction]

Virga

ID

[freq]_LTG-[type]

Lightning

~~

ID ID

Occasional

OCNL

FRQ CONS type:

Frequent

ID

Continuous

ID ID

|

CG

Cloud to Ground

CC

Cloud

CA

Cloud to Air

CLD_[direction]

ID

to Cloud

ID

Standing lenticular or rotor clouds

Figure 7.8 — Codes used in METAR remarks

i The full list of codes used in METARSscan be found in the Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 1.

|

METAR Examples

how they would be decoded. Following are some examples of METARs and 11012G18KT 15SM SKC 25/17 A3000

[METAR KINK 121845%

This is a standard METAR issued for Winkler County Airport (KINK) on the 12th of the month at 1845Z. The winds are from 110° true at 12 knots, gusting to 18 knots, with 15 statute miles visibility, clear skies, a temperature of 25°C and a dew point of 17°C. The altimeter setting is 30.00 in. Hg.

Section 7.3

ID ID ID ID IDID

ID ID ID IID

121854Z 13004KT 30SM SCT150 17/6 A3015

This is a standard METAR issued for Boise Air Terminal (KBOI) on the 12th of the month at 1854Z. The winds are from 130° true at 4 knots, with 30 statute miles visibility, scattered clouds at 15,000 feet, a temperature of 17°C and a dew of 6°C. The altimeter setting is 30.15 in. Hg. point

[METAR KLAX

ID

Towering Cumulus

~

METAR KBOI

ID

TCU_[direction]

freq:

|

ID

1218522 25004KT 6SM

|

BR

IDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDID

SCT007 SCT250 16/15 A2991

Aviation Weather Services 150

PII

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

This is a standard METAR issued for Los Angeles International Airport (KLAX) on the 12th of the month at 18527. The winds are from 250° true at 4 knots, with 6 statute miles visibility in mist, scattered clouds at 700 feet and 25,000 feet, a 15°C. The altimeter setting is 29.91 in. Hg. temperature of 16°C and a dew point

of

|

SPECT

RMDW

1218562 32005KT

1

1/2SM RA OVC007 17/16 A2980

RMK

RAB35

|

This is a special METAR issued for Chicago Midway Airport (KMDW) on the 12th of the month at 1856Z. The winds at KMDW are from 320° true at 5 knots, with 1.5 statute miles visibility in rain, overcast skies at 700 feet, a temperature of 17°C, and a dew point of 16°C. The altimeter setting is 29.80 in. Hg. The remark RAB35 indicates that rain began 35 minutes after the hour, at 1835Z.

|

SPECT KJFK

121853Z 18004KT 1/2SM

FG

R04/2200

OVC005

20/18 A3006

This is a special METAR issued for Kennedy International Airport (KJFK) on the 12th of the month at 1853Z. The winds are from 180° true at 4 knots, with 0.5 statute miles visibility in fog. The runway visibility range on runway 04 is 2,200 feet. The skies are overcast at 500 feet. The temperature is 20°C, and the dew point is 18°C. The altimeter setting is 30.06 in. Hg.

flight requires a minimum ceiling height of 1,000 feet AGL (above ground level) and visibility of at least 3 statute miles (5 miles when above 10,000 feet). In this example, only stations KINK, KBO], and KLAX are reporting VFR weather. VER

Accessing METARs

METARs can be accessed on the AWC website under the OBSERVATIONS tab, in the “METARs" section, as shown in Figure 7.9. You can drag and zoom the map to find the airport you are interested in. You can click on any station to see

the METAR data for that station.

iy: AVIATION WEATHER CENTER HOME

ADVISORIES

FORECASTS

OBSERVATIONS

TOOLS

HEWS

SEARCH

ABOUT

USER

valid a1 0429 UTC The 27 Jun 2018

Figure 7.9

—

Accessing METARs

NOTE: You can use the CONFIGURE tab to have the METARs decoded when you click on them. The data from each station is also displayed graphically. See the “Info” button on the METAR home page to get a description of the symbols used and their meaning. Aviation Weather Services 151

Section 7.3

|

RI

;

METAR: KSCK 2703552 AUTO 27012KT 10SM CLR 19/10 A2999 RMK AO2 SLP155 T01890100

Figure 7.10

-METAR

for Stockton Metro Airport

The example shown in Figure 7.10 is a standard METAR issued for Stockton Metro airport, on the 27th of the month at 3:55 Zulu. This was an automated report. The wind was from 270 degrees at 12 knots, and the visibility is 10 statute miles under clear skies. The temperature is 19°C, and the dew point is 10°C. The altimeter setting is 29.99 in. Hg.

Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) A TAF a report of forecasted weather. TAFs cover a 30-hour time period and are issued 4 times a day at 6-hour intervals. The forecast includes forecasted wind speed, wind direction, visibility, ceiling, type of precipitation (i.e., snow, rain, etc.), and/or weather phenomenon. Terminal

is

IIDI)I)I)IDI)IDIDIIIIIIDII)II)DIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIIIIDID

Each includes the ICAO station identifier, time and date of issuance, period of validity, and the body of the forecast. TAF

|

wo |

121818 20012KT 5SM HZ BKN030 PROB40 2022 1SM TSRA OVCO008CB 2200 33015G20KT P6SM BKN015 OVC025 PROB40 2202 3SM SHRA 0200 35012KT OVC008 PROB40 0205 2SM -RASN BECMG 0608 02008KT BKNO012 BECMG 1012 00000KT 3SM BR SKC TEMPO 1214 1/2SM FG 1600 VRBO6KT P6SM SKC=

KMEM

KOKC

:

Figure 7.11

11302 051212 14008KT 5SM BR BKN030 TEMPO 1316 1 1/2SM BR 1600 18010KT P6SM SKC BECMG 2224 20013G20KT 4SM SHRA 0OVCO020 PROB40 0006 2SM TSRA OVC008CB BECMG 0608 21015KT P6SM SCT040= —

TAF examples

TAF Examples

With a few exceptions, the coding used in a TAF is similar to that found in a METAR. But while a METAR has standard groups of codes that are included in all reports, in TAFs, the first three codes are standard, but the body of the forecast. forecast may contain a variety of codes based on the weather that

is

The TAF for KMEM in Figure 7.11 would be decoded as follows. KMEM

The ICAO code KMEM specifies that this TAF is for Memphis International Airport.

IID

1217202 121818 DDD

Section 7.3

Aviation Weather Services 152

DJ)

It was issued on the 12th of the month, at 1720Z, and is valid from 1800Z on the 12th to 1800Z on the 13th. 20012KT 5SM

HZ

BKN030

PROB40

2022 1SM TSRA

OVCO00SCB

When the forecast period begins, the winds will be from 200° at 12 knots. The visibility will be 5 statute miles in haze, with broken clouds at 3,000 feet. There is a 407% probability between the hours of 2000Z and 2200Z of 1 statute mile visibility, thunderstorms and rain, and an overcast layer 800 feet of cumulonimbus clouds. (Cumulonimbus are the only type of clouds forecast in a TAF.)

at

FM2200 33015G20KT P6SM BKN015 OVC025 PROB40 2202 3SM SHRA

The “from” statement (FM) indicates a significant change. From 2200Z, the winds will be from 330° at 15 knots, with gusts to 20 knots. The visibility will be greater than 6 statute miles, with broken clouds at 1,500 feet, and an overcast layer at 2,500 feet. There is a 40% probability between the hours of 2200Z and 0200Z of 3 statute mile visibility and rain showers. |

ccocccocecocoeccccecccceccccecccecccccccccecceccce

FM0200 35012KT OVC008 PROB40 0205 2SM —RASN BECMG 0608 02008KT BKNO012 BECMG 1012 00000KT 3SM BR SKC TEMPO 1214 1/2SM FG

From 0200Z, the winds will be from 350° at 12 knots. There will be an overcast layer at 800 feet. There is a 40% probability between the hours of 0200Z and 0500Z of 2 statute miles visibility due to light rain and snow. The ‘becoming’ statement (BECMG) indicates a change in conditions during the specified time period. In this case, between 0600Z and 0800Z, the winds will become 020° at 8 knots, with broken clouds at 1,200 feet. From 1000Z to 1200Z, the winds will become calm, with 3 statute miles visibility in mist and a clear sky.

is

The “temporary” statement (TEMPO) indicates a change that expected to last for less than an hour. In this case, between the hours of 1200Z and 1400Z, the visibility could temporarily be 1/2 statute mile in

fog.

|

|

FM1600 VRBOGKT P6SM SKC=

From 1600Z, the winds will be variable at 6 knots, with greater than 6 statute miles visibility and clear skies. |

The TAF for KOKC in Figure 7.11 would be decoded as follows. KOKC

This TAF is for Will Rogers World Airport in Oklahoma City. 0511302 051212 ceca

This TAF was issued on the 5th of the month, at 1130Z, and is valid from 1200Z on the 5th to 1200Z on the 6th. -

Aviation Weather Services 153

Section 7.3

5SM BR BKN030

14008KT

TEMPO

1316

1

1/2SM BR

The winds will be from 140° at 8 knots. The visibility will be 5 statute miles in mist, with broken clouds at 3,000 feet. Between 1300Z and 1600Z, there may be periods 1.5 statute miles visibility in mist. of

FM1600 18010KT P6SM SKC BECMG 2224

0006

PROB40

2SM TSRA OVC008CB

BECMG

20013G20KT 4SM SHRA 0VC020 0608 21015KT P6SM SCT040=

From 1600Z, the winds will be from 180° at 10 knots, with visibility greater than 6 statute miles under a clear sky. Between 2200Z and 2400Z, the winds will become 200° at 13 knots, gusting to 20 ith 4 statute miles visibility and rain showers under overcast skies at Between 0000Z and 0600Z, there is a 40% probability of 2 statute miles visibility, thunderstorms and rain, and an overcast layer at 800 feet of cumulonimbus. IIDIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIDIDIDIIIIIIIIIID

Between 0600Z and 0800Z, the winds will become 210° at 15 knots, with visibility greater than 6 statute miles and scattered clouds at 4,000 feet. Accessing

TAFs

TAFs

be found under the “FORECASTS” tab of the AWC home page, as Figure 7.12.

can

shown

in

v:

Figure 7.12

—

CENTER AVIATION WEATHER

Obtaining a TAF

You can drag and zoom the map to find the airport you are interested in. You can click on the station to see the TAF data for the station. DIDI

NOTE: You can use the CONFIGURE tab to have the TAFs decoded when you click on them.

ID JI)

Section 7.3

Aviation Weather Services 154

DJ)

The data from each station is also displayed graphically, using the same symbols as the METARs.

=

| ©

Figure 7.13

—

ELC

ACIS TAF: KMCI

TRA

031720Z 0318/0418 18012KT P6SM SCT050 SCT180 FMO32100 19011KT PGSM VCTS SCT050CB SCT250

Example of a TAF

An example of a TAF for the Kansas City International Airport is shown in Figure 7.13. Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FB) Winds and temperatures aloft forecasts are made twice a day a limited number of locations. They are based on upper air soundings taken at 0000Z and 1200Z.

for

Wind direction is given with respect to true north. Wind speed is given in knots. The 4-digit code “2113” indicates the winds are from 210° true at 13 knots.

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

If the wind speed is forecast to be greater than 100 knots but less than 199 knots, 50 is added to the direction without the trailing zero and 100 is subtracted from the speed. (Thus, the direction range 00 to 35 indicates winds up to 100 knots, and the direction range 50 to 85 indicates winds greater than 100 knots.)

To decode this, where applicable, you need to apply the reverse. For example, if you see the data group “7319, subtract 50 from 73 and add 100 to 19; the wind is 230° at 119 knots. Alternatively, you see “2319,” the wind is 230° at 19 knots.

if

Wind speeds 199 knots or greater are not distinguished in FBs. If the wind speed is forecast to be 199 knots greater, 50 is added to the direction, but the speed is still listed as “99”. For example, you see “7799, subtract 50 from 77 and, once again, add 100 to 99; in this case, the wind is 270° at 199 knots or greater.

or

if

If the wind speed is forecast to be less than 5 knots, the data group is coded

“9900”, which means light and variable.

A 6-digit code is used when the group includes the temperature data. Temperatures are given in °C. The code ““2332+02"* indicates the winds are from 230° true at 32 knots, and the temperature is 2°C. At altitudes of 30,000 feet and above, the temperature is assumed to be negative, so the sign preceding the temperature value is dropped.

Aviation Weather Services 155

Section 7.3

Within 1,500 feet of a station elevation, no wind forecast is given. Similarly, temperature forecasts are not given within 2,500 feet of a station elevation. FB WBC DATA

151745

BASED ON

1512002

VALID

1600% FOR USE

FT

3000

1800-0300Z.

39000

245945

246755

246862

2531-15

2542-27 265842

256352

256762

2532-08

2434-19

2441-31 235347

236056

236262

2113-03

2219-07

2330-17

2435-30

204145 244854

245561

2006+03

2215-01

2322-06

2338-17

2348-29

236143

237252

238160

2325407

2332402

2339-04

2356-16

2373-27

239440

730649

731960

2420

2635-08

2535-18

2725400

2625-04

2321-04

1707-01

2714

DEN

STL

0507

2113

Figure 7.14

—

oo

34000

|

MKC

18000 24000

12000

ALS

HLC

24000

9000

6000

AMA

TEMPS NEG ABV

2444-30

30000

Winds and temperatures aloft forecast example

39033333330333922323232323322223222)

FB Examples

The FBs in Figure 7.14 would be decoded as follows. The wind forecast for STL (St. Louis, Missouri) at 9,000 feet is 230° true at 32 knots. The wind forecast for STL at 12,000 feet is 230° true at 39 knots.

The wind and temperature forecast for DEN (Denver, Colorado) 230° true at 21 knots and 4°C. The wind and temperature forecast for MKC {Kansas is 200° true at 6 knots and 3°C.

ay.

at 9,000 feet is

Missouri) at 6,000 feet

Accessing. FB Reports

The winds and temperatures aloft forecast can be accessed on the AWC website under the FORECASTS tab, in the “Winds/ Temps” section, as shown in Figure 7.15.

3302300032

Section 7.3 |

Aviation Weather Services 156 |

wr ©

HOME

ADVISORIES

FORECASTS

OBSERVATIONS

TOOLS

HEWS

SEARCH

ABOUT

USER

Comesction

W/T wT

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

oft forecast

At the top of the page will be a map, with a slider on the left side so that you can specify the altitude to display on the map, and at the top right, there is a slider for time.

Winds/Temps Forecasts

|

Overlays

A

View

Configure

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36

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Plots Data info)

Display at 30,000 feet valid 0600 UTC 03 Jul 2019

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Level 300

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75

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°

FUR

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ii 35

NE,

41,074,118

Meo 15kt A__,60kt W_,25G30kt

Figure 7.16 -Wind and Temperatures Aloft chart

In Figure 7.16, you can see that at 12,000 feet, the winds are from the southsouthwest at 25 knots at Reno (RNO), and from the southwest at 30 knots at Ely.

If you want to see the entire FB, select a region from the map labeled

“Winds/Temps Data” and you will get a table with all the stations in that region, as shown in Figure 7.17.

Aviation Weather Services 157

Section 7.3

IDE

Eau Ee EsTE

{Extracted from

PD1US1 DATA

rT

BIR

BASED ON

BLE 2110 FAT 9900 POT 0113

owr

99500

SAC SAN

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RBL 9900

3407

SBA 0105 SFO 3111

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AST 2209

Ins xv

2900003

FOR USR

6000 9900 1712421 9900+13 3406406 2405419 9300+08 9900+11 2406420 9900+16 2706411 9900406 2414417 2607402

9900 2506403 2108 2510402 2510404 2214407 SEA 2211 2207+02 YEM 3107 9900405

OTH PDX RDM GEG

Figure 7.17

280201) :

VALID 280600%

3000

FBUS3I1 XWNO

—Wind

9000 9900+12 1811415 1810+09 2205401 2110414 9900+02 2112406 2011+15 2212412 2310406 1910401 2218413 2708-03 2110400 9300402 2508-02 2612-03 2217-01 2513-01 9900-03 2216-01

i»

0200-09003.

TEMPS MEG ABV

EE

24000

24000 30000 34000 35000 18000 12000 1609+06 2337-10 2250-21 225537 236247 247957 1917411 2028-05 2127-19 233034 243244 243956 2117404 2341-09 2249-21 225337 236147 237857 2511.05 2426-19 2346-31 238941 720349 236551 2117+09 2130-06 2235-19 233835 244445 2350586 2113-02 2331-17 2358.26 228440 229649 239587 2219+01 2244-14 2262-22 227338 227848 2308958 2015+10 2032-06 2228-19 233134 241344 22156 2323407 2233-07 2243-20 234836 245745 236157 2316401 2245-12 2362-22 237038 237648 234958 2013-05 2331-19 2351-31 229541 720649 237051 2220408 2231-07 2239-19 234536 245245 235957 2706-10 9900-25 0808-38 090544 210544 211443 2027-07 2132-21 2148-34 229442 229448 225747 1815-05 2241-19 2263-29 229840 720749 238053 2412-08 2517-21 2917-34 252347 24146 233445 2410-09 2017-24 1925-38 202344 212143 212243 2123-08 2233-22 2247-35 227743 227346 124345 2317-06 2027-22 2032-35 215245 215045 203744 1607-08 1513.22 1216-36 092449 171043 191543 2124-07 2021-22 1936-36 214146 213744 212744.

and Temperatures Aloft Table

Weather Advisories Weather advisories are forecasts that advise pilots of the development of potentially hazardous weather. All heights reported are referenced MSL, except for ceiling heights, (CIG), which are AGL. |

|

PPPPPRPPPPPPPPPPPPPDDPDDDDDIDIDIDDIDIDIDID

There are three types of aviation weather advisories: the Significant Meteorological Information advisory (SIGMET), the Convective SIGMET advisory, and the Airman’s Meteorological Information advisory (AIRMET). All three use the same location identifiers (either VORs, airports, or well-known geographic areas) to specify areas of hazardous weather. Although the areas where the SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, or AIRMET apply may be shown graphically, a graphical depiction of the area is not the entire advisory. Additional information may be contained in the text version. SIGMETs

A SIGMET advises of non-convective weather (i.e, not associated with a thunderstorm) that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft. SIGMETs are issued for severe icing, severe or extreme turbulence, and widespread sandstorms, dust storms, or volcanic ash that lowers the visibility to less than 3 miles. Convective SIGMETs

Convective SIGMETs are issued for hazardous weather associated with thunderstorms. A Convective SIGMET implies severe icing, severe or extreme turbulence, and low-level wind shear. Convective SIGMETs are issued in the continental U.S. for surface winds greater than or equal to 50 knots, hail at the surface greater than or equal to 3/4 inches in diameter, tornadoes, embedded oo thunderstorms, or a line of thunderstorms. |

Section 7.3

Aviation Weather Services 158

PPP

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

AIRMETs

are

AIRMETS advisories of weather phenomena that are significant but less severe than those reported by SIGMETs. They are intended for dissemination to all pilots.

There are three different AIRMETs: Sierra, Tango, and Zulu. AIRMET Sierra is issued for IFR conditions and/or extensive mountain obscurations. AIRMET Tango is issued for moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or greater, and / or non-convective low-level wind shear. AIRMET Zulu is issued for moderate icing, and reports freezing level heights. Weather advisories (SIGMETs, Convective SIGMETs, and AIRMETS) can be obtained online at the Aviation Weather Center website (under the ADVISORIES tab) as shown in Figure 7.18, by listening to HIWAS frequencies on the radio, they can be provided to you when you receive a preflight weather briefing on the telephone.

or

&

AVIATION WEATHER CENTER HOME

ORECASTS

ADYISQS

J

Yion

OBSERVATIONS

“iJ

Figure 7.18

—

TOOLS

NEWS

SEARCH

ABOUT

USER

Weather Overview _ARPIREPs

|

}(__G-AIRMETs

SIGMETs

2137 UTC Wed 3 Jul 2018

AIRMETs

An example of the Graphical

AIRMETSs

page from the AWC is shown in Figure 7.19.

Graphical AIRMETs Overlays

View

1G

Configure

2100 UTC Wed 3

Jul

2019

(>)

20.619,-118.478]

Figure 7.19 — AIRMETs

To get the full text of the AIRMET, you click on one of the shaded areas. An shown in Figure 7.20. example of the text of the full text of an AIRMET

is

Aviation Weather Services 159

Section 7.3

Valid: 2019-07-03T721:00:002 issued: 2019-07-03120:45:002 Severity: MOD Top: 16000 ft Base: Surface

Figure 7.20

—

Text of an AIRMET

Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) No observation is more current than one made from an aircraft. In fact, aircraft in flight are the only means of observing icing and turbulence. Pilots welcome the pilot weather reports of other pilots, as do briefers and forecasters. All altitude references in a PIREP are mean sea level (MSL) unless otherwise noted. Visibility is given in statute miles, and all other distances are in nautical miles. Time is in universal coordinated time (UTC). PIREP Codes

IIDIDIIDIDIDID)ID)IDIDIDIIIDIDIDIIIIIIIDIIIIIIIIIIIDI

When obtained in printed form, the PIREP must be decoded. The fields used in a printed PIREP are explained in Figure 7.21. Identifier

Field

I0V

Location

m™

Time

/FL

Flight Level

ITP

Type of Aircraft

/SK

Sky Cover

WX FV

Flight Vis. and Weather

ITA

Temperature of the

WV

Wind

mB

Turbulence

/ic

Icing

/RM

Remarks

Figure 7.21

—

Air

PIREP fields

A printed PIREP always begins with the letters UA, which identifies it is as a standard PIREP, or UUA, which identifies it as an urgent PIREP. The location, time, flight level, and type of aircraft that provided the report are listed, followed

by the weather information.

PIREP Example The PIREP shown in Figure 7.22 would be decoded as follows.

IID

DDD

Section 7.3

Aviation Weather Services 160

DD)

UA/OV KOKC-KTUL/TM 1800/FL120/TP BE90//SK BKN018-TOP055/0VC072TOP089/CLR ABV/TA M7/WV 08021/TB LGT 055-072/IC LGT-MOD RIME 072-089

Figure 7.22 ~ PIREP example UA

This signifies a standard, non-urgent PIREP. /OV KOKC-KTUL

The pilot was traveling between Oklahoma City and Tulsa.

Fh

/FL120 The pilot was at an altitude of 12,000 feet MSL. /TP BE90

|

The pilot was flying a Beech King Air 90.

//SK BKN018-TOP055/0VC072-TOP089/CLR CCCCCCCCCCCaCCCeeCCeeCeaeCeeeeeececccccceccc

Two cloud layers were reported. The first layer was broken, with the base at 1,800 feet MSL and top at 5,500 feet MSL. The second layer was overcast, with the base at 7,200 feet MSL and top at 8,900 feet MSL. It is clear above this layer. |

(/WX FV)

No information was given

for the weather condition

/TA M7

So

flight visibility in this PIREP.

ne or

|

A temperature of -7°C was reported. /WV

08021

Winds were reported from 80° at 21 knots. /TB LGT 055-072

Light turbulence was reported between

/IC

LGT-MOD RIME

the altitudes of 5,500 feet and 7,200 feet MSL.

072-089

Light to moderate rime icing was reported between the altitudes of 7,200 and 8,900 feet MSL. (/RM) Aviation Weather Services 161

Section 7.3

No additional remarks were included in this PIREP. Obtaining PIREPs PIREPs can be obtained during a preflight briefing or from the AWC website. Urgent PIREPs, defined as reports containing information about tornadoes, funnel clouds, waterspouts, severe or extreme turbulence, severe icing, hail, or any other weather phenomena reported that are considered as being hazardous to flight operations are also transmitted on HIWAS.

On the AWC website, you can access PIREPs under the OBSERVATIONS the “Aircraft Reps’ section, as shown in Figure 7.23.

tab in

&

AVIATION WEATHER CENTER

997399997399I393999939I3999939I39I9929I920IJ

Figure 7.23

—

Obtaining PIREPs from the AWC

When you click on a PIREP symbol on the map, you will see the full text of the report, as shown in Figure 7.24.

3%

Obs Time: 2019-07-08T20:33:002 Turb intensity: LGT-MOO Flight level: 380

-

PIREP: SLN UA JOV SLN0S0020/TM 2033/FL380/TP B763/TB LGT-MOD 380/AM ZKCFDC/AF

Figure 7.24

—

Text of a PIREP for turbulence

7.4 Preflight Weather Briefings When you obtain a preflight weather briefing, you are speaking directly with an aviation weather specialist who has access to all the most recent observations, analysis, and forecasts. In addition, the specialist will have knowledge of any NOTAMs that might affect your flight. DJ)

Section 7.4

Aviation Weather Services 162

Briefing Types There are three different types of briefings that you may request: Standard, Abbreviated, or Qutlook. |

-

|

Standard Briefing The standard briefing is the most comprehensive briefing. It provides an overall picture of the weather and covers the following information, in this order, where

applicable to the route of flight:

SRY

Adverse Conditions: This section of the briefing includes information on adverse conditions that may influence a decision to cancel or alter the route of flight. Adverse conditions include significant weather, such as thunderstorms or aircraft icing, and other important items such as airport closures.

If

for

VER Flight NOT RECOMMENDED: the weather the route of flight is below VER (Visual Flight Rules) minimums, is it doubtful that the could be

or

if

flight completed under VFR conditions, the briefer may state that VFR flight is not recommended. It is the pilot's decision whether or not to conduct the flight under VFR, but the advisory should be weighed carefully. Synopsis: The synopsis is an overview of the weather. Fronts and major weather systems that affect the general area are reported. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCcCccccceccceccocc

Current Conditions: This portion of the briefing covers the current ceilings, visibility (statute miles), winds (knots, magnetic direction), temperature (°C), and dew point (°C). If it is more than 2 hours until the departure time, the current conditions will not be included in the briefing. En Route Forecast: The en route forecast the proposed route of flight.

is a summary of the weather forecast for |

Destination Forecast: The destination forecast is a summary of the expected weather at the destination airport at the estimated time of arrival. |

Winds and Temperatures Aloft: Forecast winds (knots, magnetic direction) and temperatures aloft (°C) are reported for specific altitudes for the route of flight. Temperatures are provided only on request. Notices to Airmen: This portion of the briefing supplies NOTAM information pertinent to the route of flight that has not been published in the Notice to Airmen publication (see Chapter 10: Flight Publications). Published NOTAM information is provided only when requested. |

|

Abbreviated Briefing

|

An abbreviated briefing is a shortened version of the standard briefing. You should request an abbreviated briefing when you need an update of specific weather information given in a previous briefing. In this case, the weather Aviation Weather Services 163

Section 7.4

specialist needs to know the time and source of the previous briefing so pertinent information will not be omitted inadvertently. Outlook Briefing

An outlook briefing should be requested when departure is expected in six or more hours. It provides only limited forecast information.

Obtaining a Briefing To obtain a weather briefing call

|

:

|

1-800-WX BRIEF from anywhere in the United

States. When you talk to the briefer, you should give the following information: type of flight (VFR), your name or glider number, aircraft type (glider), departure point, route of flight, destination, altitudes, estimated time of departure, estimated time en route. You will then need to specify the type of briefing you want: a standard briefing, an abbreviated briefing, or an outlook

briefing. No matter which type of briefing you want, you may also want to request upper air sounding data to determine soaring conditions. This is a telephone weather briefing from the Dallas FSS fora local operation of gliders and lighter-than-air at Caddo Mills, Texas (about 30 miles east of Dallas). The briefing is at 13Z.

"There are no adverse conditions reported or forecast for today." "A weak low pressure southerly flow over

over the Texas Panhandle and eastern New Mexico is causing a weak

the area."

HE

0322313133233332323353222323939332229232323232223222222099D

"Current weather here at Dallas is wind south 5 knots, visibility 12 miles, clear, temperature

21, dewpoint 9, altimeter 29 point 78."

.

Lh

ee

cumuliform clouds at 5 thousand AGL, with higher "By 15Z we should have a few scattered at 25 thousand MSL. After 20Z the wind should pick up to about 15 knots scattered gins the south.” rom Co “The winds aloft are: 3 thousand 170 at 7, temperature 20; 6 thousand 200 at18, temperature 14: 9 thousand 210 at 22, temperature 8; 12 thousand 225 at 27, temperature 0; 18 thousand 240 at 30, temperature -7." Figure 7.25

—

Weather briefing example

Weather Briefing Example

| |

Figure 7.25 gives the text of a typical telephone briefing. Since cumuliform clouds are predicted to develop at 1500Z, thermals will begin to form between 13002 and 1500Z, when the sky is still clear. The cumuliform clouds mentioned at 5,000 (Of course, legally you feet indicate thermals extending to the tops of the clouds. oo can only climb to within 500 feet of cloud base.) |

7.5 Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA)

|

The GFA is intended to provide aviation weather information to give users a complete picture of the weather that may impact flight in the continental United States. It incorporates many of the products covered in the previous sections. Section 7.5

Aviation Weather Services 164

[i] The GFA can be accessed from the AWC homepage by selecting “GFA Tool” from the TOOLS tab, as shown in Figure 7.26. —

FE

:

y

>

\

J

vo

mm The web page includes observational data, forecasts, and warnings that can be viewed from 14 hours in the past to 15 hours in the future, including thunderstorms, clouds, flight category, precipitation, icing, turbulence, and wind. Hourly model data and forecasts, including information on clouds, flight category, precipitation, icing, turbulence, and wind are available. Users can pan and zoom to focus on areas of greatest interest.

[TC ER Settings

Weather Product Buttons

(is)

(Geis) ;

(cious)

(fons)

(35)

(ings)

(os) (352)

er

info]

{

sezoourc

weds

sims

Zoom

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccec

eens gio

and slider

Full screen mode

Vertical level

selector for winds,

Curser and

turbulence, and ice.

Legend—f

Do wind

warnings

Figure 7.27

The

—

ocaim\_,15kt

Yt

swear

|

NAV/AID

position

h_.60kt %oc25G30KE

[5] gio

HEM

som

[EJ

cae

Graphical Forecasts for Aviation overview

location of the controls and buttons

for the GFA are shown in Figure 7.27.

Weather Products Buttons

The “Forecast” and “Obs/ Warn” buttons determine which graphics available to view, shown by the buttons located above the main menu bar.

are

When “Forecast” is selected (default), you can choose to view information related to TAFs, ceiling and visibility, clouds, precipitation, thunderstorms, winds, turbulence, or ice. Data is available from the hour starting one hour ahead of the current time to fifteen hours in the future. Aviation Weather Services 165

Section 7.5

is

When “Obs /Warn” selected, the button group changes, allowing the user to select from METAR, precipitation and weather, ceiling and visibility, PIREP, or radar and satellite. |

v allows various display options, such as “Map specify button to you A Options” the type of base map (terrain, road, satellite, etc.), type of satellite data (IR, visible, water vapor), and radar data (lowest angle, composite). o

Forecasts:

The GFA provides forecasts 15 hours into the future. You specify the time using the slider at the top of the page. -

|

|

When you click on the “TAF” button, you will see station reports like those shown on the Weather Depiction Chart. You will also see the flight category, (IFR, MVFR, or VFR), along with SIGMETS and warnings. You can click on any station to get a TAF for that station. You can also click onthe “Weather Symbols” box to see a full table of all the symbols, METAR Codes, and their meaning. The “CIG/VIS” button allows you to view the flight category, ceiling, and visibility. You can click on any of the weather station symbols to get the local cloud coverage and weather conditions. The “Clouds” button allows you to view the cloud top height,cloud coverage, or cloud base height. |

The “PCPN/WX" (precipitation and weather) button will give you areas of precipitation and weather type. EY The “TS” (thunderstorm) button will display areas of isolated, scattered, or numerous thunderstorms. |

The “Winds” button allows you to view the wind speed and direction at any

altitude. Use the slideron the left to change altitude.

| a

turbulence at Clicking on the “Turb” (turbulence) button displays the any altitude. Clicking on the “Ice” (icing) button displays the severity of icing at any altitude. Observations:

Hourly observations for each button are available from fourteen hours in the past up to the current time. Again, you use the slider at the topof the page to set the time of the observation to display. Click on the “METAR” (Aviation Routine Weather Report) button to display reported weather conditions using the same symbols as the Weather Depiction Charts. You can click on any individual station on the map to view the METAR for that location.

Section 7.5 |

Aviation Weather Services 166

3D0D0D0222232323232323223232223003)3232323232323223232223233

The “PCPN/WX" (precipitation/ weather) button displays a radar image along with symbols representing the type of precipitation. The “CIG/ VIS” (ceiling visibility) button will display the flight category, ceiling height, and visibility. You can click on any station on the map to display the ceiling and visibility at that point, along with a METAR. cccccccocccccccccccca

The “PIREP" (pilot reports) button displays pilot reports at the levels specified by the slider on the left side of the window. Click on a symbol on the map to see the details of the PIREP. oo |

The “RAD/SAT” (radar satellite) button displays looping radar and satellite data.

ecococeecocececceoccecccecccceccecccecec

Aviation Weather Services

167

Section 7.5

cceeeececeeccceccccccceecceccececcecceccccecececceccec

Section 7.5

Aviation Weather 168

Services

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

CHAPTER

8:

MEDICAL FACTORS

Glider pilots are not required to undergo a medical examination or obtain a medical certificate, as is the case with airplane pilots. However, a glider pilot you are responsible for making sure that you do not have a medical condition that could prevent you from safely conducting a flight.

as

Flying in general, and soaring in particular, requires intense concentration and some physical endurance. Accordingly, glider pilots should try to keep in good physical shape and recognize their limitations. Minor illnesses, especially those requiring medications, can seriously impair a

pilot's abilities. Even commonplace conditions such as fatigue, stress, and allergies can hinder performance. The safest decision when feeling is not fly. If you are unsure about how a medical condition will affect your ability to pilot a glider, consult an Aviation Medical Examiner.

ill

to

In this chapter, you will learn about the physiological, mental, and chemical issues that can affect flight safety.

8.1

Physiological Issues

Physiological issues are ones that involve the physical systems of our bodies. Illness, hypoxia, motion sickness, and dehydration are examples of physiological issues.

Middle Ear and Sinus Problems Climbs and descents can sometimes cause ear or sinus pain and a temporary reduction in the ability to hear. The discomfort is caused by a difference between the pressure of the air outside of the body and the pressure of the air inside the middle ear and nasal sinuses.

Figure 8.1

—

The

structure of the

middle ear

Medical Factors 169

Section 8.1

PP The middle ear is a small cavity located in the bone of

the skull. It is closed off

from the external ear canal by the eardrum. Normally, pressure differences between the middle ear and the atmosphere are equalized by a tube leading from the inside of each ear to the back of the throat, called the Eustachian tube. These tubes are usually closed, but open during chewing, yawning, or swallowing to equalize pressure. Even a slight difference between external pressure and middle ear pressure can cause discomfort.

During a climb, the pressure of the air in the middle ear may exceed the pressure of the air in the external ear canal, causing the eardrum to bulge outward. As this change in pressure occurs, you will probably experience alternate sensations of “fullness” and “clearing”.

Ce

|

During descent, the opposite occurs. The pressure of the air in the external ear canal increases and exceeds the pressure of the air in the middle ear cavity, which had equalized with the lower pressure of the higher altitude. The higher outside pressure causes the eardrum to bulge inward. This condition is often painful and can cause a temporary reduction in hearing sensitivity. It can be difficult to relieve because the partial vacuum tends to constrict the walls of the Eustachian tube. Swallowing frequently or yawning can help to equalize the pressure. If these techniques don’t work, you can try exhaling gently while pinching your nostrils shut and closing your mouth and lips. This procedure forces air through the Eustachian tubeinto the middle ear. If you have a cold, an ear infection, or sore throat, it may not be possible to equalize the pressure in the ears. Flying in this condition can beextremely painful, as well as harmful to the eardrums. If you are experiencing minor congestion, then nose chance of a painful ear blockage. Before drops or a nasal spray may reduce the using any medication, check with an Aviation Medical Examiner to make sure that it will not hinder your ability to fly. |

PPP

PPP

PPP

PP PP

PPP

PPP

PPP

|

PPP

Like the ear, the sinuses can also experience blockage due to changes in pressure.

Air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with air pressure in the cockpit through small openings connecting the sinuses to the nasal passages. An upper respiratory infection such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around an opening to slow or prevent equalization. This “sinus block” occurs most frequently during descent. A slower descent rate may reduce the associated pain. A sinus block can occurin the frontal sinuses located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary sinuses located in each upper cheek. A sinus block can produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A maxillary sinus oo block can also make the upper teeth sche. Sinus blocks can be avoided by not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Decongestant sprays or drops usually do not provide the sinuses with adequate protection from congestion. Oral decongestants have side effects that can impair your performance. If a sinus block does not clear shortly after landing, you should consult a

physician.

Section 8.1

Medical Factors 170

PPP

PPP

PPP

PPP

PPP

Spatial Disorientation (Vertigo) Spatial disorientation is a loss of orientation withregard to the position, attitude, or movement the glider in space. The bodyuses sensory inputs from the eyes (visual), the body Bincsthetis), ‘and the inner ear (vestibular) to ascertain orientation and movement space.

of

ay

in

Visual System

|

The eyes provide by far the greatest amount of spatial information. When visual references are available, spatial disorientation is unlikely to occur. When visual

cues are taken away, you can quickly become

disoriented.

Kinesthetic System

Kinesthetic sensations are the brain's interpretation of signals from the skin, joints, and muscles. “Seat of the pants” flying is largely dependent upon these signals. Because gravity is usually the predominant force experienced by the body, the brain tends to interpret kinesthetic sensations as being caused by changes in our position with respect to gravity’s pull.

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Perceived Force

—— Acceleration

Figure 8.2

—

oo

oo Brain's Interpretation |

Kinesthetic error. Forward acceleration without visual cues can be misinterpreted by the brain

as an increase in pitch attitude.

For example, if we were to accelerate forward without visual cues, our brain may interpret the kinesthetic sensations to mean that we have pitched up, so that gravity, instead of acceleration, is pulling us back into our seats. Vestibular System The vestibular system is a very sensitive motion-sensing system located in the inner ears. In both inner ears, three semicircular canals are positioned at approximate right angles to each other, as shown in Figure 8.3. Fine hairs inside the tubes sense fluid movement caused by rotation of the tubes about their axes. Medical Factors 171

Section 8.1

Figure 8.3 — The vestibular system semicircular canals filled with fluid.

consists

of three

orthogonal

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visual reference to the horizon and Under normal flight conditions when there ground, the vestibular system helps to identify the pitch, roll, and yaw movements of the glider. When visual contact with the horizon is lost, the vestibular system becomes unreliable. The Brain

All visual, kinesthetic, and vestibular information comes together in the brain. Most of the time, the three streams of information agree, giving a clear idea of where and how the body is moving. Flying can sometimes cause these systems to supply conflicting information to the brain, which can lead to disorientation, or as discussed in the following section, motion sickness.

Temporary disorientation can occur even when vision is not obstructed. This can happen, for instance, during a turn if you suddenly move your head, inducing erroneous currents in the vestibular system. This momentary disorientation usually is not a flight hazard. A more serious type of disorientation occurs when you lose sight of the horizon. This could happen, for instance, if you climb into a cloud. You may think the in level flight when in reality, it is in a gradual turn. the airspeed then glider increases, you may experience the sensation of a level dive and pull back on the stick, which tightens the turn and creates increasing G-loads. Eventually, the glider can exceed its load limit and break apart.

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If

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Prevention is the best remedy for spatial disorientation. Glider pilots must take care to not fly into clouds. DDD)

Section 8.1

Medical Factors 172

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Motion Sickness Anyone who has experienced motion sickness knows how it can be. Most important for the pilot, motion sickness can causeunpleasant flight skills to be jeopardized at critical times. Student pilots sometimes experienice motion sickness when they first start flight training. The flight instructor will usuall recognize the onset of motion sickness and terminate the flight lesson. With increasing experience, the problem usually goes Motion sickness results from the brain’s receiving conflicting signals from the visual, kinesthetic, and vestibular systems. Often, we are buffeted by thermals while at an altitude where the eyes cannot detect our movement with respect to the ground. Our vision tells the brain that we sitting still, yet our vestibular are and kinesthetic systems tell the brain we are ‘moving. In short, the brain interprets the discordant signals to mean that is hallucinating, assumes that it is being poisoned, and responds by the stomach to empty itself. telling The first symptoms of motion sickness are loss of appetite, collection of saliva in the mouth, and perspiration. These may be followed by nausea, disorientation, headaches, and the desire to vomit. If allowed to become severe enough, motion sickness may incapacitate the pilot.

away.

it

Pilots susceptible to motion sickness should not take the preventive drugs available over-the-counter or by prescription. These drugs can cause drowsiness, depression of brain function, and loss of motor skills. When suffering from motion sickness, open the air vents, loosen clothing, and use oxygen if available. Keep the eyes focused on a point outside the glider and avoid unnecessary head movements. Terminate the flight as soon as possible. Many pilots and passengers find that ginger taken in capsules or chewed raw or as candied ginger helps to reduce or eliminate the symptoms of motion sickness.

Dehydration When you lose more liquid than you ingest, your body gets dehydrated. Breathing dry bottled oxygen, or sweating from exertion, stress, or high temperatures, can all lead to dehydration. The

first effect of dehydration is usually fatigue. This may progress to dizziness,

weakness, nausea, tingling of the hands and feet, abdominal cramps, and extreme thirst. At the first stages of dehydration, mental and physical performance is impaired. |

It is very important that you have liquids available and drink often while flying. If do have you

not

to urinate regularly, you are not drinking enough liquids. in Chapter 15: Cross-

(The issue of urine disposal while in the glider is discussed Country Soaring.)

Medical Factors 173

|

|

Section 8.1

Heatstroke Heatstroke occurs when the body is unable to control its temperature. The onset of heatstroke may be marked by dehydration, although heatstroke has been known to lead suddenly, without symptom, to complete collapse. To avoid heatstroke, carry and frequently drink lots of water, especially on a long flight, whether you are thirsty or not; wear light-colored, porous clothing and a hat to minimize the amount of heat you absorb from the sun; and keep the cockpit well ventilated to dissipate excess heat. Heatstroke is a medical emergency. Anyone exhibiting the symptoms of heat stroke (red, flushed skin; a body temperature of 106°F or higher; seizures; headache; rapid pulse) should be rushed to the nearest hospital or clinic. Heatstroke does not require extensive physical exertion. High temperatures, a lack of body fluids, and overexposure to the elements can all bring about heatstroke. The very young and the old are especially susceptible.

a

Sunburn ‘In addition to being painful, sunburns have been shown to increase the risk of skin cancer. As glider pilots, we tend to spend large amounts of time outdoors during sunny conditions. We also fly high, where there is less air above us to shield out the harmful rays of the sun. It is important to protect yourself from

sunburns by wearing protective clothing and sunscreen.

Hypoxia High-altitude flying poses the risk of hypoxia, a deficiency of oxygen in the blood. Oxygen starvation causes the brain and other vital organs to become impaired. One particularly noteworthy aspect of hypoxia is that the first symptoms are often euphoria and a carefree feeling. With increased oxygen starvation, the extremities become less responsive, and flying becomes’ less Co EE coordinated. |

The symptoms of hypoxia vary with the individual, but often include cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips), headache, decreased reaction time, impaired judgment, euphoria, visual impairment, drowsiness, lightheadedness, dizziness, tingling in the fingers and toes, and numbness. As hypoxia worsens, the field of vision begins to narrow, and instrument interpretation can become difficult. Even with all these symptoms, hypoxia can cause a pilot to have a false sense of security and be deceived into thinking that everything is normal. Treatment for hypoxia includes flying at lower altitudes and/or using supplemental oxygen. All pilots are susceptible to oxygen starvation, regardless of physical endurance or acclimatization. The onset of hypoxia tends to occur at an altitude between 5,000 feet and 10,000 feet. When flying at high altitudes, supplemental oxygen

=

must be used to avoid hypoxia.

-

The “time of useful consciousness” table in Figure 8.4 gives approximate maximum times that a hypoxic pilot has to make rational, life-saving decisions and to carry them out. As altitude increases above 20,000 feet, the symptoms of Section 8.1

:

Medical Factors 174

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hypoxia increase in severity, and as you can see, the time of useful consciousness decreases sharply. Altitude

Time of Useful

~~

(Feet MSL)

Consciousness

Seconds

45,000

91to 15

40,000

15 to 20 Seconds

35,000

30 to 60

30,000

1

Seconds

to 2 Minutes

28,000

2.5t0 3

25,000

3 to 5 Minutes

22,000

5 to 10 Minutes

20,000

30

Figure 8.4

—

Minutes

Minutes or More

Time of useful consciousness

Keep in mind that just because the time of useful consciousness below 20,000 feet is 30 minutes or more, this does not mean a pilot's physical and mental abilities

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would

~

not

be significantly impaired.

|

|

Medication, smoking, alcohol, emotional stress, and increasing age can cause hypoxia to occur at lower altitudes. Hypoxia is very difficult to recognize because of the gradual dulling of the senses. Since symptoms of hypoxia do not vary in an individual, the ability to recognize your particular symptoms can be greatly improved by experiencing and witnessing the effects of hypoxia during an altitude chamber “ride”. The FAA provides this opportunity through aviation physiology training, which is conducted at the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute (CAMI) and at many military facilities across the United States. Hyperventilation Hyperventilation is an abnormal increase in the volume of air breathed in and out of the lungs that upsets the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the bloodstream. It can occur subconsciously when a stressful situation is encountered in flight. The symptoms of hyperventilation include lightheadedness, a feeling of suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the extremities, coolness, lack of coordination, disorientation, and painful muscle spasms. is not unusual Itbecome

for a person noticing the symptoms of hyperventilation to

more anxious, making the situation worse. Incapacitation or unconsciousness can eventually result.

~

cee

During hyperventilation, there is too much oxygen and not enough carbon dioxide in the bloodstream. Controlled breathing in and out a paper bag held the nose and mouth over can help to restore the proper balance. Talking, singing, or counting aloud may also help to control hyperventilation. The symptoms of

of

Medical Factors 175

Section

:

|

8.1

hyperventilation subside within

a few minutes after

breathing are brought back under control.

the rate and depth of

Early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia can occur simultaneously. If you are using supplemental oxygen and start to exhibit symptoms, immediately set the oxygen regulator to deliver 100 percent oxygen, then check to see that it is functioning properly before giving attention to your rate and depth of breathing. Decompression Sickness After Scuba Diving A pilot or passenger intending to fly after scuba diving should allow the body sufficient time to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during diving. If not, the reduced pressure at altitude could cause nitrogen gas bubbles to form in the body and create a serious in-flight emergency. The minimum recommended wait time for flying at altitudes up MSL is 12 hours after any dive, and 24 hours after a dive that controlled ascent.

to 8,000 feet has required a

G-Loading Just as high G’s can do damage to a glider, they can also affect the pilot. When the G-loading increases on the human body, blood tries to flow out of the head and into the body and lower extremities. At some point, the heart will not be able to maintain a pressure high enough to provide blood flow to the brain. This can cause the pilot to grayout (partially lose vision), blackout (completely lose vision) or lose consciousness.

D00)D0I32230I032232I23I9230232320232020202202220

Grayout

Grayout is a graying of vision caused by diminished blood flow to the eyes. no associated physical impairment, the condition should serve Although there as a warning of significantly diminished blood flow to the head.

is

Blackout

Blackout is the complete loss of vision. This results when the oxygen supply to the light-sensitive retinal cells of the eyes severely reduced. Contrary to other the term, consciousness is maintained. In blackout, some common usages of mental activity and muscle function remains. Blood flow to the head has been seriously reduced, and loss of consciousness is a high risk. In some centrifuge studies, 50 percent of the pilots had simultaneous blackout and loss of consciousness. Never count on blackout to precede loss of consciousness!

is

Lass of Consciousness

Loss of consciousness results when blood flow to the brain is reduced to a certain level. A pilot who has lost consciousness may have jerking, convulsive movements; these have been seen in many subjects of centrifuge studies and in some pilots during actual flight. In centrifuge studies, many pilots lost (and regained)

consciousness without realizing they had done

so.

|

|

D200

Section 8.1

Medical Factors

176

fverage

Symptom

~

~~

Grayout Blackout

Figure 8.5

—

i Range

41G

21t07.1G

4.7G

2710 78G

- 3.0

54 G

Unconsciousness

Lo

108.4 G

co

Symptoms of G-loading.

In a series of studies, pilots remained unconscious for an average of 15 seconds after the G-loading was removed. Following this, they experienced an additional 5 to 15 seconds of disorientation. Therefore, if you lose consciousness due to Gforces, there will be a period of at least 20 to 30-seconds during which you are not in control of the glider. |

|

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|

Hypoxia, fatigue, dehydration, or anything that lowers your blood oxygen levels or blood pressure will decrease your tolerance for G-forces. Dehydration coupled with high G-forces is a particularly dangerous combination. If you suspect that you are dehydrated, you should avoid high-G maneuvers. However, this is not always easy to do. Tight thermaling can pull 2 or 3 G's, spin recovery can pull 3 G's, and as you cross the finish line at a contest at high speed and pull up to gain altitude for a landing pattern, you can also pull 3 G's. The best plan is to be in good physical shape, hydrated, and rested.

8.2 Mental Issues Stress

Stress is defined as the body's response to demands made upon it. In flying,

stress can be physical, physiological, or psychological. Physical stress includes such things as cold, noise, or lack of oxygen. Physiological stress includes fatigue, poor health, hunger, or lack of sleep. Psychological stress includes emotional factors such as coping with an illness in the family, personal problems, or a high mental workload during an in-flight situation. Stress falls into two broad categories: acute stress (short term) and chronic stress (long term). Acute stress involves an immediate threat that is perceived as danger. This type of stress triggers a “fight or flight” response in an individual, whether the threat real or imagined. Normally, a healthy person can cope with

is

acute stress and prevent stress overload. However, on-going acute stress can develop into chronic stress. 8

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cece

Chronic stress defined as a sustained level of stress that exceeds the ability of an individual to cope and causes individual performance to fall significantly. Unrelenting psychological pressures such as loneliness, financial worries, and relationship or work problems can produce such a level of stress. When stress Medical Factors 177

Section 8.2

-

PD

reaches this level, performance declines rapidly. Pilots experiencing this level of stress are not safe and should not fly. Pilots suspecting they are suffering from chronic stress should consult a physician.

PPPPP

In flight training, some amount of stress is inevitable. As a student pilot, you need to recognize the symptoms of stress or stress overload and learn how to manage them. A good physical fitness program, proper rest, proper hydration, and regular meals are a good start. You should be aware of your capabilities and limitations and operate within them.

PP

Ee

PP

Fatigue Fatigue frequently leads to pilot error. The effects of fatigue include loss of attention and concentration and a decreased ability to communicate. Fatigue can seriously hamper your ability to make wise decisions.

PPP

PP

Fatigue can cause disruptions in your timing, accompanied by a loss of accuracy and smoothness of your control movements. It can also interfere with your perceptual abilities. You may only be able to concentrate on things in the center of your field of vision and neglect those in the periphery.

PPP

|

Physical fatigue can result from sleep loss, exercise, or physical work. Factors such as stress and prolonged performance of cognitive work can result in mental fatigue. Hypoxia and dehydration can exacerbate fatigue.

PP

Like stress, fatigue also falls into two broad categories: acute and chronic. Acute fatigue is short-term and is a normal occurrence in everydayliving. It is the kind of tiredness you feel after a period of strenuous effort, excitement, or lack of sleep. Rest after exertion and eight hours of sound sleep ordinarily cure this

TT

condition.

Sustained psychological stress accelerates the glandular secretions that prepare the body for quick reactions during an emergency. These secretions induce the circulatory and respiratory systems to work harder and the liver to release extra fuel needed for brain and muscle work. When this energy to provide reserve energy supply is depleted, the body lapses into generalized and severe fatigue.

PP PP

-

PPP

the

|

ET

|

PP

|

Acute fatigue can be prevented by a proper diet and adequate rest and sleep. A well-balanced diet prevents the body from having to consume its own tissues as an energy source. Adequate rest maintains the body’s store of vital energy.

a

Chronic fatigue, extending over long period of time, usually has psychological roots, although an underlying disease is sometimes the culprit. Continuous levels of high stress can produce chronic fatigue. Chronic fatigue is not relieved by a proper diet and adequate rest and sleep, and usually requires treatment by physician.

PPP

PPP

a

‘When fatigue occurs in the cockpit, no amount of training or experience can overcome the detrimental effects. Getting adequate rest is the only way to Section 8.2 Medical Factors |

178

PPP

PPP

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a

combat or prevent fatigue. Avoid flying without full night's rest, after working excessive hours, or after an especially exhausting or stressful day. Realize that after a long soaring flight you will almost certainly be suffering from at least some level of fatigue. Give yourself extra safety margins near the end of a flight.

Anxiety Anxiety is a state of uneasiness arising from fear. It slows down the learning process and can lead to irrational behavior. It causes some individuals to "do something even if it's wrong" and others to "freeze" and refuse to act. Anxiety Se can cause some people to hyperventilate.

-

Anxiety for student pilots is often associated with performing particular flight maneuvers. Anxiety can be countered by learning to cope with fear and realizing that fear is a normal reaction. If anxiety levels become too high, it is best to terminate a lesson early, as little learning is likely to take place. |

Extreme Emotion Extreme emotion has the same effects on a pilot as extreme stress or fatigue. Extreme emotion can have a variety of causes: the loss of a job, a death in the family, the end of a relationship, financial trouble, etc. Anger, depression, anxiety, or any combination of these may be involved. Any form of extreme emotion can hinder good judgment and alertness to a dangerous degree. You should not fly when you are emotionally upset.

8.3 Chemicals

Alcohol/Recreational Drugs Alcohol and recreational drugs decrease your coordination and interfere with your ability to think. This is a dangerous combination, as under the influence of alcohol and recreational drugs, you could lose the ability to successfully control the glider and lack the presence of mind to realize that you should not be flying. Alcohol interferes with the brain's ability to utilize oxygen, producing a form of hypoxia. Altitude multiplies the effects of alcohol on the brain. At just a few thousand feet of altitude, two drinks may have the effect of three or four at sea level. The effects are rapid because alcohol passes quickly into the bloodstream. For a pilot, the lowered oxygen availability at altitude combined with the lowered capability of the brain to use what oxygen there is, is a deadly combination.

still under the influence of alcohol. Impairment of is motor functions and mental processes remain. Considerable amounts of alcohol

A pilot with a hangover

can remain in the body for over 16 hours, so pilots should be cautious about flying too soon after drinking. Medical

Factors

179

Section 8.3

-

PPP]

In general, you should not fly within 12 to 24 hours of consuming alcohol. Some recreational drugs, such as marijuana, will continue to affect an individual several days after use. It is prohibited to fly under the influence of any illegal drug, and to fly within 8 hours of drinking any alcoholic beverage, or while under the influence of alcohol.

Medications Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both prescribed and over-thecounter medications, as well as by the medical conditions for which they are taken. Many medications such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough-suppressants have primary effects that may impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, vision, and the ability to make calculations. Others such as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and motion sickness have side effects that may also impair these critical functions. Any medication that depresses the nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer, or antihistamine, can make a pilot more susceptible to hypoxia. Painkillers

Painkillers can be grouped into two broad categories: analgesics and anesthetics. Analgesics are drugs that reduce pain, while anesthetics are drugs that deaden pain or cause loss of consciousness. Over-the-counter analgesics such as acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), acetaminophen, and ibuprofen have few side effects when taken in the correct dosage. Although some people are allergic to certain analgesics or may suffer from stomach irritation upon taking them, flying is usually not restricted when taking these drugs.

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|

However, flying is almost always precluded when using prescription analgesics, such as Darvon, Percodan, Demerol, and codeine containing medications, since these drugs may cause mental confusion, dizziness, headache, nausea, and vision problems. |

|

|

Anesthetics

Anesthetics are drugs that deaden pain or cause a loss of consciousness. These drugs are commonly used for dental and surgical procedures. Most local anesthetics used for minor dental and outpatient procedures wear off within a relatively short period of time. The anesthetic itself may not limit flying so much as the actual procedure and subsequent pain. |

|

Stimulants

Stimulants are drugs that excite the central nervous system and produce an increase in alertness and activity. Amphetamines, caffeine, and nicotine are all stimulants. Common uses of these drugs include appetite suppression, fatigue reduction, and mood elevation. Some of these drugs may cause a stimulant reaction even though that is not their primary function. In some cases, stimulants Section 8.3

Medical Factors 180

DD

DDD

can produce anxiety and mood swings, both of which are dangerous flying.

while

Depressants are drugs that reduce the body’s functioning in many areas. These drugs lower blood pressure, reduce mental processing, and slow motor and reaction responses. There are several types of drugs that can cause a depressing effect on the body, including tranquilizers, motion sickness ‘medication, some types of stomach medication, decongestants, and antihistamines. The most common depressant is alcohol. Other Drugs

Other drugs can also adversely affect a pilot's performance. For example, some antibiotics can cause balance disorder, hearing loss, nausea, and vomiting. While an antibiotic may produce none of these dangerous side effects, the infection requiring the antibiotic may itself prohibit flying. Unless a physician instructs you to, do not take more than one drug at a time, and never mix drugs with alcohol, as the effects are often unpredictable. FAA regulations prohibit pilots from flying while using any medication that affects their faculties in a way adverse to safety. If you have any doubt about the effects of a medication, consult an Aviation Medical Examiner before flying.

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Medical Factors

181

Section 8.3 Co

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Section 8.3

Medical Factors 182

I

CHAPTER

9: REGULATIONS

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is responsible for regulating civil aviation in the United States. The FAA's goal to ensure the safety of both the and flying non-flying public.

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JE

The Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) are the FAA's rules governing all flight operations. The FARs constitute Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations. They are updated as necessary and published each year. )

The FARs are divided into “parts”, each of which covers a specific area of operation. The parts most pertinent to the glider pilot are: *

Part

.

Part 43: Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration

®

Part 61: Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors

*

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Definitions and Abbreviations

|

1:

Part 91: General Operating and Flight Rules

.

The rules regarding the requirements and procedures for reporting aircraft accidents are covered in Title 49, Part 830 of the Code of Federal Regulations

At the beginning of each part is a table of contents listing the topics covered. At the beginning of the FARs, there is also a comprehensive index listing the part, section, and page number of every entry. While you should be very familiar with the FARs, memorizing every regulation would be burdensome not unrealistic. Instead, you should strive to know what where and exist to find them if necessary. For instance, if you know regulations that there is a regulation requiring the completion of a certain number flights within a certain time period in order will know to look carry a passenger, you if haven't flown for two months and a friend wants a ride [61.57(a)]. up you Are you legal? Look it up! The notation “[61.57(a)]” means that the rule can be found in Part 61, Section 57, Subsection (a).

if

it

of

to

A

:

Some regulations may seem overly conservative, but remember that they apply to all aircraft, not just to gliders. It is important realize that while an individual regulation may not seem to make much sense to a glider pilot, the regulations are meant to work as a whole to ensure a safe flying environment. Therefore, it is important that all regulations are adhered to, so as not to inadvertently endanger

to

other pilots, passengers, or people or property on the

Regulations

183

ground.

:

IF

Section 9.1

ED

ID

ID

The FARs are written in a “legalese” stylethat while very precise, can also be

very difficult to read and understand. The following chapter presents many of these regulations in plain English. If you need the precise wording of a regulation, refer to the appropriate section in the FARs.

.

9. Definitions and

a

iain

ID ID ID IID

‘Abbreviations and definition of terms used in the FARs can be found in Part 1 of the FARs. What follows a subset of that list, which includes only those items of interest particular to the glider pilot.

is

|

AGL - Above ground level Category - As used with respect to airmen, means a broad classification of aircraft, such as airplane, rotorcraft, glider, or lighter-than-air.

IDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDID

As used with respect to aircraft, means a grouping of intended uses or operating limitation, such as transport, normal, utility, acrobatic, etc. Classes - As used with respect to airmen, means a subgroup of aircraft within a category, such as single engine, multiengine, land, water within the airplane category, or airship and free balloon within the lighter-than-air category. As used with respect to aircraft, means a broad grouping based on similar characteristics of propulsion, flight, or landing, such as airplane, rotorcraft, glider, balloon, landplane, and seaplane. |

Flight Time - Pilot time that commences when the glider is towed for the purpose. of flight and ends when the glider comes to rest after landing. Flight Visibility - The average forward horizontal distance, from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight, at which prominent objects may be seen and

IDI

ID IID

unlighted

identified.

is

supported

1

in flight by the dynamic Glider - A heavier-than-air aircraft that reaction of the air against its lifting surfaces and whosefree Hight does not depend principally on an engine.

IDIDIDIDIDIDIDID

IAS - Indicated airspeed IFR - Instrument flight rules IFR Conditions - Weather conditions below the minimum required for flight

under visual flight rules.

Maintenance - Inspection, overhaul, repair, preservation, and the replacement of parts, but excludes preventive maintenance.

DIDI

|

MSL - Mean sea level Section 9.1 |

Regulations 184

PIII

cccceccc

Night - The time between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of

morning civil twilight, as published in the American Air Almanac, converted to local time. Evening civil twilight begins at sunset and extends until the sun is 6° below the horizon. Morning civil twilight begins when the sun is 6° below the

a

horizon, and extends until sunrise.

|

|

|

Operational Control - The exercise of authority over initiating, conducting, or terminating a

flight.

Pilotage - Navigation by visual reference to landmarks. Pilot in Command (PIC) - The person who has final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of the flight, has been designated as pilot in command before or during the flight, and holds the appropriate ratings for the conduct of the flight. |

Preventive Maintenance

- Simple or minor preservation operations and the of small standard parts not involving complex assembly operations. replacement

a certificate.

Rating - The conditions, privileges, and limitations set forth in TAS - True airspeed Va - Design maneuvering speed

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Vig - Maximum flap extended speed

Vie - Maximum landing gear extended speed Vio - Maximum landing gear operating speed Vine -

Never-exceed

speed

Vio - Maximum structural cruising speed Vs - Stalling speed, or the minimum steady flight speed at which the aircraft is

controllable

|

Vso - Stalling speed, or minimum steady flight speed in the landing configura-

tion

oo

|

Co

VER - Visual flight rules

9.2 Maintenance Requirements Regulations regarding maintenance requirements can be found in Part 43 of the FARs. What follows is a subset consisting of the regulations most pertinent to glider pilots. For the complete regulations, refer to the specific section in the ccc

Regulations 185

Section 9.2

|

Preventive Maintenance The holder of a pilot certificate may perform preventive maintenance on any aircraft owned or operated by that pilot [43.3(g)]). Preventive maintenance limited to such things as replacing tires; lubrication of parts not requiring disassembly other than removal of nonstructural items such as cover plates; repairing upholstery and cockpit furnishings; making small simple repairs to fairings, nonstructural cover plates, or cowlings; replacing safety belts; replacing or removing batteries; or removing and replacing self-contained, front instrument panel-mounted navigation and communications devices [Part 43, Appendix A(c)].

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oo

Approving Return to Service After maintenance, repairs, or alterations have been made on an aircraft, an authorized person [43.7] must approve the aircraft's return to service [43.5] and record a description of the work performed; the name of the person performing the work; and their signature, certificate number, and kind of certificate held [43.9(a)]. After preventive maintenance, a person holding at least a private pilot certificate may approve an aircraft for return to service [43.7(f)]. For all other maintenance, a certified mechanic or authorized inspector must approve the return to service [43.7(a)-(d)]. Record of Required Inspections A record of the annual inspection, and if required, the 100-hour inspection, must be included in the maintenance records of glider [43.11(a)]. The record must include the type of inspection, a brief description of the extent of the inspection, the date of the inspection, and the aircraft total time in service. the

9.3 Certification of Pilots Regulations regarding the certification of pilots can be found in Part 61 of the FARs. What follows is a subset consisting of the regulations most pertinent to glider pilots. For more information, refer to the specific section in the FARs.

Required Documents To act as pilot in command, you must carry your valid pilot certificate [61.3(a)]. A student pilot certificate and a private pilot certificate are both pilot certificates. As glider pilots, we do not need to have or carry a medical certificate [61.3(c)(2)(iii)]. You must present your pilot certificate for inspection when "requested by any representative of the FAA, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), or any federal, state, or local law enforcement officer [61.3(i)(1)-

G3)

Limitations on a Certificate The certificate you will receive when you complete your training and pass your practical test will be a private pilot certificate with a glider rating [61.5(a)-(b)]. If you have any physical limitations that will not adversely affect safety but will Section

9.3

|

Regulations 186

|

32222223232232333232323332332323232515351213232232323332

cccco

prevent you from performing a required task on the practical test, you may still be issued a certificate, but with the appropriate limitations [61.13(b)(1)].

Denying or Revoking Certification for Drug and Alcohol Use Your application for a pilot certificate or rating can be denied for a period of one year, or if you already have a certificate, can be revoked, you are convicted of

it

if

any federal or state crime regarding drugs [61.15(a)], if you break of the FARs regarding drug or alcohol use [61.15(b)], or if twice within threeany years you are convicted of driving under the influence or driving while impaired by alcohol or drugs [61.15(c)-(d)].

ccccccccc

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If you are convicted of driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs you must inform the Civil Aviation Security Division of the FAA within 60 days [61.15(e)].

Duration of Pilot Certificates

cc

A student pilot certificate has no experiation date [61.19(c)(1)]. Unless it is revoked, a private pilot certificate also does not expire [61.19(c)2)]. The only exception to this rule is if the pilot certificate is issued on the basis of a foreign pilot license. In this case, the U.S. certificate expires when the foreign license expires. Prerequisites for Student Pilot Certificate/Solo To be eligible for a student pilot certificate for gliders, an applicant must be at least 14 years old and be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language [61.83(b)-(c)]. The student must obtain the student pilot certificate before solo, since the certificate, along with the student's logbook, must be endorsed by the instructor before solo [61.87(1)(1)-(2)]. You can apply for student certificate at any Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). |

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a

When applying for a student pilot certificate, you must present identification that contains your photograph, signature, date of birth, and actual residential address [61 35@0)]. This can be a problem for a student without a driver's license. If you don’t have a driver's license, you should make sure to apply for a government ID card (apply at the DMV) or for a passport in advance of when you expect to solo. Before soloing, the student must pass a knowledge test administered by the instructor that covers the items listed in 61.87(b). can be an oral or written test. At the end of the test, the instructor must review with the student all incorrect answers. The student must also have received and logged the flight instruction [61.87(c)] and be proficient the procedures listed in 61.87(i). This

at

Student Pilot Limitations A student pilot may not carry a passenger [61.89(a)(1)] or fly for compensation or hire [61.89(a)(3)]. A student pilot cannot fly solo if the visibility is less than 3 statute miles [61.89(a)(6)], and/or if the student cannot maintain visual contact cca

Regulations 187

Section 9.3

ED IPED

LTE EET 5

with the ground [61.89(a)(7)]. A solo endorsement on a student certificate is good for a maximum of 90 days.

Prerequisites for the Knowledge Test If you already have a private pilot certificate in

a

different category (such as FAA test [61.63(b)(5)]. take have the do to knowledge not airplane), you

Before taking the FAA knowledge test (often referred to as the “written” test), the student must have a logbook endorsement saying that the student has either

received ground instruction in all required areas or has completed a home-study course, and is prepared to take the knowledge test [61.35(a)(1)]. |

When taking the knowledge test, the student must present the same identification required to obtain the student license, which must include the student's photograph, signature, date of birth, and actual residential address. [61.35(a)(2)]. Prerequisites for the Practical Test To be eligible to take the practical test (the oral and flight test) for gliders, you must be at least 16 years old [61.103(b)] and beable to read, speak, write, and EES understand the English language [61.103(c)]. Before taking the practical test, you must have passed the knowledge test within

the previous 24 months [61.39(a)(1)] and present the knowledge test report at the time of the practical test [61.39(a)(2)] (not required for “transition” pilots,i.e, if ~~ you already have a private certificate in another category).

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Before taking the practical test, you must meet certain minimum flight experience requirements. If the glider rating will be your first rating, you must have flight time {61.109(f)(1)], with a minimum of 20 flights logged at least 10 hours

of

and 3 training flights within the 60 days preceding the practical test [61.109(£)(1)()]- In addition, you must have at least 2 hours of solo time, with at a least 10 flights [61.109(f)(1)(ii)]. |

If you already have at least 40 hours of flight time logged in heavier-than-air aircraft, then you only need to have logged a minimum of 3 hours of flight time [61.109(f)(2)], with a minimum of 3 training flights within the 60 days preceding the practical test [61.109(f)(2)(ii)]. In addition, you must have at least 10 solo

flights [61.109(f)(2)1)].

|

|

ET

To take the practical test, you must have an instructor's endorsement in your

logbook stating that you have logged training time in the last 60 days in preparation for the practical test, that you are prepared for the practical test, and that you missed on that you have demonstrated satisfactory knowledge in areas : the knowledge test [61.39(a)(6)].

A

Private Pilot Limitations A private glider pilot cannot carry passengers (or property) for compensation or hire [61.113(a)]. When flying with passengers, the pilot must pay at least the pro Section 9.3

Regulations 188

PPP

rata share of the expenses, which can only include tows, airport expenditures, and rental fees [61.113(c)]. A private pilot can carry a passenger in exchange for a charitable donation ([61.113(d)].

Pilot Logbook ccececececccccceccceccocC

You are only required to log flight time that is used to meet training and

aeronautical experience requirements [61.51(a)(1)] or to prove that you meet the recent flight experience requirements [61.51(a)(2)]. Each logbook entry should contain the date, total flight time, location, type and identification of aircraft [61.51(b)(1)], and the type of pilot experience or training, such as solo, pilot in command, flight training, or ground training [61.51(b)(2)]. Solo time can only be logged when you are the sole occupant of the aircraft [61.51(d)]. Pilot in command time can only be logged for the time you are the sole

manipulator of the controls in an aircraft in which you are rated [61.51(e)(1)], or

if a student pilot, if you are the sole occupant of the aircraft [61.51(e)(4)]. As a student, even if your instructor never touches the controls during a flight, you cannot log the time as pilot in command. |

Training time can only be logged for flight time when you are with a certified flight instructor [61.51(h)(1)]. The logbook entry must be endorsed by the instructor [61.51(h)(2)]. |

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Medical Requirements Glider pilots are not required to have a medical certificate [61.23(b)(1)]. However, you cannot act as pilot in command if you know or have reason to know that you have any medical condition that would prevent you from safely operating the glider [61.53(b)]. |

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Flight Review Requirements A flight review for a glider pilot must consist of a minimum of one hour of ground training and either one hour of flight instruction [61.56(a)] or 3 instructional glider flights to at least pattern altitude [61.56(b)]. The ground training must cover Part 91, General Operating and Flight Rules [61.56(a)(1)]. The flight training must cover the maneuvers and procedures the instructor deems necessary for the pilot to demonstrate safe control of the glider [61.56(a)(2)]. In order to fly, a pilot must have had a flight review since the beginning of the 24th month before the month in which he is flying [61.56(c)]. For example, a pilot who had a flight review on January 1st of 2003 will be legal to fly until January 31st of 2005. The addition of a rating, such as a commercial glider rating or an airplane rating,n counts as a flight review [61.56(d)]. |

Student pilots do not need to get a flight review as long as they are undergoing training and have a current solo flight endorsement. The satisfactory completion of the flight review must be recorded and endorsed

oo

in the student's logbook [61.56(c)].

Regulations 189

Section 9.3

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IDE

ID

Recent Flight Experience . a glider, a pilot must have made at least three takeoffs and To carry passengers landings in a glider as the sole manipulator of the controls within the preceding |

in

90 days [61.57(a)(1)(i)-(ii)].

-

Change of Address You may not fly after changing your mailing address unless you notify the FAA oo within 30 days of the change [61.60]. en |

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Tow Pilot Requirements To tow a glider, a pilot must have a private pilot certificate with an airplane rating [61.69(a)(1)], must have logged at least 100 hours as PIC in the same category of airplane used to tow [61.69(a)(2)], and must have a logbook endorsement saying the pilot has received ground and flight instruction in the techniques and procedures essential to the safe towing of gliders, including airspeed limitations, emergency procedures, and maximum bank angles

DDDDDDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDID

[61.69(a)(3)(i)-(iv)].

In addition, the tow pilot must have made at least three actual or simulated tows in the past 12 months [61.69(6)(i)] accompanied by a qualified tow pilot as defined in 61.69(c)-(d), or have made at least three flights as pilot in command of a glider towed by an aircraft [61.69(6)(ii)]. |

Certificate Issued Based ona Foreign Pilot License A person who holds a valid foreign pilot license (issued by a contracting State to the Convention on International Civil Aviation) may apply for and be issued a private pilot certificate [61.75(a)l. The pilot does not need to demonstrate proficiency as long as the foreign license is valid and current (along with a current medical certificate if required by the foreign license), and as long as the pilot is able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language.

9.4 General Operating Rules

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DDD

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Regulations regarding general operations can be found in Part 91 of the FARs. What follows is a subset consisting of the regulations most pertinent to glider pilots. For more information, refer to the specific section in the FARs. PPPPPPPPPP

Responsibility for Operation of the Aircraft

is

directly responsible This section says very explicitly that the pilot in command for and is the final authority as to the operation of the aircraft [91.3(a)]. You cannot blame the owner of the glider you are renting it breaks: it is your responsibility to ensure it is airworthy. You cannot blame the tow pilot for giving is you a tow in winds that were beyond your abilities or your gliders limits: and abilities based those the decision make on go/no-go your responsibility to limits. You cannot blame the weather briefer if a thunderstorm forces you down in forest: it is your responsibility to terminate the flight if weather conditions

if

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it

a

Section 9.4

-

Regulations 190

PPP

develop that threaten your safety. If you have a tendency to blame others for your problems, practice this sentence: “It was my fault, because I was pilot in command.” 2 |

The

pilot in command

may only deviate from the FARs in order to deal with an in-flight emergency [91.3(b)]. Does landing at a controlled airport without a radio because you got low on a cross-country flight count as an emergency? Do you want try to convince the FAA? Good decision making will keep you far away from most “emergencies”.

to

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Operating Limits You must always operate your glider within the operating limits set out in the manual on the placards in the glider [91.9(a)].

or

Dropping Objects from Aircraft

it

As long as you take reasonable precautions, is legal to drop objects from an aircraft [91.15]. However, please don’t use this rule to litter the countryside with empty soda bottles, dead GPS batteries, and out-of-date sectionals!

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Alcohol or Drug Use No matter what the rules allow, if you, or anyone around you, even thinks that your alcohol or drug use might affect your flying abilities, don’t fly. Specifically, you may not fly if you have consumed any alcoholic beverage within 8 hours [91.17(a)(1)], if you are under the influence of alcohol [91.17(a)(2)], if you have a blood alcohol level of 0.04% or higher [91.17(a)(4)], or if you are using any drug (prescription, over-the-counter, or illegal) that affects flight safety [91.17(a)(3)]. If you are in an accident and have any drugs or alcohol

in your system, you can

be certain that you will be charged with violating this regulation.

Portable Electronic Devices Can you use your cell phone in flight? According to the FARs,the answer yes. Electronic devices are only banned while flying IFR (which you can’t do), or while on airliners [91.21(a)]. The FCC (Federal Communications Commission) may have different rules.

is

Required Preflight Actions The pilot must become familiar with all information concerning the flight [91.103]. For flights not in the vicinity of an airport, this information must include weather reports and forecasts, and for flights, runway lengths at the airports intend to [91.103(a)-(b)]. use you

all

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Seat Belt Use As a “flight crewmember” (i.e., the pilot), you must have your seat belt and shoulder harness fastened during takeoff, landing, and while en route [91.105(a)].

.

Regulations 191

Section 9.4

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passenger, it is your responsibility to instruct the a fasten and unfasten the seat belt and shoulder harness

Before you takeoff with

passenger(s) how to [91.107(a)(1)]. During movement on the surface (this is geared more toward powered aircraft), takeoff, and landing, you are required to notify the passener(s) to have their belts secured [91.107(a)(2)], and every person on board must ave their belt secured [91.107(a)(3)]. |

A.

Formation Flight, Operating Near Other Aircraft You must always stay far enough from other aircraft to avoid creating a collision hazard [91.111(a)]. You may only engage in formation flight if all pilots in command have agreed [91.111(b)]. Formation flight is prohibited if an aircraft is carrying a passenger for hire [91.111(c)]. If two aircraft collide in flight, even if they had agreed to fly in formation, they have obviously broken the rule about “avoiding creating a collision hazard”.

Right of Way Rules ‘Remember that the right of way rules will not protect you from a collision; they will only determine who is most at fault after one occurs. If a power plane flies into a glider, the glider still loses! It is the responsibility of each person operating an aircraft to see and avoid other aircraft [91.113(b)]. Any aircraft in distress has right of way over all others [91.113(c)].

232)022I32327272533252523977373I73I795793I727233232329223

If two aircraft of the same category (for instance, two gliders) are converging, the aircraft to the other’s right has the right of way [91.113(d)]. If two aircraft of different categories are converging, then balloons have the highest right of way,

followed by gliders, airships, airplanes, and then rotorcraft. However, an aircraft towing or refueling another aircraft has the right of way over all other enginedriven aircraft [91.113(d)(1)-(3)]. ST |

If two aircraft are converging head-on, regardless of category, each should alter course to the right [91.113(e)]. If one aircraft is overtaking another, the aircraft being overtaken has the right of way, and the overtaking aircraft should alter

course to the right to pass well clear [91.113(f)].

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in

the air and on the surface. In A landing aircraft has right of way over all others other words, just because a glider has the right of way when converging with an airplane in the air does not mean you can pull your glider out onto the runway in front of an airplane on final. If two aircraft areapproaching the same runway to land, the lower aircraft has the right of way. However, you cannot take advantage of this rule to cut in front of or pass another aircraft on final [91.113(g)].

Minimum Operating Altitudes

it

You should always plan your flight so that you can make

to a safe landing area the without undue hazard to people or property on ground [91.119(a)].

Section 9.4

Regulations 192

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Over congested areas (i.e,, cities, towns, etc.) or gatherings of people, you must at 1,000 feet above the highest object within 2,000 feet of your glider oop

he 91.119(b)].

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Over non-congested areas, you can fly as low as 500 feet above the surface. Over sparsely populated areas or open water, you just have to stay 500 feet above any structures, vehicles, vessels, or people [91.119(c)]. Inspections, Maintenance, Repairs, Alterations The owner or operator is responsible for maintaining the aircraft in airworthy condition [91.403(a)] and keeping maintenance records [91.417(a)]. These records must include the total time on the airframe [91.417(a)(2)(i)], the current inspection status of the aircraft [91.417(a)(2)(iv)], and the status of any applicable airworthiness directives [91.417(a)(2)(v)]. There are several types of inspections that are required at various intervals by the FARs. A glider is not legal to fly unless the applicable inspections have been performed. |

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A glider must have had an inspection within the preceding 12 calendar months (an annual inspection) [91.409(a)(1)]. In addition, if a glider is used for instruction

~

for hire, for ridesfor hire, it must be inspected at least every 100 hours of flight time [91.409(b)].

or

If the glider has a transponder installed, the pilot can only use the transponder it has been inspected within the preceding 24 calendar months [91.413(a)].

if

If an aircraft has had work done on it that may have appreciably changed its flight characteristics or affected its operation, then it must be test flown by an appropriately rated pilot with at least a private pilot certificate before being used to carry a passenger [91.407(b)]. |

Required Documentation For a glider to be legally operated, a current airworthiness certificate [91.203(a)(1)] and an effective registration certificate [91.203(a)(2)] must be on

board the glider.

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Altimeter Settings Before takeoff, the altimeter should be set to the local current altimeter setting, if available [91.121(a)(1)(i)], or to the local field elevation [91.121 (a)(1)(iii)].

flying above 18,000 feet (for instance, when cleared by Air Traffic Control to enter a “wave window”), you must set your altimeter to 29.92 in. Hg. When

[91.121 (a)(2)].

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ATC Clearance If a pilot obtains a clearance from Air Traffic Control (ATC), the pilot must follow the clearance unless an emergency exists, or to avoid a collision Regulations 193

Section 9.4

pilot may not operate an aircraft contrary to an ATC instruction when in controlled airspace [91.123(b)]. If the pilot must deviate from [91.123(a)]. Likewise, a

_a-clearance or instruction, then the pilot must inform ATC as soon as possible [91.123(c)], and if requested by the manager of the ATC facility, must submit a ‘written report regarding the emergency within 48 hours [91.123(d)]. ATC Light Signals Light signals may be used by ATC if radio communication cannot be established of these signals with with an aircraft. The following table shows the meaning [91.125] respect to aircraft both on the surface and in-flight

Cleared for Takeoff

Steady Green Flashing Green

Steady Red

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~

Cleared to Taxi

Figure 9.1

—

Red

In-Flight Cleared for Landing

"

runway in

use

Retum for Landing

aie ipsdoing aircraft and

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Taxi clear of

Flashing White

and Groon

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Stop

Flashing Red

||

Surface

Color/Type

Airport

1 caution

unsafe, do not land

Retumtostatingpointon

NA

Exercise extreme

Exercise extreme caution

ATC light signals

Aircraft Position Lights When you get a private glider rating, you are only an instructor sign-off away from being able to fly a motor glider. Since some motor gliders are able to fly at night, the glider pilot must know the lighting requirements and signals used at night. To operate between sunset and sunrise, an aircraft must have lighted position lights [91.209(a)(1)].

~

Li Oxygen Requirements The pilot must use oxygen when above 12,500 feet MSL for more than 30 minutes [91.211(a)(1)]. The pilot must use oxygen the entire time the glider is above 14,000 feet MSL [91.211(a)(2)]. If carrying a passenger, the passenger must be provided with supplemental oxygen when above 15,000 feet MSL. |

~

Aerobatic Flight Aerobatic flight is defined as an intentional maneuver involving an abrupt change in an aircraft's attitude, an abnormal attitude, or abnormal acceleration, not necessary for normal flight.

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Section 9.4

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Regulations 194

)02)022023202323932257339523I3I323279527393239527235I32

Because of the possible danger to people and property on the ground, aerobatic flight is prohibited over any congested area [91.303(a)] and over an

open-air

BE

assembly of people [91.303(b)].

|

To prevent midair collisions, aerobatics are prohibited within the lateral boundaries of the surface areas of Class B, C, D, and E airspace designated for an airport [91.303(c)], and within 4 nautical miles of the centerline of any federal airway [91.303(d)].

In addition, aerobatics are prohibited below an altitude of 1,500 feet above the surface {91.303(e)], and when visibility is less than 3 statute miles [91.303(f)]. Each occupant of the glider is required to wear an approved parachute if a maneuver will be performed in which the bank angle exceeds 60 degrees

[91.307(c)(1)] or the nose angle exceeds 30 degrees above or below the horizon [91.307(c)(2)]. The only time this does not apply during flight tests [91.307(c)(1)], spin training or other required flight maneuvers [91.307(c)(2)], or when performed by a certified flight instructor [91.307(c)(3)].

is

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To be carried in an aircraft for emergency use, a parachute must have been repacked within the preceding 180 days if made of synthetic material, or within the preceding 60 days made of natural fiber (silk, pongee, etc.) [91.307(a)].

if

Glider Towing A rope used to tow a glider must have a breaking strength of no less than 80% of the maximum certified operating weight of the glider and not more than twice this weight [91.309(a)(3)]. If the rope is stronger than allowed, it must have a safety link (usually referred to as a “weak link”) installed at the point of attachment to the glider that meets these requirements [91.309(a)(3)(i)], and a safety link installed at the point of attachment to the tow plane that stronger, but not more than 25% stronger, than the safety link installed at the glider

is

[91.309(a)(3)(ii)].

Before the flight, the tow pilot and the glider pilot must have agreed upon a course of action, including signals for takeoff and release, airspeeds, and

emergency procedures [91.309(a)(5)]. At most gliderports, this will take the form

of the glider pilot becoming familiar with the procedures during an area

checkout.

Experimental Category Aircraft Many gliders are certified as “experimental”. This means gone through the full certification procedure demanded instead been issued a special airworthiness certificate. cannot be used to carry passengers for. hire [91.319(a)(2)] populated areas or in congested airways [91.319(c)].

that the glider has not by the FAA, but has Experimental aircraft or to fly over densely

cacao

Regulations 195

Section 9.4 |

IDI

9.5 Accident Reporting

|

Federal regulations require that under certain circumstances, you contact the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) when an aircraft is damaged or srsonal injures are sustained as a result of a flight. The goal of the NTSB is to help make aviation safer by identifying and removing any weak areas of the transportation system. Keeping this in mind, the NTSB requires that any aircraft accident [830.5(a)] (when there is serious injury or substantial aircraft damage), as well as any incident that involves control system malfunction or failure [830.5(a)(1 )], in-flight fire [830.5(a)(4)], or midair collision [830.5(a)(5)], be reported immediately. The motivation is to prevent similar accidents from happening if possible. :

In, addition to the immediate notification,

|

a follow-up

report is required of all

accidents, and on incidents when requested. The report must be submitted within 10 days [830.15(a)]. |

|

If you are involved in an accident or incident for which notification must be

given, you must preserve, to the extent possible, any aircraft wreckage. You should not move the wreckage except to remove persons injured or trapped, to rotect the wreckage from further damage, or to protect the public from injury |

|

830.10].

Hopefully, you will memorize this section for the written test and never need to know it again! However, if you ever do find yourself wondering if a certain “event” needs to be reported, just look it up in Title 49, Part 830, of the Code of . Federal Regulations.

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Section 9.5

Regulations 196

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CHAPTER

10: FLIGHT PUBLICATIONS

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issues publications on regulations, operating procedures, aviation facilities, and issues affecting pilots. Most of these

publications are available on the Internet, or they can be purchased from the Government Printing Office or from private publishers.

Remember that as a glider pilot, you are usually only dealing with a very small part of the aviation system. If you ever find yourself needing information on other parts of this system, you will probably find what you need in one of these publications. This chapter gives you an overview of what types of publications are available, and where to find them.

10.1 Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) The Federal Aviation Regulations are the rules developed by the FAA that apply to pilots, aircraft, and flight operations. The FARs are updated as necessary and are published each year. If there is ever a discrepancy between another source and the FARs, the FARs are the final word.

The FARs pertaining to glider operations are covered in Chapter 9: Regulations. The regulations themselves say that you must have access to a copy of the current FARs. Having “access” can mean owning a copy, borrowing one from the library, or having online access. is highly recommended that while you are a student pilot, you have your own printed copy so that you can quickly turn to it while studying, and tag and mark the important parts for easy reference during your practical test.

It

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You can purchase the FARs in printed or digital format at many bookstores, pilot shops, and glider training operations. The FARs are usually sold combined with the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). You can also view the full FARs online at the FAA’s website. |

10.2 Aeronautical Information Manual

(AIM)

The Aeronautical Information Manual is designed to provide the aviation community with basic flight information and air traffic control (ATC) procedures used in the National Airspace System of the United States. Other topics that it covers

include: navigation aids, airport lighting and markings, airspace, emergency procedures, weather services, flight hazards, medical factors, and aeronautical charts. The AIM is not regulatory; rather, it provides information on operating tech-

niques and procedures prescribed in other federal publications and regulations. It is made available solely to assist pilots in executing their responsibilities. Flight Publications 197

Section 10.2

You can purchase the AIM in printed or digital format at many bookstores, pilot shops, and glider training operations. The AIM usually sold combined with the FARs. You can also view the full AIM online at the FAA's website.

is

10.3 Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)

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Notices to Airmen provide information that is considered essential to the safety flight as well as supplemental data affecting charts, the AIM or Chart Supplements. These include Flight Data Center NOTAMSs, which are regulatory in nature and are issued to establish restrictions to flight.

of

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NOTAMs serve as the primary source of new information until it can be incorporated into the next issue of the applicable publication, or of information ‘that is temporary in nature. NOTAMs are issued to report airport or runway closures, changes in the status of navigational aids, airspace restrictions or flight operations. closures, and other changes

to

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An example of a NOTAM from the January 2005 publication is shown below. FDC

~

*

4/4386 FDC SPECIAL NOTICE ... NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM INTERCEPT PROCEDURES. AVIATORS SHALL REVIEW THE FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL (AIM) FOR INTERCEPTION PROCEDURES, CHAPTER 5, SECTION 6, PARAGRAPH 5-6-2. ALL AIRCRAFT OPERATING IN UNITED STATES NATIONAL AIRSPACE, IF CAPABLE, SHALL MAINTAIN A LISTENING WATCH ON VHF GUARD 121.5 OR UHF 243.0. IF AN AIRCRAFT IS INTERCEPTED BY U.S. MILITARY AIRCRAFT AND FLARES ARE DISPENSED, THE FOLLOWING PROCEDURES ARE TO BE FOLLOWED: FOLLOW THE INTERCEPT'S VISUAL SIGNALS, CONTACT AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL IMMEDIATELY ON THE LOCAL FREQUENCY OR ON VHF GUARD 121.5 OR UHF GUARD 243.0, AND COMPLY WITH THE INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN BY THE INTERCEPTING AIRCRAFT INCLUDING VISUAL SIGNALS IF UNABLE RADIO CONTACT. BE ADVISED THAT NONCOMPLIANCE MAY RESULT IN THE USE OF FORCE. :

Pilots should consult the latest NOTAM before conducting a flight. When you weather briefing from an FSS, you will be advised of any current obtain NOTAMs affecting your planned flight. You can also access NOTAMs online.

a

10.4 Chart Supplement

is

published every 8 weeks for each of seven regions A regional Chart Supplement of the continental United States, as shown in Figure 10.1. |

These supplements contain information on airports, communications, navigation ‘aids, instrument landing systems, VOR receiver check points, preferred routes, Flight Service Station/Weather Service telephone numbers, Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) frequencies, and various other pertinent special notices essential to air navigation.

Section 10.4

Flight Publications

198

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South Central, TX

Figure 10.1

—

Chart Supplement Map

The Chart Supplement includes data that cannot be readily depicted in graphic format: for instance, airport hours of operation, types of fuel and services available, runway data, lighting codes, etc. The Chart Supplement also provides a

means

for pilots to update visual navigation charts between editions.

TRUCKEE-TAHOE

UTC-8(-7DT) (TRK) 2E N39°19.20°' W120°08.37" FUEL S4 100LL, JETA1+ 0X2 TPA--7000{1100) RWY 10-28: H7000X100 (ASPH-GRVD) MIRL $-12.5, D-100 RWY 10: REIL. Tree. RWY 01-19: H4650X75 (ASPH) MIRL S-30, D-65 RWY 01: Tree. RWY 18: VASI(V2L)—GA 3.5° TCH 30’. Thid dsplcd 155. Rgt tfc. AIRPORT REMARKS: Attended dusk-dawn. Wildlife on and invof arpt. Sailplanes ops NE of arpt May-Sep. Down drafts may be encountered expect windshear. Summer density altitudes in afternoon often exceed 9000’. Rwy 19 sailplanes left traffic. Ultralight activity on and invof arpt. Rwy 19 dspicd thid not igtd. Rwy 19 Igts begin 400’ from end of rwy. REIL Rwy 10 avb! on req ctc UNICOM. WEATHER DATA SOURCES: AWOS-3 118.0 (530) 587-4599.

5900

B

COMMUNICATIONS: RENO

CTAF/UNICOM

FSS (RNO) TF

OAKLAND

CENTER

SQUAW

VALLEY

APP/DEP CON

Figure 10.2

—

TA

AP

NOTAM FILE TRK.

127.95

NOTAM FILE TVL.

(L) VORW/OME

W120°16.18'

W-24, 1-26,

122.8

1-800-WX-BRIEF.

RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION:

SAN FRANCISCO

113.2

020° 10.3

NM

SWR Chan 79 N39°10.82' to fid. 8850/16E. HIWAS.

Chart Supplement entry for Truckee-Tahoe Airport

Figure 10.2 shows the entry for the Truckee-Tahoe Airport. Note that when using runway 19, sailplanes are to fly a left traffic pattern. At the front of the Chart Supplement a comprehensive legend for decoding the entries.

is

is

The Chart Supplement the only publication described in this chapter that is not on the FAA website. You can purchase Chart Supplements in printed format at Flight Publications 199

Section 10.4

PRP

from the many bookstores and pilot shops. It is also available by subscription National Aeronautics Charting Office Distribution Division (AVN-530), Federal Aviation Administration, Riverdale, Maryland 20737.

10.5 Advisory Circulars

PP

PPP

(ACs)

Advisory Circulars are documents that elaborate on the FARs. ACs describe in detail the more procedural aspects of the FARSs; they are a great source of specific information and clarification. You can look up specifics about asdiverse things as logbook endorsements, thunderstorms, tie-down procedures, or aeronautical decision making (ADM).

Co

Advisory Circulars are numbered by the part of the FARs to which they relate. For example, AC 61-65D pertains to FAR Part 61. Figure 10.3 shows the topic categories corresponding to the AC numbers.

PP

PPP

PPP

|

Code

|

0]

|

20

Topic

General

PPP

Aircraft

|

60

0 Figure 10.3

—

Airmen

PPP

Airspace PPP

Advisory Circular subject codes

i

The following list will give you an indication of the range of subjects covered by Advisory Circulars:

Co

PPP

AC00-6A: Aviation Weather for Pilots and Flight Operations Personnel AC 20-106: Aircraft Inspection for General Aviation Aircraft Owners

PPP

AC 20-107A: Composite Aircraft Structure

Awareness AC 61-67B: Stall Spin

PPP

AC 91-61: Hazard in Aerobatics: G-Forces on Pilots ~

AC91-35: Noise, Hearing Damage, and Fatigue

|

in General Aviation Pilots

PPP

Some ACs are available free, while for others there is a cost. You can order free ACs from the FAA, and ACs for which there is a charge from the Government Printing Office. All are also available on the Internet. Section 10.5

Flight

Publications 200

PPP

To obtain the Guide to FAA Publications and Advisory Circular Checklist, send a written request to: U.S. Department of Transportation

SvC-121.21

Washington, DC 20590 To obtain free ACs, send a written request to: U.S. Department of Transportation

TASC, Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC-121.23

Ardmore East Business Center 3341 Q 75th Avenue Landover, MD 20785

~

FAX (301) 386-5394

(Requests are accepted only by mail and fax.)

To obtain ACs for which there is a charge, contact:

Superintendent of Documents P.O.Box 371954 Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954 (202) 512-1800 (Order Desk)

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Flight Publications

201

Section 10.5

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Section 10.5

Flight Publications

202

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CHAPTER

11: AIRSPACE

The national airspace system was developed to allow many types of aircraft to safely use the skies at the same time. In this chapter, you will learn about the

different types of airspace and the requirements for using them,

11.1 Why Have Airspace? Encountering the airspace systemfor

the first time, many student pilots wonder this cumbersome is To why complicated, answer this question, system necessary. we need to look at what goes on in the airspace environment. |

The Airspace Environment In the early days of aviation, there weren't many aircraft in the sky, and instruments allowing safe flight in clouds had not been invented. In this environment, the only airspace rule was to keep an eye outside of the cockpit to make sure you didn’t hit another plane. The rule was “see and avoid”. the visibility was less than about one mile, you stayed onthe ground.

If

As technology progressed, gyroscopic instruments were developed which allowed a pilot to fly without the need for visual referenceto the horizon, and navigation tools were invented which allowed a pilot to navigate without reference to ground-based landmarks. This meant hen airplanes could fly in clouds. This complicated the airspace environment. When flying in a cloud,

it is impossible for a pilot to see other traffic. Fortunately,

radar was invented, allowing someone on the ground to keep track of, and direct traffic. Thus, air traffic control (ATC) was born.

pilot must now fly under instrument flight rules (IFR). The a pilot must stay in contact with ATCat all times and comply with ATC instructions. To fly in clouds,

to

Pilots who don’t need to or don’t want fly in clouds can fly under visual flight rules (VFR). Gliders are always required to fly under VFR. The challenge now is to keep VER and IFR traffic from colliding. The first thing the FAA did was to divide the sky into the two main categories of airspace: Class G, flight controlled and uncontrolled. In uncontrolled airspace, desi in clouds is not permitted. In most controlled airspace, both VFR and IFR flight are permitted. Most of the sky below 18,000 feet is classified as Class E airspace. Class E airspace is shared by VFR traffic, which is not under ATC, and IFR traffic, which is.

bp

FR

There is still a danger of collision between VFR and TFRaircraft when an aircraft is flying out of a cloud. A VFR aircraft right next to the cloud would not Airspace 203

|

Section 11.1

have enough time to see and avoid the IFR aircraft. This is why the FAA established cloud clearance and minimum visibility requirements for VER traffic. These requirements will be explained later for each class of airspace. A busy airport is another area where collisions are possible. To minimize the danger of collision near busy airports, the FAA established areas of positive control (all aircraft flying in a positive control area are directed by ATC) around these airports and established control towers. Even VFR traffic is controlled by ATC when in these airspaces. Different classes of controlled airspace have been created to meet the needs of large (Class B), medium (Class C), and small (Class D) airports. The remaining airports are uncontrolled.

At high altitudes (above 18,000 feet), aircraft speeds tend to be very high, often exceeding 500 mph. With closing speeds greater than 1000 mph, can be very difficult to see another aircraft until it is too late to avoid a collision. The airspace above 18,000 feet therefore is controlled airspace, designated as Class A.

of

it

of

The remainder this chapter will explain in detail each of the classes of airspace, as well as other, special use airspaces. Remember in the following discussion that the procedures explained are for VFRaircraft. The procedures for IFR aircraft are much different as they are directed by ATC during their entire flight. 11 .2

Controlled Airspace

Controlled airspace includes Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace. In Classes A,B,C, and D, ATC is mandatory for all aircraft. In Class E, ATC is mandatory only for

IFR flights.

The depiction of controlled airspace on aeronautical charts is covered in Chapter 12:

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation.

Class A Airspace Class A airspace and rules were created to prevent collisions between the high-speed aircraft that fly at high altitudes.

its

Configuration Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet MSL to FL600. (FL stands for flight level. FL600 is 60,000 feet.) When you are above 18,000 feet, you are required by the FARs to set your altimeter to 29.92 in.

Entry Procedure VER flight is prohibited

Hg.

in Class A airspace unless special permission has been i

obtained. Some gliderports near mountainous areas have obtained “wave

windows” which ATC can open to allow glider flights above 18,000 feet when wave conditions exist. You must be certain that the window is open and that you are in the right area before climbing above 18,000 feet. Normally, the local Section 11.2 )

Airspace 204

D3332333233233333322333333323313332333231233233232322D

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCccc

gliderport management will coordinate the opening of the wave window with

ATC.

Cloud Clearance/ Visibility Requirements

When flying in a Class A wave window, you should stay clear of clouds. When a wave window is open, all IFR traffic is routed around the window, so the only other traffic you should have to worry about other gliders.

is

Class

B

Airspace

Class B airspace surrounds the country’s most congested airports. The majority of traffic at a Class B airport is commercial airliners. Student pilots are not allowed into most Class B airspace. To fly in the airspace surrounding one of the few Class B airports that do allow student pilots, the student required to have a logbook endorsement from an instructor allowing the student to fly in that specific airport's airspace.

is

Aircraft separation is provided by ATC to all aircraft in Class

B

airspace.

There really should never be an occasion for a glider pilot to enter Class

B

airspace.

Configuration Most Class B airspaces are shaped like an upside-down wedding cake, as shown

in Figure 11.1.

Figure 11.1

—

Typical Class

B

airspace configuration

The configuration allows approaching and departing aircraft to remain in the airspace, while allowing VFR traffic some access to the lower levels near the

airport.

Required Equipment

A two-way radio is required to fly in Class B airspace since contact must be maintained with ATC. A mode-C transponder is required to enter Class B airspace so that the controllers will accurately know your position and altitude. Airspace 205

Section 11.2

is

also required within 30 nautical miles For most aircraft, a mode-C transponder (NM) of a Class B airport when below 10,000 feet MSL. This is called the mode-C veil. However gliders are allowed to fly in the mode-C veil without a transponder as long as they stay below the top of the associated Class B (or C)

airspace.

Entry Procedure Before entering Class B airspace, you must obtain ATC clearance. Cloud Clearance/ Visibility Requirements

Since separation services are provided by ATC for Class B airspace, the only cloud clearance requirement for VFR aircraft is that they stay clear of clouds.

Class C Airspace Class C airspace surrounds airports that have a significant amount of traffic, but less traffic than a Class B airport. In Class C airspace, aircraft separation is provided by ATC only to IFR and special VFR aircraft. Configuration Class C airspace usually consists of a 5 NM radius core surface area that extends from the surface up to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation, and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends from no lower than 1,200 feet up to 4,000 feet above the

IDIDIIIIDIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII)

airport elevation.

Figure 11.2

—

Typical Class C airspace configuration

Class C airspace areas have a procedural “Outer Area”. Normally this area is 20 NM from the primary Class C airspace airport. This outer area is not charted. Required Equipment

A two-way radio is required to fly in Class C airspace since contact must be maintained with ATC. A mode-C transponder is required within and above all Class C airspace up to 10,000 feet MSL.

Aircraft without engine-driven electrical systems (i.e., gliders) are allowed to fly below Class C airspace. They are not allowed to fly above Class C airspace unless at an altitude of greater than 10,000 feet MSL. DDI

Section 11.2

Airspace 206 DI)

Entry Procedure You must establish two-way radio communication with ATC before entering Class C airspace. If you call ATC and they respond with your registration number, then you are cleared to enter. If they respond with your registration number and the phrase “remain clear of Class C airspace”, then you do not have clearance, even though radio communication has been established. Cloud Clearance/ Visibility Requirements

In Class C airspace, you must maintain 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontal separation from clouds. The visibility must be at least 3 statute miles to operate under VFR in Class C airspace. Class D Airspace Class D airspace is established around airports with a moderate amount of traffic. At some Class D airports, the control tower is not open 24 hours a day. Class D airspace exists only when the tower is operating. If the tower is closed but weather information is available, then the airspace reverts to surface-based Class E. (Class E airspace will be explained in the next section.) If the tower closed and no weather information is available, the airspace reverts to Class G.

is

Since most Class D airports do not have radar, aircraft separation services are not provided in Class D airspace. cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccecccc

Configuration Class D airspace is usually configured as a 5 NM radius cylinder centered on the runway, extending to 2,500 feet AGL, as shown in Figure 11.3.

Figure 11.3

—

Typical Class D airspace configuration

Required Equipment

Class D airports typically do not have radar coverage, so a transponder is not required; however, a two-way radio is. Entry Procedures You must establish two-way radio communication with the control tower before entering Class D airspace. If you call the tower and they respond with your Nnumber, you are cleared to enter. If they respond with your N-number and the phrase “remain clear of Class D airspace”, you do not have clearance, even

though radio communication has been established. Airspace 207

Section 11.2

ID)

ID

ID IN

Cloud Clearance/ Visibility Requirements

In Class D airspace, you must maintain 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontal separation from clouds. The visibility must be at least 3 statute miles and the ceiling 1,000 feet AGL to operate under VER in Class D airspace.

|

Class E Airspace |

Class E airspace is shared by controlled (IFR) and uncontrolled (VFR) traffic. Configuration

Most Class E airspace is not associated with an airport, with the exception that at some airports without control towers, Class E airspace extends either all the way to the surface (surface-based) or to within 700 or 1,200 feet of the surface. You will learn how to determine the extent of Class E airspace in Chapter 12: Aeronautical Charts and Navigation. Required Equipment

No special equipment

is required to fly VFR in Class E airspace.

Entry Procedures

|

There are no requirements for entering Class E airspace. Cloud Clearance/ Visibility Requirements Below 10,000 feet MSL in Class E airspace, you must maintain 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontal separation from clouds. The visibility must be at least 3 statute miles to operate under VFR in Class E airspace.

At higher altitudes, airspeeds tend to be higher, and a pilot's vision tends to deteriorate, so the cloudclearance and visibility requirements are more stringent. Above 10,000 feet MSL in Class E airspace, you must maintain 1,000 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 1 statute mile horizontal Separation from clouds, and the 5 miles. be at must visibility least statute |

Federal Airways

Federal airways are routes between VORs (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Ranges). They are often referred to as “Victor” airways. They are indicated on sectionals by a light blue bold line and are labeled with the heading and a number proceeded by the letter “V”. Federal airways are Class E airspace. They extend from 1,200 feet AGL to 18,000 feet MSL and are 8 NM wide. Where airways converge, you should exercise extreme caution because of the increased likelihood of encountering traffic. When climbing or descending near is recommended to execute gentle turns left and right to visually an airway, scan the airspace.

it

Section 11.2

Airspace

PIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDID

11.3 Uncontrolled Airspace There is only one class of uncontrolled airspace, and that is Class G.

Class G Airspace

is

Class G airspace is what left when Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace has been counted for. There is no depiction of Class G airspace on charts. Cloud Clearance/ Visibility Requirements

The cloud clearance and visibility requirements for Class G airspace are designed to help pilots meet their responsibility of seeing and avoiding other aircraft. In Class G airspace below 1,200 feet AGL, you must keep clear of clouds, and the visibility must be at least 1 statute mile.

Above 1,200 feet AGL, the requirements for Class G are the same as for Class E, except the visibility can be 1 statute mile during the day instead of 3 when below 10,000 feet MSL.

The chart shown in Figure 11.4 summarizes the airspace requirements for daytime VER flight. (The requirements for night flight are different.) Class

A

Class

B

Class C

Class

D

Class E

Class G

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Entry

Prerequisites

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Private

Certificate

Qualifications

Two-Way

Radio Required? Mode-C Transponder Required?

>10,000 feet:

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— Latitude and longitude lines. There are 60 nautical miles between each latitude line. The spacing between longitude lines decreases as you move from the equator to the poles.

Figure 12.1

Latitude lines run east-west. The equator is the latitude line that runs around the Earth half way between the North and South Pole. The equator designated as

is

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 213

Section 12.1

latitude 0°. Latitude is measured in degrees north, or south of the equator, with the poles being 90°. north-south. Longitude is measured Longitude lines, also called meridians, run in degrees east or west of the prime meridian, the line of longitude that runs through Greenwich, England. Each degree of latitude or longitude is divided into 60 equal segments called minutes. Each minute can further be divided into 60 seconds. Minutes and seconds are sometimes written as just the minutes with decimals. For example, 41° 36’ 30” could also be written 41° 36.5". Latitude and longitude lines are printed and labeled on all aeronautical charts. |

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Figure 12.2 — Determining latitude and longitude Note that the ticked lines are spaced at minute oo (one-half degree) intervals.

The location of any point on Earth can be specified byits latitude and longitude. In Figure 12.2, the airport shown is located at 36° 47.5’ N, 121° 38.0’ W.

i

A common error in determining latitude and longitude is to misinterpret the 30minute lines as degree lines. Notice in the example above that the middle latitude line is 37°, the top one is 37° 30’, and the lower one is 36° 30". Also, the north (inthe Northern Hemisphere), and remember that latitude increases

longitude increases to the

to

west.

Time Zones The meridians are also useful for designating time zones. A day is defined as the time required for the Earth to make one complete rotation of 360°. Since the day is divided into 24 hours, the Earth revolvesat the rate of 15°aan hour. Noon is the Section 12.1

Aeronautical Charts and Navi 214

D3220D023232302333333333332323523232233333233233232

‘time when the sun is directly above a meridian, morning when it is east afternoon when it is west of :

it.

of

it, and

|

|

The standard practice is to establish a time zone for each 15° of longitude. This makes a difference of exactly one hour between each zone. In the United States, there are four time zones: Eastern (75°), Central (90°), Mountain (105°), and Pacific (120°). The dividing lines are somewhat irregular because communities

near the boundaries often find it more convenient to be on the same time as oo neighboring communities or trade centers. |

|

Figure 12.3 shows the time zones in the United States. When the sun is directly above the 90th meridian, it is noon Central Standard Time. At the same time, will be 1 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, 11 a.m. Mountain Standard Time, and 10 a.m. Pacific Standard Time. When “daylight saving” time is in effect, generally between the last Sunday in April and the last Sunday in October, the sun is directly above the 75th meridian at noon, Central Daylight Time.

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Mountain 11:00AM

Figure 12.3 - Time zones The change in time between zones must be taken into account during long flights, especially when on an eastbound flight that must be completed before dark. Remember, an hour is lost when flying eastward from one time zone to

another, or perhaps even when flying from the western edge to the eastern

edge

of the same time zone. You should determine the time of sunset at the destination by consulting a flight service station (AFSS/FSS) or the National Weather Service (NWS) and take this into account when planning an eastbound flight. Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 215

Section 12.1

In most aviation operations, time is expressed in terms of the 24-hour clock. Air traffic control instructions, weather reports and broadcasts, and estimated times of arrival are all based on this system. For example, 9:00 a.m. is expressed as 0900, 1:30 p.m. is 1330, and 10:45 p.m. 2245.

is

Because a pilot may cross several time zones during a flight, for convenience, a standard time system has been adopted. It is called Universal Coordinated Time the time at the prime (UTC) and is often referred to as Zulu time. UTC

is

meridian passing through Greenwich, England. All time zones around the world are in reference to UTC. To convert to UTC,do the following: Eastern Standard Time

Add 5 hours

Central Standard Time

Add 6 hours

Mountain Standard Time Add 7 hours Pacific Standard Time

.

Add 8 hours

For daylight saving time, one hour should be subtracted from the calculated times.

12.2 VFR Aeronautical Charts Aeronautical charts are the “road maps” for a pilot flying under visual flight rules (VFR). These charts provide information that allows you to track your tha t enhances safety. The charts most often used by position and information glider pilots are:

Lal

®

*

Sectional charts VFR terminal area charts

Aeronautical charts are maintained and published by the National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO). They may be obtained directly from NACO or at most pilot shops. Sectionals Sectional charts are the most common charts used by glider pilots. The charts have a scale of 1:500,000 (1 inch = 6.86 nautical miles or approximately 8 statute miles), which allows relatively detailed information to be depicted on the chart. The charts provide an abundance of information, including airport data, navigational aids, airspace, and topography. For the continental U.S., sectionals

are revised semiannually.

Section 12.2

|

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation

216

|

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Each sectional covers an area of roughly 1,000 square miles and is named for a major city within its area of coverage. :

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VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC) Visual flight rule terminal area charts are helpful when flying in or near Class B airspace. They have a scale of 1:250,000 (1 inch = 3.43 nautical miles or approximately 4 statute miles). These charts provide more detailed topographical information than sectional charts and are revised semiannually (except for several Alaskan and Caribbean charts).

Areas covered by VER terminal area charts are indicated on sectional charts by a quarter-inch white line labeled with the letters “TAC”. The locations

that are covered by TACs are shown in the following figure.

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation

217

Section 12.2

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Figure 12.5

—

Terminal Area Chart coverage

12.3 Reading Aeronautical Charts The descriptions and examples in this section are for sectional charts. However, TACs use similar conventions. The chart legend lists various aeronautical symbols as well as information

concerning terrain and contour elevations.

Physical Features The elevation and configuration of the Earth's surface are certainly of importance to pilots, as is the ability to determine their position with respect to clearly identifiable landmarks. Terrain

Points of equal elevation are connected by lines called contour lines. On sectional charts, basic contours are spaced at 500-foot intervals. Intermediate contours may also be shown at 250-foot intervals in moderately level or gently rolling areas. 50, 100, 125, or 150-foot intervals may be used Occasionally, auxiliary contours to portray smaller relief features in areas of relatively low relief.

at

DIDI

DDI

Section 12.3

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 218 DI)

Figure 12.6

—

Contour lines

The pattern and spacing of contour lines gives you a visual concept of the terrain. Widely spaced contours represent gentle slopes, while closely spaced contours represent steep slopes.

Shaded relief is a depiction of how the terrain might appear from the air. The cartographer shades the areas that would appear in shadow if illuminated by a light from the northwest. Studies have indicated that our visual perception has been conditioned to this view.

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

Figure 12.7

tints

—

Terrain shading

are used to depict bands of elevation. These colors range from light light yellow for the mid-elevations and brown green for the lowest elevations for the higher elevations. Color

to

Obstructions

Obstruction symbols are used to depict man-made vertical features that may be a hazard to aircraft. NACO maintains a file of over 90,000 obstacles in the United States, Canada, the Caribbean, and Mexico. Cartographers evaluate each obstacle before it is added to the visual charts. When the position or elevation of an obstacle is unverified, it is marked “UC” (under construction or reported but not verified).

Aeronautical Charts

219

and Navigation

Section 12.3

Generally, only man-made structures extending more than 200 feet above ground level are charted. Objects 200 feet or less are charted only if they are considered particularly hazardous: for example, when they are much higher than the surrounding terrain or near an airport. Examples offeatures considered obstacles to low-level flight are antennas, tanks, factories, lookout towers, and smokestacks.

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A

< 1000 feet AGL

A

> 1000 feet AGL

MA MN

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of Highestit Height eight of I

Steuctre Inwoup. Under Constyuction or Unverified *

Obstructions Figure 12.8 ~

The height of the structure above ground level and:the elevation of the top of the

obstacle above sea level are shown when known or when they can be reliably determined by the cartographer. The height above groundlevel is shown in parentheses below the elevation above mean sealevel of the top of the obstacle. For extremely congested areas, the AGL values may be omitted to avoid confusion. $

Obstacles are portrayed wherever possible. Since legibility would be impaired if all obstacles within city complexes or high density groups of obstacles were portrayed, only the highest obstacle in such an area is shown using a group obstacle symbol. Man-made features that can be seen clearly from the air and can be used as landmarks may be indicated by pictorial symbols shown in black with the elevation data in blue, as shown in i Figure 12.9

Section 12.3

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 220

-

232223223223322322232333232273232332332333233I323I3232I32

cccccca

5540 (650)

GARFIELD

STACK

Figure 12.9 The

—

Pictorial obstruction

flag at the top of the symbol

indicates

purposes.

symbol

it is used as a checkpoint for control

Maximum Elevation Figures

On sectionals, the elevation of the highest known feature in each area bounded by the ticked latitude and longitude lines is indicated by what is called a Maximum Elevation Figure (MEF). Both natural and manmade features (towers, trees, etc.) are taken into account. :

adas

ag

dessa

ss

tacasfaaga

fsa

ated alii

ds

a

ateaaateaiadag 121°

Hig ]

135

125

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCeecace

Aisi]

dtdatisis didaata

Figure 12.10

—-

cas tan

ea

daa

adi iad de aaah bea

aa

dia

Maximum Elevation Figures

MEFs report elevation in hundreds of feet. In this example, the MEF reports 13,500 feet in the area to the left, and 12,500 feet in the area to the right. MEFs are shown for landmasses as well as for open water areas containing man-made obstacles such as oil rigs. You should be aware that while MEFs are based

on the best information available to the cartographer, the figures are not verified by field surveys. Landmarks

Many landmarks that can be easily recognized from the air, such as stadiums, pumping stations, refineries, etc., are identified by brief descriptions adjacent to small black squares marking their location. Oil wells and water, oil, and gas tanks are shown by small circles and are labeled accordingly. Many items are depicted larger than scale on the charts for improved legibility. Aeronautical Charts and Navigation |

221

:

Section 12.3

Populated Areas

Densely populated areas appear as yellow shaded areas. The shape of the shaded area roughly corresponds to the shape of the populated area. Often, you can shape, especially given reference to nearby roads. identify a town by

its

Yellow

Cities

O Figure 12.11

—

Small Towns

Populated areas

Smaller towns are indicated by an open circle. The name of the town is printed 8 next to the symbol. |

Roads/Railroads

Roads and railroads are usually easy to spot from the air. By determining your position in relation to them, you should be able to quickly locate your position on a sectional.

Dual lane highways are indicated by a double grey line. Single lane roads are indicated by a single grey line. Major roads are sometimes labeled with their name or route number. Secondary roads are indicated by a thin grey line. Roads ed

80

Dual Lane

404

Single Lane

Secondary

yy

Railroads

a"

1

0

3

}

)

#

)

|

Figure 12.12

-

—

-

18

in

12

in

Single Track Double Track More than Two Tracks

Roads and railroads

Railroads are indicated by a line with tic marks. Single-track railroads are marked by single tic marks. Double-track railroads are marked by double tic Section 12.3

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation

222

33232323333333333333333333333333333333333233)

marks. Railroads with more than two tracks are marked by double tic marks and labeled with the number of tracks. Bodies of Water

When they are not frozen or covered by snow, lakes and rivers make excellent landmarks. Both the shape and position of lakes, rivers, and dams are shown on charts, as in Figure 12.13. Feranni] Lacs

Non-Perennial Lake

River

Figure 12.13 Lakes

—

Bodies of water

that rise and become full in the rainy season but may be dry the rest of the

year are shown as “non-perennial lakes”. These are harder to use as landmarks since their shape may vary. ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccceccc

Isogonic Lines

The magnetic poles do not correspond exactly with the geographic poles. The angle between true north and magnetic north varies depending on your location. This angle is called variation. Lines of constant variation are called isogonic lines. The 0° isogonic line is known as the agonic line. A map of isogonic lines is shown

in Figure 12.14.

Easterly Variation 0°15°

Westerly Variation 10° 5° 0°5°10°

15°

20°

10°

Figure 12.14

—

Isogonic chart

Isogonic lines are shown on charts as dashed magenta lines labeled with the variation, as shown in Figure 12.15. Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 223

Section 12.3

ETgr —

”~

~~

Figure 12.15

*

—

Isogonic

line

In some areas, geological formations create local magnetic disturbances. In these areas, a callout box specifies the amount of local variation to be expected.

Ns

Airports

are plotted in their true geographic position unless the symbol conflicts Alrports with a NAVAID (radio aid to navigation) at esame location. In such cases, airport symbol will be displaced, but the relative )position between the airport and the NAVAID will be retained.

the

Military airports are identified by abbreviations: for example, AFB, NAS, AAF, and NAAS. Civilian airports are identified by their-designated name. Generic parts of long airport names (such as "airport,” "field,” or "municipal”) and the first names of persons are commonly omitted unless they are needed to distin: guish one airport from another with a similar name. |

|

|

O

Other than hardsurfaced runways

=i ©

Hard-surfaced runways 1,500 to 8,069 feet Hard-surfaced runways

greater than 8,069 feet ‘Seaplane

oo

base

Military airport -

other

than hard-surfaced

© © Figure 12.16

2373I3I322322322322023I7I23I73I523I9I022900020I9320I902I0I0

—

Services available

Rotating beacon

i

Basic airport symbols

Airports with a control tower are shown in blue; those without one are shown in magenta. The basic airport symbols are shown in Figure 12.16. If hard-surfaced runways exist, the airport symbol resembles the actual layout of the runways. Tick marks around the basic airport symbol indicate that fuel is available and the airport is tended Monday through Friday 10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. local time. Section 12.3

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 224

aeeacacceccaaeccacacaecocacacacccacccaccccccccccccccccccaccac

Figure 12.17 shows the symbols used to denote limitations or hazards associated with an airfield. Airfields marked with a circled R are either private or restricted. These should be used only in an emergency or with prior authorization. Unverified airfields are represented by a circled U. They indicate that a landing area is available, but that more than ordinary precaution should be taken due to lack of current information on field condition, or information indicating peculiar operating limitations. |

Restricted or Private

OG Unverified

Heliport

ROO

Ultralight Flight Park

Abandoned

Figure 12.17 — Restricted use airfields

A circled H indicates a heliport. Heliports are not

of much use to a glider

pilot.

A circled F indicates an ultralight flight park. While this type of field might have some limitations, it would probably be useable for a glider if necessary.

Glider pilots should avoid airports marked abandoned, unless a specific airport is known to be in useable condition. Even then, it should be used only in emergencies. Figure 12.18 explains the coded data that is provided for an airport. There is no need to memorize these explanations, since the information is included in the legend on all sectionals. The elevation of an airport is the highest point of the usable portion of the landing areas. Runway length is the length of the longest active runway, including displaced thresholds and excluding overruns. Runway length is shown to the nearest 100 feet, with 70 as the division point; a runway 8070 feet long is charted as 81, while a runway 8069 feet long is charted as 80.

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 225

Section 12.3

FSS

NO

SVFR

OEAMEINAM)

CT-118.3*@

ATIS - 123.8 ASOS/ AWOS 135.42

897 L110 122.95 RP 23,34

VFR Advsy

125.0

FSS - Flight Service Station on field NO SVFR - Airports where fixed wing special visual fight rules operations are prohibited (shown above airport name) FAR. 91 - Indicates FAR. 93 Special A Traffic Rules and Airport Traffic Pattems

[1 ©

(NAM)

CT

-118.3 *

® ATIS

233I32323032333933302022322323232322222022222)

- Airport Surveillance Radar

- Location identifier - Control Tower (CT) «- primary Wsquency - Star indicates operation part-time. See tower frequencies tabulation for hours of operation

- Indicates Common Traffic

123.8 -

Advisory Frequences (CTAF)

Automatic Tenminal information Service

ASOS/ AWOS 135.42 - Automated Surface Weather (Shown when full-time ATIS isnot available) Obs

897

Some ASOS/AWOS facilities may not located at akport.

be

- Elevation infeet Alrport/Facility

Directory. rumiay

1

foo

undrods of usable lengthmaybe UNICOM - Aeronautical advisory station RP 23,34 - Runways with Right Traffic Pattems (public use) RP* - (See Airport/Facility Directory) VFR Advsy 125.0 - VFR Advisory Service shown where ATIS Is not exvaliable ard frequency Is CT frequency. offer fan

110 -~Langih of longest

less.

priary

Figure 12.18

—

Coded airport data

The lighted runway may not be the longest runway available, and may not be lighted alongits full length. A detailed description airport and air navigation lighting aids available at each airport can be found in the Airport/Facility Directory.

of |

3302002230

Section 12.3

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation

226

|

Controlled Airspaces ~

The rules and regulations associated with controlled airspace were discussed in Chapter 11: Airspace. In this section, you will learn how controlled airspace is depicted on sectional charts. Class B Airspace

The boundaries of Class B airspace are marked on sectional charts by solid, bold blue lines. The MSL ceiling and floor altitudes of each sector are shown as solid

blue

figures with the last two digits dropped.

|

Blue

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCcCCCCCCCCC

Figure 12.19

—

Class B airspace depiction on charts

In the example in Figure 12.19, you can see that the outer layer of the airspace ‘extends from 7,000 feet MSL to 10,000 feet MSL, the middle layer from 4,000 feet MSL to 10,000 feet MSL, and the inner layer from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL. Typically, the upper limit of Class B airspace is at 10,000 feet MSL. Separate notes enclosed in magenta boxes give the approach control frequencies to be used by arriving VFR aircraft to establish two-way radio communication before entering the Class B airspace. Mode-C Veil

The mode-C veil depicts mode-C required airspace (from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL) within a 30 NM radius of the primary airport(s) for which a Class B airspace is designated. a

MODE C

30 NM Figure 12.20

—-

Mode-C veil

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation

227

Section 12.3

It is depicted by a solid magenta line and labeled “MODE C” and “30 NM". A segment of a mode-C veil is shown in Figure 12.20. Class C Airspace

The boundaries of class C airspace are marked on sectional charts by solid, bold magenta lines. The MSL ceiling and floor altitudes of each sector are shown as solid magenta figures with the last two digits eliminated. If the ceiling number is replaced by the letter “T”, the Class C airspace extends to the floor of the overriding Class B airspace. |

|

Lr

Separate notes enclosed in magenta boxes give the approach control frequencies to be used by arriving VFR aircraft to establish two-way radio communication before entering the Class C airspace. Class D Airspace

The boundary of Class D airspace is marked by a dashed blue line. The ceiling of feet. the airspace is shown in blue in brackets as the altitude MSL in hundreds "from surface but not to A minus sign in front of the figure is used to indicate including”. Figure 12.21 illustrates how Class D airspace is depicted on a sectional chart.

of

|

Ceiling of Class D Airspace at 3,200 feet MSL

Figure

12.21

—

332213322323333323332333333333333333133313313133213)

Class D airspace depiction on charts

In this example, the Class D airspace exists inside the dashed blue circle, from the surface to 3,200 feet MSL. Class D airspace that operates less than continuously is indicated by a note in a callout box. Class E Airspace Class E airspace begins at 1,200 feet AGL unless designated otherwise and extends to the overlying Class A airspace at 18,000 feet MSL. |

|

A dashed magenta line indicates areas where Class E airspace extends all the way to the surface. Section 12.3

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 228

E Class E

/

lI

/

-

1,200 feet AGL

”

Tay ~

Class

-

-

Surface

\\

\

Magenta

Figure 12.22 — Class E airspace extends inside the magenta dashed circle.

to the surface

These areas are often found around airports that have no control tower but do have instrumentation to allow IFR traffic to make precision approaches. They are also often added as extensions to Class C or D airspace.

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccec

An area on the sectional enclosed by magenta shading, as shown in Figure 12.23, indicates that the Class E airspace starts at 700 feet AGL inside the shading, and at 1,200 feet AGL outside of the shading. Class E - 1,200 feet AGL

Class E - 700 feet AGL

Magenta

Figure 12.23 — Class E airspace starts at 700 feet AGL inside of the shaded magenta circle.

If the shading is blue instead of magenta, then the Class E airspace starts at 1,200 feet AGL inside the shading and at 14,500 feet AGL outside the shading. Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 229

Section 12.3

E DPN

In some areas, especially over higher terrain where radar service is not available, Class E airspace is indicated by a staggered blue line shown with the floor of the airspace, as in Figure 12.24.

IPP

DD

7500

DDD

MSL

ID

Floor of Class E- at 7,500 feet MSL

DIDI

Blue

Floor of Class

Figure 12.24

—

at 1,200 feet

IDI

AGL

ID

Class E airspace box

ID

In this example, the floor of the Class E airspace is 7.500 feet MSL inside the box and, by default, 1,200 feet AGL outside the box. ~~ |

Radio Aids to Navigation (NAVAID) On visual charts, information about radio aids to navigation is shown in a box as in Figure 12.25. Not every NAVAID box will have of the fields shown.

IDIDIDIDIDID

all

FSS Frequencies

Operates less than continous

ID

J

"TWEB

IDIDIDIDIDIDIDIDID

Identification

Freq. and Channel

Operational

Figure 12.25

—

Notes

Radio NAVAID information box

in

The letter “T” a circle in the upper right corner of the box indicates that you can listen to a transcribed weather briefing (TWEB)onthis NAVAID frequency. The letter “H” in this location would indicate a ‘hazardous in-flight weather

IDI

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 230

ID

Section 12.3

ID

oo

IDI

CCCCCCCCeCeeeeceeeeeceeeceecececccececececcececce

~

advisory service (HIWAS) broadcast, while an “A” would indicate an automated weather observing station (AWOS) or an automated surface observation system (ASOS) broadcast. A VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range) is always represented on a sectional in the middle of a compass rose. The rose is aligned with magnetic north. A typical VOR is shown in Figure 12.26.

OAKDALE

*116,8 OAK

Figure 12.26

—

Z2o

VOR symbol

a

When a VOR, VORTAC, or VOR-DME is located on an airport, the VOR symbol is not shown. Instead, the symbol has a small open circle where the VOR is located. VOR symbols areairport shown in Figure 12.27. |

®

VOR

©

VORTAC

0

VOR-DME

VOR,

© Figure 12.27

—

VORTAC,

|

or

VOR-DME on Airport

VOR symbols

is

When a VOR located on an airport, the type of VOR may be indicated by letter identification, i.e, VOR, VORTAC, etc., positioned on and breaking the top line of the identification box. Aeronautical Charts and Navigation 231

Section 12.3

Special Use Airspace Special use airspace (SUA) confines certain flight activities such as military training flights and aircraft flight test activities, and either restricts entry or cautions other aircraft operating within its boundaries of thehazards. shown in their entirety (within the limits of the Special use airspace areas are t), even when they overlap, or adjoin another area. The areas are identified by a designator indicating the type and identifying name or number of the SUA, positioned either within or immediately adjacent to the area. a

Alert Designator and Description

SUA Designator MOA Designator

A831 =

Magenta Border

.

CONCENTRATED STUDENT HELICOPTER TRAINING

Blue Border

Blue Border Figure 12.28

—

Special use airspace designation

272222522522223222022222222322222J32322323232323232323I32I3232

A table in the margin of each sectional lists the designator, altitude, time of use, and controlling agency of each SUA depicted on that sectional. Chapter 11: Airspace discusses the operating limitations for each type of SUA.

Other Airspace Areas National Security Areas

National security areas are indicated on VFR charts by a broken magenta line. Unauthorized aircraft are requested to remain clear of these areas. Terminal Radar Service Areas ( TRSAs) TRSAs are indicated on VFR sectionalcharts and terminal area charts by a solid black line with altitudes for each segment. The Class D portion is indicated by a

blue segmented line.

Military Training Routes (MTRs)

Military training routes are shown onsectional charts as a grey line identified by the route designator. Route designators are shown in solid black on the route centerline.

Section

12.3 :

Aeronautical Charts and Navigation

232

IR21

Figure 12.29

—

Military training route

The designator “IR” or “VR” is not repeated when two or more routes are established over the same airspace: for example, IR201-205-227. Direction of flight along the route is indicated by small arrowheads adjacent to and in conjunction with each route designator. Special Military Activity

Special Military Activity areas are indicated on the sectional charts by a boxed note in black type. The note contains radio frequency information for obtaining the activity status of the area. Special Conservation Areas

Special conservation areas, such as wildlife refuges, are indicated by a blue

outline with interior dots.

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccceccec

«

PAHRANAGAT NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE

Blue Border

Figure 12.30

—

Conservation area

Pilots are requested to maintain a minimum altitude of 2,000 feet AGL above these areas. Special Aerial Activity Areas

Areas that have a high concentration of special aerial activity are indicated by the symbols shown in Figure 12.31. The frequency that can be used to monitor jump activity may be shown next to the parachute symbol.

Aeronautical Charts

233

and Navigation

Section 12.3

J v

122.9

Parachute Jump Area

pox

Glider Operating Area

>
)

)

) )

puimpes

J)

ot (jou)

St

ny oo

Example of a glide slope ruler (not to scale). The ruler shows that to fly 15 miles into a 10knot headwind, you would need 6,500 feet of altitude.

Figure 15.2

)

))

S

|

DD)

) ))

—

Notice that the shorter axis indicates headwind in 5-knot increments, and the longer axis indicates distance in nautical miles. The diagonal lines indicate the altitude needed to cover a distance given a particular headwind. For example, if you need to fly a distance of 15 nautical miles into a 10-knot headwind, you would need about 6,500 feet of altitude. To get the indicated altitude, however, you must also add the pattern altitude and airport elevation. Section 15.1

Cross-Country Soaring 268

)))

0) DD)

) ) )

Using a Glide Slope Ruler You can use the ruler to determine the safe glide altitude right on a sectional, without having to do any math in your head. Place the ruler so that the altitude that you want to arrive at the airport symbol. Suppose you are over adjacent the dam to the northwest of Kody Field, as shown in Figure 15.3.

is

to

Align

desired

altitude next to airport KODY FIELD (KDY)

3076-25

122.9@®

Read safe glide altitude

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

Figure 15.3

— To use the glide slope ruler, align the required arrival altitude with the airport, and read off the safe glide altitude corresponding to the glider’s position.

The elevation of the field is 3,076 feet, so you will want to arrive at the field at about 4,000 feet give yourself about 1,000 feet for a pattern. You therefore align the 4,000-foot mark with the airport symbol. Now read off the indicated altitude that you would need to safely reach the airport. In this case, it is 12,000 feet.

to

If there is wind, you use the axis that corresponds to the headwind component.

For example, if you also had to consider a 10-knot headwind, you would set up the glide slope ruler as shown in Figure 15.4.

Cross-Country Soaring 269

Section 15.1

Align intersection of headwind axis and desired altitude next to airport

KODY FIELD (KDY)

3076-25

122.9@®

Read safe

glide altitude from headwind axis

99I3I3993I3I3I9I3I3II9I3I3III9I3I3I9I9I9I3I3II9I9I3IIJJI)

Figure 15.4 — To use the glide slope ruler when there is a 10-knot headwind, align the intersection of the required arrival altitude line and the 10-knot headwind line with the airport, and read off the safe glide altitude corresponding to the glider’s position from the 10-knot axis.

In this case, you align the intersection of the 4,000-foot altitude line and the 10knot headwind line with the airport (as shown by the heavy dotted line). You can then read off the safe glide altitude from the 10-knot axis (again, shown by a heavy dotted line), which in this case would be about 13,500 feet. Safe Glide Circles While the glide slope ruler makes it relatively easy to determine how much altitude you need to safely glide to an airport, if you draw safe glide circles on your sectional, it will be even easier. For example, in Figure 15.5, safe glide circles have been drawn around Kody Field at 2,000-foot intervals.

IDI

Section 15.1

Cross-Country Soaring 270

DID

Safe Glide Altitude 11,000 feet

Figure 15.5

—

Safe glide circles greatly simplify glide slope management.

If you were located where the glider is shown, you would need 11,000 feet indicated to make to the field with an altitude of 4,000 feet, which would allow feet for 1,000 a pattern. you

it

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

When laying out safe glide circles around multiple airports, what you want to know is whether you have enough altitude to make to any airport. Therefore, leave that “redundant”. out For are example, in Figure 15.6, the you can any arcs 12,000-foot arc for Kody Field is not shown where the glider is located, because the glider could make it to Dakota Airport with only 9,000 feet of altitude.

it

KODY FIELD (KDY)

3076-25

©

Safe Glide Altitude 9,000 feet to Dakota or 12,000 feet to Kody

DAKOTA

122.948

(DKT)

3012-30 122.9%)

©

12

IN

Figure 15.6

—

Safe glide circles for multiple airports

Cross-Country Soaring 271

Section 15.1

IPODS

Laying out safe glide circles in this manner keeps your sectional from becoming illegible. You can make the circles first with a compass and pencil, then go back over the non-redundant arcs with ink. When planning a cross-country route, you will have a series of safe glide circles linked together. This makes it easy to determine what the minimum thermal height must be for you to complete the flight. For example, flying from Kody to Dakota will require a minimum altitude of 10,000 feet. If you can stay above 10,000 feet for the whole flight, you won't have to worry about making it to an airport. However, you are only occasionally climbing above 10,000 feet, you must be careful to have at least 10,000 feet of altitude when you are halfway between the two airports.

IPI

PIPPI

if

|

|

is

laying out safe glide circles, make sure there no terrain that would keep from reaching the airport. If your safe glide circle says you only need 5,000 you feet to get to an airport, but there is a 6,000-foot mountain between you and that airport, you have a problem! If terrain is a factor along your route, you should plan to clear it by at least 1,000 feet. When

PIPPI

|

Constructing a Glide Slope Ruler Now that you know how to use a glide slope ruler, you will learn how to make one for your glider. The first step is to determine the glide ratio for your glider in calm air, and with a 20-knot headwind. This procedure was described in Chapter 4: Performance. Assume that the polar for your glider as shown in Figure 15.7. The slope of the solid line tangent to the curve the calm air glide ratio, and the slope of the dotted line tangent to the curve is the glide ratio in a 20-knot headwind.

is is

|

|

Airspeed (Knots)

~

0

10

@

:

3

20

30

~~ = Tee,

0

40

50

60

/ ta .

\

FD

&

£3

:

70

80

-—

TR

0

100

110

120

Jo] °F

DDDDDDDDDBDDDDDDDPDPPPPP

|

TT

INC

4

:

N

N

5

Figure 15.7

90

—

Determining glide ratios with a 0 and 20-knot headwind

Remember that the glide ratio over the ground is the ground speed divided by the sink rate. From the polar, you can see that the best glide airspeed with no wind is 55 knots, and the corresponding sink rate is 1.6 knots, giving a glide ratio of 34:1. With a 20-knot headwind, the best glide airspeed is 64 knots, resulting in Section 15.1

.

Cross-Country Soaring. 272

|

PDD

a ground speed of 44 knots. The corresponding sink rate is 2 knots, giving a glide ratio of 22:1. |

You now need to choose and apply a safety factor to these glide ratios. Assuming you are just starting to fly cross-country, you should use safety factor of 50%. This will give you a modified glide ratio of 17:1 in calm air, and 11:1 in a 20-knot

a

headwind.

Next, you need to set up an altitude table. Determine how far you can glide in 1,000-foot increments by multiplying your glide ratio by 1,000 feet, 2,000 feet, 3,000 feet, etc. then dividing these values by 6,076, the number of feet in a nautical mile. This will give you the distance you can glide from these altitudes in nautical miles, from which you can set up a distance vs. altitude table as shown in Figure 15.8. |

_

No | 20 Knot

Altitude (feet) |

Headwind

1,000

28

2,000

5.6

Headwind

(NM)

NM)

|

ccccecececceccececcececcecccecccceccceccccecccccccecccceocoecc

|

3000

12

5,000

14.0

6,000

168 196

7000

|

8,000

22.4

9,000

252

10000

|

280

12000

308 336

13,000

36.4

14,000

39.2

15000

420

11,000

448

16,000 17,000 |

18,000

18

|

36

84

4,000

|

|

| |

|| |

|

5.4

72 9.0

108

126 14.4 16.2

180 198 216 23.4 25.2

|

270 288

47.6

30.6

504

32.4

Figure 15.8 — Altitude table

ccc

Glide slope ruler templates are available for purchase or download at www.GliderBooks.com. Plot each of the pairs of distance-altitude values on the ruler (one pair for no headwind, one pair for a 20-knot headwind), connect them with a line, and label the line with the altitude. Your ruler should appear similar to the one in Figure 15.2. |

Cross-Country Soaring 273

Section 15.1

156.2

Cross-Country Supplies

In Chapter

14: Personal Equipment, you learned about items that you generally

need when flying a glider. Here we will discuss some additional supplies that you should consider when flying cross-country.

Personal Items These items contribute to personal comfort or

safety.

Sunscreen

in the morning, and again right before you take orysunscreen altitude, you can become sunburnedvery quickly.

Make sure you off. Especially at Towel

A medium-sized towel (a dish towel works well) has many uses. It is good for soaking in water and hanging around you neck while waiting to launch on hot days. can be used to clean up spills in the cockpit. And it makes a nice pillow to use while waiting for your retrieve. (See the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy for more on the importance of towels.)

It

|

Urine Disposal

On a long cross-country flight, you are either goong to have to fly dehydrated, or ydration can result in poor you are going to have to urinate in flight. hoding it” can result in severe discomfort, judgment and coordination. Just bladder and burst distraction, evenin a you experience a hard landing. Having is the only wise choice. There are several in-flight a way to urinate in flight “relief” options available.

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Some men simply use plastic food storage bags, which they either keep in the

cockpit or throw out the window after use. Adding a disposable diaper to the bag can help with “sloshing” and leakage problemsif you plan to keep the bag in the cockpit. Make sure you store unused bags in such a way that they don’t become creased or worn, and therefore leak. (It a bag leaks, you will understand the importance of having a towel.) |

Another option for men is a male catheter. This device looks like a condom with a tube on the end. You can either run this tubeinto receptacle (bag, bottle, etc.), or to plumbing built into the glider for this purpose.

a

Adult diapers are an option for both men and women. The important thing is to find a relief system that works for you. You do not urinate. want to have to cut short a long cross-country flight in order

to

Oxygen System If there is any chance that youwill be flying higher than10,000 feet, you should bring oxygen equipment. Make sure you have a backup mask if you are using a Section 15.2

Cross-Country Soaring :

274

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canula (required by the FAA), and that you have the correct connector and regulator for the glider you are going to fly. (See Chapter 5: Flight Instruments and Systems, for more on oxygen systems.) ccccecccccccecc

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Cell Phone

While cell phones don’t work everywhere, having one greatly improves your chances of getting in contact with your crew. Make sure that your phone is charged, and if possible, bring a cord that can be used to hook the phone to

your

glider’s battery.

Retrieve Phone Numbers |

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|

|

You should carry a printed list of phone numbers. your cell phone battery dies, will be able not the to numbers stored in access you it. Money/Coins/Calling Card A few dollars for gas may help convince someone to give you a ride to town if you land out. If a pay phone is the only working means of communication, a few coins could be worth their weight in gold. If you have to call from someone's personal phone, use a calling card to be courteous and to avoid incurring longdistance charges on their phone bill. You may also need to use a calling card simply because long-distance service is otherwise not available. Survival

Kit

You should carry a survival kit appropriate to the climate and terrain in which you will be flying, as discussed in Chapter 14: Personal Equipment. Tie-Down

Kit

A tie-down kit comprised of ropes and anchors that can be screwed or driven into the ground can help protect your glider from high winds if you have to leave the glider unattended in field. :

a

a

Navigation Items These items are used for navigation and glide slope management. Glide Slope Ruler

As discussed in Section 15.1. Prepared Sectionals

Your time flying will be more enjoyable and much less stressful if you have already laid out safe glide circles on a sectional around all the airports where you might land. Be on the safe side; carry more sectionals than you think you will need.

Cross-Country Soaring 275

Section 15.2

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Pen/Pencil

|

|

is

useful for marking your progress on sectionals, and for taking A pen or pencil word of caution: some pens leak due to the lower pressure at if needed. (A notes high altitudes, especially felt-tipped pens.)

|

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Portable GPS a A portable GPS unit takes much of the guesswork out of navigation. Make sure is you are very familiar with your GPS unit before relying on it for navigation. the with it of a hours (get ground idea on to spend a couple practicing a good Do the air. with in not it friend to drive you around), and at least a couple more make the mistake of spending too much time fiddling with your GPS and not Lo enough time looking outside for traffic.

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Extra GPS Batteries accessible place Bring extra batteries and make sure you store them in an easily

in the glider.

PIPPI

»

Flight Documentation/Forms When you fly for SSA or FAI badges or records, or when you fly in contests, you need a way to document your flight. The FAI Sporting Code explains the different methods that can be used to document a flight. Generally, you need to carry either a barograph and camera, or a GPS flight recorder, along with the appropriate paperwork. In a contest, you should have your landing card with

you.

|

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You will save yourself much frustration if you familiarize yourself with the entire FAI Sporting Code before attempting your first badge flight. Data Logger (or Barograph and Camera) You should make sure these are installed, sealed, and calibrated according to the FAI Sporting Code.

15.3

Speed-to-Fly Theory

Cross-country flying, whether for badges or in a contest, is almost always a race against time. There are only so many hours for soaring in the day. “Speed-to-fly” theory (first developed by Paul MacCready) is an attempt to optimize the speed along a course by determining the best speed to fly between thermals based on the climb rate of the glider. Note that this is different from trying to optimize glide distance, which has been the focus up to this point. (On your first crosscountry flights, keep in mind that it may be better to “get high and stay high,” short enough so that time is not always flying at best glide speed if your course ‘an issue.) |

Section 15.3

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Cross-Country Soaring 276

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Speed Made Good To understand the concept behind speed-to-fly theory, you first need to know about “speed made good.” To determine the speed made good, you divide the distance covered by the sum ofthe time spent climbing and the time spent gliding. |

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Speed made good =D/(T¢ + Tg)

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where D is the ground distance covered, Tc the time in climb, and Tg the time in glide. The time it takes to climb depends on thermal strength, pilot skill, and the glider sink rate. It is a value that can be measured. The time spent in glide is

shorter the time.

a function of the glide speed: the greater the speed, the |

The distance that the glider covers for a given amount of altitude is also a function of the glide speed, as you have seen in Chapter 4: Performance, in the discussion about glider polars. The faster you fly, the less distance you can cover.

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Maximizing Speed Made Good You can imagine that if you had infinitely strong thermals, you would want to fly as fast as possible between thermals, since climbing would not require any time. On the other hand, if you could only climb at an infinitesimally slow rate, you would want to fly at best L/D between thermals to conserve your hard earned altitude. Reality will lie somewhere between these two extremes. With a bit of calculus, you can derive the exact speed-to-fly for a given climb rate. For our purposes, it is sufficient to know that all the information from the theory can be given by a movable dial around the vario called a speed ring (or, where applicable, by a glide slope computer). |

Cross-Country Soaring

277

Section 15.3

is

that the wind speed does not One counterintuitive result of speed-to-fly theory influence the results. The wind speed only comes into play when you try to optimize the distance traveled. Using a Speed Ring The speed ring is a movable ring that rotates around the variometer dial. It has a mark that you set to the average lift expected (often referred to as the “MacCready setting”) and speed-to-fly markings around the edge. Like a polar, a speed ring is only accurate for a specific wing loading. Movable

Expected Climb Rate

Speed

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Speed-

to-Fly

Figure 15.10

—

Speed ring

To determine the speed-to-fly when cruising between thermals, you set the triangular mark to the average expected lift. You then read the speed-to-fly

indicated by the vario needle on the speed ring. In the speed ring pictured in Figure 15.10, the expected lift has been set to 4 knots, and the indicated speed-tofly is 76 knots.

If you fly into lift while cruising between thermals, the speed ring will tell you to slow down. If you hit sink, will tell you to speed up. it tells you to fly slower than minimum sink speed, is time to thermal!

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Selecting a Speed Ring Setting There are several factors to consider when selecting a speed ring setting. It is important not to set the speed ring to the maximum climb rate that you are the average climb rate, which accounts for all the time that you achieving, but and searching trying to core the thermal. For example, you spent 5 minutes are for thermal, a barely climbing, and then 5 minutes climbing at 600 feet searching per minute, your average climb rate is only 300 feet per minute. Most pilots have a tendency to overestimate their average climb rates, just as most fishermen overestimate the size of the fish they catch.

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Section 15.3

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Cross-Country Soaring 278

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If you are very high, especially if you are near the bases of clouds, you will probably want to set your speed ring very close to your average climb rate, since you can afford to “spend” the altitude that you have gained. (Easy come, easy

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—

Speed ring setting strategy

If you are in the mid-range, not too high, but not too low, you may want about one-half of your average climb as your speed ring setting.

rate

to use

If you are barely within your safe glide range, you would not set the speed ring on 8 knots even if that is how fast you climbed in your last thermal. Instead, you would set it to zero until you are at a more comfortable altitude. Keep in mind that safe glide zone calculations assume you are flying at the best glide speed, not

the speed-to-fly.

Other factors that you may consider when deciding how to set your speed ring are the spacing and consistency of thermals, and the presence or lack of thermal markers. On days when there are no clouds, or when the thermals are widely scattered, you may want to set your speed ring more conservatively. On days with closely spaced cumulus clouds, or when the thermals are consistently spaced, you might choose to be more aggressive in your speed ring setting.

Figure 15.12 is a graph of the speed made good plotted as a function of interthermal cruise speed for different average climb rates. :

Cross-Country Soaring 279

Section 15.3

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60 70

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Inter-Thermal Speed (Knots)

The speed-to-fly for a given climb rate is indicated by the peak of the curve. For example, the speed-to-fly for a 4-knot climb rate is 85 knots. (These curves are for a Duo Discus at 6.2 pounds per square foot wing loading, with a best L/D of 45:1 at 50

Figure 15.12

—

knots.)

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Notice that the speed made good is not very sensitive to the inter-thermal within relatively large a cruising speed range. For example, your average climb from is 70 rate 4 knots, any speed knots (corresponding to a speed ring setting of 2) to 100 knots (corresponding to a speed ring setting of 6) will give you a speed made good in the high 40’s. Of course, if you fly 70, your sink rate will be much lower, and you won't have to find and center as many thermals. This is why Co many pilots prefer to err towards the slow side.

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Also notice that even with an average climb rate of only 2 knots, the maximum speed made good occurs at a cruising speed of 70 knots, which is significantly faster than the best glide speed of 50 knots. If you fly at best glide speed instead of best speed-to-fly in 6 knots of lift, your speed made good will be reduced from 58 knots, to 42 knots.

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For lower-performance gliders, the speed made good is slightly more sensitive to changes in the cruising speed.

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The Speed Ring and Maximizing Distance Covered

To use a speed ring to maximize your distance over the ground, set the ring to zero. In calm air, the vario should then point to the best L/D speed. In sink, the Section 15.3

Cross-Country Soaring 280

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vario will tell you to fly faster, and in lift, slower. If there is a headwind, should add half of the headwind speed to the speed indicated by the vario. you

15.4 Getting Started

Prerequisites

Before you venture out on your first cross-country experience, there are some basic skills that you should master. Judgment and Discipline The ability to make good decisions

and to stick to them is critical to safe crosscountry soaring. In aviation, the results of a poor decision or the lack of discipline to carry out a good decision may not materialize until is too late to remedy the situation. Unless you have the judgment to make good decisions and the discipline to carry them out, you should not fly cross-country. This might be a good time to review Chapter 16: Aeronautical Decision Making.

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Thermaling You should be able to consistently locate and center thermals. Thermaling should be second nature, allowing you to concentrate on avoiding traffic, navigation, etc. Co

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Navigation You need to be able to quickly figure out where you are with respect to safe landing sites. You should be able to read and understand a sectional, and

understand the different types and limitations of airspace. Glide Slope Management

|

You should be proficient at determining how much altitude you need to make it to an airport or suitable landing site. Weather Hazard Recognition You should have an understanding of the types

hazards, and know how to avoid them.

of weather that

can create

Landing Skills You should be able to consistently perform spot landings. You should be able to touch down beyond a designated spot on the runway, and stop before another designated spot 500 to 1,000 feet away, depending on the type of glider you are flying. : Communications You must have a plan and a method for communicating with your crew during

the

flight.

Cross-Country Soaring 281

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Section 15.4

Retrieve |

You must be familiar with all retrieve procedures that you may have to use. These include disassembly and assembly of the glider, towing the glider trailer,

and aero-tow retrieves.

Practicing Skills Knowledge only takes you so far. What ultimately matters is experience with your equipment and the procedures of cross-country soaring. Using Your Equipment

As you start to assemble your cross-country equipment, make a point of practicing using it. Even if you will not get high enough to really need it, take your oxygen system along, hook it up, and fly with it for a while.

Drink a lot of water before a flight so you can test out your relief system. Practice communicating with your crew to find any weaknesses in your system. with no lift Practice your glide slope management. You can do this even on days by taking a tow away from the airport and predicting how high you will be when you get back, and then tracking your progress along the way. If you will be using a flight computer or GPS, practice using it. If possible, do this in a two-place glider with a friend so that they can watch for traffic while you

figure out how to use the system.

If you will be using a camera and a barograph to document your cross-country flights, practice using them now. Get the bugs worked out of your procedures

while it doesn’t count.

Flying “Local” Tasks To get in the mode of flying with a goal, set yourself small local tasks. Pick two or three turnpoints that are within several miles of your home gliderport. Fly to

to

one turnpoint after another, always maintaining enough altitude glide back to home your gliderport. Also practice using the speed ring to maximize your speed around these minicourses. This will give you a taste of the types of decisions ‘you will need to make when flying a real cross-country flight. |

|

15.5 Choosing a Route Unless you are attempting a straight-out flight, you must decide your course before your flight. In contests, a list of turnpoints is provided for you, while in you may choose your own. Experienced local cross-country pilots badgee flying, determine the best routes in your area. an help you Section 15.5

Cross-Country Soaring

282

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Landing Zones One of the prime considerations

in your selection of a course should be the of availability suitable landing zones. For your first cross-country flights, you should choose a route that provides you with closely spaced airports.

Terrain

When flying near mountains, stay over high ground, as the lift tends to be stronger and more consistent there. Choose turnpoints that are close to ridges and not out in the middle of the valleys. |

Avoiding Marine Air

Avoid marine air, which can adversely affect thermal formation. Downwind of large bodies of water, there can be a surface inversion that will shut down all thermal production. |

15.6 Flying the Route After all the practice, planning, and preparation, it’s time to have some fun. Cross-country soaring involves constantly making one decision after another. As the weather develops during the day, you must adjust your strategy to meet changing conditions. |

|

Determining Winds Aloft It is important to know the winds aloft so that you can adjust your expected glide slope and airspeed. Before a cross-country you should obtain predictions of the winds aloft. If you don’t have a GPS,flight, will be your main, if not only, source of wind information. this

|

|

If you have a handheld GPS, there are determine the winds aloft.

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couple of methods you can use to Lo

Groundspeed vs. True Airspeed The first method requires that you fly at a constant airspeed on the desired track long enough to get a steady ground speed reading on your GPS, and a steady

airspeed reading from your airspeed indicator.

True airspeed increases with respect to the indicated airspeed as the altitude increases because of the decrease in density. You will need to determine your true airspeed based on your altitude. While temperature, pressure, and humidity all affect the density of air, for the purpose of determining wind speed, is accurate enough to just use the indicated airspeed corrected for altitude. A graph of true airspeed as a function of altitude and indicated airspeed is shown in Figure 15.13. This graph assumes a standard atmosphere.

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Cross-Country Soaring 283

Section 15.6

190 180 170 160 150

140 130 Airspeed

120 110

True

1

50

60

70

80

80

100 110 120 130 140 150

Indicated Airspeed

Figure 15.13 — Correcting indicated airspeed for the effects of altitude. Example: indicated airspeed of 90 knots at 15,000 feet. 1) Follow the 90-knot line up to where it intersects the 15,000-feet line. 2) Extend a horizontal line from the point of intersection to the true airspeed axis. 3) Read the true airspeed, which 114 knots in this case.

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The difference between the true airspeed and the ground speed indicated by your GPS is the headwind component. c

Wind Drift in Thermals

This method requires that you have a moving-map GPS with a sampling rate of about 1 second and a screen width scale of 1/2 to 1 mile. As you thermal, look at the drift indicated on the moving map display. You can getbboth theywind speed and direction by interpreting the display. i If the circles flown lie right on top of one another, there is little or no wind. If each circle overlaps two or threeof its neighbors, the wind is about 5 knots. If the circles barely overlap, the wind is about 10 knots.Whenthe wind is 15 knots, the circles will not overlap, and there will be about a one-half diameter gap between circles. At 20 knots, the distance between the circles will be about the same as the the circles. diameter

of

Section

15.6

:

Cross-Country Soaring 284

5 Knots

10 Knots

15 Knots

20 Knots

Figure 15.14 — Determining the approximate wind velocity from the thermal drift recorded on a GPS trace

This method, while only an estimate, provides the most useful and easy to obtain cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

wind speed information.

Go/No-Go Decisions As you start to descend close to the bottom of your safe glide zone, you must pay particular attention to your altitude.

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Figure 15.15 — Go/no-go decision. If you ignore your pre-determined limits, you greatly increase your chances of injuring yourself or the glider.

Cross-Country Soaring 285

Section 15.6

You must turn back to your “safety” airport before you descend below the

altitude at which you have neither your goal nor your safety airport in glide range. he Te |

The purpose of deciding on a safety factor and laying out safe glide circles ahead of time is to simplify the decisions you will have to make in the air. If you set limits then break them, is more dangerous than never setting limits in the first place. (See Chapter 16: Aeronautical Decision Making, for more information.)

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Pilot Attitude When you are far from your home airport and getting low, it is easy to get nervous or discouraged. As long as you have stuck to your plan and have a safe really nothing to get nervous about. Remind yourself that place to land, there feet above an unfamiliar airport is hardly different from having taken being 3,000 a 3,000-foot tow from your home gliderport. Just as you were able to climb from tow to get where you are now, you can climb again to keep on moving that ead.

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|

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Landing Even with a good attitude and wise decisions made, sometimes you will have to land. When you make a landing at a new airport, perform the same routine as you would at your home gliderport. Fly a similar pattern; go through your oo checklists; fly the same speeds. |

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Pay particular attention to selecting a stop point, a touchdown point, and an aim point while in your pattern. (See the Flight Training Manual for Gliders, Lesson 6.2, for more information on precision landings.) Keep in mind that when landing at an unfamiliar airport, pilots have a tendency to retain too much energy and overshoot, rather than undershoot. |

~

15.7 Off-Field Landing

An “off-field” landing refers to any landing not at an airport. The term is confusing since most off-field landings occur in fields. The “field” of an off-field landing refers to an airfield. If you plan your flight well and are disciplined in following your plan, there

should be little chance that you will have to land off of an airport. However, there may be an occasion when everything goes wrong and you find yourself getting low. (Or, you may be flying in an area where off-field landings are an accepted procedure.) You should have confidence in your ability to perform an off-field landing even if you never plan on having to execute one.

Section 15.7

Cross-Country Soaring 286

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The basic elements

of a successful off-field landing are:

* Recognizing and accepting the situation *

Determining the surface wind speed and direction

*

Selecting

*

Performing an appropriate pattern and landing

a

suitable landing field

If possible, when you start getting low, let your crew know that you may be landing. Once you are on the ground, your radio range will be severely limited. Keep in mind, however, that flying the glider is much, much more important than communicating with anyone. If you feel too overloaded to communicate, let

it wait.

Recognizing and Accepting the Situation To perform a successful off-field landing, you must first recognize and accept that a situation is developing that may force you to land off of an airport. If you have the self-discipline to start planning for an off-field landing at a reasonable altitude, you will have a much greater chance of avoiding damage to the glider, or yourself. If you are either oblivious to your situation or in denial, there is a good chance that you will not have time to plan and execute a successful off-field landing. Decision Altitudes

Any time you start to get close to 3,000 feet AGL, you should start to form a landing plan. At 3,000 feet AGL, you should select a general area in which you plan on landing, and start heading towards

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At 2,000 feet AGL, you should select a specific field, and start looking for hazards or obstacles. Also, keep an eye out for an easy alternate in case as you get lower, you find something seriously wrong with your first choice.

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When you get below 1,000 feet AGL, is time to completely commit to landing. Beyond this point, you should not try to work lift. Your entire attention should be focused on the pattern and landing. |

Determining Wind Speed and Direction Knowing the wind speed and direction helps you to select an appropriate landing field. Surface wind indicators include smoke, waves in bodies of water (the surface of a pond or lake will be smooth right next to the upwind shore), dust, and vegetation.

Cross-Country Soaring

287

Section 15.7

PRD

If you cannot find a suitable landing area below you, you may want to fly downwind, since this will increase the amount of ground you can cover while continuing to look for a landing zone. |

|

Selecting a Suitable Landing Field The ideal field is flat, smooth, aligned with the wind, free of obstacles on the approach end, and long enough to accommodate the glider, with some extra room to allow for pilot error.

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For many pilots, there is a strong temptation to select a landing location based of little primarily on the ease of retrieval. The convenience of an easy retrieval the glider consequence if the landing site is unsuitable and results in damage to a landing the choosing is factor when most important or injury to you. Safety

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area.

In most locations, roads are not suitable for landing. Most paved roads are bordered by fences, power lines, and road signs, and dirt roads often have adjacent dirt berms that are high enough for the wings to hit. Slope

|

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visible from the the ground can indicate slope. High air is likely to be steep. Variations in color low than color in often lighter spots, as moisture tends to collect in low spots are there. the soil color of spots, darkening the

Choose a landing area that has no visible slope. Any slope that

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If you have no choice but to land on a slope, you should usually try to land uphill, unless you have a very strong tailwind. Realize that with either a down-

slope or downwind landing, the glider will cover much more ground than normal, which could result in a collision with objects on the far end of the field.

Texture

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Information about the texture of the field can be deduced from its color. A smooth, earth-colored field is usually the best choice, since it most likely has the field has prominent been plowed (turned over) and harrowed (smoothed). another field or land parallel to lines or visible ridges, you should either choose

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the ridges.

Yellow indicates dead vegetation. This should be a second choice, since it is hard to determine from the air if the vegetation is tall or short. Tall vegetation is likely to catch a wingtip, causing a ground loop.

Green fields tend to be the least desirable because of their actively growing crops. These may be tall enough to catch a wingtip even before you touch down, causing a hard landing or ground loop. Green crops may also mask the surface texture, and hide irrigation pipes and other hazards. Even if the glider is not damaged, you will damage the farmer's crop with your landing and retrieve. Section 15.7

Cross-Country Soaring 288

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Keep in mind that these are guidelines. Agricultural practices and crops vary from

greatly one part of the country to another. Knowledge of local vegetation local seasonal vegetation in order to and crops very helpful. Know the colors from identify crops air. The best way to learn to determine the suitability of a field is to observe fields in your area, both from the ground and from the air.

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Obstacles

Electrical wires are one of the most dangerous obstacles to a landing glider. Realize that you will most likely not be able to see wires from afar. Instead, you must deduce their presence. If you see poles, you should assume that wires are strung between them. Keep in mind that trees may hide power poles, and be wary of flying through a gap in trees. Farmhouses, irrigation pumps, barns, and silos will often have wires running to them. Do not land nearthese structures. ccccaccccccccccccccccca

Without exception, avoid visible discontinuities such as lines or crop changes. Discontinuities usually exist because a fence, ditch, irrigation pipe, or other obstacle presents a barrier to machinery or cultivation. Length

field you select

should be at least 1,000 feet long. If the field has obstacles on the final approach path, remember that the field will have to be long enough to accommodate your descent to flare altitude after clearing the obstacle. This can easily add ten times the obstacle height to the required field length. The

Pattern and Landing Fly your pattern and landing as normally as possible. You should use your checklists and fly the same airspeeds as you would at your home airport. Since you probably will not know the exact elevation of the landing field, you must fly your pattern with respect to angles, not altitudes. (This should be

normal practice no matter where you are landing.)

Fly a pattern as shown in Figure 15.16. The pattern consists of an entry leg flown

perpendicular to the landing direction, followed by the standard upwind, crosswind, downwind, base, and final legs. This pattern allows you plenty of time to look for obstacles, and provides you with a view of the field from all angles. |

As you are on your downwind leg, choose your stop, touchdown, and aim points to allow the maximum margin of error possible. Don’t try to roll up to a gate or fence. The consequences of overshooting greatly outweigh the slight benefit of convenience. If landing in a rectangular field in no wind, land on the diagonal, to

ETT

maximize its usable length.

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Cross-Country Soaring 289

Section 15.7

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— Off-field landing pattern. Choose your aim, touchdown, and stop points well within the confines of the field.

Figure 15.16

If you need to clear any obstacles on final, make sure that you maintain your airspeed, and clear the obstacles by a small but comfortable margin. Landing

Touch down at the slowest possible speed, and get the glider stopped as quickly as possible. Rocks, ditches, stakes, or gopher holes that you could not see from the air can do significant damage to the glider. The less ground you cover the less the likelihood of damage. After Landing If you have landed on private property, be VERY nice to the landowner. Remember that this may be the first time they have ever had someone land an

aircraft on their property. Inform them that you have insurance that will cover any damage that you may have caused by landing in their field, or that might be caused during the retrieve. Your behavior will forever influence how they perceive the sport of soaring. This is very important if you or others ever end up landing on their property again. Secure the Glider

You will want to turn off all electrical equipment in the glider to conserve power for the radio. If you have a GPS, write down your coordinates before shutting Section 15.7

Cross-Country Soaring 290

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down the power, so that you will not have to turn it back on to give someone your coordinates. oo

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|

If possible, you should secure the glider to prevent damage.

If

you have tie-down stakes and rope, use them to protect the glider against high winds and dust devils. Tying back the spoiler handle with the seat belts to keep the spoilers deployed helps reduce the chance of wind lifting and damaging the glider. cecceccecceccceccecccccecc

Communicate

Contact your crew to let them know where you are. If you have a cell phone, try is out of signal range, try contacting other using it. If you don’t have one, or gliders in the air, and ask them to relay a message to your crew. See Chapter 13: Radio Communications, for different ways to contact various agencies using your radio.

it

If you must leave your glider, leave a note with your intentions, the time you left,

and how you can be contacted (radio frequency or cell phone number).

Prepare

Even a normal retrieval can take many hours if the landing was made in difficult terrain or in an area served by relatively few roads. If you are likely to have to wait long, use the daylight to organize and prepare items that you will need when it gets dark and cold. While waiting, you can prepare the glider for disassembly. Remove the sealing tape from the wings, disconnect the controls (if applicable), and take care of minor items, for example, by collecting any special tools that are needed to de-rig the glider. oo |

Evaluate

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Once all necessities have been taken care of, you will probably have some time ponder where things went wrong. Use this opportunity to honestly evaluate your planning, judgment, and self-discipline. It is most likely a shortcoming in oneof these areas that landed you in your current situation!

15.8 Retrieve

|

If you have landed away from your home airport, you have two options to get the glider back: a ground retrieve, or an aero-retrieve.

Ground Retrieve Disassembly and Assembly

|

Disassembly and assembly procedures vary for each glider. Your glider’s manual ‘should provide you with a written procedure to follow. You should have experience taking apart and putting together your glider before you fly it crosscountry. |

Cross-Country Soaring 291

ARE

Section 15.8

If possible, you should disassemble or assemble a glider in an area sheltered from the wind. At least two people are required for most gliders. When a glider is reassembled, a positive control check (see the Flight Training Manual for Gliders, Lesson 1.6) must be performed before the glider is flown. |

-

Trailering

Once the glider is disassembled and secured on the trailer, it is time to tow. Make sure the hitch is securely attached to the towing vehicle, the safety chains are in place, the emergency brake is hooked up (if applicable), and the lights are BE SRE connected and working properly. RECITES

Before you start to tow, you should do a final walk-around. Check that everything is secure, and that no parts, wing stands, or tail dollies have been left

behind.

Glider trailers are notorious for their poor handling.

A short wheel base or worn this vehicle the exacerbate shocks tow out tendency. Keep the speed low, can on and be careful not to over-steer the trailer starts to oscillate from side to side.

if

A car or truck with a glider trailer attached is a cumbersome combination. If possible, fill up the tow vehicle with gas before attaching the trailer. If that is not consider disconpossible, and a “truck-stop style” gas station is not available, oo necting and parking the trailer before getting gas. Finally, a couple of words about backing up with a glider trailer: avoid it! Plan your routes and stops so that backing up is not necessary. If this is not possible, a good option is to unhook the trailer, drive the tow vehicle around, spin the E trailer, then hook it back up.

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|

SE

Aero-Retrieve An aero-retrieve is often the most convenient, but also the most expensive way to get the glider home. You should consider the amount of daylight remaining before deciding on an aero-retrieve. Remember that you must land before sunset. A tow for an aero-retrieve is different from a normal tow in that after reaching a certain altitude, the tow plane levels off. Once in level flight, the wake of the tow is located much higher than in climbing flight. You will notice that you plane ave fly higher in normal tow position to stay out of the wake, or fly in a lowtow position, which doesn’t have te be all that low, as shown in Figure 15.17.

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is much easier to get slack line in a level-flight tow. You may also notice that Use the same slack line recovery procedures that you normally use, but anticipate that it will take longer for the rope to come tight. it is necessary to descend while on tow (for instance, to maintain cloud clearance), you will most likely

have to deploy

If

the spoilers to keep from overtaking the tow plane. Cross-Country Soaring

Section 15.8 :

292

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Normal (High) Tow Position

|

Low Tow Position

Figure 15.17 — During an aero-retrieve, the tow plane wake will be higher than during a climbing tow. In normal tow position, you will be slightly above the tow plane; in low tow, you will just slightly below the tow plane.

You should always be aware of the location of available landing fields when on tow. The tow plane could have problems, the rope could break, or the glider could get so far out of position that you would have to release the towrope.

15.9 Crew Duties

of

One the best ways to learn about cross-country soaring is to volunteer to crew for an experienced cross-country pilot. As crew, you will help get the glider

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ready, monitor the pilot's progress, perhaps follow on the ground, and retrieve the pilot at the end of the flight. The crew’s main duty is to help things go smoothly for the pilot. What follows

is

an overview of the duties performed by a ground crew member. that in the person you crew for may have his or her own way of mind Keep doing things. Most experienced cross-country pilots will have checklists for their crew to follow. This usually includes a checklist of things to be done before the flight, and a checklist of things to be done before towing the trailer. Pre-Flight There are many things to do before a cross-country flight. A crew person can help with: *

Filling the oxygen bottle(s)

*

Washing the glider/ cleaning the canopy

*

Making sure batteries are charged and installed

*

Filling the glider with ballast

In addition, before the flight, the pilot and crew should agree on the plan for the day. Should the crew follow the pilot on the ground, or wait to see if the pilot Cross-Country Soaring 293

Section 15.9

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returns to the airport? Which method will be used as the primary way of relaying information? The crew person should be familiar with the pilot's vehicle and trailer. The vehicle should be full of gas, and the trailer packed and ready to go. There is nothing more frustrating than showing. up without an important piece of equipment (such as a wing stand) that prevents you from disassembling the

A

glider.

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|

And never, ever, let the pilot take off with the tow vehicle keys!

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During Flight

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During the flight, the crew should monitor the radio for any position reports or crew requests by the pilot. If the pilot is attempting an out-and-return flight, while do local in often sightseenearby some or a waiting, flight can get person g. If you are crewing at a contest, you should notify the contest organizers if you must leave the airport. the

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It is a good idea to keep a written record of communications with your pilot. This way, you will know, and cannot forget, where to start looking if you don’t receive any more position reports. .

Post-Flight If your pilot returns to the airport, then you have it easy. If not, the fun begins. |

First, you have to find your pilot. An off-field landing can make this challenging. Get as much information as you can from the pilot: GPS coordinates, landmarks, local phone numbers, etc.

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|

Next, you get to assist in disassembling the glider, possibly in a field, often in the dark. Be prepared. Bring a jacket, hat, gloves, and a flashlight. Keep in mind that whether things go smoothly or less than perfectly, you are learning valuable lessons that you can apply to your own cross-country flights. IDI

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Section 15.9

Cross-Country Soaring 294

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CHAPTER

16: AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING

There is more to being a safe pilot than being able to control your glider. In this chapter, you will learn how to increase your situational awareness, how to improve you judgment by learning a systematic approach to decision making, and how to develop the self-discipline to follow through with your decisions.

16.1 Situational Awareness When flying a glider, you are bombarded with information. You experience sights, sounds, and sensations unlike those that you experience on the ground. During your first flight lessons, you will probably find that you have difficulty perceiving much of what is happening. |

Eventually, however, you need to develop an awareness of the factors that affect, or will affect, your flight. By simply being aware of a developing situation, you can often take action to prevent it from becoming a problem. What is Situational Awareness? Situational awareness can be defined as an ability to accurately perceive and interpret what happening, and to predict what is likely to happen next. A pilot with good situational awareness always anticipates upcoming events, and is able to prioritize information based on its urgency and potential impact on the flight.

is

Perceive

To perceive what is happening, you must be looking for information. You know what information is useful, and have enough time to look for

it.

must |

Interpret To interpret information that you have gathered, you must understand the nature of the information and have knowledge about the environment in which you are operating. You must know what the information means and how it applies to your situation. This is why it is essential that you have a solid foundation of aeronautical knowledge. Predict To anticipate what will happen based on your interpretation of what you perceive, you must have a mental model. The mental model can be based on

a

knowledge or experience.

Aeronautical Decision Making 295 |

Section 16.1

oe

Areas Requiring Situational Awareness A few of the many areas in which you are required to demonstrate situational awareness are discussed below. -

Flight Planning

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is a quick hop with a friend or a long crossWhen you plan a flight, whether of information that could affect your flight. should aware be country flight, you winds, expected such consider You need to things as your skill level, weather, ow lift, traffic, NOTAM:s, etc. |

|

Flying the Glider

its

|

pitch, roll, and yaw, as While you fly the glider, you must constantly monitor If and to hope altitude airspeed. you well as your soar, you must also be able to } detect and use lift.

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Glide Slope Management

When in the air, you must always be aware of your position with respect to the nearest safe landing area, and know how much altitude you need to get there. Traffic

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You should always be aware of other traffic, including gliders, birds, or powered

aircraft.

Weather

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|

|

You should be aware of how the weather is developing. You should notice clouds that indicate lift and clouds that indicate hazardous conditions such as thunderstorms. You should be aware of the wind speed and direction, and know how it could affect your glide slope management, your pattern, and landing.

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Obstacles to Good Situational Awareness Many factors can reduce your situational awareness. You should be alert to these factors and try to eliminate as many as possible.

Ignorance

If you do not know how a given situation may affect you, you may not notice the situation to begin with. Ignorance is one of the most avoidable obstacles to good

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situational awareness.

Fixation

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If you fixate on one piece of information, you may beunable to perceive other, possibly more important facts. Fixation is often a problem with students learning a new skill. As a student progresses, the problem should subside.

Section 16.1

Aeronautical Decision Making

296

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Fixation can also be a problem when an unusual occurrence, such as the canopy coming open during a tow, distracts you from monitoring more mundane information, such as your position behind the tow plane. Prioritization Errors Often, there is limited time to monitor or act on information. You must prioritize

items based on the risk and urgency each one presents.

If you have incomplete knowledge, you may be unable to correctly prioritize information. It is important not to simply deal with problems as they appear, but to be able to recognize which problems are most important. Overload

When learning new skills, students often become overloaded and unable to monitor their surroundings. With time, practice, and proficiency, students are generally able to increase their situational awareness to an acceptable level. Overload can also happen to experienced pilots. Especially when preparing to pilot must deal with tuning the radio and making radio calls, configuring the glider properly for landing (gear, flaps, dumping water ballast), searching for traffic, checking the wind, checking the runway/field, flying an appropriate attern, and of course, controlling the glider. Proper planning and proficiency elp to reduce the workload to a manageable level.

land,

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|

Overload can also be caused by distractions and interruptions, as they divert your attention from your priorities. It is crucial that you not fixate on a distraction or interruption to the detriment of more important tasks. Complacency

Complacency can reduce your motivation to maintain situational awareness. Complacency can develop when you consistently have a positive outcome from a given situation. Eventually, you may fail to look for the hazards that are involved with the situation.

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Fatigue The more fatigued you are, the easier

miss important information.

|

it

is to become overloaded, or to |

simply

|

Enhancing Situational Awareness The best way to improve your situational awareness is to do things that decrease your workload. |

Maintaining Flight Proficiency

When you are not proficient at basic flight skills, too much of your attention may be focused on keeping the glider under control. This is often the case during training, when as soon as a new task is added, a student can no longer satisfactorily perform other tasks that had been previously mastered. Aeronautical Decision Making

297

Section 16.1 |

|

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As your flight proficiency increases, you will free up attention that you can allocate to improving your situational awareness. By staying proficient, you will fixate. also reduce the tendency to be overloaded and

to

-

Knowledge

Proper knowledge allows you to perceive information that is important to your safety. It also helps you to comprehend and prioritize the information that you perceive. Knowledge of hazards helps you to avoid complacency by keeping you aware of the dangers involved in a situation. You can learn about hazards in two ways, through personal experience, or by learning from the mistakes of others. The second method is the preferred one. It is important to know as much as possible aboutthe environment in which you are operating. This includes knowing yourself and your physical, mental, and emotional limitations; knowing your glider andits airspeed and structural and performance limitations; knowingthearea in whichyou are flying, including its airspace type, nearby safe landing zones, and the weather conditions you are likely to encounter. Preflight Planning

Thorough preflight planning, including contingency planning, can increase your alertness to information that you should perceive during a flight. For example, knowing from the weather forecast that thunderstorms are possible, you would be more alert to rapidly building cumulus clouds.

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Preflight planning also reduces your in-flight workload, increasing the time you have to allot to scanning for pertinent information. |

Confirming You should constantly confirm what you think you. know. This helps you. to

avoid making decisions based on erroneous or outdated information.

Situational Awareness Self-Assessment Once your situational awareness diminishes, you may present a danger to yourself or to other pilots. Therefore, it is important for you to be able to assess and acknowledge your current level of situational awareness. The following are signs that your situational awareness is reduced. Confusion/Uncertainty If you are having trouble prioritizing, or feel confused or uncertain as to what action to take, you are probably operating at a decreased level of situational

awareness.

Section 16.1

|

|

Aeronautical Decision Making 298 PID

Fixation

Staring at one instrument or thinking exclusively about one problem indicates that you are fixating, and have therefore lost situational awareness. Getting “Behind the Glider”

Good situational awareness enables you to stay ahead of your glider. When you lose situational awareness, you will find yourself reacting to, instead of anticipating upcoming events. |

If you find yourself consistently losing situational awareness, you should

identify the causes and take measures to eliminate them.

16.2 Judgment As glider pilots, we constantly have to make decisions. Most people function quite effectively making decisions based on intuition. In aviation, where the is preferable to have a more consequences of poor judgment can be severe,

systematic approach to decision making.

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A Systematic Approach to Decision Making When making a decision, you need to systematically consider all the elements

involved.

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Benefit

What can be gained? Hazard

What could go wrong? Risks

What are the chances of encountering the hazard? Consequences

What will be the result

if the hazard is encountered?

Preventions

What can be done to reduce the chance of encountering the hazard? Precautions

What can be done to minimize the consequences of encountering the hazard? Example: Speeding

a

situation that most car drivers have made at one time or another: the decision to exceed the speed limit. The benefit of this decision is that you will get

Consider

Aeronautical Decision Making

299

Section 16.2

to your destination sooner. Two hazards to speeding are that you could get a ticket, and you could have an accident. The risk of getting a ticket is relatively low in most places, and the risk of having an accident is probably even lower (depending on your experience as a driver and traffic and road conditions). However, the consequences of having an accident vary from damage to your or someone else’s vehicle, to injury or even death. The consequence of getting a ticket is a financial loss. Preventions that you could take to reduce the risk of getting a ticket would be to not be the fastest driver on the road or to get a radar detector. Preventions that you could take to reduce the risk of an accident are to make sure that your car is in good working order, and that you eliminate distractions (Hang up the cell phone!) A precaution you can take to reduce the consequences of getting a ticket are to not speed too excessively, which will also act to reduce the consequences of getting into an accident. Wearing your seat belt is another precaution that could reduce the consequences of getting into an accident. |

|

Values Decisions can only be judged in reference to the values of the decision maker. A competition pilot who values winning more than not damaging his glider may make a very different decision than a pilot flying a rented or club glider. Neither less appropriate given the values of is pilot's decision good or bad, just more or e pilot. |

Obstacles to Good Judgment

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Undefined Values

If you do not have a clear and well thought out set of values, you may find yourself asking yourself after a flight, “Why did I do that?” concerning risks you may have unnecessarily taken. To make consistently good decisions (i.e., decisions appropriate to your values), you must first know what your values are. Unstructured Decision Process

it If you do not take a systematic approach to decision making, you may find difficult to have confidence in your decisions, especially when they must be made quickly.

Another problem with not using a systematic approach to decision making is that your decisions may be somewhat random. This may lead you to feel that the outcome of a situation is out of your control. You might come to believe that good outcomes are the result of “good luck”, and bad outcomes the result of “bad luck”. This attitude of resignation can lead a pilot to encounter much more bad luck than good luck! It is important to realize that you can take control of a situation and make a difference for the better. |

Urgency Sometimes, a decision has to be made immediately, with not enough time for considering all the elements. This can lead to a less than optimal decision. Section 16.2

Aeronautical

Decision Making

300

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However, that should not prevent you from making necessary.

a rapid decision when

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Immaturity

An immature person may refuse to see the connection between their actions and their consequences. This can take several different dangerous forms, including an anti-authority attitude, a “macho” attitude, or an attitude of invulnerability. Pilots with an anti-authority attitude make decisions to ignore the rules, much as a child who does not want to be told what to do would do. What these pilots do not realize is that the rules are there to keep them, and everyone else, safe. Pilots with an anti-authority attitude are a danger to themselves and those around them. |

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Pilots with a macho attitude are always trying to prove that they are better than anyone else. Pilots with this attitude purposefully take risks to impress others and are susceptible to peer pressure. Macho pilots artificially inflate the value of a benefit when making decisions. If they are lucky, they may scare themselves at some point and come to understand that taking risks is foolish. If they are unlucky... An attitude of invulnerability can lead a pilot to underestimate or evenignore the risks associated with a decision. The “invulnerable” pilot believes that accidents happento other people. Many pilots with an attitude of invulnerability learn the hard way that accidents can happen to them.

Inflexibility

is

not Judgment can be compromised when a pilot refuses to accept that a flight The inflexible the chance to going according to plan. pilot will continue on, as make better, safer decisions passes by. It is important tofly the situation you are in, not the situation you want to be in. Ignorance A new or inexperienced pilot may be unaware of the hazards or consequences associated with an activity. This is why you should receive thorough instruction

and read everything relevant you can get your hands on before trying something new, whether be aerobatics, wave flying, or cross-country.

it

Previous Poor Decisions

a

Most accidents are theresult of string of inauspicious decisions. For example, if you decide to fly at high altitude even though you don’t have supplemental oxygen on board, you will most certainly have difficulty making subsequent decisions because of reduced mental ability resulting from hypoxia.

Aeronautical Decision Making

301

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Section 16.2

Enhancing Good Judgment You can do many things to increase the quality of your decisions. |

Planning

It is much easier to make a decision on the ground, with unlimited time, than to make the same decision in the air. On the ground, you can focus all your attention on the factors affecting your decision. In the air, you must divide your attention between multiple tasks. Decisions that can be made on the ground include those in which you must solidify your values (Am I willing to do something that will increase my chance of winning this competition but also endanger my glider?) and set personal limits (How low will I try to work a thermal?). |

Systematic Process

Of course, your decisions will be better if you use a systematic process to determine them. As with any new skill, this will become easier with practice. Try to apply this systematic process when you make everyday decisions not related to flying, until using this process is second nature. Knowledge

|

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The more you know about yourself, your glider, the environment in which you are operating, and the weather, the better your decisions will be. Take every opportunity to review and reinforce what you already know, and to add to your knowledge by reading, attending seminars, or talking with experienced pilots. Reinforcement Just as you would congratulate yourself on a good landing, be sure to congratulate yourself on a good decision. Unfortunately, some pilots value the flying skills that get them out of trouble more than the good judgment that allows them to avoid trouble. |

16.3 Self-Discipline

if

Perfect situational awareness and judgment won't keep you out of trouble you do not have the self-discipline to act in accordance with your decisions. While it seems logical that once someone makes a decision, they will act in accordance with that decision, reality, many factors may tempt them to act otherwise.

in

‘Obstacles to Self-Discipline Peer Pressure

|

One of the most difficult obstacles to maintaining good self-discipline is overt or covert peer pressure. |

Section 16.3

Aeronautical Decision Making 302

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Overt peer pressure can be easier to recognize and to deal with because it is out in the open. If you are pressured by someone to do something against your judgment, you should simply explain (to them and to yourself) your decision making process and reiterate your conclusion. ce If you find yourself ignoring your own decisions or limits because you see the you are falling victim to covert peer pressure. There example set by other pilots, another pilot will decide differently than you in a given are many reasons why

situation. Perhaps the other pilot has much more experience, training, or knowledge of the situation, or perhaps the pilot is just an idiot. Either way, it is better to respect your own judgment. Later, on the ground, you can discuss with the other pilot the differences in your conclusions. You may learn the reasoning behind the other pilot's decision, or you may learn that there was no reasoning! Fixation on a Goal

When we have a strong desire for something, we may unknowingly ignore reality in our pursuit of it. Eventually, reality prevails. Rationalization

Often when we fixate on a goal, we create all kinds of compelling reasons why our previous decisions were too conservative. If you find yourself rationalizing a course of action that you previously ruled out, realize that you are about to commit a breech of self-discipline. |

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Complacency

it

is difficult to teach good judgment and self-discipline One of the reasons why is because most of the time, a pilot can get away with breaking regulations or personal limits without suffering the consequences. However, you only have to read the accident reports of the NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board) to understand the shortcoming of relying on this as a long-term strategy. Impulsivity A decision that is reached too rapidly is often not the best decision. Unless the urgency of the situation demands otherwise, slow down and take time to consider all the elements that affect your decision before deciding on a plan of action. Deferring to Others As a student, you must defer to the judgment of your instructor. You must trust that your instructor will keep both of you safe. |

|

As you gain knowledge, skills, and experience, you will start to develop the ability to make your own decisions. You may have the opportunity to fly with

other pilots who have different values or decision making strategies. If you ever is important for you to speak up and not simply defer to the other pilot simply because he is older or more experienced, or holds more feel uncomfortable,

it

Aeronautical Decision 303

Making

Section 16.3

do. It is said that there is no more dangerous situation than when two instructors are in the same glider, since both may defer to the other.

ratings than you

Enhancing Self-Discipline In many areas of life, lessons are best learned by making mistakes. However, in aviation, the consequence of mistake can be severe. It is therefore best to oT instead learn from the mistakes of others. |

a

Rules and Regulations The Federal Aviation Regulations are the collective lessons learned from the mistakes of previous aviators. The rules at your local gliderport and the

operating limits placed on gliders by their manufacturer are also a result of learning from past mistakes. A smart pilot will avoid repeating these mistakes by following the rules.

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ST Avoiding Complacency Each time you exercise less than perfect self-discipline, you sow the seeds of complacency. The more times you get away with a risky behavior, the more To counteract this trend, you need to remind yourself likely you are to repeat that eventually, this type of behavior can catch up with you. You should strive

it.

for perfection in your self-discipline.

|

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Also, keep in mind that other pilots will be observing you. Complacency is contagious, and while you may have the skills or luck to avoid suffering the consequences of your complacency, others who look to you as a role model may not. |

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Section 16.3

Aeronautical Decision Making 304

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GLOSSARY Abeam

- Along side.

fuselage.

Ballast - Weight carried either to modify the wing loading, or the location of the center of gravity, of the glider. Bank Angle — The angle between the pitch axis of the glider and the horizon. Bearing — The magnetic direction. Bernoulli's Equation — States that the pressure along a streamline is inversely proportional tothe square of the velocity. Best Glide Speed — The indicated airspeed that results in the greatest distance covered over the ground.

At a right angle to the

Adiabatic — A process that changes the femth perature of a parcel of air by changing cat, pressure, without adding or subtracting Advection — The horizontal movement of an air mass. Adverse Yaw - A yawing motion toward the wing that is creating the most lift. AGL - Altitude Above Ground Level

-

Control surfaces located at the Aileron trailing edge of the wing, used to create a rolling moment. Airbrake — A control surface that creates drag, used to control the glide slope of the glider. Aircraft — A device used for flight.

C.G.

Airplane

it

-

CFI-G

aircraft.

sider

Ambient - The condition of the air immediately surrounding the glider. Angle of Attack — The angle between the relative wind and the chord line of an airfoil.

—-

mass.

Aspect Ratio The ratio of the span to the average chord length of a wing. Atmospheric Sounding — A measurement of atmospheric conditions at different altitudes.

Convergence — The area where two different air masses come together.

—

Aviation Medical Examiner

— A physician designated by the FAA and given authority to perform physical examinations and issue airman medical certificates.

see Practical Test

Clearance — Permission granted by Air Traffic Control to enter a specified airspace, or perform a specified action. Control Authority ~ The ability of a controls ‘surface to producethe desired result. Convection — Vertical movement of an air’

with

Atmospheric Stability — The tendency of a parcel of air to return to its original altitude after being vertically displaced. Attitude - The angle of the glider’s axes with respect to the horizon.

—-

airfoil.

control.

The speed of the Airspeed the air. to respect

i

Chord Line - An imaginary straight line. joining the leading and trailing edges of an

Airspace - Segments of the sky divided into different classes for the purpose of air traffic —

- Certified Flight Instructor in Gliders

Check Ride

An engine-driven, fixed-wing,

heavier-than-air

-

Ceiling The height above the ground of the lowestbroken or overcast layer of clouds. Center of Gravity — The location of the balance point of the glider. Usually expressed as a distance from a known reference point, or datum.

— The cross-section of a surface that creates an aerodynamic force when interacts with the relative wind.

Airfoil

- see Center of Gravity

the

.

Coordinate — To keep glider aligned with the relative airflow by properly using the ailerons and rudder. Course — The desired track over the ground. Crab - To correct for a crosswind by flying the glider with the heading not aligned with the track. Also, a small, delicious crustacean. Critical Angle of Attack — The angle of atairfoil tack, which if exceeded, will cause to stall.

Glossary 305

the

Cross-Country — As related to soaring, any flight out of gliding range of the takeoff airfield.

|

Crosswind The wind component perpendicular to the track of the glider. Also, the leg of the landing pattern flown perpendicular to —

the runway direction, followed by the downwind, base, and final. Density Altitude — Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. Deviation — see Magnetic Deviation Dew Point — The temperature to which a parcel of air must be cooled to become completely saturated with water vapor. Dive Brake — A type of glide slope control device that extends from both the top and the bottom of the wing surface. Diverge — When two air masses flow away from each other. Downburst — A localized area of rapidly

-

descending

-

- A descending flow that is warmed adiabatically.

Foehn

air.

Le

Drag — A force parallel to the relative wind, resisting the movement of the glider. Dust Devil — A vortex that forms at the base of a thermal, made visible by the entrainment i of dust and debris. Elevator — Horizontal control surface located at the tail of the glider, used to create a pitching moment. Endorsement — Signature of a CFI-G verifying the specified level of proficiency. :

F.B.O.

- see Fixed Base Operator

Federal Aviation Administration, the governing body for aviation in the United

FAA

States.

-

Fédération Aéronautique InternationFAI ale, the international governing body for

aviation contests and records. Fixed Base Operator — An aviation related business that operates from a fixed location, as opposed to one that is mobile.

Flaps — Control surface located at the trailing edge of the wing, used to create additional

lift.

Flare — The transition from the final approach to a flight path parallel with the landing surface. Flight Test — see Practical Test

Fuselage — The body of the glider, containing the cockpit and controls. Glide Slope — The ratio of the distance covered over the ground to the altitude lost. The glide slope is dependant on wind and lift/ sink. : Glider — A fixed wing aircraft with no source of propulsion. Glide Ratio — The ratio of the distance flown through the air to the altitude lost. The glide ratio is independent of the wind and |

lift / sink.

|

|

Go-Around - To abort a landing, re-enter the pattern, and attempt the landing again. A maneuver not possible in a pure glider. Gradient — The change in a variable over a distance, e.g., wind speed, wind direction, or

temperature.

2222222323333323002222232220020200J2D0

:

Ground Effect — The increase in lift and decrease in drag resulting from the interaction between the ground and a wing's trailing Ground Loop — A violent, abrupt turn that occurs when the glider is rolling on the ground. Ground Speed — The speed of the glider with respect to the ground. Gyroscopic — Exploiting the principles of spatial rigidity exhibited by spinning objects. Heading — The direction the nose of the glider is pointing. Headwind — The wind component opposite the direction of flight. Horizon — The distant line where the earth and sky appear to meet, not considering any local obstructions.

vortices.

|

IFR

- see Instrument Flight Rules

Inertia — The resistance of an object to change its speed or direction. Instrument Flight Rules

—

Flight rules ap-

plicable during conditions of low visibility and ceilings, or when operating in controlled airspace under the guidance of ATC.

Inversion altitude.

Glossary 306

—

An increase in temperature with 2333333133

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air mass, not of the vertical velocity of the glider. N-Number — The registration number of the glider. All US. registration numbers start with the letter “N”.

Kinetic Energy — The energy a body possesses because of its

speed.

|

Knot - A nautical mile per hour. Landing Pattern — A rectangular flight path around the landing area flown in preparation for landing. Consists of the crosswind, downwind, base, and final legs. Lapse Rate — The change in the properties of altitude. the atmosphere with a change

Overdevelopment — Convective cloud development to the extent that the sky is covered with clouds, cutting off the sunshine that produces thermals.

in

Lift (aerodynamic) — The force perpendicular to both the wingspan and the relative wind, created by the wing as it moves through the air.

Lift (soaring) — Rising air adequate to sustain flight in a glider. Load — The force created by the glider structure. Load Factor — The ratio of the load to the ‘weight of the glider. Magnetic Deviation - Compass errors caused by magnetic disturbances from electrical fields and metal components of the glider. Magnetic Variation Compass errors caused by the difference between true and magnetic north. —-

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Maneuvering Speed — The maximum airspeed where full, abrupt control movements can be used without overstressing the glider. Medical Examiner

Examiner

—

see Aviation Medical

Moment — A “twisting” force resulting from a force being applied at a distance from an axis.

an

Moment Arm - The distance between applied force and an axis. MSL - Altitude relative to Mean Sea Level. MVFR - Marginal VFR conditions, with ceilings between 1,000 and 3,000 feet, and visibility between 3 and 5 miles. Nautical Mile — The distance of the length of one minute of arc at the equator. Approximately 6,076 feet. Negative Flaps — Deflecting the flaps upward to increase the high speed performance of a glider.

NETTO - A type of compensation such that movement of the the variometer indicates the

Pattern — see Landing Pattern Pilot Operating Handbook ~ Manual provided by the glider manufacturer, covering operating procedures and limitations for the particular make and model of glider. Pitch Attitude — The angle between the roll axis and the horizon. POH - see Pilot Operating Handbook Positive Control Check ~ Confirmation of the control linkages performed by moving the control against pressure applied at the control surface. -

|

Potential Energy — The energy a body possesses because of its altitude. Practical Test — A flight and knowledge test administered by an employee of the FAA or an FAA-designated examiner that must be passed to qualify for a pilot certificate. Radiant Energy - Energy transmitted through electromagnetic waves. Relative Wind — The direction of the airflow with respect to the glider. The relative wind is parallel to and opposite in direction of the flight path of the glider. Retrieve — The task of finding and returning the glider and pilot to the departure airport after a cross-country flight. Rotor — A turbulent, sometimes violent, swirling flow located downwind of mountain or ridge, often associated with wave lift. Rudder - Vertical control surface located on the tail of the glider, used to create a yawing moment. Sailplane - A gliderthat is efficient enough to allow soaring flight. Sea Breeze — Wind created when cool, dense air flows inland to replace rising warm air. Separation - Detachment of flow from the top of an airfoil when the critical angle of attack is exceeded.

Glossary 307

Shear over

a

Variation in wind direction or speed short distance.

—

Shear Line — The boundary between two air masses with differing wind speeds or direc-

~

tions.

Sink — Descending air. Soar — To extend a flight in a sailplane by using lift. Solo A flight in which the pilot is the sole occupant of the glider. —-

Sounding — see Atmospheric Sounding Speed Made Good - The speed on a course, calculated by dividing the distance covered by the sum of the time spent climbing and a the time spent cruising. Speed-to-Fly — The indicated airspeed that will result in the highest speed made good. Spoiler — A type of glide slope control device that extends from the top of the wing surface.

-

Soaring Society of America. The governing body. of the sport of soaring in the SSA

Stall — The separation of the airflow from the surface of an airfoil that results when the critical angle of attack is exceeded, resulting in decreased lift and increased drag. Statute Mile — A distance of 5,280 feet. Stick — The control that actuates the ailerons and elevator. S-turn — Alternating left and right turns. Sublimate — To change from a solid directly to a gas. Ice sublimates into water vapor. Tailwind — The wind component in the direction of the flight path. |

Thermal — A mass of air that is rising because it is warmer than the surrounding air. Also, to circle in such an air mass to gain altitude. Threshold — The beginning of the runway. |

Total Energy Compensation — A type of compensation such that the variometer indicates what the vertical velocity of the glider would be if it were being flown at a constant airspeed. Track — The direction the glider moves over the ground.

|

Trim — The control used to eliminate the pressure on the control stick such that the glider will fly at the desired airspeed without any control pressure from the pilot. Also, the act of adjusting this control. Tropics — Areas of the Earth within 20° north oe or south of the equator. Turnpoint — A point defined by either latitude and longitude, or a landmark on the ground, defining one end of a contest, badge, or record course or task. Ultralight — A light aircraft operated for sport or recreation that does not require aircraft or pilot certification. |

Vi — Maneuvering speed Variation ~ see Magnetic Variation Vector — A quantity with a magnitude and a direction, such as force, or velocity. VFR

- see Visual Flight Rules

Visual Flight Rules — Flight rules applicable during conditions of good visibility. Aircraft flying under VFR are responsible for their own separation from other aircraft and are not required to be in contact with Air Traffic Control.

Ve

—

The never-exceed speed of the glider.

Vortex — A swirling air flow, increasing in velocity as you approach the axis of rotation. Vs — Stall

speed

Wave — Lift produced by the interaction of wind and terrain, often extending to very Le high altitudes. Class A airspace Wave Window — A “box” created by ATC so that gliders can legally exceed analtitude of 18,000 feet. Weak Link — A short section of rope that meets the FAA requirements for breaking strength that is attached between the glider and the tow rope, or the tow rope and the tow plane. Wing Loading — The weight of the glider divided by the wing area.

Glossary 308

in

|

032222132232323232323223223335325I32325223232232222202222200D0

"INDEX A/FD, 198 absolute altitude, 60

accident reporting, 196 ACs, 200

active runway, 13 ADF, 77-79

adiabatic heating/cooling, 53, 89

adiabatic lapse rate, 89, 119

advection fog, 95 adverse yaw, 30 Advisory Circulars, 200 aerobatics, vii, 194 aeronautical decision making, 295-304 Aeronautical Information Manual, 197 ailerons, 1 AIM, 197 air traffic control, 193, 197, 203-8, 243, 253

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~~

airbrakes, 5 airfoil, 23 Airman’s Meteorological Information advisory. See AIRMET AIRMET, 158, 159, 160

airport

lighting, 17, 226 markings, 11-17

representation on

charts, 224-26 traffic, 18

Airport/Facility Directory, 198

airspace representation on charts, 227-30

requirements, 209 system, 203

airspeed

calibrated, 63

indicated, 62 limit, 6, 32

performance, 6 true, 63 airspeed indicator how it works, 62 markings, 63 Airworthiness Certificate, 7,193

best glide speed determining, 43 effect of headwind, 46 effect of lift/sink, 48 effect of tailwind, 47 effect of wing loading,

alcohol, 179, 187, 191 alert areas defined, 210 representation on charts, 232

alterations, 193 altimeter adjusting, 57 errors, 58 how it works, 56 reading, 57 required settings, 193 altitude absolute,

50

best L/D speed, 44

~

biannual flight review, 189

calibrated airspeed, 63 cap cloud, 137 cell phone, 191 center of gravity determining, 9 glider axes, 23

60

density, 60 indicated, 60 pressure, 60 true, 60 angle of attack, 23, 39 artificial horizon, 72 ASOS, 144 aspect ratio, 2, 30 253

ATIS, 250

attitude indicator, 72 Automated Surface Observation System.

clearance requirements, 209

ASOS

Automated Weather Observing System. See AWOS

automatic direction finder, 77-79 Aviation Routine Weather Reports, 147 Aviation Weather Center. :

See AWC

Aviation Weather Center (AWCQ), 144

AWC, 144, 146, 151, 154, 156, 159, 162, 165 AWOS, 144

vi

barometer, 87 bends, 176

Index 309

class aircraft, 184

cloud base, 90, 121, 124, 126

116

badges,

certification of pilots, 186 change of address, 190 chevrons, 16 chord line, 23 cirrus, 94 airmen, 184 airspace, 203-9 closed runway, 14

atmosphere properties, 53, 85 standard, 54 atmospheric soundings,

bank angle, 34

|

stability, 36-38

ATC, 193, 197, 203-8, 243,

See

BFR, 189

types, 91-95 cold front, 102 common traffic advisory frequency, 242 compass, 67-71 complacency, 303 condensation level, 90, 121

|

contests, vi convection, 97 convective condensation level, 126 Convective SIGMET, 158 convergence lift, v, 85 weather for, 137-39 coordinated turn, 35 Coriolis effect, 99 crew, 293

critical angle of attack, 26

DBIDIBIS]

cross-country, v, 267-94 crosswind component, 48 CTAF, 242

cumulus, 92 dead reckoning, 237 decision making, 295-304 decompression sickness, 176

dehydration, 173 density defined, 88 effects on indicated airspeed, 63 density altitude, 60 deviation, 69 dew, 89 dew point defined, 89 lapse rate, 119 skew-T/log-P diagram, 119

dihedral, 39 displaced threshold, 14 dive brakes, 5 documentation, 7, 186, 193 down-burst, 128 drag defined, 28 induced, 29 parasite, 28 profile, 28

drizzle, 96 dropping objects, 191 drugs, 179,187,191 dry adiabatic lapse rate, 89,119

dust devil, 113 elevator, 1

ELT, 80

emergency locator transmitter, 80 emergency radio use, 244, 258

Eustachian tube, 170 experimental aircraft, 195

FAA, 183 FARs, 183-96, 197 FB, 155, 156, 158

federal airways, 208 Federal Aviation Regulations, 183, 197 flaps, 6 flight following, 254 flight manual, 6 flight review, 189 Flight Service Station, 244, See FSS

flight test, 188

flight training, iii Foehn gap, 135 fog, 95 forces in a turn, 33 on a glider, 24 foreign license, 190 formation flight, 192 fronts, 101-4, 110 frost, 89

hypoxia, 174 icing, 129 IFR, 184, 203

impulsivity,

fuselage, 1 GFA, 144, 165, 166

G-forces, 176 glide distance, 41 glide ratio definition, 41 effect of lift/sink, 48 effect of wind, effect of wing ‘Toading,

44

50

-

from polar, 43 maximum, 43 glide slope

license,

23

1 42

GFA

Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA), 144 ground effect, 30 groundspeed defined, 45 determining, 283 gust front, 128 gyroscopic instruments, 72

hail, 93,97, 128 Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory Service. See HIWAS

HIWAS, 145, 159, 162

hold short marking, 15 humidity, hyperventilation, 175

ii, 186

convergence, v, 137-39

defined, 184 partsof, polars, global positioning system, 81 G-meter, 71 GPS, 81 Graphical Forecasts for Aviation. See GFA, See

74

PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPIP

aerodynamic, 25

control, 5

88

instruments, 53-84 isobars, 109 isogonic lines, 223 jet stream, 94, 107 judgment, 299-302 K-Index, 129 knowledge test, 188 Kollsman window, 57 landing gear, 4 latitude, 213 lenticular, 93, 135

lift

management, 267 ruler, 268-73 glider

heading indicator, heatstroke, 174

PDB

184, 203

FSS, 144, 145, 244

axis,

303

incident, 196 inclinometer, 67 indicated airspeed, 62 indicated altitude, 60 inspections, 193 instrument flight rules,

ridge, v, 130-31 soaring, v, 85 thermal, v, 111-30 wave, v, 131-37 lifted condensation level, 126

lifted index, 129 light signals, 194 lightning, 129 load factor, 35 logbook glider, 186 pilot, 189

longitude, 213 low-pressure system, 104 magnetic variation, 68, 223

PPP

maintenance, 185, 193 maneuvering speed, 32, 64 maximum aerotow speed, 33

maximum elevation figures, 221 maximum glide ratio, 43 medical certificate, ii, 169, 189

fet

PPP

medical factors, 169 medication, 180

PPP

PPP

METAR, 147-51

military operations area defined, 210

PPP

Index

“310

PP

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representation on charts, 232

military training routes defined, 211 representation-on charts, 232

minimum altitudes, 192 minimum sink, 44 minimum sink speed determining from polar, effect of wing loadin 50

MOA defined, 210 representation on charts, 232

mode-C veil, 206, 227 motion sickness, 173 MTR defined, 211 representation on charts, 232

NAVAIDs

ADF, 77-79

representation on

charts, 230 VOR, 74-77

navigation, 74, 77, 213, 234 negative flaps, 6 never exceed speed, 33 NOTAM, 198 Notice to Airmen, 198 occluded front, 103 off-field landing, 286 operating limits, 8, 304 oxygen equipment, 82 requirements, 194 parachute described, 260-64 jump zones, 211, 234

requirements, 195 passenger, 190 peer pressure, 302 personal locator beacon, 80

phonetic alphabet, 241 pilot license, ii, 186 Pilot Operating Handbook, 6 Pilot Weather Reports, 160, See PIREP

pilotage, 237

PIREP, 160, 161, 162, 166, 167

pitch

axis, 24

stability, 36

pitot pressure, 55, 62 pitot tube, 56

PLB, 80 polar, 42-52

:

position lights, 194 positive control area, 204

practical test, 188 precipitation, 96, 110

preflight

checklist, glider, 6 checklist, parachute, 261 required actions, 191

pressure defined, 87 measuring, 87 pitot, 55 standard lapse rate, 54 static, 55 total, 55

pressure altitude, 60 prime meridian, 213 prohibited airspace defined, 210 representation on radar

charts, 232

ATC, 203

weather, 111 radiation fog, 95 radio described, 79 required, 205, 206, 207 using, 239-58 radio magnetic indicator, 77

rain, 96 Registration Certificate, 7, 193

regulations, 183-96, 304 relative wind, 23 repairs, 193 restricted airspace defined, 210 representation on charts, 232

retrieve

aero, 292

ground, 291 ridge lift, v, 85

weather for, 130-31 right of way, 192 RMI, 77 roll axis, 24 stability, 38

roll cloud, 136 Index 311

rough air speed, 33 rudder, 1 runway markings, 11-17 safe glide circles, 270 satellite photos, 111 saturated adiabatic lapse rate, 90, 119 sea breeze, 98, 137 seat belts, 191 sectional chart, 216 segmented circle, 12 self-discipline, 302-4 separation, 26 showers, 96 SIGMET, 158

Significant Meteorological Information advisory. See SIGMET sink rate, 36, 42 sinus problems, 169 situational awareness,

295-99

skew-t/log-p diagram, -

116-25

skid, 35, 67 skin friction, 28 slip, 35, 39, 67 snow, 97 soaring, iv, 85 solo, iv, 187 sounding, 116 special use airspace defined, 210 representation on charts, 232

speed made good, 277 speed ring, 66, 277-81 speed-to-fly, 276

spin cause,

27

recovery procedure, 6 spoilers, 5 squall line, 129 squelch, 239 stabilator, 3 stability atmospheric, 89, 91 glider, 36

stall

|

cause, 26

recovery procedure, 6 stall speed, 32, 35 standard atmosphere, 54 static ports, 56 static pressure, 55, 62 stationary front, 103 steam fog, 95

stick thermal, 65 stratus, 95 SUA

defined, 210 radio communications 253

representation on charts, 232

sunburn, 174 Surface Prognostic Chart, 146, 147

:

survival kit, 264

TACAN, 74 TAF, 152, 153, 154, 155, :

166

:

tail configurations, 2 dolly, 4

taxiway markings, 11-17 temperature defined, 86 standard lapse rate, 55 temporary flight restrictions, 211 Terminal Aerodrome Forecast. See TAF terminal area chart, 217

:

forces, 33

52

UNICOM, 243

upslope fog, 95

223

NETTO, 66

Victor airways, 208 virga, 96 visual flight rules, 203

lifecycle, 115 lift, v, 85

structure, weather for, 111-30 thermal index, 125 thunderstorms, 125, 126 112

30

time zones, 215 total energy probe, 66

90,119

V speeds, 64, 185 variation, 68,

tetrahedron, 13

thermal

198,244

weight, 31 weight and balance, 9 wet adiabatic lapse rate,

turn coordinator, 73

variometer description, 64-66

VFR, 203 VER terminal area chart, 217

VOR, 74-77

Test Facilities, 77 VOR/DME, 74 VOR

VORTAC, 74

vortex aircraft wake, 20 induced drag, 29 jet stream, 107 WAC, 217

Index

312

195

weather, 85-141 Weather Advisories, 158 weather briefing, 163 weather services, Error! Not a valid bookmark in entry on page 143,

charts, 232

altitude lost,

.

131-37

wave window, 204

weak link,

true airspeed, 63, 283 true altitude, 60

turn

232

lift, v, 85 weather for,

defined, 211 representation on

terminal radar service area defined, 211 representation on

TFR, 211

‘charts,

washout, 27 water vapor, 85, 88 wave

TRSA

total energy, 66 vertigo, 171

charts, 232

wake turbulence, 19 warning areas defined, 210 representation on

total pressure, 55 tow hook, 3 tow pilot, 190 tow rope, 195 towel, 274 training, iii transponder described, 79 emergency, 258 required, 205-7, 206

~

-

wind correction angle, 235 wind indicator, 13, 287 wind shear, 128 wind tee, 13 winds aloft determining, 283 Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast. See FB windsock, 13 wing configurations, 1 loading, 50 world aeronautical chart, 217

written test, 188

yaw adverse, 30

axis, 24 stability, 40

yaw string, 66 Zulu,

216

3333333333333333233233333333333313331323313333)

REVIEW QUESTIONS CHAPTER 1: GLIDER FAMILIARIZATION 1.1 The Glider 1.1.1

One of the main functions of flaps during approach and landing is to A [ ] decrease the angle of descent without increasing the airspeed. B [ | permit a touchdown at a higher indicated airspeed. ] C increase the angle of descent without increasing the airspeed. [|

1.1.2

is

Pitch control provided by the ] horizontal stabilizer. A [|

B[

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

C[

1.1.3

1.1.4

] ]

elevator. rudder.

For aerotowing, the tow hook

A[

]

B

[

]

C[

]

mustbeaC.G. hook. must be anose hook. canbe either a C.G. or a nose hook.

The main control used to adjust the glider’s glide

Al

]

flaps.

B[

]

elevator.

C

]

spoilers.

[

slope

is the

1.2 Flight Manual 1.21

(CCC

The stall and spin recovery techniques A [ ] forall gliders are the same. B [ ] should be determined by reading the flight manual for the specific glider. C [ ] are explained on the glider’s Airworthiness Certificate.

Review Questions

313

1.2

1.2.2

Anytime you assemble or disassemble a glider, you should A [ ] remove the tail first, followed by the wings. B [ ] remove the wings first, followed by the tail. consult the flight manual for the correct procedures. C|[ 1]

oxIAyrXYYYaAdyiyl

1.3 Documentation 1.3.1

Where may a glider’s operating limitations be found? A [ ] On the Airworthiness Certificate B [ ] Inthe current, FAA-approved flight manual, approved manual material, markings, and placards, or any combination thereof C [ Inthe glider airframe logbooks 1]

1.3.2

A pilot plans to fly solo in the front seat of a two-place glider which

displays the following placard on the instrument panel: MINIMUM PILOT WEIGHT: 135 LB MAXIMUM PILOT WEIGHT: 220 LB NOTE: Seat ballast should be used as necessary.

The recommended towing speed for all tows is 55 - 65 knots. What action must be taken if the pilot's weight is 115 pounds? A [ ] Add 20 pounds of seat ballast to the rear seat. B [ Add 55 pounds of seat ballast to obtain the average pilot weight of 170 pounds. C[ ] Add 20 pounds of seat ballast. |]

1.3.3

The operating limits of the glider must be A [ ] documented in the glider. B [ ] memorized by the pilot.

C[

]

YQ»)

YX

YYZ

3X3

) dd)

determined in flight. yd)

DD)

Section 1.3

Review Questions

314

>)

STATIONS DIAGRAM REAR SEAT STA.

STA. ©

74.90 FRONT SEAT

STA 43.80

Empty Weight - 610 Pounds Empty Weight Station - 96.47 Inches Maximum Gross Weight - 1,040 Pounds Center of Gravity Limits - Stations 78.20 to 86.10

Figure 1.1 ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

1.3.4

(Refer to Figure 1.1) Calculate the weight and balance of the glider, and determine if the CG is within limits. The pilot in the forward seat the aft seat weighs 185 Ib. weighs 160 1b, and the passenger A[ ] CG 71.65 inches aft of datum - out of limits forward B [ ] CG 79.67 inches aft of datum - within limits C[ ] CG 83.43 inches aft of datum - within limits

in

1.3.5

A glider has an empty weight of 850 pounds. The center of gravity of the

is

30.5 inches behind the leading edge. The front seat pilot empty glider is located 48 inches ahead of the leading edge, and the rear seat pilot is located 3.2 inches ahead of the leading edge. Where will the center of gravity be with a 195 pound instructor in the back seat, and a 145 pound student in the front seat? A [ ] 282inchesin front of the leading edge of the wing B [ ] 28.2inches behind the leading edge of the wing C [ ] 15.4 inches behind the leading edge of the wing

ccc

(CCC

Review Questions

315

1.3

))))

2: AIRPORT

CHAPTER

FAMILIARIZATION ddd)

2.1

Operating Procedures

21.1

The best way to learn about operating procedures for a gliderport is to A [ ] speak to the local pilots and gliderport staff, and read the gliderport’s Standard Operating Procedures. [ review the Chart Supplement. [ study the sectionals for the area. 1

1

21.2

A gliderport may have hazards that you can only find out about by A [ ] reading the Chart Supplement.. B

[

]

C[

]

talking to experienced local pilots. exploring on your own.

dd)

)) yy)

) DD)

2.2 Airport Markings 2.2.1

2.22

Atan uncontrolled airport, you should not cross a “hold short line” until you have A [ ] announced your position on the radio. B [ ] received clearance to take the runway. C [ ] verified that there is no conflicting traffic. (Refer to Figure 2.1) According to the airport diagram, which statement is true? A

[

]

DD)

DD)

DDD)

Runway 30 is equipped at position E with emergency arresting gear to provide a means of stopping military aircraft.

B

[

]

C

[

]

Takeoffs may be started at position A on Runway 12, and the landing portion of this runway begins at position B. The takeoff and landing portion of Runway 12 begins at

position

22.3

B.

(Refer to Figure 2.1) Area C on the airport depicted is classified as a A [ ] stabilized area. B

[

]

C|[

]

DD)

DDD)

multiple heliport. closed runway. DDD)

Section 2.2

Review Questions

316

))

RAMP

ITINERANT

#

ccc

daihy

4

>

NC

pee

=

wo

im.

rg]

=

2

Figure 2.1

2.24

CeCe

(Refer to Figure 2.1) What

is the difference between area A and area E

on the airport depicted? A[ ] “A” may be used for taxi and takeoff; “E” may be used only as an overrun. “A” may be used for all operations except heavy aircraft landings; “E” may be used only as an overrun. “A” may be used only for taxiing; “E” may be used for all operations except landings.

B[] Cl]

2.25

(Refer to Figure 2.1) That portion of the runway identified by the letter “A” may be used for A [ ] landing. B [ ] taxiing and takeoff. C [ ] taxiing and landing.

(CCC

Review Questions

317

dd)

2.2.6

22.7

The numbers 9 and 27 on a runway indicate that the runway is oriented approximately A [ ] 009° and 027° magnetic. B [ ] 090° and 270° true. C[ ] 090° and 270° magnetic. Runway markings are Al ] yellow. B [ ] white.

Cl 22.8

2.2.10

]

red. dd)

dd)

red.

(Refer to Figure 2.2) The segmented circle indicates that a landing on Runway 27 will be with a A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

]

dd)

dd)

Taxiway markings are Al ] yellow. B [ ] white.

Cl 229

]

))))

right-quartering headwind. left-quartering headwind.

yd)

DI)

right-quartering tailwind.

(Refer to Figure 2.2) The traffic patterns indicated in the segmented circle have been arranged to avoid flights over an area to the south of the airport. A [ B [ ] north of the airport. C [ ] southeast of the airport.

DD)

1

22.11

(Refer to Figure 2.2) The segmented circle indicates that the airport traffic is A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

]

left-hand for Runway 36 and right-hand for Runway 18. left-hand for Runway 18 and right-hand for Runway 36. right-hand for Runway 9 and left-hand for Runway 27.

DDD)

DD)

DD)

DDD)

Section 2.2

Review Questions

318

DD)

>)

Figure 2.2

2.212

According to the windsock in Figure 2.3, the wind is blowing from the A [ ] southwest.

B[

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

C[

|]

]

west. northeast.

Figure 2.3

2.2.13

In Figure 2.3, a pilot should make a left pattern for runway 22. A [ B [ ] leftpattern for runway 4. right pattern for 22. C[ 1

1

CCC

Review Questions

319

(CCC

22

DD

DN

MYIRYIIIEINIEDE

ARAN

XY

Figure 2.4

2.214

(Refer to Figure 2.4) If the wind is as shown by the landing direction indicator, the pilot should land on A [ ] Runway 18 and expect a crosswind from the right. B [ ] Runway 22 directly into the wind. C [ Runway 36 and expect a crosswind from the right. 1]

2.2.15

The best indicator of the current wind is a ] wind tee. B [ ] wind sock. C|[ ] tetrahedron.

A

2.3 Airport Lighting 2.3.1

FFD

3 3 } ))

) ) ) )))

Airport taxiway edge lights are identified at night by A [ ] white directional lights. B [ ] blue omnidirectional lights. C [ ] alternate red and green lights.

Dd)

Dd)

Section 2.3

Review Questions

320

>)

2.3.2

An airport's rotating beacon operated during daylight hours indicates A [ ] there are obstructions on the airport. below B [ ] that weather at the airport located in Class D airspace basic VFR weather minimums. C [ ] the Air Traffic Control tower is not in operation.

is

2.4 Airport Traffic 241

The best way to avoid collisions on the ground at an airport is to A [ ] always announce your position on the radio. B [ ] scan the traffic pattern before moving onto the runway. C [ ] monitor the radio before moving onto the runway.

24.2

In the traffic pattern, the greatest collision hazard comes from an aircraft that is

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccd

A

[

]

B

[

]

C[

]

infront of you. behind you. beside you.

2.5 Wake Turbulence 25.1

Wingtip vortices are created only when an aircraft is A [ ] operating at high airspeeds. [

]

heavily loaded.

C[

]

developing lift.

B

CCC

252

The wind condition that requires maximum caution when avoiding wake turbulence on landing is a A [ ] light, quartering headwind. B [ ] light, quartering tailwind. C[ ] strong headwind.

253

When departing behind a heavy aircraft, the pilot should avoid wake turbulence by maneuvering the aircraft A [ ] below and downwind from the heavy aircraft. B [ ] above and upwind from the heavy aircraft. C[ ] below and upwind from the heavy aircraft. Review Questions 321

2.5

dd)

254

When landing behind a large aircraft, the pilot should avoid wake turbulence by staying A [ ] above the large aircraft's final approach path and landing beyond the large aircraft's touchdown point. B [ ] below the large aircraft's final approach path and landing before the large aircraft's touchdown point. C [ ] above the large aircraft's final approach path and landing before the large aircraft's touchdown point.

2.5.5

The greatest vortex strength occurs when the generating aircraft is A [ ] light, dirty, and fast. B [ heavy, dirty, and fast. C[ ] heavy, clean, and slow.

))))))))))))))))))

1

2.5.6

When taking off or landing at an airport where heavy aircraft are operating, one should be particularly alert to the hazards of wingtip vortices because this turbulence tends to A [ ] rise from a crossing runway into the takeoff or landing path. B [ ] rise into the traffic pattern area surrounding the airport. C[ ] sinkinto the flight path of aircraft operating below the aircraft generating the turbulence.

Dd)

)) DD)

))

D>)

) DD)

DD)

Section 2.5

Review Questions

322

>)

3: AERODYNAMICS

CHAPTER 3.1 3.1.1

Nomenclature The relative wind A [ isa result of the movement of the glider through the air. B [ allows the airfoil to create more lift on windy days. C[ ] results from air flowing from high to low pressure. 1

1]

RELATIVE WIND

CENTER OF

To

PRESSURE

=

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

Figure 3.1

3.1.2

3.1.3

The acute angle “A” in Figure 3.1 is the angle of A

[

]

incidence.

B

[

]

attack.

C|[

]

dihedral

The term “angle of attack” is defined as the angle A [ ] between the wing chord line and the relative wind. B [ between the gliders climb angle and the horizon. C[ ] formed by the longitudinal axis of the glider and the chord line of the wing. 1]

Review Questions

323

3.1

))

) )

3.2 Three Forces 3.2.1

Lift always acts A [ ] parallel to the relative wind. B [ ] perpendicular to the relative wind. C [ ] perpendicular to the chord line.

3.2.2

Drag always acts A [ ] parallel to the relative wind. B [ ] perpendicular to the relative wind. C [ ] perpendicular to the chord line.

3.2.3

In straight, unaccelerated flight, the A [ ] vertical component of lift is balanced by the weight of the glider. B [ ] horizontal component lift is balanced by the vertical component of drag. C[ ] thelift from the wing equals the weight of the glider.

)))))

dd)

)))))

of

3.24

3.2.5

3.2.6

To increase the lift produced by an airfoil by a factor of four, you could A [ ] double the angle of attack, or quadruple the airspeed. B

[

]

C

[

]

quadruple the angle of attack, or double the airspeed. double the angle of attack, or double the airspeed.

During an approach to a stall, an increased load factor will cause the glider to A [ ] stall ata higher airspeed. B [ ] have a tendency to spin. C | ] be more difficult to control. The angle of attack at which a glider wing stalls will A [ ] increase if the CG is moved forward. B [ ] change with an increase in gross weight. C[ ] remain the same regardless of gross weight.

dy)

)) dD)

dy)

))

DD)

DD)

DD)

Section 3.2

Review Questions 324

>)

32.7

3.2.8

The angle of attack at which a glider wing stalls is affected by A

[

]

B

[

]

C[

1

theairspeed. the weight of the glider. the airfoil shape and the condition of the wing surface.

As the speed of a glider increases, the A [ ] induced drag decreases and the parasite drag increases. B [ ] induced drag increases and the parasite drag increases. C

[

theinduced drag increases and the parasite drag decreases.

]

329

Adverse yaw results from A [ ] the increase in lift on the faster moving outside wing during a turn. B [ ] theincrease in profile drag on the faster moving outside wing during a turn. C[ ] theincrease in induced drag on a wing when the aileron is deflected down to initiate a turn.

3.2.10

During a spin to the left, which wing(s) is/are stalled? A [ ] Both wings are stalled. B [ ] Neither wing is stalled. C [ ] Only the left wing is stalled.

3.211

In what flight condition must an aircraft be placed in order to spin? A [ ] Partially stalled with one wing low B [ ] Ina steep diving spiral

ecccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

C|[

]

Stalled

3.3 Airspeed Limits 3.3.1

in

flight if It should be impossible to overload the glider A [ you fly slower than the never-exceed speed. B [ you fly slower than the maneuvering speed. C[ ] you fly between the maneuvering speed and the never-exceed speed 1

1

CCC

Review Questions

325

3.3

ddd)

3.3.2

The glider will not be able to stall if you A [ ] fly faster than the “stall speed” documented in the Glider Manual. B [ always keep the weight of the glider below the maximum gross weight. C [ ] donot exceed the critical angle of attack.

)

|]

dd)

3.4 Turning Flight 3.41

What force makes a glider turn? A [ ] The horizontal component B

3.4.2

[

]

C[

]

The vertical component Centrifugal force

of

of lift

lift

))))))))))))

To increase the turn rate of a glider, you must A [ ] increase the horizontal component of the lift by banking the

]

glider steeper. create more horizontal lift by using more rudder. create more turning force by using more aileron.

3.5 Load Factor dd)

3.51

Which basic flight maneuver increases the load factor on a glider as compared to straight-and level flight? A [ ] Dive B[ ] Turn

C|[ 3.5.2

]

Stall

The load that can be imposed on the wing of a glider depends upon the A [ ] position of the CG. B [ | speed of the glider. C [ ] abruptness at which the load is applied.

))

DD)

DD)

DDD)

Section 3.5

Review Questions

DD)

326

))

LOAD FACTOR CHART

ANGLE OF BANK|

LOAD FACTOR

.

n

8

0

1.0

10°

1015

3° a5

1154

ow

7

E Z

6

1414

8

4

60°

2000

F

4

700

298

80"

5.747

85

11473

90

oO

Ts

%,

ay

0

10

20 BANK

30

50

40

ANGLE

—

IN

60

70

80

B80

DEGREES

Figure 3.2

3.5.3

(Refer to Figure 3.2) If a glider weighs 1,200 pounds, what approximate weight would the glider structure be required to support during a 60°

banked turn while maintaining altitude?

A

]

600 pounds.

[

]

C[

]

2200 pounds. 2400 pounds.

B

(CCccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccatc

3.54

A sudden change in load factor can result from A [ ] abrupt maneuvering. B

[

|]

C[

]

turbulence. both A andB.

3.6 Stability 3.6.1

What determines the longitudinal stability (stability about the pitch axis) of a glider? A [ ] The location of the CG with respect to the center of lift B [ ] The effectiveness of the horizontal stabilizer, rudder, and trim tab C [ ] The relationship of lift to weight and drag

3.6.2

A glider said to be inherently stable will A [ ] be difficult to stall. [

]

require less effort to control.

C[

]

notspin

B

Review Questions

327

3.6

3.6.3

3.6.4

To increase the roll stability of a glider, you could A [ ] decrease the dihedral angle. B

[

]

C

[

]

Loading a glider to the most aft CG will cause the glider to be A [ ] less stable at all speeds. B [ ] less stable at slow speeds, but more stable at high speeds. C

3.6.5

increase the size of the vertical stabilizer. decrease the size of the vertical stabilizer.

[

]

)))))))))))))))))))

less stable at high speeds, but more stable at low speeds.

A glider has been loaded so that the CG is located aft of the aft CG limit. One undesirable flight characteristic a pilot might experience

with this glider would be A [ ] alonger takeoff roll. B

[

]

C[

]

difficulty in recovering from a stalled condition. stalling at higher-than-normal airspeed.

DD)

dD)

Dd)

dd)

Dd)

) DD)

DD)

Section 3.6

Review Questions

328

D>)

4: PERFORMANCE

CHAPTER

4.1 Glide Ratio 4.1.1

If a sailplane has a best glide ratio of 30:1, how many nautical miles will the glider travel while losing 2,000 feet? A [ ] 10 nautical miles B [ ] 15 nautical miles C[ ] 21 nautical miles

4.1.2

Flying at best glide speed, a sailplane has lost 2,000 feet in 9 nautical miles. The best glide ratio for this sailplane is approximately

Al

]

24:1.

B[]

27:1

Cl

4.1.3

1]

30:1.

How many feet will a glider sink in 10 nautical miles

is 23:1?

Al B[ C[

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

4.1.4

]

2400 feet 2600 feet

]

4,300 feet

|]

if its lift/drag ratio

A sailplane is at 3,000 feet AGL at airport “A” and is 10 NM away from airport “B”, which is at the same elevation. The sailplane has a best glide ratio of 23:1. How much altitude will the pilot need to gain to be able to make to airport “B” at an altitude of 1000 feet AGL?

it

A[

]

none

B

[

]

1430 feet

C|[

]

640 feet

4.2 Glider Polars 4.2.1

What minimum upward current must a glider encounter to maintain altitude? A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

]

Atleast

200 feet per minute

The same as the glider’s sink rate The same as the adjacent down currents Review Questions

329

4.2

dd)

4.2.2

To obtain maximum distance over the ground (in calm air), you should

fly at the A

[

]

minimum control speed.

B

[

]

bestlift/drag speed.

C[

]

minimum sink speed.

L/D MAX 30.9:1 AT 53 MPH

—

yy)

dd)

MIN SINK

2.2 FPS AT 44 MPH

))

wo

dd)

GLIDE ANGLE

)))

Vs SINKING SPEED

Vs

2

dD)

30 34 38 42 46 50 54 58 62 66 70 74 78 82 86 90 94 98 Figure 4.1

4.23

(Refer to Figure 4.1) What approximate lift/drag ratio will the glider attain at 68 MPH in still air?

Al B[ C[ 424

]

1051

]

21.71

]

2851

DD)

(Refer to Figure 4.1) How many feet will the glider sink in 1 statute mile at 53 MPH in still air?

A B[

Cl

|]

144 feet

]

171 feet

]

211 feet

DD)

>)

dd)

)) Section 4.2

Review Questions

330

DD)

)

4.2.5

(Refer to Figure 4.1) At what speed will the glider attain a sink rate of 5 feet per second in still air? A[ ] 75MPH B[ 79 MPH C[ ] 84 MPH |]

4.2.6

(Refer to Figure 4.1) How many feet will the glider descend at minimum sink speed for 1 statute mile in still air?

Al

B[ C[ 4.2.7

132feet

]

170 feet

]

180 feet

(Refer to Figure 4.1) At what speed will the glider cover the most distance while descending 1,000 feet in still air?

A[

B[ C[ (cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

]

|]

] ]

44MPH 53MPH 83MPH

4.3 Effects of Wind 4.3.1

4.3.2

4.3.3

For a given loss in altitude, a wind will A [ ] increase the distance a glider can travel into a headwind. B

[

]

C

[

]

increase the distance a glider can travel with a tailwind. not affect how far the glider travels over the ground.

For a given loss in altitude, a 90° crosswind will A [ ] increase the distance a glider can travel over the ground. B

[

]

C

[

]

decrease the distance a glider can travel over the ground. not affect how far the glider travels over the ground.

the proper airspeed to use when flying between thermals on a is cross-country flight against a headwind?

What

A

[

1

Thebest L/D speed increased by one-half the wind speed.

B

[

]

The minimum sink speed increased by one-half the wind

C

[

]

speed. The best lift/drag speed decreased by one-half the estimated wind speed. Review Questions 331

4.3

4.4 Effects of Lift/Sink 4.4.1

4.4.2

If a glider flies through air that is rising at a rate slower than the minimum sink rate of the glider, the A [ ] performance of the glider with respect to the ground will not be changed. B [ ] glide slope will be extended. C [ ] pilotshould fly at best L/D speed.

))))))))))))))))))))

In calm air, a glider has an L/D of 20 when flying at an airspeed of 40 knots. The performance of this glider when flying in air that is sinking at 2 knots will be equivalent to flying into a A[ ] 20knot head wind. B [ ] 10knothead wind.

C[

]

2knotheadwind.

4.5 Effects of Wing Loading 4.5.1

The maximum lift to drag ratio of a glider A [ ] depends on the design and condition of the glider. B [ ] depends on the total weight of the glider. C[ ] decreases in aheadwind.

4.5.2

Increasing the weight of the glider by 20% will result in A [ ] a10% increase in stall speed. B [ a20% increase in the best L/D speed. al0% increase in the best lift to drag ratio. C[

DDD)

|]

1

4.5.3

Carrying water ballast in the wings allows the pilot to ] climb faster in thermals. B [ ] getbetter performance from the glider at higher airspeeds. C [ ] fly faster than the never exceed speed.

A

Dd)

) DD)

DD)

DD)

Section 4.5

Review Questions

332

D>)

4.5.4

The sink rate during a turn increases as a result of A [ ] theincreased drag resulting from the deflection of the control surfaces.

4.5.5

B

[

]

C

[

1

adverse yaw. anincrease in the load factor.

To lose the least amount

bank angle of

of

altitude during a turn, you should use a

A

]

30°orless.

[

]

between 30° and 60°.

C[

1]

60° or greater.

B

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

Review Questions

333

(Cc

4.5

dl)

)))

5: FLIGHT

CHAPTER 5.1 The 5.1.1

INSTRUMENTS AND SYSTEMS dd)

Atmosphere

The change in temperature that occurs as a parcel of air rises through the atmosphere is similar to the A [ ] warming that occurs as you compress air in a bicycle pump. B [ ] the cooling that occurs as you release the contents of a spray

)) dy)

can.

C 5.1.2

[

]

awarm object cooling as it radiates heat at night.

What are the standard temperature and pressure values at sea level? A [ ] 15°C and 29.92 inches Hg B [ ] 59°C and 1013.2 millibars C[ ] 59°F and 29.92 millibars

dy)

dd)

5.1.3

If the glider is moving through the air, the A [ ] pitot pressure is always greater than the static pressure. B [ pitot pressure is always greater than the total pressure. C [ static pressure is always greater than the pitot pressure. |]

)

|]

51.4

The pitot system provides impact pressure for which instrument? ] Altimeter

A

B

[

]

C[

]

Vertical-speed indicator Airspeed indicator

dd)

) Dd)

5.2 Primary Instruments 5.21

What is pressure altitude? A [ ] The indicated altitude corrected for position and installation error B [ ] The altitude indicated when the barometric pressure is set to 29.92 in. Hg C [ ] The indicated altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature and pressure

DDD)

DD)

DD)

DD)

Section 5.2

Review Questions

334

D3)

5.2.2

What is true altitude? A [ ] The vertical distance of the aircraft above sea level B [ ] The vertical distance of the aircraft above the surface C [ ] The height above the standard datum plane

5.2.3

What

is absolute altitude? [

1

B

[

]

The altitude read directly from the altimeter The vertical distance of the aircraft above the surface

C

[

]

The height above the standard datum plane

A

5.2.4

What is density altitude? A [ ] The height above the standard datum plane B [ ] The pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature C [ ] The altitude read directly from the altimeter

5.2.5

true altitude? Under which condition will pressure altitude be equal A [ ] When the atmospheric pressure is 29.92 inches Hg B [ ] When standard atmospheric conditions exist C [ ] When indicated altitude is equal to the pressure altitude

5.2.6

Under what conditions are pressure altitude and density altitude the same value? A [ ] Atsealevel, when the temperature is 0°F B [ ] When the altimeter has no installation error

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

to

C[ 5.2.7

1]

Atstandard temperature

If a flight is made from an area of low pressure into an area of high pressure without the altimeter setting being adjusted, the altimeter will indicate A [ ] the actual altitude above sea level. B [ ] higher than the actual altitude above sea level. C [ lower than the actual altitude above sea level. 1

Review Questions

335

52

)

5.2.8

5.2.9

Under what condition will true altitude be lower than indicated altitude? A [ ] In colder than standard air temperature B [ ] In warmer than standard air temperature C [ ] When density altitude is higher than indicated altitude

is

the value to which the barometric pressure scale “Altimeter setting” of the altimeter is set so the altimeter indicates A [ ] calibrated altitude at field elevation. B [ ] absolute altitude at field elevation. C | ] true altitude at field elevation.

is the

5.2.10

If a pilot changes the altimeter setting from 30.11 to 29.96, what approximate change in indication? A [ ] The altimeter will indicate .15 inches Hg higher. B [ ] The altimeter will indicate 150 feet higher. C [ ] The altimeter will indicate 150 feet lower.

5.2.11

Which factor would tend to increase the density altitude at a given airport? A [ ] Anincrease in barometric pressure B [ ] Anincrease in ambient temperature C [ ] A decrease in relative humidity

)) ) ))

dd)

dd)

)))))))

DD)

D>)

) >) OD)

>) Figure 5.1 ))))

5.2.12

The altimeter in Figure 5.1 indicates

Section 5.2

Al

]

500 feet.

B

[

]

1,500 feet.

C[

]

10,500 feet.

DD)

Review Questions

))

336

>)

5.2.13

If an altimeter setting is not available before flight, to which altitude should the pilot adjust the altimeter? A [ ] The elevation of the nearest airport corrected to mean sea level

5.2.14

B

[

]

C

[

]

The elevation of the departure area Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature

How do variations in temperature affect the altimeter? A [ ] Pressure levels are raised on warm days and the indicated altitude is lower than true altitude. B [ ] Higher temperatures expand the pressure levels and the indicated altitude is higher than true altitude. C [ Lower temperatures lower the pressure levels and the indicated altitude is lower than true altitude. 1

5.2.15

Cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccca

What causes variations in altimeter settings between weather reporting points? A [ ] Unequal heating of the Earth's surface B [ ] Variation of terrain elevation C

[|

]

Coriolis force

Review Questions

337

(CC

52

) ) )

))

DENSITY ALTITUDE CHART

Fn

Ww

g

5 1 3 2

z & Go

0

=

9

& @

6

Lad

5

i

280

1.824 1,727 1,630 1.533 1,436 1,340 1.244 1,148 1,053 957 863 768

26.1 29.2

293 28.4

285 2886

297 298

29.9 29.92

5

300 30.1

3

*

Conversion Factor

7e5 289 280

ke

& &

Hg)

87

!

xX

Altitude

282 283 284 285 286

ge

-

Setting

28.1

8 2 :

Pressure

{*

11

”

8

ob

:

“et

Altimeter

30.2 30.3 30.4

2

305 306 307

ot,

1

n SL

C18

tn

«12

7

Ww

20

ed

30

4

4

10%

29

27

32

38

44

BO

70

BO

80

100

110

B50

30.8 30.9

310

dd)

dd)

673 579 485 392 298 205 112 20

0 -73

dd)

)

168

-257

dd)

~348

440

-531

-622 ~712

803 -893

DD)

~983

OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE

Figure 5.2

5.2.16

)))))

(Refer to Figure 5.2) Determine the pressure altitude at an airport that is 1,386 feet MSL with an altimeter setting of 29.97 inches Hg.

A

]

1,341 feet MSL

B

[

]

1,451 feet MSL

Cl

]

1,562feet MSL

DD)

DD)

DD)

DD)

DD)

Section 5.2

Review Questions

338

>)

5.2.17

is

the effect of a temperature increase from 30 (Refer to Figure 5.2) What to 50 °F on the density altitude if the pressure altitude remains at 3,000 feet MSL?

A[

]

900-foot increase

B

[

]

1,100-foot decrease

C[

]

1,300-foot increase

5.2.18

At higher altitudes, the decrease in air density will A [ ] cause the indicated airspeed to be greater than the true airspeed. B [ ] cause the true airspeed to be greater than the indicated airspeed. C [ ] not effect the airspeed indicator.

5.2.19

As

5.2.20

What is an important airspeed limitation that not color coded on indicators? airspeed A [ ] Never-exceed speed B [ ] Maximum structural cruising speed

CCCCCCCccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

altitude increases, the indicated airspeed

stalls in a particular configuration will A [ ] decrease as the true airspeed decreases. B [ ] decrease as the true airspeed increases. C [ ] remain the same regardless of altitude.

is

C

[

1

Maneuvering speed

5.2.21

If the pitot tube and outside static vents become clogged, which instruments would be effected? A [ ] The altimeter, airspeed indicator, and turn-and-slip indicator B [ ] The altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator C [ ] The altimeter, attitude indicator, and turn-and-slip indicator

5.2.22

What does the red line on an airspeed indicator represent? A [ ] Maneuvering speed B [ ] Turbulent or rough-air speed C [ ] Never-exceed speed

Review Questions

339

(CC

at which a given glider

52

dd)

) dd)

Red

Yellow

Figure 5.3

5.2.23

(Refer to Figure 5.3) What is the caution range of the glider? A[ ] Oto60 MPH B [ ] 100 to 165 MPH C[ ] 165 to 208 MPH

5.2.24

(Refer to Figure 5.3) What is the maximum structural cruising speed? Al ] 100 MPH B[ ] 165 MPH C[ ] 208 MPH

5.2.25

(Refer to Figure 5.3) What is the maximum flaps-extended speed? A[ ] 65MPH B[ ] 100 MPH C[ ] 165MPH

5.2.26

(Refer to Figure 5.3) The maximum speed at which the glider can be operated in smooth air is

A[

B[ C[

]

100 MPH.

]

165 MPH.

1

208 MPH.

))))))))))))))I))))))))

DDD)

DDD)

DD)

Section 5.2

Review Questions

DD)

340

>)

2

Figure 5.4

5.2.27

Which yaw string illustration in Figure 5.4 indicates a slipping turn?

Al] B[] 2 Cl[]3 1

sdaSeed (cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccce

Figure 5.5

5.2.28

Which inclinometer illustration in Figure 5.5 indicates a slipping turn?

Al] B[] 2 Cl[]3 1

5.2.29

A simple mechanical variometer hooked up to the static pressure ports

of the glider will A [ ] indicate sink if the pilot accelerates by pushing forward on the stick.

B

[

]

indicate lift if the pilot accelerates by pushing forward on the stick.

C

[

]

not be affected by speed variations cause by the pilot. Review Questions 341

or

altitude variations 52

)))

5.2.30

5.2.31

A NETTO variometer indicates the A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

]

yd)

rate of climb or descent of the glider with respect to the ground. relative movement between the glider and the air mass. movement of the air mass in which the glider flying.

is

Deviation in a magnetic compass is caused by the A [ ] presence of flaws in the permanent magnets of the compass. B [ ] difference in the location between true north and magnetic north. C [ ] magnetic fields within the aircraft distorting the lines of magnetic force.

ddd)

yd)

5.2.32

During flight, when are the indications of a magnetic compass accurate? A [ ] Only in straight-and-level unaccelerated flight B [ ] Aslong as the airspeed is constant C [ ] During turns if the bank does not exceed 18°

ddd)

5.2.33

Magnetic dip is A [ ] responsible for acceleration/deceleration compass errors. B [ ] notresponsible for turning compass errors. C[ ] bestwith metal chips.

))))))

ddd)

5.3 Secondary Instruments 5.3.1

In normal straight and level flight, a G-meter should read

Al]

1

DD)

B[]O Cl] -L 5.3.2

During inverted straight and level flight, a G-meter should read

Al] B[]

cl]

DD)

1. oO.

DD)

-L

I) Section 5.3

Review Questions

DD)

342

D>)

Nd A2-3

2

7SalisRS F

-— og

es

NT 9

Figure 5.7

Figure 5.6

Figure 5.8

5.3.3

(Refer to Figure 5.6) The proper adjustment to make on the attitude indicator during level flight to align the A [ ] horizon bar to the level-flight indication. B [ ] horizon bar to the miniature airplane. C [ ] miniature airplane to the horizon bar.

5.3.4

(Refer to Figure 5.7) To receive accurate indications during flight from a heading indicator, the instrument must be A [ ] setprior to flight on a known heading. B [ | calibrated on a compass rose at regular intervals. C [ ] periodically realigned with the magnetic compass as the gyro

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccced

is

precesses.

5.3.5

(Refer to Figure 5.8) A turn coordinator provides an indication of the A [ ] movement of the aircraft about the yaw and roll axis. B

[

]

C[

]

angle of bank up to but not exceeding 30°. attitude of the aircraft with reference to the longitudinal axis.

Review Questions

343

53

)

) ))))))

dd)

Figure 5.10

Figure 5.9

5.3.6

(Refer to Figure 5.9) If the magnetic bearing TO the station is 135°, the magnetic heading is ] 135°

A

B[ Cl 5.3.7

Figure 5.11

]

270°.

]

360°.

(Refer to Figure 5.10) What outbound bearing is the aircraft crossing?

Al B[ CI[

]

030°

]

150°

]

180°

)))))

dy)

) Dd)

5.3.8

(Refer to Figure 5.11) The VOR receiver has the indications shown. What radial the aircraft crossing?

Al B[ Ci

is

]

030°

]

210°

]

300°

)) dd)

5.4 Other Flight Systems 5.4.1

If Air Traffic Control advises that radar service is terminated when the pilot is departing Class C airspace, the transponder should be set to code

A

B[ C[

DD)

DD)

]

0000.

]

1200.

]

409.

DDD)

DD)

Section 5.4

Review Questions 344

DD)

)

5.4.2

An emergency locator transmitter (ELT) A [ ] canbe activated manually if the pilot has landed out and needs to be rescued. B [ ] is activated by impact in the case of an accident. C [ ] canbe either manually or automatically activated.

5.4.3

When activated, an emergency locator transmitter (ELT) transmits on A[ ] 118.0and 118.8 MHz. B [ ] 121.5and 243.0 MHz. C[ ] 123.0and 119.0 MHz.

5.4.4

How many satellites make up the Global Positioning System (GPS)?

Al]

B[ 5.4.5

]

22

C[]

24

How many Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites are required to yield a three dimensional position (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and time solution?

Al] B[] Cl]

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

5.4.6

18

5 6

4

What type of oxygen regulator can be used up to an altitude of 45,000 feet?

5.4.7

The

A

[

]

B

[

]

C[

]

Continuous flow Diluter demand Pressure demand

altitude limit of a continuous flow oxygen system used with a

canula is

A

]

18,000 feet.

[

|]

25,000 feet.

C|[

]

40,000 feet.

B

Review Questions

345

5.4

)))))))

6: WEATHER

CHAPTER 6.1 6.1.1

6.1.2

FOR SOARING

The Atmosphere Every physical process of weather is accompanied by, A [ ] amovement of air. B

[

]

a pressure differential.

C

[

]

heatexchange.

or

is the result of ddd)

)

Which component of the atmosphere has a crucial effect on the weather? A [ ] Nitrogen B[ Oxygen C [ ] Water vapor

dd)

|]

6.1.3

6.1.4

What are the processes by which moisture is added to unsaturated air? A [ ] Evaporation and sublimation B [ ] Heating and condensation C[ ] Supersaturation and evaporation

is

The decrease in temperature with increasing altitude a result of A [ ] the increased distance from the warm ground. B [ ] the decrease in humidity. C [ ] the decrease in pressure.

6.2 Dew Point 6.2.1

)))))))))

Dd)

))

What is meant by the term “dewpoint”? A [ ] The temperature at which condensation and evaporation are equal B [1] The temperature at which dew will always form C [ ] The temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated

DD)

)) DD)

DD)

Section 6.2

Review Questions

DD)

346

>)

6.2.2

Clouds, fog, or dew will always form when A [ ] water vapor condenses. B [ ] water vapor present. C[ ] relative humidity reaches 100%.

is

6.2.3

How will frost on the wings of a glider affect takeoff performance? A [ ] Frost will disrupt the smooth flow of air over the wing, adversely affecting its lifting capability. B [ ] Frost will change the camber of the wing, increasing its lifting C

6.2.4

[

capability. Frost will cause the glider to become airborne with a higher angle of attack, decreasing the stall speed.

]

Which conditions result in the formation of frost? A [ ] The temperature of the collecting surface is at or below freezing when small droplets of moisture fall on the surface. B [ ] The temperature of the collecting surface is at or below the below the adjacent air and the dewpoint dewpoint

is

of

C

(CCccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

[

1

freezing. at or below freezing The temperature of the surrounding air when small drops of moisture fall on the collecting surface.

is

6.3 Atmospheric Stability 6.3.1

is

lifted in the atmosphere will A saturated parcel of air that A [ ] cool off at the same rate as a dry parcel of air. B [ 1 cool off at a slower rate than a dry parcel of air. C

6.3.2

[

1

cool off at a greater rate than a dry parcel of air.

base of the camulus clouds if the surface air is the approximate temperature at 1,000 feet MSL is 70°F and the dewpoint is 48°F? A 4,000 feet MSL

What

]

[

|]

5,000 feet MSL

C[

1]

6,000 feet MSL

B

Review Questions

347

6.3

))

6.3.3

A temperature inversion would most likely result in which weather

condition? A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

]

Clouds with extensive vertical development above an inversion aloft Good visibility in the lower levels of the atmosphere and poor visibility above an inversion aloft Anincrease in temperature as altitude is increased

6.4 Clouds

))))))))))))))))))))

6.4.1

Clouds are composed of A [ ] water vapor. B [ ] liquid or solid water. C [ ] miniscule particles of dust, smoke, or salt.

6.4.2

The suffix “nimbus” used in naming clouds, means A [ ] acloud with extensive vertical development. [

]

arain cloud.

C[

]

amiddle cloud containing ice pellets.

B

6.4.3

Clouds are divided into four families according to their A [ ] outward shape. B [ ] height range.

C[

]

dD)

composition. DD)

6.4.4

An almond or lens-shaped cloud which appears stationary, but which referred to as may contain winds of 50 knots or more, A [ ] an inactive frontal cloud. B [ ] afunnel cloud.

is

C[ 6.4.5

]

alenticular cloud.

Standing mountain waves may be marked by stationary, lens-shaped clouds known as A [ ] mammatocumulus clouds. B [ ] standing lenticular clouds. C[ ] rollclouds.

DD)

DDD)

DD)

DD)

Section 6.4

Review Questions

348

>)

6.4.6

What cloud types would indicate convective turbulence? A [ ] Cirrus clouds B [ ] Nimbostratus clouds C[ ] Towering cumulus clouds

6.4.7

If an unstable air mass is forced upward, what type clouds can be expected? A [ ] Stratus clouds with little vertical development B [ ] Stratus clouds with considerable associated turbulence C [ ] Clouds with considerable vertical development and associated turbulence

6.4.8

Moist, stable air flowing upslope can be expected to A [ ] produce stratus type clouds. B [ ] cause showers and thunderstorms. C

[

]

develop convective turbulence.

6.5 Fog (cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc

6.5.1

6.5.2

What situation is most conducive to the formation of radiation fog?

A

[

1

B

[

]

C[

]

Warm, moist air over low, flatland areas on clear, calm nights Moist, tropical air moving over cold, offshore water The movement of cold air over much warmer water

If the temperature/dewpoint spread is small and decreasing, and the temperature is 62°F, what type of weather is most likely to develop? A [ ] Freezing precipitation B | Thunderstorms 1

C[ 6.5.3

]

Fogorlow clouds

In which situation is advection fog most likely to form? A [ ] A warm, moist air mass on the windward side of mountains B [ ] An air mass moving inland from the coast in winter C [ ] Alight breeze blowing colder air out to sea

Review Questions

349

6.5

)))))

6.54

What types of fog depend upon wind in order to exist? A [ ] Radiation fog and ice fog B [ ] Steam fog and ground fog C [ ] Advection fog and upslope fog

dd)

6.6 Precipitation 6.6.1

A rapidly rising moist airmass will be more likely to produce which

type of precipitation? A [ ] Drizzle B[ ] Snow C

6.6.2

[

]

Large raindrops

In order for hail to form, there must be A [ ] freezing temperature at ground level. B [ ] athick layer of below-freezing air for the rain to fall through.

C[ 6.6.3

dd)

]

)))))))

strong updrafts.

The presence of ice pellets at the surface is evidence that there A [ ] arethunderstorms in the area. B [ ] hasbeen cold frontal passage. C [ ] isa temperature inversion with freezing rain at a higher altitude.

DD)

DD)

6.7 Weather Systems 6.7.1

Convective circulation patterns associated with sea breezes are caused by A [ ] warm, dense air moving inland from over the water. B [ ] water absorbing and radiating heat faster than the land. C[ ] cool, dense air moving inland from over the water.

DD)

>)»

))))))))

Section 6.7

Review Questions

350

>)

6.7.2

During which period is a sea breeze front most suitable for soaring flight? A [ ] Shortly after sunrise B [ ] During the early forenoon C [ During the afternoon 1]

6.7.3

The Coriolis Effect will cause a parcel of air moving in the northern hemisphere to

A

turn left B [ | turnright. C|[ ] slowdown. 6.7.4 cccccccccccccccccccccccccccad

]

The wind at 5,000 feet AGL is southwesterly while the surface wind is southerly. This difference in direction is primarily due to A [ ] stronger pressure gradient at higher altitudes. B [ ] friction between the wind and the surface.

C[ 6.7.5

6.7.6

6.7.7

]

stronger Coriolis force at the surface.

The boundary between two different air masses A

[

]

B

[

]

C[

]

is referred to as a

frontolysis. frontogenesis. front.

One of the most easily recognized discontinuities across a front is A

[

]1

B

[

]

C

[

]

achangein temperature. anincrease in cloud coverage. anincrease in relative humidity.

One weather phenomenon which will always occur when flying across a front is a change in the A [ ] wind direction. B

[

]

C

[

]

type of precipitation. stability of the air mass.

CCC

Review Questions 351

6.7

I) I) 6.7.8

What are characteristics of a moist, unstable air mass? Cumuliform clouds and showery precipitation A [ B [ ] Poor visibility and smooth air

DD)

1]

C[

Stratiform clouds and showery precipitation

]

6.7.9

What are characteristics of unstable air? A [ ] Turbulence and good surface visibility B [ ] Turbulence and poor surface visibility C [ ] Nimbostratus clouds and good surface visibility

6.7.10

an indication of Steady precipitation preceding a front A[ ] stratiform clouds with moderate turbulence. B [ ] cumuliform clouds with little or no turbulence. C[ ] stratiform clouds with little or no turbulence.

6.7.11

The mechanism that creates an area of low pressure at a front is most similar to that which creates A [ ] the swirling of water flowing down a drain. B [ ] waves on the ocean.

DD)

is

C[

]

)D)DD)D))D)DD)D)D)D)))I)ID))I)I))

adustdevil

6.8 Describing the Weather 6.8.1

6.8.2

In general, high altitude winds south of a low pressure system will be from the

A[

]

B[

]

C[

]

south.

east west

Closely spaced isobars around an area of low pressure would indicate A [ ] strong winds. [

]

aslow moving front.

C[

]

precipitation.

B

DDD

DDD)

DD)

Section 6.8

Review Questions

352

>)

6.8.3

6.8.4

Which type of satellite image is best at showing areas of fog? A

[

]

Visible

B

[

]

Infrared

C

[

]

Water vapor

To see areas of current precipitation, you should consult a A [ ] water vapor satellite image. [

]

visible satellite image.

C[

]

radarimage.

B

6.9 Thermal Soaring Weather 6.9.1

The development of thermals depends upon A [ ] acounterclockwise circulation of air. B [ ] temperature inversions. C [ ] solar heating.

6.9.2

What would decrease the stability of an air mass? A [ ] Warming from below B [ ] Cooling from below

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccecoc

C 6.9.3

(ccc

]

Decrease in water vapor

A cumulus cloud indicating good lift will have A [ ] poorly defined edges. [

]

aragged appearance.

C[

]

crisp edges and a flat bottom.

B

6.9.4

[

An inversion layer above the condensation level can A [ ] inhibit thunderstorm development. B [ ] inhibit thermal development. C[ ] promote thunderstorm development.

Review Questions

353

6.9

))

6.9.5

The conditions are often best for thermal soaring A [ ] after the passage of a warm front. B [ ] before the passage of a warm front. after the passage of a cold front. C[

)))))

1]

6.9.6

What measurement can be used to determine the stability of the atmosphere? A [ ] Atmospheric pressure B [ ] Actual lapse rate C

6.9.7

[

]

Surface temperature

Which clouds have the greatest turbulence? A [ ] Towering cumulus B [ Cumulonimbus Nimbostratus C[

yd)

ry)

|]

1

6.9.8

))))))

Which weather phenomenon signals the beginning of the mature stage of a thunderstorm? The appearance of an anvil top A [ 1]

6.9.9

6.9.10

B

[

]

C

[

]

Precipitation beginning to fall Maximum growth rate of the clouds

The conditions necessary for the formation of cumulonimbus clouds are a lifting action and A [ ] unstable air containing an excess of condensation nuclei. B [ ] unstable, moist air. C [ ] either stable or unstable air. What conditions are necessary for the formation of thunderstorms? A [ ] High humidity, lifting force, and unstable conditions B [ Highhumidity, high temperature, and cumulus clouds C [ ] Lifting force, moist air, and extensive cloud cover |]

Dd)

DD)

Dd)

DD)

DD)

) Section 6.9

Review Questions 354

DD)

))

6.9.11

During the life cycle of a thunderstorm, which stage is characterized predominately by downdrafts? Al ] Cumulus B

6.9.12

[

]

C[

]

Dissipating Mature

Thunderstorms reach their greatest intensity during the A [ ] mature stage. B [ ] downdraft stage. C[ ] cumulus stage.

300

400

Ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

(mb)

ot

oS

Pressure

600

700 800 900 1000

7 IN Va~ 7 Xo Sk 7 “a

a7 J :

Va LL

vy

-20

-30

Lr

5

x

=

To “K

13,800

47 6.400 43,200 ~— 360

10

Temperature (°C)

Figure

6.9.13

6.1

(Refer to Figure 6.1) What is the minimum surface temperature that 10,000 feet MSL?

would allow thermals to climb to an altitude of

Al] B[ C[

] ]

20°C 23°C 88°C

Review Questions

355

(CC

6.9

))))

6.9.14

(Refer to Figure 6.1) For thunderstorms to occur, the surface temperature would need to climb to at least

Al B[

Cl

6.9.15

6.9.16

] ]

23°C

ddd)

28°C. 38°C.

Thunderstorms which generally produce the most intense hazard to aircraft are A [ ] squall line thunderstorms. B [ ] steady-state thunderstorms. C[ ] warm front thunderstorms. A non-frontal, narrow band of active thunderstorms that often develops ahead of a cold front is known as a A [ ] prefrontal system. [

]

squallline.

C[

]

dryline.

B

6.9.17

]

dd)

dd)

)) dd)

If there is thunderstorm activity in the vicinity of an airport at which you plan to land, which hazardous atmospheric phenomenon might be expected on the landing approach? A [ ] Precipitation static B [ Wind-shear turbulence C[ ] Steady rain

Dd)

Which is considered to be the most hazardous condition when soaring in the vicinity of thunderstorms?

DD)

DI)

Dd)

|]

6.9.18

A

[

]

Static electricity

B

[

]

C

[

]

Lightning Wind shear and turbulence DDD)

6.9.19

What feature is normally associated with the cumulus stage of a thunderstorm? A[ ] Rollcloud B [ ] Continuous updraft C

[

]

DD)

Frequent lightning DD)

Section 6.9

Review Questions

DD)

356

D>)

6.9.20

Which weather phenomenon is always associated with a thunderstorm? A[ ] Lightning B

6.9.21

[

|]

C[

1]

Heavy rain Hail

On a day when the K-index is forecast to be 42, and the Lifted Index is -

that itwould be anice day to take a friend up for a scenic

9, you can assume

A

[

B

[

]

C[

1

1

afternoon ride. it will be safe to fly until you see the first lightning strikes. ifyoufly at all, you should have the glider securely tied down shortly after the first clouds start to form.

6.10 Ridge Soaring Weather 6.10.1 cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

6.10.2

Ridge lift requires A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

1

astable atmosphere. winds of at least 10-15 knots blowing nearly perpendicular to the ridge. winds of least 10-15 knots, increasing with altitude.

at

A very stable atmosphere can A [ ] inhibit ridge lift. B

[

]

C

[

1

produce thermals above the ridge crest. increase the strength of the ridge lift.

6.11 Wave Soaring Weather 6.11.1

For mountain wave to form, the atmosphere must be A[ ] stable. [

]

neutral

C[

]

unstable.

B

(CCC

Review Questions

357

(

6.11

))))

6.11.2

For mountain wave to form, the wind speed must A [ ] be constant at all altitudes. B

6.11.3

6.11.4

[

]

C[

|]

increase with altitude. decrease with altitude.

Possible mountain wave turbulence could be anticipated when winds of

40 knots or greater blow

A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

]

dy)

dd)

across a mountain ridge, and the air is stable. down a mountain valley, and the air is unstable.

parallel to a mountain peak, and the air is stable.

The type of cloud that indicates a mountain wave is present is a A[ ] capcloud. B [ ] stratus cloud. C|[ ] lenticular cloud.

))))))))

6.12 Convergence Lift 6.12.1

Areas of convergence A

[

B[ C[ 6.12.2

lift are usually associated with

]

aseabreeze. afront.

]

low cumulus clouds.

]

An area of convergence at a valley floor can occur when A [ ] the valley first starts to heat up in the morning. B [ ] the mountain tops start to cool in the evening. C [ ] thermals interact with the prevailing wind.

yd)

DI)

dd)

DD)

6.13 Predicting Soaring Weather 6.13.1

The day of a flight, the best information on how good the soaring will be would be obtained from a A [ ] current weather map. B [ ] satellite image.

C[

]

DD)

DD)

sounding. DD)

Section 6.13

Review Questions

358

>)

7:

CHAPTER 7.1

AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES

Sources of Weather Services

7.1.1

Transcribed Weather Broadcasts (TWEB) may be monitored by tuning the appropriate radio receiver to certain A [ ] VOR and NDB frequencies. B

7.1.2

[

]

C[

]

airport advisory frequencies. ATIS frequencies.

Individual forecasts for specific routes of flight can be obtained from which weather source? A [ ] Terminal Forecasts (TAF) B [ ] Transcribed Weather Broadcasts (TWEB) C

[

]

AreaForecasts (FA)

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc

7.2 Weather Briefings 7.21

7.2.2

To get a complete weather briefing for the planned flight, the pilot

should request A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

1

ageneral briefing. an abbreviated briefing. astandard briefing.

What should pilots state initially when telephoning a weather briefing facility for preflight weather information? Tell the number of occupants on board A [ B [ ] Identify themselves as pilots C [ ] State their total flight time 1

7.2.3

To supplement mass disseminated data, a pilot should request A [ ] an outlook briefing. [

]

asupplemental briefing.

C[

]

an abbreviated briefing.

B

(CCC

Review Questions

359

7.2

) dd)

7.24

is

When the departure time 6 hours or more in the future, a pilot should request A [ ] an outlook briefing. B

7.2.5

[

]

C[

]

aforecastbriefing.

yd)

aprognostic briefing.

Which type of weather briefing should a pilot request, when departing no preliminary weather information has been received?

within the hour, A

[

]

B

[

|]

C

[

]

)

if

Outlook briefing Abbreviated briefing Standard briefing

D>)

DD)

DD)

This is a telephone weather briefing from the Dallas FSS for a local operation of gliders and lighter-than-air at Caddo Mills, Texas (about 30 miles east of Dallas). The briefing is at 132. “There are no adverse conditions reported or forecast for today.*

pressure over the Texas Panhandle and eastern New Mexico is causing a weak southerly flow over the area."

“A weak low

DD)

“Current weather here at Dallas is wind south 5 knots, visibility 12 miles, clear, temperature 21, dewpoint 9, altimeter 29 point 78." “By 152 we should have a few scattared cumuliform clouds at 5 thousand AGL, with higher scattered cirrus at 25 thousand MSL. After 20Z the wind should pick up to about 15 knots from the

>)

“The winds aloft are: 3 thousand 170 at 7, temperature 20; 6 thousand 200 at 18, temperature 14; 9 thousand 210 at 22, temperature 8; 12 thousand 225 at 27, temperature 0; 18 thousand 240 at 30, temperature -7."

))

south.”

Figure

7.2.6

(Refer to Figure 7.1) What effect do the clouds mentioned in the weather briefing have on soaring conditions? A [ ] All thermals stop at the base of the clouds. B [ ] Thermals persist to the tops of the clouds at 25,000 feet. C

7.2.7

>)

7.1

[

]

The scattered clouds indicate thermals

the lower clouds.

at least to the tops of

(Refer to Figure 7.1) What time will thermals begin to form? A [ ] Between 1300Z and 1500Z while the sky is clear B [ ] By 1500Z (midmorning) when scattered clouds begin to form About 2000Z (early afternoon) when the wind begins to C[ increase

)) dy)

))

Dd)

1

DD)

Section 7.2

Review Questions

360

>)

7.28

When requesting weather information for the following morning, a pilot should request A [ ] an outlook briefing. [

]

astandard briefing.

C[

]

an abbreviated briefing.

B

7.3 Observations 7.3.1

For aviation purposes, ceiling is defined as the height above the Earth's

surface of the A [ ] lowest reported obscuration and the highest layer of clouds reported as overcast. B [ ] lowest broken or overcast layer or vertical visibility into an obscuration. C [ lowest layer of clouds reported as scattered, broken, or thin. 1

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc

7.3.2

(Refer to Figure 7.2) The wind direction and velocity at KJFK is from A] ] 180° true at 4 knots. [

]

180° magnetic at 4 knots.

C[

]

040° true at 18 knots.

B

METAR KINK 121845Z 11012G18KT 158M SKC 25/17 A3000 METAR KBOI 121854Z 13004KT 308M SCT150 17/6 A3015 METAR KLAX 121852Z 25004KT 65M BR SCT007 SCT250 16/15 A2991 SPECI KMDW 121856Z 32005KT RAB35

1

1/25M RA OVC007 17/16 A2980 RMK

SPECI KJFK 1218537 18004KT 1/25M FG R04/2200

OVCO005

20/18 A3006

Figure 7.2

7.3.3

CCC

(CCC

(Refer to Figure 7.2) The remarks section for KMDW has RAB35 listed.

This entry means A [ ] blowing mist has reduced the visibility to 1-1/2 SM. B [ ] rain began at 1835Z. C[ ] thebarometer has risen .35 inches Hg.

Review Questions 361

7.3

Dd)

7.3.4

(Refer

the current conditions depicted for to Figure 7.2) What are (KMDW)?

Chicago Midway Airport

7.3.5

A

[

]

B

[

]

C[

1

Sky 700 feet overcast, visibility 1-1/2SM, rain Sky 7000 feet overcast, visibility 1-1/2SM, heavy rain Sky 700 feet overcast, visibility 11, occasionally 25M, with rain

(Refer to Figure 7.2) Which of the reporting stations have VFR weather?

Al

]

All

B

[

]

KINK, KBOI, and KJFK

C

[

]

KINK, KBOI, and KLAX

UA/OV KOKC-KTUL/TM 1800/FL120/TP BES0/SK BKN018-TOP055/0VC072TOPO08Y/CLR ABV/TA M7/WV 08021/TB LGT 055-0721C LGT-MOD RIME 072-089

))))))D)D)D)DD))))D)))D)))))

Figure 7.3

7.3.6

(Refer to Figure 7.3) The intensity of the turbulence reported at a specific altitude is A [ ] moderate at 5,500 feet and at 7,200 feet. B [ ] moderate from 5,500 feet to 7,200 feet. C [ ] light from 5,500 feet to 7,200 feet.

7.3.7

(Refer to Figure 7.3) The base and tops of the overcast layer reported are A[ ] 1,800 feet MSL and 5,500 feet MSL. [

]

5,500 feet AGL and 7,200 feet MSL.

C[

1]

7200 feet MSL and 8,900 feet MSL.

B

7.3.8

(Refer to Figure 7.3) If the terrain elevation is 1,295 feet MSL, what is the height above ground level of the base of the ceiling? ] 505feet AGL

A

7.3.9

B[

]

1,295 feet AGL

C1

]

6586feet AGL.

DD)

DD)

DDD)

(Refer to Figure 7.3) The intensity and type of icing reported by a pilot is A [ ] light to moderate. B [ ] light to moderate clear. C[ ] light to moderate rime.

Section 7.3

I)

Review Questions

DD)

DD)

DD)

362

D>)

7.3.10

(Refer

7.3) The wind and temperature at 12,000 feet MSL as to Figure are a

reported by pilot 090°at21 MPH and -9 °F. B [ ] 080° at21 knots and -7 °C. 090° at 21 knots and -9 °C. C[

A

1

1

7.3.11

What information is provided by the Radar Summary Chart that is not shown on other weather charts? A [ ] Lines and cells of hazardous thunderstorms B [ ] Ceilings and precipitation between reporting stations C [ ] Types of clouds between reporting stations

7.3.12

Of what value is the Weather Depiction Chart to the pilot? A [ ] For determining general weather conditions on which to base flight planning B [ ] For a forecast of cloud coverage, visibilities, and frontal activity C[ ] For determining frontal trends and air mass characteristics

7.3.13

Radar weather reports are of special interest to pilots because they indicate A [ ] large areas of low ceilings and fog. B [ ] location of precipitation along with type, intensity, and trend. location of precipitation along with type, intensity, and cell C [ movement of precipitation.

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccac

1

CCC

Review Questions

363

(CC

7.3

!

,

0

1262

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7.4.8

(Refer to Figure 7.6) The only cloud type forecast in TAF reports A [ ] nimbostratus.

B[

]

C|[

]

is

cumulonimbus. scattered cumulus.

7.4.9

How are Significant Weather Prognostic Charts best used by a pilot? A [ ] For overall planning at all altitudes B [ ] For determining areas to avoid (freezing levels and turbulence) C [ ] For analyzing current frontal activity and cloud coverage

7.4.10

(Refer to Figure 7.7) The enclosed shaded area associated with the low pressure system over northern Utah is forecast to have ] A continuous snow. B [ ] intermittent snow. C[ ] continuous snow showers.

ccc

[|

ccc

ccc

ccc

CCC

Review Questions

369

(CC

7.4

hy 112HR FRI

182

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ux

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)

9.3.2

A certificated private pilot may not act as pilot in command of an

is

entered in the pilot's logbook a aircraft towing a glider unless there minimum of A [ ] 100 hours of pilot flight time in any aircraft that the pilot is using to tow a glider. B [ ] 100 hours of pilot-in-command time in the aircraft category, required, that the pilot is using to tow a class, and type, glider. C [ ] 200 hours of pilot-in-command time in the aircraft category, class, and type, required, that the pilot is using to tow a glider.

if

if

9.3.3

Prior to becoming certified as a private pilot with a glider rating, the pilot must have in his or her possession what type of medical? A [ ] A third-class medical certificate B [ ] A statement from a designated medical examiner A medical certificate is not required C[ 1

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccod

9.3.4

To act as pilot in command of an aircraft carrying passengers, a pilot must show by logbook endorsement the satisfactory completion of a

flight review or completion of a pilot proficiency check within the preceding A [ ] 6 calendar months. B [ ] 12 calendar months. 24 calendar months. C[ 1

9.3.5

(CCC

To

act

pilot in command of an aircraft carrying passengers, the pilot as have made at least three takeoffs and three landings in an aircraft

must of the same category, class, and if a type rating is required, of the same type, within the preceding A [ ] 90days. B [ ] 12 calendar months. C[ ] 24 calendar months.

Review Questions

379

9.3

) ) ) 9.3.6

9.3.7

If a certificated pilot changes permanent mailing address and fails to notify the FAA Airmen Certification Branch of the new address, the pilot is entitled to exercise the privileges of the pilot certificate for a period of only A [ ] 30 days after the date of the move. B [ ] 60 days after the date of the move. C [ ] 90 days after the date of the move. To act as pilot in command of an aircraft towing a glider, a pilot is required to have made within the preceding 12 months A

[

]

atleast three flights as observer in a glider being towed by an

dd)

dd)

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aircraft.

B

[

]

C

[

]

atleast three flights in a powered glider. atleast three actual or simulated glider tows while accompanied by a qualified pilot.

9.3.8

is

Each private pilot required to have a flight review A [ ] every24 months. B

9.3.9

DI)

[

]

C[

]

every 12 months. every 6 months.

DD)

DD)

If a private pilot had a flight review on August 8, this year, when is the next flight review required? A [ Augusts, 2 years later.

DD)

1

B

9.3.10

[

]

C[

1]

August 31, next year. August3l, 2 years later.

What document(s) must be in your personal possession or readily accessible in the aircraft while operating as pilot in command of an aircraft? A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

1

Certificates showing accomplishment of a checkout in the aircraft and a current flight review A pilot certificate with an endorsement showing accomplishment of flight review and a pilot logbook showing recency of experience Anappropriate pilot certificate and an appropriate current medical certificate if required

a

DD)

DD)

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))

)

)

)) Dd)

Section 9.3

Review Questions

380

))

9.4 General Operating Rules 9.4.1

The final authority as to the operation of an aircraft is the A [ ] Federal Aviation Administration. B [ ] pilotin command. ] C aircraft manufacturer. [|

9.4.2

Who is primarily responsible for maintaining an aircraft in airworthy condition? A [ ] Owner or operator B [ ] Pilotin command C | ] Mechanic

9.4.3

Which aircraft has the right-of-way

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

9.4.4

A[

]

B

[

]

C

[

]

over

all other air traffic?

Aballoon An aircraft in distress An aircraft on final approach to land

Who is responsible for determining if an aircraft is in condition for safe flight? A [ ] A certificated aircraft mechanic B [ ] The pilot in command

C[

]

The owner or operator

9.4.5

In addition to a valid Airworthiness Certificate, what documents or records must be aboard an aircraft during flight? A [ ] Aircraft engine and airframe logbooks, and owner's manual B [ ] Radio operator's permit, and repair and alteration forms C [ ] Operating limitations and Registration Certificate

9.4.6

Which records or documents shall the owner or operator of an aircraft keep to show compliance with an applicable Airworthiness Directive? A [ ] Aircraft maintenance records B [ ] Airworthiness Certificate and Pilot's Operating Handbook C[ ] Airworthiness and Registration Certificates

CCC

Review Questions 381 (CC

9.4

9.4.7

When must a pilot who deviates from a regulation during an emergency send a written report of that deviation to the Administrator? A [ ] Within 7 days B [ ] Within 10 days C

9.4.8

9.4.9

[

]

Upon request

When an ATC clearance has been obtained, no pilot in command may deviate from that clearance, unless that pilot obtains an amended clearance. The one exception to this regulation is A [ ] when the clearance states “at pilot's discretion.” B

[

]

C

[

1

anemergency. if the clearance contains a restriction.

Who is responsible for inspecting the aircraft to determine it is safe for flight? The pilotin command A [ B [ ] The certificated mechanic who performed the annual inspection C [ ] The owner or operator 1]

9.4.10

Which preflight action is specifically required of the pilot prior to each flight? A [ ] Check the aircraft logbooks for appropriate entries. B [ ] Become familiar with all available information concerning the flight.

C 9.4.11

[

]

Review wake turbulence avoidance procedures.

A steady green light signal directed from the control tower to an aircraft in flight is a signal that the pilot A [ ] iscleared to land. B

[

]

C[

]

))))))))))

should give way to other aircraft and continue circling. should return for landing.

Dd)

) DD)

DD)

DD)

>) od)

)))

dd)

))

DD)

DD)

Section 9.4

Review Questions

DD)

382

>)

9.4.12

Under what conditions may objects be dropped from an aircraft? A [ ] Only in an emergency B [ ] If precautions are taken to avoid injury or damage to persons or property on the surface C [ ] If prior permission is received from the Federal Aviation Administration

9.4.13

Flight crewmembers are required to keep their safety belts and shoulder harnesses fastened during A [ ] takeoffs and landings. B [ ] all flight conditions.

cccccccccccccccccccccccc

C[

1

flightin turbulent air.

9.4.14

Preflight actions for all flights away from the vicinity of an airport, shall include A [ ] the designation of an alternate airport. B [ ] astudy of arrival procedures at airports of intended use. C [ ] an alternate course of action if the flight cannot be completed as planned.

9.4.15

Which aircraft has the right-of-way over the other aircraft listed? A[ ] Glider

CCC

9.4.16 (CCC

B

[

]

C

[

]

Airship Aircraft refueling other aircraft

When two aircraft of the same category are converging, but not head-on, A [ ] the faster aircraft shall give way. B [ the aircraft on the left shall give way. each aircraft shall give way to the right. C[ 1

1

9.4.17

CCCcccccc

An aircraft's annual inspection was performed on July 12, this year. The next annual inspection will be due no later than A [ ] July1l, next year. B [ ] July13, next year. C[ July31, next year. 1

Review Questions

383

(CC

94

I) I) 9.4.18

No person may attempt to act as a crewmember of a civil aircraft with A [ ] .008 percent by weight or more alcohol the blood. B [ ] .004 percent by weight or more alcohol in the blood. C [ ] .04 percent by weight or more alcohol in the blood.

in

9.4.19

A person may not act as a crewmember of a civil aircraft if alcoholic

beverages have been consumed by that person within the preceding

9.4.20

9.4.21

9.4.22

A[

]

B

[

]

C[

]

8hours. 12hours. 24 hours.

)))D))))))I)I)I))N)I)D)

The responsibility for ensuring that an aircraft is maintained in an airworthy condition is primarily that of the A [ ] pilotin command. B

[

]

C

[

]

owner or operator. mechanic who performs the work.

No person may operate an aircraft in acrobatic flight when A [ ] flight visibility is less than 5 miles. B [ ] over any congested area of a city, town, or settlement. C[ ] less than 2,500 feet AGL. If an alteration or repair substantially affects an aircraft's operation in flight, that aircraft must be test flown by an appropriately-rated pilot and approved for return to service prior to being operated A [ ] by any private pilot. B [ with passengers aboard.

DD)

DD)

DD)

|]

C[

9.4.23

]

for compensation

or

hire.

What aircraft inspections are required for rental aircraft that are also used for flight instruction? A [ ] Annual and 100-hour inspections B [ | Biannual and 100-hour inspections C [ Annual and 50-hour inspections

DD)

DD)

1

DDD)

Section 9.4

Review Questions

384

DI)

9.4.24

9.4.25

What is the lowest altitude permitted for acrobatic flight? A

[

]

1,000 feet AGL

B

[

]

1,500 feet AGL

CJ

]

2000 feet AGL

No person may operate an aircraft in formation flight A [ 1 over adensely populated area. B

9.4.26

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc

9.4.27

[

]

C[

]

in Class D airspace under special VFR. exceptby prior arrangement with the pilot in command of each aircraft.

No person may operate an aircraft in acrobatic flight when visibility is

A]

]

B

[

]

C|[

1

the flight

less than 3 miles.

lessthan5 miles. lessthan7 miles.

Unless otherwise specifically authorized, no person may operate an aircraft that has an experimental certificate A [ ] beneath the floor of Class B airspace. B [ over a densely populated area or in a congested airway. from the primary airport within Class D airspace. C[ 1

1

9.4.28

9.4.29

The responsibility for ensuring that maintenance personnel make the appropriate entries in the aircraft maintenance records indicating the aircraft has been approved for return to service lies with the A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

1

owner or operator. pilotin command. mechanic who performed the work.

When would a pilot be required to submit a detailed report of an emergency which caused the pilot to deviate from an ATC clearance? Within 48 hours A [ requested by ATC 1

(CCC

B

[

|]

C

[

]

Immediately Within7 days

if

Review Questions

385

9.4

)))))

9.5 Accident Reporting 9.5.1

9.5.2

9.5.3

Which incident requires an immediate notification to the nearest NTSB field office? A [ ] A forced landing due to engine failure. B [ ] Landing gear damage, due to a hard landing. C [ ] Flight control system malfunction or failure. If an aircraft is involved in an accident which results in substantial damage to the aircraft, the nearest NTSB field office should be notified A

[

]

B

[

]

immediately. within 48 hours.

C[

]

within?7 days.

DD)

The operator of an aircraft that has been involved in an accident is required to file an accident report within how many days?

A[] B[] Cl]

9.5.4

dd)

Dy)

5 7

DD)

10

May aircraft wreckage be moved prior to the time the NTSB takes custody? A [ ] Yes, butonly if moved by a federal, state, or local law enforcement officer. Yes, but only to protect the wreckage from further damage. No, it may not be moved under any circumstances.

>)

)))))))

ddd)

) DD)

Section 9.5

Review Questions

DD)

386

D>)

10: FLIGHT PUBLICATIONS

CHAPTER 10.1

Federal Aviation Regulations

(FARSs)

10.1.1

If there is a discrepancy between sources regarding aviation regulations, the final authority is A [ ] your instructor. B [ ] the Glider Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge C [ ] Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (i.e., the FARs)

10.1.2

The FARs require that A [ you memorize all applicable regulations. B [ ] have access to the current FARs. C[ ] own you own copy of the current FARs. 1

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccat

10.2 Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) 10.2.1

The Aeronautical Information Manual provides A [ ] basic information for operating in the national airspace system.

B

[

]

C[

]

regulations that supplement the FARs. information for pilots who operate under Instrument Flight

Rules.

10.3 Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) 10.3.1

(CCC

By receiving current Notices to Airmen (NOTAMSs) during a weather briefing from an FSS before a flight, you will A

[

B

[

]

-C[

]

]

beinformed of any airport closures or airspace restrictions in

the vicinity of your flight. be provided with information that elaborates on the FARs. be provided with basic information for interacting with ATC.

Review Questions

387

-

10.3

))

10.4 Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) 10.4.1

The Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) A [ ] provides new information until it can be incorporated into the next issue of the applicable aeronautical chart. B [ ] provides detailed information about the operation and services available at all airports within the region. C [ ] isupdated every 6 months.

))))))))))))))))

DDD)

DD)

Figure 10.1

10.4.2

(Refer to Figure 10.1) For information about the parachute jumping and glider operations at Silverwood Airport, you should refer to A [ ] notes on the border of the chart. B [ ] the Airport/Facility Directory. C [ ] the Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) publication.

DDD)

>)

)

10.5 Advisory Circulars (ACs) 10.5.1

FAA advisory circulars are available to all pilots and are obtained by A [ ] distribution from the nearest FAA district office. B

[

]

C

[

]

))))))

ordering those desired from the Government Printing Office. subscribing to the Federal Register. Dd)

Section 10.5

Review Questions

DD)

388

>)

10.5.2

FAA advisory circulars containing subject matter specifically related to Air Traffic Control and General Operations are issued under which

subject number?

Al] 60 B[] 70 Cl] 9

10.5.3

FAA advisory circulars containing subject matter specifically related to Airspace are issued under which subject number?

Al

]

B[] Cl] 10.5.4

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc

60 70 90

FAA advisory circulars containing subject matter specifically related to Airmen are issued under which subject number?

Al B[ C[

]

60

]

70

]

9

(CCC

Review Questions

389

10.5

dd)

11.1 Why Have 11.1.1

)

11: AIRSPACE

CHAPTER

Airspace?

dd)

The national airspace system is necessary to A [ ] separate IFR and VFR traffic. B [ ] prevent collisions between aircraft. C[ ] regulate the flow of air traffic.

I) Dd)

11.2 Controlled Airspace DD)

11.2.1

Unless otherwise specified, Federal Airways are Class E airspace extending from A [ ] 700 feet above the surface up to and including 17,999 feet MSL.

[

]

1,200 feet above the surface MSL.

C[

]

the surface up to and including 18,000 feet MSL.

B

11.2.2

up to and including

DD)

17,999 feet

Normal VFR operations in Class D airspace require the ceiling and visibility to be A [ ] atleast 1,000 feet and 1 mile. B [ ] atleast 1,000 feet and 3 miles. C | ] atleast2,500 feet and 3 miles.

DD)

DD)

DD)

11.2.3

A non-tower satellite airport, within the same Class D airspace as that

designated for the primary airport, requires radio communications be established and maintained A [ ] with the satellite airport's UNICOM. B [ ] with the associated Flight Service Station. C [ with the primary airport's control tower.

DD)

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1

11.2.4

No person may take off or land an aircraft under basic VFR at an airport that lies within Class D airspace unless the A [ ] flight visibility at that airport is at least 1 mile. B [ ] ground visibility at that airport is at least 1 mile. C [ ] ground visibility at that airport is at least 3 miles.

Section 11.2

Review Questions

)))

Dd)

DD)

390

>)

11.2.5

What minimum flight visibility is required for VFR flight operations on an airway below 10,000 feet MSL?

A[

B[

Cl

]

1mile

|]

3miles

]

4miles

11.2.6

What must a pilot do to operate from a satellite airport within Class C airspace? A [ ] The pilot must file a flight plan prior to departure. B [ ] The pilot must monitor ATC until clear of the Class C airspace. C [ 1 The pilot must contact ATC as soon as practical after takeoff.

11.27

Which initial action should a pilot take prior to entering Class C airspace? A [ ] Contact approach control on the appropriate frequency. B [ ] Contact the tower and request permission to enter. C [ ] Contact the FSS for traffic advisories.

11.2.8

The normal radius of the outer area of Class C airspace is

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccod

11.2.9

A

[

]

5nautical miles.

B

[

]

15 nautical miles.

CJ]

1]

20nautical miles.

The vertical limit of Class C airspace above the primary airport is normally

A

B[ C[

]

1,200 feet AGL.

]

3,000 feet AGL.

]

4,000 feet AGL.

11.2.10 An airport with a part-time control tower

is classified as Class D

airspace only A [ ] when the weather minimums are below basic VFR. in operation. B [ ] when the associated control tower C [ when the associated Flight Service Station is in operation.

is

1

CCC

Review Questions 391

11.2

))

11.2.11 The lateral dimensions of Class D airspace are based on

A

[

]

B

[

]

C[

]

the number of airports that lie within the Class D airspace. 5 statute miles from the geographical center of the primary airport. the instrument procedures for which the controlled airspace is established.

11.2.12 Cloud clearance requirements for VFR operations on an airway below 10,000 feet MSL are

A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

1

dd)

ddd)

)))))

toremain clear of clouds. 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontally. 500 feet above, 1,000 feet below, and 2,000 feet horizontally. yd)

11.2.13 During operations within controlled airspace at altitudes of less than 1,200 feet AGL, the minimum horizontal distance from clouds requirement for VER flight ~

A

B[ Cl

]

1,000 feet.

]

1,500 feet.

]

2,000 feet.

is

dd)

11.2.14 What minimum radio equipment C airspace?

A

[

]

B

[

]

C[

]

is required for operation within Class

Two-way radio communications equipment and a 4096-code transponder Two-way radio communications equipment, a 4096-code transponder, and DME Two-way radio communications equipment, a 4096-code transponder, and an encoding altimeter

11.2.15 In which type of airspace are VFR flights prohibited?

Af

B[ Cl

]

Class A

]

ClassB

]

CassC

)))))

I)

DDD)

DD)

DD)

DD)

Section 11.2

Review Questions

392

>)

D 11.2.16 An operable 4096-code transponder and Mode C encoding altimeter are

required in A

[

]

Class B airspace and within 30 miles of the Class B primary

airport.

airspace.

B

[

]

Class

C

[

]

ClassE airspace below 10,000 feet MSL.

11.217 What minimum pilot certification is required for operation within Class B

airspace? A [ ] Recreational Pilot Certificate B [ ] Private or Student Certificate with appropriate logbook endorsements C [ ] Private Pilot Certificate with an instrument rating

11.2.18 An operable 4096-code transponder with an encoding altimeter

required in which airspace? A

[

]

Class A, Class B, and Class C

B

[

]

Class D and Class E (below 10,000 feet MSL)

C

[

]

Class D and Class G (below 10,000 feet MSL)

is

(cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc

11.2.19 The

width of a Federal Airway from either side of the centerline is

A[

]

4 nautical miles.

B

[

]

6 nautical miles.

C[

]

8nautical miles.

11.2.20 Two-way radio communications with ATC are required for landings or

takeoffs A

[

]

B

[

]

C[

atall tower controlled airports regardless of weather conditions. atall tower controlled airports when weather conditions are

less than VFR.

]

atall tower controlled airports within

Class D airspace only

when weather conditions are less than VFR.

Review Questions

393

11.2

)

) 11.3 Uncontrolled Airspace 11.3.1

Outside controlled airspace, the minimum flight visibility requirement for VFR flight above 1,200 feet AGL and below 10,000 feet MSL during daylight hours

Al B[ CJ 11.3.2

is

] ]

]

1mile 3miles. 5miles.

)))))y))))))))))))

What minimum visibility and clearance from clouds are required for VER operations in Class G airspace at 700 feet AGL or below during daylight hours? A [ ] 1mile visibility and clear of clouds B [ ] 1mile visibility, 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontal clearance from clouds 3 miles visibility and clear of clouds C[ 1]

11.4 Special Use Airspace 11.4.1

11.4.2

dd)

What action should a pilot take when operating under VFR in a Military Operations Area (MOA)? A [ ] Obtain a clearance from the controlling agency prior to entering the MOA. B [ ] Operate only on the airways that transverse the MOA. C [ ] Exercise extreme caution when military activity is being conducted.

yd)

)))))

if

Under what condition, any, may pilots fly through a restricted area? A [ ] When flying on airways with an ATC clearance. B [ ] With the controlling agency's authorization. C

[

]

Regulations do not allow this. ddd)

11.4.3

Responsibility for collision avoidance in an alert area rests with A [ ] the controlling agency. B

Section 11.4

[

]

C[

1

allpilots. Air Traffic Control.

Review Questions 394

Dy)

DD)

>)

11.44

11.4.5

What hazards A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

]

to aircraft may exist in an MOA?

Unusual, often invisible, hazards to aircraft, such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles Training activities that necessitate acrobatic or abrupt flight maneuvers pilot training or an unusual type of aerial High volume activity

of

What hazards to aircraft may exist in restricted areas? A [ ] Unusual, often invisible, hazards such as aerial gunnery or guided missiles B [ ] Military training activities that necessitate acrobatic or abrupt flight maneuvers C [ pilot training or an unusual type of aerial High volume 1

activity.

of

11.5 Other Airspace 11.5.1 ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

Traffic on Military Training Routes (MTRs) can be expected to fly at speeds A [ ] less than 250 knots. B [ ] in excess of 250 knots. C [ | allowed in class E airspace, appropriate to the altitude.

Review Questions

395

11.5

12: AERONAUTICAL CHARTS

CHAPTER 12.1

AND NAVIGATION

Latitude and Longitude )))))))y)))))))))

12.1.1

(Refer to Figure 12.1) Determine the approximate latitude and longitude of Kody Field. Al ] 36°17’N-121°05'W

B[ C[

]

]

36°33N-121°05'W 36°3N-121°10'W

37° 122°

121°

yd) KODY FIELD

dst

pe

DAKDTA

Sa

:

:]

: a

fags

lea

(KDY)

eL

3076-25

1325@

dd)

(DKT)

3012-30 122.9@

©

]

36° dd)

Figure 12.1

12.1.2

(Refer to Figure 12.1) What is located at approximately 36° 121° 57’ 00"W? [

]

Dakota airport

B[

|]

adam

C

1]

Kody Field airport

A

12.1.3

[

13”

30”N and

yy)

An aircraft departs an airport in the central standard time zone at 0930 CST for a 2-hour flight to an airport located in the mountain standard time zone. The landing should be at what time? A

[

]

0930 MST

B

[

|]

1030 MST

C[

]

1130MST

>)

DD)

DDD)

Section 12.1

Review Questions

396

)

12.14

An aircraft departs an airport in the Pacific standard time zone at 1030 PST for a 4-hour flight to an airport located in the central standard time zone. The landing should be at what coordinated universal time?

Al B[ C[

]

2030Z

]

2130Z

]

2230Z

12.2 VFR Aeronautical Charts 12.2.1 cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoco«

12.2.2

12.2.3

Sectionals for the continental U.S. are updated A

[

]

asrequired.

B

[

]

C[

]

annually. every 6 months.

The aeronautical chart that gives detailed information near class airspace is a A

[

]

sectional.

B

[

]

VFR Terminal Area Chart.

C

|

]

World Aeronautical Chart.

B

The most commonly used aeronautical chart for glider pilots, covering an area of about 1,000 square miles, the

is

A

[

]

sectional.

B

[

]

VFR Terminal Area Chart.

C

[

]

World Aeronautical Chart.

12.3 Reading Aeronautical Charts 12.3.1

A blue segmented circle on a sectional depicts which class airspace? Af] ] ClassB

B[ C[

cccocccococccccodoc

12.3.2

] ]

ClassC ClassD

Densely populated areas on aeronautical charts are A [ ] enclosed in a magenta shaded border. B [ shaded yellow. C[ ] shaded green. |]

Review Questions

397

(Cc

12.3

A aae

Ne

meton Ras

Tawa

rl

ASE

)))))))

x

HAY IDNA

{f

a)

pragte

MILT 1GH OPERATIONS VICITY, JOcCeana and NALEFEN

dd)

awos3 2351

j 2015548

50

dry)

Figure 12.2

12.3.3

12.3.4

(Refer to Figure 12.2) The elevation of the Chesapeake Regional Airport is

A

]

20

B

[

]

55 feet.

C[

]

216 feet.

feet

)))))

Two parallel railroad tracks are depicted by A [ ] two parallel black lines. B [ ] two parallel grey lines. C [ ] oneblack line with double tic marks.

ddd)

)))))

Dd)

Figure 12.3

12.3.5

What is the elevation of the highest obstacle above ground level shown in Figure 12.3? ] 358feet MSL B[ ] 243feet MSL C|[ ] 553feet MSL

A

Section 12.3

)))

>)

DD)

Review Questions

398

>)

Figure 12.4

12.3.6

(Refer to Figure 12.4) Identify the airspace over Cooperstown Airport. A [ ] Class G airspace - surface up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL

B

[

]

C

[

]

Class G airspace - surface up to but not including 700 feet AGL, Class E airspace - 700 feet AGL up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL Class G airspace - surface up to but not including 1,200 feet AGL, Class E airspace - 1,200 feet AGL up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc«

12.3.7

The amount of magnetic variation is depicted by A [ ] dashed magenta lines. B [ ] blue shaded lines. C[ ] grey shaded lines.

12.3.8

What symbol indicates an airport where fuel is available?

Al] © Bp] @

ci]

®

Review Questions

399

12.3

)

)

do)

))))))

rd)

)))

Dd)

12.3.9

(Refer to Figure 12.5) The floor of Class B airspace overlying Hicks Airport (T67) north-northwest of Fort Worth Meacham Field is [

]

atthe surface.

B[

]

3,200 feet MSL.

]

4,000 feet MSL.

A

C[

dy)

12.3.10 Pilots flying over a national wildlife refuge are requested to fly no

lower than

A

B[ Cl

]

1,000 feet AGL.

]

2,000 feet AGL.

]

3,000 feet AGL.

)) Dd)

DD)

DD)

) Section 12.3

Review Questions

DD)

400

D>)

( 12.4 Navigation 12.4.1

ccc

12.4.2

If the local magnetic variation is 15° E, the compass heading to an airport that is directly north of your location is Al ] 15°

B[

]

195°.

C[

]

345°.

One of the first things you should do if you think you may be lost is to A [ ] identify a safe landing area. B [ ] contact Air Guard on 121.5. C [ ] stop thermaling and fly in a straight line.

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

Review Questions 401

12.4

CHAPTER

13: RADIO

13.1 Radio

Technique

13.1.1

COMMUNICATIONS

A constant roar of static coming from the radio probably means that A [ ] the squelch is set too low or turned off. B

[

]

C

[

]

the squelchis set too high, or turned on. theradio is not tuned to the proper frequency.

13.1.2

Talking loudly into the microphone A [ ] can cause your voice to be distorted and hard to understand. B [ ] will make it easier for others to hear you. C [ ] doesnot affect the quality of your transmission.

13.1.3

The correct method of stating 4,500 feet MSL on the radio is

13.1.4

)))))))))))))))

A

[

]

“FOUR THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED.”

B

[

]

“FOURPOINT FIVE.”

C[

]

“FORTY-FIVE HUNDRED FEET MSL.”

The correct method of stating 10,500 feet MSL on the radio is A

[

]

“TEN THOUSAND, FIVE HUNDRED FEET.”

B

[

]

“TEN POINT FIVE.”

C[

]

“ONE ZERO THOUSAND, FIVE HUNDRED.”

dr)

ddd)

)))

13.2 Who Are You Talking To? 13.2.1

Since most airports that gliders use are uncontrolled, you will usually

be using your radio to A [ ] communicate with the local UNICOM station. B [ ] self-announce your position on the CTAF frequency. C

[

]

dd)

DD)

report your position to a FSS.

I) DD)

Section 13.2

Review Questions

402

DD)

)

13.2.2

13.2.3

When flying glider N666CB, the proper phraseology for initial contact

with McAlester AFSS is

A[

]

B

[

]

C[

]

“MC ALESTER RADIO, GLIDER SIX SIX SIX CHARLIE BRAVO, RECEIVING ARDMORE VORTAC, OVER.” “MC ALESTER STATION, GLIDER SIX SIX SIX CEE BEE, RECEIVING ARDMORE VORTAC, OVER.” “MC ALESTER FLIGHT SERVICE STATION, GLIDER NOVEMBER SIX CHARLIE BRAVO, RECEIVING ARDMORE VORTAC, OVER.”

To obtain help in the event of an accident or emergency, you should A [ ] address a call on 121.5 to “any station”. B

[

]

C

[

]

address call on 122.9 to “MULTICOM”. make aradio call to the nearest UNICOM.

13.3 When to Use the Radio 13.3.1

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccecac

13.3.2

To find out the location of your ground crew while you are on a crosscountry flight in glider 27BA, you should use your radio to make which of the following calls?

A[

]

B[

]

C[

]

“GROUND CREW, WHERE ARE YOU?” “BRAVO ALPHA GROUND, GLIDER BRAVO ALPHA, PLEASE SAY LOCATION.” “BRAVO ALPHA GROUND, PLEASE SAY LOCATION.”

To find out if an MOA is active you can contact A [ ] an ATC center using the frequency given on the chart. [

]

the nearest UNICOM station.

C[

]

aFss.

B

Review Questions

403

13.3

Figure 13.1

13.3.3

))))))))

is

the recommended communication (Refer to Figure 13.1) What land when to inbound at Cooperstown Airport? procedure A [ ] Broadcast intentions when 10 miles out on the CTAF/MULTICOM frequency, 122.9 MHz. B [ ] Contact UNICOM when 10 miles out on 122.8 MHz. C [ ] Circle the airport in a left turn prior to entering traffic.

dd)

ddd)

dd)

)))))

Dd)

)))

DD)

DD)

Section 13.3

Review Questions 404

>)

14: PERSONAL EQUIPMENT

CHAPTER

14.1 Attire for Flying 14.1.1

When selecting the clothes and shoes that you will wear during a flight, you should consider the conditions A [ ] thatyou will encounter during the flight. B [ ] thatyou might encounter should you have to land out. CJ ] both AandB.

14.1.2

At 18,000 feet, the UV radiation protection provided by the atmosphere is only A

[

]

20% of that provided at sea level.

B

[

]

50% of that provided at sea level.

C[

]

80% of that provided at sea level.

14.2 Food and Water cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc«

14.2.1

On long flights, you should carry A [ ] enough water to drink when you get thirsty. B [ ] enough water to drink at regular intervals.

C[ 14.2.2

14.3.1

8ounces of water.

Ground squirrels prefer glider pilots to carry which types of food in the glider? A [ ] Trail mix, with nuts [

]

Energy bars

C[

]

Bagels.

B

14.3

]

Parachutes A parachute made of all man-made materials must be repacked every

A[

]

B

[

]

C[

]

60days. 120days. 180days.

Review Questions

405

14.3

))

14.3.2

The

first step in bailing out of a disabled A

[

]

B

[

]

C

[

]

dd)

glider is to

release all belts and buckles. jettison the canopy. pull the rip-cord.

ry)

dd)

14.4 Survival Kit 14.4.1

14.4.2

14.4.3

If stranded in a remote area, you are in the most danger from the lack of A[ ] water.

B|[

]

food.

C

]

reading material.

[

The most effective way to make sure that you are found by a search and rescue team is to carry A [ ] flares, smoke bombs, or a way of creating a fire. B

[

]

acell phone.

C

[

]

anemergency locator transmitter (ELT).

If you have landed or crashed in a remote area, it is usually best to A [ ] carry your survival kit and try to walk to a populated area. B [ ] stay with the glider. C [ ] move the top of the nearest hill or mountain.

dd)

ddd)

DD)

to

dd)

Dy)

DD)

DD)

DD)

DD)

Section 14.4

Review Questions

406

>)

15: CROSS-COUNTRY SOARING

CHAPTER 15.1 Glide 15.1.1

Slope Management

When planning your first cross-country flights you should reduce the expected best glider ratio of your glider by

Al B[

1

25%.

]

50%.

Cl]

75%.

15.1.2

Using the recommended safety factor, what altitude would you need to safely arrive at an airport that is 20 NM away if you are flying a glider with a best L/D of 40:1? A [ ] 3000 feet above the airport elevation. B [ ] 6000 feet above the airport elevation. C [ ] 7000 feet above the airport elevation.

15.1.3

Using the recommended safety factor, and the performance of the glider that you are training in, create a glide slope ruler. (Templates can be found in the back of the Glider Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge or at www.GliderBooks.com in the “downloads” section.)

15.1.4

Using the ruler you constructed in 15.1.3, plot safe glide circles on a sectional between your home airport, and another airport that is at least 50 miles away.

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccco«

15.2 Cross-Country Supplies 15.2.1

in

The best way to deal with the issue of urine disposal flight is A [ ] not drink liquids for several hours before, or during a

to

flight.

[

]

to practice holding it in.

C[

]

tofind a system that works for you.

B

Review Questions

407

15.2

od)

15.2.2

The forms and documentation requirements for badge and record flights are described in the A [ ] FAI Sporting Code.

B[ C[

]

AIM

]

AF/D.

dd)

ddd)

15.3 Speed-to-Fly Theory 15.3.1

15.3.2

ddd)

is

The “speed made good” A [ ] less than the speed to fly between thermals. B [ ] greater than the speed to fly between thermals. C[ ] notdependant on the wind speed. The “speed to fly” between thermals to maximize the speed made good A [ ] is higher when your expected climb rate in thermals is higher. B [ ] is never faster than the best L/D speed. is dependant on the wind speed. C[

))))

yy)

1]

ddd)

jit

knots Ld oe

))))

10

NAY Dd)

Figure 15.1

15.3.3

If you are flying between thermals at 65 knots with the speed ring setting and variometer indication as shown in Figure 15.1, you should A [ ] raise the nose of the glider. B [ ] maintain your current pitch attitude. C[ ] lower the nose of the glider.

DD)

>)

DDD)

Section 15.3

Review Questions

408

>)

15.34

If you have been averaging a climb rate of 8 knots in each thermal, there are cumulus clouds every 5 miles, and you are 10,000 feet AGL, you will probably want to set your speed ring to ] 4knots. B[ ] 8knots. C[ ] 10knots.

A

15.3.5

If you have been averaging a climb rate of 8 knots in each thermal, there are no cumulus clouds present, and you are 2,000 feet AGL, you will set your speed ring to probably want

A

]

[

]

C[

]

Oknots.

4knots. C[ ] 8knots. To cover the most distance over the ground into a 10 knot headwind, you should A [ ] setthe speed ring to 5 knots. B [ ] setthe speed ring to 0 knot and add 5 knots to the speed to fly indicated by the variometer. B

15.3.6

to

flythebestL/D speed.

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccCccCcccceccoc

15.4 Getting Started 15.4.1

The most important skills to have mastered before flying cross-country are A [ ] decision making and self-discipline. B [ ] thermaling and navigation.

Cl]

glide slope management and landing.

15.5 Choosing a Route 15.5.1

Which is the most important factor to consider when planning a crosscountry route? A [ ] Staying over high terrain B [ | The proximity of safe landing zones C [ ] The total distance covered

Review Questions

409

15.5

ddd)

)

15.6 Flying the Route 15.6.1

Your most accurate source of head/tail wind speeds are from A

[

]

B

[

]

C[ 15.6.2

When thermaling in a 10 knot wind, the circles on the trace of a GPS will A [ ] overlap several circles. [

]

justbarely overlap.

C[

]

be offset by a distance equal to the diameter of the circle.

B

15.6.3

]

comparing your true airspeed to your ground speed determined from a GPS. comparing your indicated airspeed to your ground speed determined from a GPS. awinds aloft forecast obtained prior to flight.

When flying cross-country, you can continue on course A [ ] aslong as you are at least 3,000 feet AGL. B [ ] only if you have enough altitude to arrive at the next airport on your course. only if you have enough altitude to either make it to the next C[ airport on your course or enough altitude to turn back to your “safety” airport.

yd)

dy)

dy)

)) I)

)))))

1

15.6.4

If you get below 3,000 feet AGL away from your home airport, you should say to yourself, A [ ] “Iwill never fly cross-country again.” B [ ] “What wasI thinking?!” C [ “Ihave justas much chance climbing out here as I do when taking a 3,000 foot tow.”

Dd)

DI)

1

15.6.5

When landing away from your home gliderport, you should fly A [ ] anormal pattern at the normal speed. B

[

]

C

[

]

atighter pattern, at a slightly higher speed.

astraightin approach.

Dy)

DD)

DD)

DD)

Section 15.6

Review Questions

410

>)

15.7 Off-Field Landing 15.7.1

The most critical part of an off-field landing is A [ ] judging your altitude over the ground in the pattern. B [ ] recognizing and accepting that an off-field landing is imminent. C[ ] finding a field with a gate.

15.7.2

The time to commit 100% to an off-field landing is when you A[ | areat1000 feet AGL [

]

areat500 feet AGL

C[

]

land.

B

15.7.3

At an altitude of 3000 feet AGL, you should A [ ] pick a general area that has multiple suitable fields. B [ ] select the field you will land in. C

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc

15.7.4

15.7.5

15.7.6

[

]

start your checklist and landing pattern.

At an altitude of 2000 feet AGL, you should A [ ] pick a general area that has multiple suitable fields. B

[

]

C

[

]

select the field you will land in. start your checklist and landing pattern.

At an altitude of 1000 feet AGL, you should A [ ] pick a general area that has multiple suitable fields. B

[

]

C

[

]

select the field you will land in. start your checklist and landing pattern.

When landing off-airport, it is usually best to land A [ ] into the wind even if on a down slope. B [ ] up slope, even if with the wind. C[ ] ona paved road.

Review Questions 411

15.7

)))

15.7.7

When landing in a field, you should touch down faster than normal so you have more control. A [ B [ ] touch down at the minimum speed and get the glider stopped as soon as possible. C[ ] trytoroll out near a gate if the field is fenced. 1

dd)

) ddd)

15.8 Retrieve 15.8.1

15.8.2

When in level flight on tow, the wake of the tow plane will A [ ] be higher than during a climbing tow. B [ ] belower than during a climbing tow. C [ ] be stronger than during a climbing tow. When in level flight on tow, A [ ] itis easier to get slack in the tow rope because it is under lower tension. B [ ] itis harder to get slack in the line because of the higher airspeeds. the slack will come out of the tow rope faster because of the C[ higher airspeeds.

yd)

) DD)

DD)

1

15.8.3

If you have to descend while on tow, you should A [ ] maintain position, and use the spoilers slack in the tow rope.

if necessary to remove

B[ C[

]

release.

]

move to low tow position.

DDD)

>)

ddd)

15.9 Crew Duties 15.9.1

The ground crew will A [ be the pilot's servant, assisting the pilot in any way possible. B [ ] learn valuable lessons about cross-country soaring. C [ ] both A andB ..... but especially A)! 1

)))

dd)

) DD)

Section 15.9

Review Questions

412

>)

CHAPTER

16: AERONAUTICAL DECISION

MAKING

ccc

to

the following hypothetical accident reports to answer the questions in this chapter.

Refer

Accident #1

the pilot's first flight at this flying site. As he was taking in the new scenery and looking for possible thermal generators on the ground, he didn’t realize he was flying in sink and had lost too much altitude to make it back to the airport. The glider struck trees bordering the intended landing field, resulting in substantial damage. This was

Accident #2 The pilot had over 600 total hours in gliders, and 15 hours in the previous 30 days. After approximately 2 hours of cross-country soaring, the pilot was low, with no airport within gliding distance. At 1,000 feet AGL he chose a field that was approximately 2,000 feet long, and committed to landing. On his downwind leg he noticed that a fence ran around the entire field, and that there was a gate on the upwind side. He adjusted his aim point so that he could roll to a stop just short of the gate. As he was on final, he encountered a vertical gust that gave him extra altitude. He applied full spoilers to try to get the glider down in the field. The gust subsided, and with full spoilers deployed, the glider came down hard in the field, causing substantial damage to the glider.

Accident £3

cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccCc

After approximately 2 hours of cross-country soaring, the pilot headed back toward the departure airport. The pilot had reached the bottom of his predetermined “safe glide zone”, but altered course away from the airport toward a group of gliders who had encountered a thermal. He stated that while he knew he was low, he assumed he would be able to climb with the other gliders an altitude where he could easily make it back to the airport. Finding no source of lift near the other gliders, and unable to reach the airport, he chose an open field for a forced landing. The glider encountered "strong sink", and he was unable clear the tree tops at the end of the field. The glider struck trees bordering the intended landing field, resulting in substantial damage the glider, and minor injuries to the pilot.

to

to

to

Accident #4

in

The pilot had over 1500 hours in gliders, and over 600 hours this particular glider, which he had owned for several years. The pilot noted that he “had assembled the glider countless times without incident.” On the day of the accident, he was the last one to arrive at the airport. Everyone else was busy getting launched by the time he assembled his glider. After pulling the glider into position next to the runway, he waited by himself for the tow plane to return. Instead of having the tow pilot park the tow plane and help him do a positive control check, the glider pilot decided to forgo it. On takeoff, the glider pitched up, stalled, and dropped to the ground, severely injuring the pilot, and destroying the glider. Review Questions

413

16.9

dd)

16.1 16.1.1

Situational Awareness A lack of situational awareness was the primary cause of ] Accident #1.

A

B

16.1.2

16.1.3

16.2 16.2.1

[

]

C1

]

16.2.3

Accident #2. Accident #4.

dD)

Additional instruction and planning could have helped to avoid A[ ] Accident #1. B [ ] Accident #2. C|[ ] Accident #4.

Dr)

You should avoid new situations where you could easily become overloaded, leading to a loss of situational awareness, unless you

))))

A

[

1

B

[

|]

C[

]

have sufficient knowledge of the new situation. have maintained your proficiency at flying the glider. both A andB.

Judgment

>)

dd)

dd)

A lack of judgment was the primary cause of A[ ] Accident #1. B

16.2.2

))))

[

]

C |

]

Accident #2. Accident #3.

yd)

Realizing the true benefit or value of a decision could have helped prevent A[ ] Accident #1. B [ ] Accident #2. C|[ ] Accident #3. To reinforce your good decisions, you should A [ count on your flying skills to counteract bad decisions.

dd)

))

1]

B

[

]

C[

1]

realize when your decisions have helped you avoid dangerous situations. tell stories about how “you almost died, but.....”

DDD)

DD)

Section 16.2

Review Questions 414 D>)

16.3 Self-Discipline 16.3.1

A lack of self-discipline was the primary cause of A [ ] Accident #3. B

[

]

C

||

]

Accident #4. Accidents #3 & #4.

16.3.2

In which accident did complacency play a major role? A [ ] Accident #3 B [ ] Accident #4 C[ ] Accidents #3 & #4

16.3.3

In which accident did peer pressure play a major role? A[ ] Accident #3 B [ Accident #4 C[ ] Accidents #3 & #4 |]

16.3.4 cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccCcccCcCccccc«

In which accident should the pilot have realized he was showing poor self-discipline because he had begun to rationalize changing limits he had previously set for himself? ] Accident #1 B[ ] Accident #2 C[ ] Accidents #3

A

16.3.5

Steps you can take to help maintain the discipline to stick to your decisions are to A [ ] always follow rules, regulations, and operating limits, unless it would be clearly detrimental to safety. B [ avoid complacency by realizing that the more times you “bend the rules”, (either yours of someone else’s), the more likely you are to suffer the consequences. C | ] both A and B. |]

Review Questions

415

16.3

(Ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc

Section 16.3

Review Questions

416

ANSWER KEY CHAPTER 1.1

11.1

1.3

[C] [B] [C]

114 1.2.1 1.2.2

[B]

Flight Manual

2.4

2.5

[C]

13.1

[B]

1.3.3

[C] [A] [C] [C]

2.2

297 223 204 295 226 227 298 299

22.10 2.211 2.212

2213 2.2.15

[C]

[B] [B] [A] [C] [C]

CHAPTER 3 3.1 Nomenclature 3.1.1 3.1.2

313

[A] [B]

Fl 3.2.2

As

[C]

3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6

[B]

[C] [A] [B]

3.27 3.2.8 3.2.9

[Cc]

[B] [A] [A] [C] [A] [A]

a

= A

[A]

3.2 Three Forces

Airport Markings 2.2.1

251 2.5.2 2.5.3

255 256

Operating Procedures 2.1.1 2.1.2

[B] [B]

24.2 Wake Turbulence

2.54

CHAPTER 2 2.1

[B] [B]

Airport Traffic 24.1

Documentation

1.34 1.35 ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccCcccCCc

2.32

[cI

132

Airport Lighting

231

The Glider 1.1.2 1.1.3

1.2

2.3

1

3.210 3.211

3.3

Airspeed Limits 3.3.1 3.3.2

3.4

34.2

Answer Key 417

[B] [C]

Turning Flight

did]

[Bl]

[B] [A] [A] [B] [A] [C] [C] [A] [C] [A] [C]

[A] [A]

Section 3.4

))

3.5

Load Factor 3.5.1

352 3.5.3

3.54 3.6

[B] [B] [C] [C]

5.1

3.64 3.6.5

[A] [B] [C] [A] [B]

513 514 5.2

52.1

52.3

524 525

4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3

414

4.2

4.24 4.2.5 4.2.6

4.2.7

5210 52.11

5212 52.13

[B] [B] [C] [B] [B] [C] [B]

5214 5215 5216

52.17 52.18

[A]

4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3

4.54 4.5.5

) dd)

rd)

[B] [BI]

Cl

[C] [A] [C] [C] [B] [C] [B] [A] [A] [A] [C]

)))))))))D)))))))

[Bl]

[CJ]

5228 5229

[B] [B] [C] [B] [C] [A]

52380

{C]

5231 5232 5233

[C] [A] [A]

5.2.27

[A] [A] [B] [C] [B]

[B] [A] [B]

5223 5224 5226

Effects of Wing Loading

[C]

[C] [C] [B] [C]

52.25

[B] [A]

{Al

5219 5220 5221 52.22

[B] [B]

Effects of Lift/Sink 4.4.1 4.4.2

4.5

52.8

Effects of Wind 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3

4.4

5.2.8

[A] [B] [B] [C]

Glider Polars 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3

4.3

52.6 52.7

Glide Ratio

[B] [A]

Primary Instruments 5.2.2

CHAPTER 4 4.1

The Atmosphere 5.1.1 5.1.2

Stability 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3

dd)

CHAPTER 5

dD)

I) DD)

DD)

Section 5.2

Answer Key

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5.3 cco

Secondary Instruments 5.3.1 5.3.2

[A] [C]

535

[A] [C] [A] [A]

5.3.6 5.3.7 5.3.8

5.4

Other Flight Systems 54.1 5.4.2

543 544 545 546

54.7

[B] [C] [B]

6.5

6.5.1 6.5.2

6.6

[C]

[C] [C] [A]

6.14 6.2

6.3

633 6.4

6.74

[B]

6.7.11

6.8

684 [C] [A] [A] [B]

6.8.4

6.9

[B] [B] [B]

Ici [B] [C] [C] [A] Answer Key 419

[C]

[Al [A] [A] [A] [C] [B] [C] [A] IA] [C]

Thermal Soaring Weather 6.9.1 6.9.2 6.9.3 6.9.4 6.9.5 6.9.6 6.9.7 6.9.8 6.9.9 6.9.10 6.9.11 6.9.12 6.9.13 6.9.14 6.9.15 6.9.16

[B] [C] [C]

[B]

Describing the Weather 6.8.1 6.8.2

Clouds 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5 6.4.6 6.4.7 6.4.8

[C] [C]

6.710

Atmospheric Stability 6.3.1 6.3.2

6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3 6.7.5 6.7.6 6.7.7 6.7.8 6.7.9

Dew Point 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

IC] [C] [A] [C]

[C] [C] [C]

6.7 Weather Systems

The Atmosphere 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3

[A] [C]

Precipitation 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3

CHAPTER 6 6.1

Fog

[C] [A]

[ci [A] [C] [B] [B] [B]

[B] [A] [B] [A] [B] [B] [A] [B] Section 6.9

) yd)

6.9.17 6.9.18 6.9.19 6.9.20 6.9.21

7.3.10 7.3.11

[B] [C] [B] [A] [C]

73.12 7.313 73.14

7315

6.10 Ridge Soaring Weather 6.10.1 6.10.2

7.3.16 7.3.17 7.3.18

[B] [A]

6.11 Wave Soaring Weather 6.11.1 6.11.2 6.11.3 6.11.4

7.319

[A] [B] [A] [C]

7.3.20 7.3.21 7.3.22

7.4

6.12 Convergence Lift 6.12.1 6.12.2

6.13 Predicting Soaring Weather 6.13.1

[C]

CHAPTER 7 7.1 Sources of Weather Services 7.1.1 7.1.2

7.2

7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5

72.6 7.2.7 7.2.8

7.3

[C] [B] [C] [A] [C] [C] [A] [A]

7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3

7.34 7.35 7.3.6 7.3.7 7.3.8 7.3.9 Section 8.1

[B] [A] [B] [A] [C] [C] [C] [A] [C]

dd)

[C]

7.4.6 7.4.7

[A] [A] [B] [B] [A] [C] [A] [A] [B] [C] [A]

dy)

dd)

) dd)

I)

In-Flight Aviation Weather

Advisories 79.2 7:53 7.5.4

7.55

dD)

[C] [A] [B] [C] IC]

CHAPTER 8 8.1

dy)

74.5

7.5.1

Observations

))

7.4.4

74.10 74.11 74.12 74.13 74.14 74.15 74.16

7.5

[B] [A] [B] [C] [B] [B] [A] [B] [B]

rd)

))

7.4.9

Weather Briefings

[IC]

)

[A] [B] [B] [A]

74.8

[A] [B]

[A] [A]

Forecasts 74.1 74.2 74.3

[A] [B]

[BB]

DD)

>)

Physiological Issues 8.1.1 8.1.2 8.1.3

8.14

[B] [A] [C] [C]

DD)

DD)

Answer Key 420 D>)

8.1.5 8.1.6 8.1.7

818 819 8.2

949

[A] [C] [A] [C] [A]

9.4.10

94.11 94.12 94.13 9.4.14

Mental Issues

94.15

[C] 821 8.3 Chemicals 8.3.1 8.3.2

94.16

94.17 94.18 94.19

[C] [C]

9.4.20

0

CHAPTER 9 91 Definitions and Abbreviations

a 9.11

912

(cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc

9.13

914

9.2

933 9.3.4

9.35 9.3.6 9.3.7 9.3.8 9.3.9 9.3.10

9425 94.26

94.27 9.4.28

94.29

[B]

9.5

[B]

9.5.4

CHAPTER 10.1

94.1

hs 9.4.4 9.4.5 9.4.6

947 9.4.8

ol [B] [C] [A] [B] [A] [A]

10

: ry Regulations Federal Aviation

(FARSs)

10.1.1

1012 o

[C] IB [B]

10.2 Aeronautical Information

Manual (AIM) 102.1

[A]

10.3 Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)

[B] [A] [B] [B] [C] [A] IC] [B]

10.3.1

[A]

10.4 Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) 104.1 [A]

1042 az

Answer Key 421

CC

IC] [A] [B] [C] [C] [A] [B] [B]

[C] [A] IC] [B]

9.53

[C] [B] [C] [C] [A] [A] IC] [A] [C] [C]

|[B]

Accident Reporting 9.5.1 9.5.2

[C]

General Operating Rules 9.4.2

CCC

94.24

Certification of Pilots 9.3.1 9.3.2

9.4

IC] [A] [A] IB]

Maintenance Requirements 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3

9.3

9.421

[A] [B] [A] [B]

IB [B

Section 10.4

)) dd)

10.5 Advisory Circulars (ACs)

1051

[B]

105.2

[CC]

10.5.3

[B] [A]

1054 CHAPTER 11 11.1 Why Have 11.1.1

Airspace?

CHAPTER 12 12.1 Latitude and Longitude 12.1.1 12.1.2

1213

53 .

[BB]

122.3

2.

11.2.3

11.24 11.2.5 11.2.6 11.2.7 11.2.8 11.2.9 11.2.10 11.2.11 11.2.12

11.213 112.14 112.15 11.2.16

11.217 11.2.18 11.2.19

11220 Lo

o

[C] [C] [B] [C] [A] [C] [C] [B] [B] [B] [C] [C] [A] [A] [B] [A] [A] [A]

11.3 Uncontrolled Airspace [A] 113.1 [A] 11.32 11.4 Special Use Airspace

1141

11.4.2

114.3 11.44

[C] [B] [B] [B] [A]

)

"

©

[B] [A]

12.3 Reading Aeronautical Charts 12.3.1 12.3.2 12.3.3

12.34 12.3.5 12.3.6 12.3.7 12.3.8 12.3.9 12.3.10

Ts

[C] [B] [A] [C] [A] [B] [A] [B] [C] [B]

12.4 Navigation

1251

1242

IC) [A]

dd)

) dd)

) DI)

))))))))

CHAPTER 13 13.1 Radio Technique 13.1.1 [A] 13.1.2 [A] 13.1.3 [A] IC] 1314

Dd)

13.2 Who Are You Talking To?

Dd)

13.2.1 13.2.2 13.2.3

[B] [A] [A]

DD)

13.3 When to Use the Radio 13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3

1145 11.5 Other Airspace 11.5.1

dd)

[B]

«tica Charta ero

12.2.1 12.2.2

11.2 Controlled Airspace

1121

[B] [A]

[B] [A] [A]

DD)

[B] DDD)

Section 13.3

Answer Key 422

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CHAPTER 14 14.1 Attire for Flying [C] 1411

15.6 Flying the Route [A] 15.61 15.6.2 15.6.3

[B] 1412 — 14.2 Food and Water

ee —

ol

15.64 15.6.5

15.7 Off-Field Landing 15.7.1 15.7.2 15.7.3

14.3 Parachutes 14.3.1 14.3.2

[C] [B]

15.74 15.7.5

14.4 Survival Kit (cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

14.4.3

[B]

CHAPTER 15 15.1 Glide Slope Management 15.1.1 [B] [C] 151.2 15.1.3 [Glider specific] 15.1.4 [Site specific]

15.2 Cross-Country Supplies [C] 152.1 15.2.2

15.8 Retrieve 15.81 158.2

has

[B] [A] [A] [B] IC]

[A] [A]

[Al

15.9 Crew Duties [C] 159.1

CHAPTER 16 16.1 Situational Awareness 16.1.1 16.1.2 16.1.3

[A]

15.3 Speed-to-Fly Theory

[B] [C] [C] [A]

[A] [A] [C]

16.2 Judgment

153.3 153.4

[A] [A] [C] [B]

1539

Ho

16.3 Self-Discipline

15.3.1 15.3.2

16.2.1 16.2.2 16.2.3

15.4 Getting Started [A] 154.1

16.3.1 16.3.2 16.3.3

15.5 Choosing a Route

16.34 163.5

1551

[B]

[B] [B] [BI]

[C] [B] [A] [C] [C]

C.cCcCcCcccccod«

Answer Key 423

Section 16.3

(ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccoc

Section 16.3

Answer Key 424