Glass Beads in Ancient India: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach 9781841713649, 9781407326580

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Glass Beads in Ancient India

SOUTH ASIAN ARCHAEOLOGY SERIES EDITED BY ALOK K. KANUNGO

No. 1

Glass Beads in Ancient India An Ethnoarchaeological Approach

Alok Kumar Kanungo Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute

BAR International Series 1242 2004

ISBN 9781841713649 paperback ISBN 9781407326580 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841713649 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Foreword Alok Kumar Kanungo Series Editor, South Asian Archaeology Series International Series of British Reports

The International Series of British Archaeological Reports, with its 1500 titles to the present time, is undoubtedly one of the most important places of publication in the discipline of Archaeology. But it is a pity that works on the archaeology of South Asia have been less represented in the series than their interest and value deserves. The archaeological record of South Asia (comprising India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Maldives) is extremely rich. This wealth begins in the Lower Palaeolithic period and includes, for example, the Harappan Civilization, one of the oldest in the world (covering a very large area and having many unique features -the most ancient known town planning, its architecture and high standards of civic hygiene, its art, iconography, paleography, numismatics and international trade). South Asia also has a large number of earlier, contemporary, and later Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures. Moreover, what makes South Asia particularly significant for the study of past human behaviour is the survival of many traditional modes of life, like hunting-gathering, pastoralism, shifting cultivation, fishing, and fowling, the study of which throws valuable light on the reconstruction of past cultures. In the region there are a large number of government and semi-government institutions devoted to archaeological teaching and/or research in archaeology and a large and professionally trained body of researchers. Of course, a number of universities and other institutions, in the area do have their own publication programmes and there are also reputed private publishing houses. However, British Archaeological Reports, a series of 30 years standing, has an international reputation and distribution system. In order to take advantage of the latter – to bring archaeological researches in South Asia to the notice of scholars in the western academic world – the South Asian Archaeology Series has been instituted within the International Series of British Archaeological Reports. This series (which it is hoped to associate with an institution of organization in the area) aims at publishing original research works of international interest in all branches of archaeology of South Asia. Dr. Alok Kumar Kanungo Department of Archaeology Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute Pune 411006 INDIA email: [email protected]

To Late Peter Francis Jr. & Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute Library

i CONTENTS Table of Contents Acknowledgements List of Figures

Page i-ii iii iv-vi

Chapter 1 A Study of Glass and Beads 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.5 1.4.6 1.5

Introduction Glass History of Glass Early Times The Middle Ages Modern glassmaking Non-Western Glass Composition of Glass Soda-lime glass Soda-lead glass Borosilicate glass Fused silica glass 96 percent silica glass Coloured glass Development of Glass In India 1.5.1 Glaze 1.5.2 Faience 1.5.3 Ancient Indian Glass 1.5.4 Ethnographic Records 1.6 Karakambadi 1.6.1 Trench 2 1.6.2 Trench 1 and 3 1.6.3 Crucible 1.6.4 Pottery and Probable Date 1.6.5 Raw Material 1.7 Present Day Production of Glass 1.7.1 Mixing 1.7.2 Melting 1.8 Shaping and Finishing of Glass 1.8.1 Blowing 1.8.2 Pressing 1.8.3 Drawing 1.8.4 Rolling 1.8.5 Casting 1.8.6 Lampworking 1.8.7 Annealing 1.8.8 Tempering 1.9 Firozabad: the Glass Capital of India 1.10 Beads 1.10.1 Early Beads

1 1-2 2-4 2-3 3-4 4 4 4-5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5-13 6-7 7 7-9 9-13 13-17 14 14 15

List of Maps List of Tables

vi vi

1.10.2 Early Beads from India 1.10.3 Ancient Literature 1.10.4 Ethnography

23-24 24-25 25-26

Chapter 2 Glass and Glass Beads in India 2.1 2.2

2.2.1

2.2.2

2.2.3

2.2.4

16 16-17

2.2.5

17 17 17

2.3

Ancient Glass and Glass Beads in India 27-29 Glass Beads and Glass Findings from Indian Archaeology 30-87 List of Abbreviation Used in the Sixth Columns of the Following Tables 31 Glass and glass beads finding in Indian archaeology as reported in Archaeological Survey of India Annual Reports from 1902 – 1937 32-35 Glass and glass beads finding in Indian archaeology as reported in Ancient India 1946-1966 36-41 Glass and glass beads finding in Indian archaeology as reported in Indian Archaeological Review from 1954 – 1995 42-76 Important glass and glass beads finding centres reported in various other publications 77-87 Discussion 80-92

Chapter 3 Glass Beads Production 17-19 17-18 18 18 18 18 18 19 19 19-20 20-26 21-23

3. 1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4

Introduction 93-94 Winding Technique 94-96 Lamp winding 95 Furnace winding 95 Moulded Beads 95-96 Purdalpur: the Centre of Furnace Wound Beads 96-104 Introduction 96 Furnace Wound Glass Beads 96-98 Fancifying 98-99 Bangles 99

ii 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.7 3.3.8

Furnace Raw Material Trader Stringing and Cleaning of Beads 3.4 Varanasi: the Lamp Winding Bead Complex 3.4.1 Banaras Beads Limited 3.4.2 Raw Material 3.4.3 Bead Production 3.4.4 Simple wound beads 3.4.5 Appliqué beads 3.4.6 Mould beads 3.4.7 Debitage 3.5 Drawing Method 3.5.1 Simple Drawing 3.6 Papanaidupet: the Indo-Pacific Bead Production Centre 3.6.1 Introduction 3.6.2 Papanaidupet: an Ethnographic Survey 3.6.2.1 Glassmaking 3.6.2.2 Furnace 3.7 First Firing 3.7.1 Preparing the Glass Cone 3.7.2 Drawing the Tubes 3.7.3 Cutting the Tubes 3.8 Second Firing 3.9 Stringing the Beads 3.10 Other Beads 3.10.1 Collar Beads 3.10.1.1Grooved Collar Beads 3.10.1.2Lug Collared Beads 3.10.2 Clay Mould Beads 3.10.3 Coiling 3.10.4 Dipping Method 3.10.5 Folded Beads 3.10.6 Pressed Beads 3.10.7 Bored Beads 3.10.8 Double Strip Method 3.10.9 Twisted Beads 3.10.10 Hand-Perforated 3.10.11 Gold-Foil Beads 3.10.12 Chevron Beads 3.10.13 Hollow-Glass Beads

99-102 102-103 103-104 104 105-113 105 105-106 106-107 107 107 107 107-113 113-114 113-114

114-117 114-115 115 115-116 116-117 117-120 117-118 118-120 120 120-121 121-122 122-125 122 122-123 123 123 123 123 123 123 124 124 124 124 124 124-125 125

Chapter 4 Users of Glass Beads 4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4

Introduction Beads among the Bondo The Bondos Costume Female Ornamentation Beads

126-127 127-132 127 127-128 128-129 129-130

4.2.5

Death and Inheritance of Ornaments 4.2.6 The Source of Glass Beads 4.2.7 Conclusion 4.3 Beads among the Juang 4.3.1 The Juangs 4.3.2 Juang Beads: A Retrospection 4.3.3 Modern Juang Beads 4.3.4 Conclusion 4.4 Glass Beads among the Nagas 4.4.1 The Nagas 4.4.2 Beads of Nagas 4.4.3 Konyak Group 4.4.4 Ao Group 4.4.5 Angami Group 4.4.6 Social Status and Ornament 4.4.7 Ornament on Death 4.4.8 Inheritance 4.4.9 Trade 4.4.10 Conclusion

130-131 131-132 132 132-138 132-133 133-136 136-138 138 139-148 239-141 141 141-142 142-143 143-145 145-146 146-147 147 147-148 148

Chapter 5 Conclusion 5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3

Discussion Ethnoarchaeology The Bondos: Users of Indo-Pacific Beads The Juangs: Users of Furnace Wound Beads The Nagas: Users of Multiple Bead Type

149-157 157-160 157-159 159 159-160

Colour Plates

161-170

References

171-180

iii

Acknowledgments This research was submitted as a Ph.D. thesis to the Department of Archaeology, Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute in 2002 and the award was conferred in 2003. Parts of this work have already been published in forms of many articles. Funding was provided by the Horace C. Beck Fund, the Northwest Bead Society, the Bead Society of Los Angeles, the Bead Society of Greater Washington, USA; the Margaret Guido Fund, UK; the Indian Council of Historical Research, Small Study and Research Grants (India), Nehru Trust for the Indian Collections at the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Banaras Beads Limited, India. Many people at the DC supported me in my academic endeavours. In particular my supervisor, Prof. V.D. Gogte shared his valuable insights and understanding of glass, archaeology and ethnography. Support and encouragement were gratefully received from Prof. V.N. Misra, Prof. K. Paddayya, Dr. V.S. Shinde and Mr. S.R. Kashikar. Much appreciated on-going support was freely given by Prof. S.P. Gupta of Indian Archaeological Society; Prof. V.D. Misra, Dr. J.N. Pal and Dr. M.C. Gupta of Allahabad University; Prof. P. Singh and Dr. R.N. Singh of Banaras Hindu University; Dr. R.S. Bisht of Archaeological Survey of India; Dr. R. Tewari of Uttar Pradesh State Archaeology; Prof. R. Prasad of Indian Social Science Association; Prof. K. Basa of Utkal University; Prof. J. Jacob of Tirupati University; Dr. K.K. Bhan of M.S. Baroda University; Dr. S. Deraniyagala of Sri Lanka Archaeology Survey; Dr. S. Gupta of Allahabad Museum; Dr. S. Pappu of Sharma Heritage Centre, Mr. A. Gupta of Banaras Beads Limited; and Prof. P.H. Kulkarni of Ayurveda Academy.

I am grateful to Mr. V. Gupta, and Mrs. D. Dandekar for critically going through the earlier drafts; to my teachers Drs. J.P. Kuanr and G. Nayak for initiating me to archaeological research; Late P. Francis Jr. and Dr. P. Mohanty for introducing me to the study of beads; Mrs. T. More, Mr. R.R. Shigvan, Mr. S.B. Kute and other staffs of Deccan College Library for making my archival study easier; Mr. D. Phule for excellent line drawings and maps; and Mr. S. Jadav for photographic help. To all those people in the bead production and user places for their readiness to provide ethnographic information and their interest in my work, especially L. Pahhino, J. Vijayakumar and M. Abdul who accompanied me during my fieldwork in the Nagaland, Papanaidupet and Tirupati respectively. To my friends Swayam, John, David, Richa, Arati and Viraj for their love, support and guidance. To Shubhangi for her constant reminders and encouragement for this publication. To my family members for encouraging me all along with love, prayers and keen interest in the progress of my work, especially my father Dr. S.N. Kanungo who never let me lose my sense of perspective and constantly urged me to put my best foot forward and for being the ideal sounding board with all his wisdom and my mother’s (Bou) love. To Dr. S. Ansari for just being there and helping me through tough times with her positive attitude and patience.

iv

List of Figures Page Black & White Figure 1 A crucible from Early Historic Nevasa 9 Figure 2 The site of Karkambadi 14 Figure 3 Trench 2 before opening 14 Figure 4 Alignment of broken crucibles in Trench 2 14 Figure 6 Trench 2 with a test pit in one corner 14 Figure 7 Scraping at trench 3 15 Figure 8 In-situ crucibles 15 Figure 10 Reconstructed crucible and tuyere 16 Figure 11 In-situ frit 16 Figure13 Potsherd with rims found in the trenches 16 Figure14 Rim sections 16 Figure 18 Casting of glass 18 Figure 19 Annealing chambers at a glass industry in Firozabad 19 Figure 21 Bone beads with evidence of manufacture, Mahadaha 23 Figure 28 Rim on the mould beads 95 Figure 31 Cow-dung cakes stored in house form 96 Figure 32 Shaping the wounds 97 Figure 33 Use of form-iron 97 Figure 34 Some tools used by the bead makers 97 Figure 35 Sliding down of beads into annealing pot 98 Figure 36 Bead full pots covered with burnt ash 98 Figure 38 Collected glass debitage for reuse 98 Figure 43 Bangle is being formed on an arm-ring cone 99 Figure 44 Arm-ring cone 99 Figure 45 A furnace wound bead factory 100 Figure 46 Ground plan of a wound bead furnace (line drawing) 100 Figure 47 Top view of wound bead furnace (line drawing) 101 Figure 48 A furnace under preparation 101 Figure 49 Broken/burnt crucibles 102 Figure 50 A burnt furnace 102 Figure 52 Transportation debitage 103 Figure 53 A mould making shop at Purdalpur 104 Figure 54 Stringing of beads at nearby village 104 Figure55 Line drawings of the tools 105

Figure 56

A terracotta mould from Kausambi 105 Figure 57 Glass rods are cut into pieces 106 Figure 58 Debitage of glass rod production 106 Figure 59 In-situ pieces of crucible at Asi 106 Figure 60 Surface findings at Asi (pieces of glass, crucibles and slags) 106 Figure 61 Abandoned glass pulling table at Asi 106 Figure 62 Lamp-wound bead making tables 107 Figure 63 Treading the bellows 107 Figure 64 A craftsman in his position 107 Figure 66 Women cleaning the bead holes 107 Figure 69 Fallen glass drops from the rods 108 Figure 70 Polishing of beads 108 Figure 71 Workshop at Adityanagar village 108 Figure 72 Maintaining the bulb 114 Figure 78 Characteristic curved glass bits 114 Figure 79 Collected glass pieces for recycling 116 Figure 80 The pit 116 Figure 81 Ground plan of Indo-pacific Bead Furnace 116 Figure 82 Top view of the Indo-Pacific Bead furnace 117 Figure 83 Potsherds smeared with cow-dung 117 Figure 88 Glass is being mounted on lada 118 Figure 91 Rolling the glass mass on a stone platform 118 Figure 92 Giving conical shape to glass mass 118 Figure 93 Everywhere there is God 118 Figure 94 Pulling of the tube 119 Figure 95 Characteristic debitage of repeated initial draws 119 Figure 96 Drawing of the tubes 119 Figure 97 Checking for the perforation 119 Figure 99 Fallen glass pieces from lada under sun 119 Figure 100 Tools used in the process 120 Figure 101 Cutting of glass tubes 120 Figure 102 Cutting tools 120

v Figure 103 Figure 105 Figure 106 Figure 107 Figure 110 Figure 112 Figure 113 Figure 114 Figure 115 Figure 120 Figure 121 Figure 122 Figure 123 Figure 124 Figure 125 Figure 126 Figure 131 Figure 132 Figure 134 Figure 135

Figure 138 Figure 140 Figure 141 Figure 144 Figure 146 Colour: Figure 5 Figure 9 Figure 12 Figure15 Figure 16 Figure 17

Figure 20 Figure 22

Bead rounding kiln 121 Pounding of beads 121 Sieving of beads 121 Stringing of beads in the village of Papanaidupet 121 Ringa and a brass waistband of Bondo women 128 Turuba (headband made of kerang grass) 129 A Bondo woman preparing the kerang fibre 129 A sierey bead 130 A Bondo couple in village Bodopada 130 Drawing of Juang woman 133 Drawing of Juang bead girdle 134 Juang women 134 Juang couple 134 Juang women during dance 135 A Juang woman in the village of Kadalibadi 136 The thaniputi or village deity of Guptaganga 137 Variety of beads 137 Bomo (seed) bead necklace 138 A Konyak woman 142 Few necklaces of Konyak women, made of IndoPacific beads 142 Ao earring: tongbang 143 Angami man as seen by Butler 143 Angami woman as seen by Butler 144 Glass bead production debitage from Arikamedu 150 Indo-Pacific beads from Early Historic Tripuri 151 Broken crucible pieces and glass slags from Trench 2 161 Broken crucibles, frit and tuyere 161 Potsherds found in the trenches 161 Painting of ancient blowing 161 Expanding the bubble 161 Drawing ports of mechanical Indo-Pacific bead producing furnace at Prashant Bead Industry 161 40,000 years old shell beads from Ucagizli Cave, Turkey 162 Mother Goddess from

Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25

Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 29

Figure 30 Figure 37 Figure 39 Figure 40

Figure 41 Figure 42 Figure 51 Figure 65 Figure 67 Figure 68 Figure 73 Figure 74 Figure 75 Figure 76 Figure 77 Figure 84 Figure 85 Figure 86 Figure 87 Figure 89 Figure 90 Figure 98

Tamluk 162 A cattle with wound beads at Papanaidupet 162 Wound beads showing striation marks 162 Different colour glass is used to design a lampwound bead 162 A furnace wound bead is being built up 162 Interiors of furnace and Lamp-wound beads 163 Stages of mechanised produced and polished beads 163 Mechanical polishing of beads to remove the rim 163 Cracked beads scattered as debitage next to furnace 163 Debitage of furnace wound bead production 163 Appliquéing the hot wounds with different coloured glass powder 163 Glazing furnace 164 A big wound is drawn for bangle 164 A bead maker with his beads at Upadhyaya’s shop 164 Wound beads on rods 164 Piling of glass rod pieces for recycling 164 Debitage of lamp wound bead production 164 Rolling the hollow mass of glass on wooden stand 165 Cooling of the glass mass inside a water basin 165 Spreading the glass with a twist 165 Pulling of the glass tube apart 165 Continuous blowing by the gaffer 165 Furnace is on fire 165 Half-melted glass chunks are picked up on iron rod 166 Glass on rod is kneaded into the furnace 166 Mixing of glass 166 Gedda paru with flakes 166 Characteristic Gedda paru flakes 166 Glass bead drawing debitage next to furnace area 166

vi Figure 104 Stirring the beads 167 Figure 108 Characteristics debitage of Indo-Pacific bead Production 167 Figure 109 Variety of beads used by a Bondo women 167 Figure 111 A Bondo woman seeing a magazine 167 Figure 116 A Bondo woman with her daughter in village Kirsanipada 167 Figure 117 A Bondo women during her daily routine 167 Figure 118 Bondo girls working in the weaving societies in transition 168 Figure 119 Two Bondo sisters in village Mudilipada, one with sari works for a weaving society and the other stays at home 168 Figure 127 Middlemen on his way to make marriage proposal in the village of Guptaganga 168 Figure 128 The three most common necklaces currently in use by the Juang 168 Figure 129 Various glass bead necklaces, including marriage strings (ahuda mali) of reddish brown and white beads 168 Figure 130 A newly married woman on her way to her parent’s home to return her old ornaments in the village of Phulabadi 168 Figure 133 A Juang lady with her grand-son 169 Figure 136 Sema women on their festival 169 Figure 137 Ao necklace 169 Figure 139 Imitated necklaces in a shop at Kohima 169 Figure 142 Close-up of Tsubo 169 Figure 143 Two Naga girls wearing Tsubo 169 Figure 145 Varieties of glass beads from Early Historic Nevasa 170 Figure 147 Indo-Pacific beads and its debitage from Early Historic Tripuri 170 Figure 148 Indo-Pacific beads, one small drawn tube and its by-products from Early Historic Nevasa 170

Figure 149 Fully beaded Bondo girls Figure 150 Juang women Figure 151 A Naga lady List of Maps Map 1 Ethnographic fieldwork area Map 2 Site map of Karkambadi Map 3 Glass bead production centres in ancient India Map 4 Bead producing villages of BBL Map 5 Export network of BBL Map 6 Map of the Bondo country Map 7 Map of Nagaland with their distribution Map 8 Evidence of glass and glass beads in Indian Archaeology between 1200 – 600 B.C. Map 9 Evidence of glass and glass beads in Indian Archaeology between 600 – 300 B.C. Map 10 Evidence of glass and glass beads in Indian Archaeology between 300 B.C. – 400 A.D. Map 11 Evidence of glass and glass beads in Indian Archaeology between 400 – 1300 A.D. Map 12 Evidence of glass and glass beads in Indian Archaeology between 1300 – 1800 A.D.

170 170 170

vii 13 89 109 110 126 152

153

154

155

156

157

List of Tables Table 1 Colouring agents for glass 10 Table 2 Glass and glass beads finding in Indian archaeology as reported in Archaeological Survey of India Annual Reports from 1902 – 1937 32 Table 3 Glass and glass beads finding in Indian archaeology as reported in Ancient India 1946-1966. 36 Table 4 Glass and glass beads finding in Indian archaeology as reported in Indian Archaeological Review from 1954 – 1998. 42 Table 5 Important glass and glass beads finding centres reported in various other publications. 77 Table 6 List of Banaras Beads Limited’s production centres 110 Table 7 List of villages of lampwound bead production 111

vii

Map 1: Ethnographic fieldwork area

11 Chapter 1 A Study of Glass and Beads Bead research is not just a sub-division of archaeology. Rather it is a related inter disciplinary field with aims and methods of its own (Francis 1987: 24).

1.1 Introduction Archaeologically, there are four main problems in the study of ancient Indian glass beads; they are related to context, chronology, inadequate emphasis on manufacturing methods and symbolic value. For the first two there is no alternative but to rely on the reported material, but for the last two problems there does exist enough ethnographic evidence in India. Glass beads are continued to be widely used by numerous simple living communities like that of Juang, Bondo and Nagas of India, and they are produced in large scale mainly at Papanaidupet, Varanasi and Purdalpur. Trade, exchange of commodities and skills, scientific interpretation, and ethnoarchaeology, have emerged as leading areas of research in bead archaeology. There have been a few studies on trade and a few on scientific analysis of ancient Indian glass beads but nothing noteworthy on ethnoarchaeology. In fact, India is perhaps the only country where both traditional producers and users of glass beads have retained their traditional skills and practice through time. This work aims at reconstructing the ancient Indian technology involved in the production of glass beads and their subsequent through ethnographic investigations and archaeological record. 1.2 Glass Glass is an amorphous substance made primarily of silica fused at high temperatures. In technical terms, glass is called as a ‘super cooled liquid’, in which molecular units share disordered arrangement but sufficient cohesion to produce mechanical rigidity. Production of glass and its by-products is among the

earliest achievements of the handicrafts of men, which very often symbolises the state of technological development in past. Manufacture of glass required a high degree of advancement in technology and knowledge of controlling appropriate temperatures. Glass can be transparent, translucent, or opaque; it can be coloured to any desired shade with minimal ingredients; molten glass can also be given any shape by means of several techniques. More over it can be cooled to rigid state and can be brought to the liquid form by application of heat. This flexibility has made glass an important and integral part of day-to-day requirements for human beings for more than 3000 years. Glass production in antiquity required at least 3 major steps (Biek and Bayley 1979: 1): 1.

The first was to bring the two main components silica and alkali together at a moderate heat for some time and allow them to react in the solid state. Because the melting point of silica was too high for ancient furnaces to achieve, a flux, generally an alkali (usually soda [Na2O] or potash [K2O]) was (and still is) added to lower the melting point. Lime (CaO) or some other stabilizer must also be added. The ancients may not have known this; the lime was nearly always present as an impurity in the sand (Turner 1956: 45T-46T). These ingredients are heated for several days, forming a dark, hard substance called “frit”. Melting at this stage had to be avoided at all costs as it prevented proper contact. It was also uneven,

22 and did not allow for any through mixing. All ancient recipes are very careful to emphasize this vital point.

them the priests and the ruling classes considered glass objects to be as valuable as jewels.

2.

The second step was to break up the resultant ‘frit’ and grind it up as finely as possible to get the most intimate mixture.

3.

Finally the powder was thoroughly melted and could then be cast, moulded or blown into objects, which were finished by annealing (gentler heating to relieve stresses), polishing, cutting, etc.

1.3.1 Early Times Before people learned to make glass, they had found two forms of natural glass. These are 1) desert glass/fulgurites: this is essentially fused silica, produced when lightning strikes sand, the heat sometimes fuses the sand into long, slender glass tubes called fulgurites, which are commonly called petrified lightning and 2) obsidian: the terrific heat of a volcanic eruption also sometimes fuses rocks and sand into a glass called obsidian. In early times, people shaped obsidian into knives, arrowheads, jewellery and money.

Many substances, chiefly metallic oxides, are added to impart various properties to glass. The most common additives are the colourants. With only iron or copper and the proper handling of the furnace (blowing air into it, muffling it, or leaving it open) nearly every colour maybe achieved. Special colourants, notably cobalt (Co) and manganese (Mn), have been used since antiquity. Even tiny amounts of cobalt yield a pleasing dark blue. Manganese in small quantity produces pink, which cancels out “bottle green” and clarifies the glass, earning it the name “glassmaker’s soap”. Larger amounts produce violet. Antimony tin, and arsenic were employed as opacifier. Black glass is usually deep green or violet, made with large amounts of iron or manganese; an organic black glass also exists. Many colorants have been experimented with in recent centuries as the science of chemistry had developed. 1.3 History of Glass Early glassmaking was slow and costly, and it required hard work. Glass blowing and glass pressing were unknown, furnaces were small, the clay pots were of poor quality, and the heat was hardly sufficient for melting. But glassmakers eventually learned how to make coloured glass jewellery, cosmetic cases, and tiny jugs and jars. People who could afford

The exact place and the period in which glass and glass beads were first manipulated are not known. There are different opinions regarding its inventions; among these, the two prominent ones are: 1) that glass was first fabricated either in Syria or Palestine (Harden 1933: 413); and 2) that simultaneous development of glass took place at different centres, presumably in Syria, Mesopotamia and Egypt. Most of the scholars agree that glass was developed in the late 3rd millennium B.C. possibly from a development in the production of faience. Glass became common from the mid second millennium B.C. in the Levant and then Egypt, where manufacture of glass received a great impetus. But the most remarkable finds are those from the city of Tell el Amerna (Petrie 1874: 25; 1909: 119) established by Akhenaton (14501400 B.C.), where the extensive remains of a glass house and glass in various stages of manufacture have been recorded. This forms the chief source of knowledge regarding the fabrication of glass in Ancient times.

33 The earliest sample of glass has been noticed at Tell Asmar in Mesopotamia from a stratum dated c. 2700-2600 B.C. The first glass vessels were produced about 1500 B.C. in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The glass industry was extremely successful for the next 300 years, and then declined. It was revived in Mesopotamia around 700 B.C. and in Egypt around 500 B.C. For the next 500 years, Egypt, Syria, and other countries along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea were glassmaking centres. The use of blowpipe in glass making was invented about first century B.C. on the Phoenician coast and rapidly spread all around. This invention made glass production easier, faster, and cheaper. As a result, glass became available to the common people for the first time. Glass manufacture became important in all countries under Roman rule. In fact, the first four centuries of the Christian era may justly be called the First Golden Age of Glass. The glassmakers of this time knew how to make transparent glass, and engaged in offhand glass blowing, painting, and gilding (application of gold leaf). They knew how to build up layers of glass of different colours and then cut out designs in high relief. 1.3.2 The Middle Ages The manufacture of household glass suffered a decline in the West with the fall of the Roman Empire. Little is known about the glass industry between the decline of the Roman Empire and the 1200's. The Medieval period produced mosaic glass in Mediterranean Europe and stained glass windows in the north. Glass windows in churches are mentioned in documents as early as the sixth century A.D., but the earliest examples existing today date from the eleventh century A.D. (Martin: World Book Online).

Although glassmaking was practiced in Venice from the tenth century onwards, the earliest known Venetian glassware dates from the fifteenth century A.D. Glass manufacture had developed in Venice by the time of the Crusades (A.D. 1096-1270), and by the 1290's an elaborate guild system of glassworkers had been set up. Equipment was transferred to the Venetian island of Murano, and the Second Golden Age of glass began. Venetian glass blowers created some of the most delicate and graceful glass the world has ever seen. They perfected cristallo glass, a nearly colourless, transparent glass, which could be blown to extreme thinness in almost any shape. It is a highly refined and hardsoda glass. From cristallo, they made intricate lacework patterns in goblets, jars, bowls, cups, and vases. In the 1100's and 1200's, the art of making stainedglass windows reached its height throughout Europe. The Venetian industry dominated the European market until A.D. 1700; its major contribution being cristallo. Glass manufacturers throughout Europe tried to copy the Venetians, and each country developed its own variation on the Venetian model. By the late 1400's and early 1500's, glassmaking had become important in Germany and other northern European countries. Manufacturers there chiefly produced containers and drinking vessels. Northern forms were heavier, sturdier, and less clear than Venice's cristallo. During the late 1500's, many Venetians went to northern Europe, hoping to earn a better living. They established factories there and made glass in the Venetian fashion. A new type of glass that worked well for copperwheel engraving was perfected in Bohemia (now part of the Czech Republic) and Germany in the mid 1600's, and a flourishing industry developed. In the seventeenth century A.D. Germany's potash-lime glass was

44 thicker and harder than cristallo. German glasscutters and engravers became famous for skilfully executed glass designs in the baroque manner. Glassmaking became important in England during 1500's. By 1575, English glassmakers were producing Venetianstyle glass. In 1674, an English glassmaker named George Ravenscroft patented a new type of glass in which he had changed the usual ingredients. This glass, called lead glass, contains a large amount of lead oxide. This is especially suitable for optical instruments, and caused English glassmaking to prosper. Lead glass reached its full potential in the neoclassical pieces of the Anglo-Irish period (1780-1830). Glassmaking was the first manufacture undertaken in America, with a glasshouse built at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1608. 1.3.3 Modern Glassmaking After 1890, the development, manufacture, and use of glass increased rapidly. The science and engineering of glass as a material are now so much better understood that glass can be tailored to meet exact needs. Any one of its thousands of compositions may be used. Machinery has been developed for precise, continuous manufacture of sheet glass, tubing, containers, bulbs, and a host of other products. Mechanical pressing, introduced in the United States, was a cheap, fast means of production that greatly expanded the role of glass both within the home and the industry. Chemical advancements led to new opaque coloured glass that resembled semiprecious stones. Transparent enamels and stains were applied to vessels, paralleling the revival of stainedglass windows. Changes in the fuel used by the glass industry affected the location of glass factories. In the early days when wood was used as fuel, glassworks were built

near forests. By 1880, coal had become the most widely used fuel for glassmaking, and glassmaking operations were near large coal deposits. After 1880, natural gas became accepted as the perfect fuel for melting glass. Today, most glass manufacturing plants are near the major sales markets. 1.3.4 Non-Western Glass The history of glass from the eighth century through the fourteenth century A.D. is focused on the Islamic world of the Middle East. Muslim artisans made high-relief cut vessels, many with animal subjects. Quality colourless glass, firedon enamel colours, and gilding techniques were developed. Egypt introduced lustrous metallic effects on both pottery and glass. Chinese-made glassware from the Zhou dynasty (1027256 B.C.) has been excavated. Early glass objects were small and carved in close imitation of gemstones. No evidence exists of glass made in Japan before 200 B.C. Some glass Buddhist relic bottles and urns are believed to have date from the Asuka and Nara periods (A.D. 552-784). Glass was made in India as early as in Painted Grey Ware (PGW) period, but the industry was not established until the early historic period and gathered momentum only in the Mughal period. Indian glass was often gilded or enamelled in floral patterns. 1.4 Composition of Glass Glass can be generally divided into two groups: oxide glass and non-oxide glass. The ingredients of oxide glasses include oxides (chemical compounds that include oxygen). Non-oxide glasses are made from compounds that contain no oxides, and which often instead contain sulfides or metals. Oxide glasses are much more widely used commercially. The common types of glass discussed below are all oxide glasses.

55 1.4.1 Soda-lime glass is the kind of glass used for flat glass, most containers and electric light bulbs, and many other industrial and art objects. More than 90 percent of all glass is soda-lime glass. It has been made of almost the same materials for hundreds of years. The composition is about 72 percent silica (from sand), about 13 percent sodium oxide (from soda ash), about 11 percent calcium oxide (from limestone), and about 4 percent minor ingredients. Sodalime glass is inexpensive, easy to melt and shape, and reasonably strong.

silica is expensive because exceptionally high temperatures must be maintained during production. It is used in laboratory glassware and optical fibres.

All glass container manufacturers use the same basic soda-lime composition, making the containers easy to recycle.

1.4.6 Coloured glass gets it’s colouring from certain oxides that are added to the glass. For example, one part of nickel oxide in 50,000 produces a tint that may range from yellow to purple, depending on the base glass. One part of cobalt oxide in 10,000 gives an intense blue. Red glasses are made with gold, copper, or selenium oxides. Other colours can be produced in glass with other chemicals.

1.4.2 Soda-lead glass, commonly called crystal or lead glass, is made by substituting lead oxide for calcium oxide and often for part of the silica used in soda-lime glass. Soda-lead glass is easy to melt and is much more expensive than soda-lime glass. Soda-lead glass has such beautiful optical properties that it is widely used for the finest tableware and art objects. In addition, lead oxide improves the electrical properties of glass. 1.4.3 Borosilicate glass is heat-shock resistant and better known by such trade names as Pyrex and Kimax. It contains about 80 percent silica, 4 percent sodium oxide, 2 percent alumina, and 13 percent boric oxide. Such glass is about three times as heat-shock resistant as soda-lime glass and is excellent for chemical and electrical uses. This glass makes possible such products as ovenware and beakers, test tubes, and other laboratory equipment. 1.4.4 Fused silica glass is a highly heatshock resistant glass that consists entirely of silica. It can be heated to extremely high temperatures and then plunged into ice-cold water without cracking. Fused

1.4.5 96 percent silica glass resists heat almost as well as fused silica, but it is less expensive to produce. It consists of a special borosilicate composition that has been made porous by chemical treatment. The pores shrink when the glass is heated, leaving a smooth, transparent surface. The glass is sold under the trade name Vycor.

The higher the proportion of silica, alumina and lime, the harder is the glass, high alkali content reducing its hardness. Soda-lime glasses are generally harder than potash glasses of the same composition. However the hardness of the glass also depends on the heat treatment to which the glass is subjected after working. Poor annealing and uncontrolled cooling at high rate increase the hardness of glass (Lal 1958: 140141). Soda-lime glass has been the trademark of Indian glass from ancient times and is still in use in all the bead production centres. 1.5 Development of Glass in India Foreign travel accounts like Naturalis Historia (A.D. 73-77) of Pliny (translated by Bostock and Riley as The Natural History in 1890), Periplus Maris Erythraei (considered to be earlier than

66 Naturalis Historia) (translated by Schoff as Periplus of the Erythrean Sea in 1912) and Geography of Strabo (A.D. 17-23) (translated by H.L. Jones and cited in Majumdar 1960: 279, 394) consider Indian glass to be of high quality as they were made of pounded quartz rather than silica. It has long been suggested that this may have been the reason behind the high silica content in ancient Indian glass (Stern 1987a: 28). In Gudur (Andhra Pradesh), the government glass factory till recently used to produce glass from crystal. Dr. Brill of Corning Museum believes that even pebbles were being routinely used, instead of sand, as the source of silica, by glassmakers throughout Iran, Mesopotamia, and central Asia in ancient times (cited in Stern 1987a: 28). In fact, in the Herat (Afghanistan) factory in 1977, the glassmakers still used pebbles collected in the riverbed as their source of silica. Although glass was commonly made in the west Asian Bronze Age, there is some controversy concerning its manufacture in the Indus valley civilization (Glover and Henderson 1994). Some scholars have tried to trace back the origin of Indian glass to the Harappan civilization on the basis of the finding of glazed pottery and quartz beads. It is evident that Harappans made glazed pottery which is nothing but a ceramic with a thin layer of glass on the surface (Tite et al. 1983). Though no true glass has been found in India during the Protohistoric periods at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, the second millennium B.C. saw its people able to mould and fuse excellent articles of faience and glazing their quartz beads with frit, a material similar to glass. All the three materials, glass, glaze, and faience consist customarily of silica and lime, although special modern glasses need have neither. Glass and glazes always contain soda or some or the other alkali, whereas faience generally contains only very small

quantities of soda. In the evolution of glass, frit, faience and glaze might have signified certain stages of development (Beck 1934; Biek and Bayley 1979; Brill 1963: 120; Forbes 1957: 223). 1.5.1 Glaze There is little doubt that glass was an outcome of glaze. Glass and glazes are chemically identical but they are worked and used differently (Forbes 1957; Tite et al. 1983). The glazing technique marks the emergence of the first glass or synthetic material (Barthelemy and Bouquillon 1994). However, a glaze is a glassy layer applied to a core or base of some other material. This is in some cases mixed with the material before firing and in many cases applied to the body after firing. In the fourth millennium B.C. glaze was used extensively within the context of Badarian civilization in Egypt, the Jemdet Nasr period in Mesopotamia and in the third millennium B.C., the Indus valley civilization. The method of grinding quartz and mixing it with a little alkali before firing and producing faience occurred somewhat later in Egypt in early pre-Dynastic period (Forbes 1957; Lucas 1926). Marshall (1931: 578, 582, 692) states that, the glazing of pottery is an Indian invention and a craft which appears to have been practised for the first time on the bank of Indus. No example of it has come to light in Mesopotamia before 1000 B.C., nor in Egypt before Roman period, though in Nubia there is said to be evidence of glazed ware as early as XII dynasty (1991-1928 B.C.). On the strength of the available material at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, Marshall (1931) went on to say that they are so closely allied to glass that it hardly seems possible that glass could have long been delayed. Bhardwaj (1979: 31) opined on the four pieces of glazed pottery found at Mohenjo-daro to be the handiwork of a potter who was well acquainted with the process of glazing

77 and able to carry it to a high degree of perfection. High temperature stoneware bangles and some glazed pottery have also been recorded from Lothal, Bhagwanpura, Sanghol, Banavali, Bara, Ropar, Chanhudaro, Hulas, Mithathal, etc. (Dayton 1989). 1.5.2 Faience Faience is nearer to glass in the process of evolution. It is reported from many ancient sites and is likely to have been the predecessor of glass (Brill 1963: 120). In the archaeological sense it is generally agreed that faience consist of a lightly sintered core of crushed quartz grains coated with a translucent blue-togreen glaze, both fluxing due to soda. Such material needs a firing temperature of some 1000° C and a certain amount of sophistication in making it (Biek and Bayley 1979: 3). Crystalline quartz grains with a small amount of glassy material predominates in the case of faience. A few simple variations, whether accidental or deliberate, would have resulted in true glass (Basa 1991). Stone and Thomas (1956: 37) proposed that glass could be produced by heating faience too much or for too long, while adding a little surplus of alkali. They further suggested that it is most probable, then, that the faience makers found this out by simple observation and so became the first makers of real glass. Bhardwaj (1979) and Forbes (1957) have proposed to call most of ancient objects dubbed faience to be glazed siliceous ware, as they have a body consisting of powdered quartz covered with a layer of glaze. This material has been reported from most of the ancient civilizations including those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and India (Lucas 1926; Sofianopoulas 1952). Faience was certainly made in India and fashioned into a variety of objects such as amulets, bangles and inlay, segmented beads, spindle-whorls, fluted disc beads, seals, animal figurines, and pots. In Indus valley itself the people of Mohenjo-daro

and Harappa are known to have made extensive use of articles from faience, a composition resulting from powdered quartz grains fused at low temperature with the addition of lime. Some of the articles like beads and inlays were found treated with a glaze or frit which does not materially differ from glass. Mackay (1931: 576, 578, 582) and Marshall (1931: 683) are of the opinion that though no true glass has been recovered from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, the authors of these cultures had perfected a composition which very nearly approached glass. Experiments conducted by McCarthy and Vandiver (1991) have revealed that the Harappan faience has a quite dense body with a continuous glassy phase and a relatively thin skin of glaze. Intentional addition of glass frit and clay are postulated. The Harappan faience bodies are particularly strong, compared with contemporary faience from west Asia and Egypt. A similar technology is not found in Egypt until much later during the New Kingdom about 1450 B.C. Brill (1987: 2) gives two reasons in support of the belief that glassmaking grew out of faience manufacture, viz., 1) both processes involve the pyrotechnology of the same materials (silica and alkali) and 2) faience was made for some fifteen centuries before glass was made. In this regard the data gathered at Mehrgarh and Nausharo are of great interest since they allow the study of the local evolution of the glazing techniques through time, from the Chalcolithic to the Mature Indus period (Barthelemy and Bouquillon 1997: 63). 1.5.3 Ancient Indian Glass Bhardwaj (1987) and Singh (1989), on the basis of glazed pottery from Mohenjo-daro, have argued that the Harappans were aware of glassmaking. Bhardwaj (1987) regards a number of vitreous materials unearthed from

88 Mohenjo-daro as weathered unworked glass, but more finds from well-dated contexts are needed before we can be sure that the Harappans had truly mastered the secrets of glassmaking (Singh 1989), and that it is probable that glass could have decomposed to the point where it looked like faience. Singh (1989) cautioned about the possibility that some glass beads might have been classified wrongly as stone beads and hence the Harappan civilization did not get the credit for manufacturing glass. Even if they had this knowledge it seems to have been lost with the collapse of the urban Bronze Age civilization and the subsequent finds of glass from the subcontinent come only with the Harappan-PGW overlap phase at Bhagwanpura in Haryana, datable to about 1450-1200 B.C. (Joshi 1976). From this time onwards glass beads and bangles were regularly made in many parts of the subcontinent (Lal 1987). However, here thorough investigation of faience objects from Chalcolithic sites is required as they are reported to have yielded an enormous quantity of burnt steatite and paste, some time glazed too. Here it is important to mention that some of the beads that had been interpreted as shell beads (Casal 1949; Wheeler et. al. 1946) have now been identified as corroded glass (Francis n.d.). Too much soda will yield a kind of glass that will be easily corroded by water, though ancient glasses often have a large percentage of soda to achieve a low melting point (Forbes 1957). In some cases faience is also wrongly identified as glass; for example faience excavated in Baoji and Fufeng country of China dated to c. eleventh to tenth century B.C. was for a long time considered to be earliest glass finding of China (Brill 1995: 270). Glass is made chiefly from silica sand (silica, also called silicon dioxide), soda ash (sodium carbonate), and limestone

(calcium carbonate). And in antiquity, there was no dearth of raw materials for glass making in various regions of India. Silica can be obtained from sand, quartz and sandstone; soda from reh soil in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and from salt lakes of Didwana and Lonar in Rajasthan; potash from various plant ashes and from saltpetre in the Gangetic valley and Amritsar in North India, in the districts of Anantapur, Guntur, Kurnool, Coimbatore, Madurai and Nellore in south India and in Ahmedabad in Gujarat (Sen and Chaudhuri 1985). Craftsmen of India used copper, manganese, tin, antimony and iron combinations for colouring (Abdurazakov 1987: 38). From the analysis of 38 specimens found at Alamgirpur (undated), Brahmagiri (Megalithic and Andhra culture), Hastinapur (period V, eleventh to fifteenth century A.D) and (period III, sixth to third century B.C), Sar Dheri, Arikamedu (c. 200 A.D.), Kausambi (200 B.C.-200 A.D. and 100-200 A.D.), Bihar (first to second century A.D.), Orissa (200 A.D.), Rupar (1000-700 B.C. and 200 B.C.-600 A.D.), Vankali (Sri Lanka 1200-1250 A.D.), Brill (1987) comments that if a glass found in India has a high alumina content (Al2O3) i.e., 3.5-4.0 percent or greater, it probably was made in India and that a low lime content (CaO) can also be considered as evidence of local manufacture. Francis opines that both imported and indigenous glasses were used for bead production. This was supported on the basis of scientific analysis of some of the early glass samples. In Egypt and the Roman Empire glass consisted of sodium oxide as alkali, whereas in India and Vietnam, as evident from Arikamedu (India) and Oc-Eo (Vietnam), both sodium and potassium oxide were utilized (Francis 1990a). Lead as a colouring agent or opacifier in glass is found more in the West than in India. Glasses from Khairadih, dated between 700 B.C. to second century A.D. (Singh

99 and Abdurajakov 1988), Nevasa (Varshney et al. 1988) and Arikamedu (Glover and Henderson 1994) are found to have low lime content. In ancient India fragments of glass slag and other debris of glass production have been noticed at Khairadih, period II (IAR 1981-82: 68, Sing and Abdurazakov 1990), Kopia (Abdurazakov 1987; Dikshit 1969: 39; Lal 1987: 45; Roy and Varshney 1953; Sen and Chaudhuri 1985: 64-65), Rajghat (Singh 1989; Narain and Ray 1976) and Taxila (Marshall 1951) in the North; Ahmednagar (Chaudhuri 1986: 97), Bhokardan (Deo and Gupte 1974: 197), Brahmapuri (Kolhapur) (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952), Nevasa (Sankalia et al. 1960: 355, 383-85), and Paunar (Deo and Dhavalikar 1968: 82-83) in the Deccan; Sirpur and Tripuri in Central India; Hulas Khera (Tewari et al. 1995-96); Maheswar (Sankalia et al. 1958) and Nagra (Mehta and Shah 1968: 132-37) in the West; and Arikamedu and Karaikadu in the South. Thus, it is evident that ancient India was not only manufacturing by-products of glass but was also making glass for its use. Regarding the glass furnace in ancient India, our information is however meagre. A solitary reference comes from Nevasa, where a glassmaking kiln dated to the period third to fourth century A.D. was unearthed. It is a circular oven 2ƍ-6Ǝ in diameter with 1ƍ-7Ǝ depth and is made of burnt clay. Around it was found an abundance of bichrome glass, slag, lime, cow-dung, etc. (Sankalia et al.1960). At one of the points near the periphery was a channelled projection evidently to insert the pipe for the bellows (Deo 2000: 11). Chaudhuri (1986: 99) remarked that most of glass furnaces in ancient India are open-fired type, using solid fuel, and the melting was carried out in a clay pot (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: A crucible from Early Historic Nevasa

1.5.4 Ethnographic Records In the absence of archaeological evidence for the glass industry, it is necessary to explore more sites and ethnographic reports/records of the British period. Out of many (anonymous 1895; Dobbs 1895; Halifax 1892; Mukherjee 1895) investigations about the glass industry in India carried out during 1885-90 by the British Government, Dobbs’ account of the region of north-western Provinces and the Oudh (modern Uttar Pradesh) is probably the best and most authentic ethnographic observation in the nineteenth century. Basa (1991) and Dikshit (1069: chapter VI) summarize Dobbs work as: The chief ingredients of glass in north-western Province was Reh, a carbonate of soda, and not powdered flint rock as it was in the Punjab. Reh was gathered by collecting water in small plots of land, close to canals, and then allowing water to evaporate. Thus soda from the soil was gathered, after four-to-six days, in the form of an encrustation, called Papri collected as flakes and balls – which were further dehydrated, and put in to the furnace along with other ingredients (silica and colouring agents). It took about 18 days to melt and 10 days to cool. Crude glass was thus formed,

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which was mostly greenish white or black in colour which was sold in bulk. Greenish white glass was considered superior to black glass. Black glass was made either by adding 1-4 percent iron oxide and a little saltpetre to the scorched Reh or by adding 20 percent of Senda – a red ferrous stone. About 400 maunds of Reh was required for one smelting, which produced about 300 maunds of glass. The lack of toughness in Uttar Pradesh glass was apparently due to deficiency of lime (about 1.22 percent). Francis (1870) gives the details of the construction process of furnace and the working of glass at Chenapatnam near Mysore, in A.D. 1800 (cited in Dikshit 1969: 127-28): The furnaces are generally constructed in the yard of a building against a wall. There are three or four vaults, about 6 ft. high, 12 ft. broad and twenty-six feet deep. Each furnace is domed and at the top of each is a round opening, about 2 ft. in diameter, over which a holed stone is kept like a lid. There is a sort of a platform in the centre of each vault, the lower portion of which is used for the feeding of the fuel through an opening at the bottom. Firewood

is supplied from the other end of the wall to each vault through this opening. Crucibles are kept in the furnace through the aperture at the top, arranged in a circle, about 42 crucibles in each vault. When the materials are ready to be fused, the top of the aperture is closed completely by means of moist clay but a small hole is left for the gases to escape. The lower portion of the vault is then stuffed with fuel. On the first day only ten bundles of firewood are burnt. Next day all air is excluded from the furnace by closing all apertures. Firewood is again supplied for eight days, there being no supply of fuel by night. Afterwards the furnace is kept burning until all the glass in crucibles is melted into required consistency. The testing is done by means of a long iron rod inserted through the aperture in the dome and to see if the materials have vitrified. By devitrifying the material in the furnace for eight to nine days it is possible to produce about 44½ lbs of glass worth 4½ fanams or a little more than three shillings. In other cases each crucible produces 41 lbs of green or red glass worth 7 Sultani Fanams i.e. worth about 4 s. 8½ d.

Table 1: Dikshit (1969: 131) gives the colouring agent used by the craftsmen from Uttar Pradesh as follows: 1 2

Transparent dark green Opaque light green

3 4

Light blue Sky blue

5

Indigo violet

Di-oxide of copper Di-oxide of copper Lead Tin Yellow shale Sulphate of copper White Firozabad glass Chep, a white stone Patra, a stone Chep

1 tola 2 tolas 1 chhatak 1 chhatak 1 chhatak 1 chhatak 1 seer 2 chhataks ½ tola 2 chhataks

11 11

6

Opaque lemon yellow

7 8

Opaque brown Opaque ochre

9

Dark red

10

Light red

11

Uda (purple)

Pilli, a powder of lead, tin and 3 chhataks yellow shale Black glass 4 chhataks Tin 1 chhatak Lead 1 chhatak Goramba, a red stone 1½ chhatak Lead 1 chhatak Zinc 1 chhatak Copper oxide 1 tola Black glass 4 chhataks or 1 seer Anjani 10 chhataks or one maund

Though the account by Dobbs (1895) and Francis (1870) gave many useful and interesting details regarding the manufacture of glass, very little has been said regarding the main centres of the glass industries. Dikshit (1969: 139) mentions some of the glass industries at many different places of India and cites from the reports of D. Narayana Rao on indigenous glass industry of those days to the Madras Government in 1927-29. According to Rao the Chittor district had 15 centres: 1) Maddiledu 2) Somapalaiem 3) Kalahasti 4) Jangarapalli 5) Chintayapalle 6) Upparapalle 7) Bhimavaram 8) Pillemedu 9) Seetharampet 10) Merelapaka 11) Parapalle 12) Kothapalayam 13) Kanjiniputtur 14) Kurukkamputtur and 15) Gundipedu At all these places glass was being worked. The industry was said to be flourishing in these at one time or the other. The method of preparing glass is practically identical with that in the North. It was made by lixiviating the alkaline earth, allowing the salts to crystallize out in the sun and by heating them in a mud crucible for several hours

with bits of broken bangles. The vitreous mass produced is solidified into block glass which is removed by breaking the receptacle. Occasionally flint stones called Kanikiroy are used as an additional material. The most extensive remains were at Somapalaiem where twelve huge furnaces, some of them large enough as to accommodate 320 pots have been noticed; the production stopped due to competition by the year 1929. The only place where the industry was still flourishing was at Maddiledu. For black and white glass only green shrubs were used as a fuel, the batch being continuously heated for about 2½ days. Gradual heating was resorted to, which would otherwise turn the glass black. The industry was worked on co-operative basis, most of the capital being borrowed from the local financiers. The finished articles were sold at Adoni, Annavaram, Gulbarga, Hamasavaram, Papanaidupet, Ragampeta, and Raichur. At Papanaidupet, in the last place glass was/is worked into minute beads [details see in chapter III]1. Mukharji (1888: 294-96) gives the following description of 19th century Indian glass and its products: The manufacture of glass in India is still in its most primitive state, the indigenous production being a 1

[ ] insertion is mine

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coarse blue or green glass full of flaws and air bubbles. This is produced by melting Reh [soda] soil over a strong fire. Or, where Reh is not procurable, quartzose pebbles ground and mixed with an equal quantity of an alkaline ash is the material commonly used…. The glass thus obtained is chiefly used in the manufacture of bangles, beads, and crackle ware for perfumes. White glass was obtained by melting broken pieces of European ware, of which small vessels are sometime made. But glassware is now almost entirely imported from Europe. However glass vessels of Patna in Bengal have been highly admired and are of graceful shapes and beautiful colours. In the north-western Provinces crackle ware is largely made in the Bijnor district. These mostly consist of bottles or flagons, for pilgrims to store and carry water of Ganges to far off places. Small flasks and glasses are made at Deoband, a town in the district of Saharanpur. Walking sticks of glass are made at Lucknow. Bangles and lamp chimneys are made at Delhi and Lahore in the Punjab, globes and pear-shaped carboys at Karnal, and small wares at Hushiarpur. Bottles and beads, both white and of various colours, are made at Jaipur chiefly in the School of Art. One or two private men in the bazaar also do the work. The colour produced is cobalt blue, Indian red, marbled and dark green. Bangles of various colours are made both in the town of Jaipur as well as in many other places in the State. Plaques of frosted glass are made at Gwalior, the pattern being chiselled on the glass. Bangles of various colours and designs are made in Indore and in Madras Presidency. Small quantities of

glassware are made at Salem, Trichinopoly, and Anantpur. The colour of the glass is usually various shades of green and claret. In Mysore bangles, rings, and phials for scents are made in large quantities at Matood and Chinnapatna. In the Bombay presidency glassware is manufactured in very small quantities. Though these gave the description of the production process as being the same as north India about which we have references in Dobbs’ (1895) work, all those refer to the nineteenth century and at most eighteenth century glass industries. South India has been the cradle of Indo-Pacific beads, which travelled to far off places from Africa to Japan both in quantity of material and its technological skill (with man power) at least for 2000 years (Francis 1990b, 1991a, 1991b, 1996, 2002a, n.d.; Gupta 1999; Kanungo 2000-01; Katsuhiko and Gupta 2000; Stern 1987b). It is highly likely that Indo-Pacific bead producers were producing their own glass. However, it is unfortunate that we know nothing about the place and technology of glass production at these places as the archaeological evidence at sites like Arikamedu and Karaikadu have been limited to slags and waste pieces rather than concrete evidence like that of furnace and crucibles. Thus, it was intended to look for a site of early glass manufacture in the southeast. Here came the suggestion of Prof. Jayaraj Jacob of Sri Venketeswara University, Tirupati, who had located one such site, near Karkambadi tank, 15 km from Tirupati, which was to be developed by estate agents. A quick survey around the site not only yielded evidence of glass making but also evidences of this being of the late early historic period. Thus a small exposure of the site became more

13 13

imminent. As the land was to be sold within a week, the owner, rather the watchman reluctantly permitted me to work there only for three days. This made matters worse, but whatever little could be recorded is given below. 1.6 Karakambadi The site is 15 km south of Tirupati near the Karakambadi tank. It is in the form of a bund about 150 m long and 3 to 4 m wide. Its height is 1½ m adjoining to which the farmers have made their field boundaries. This bund is about 700 m north of the Karakambadi tank and 300 m east of a rail track (Map 2). There is littering evidence of glass manufacture in the form of numerous broken crucibles, slags and glass pieces all around the bund

and in the nearby cultivated lands (Fig. 2). What is unusual about the find was that crucibles were unusually small, indicating the quantity of glass produced and number of crucibles put in the furnace. This size of the crucibles is not that surprising while considering that Somapalaiem glass furnace used to accommodate as many as 320 pots (crucibles) (Narayan Rao 1929, cited in Dikshit 1969). Enquiry revealed that the remains of this site and its by-products were spread over a large area towards Karakambadi tank. They must have been washed off with water, which comes next to the bund and stays there for months during the rainy season.

Map 2: Site map of Karkambadi

For verifying the existence of any furnace one trial trench of 2x2 at the centre of the bund and two small scraping sections of about one metre width with step trenches were carried out

at two of the most wide and raised points of the bund. They are numbered as trench 1, 2 and 3 (Map 2).

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was then dug at the one corner. It revealed only loose soils which confirmed that it was not a furnace area (Fig. 6).

Fig. 2: The site of Karkambadi

1.6.1 Trench 2 The area was selected for the trial trench because of the occurrence of a large concentration of crucibles and slags. At the centre of the bund four pegs were placed at the four corners and a grid of 2x2 m was made with the help of threads (Fig. 3). One peg was placed at the highest point on the western side of the trench as datum point. Cleaning the area inside the grid gave a number of broken crucibles, burnt clay and bricks, glass pieces and a few potsherds. Uppermost 5 cm soil was removed from surface while retaining crucible pieces in situ to see the alignment. Crucible pieces were found to be haphazardly scattered (Fig. 4). A dig of 10 cm was then called as the layer 1. From this layer, a number of broken crucibles, comparatively more glass pieces (mostly green in colour), slags, and some pottery pieces were noticed (Fig. 5). Their concentration was less towards the northern side. This area looked more like the piling of debitage rather than (anything to do with) furnace area as most of the crucible pieces were of broken tops and body parts (probably broken intentionally to remove the frit/glass), without any alignment. The soils were loose, not hard as it should be in a furnace. Besides this, potsherds were found inside. For confirmation another dig of 10 cm (layer 2) was taken and the evidence consists of only few pieces of broken crucibles in the centre in northsouth direction. A test pit of 25 cm depth

Fig. 3: Trench 2 before opening

Fig. 4: Alignment of broken crucibles in Trench 2

Fig. 6: Trench 2 with a test pit in one corner

1.6.2 Trench 1 and 3 Due to constraints of time, two section scrapping of 1 m width from the top were attempted at the two most bulging and

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raised point of the bund. Debitage at these points was less but concentration of the crucible pieces was fairly high. However, at both places after scraping of about 5-8 cm, the soil was so hard that it was difficult to scrape (Fig. 7). It gave evidence of the furnace of glass making. As neither time nor resources at hand would have permitted to expose the full furnace, it was decided to expose the section fully. It confirmed the existence of furnace at both places with the exposure of a thick layer of slag along with in situ crucibles and bellow pipes (Fig. 8).

At the lower portion on both sides, a thick hard burnt clay section was visible and it was harder than any other soil. Perhaps that was a part of the furnace wall. The upper parts were evidently broken. The evidence of a bellow pipe attached to the wall confirmed that this was in fact part of the furnace wall. Also blowpipe was found in the upper level of trench 1, which indicated that the bellow pipes were not always fixed at the lowest level (Map 2). The inclination of wall indicates that the furnace was of conical shape and also of smaller size. 1.6.3 Crucible There were hundreds of broken crucibles scattered on the surface and in the trenches, and in situ findings of crucibles with silica and pieces of flint stones inside them (Fig. 9). One crucible in trench 1 has given the evidence of frits in it.

Fig. 7: Scraping at trench 3

Fig. 8: In-situ crucibles

As the scraping progressed, the soil become more and more hard and after scraping of about 30 cm of hard soil at both the places, an arrangement of crucibles was located. At trench 3, the crucibles were found arranged in two layers and a cluster of slags below them.

Both the crucibles and the bellow pipes were made of clay. Crucibles were of pointed U shape (Fig. 10). The pointed base shows that the crucibles were kept in a small tripod over fire. From the appearance of the crucibles it appears that they were coated with quartz, which would have served to keep them hot for longer periods. There was an opening at the top of the crucible. There is a possibility that the glassmaker might be closing the opening of the crucible with a layer of quartz after inserting the raw materials into it. After the frit/glass was made it was removed by breaking the upper portion of crucible; this resulted in a debitage of plenty of crucible rims with quartz incrustation and smaller body parts. After taking out the frit/glass from the crucible, they were flaked from all sides of the soils and impurity. One such green coloured frit piece was found from Trench 1 (Fig. 11).

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outer side. However, one piece of potsherd, was covered with a layer of glass all around, even on the broken borders. This confirmed that this pottery was associated with glass making.

Fig. 10: Reconstructed crucible and tuyere

Fig. 13: Potsherd with rims found in the trenches

Out of these glassy layered potsherds, three are globular pots with beaded rim (Fig. 14.A) and one is a small basin with internally thicken and undercut rim from inside (Fig. 14.B). Rests all are nondescript. Some give an impression of a bluish colour but that is due only to a thick layer of glass.

Fig. 11: In-situ frit

Size of the crucible Length: Diameter of the opening:

17 cm 21 cm

1.6.4 Pottery and Probable Date Most of the associated pottery from the trench was simple coarse red ware. It appears to belong to the later part of the early historic period i.e., c. 4th-5th A.D. (personal communication Dr. Vasant Shinde, Deccan College). There are four potsherds with rims, with a thin layer of glass inside the potsherds indicating their association with glass making rather than deliberate glazing (Figs. 12 and 13). This layer of glass was uneven in its thickness and in no case were they found on the

Fig. 14: Rim sections

Some potsherds without any glassy layer are also noticed with one exception that has a rim (globular pot with beaded rim). All of them are nondescript. 1.6.5 Raw Materials Fifty m northwest of the bund there lay a silica deposit forming a bund of about

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300 m spilling towards the north. It is evident that this silica was transported to this area from some nearby source. The area is rich in Palaeolithic deposits, one can see a number of Palaeolithic tools (hand-axe, cleavers, scrapers etc.) in the dugout area 200 m north from the bund. And at both the west and east corners of the dug out area there was exposure of ancient brick structures and floors. A few pieces of glass were also seen on these floors. There are two old wells with brick lining, one towards the east of the bund and another towards the south. 1.7 Present Day Production of Glass A glass factory has its own uniqueness. Huge bins called silos hold the raw materials for glassmaking. These materials are powders that look very much alike but can produce greatly different results. Giant roof ventilators and huge stacks release the terrific heat required to melt these powders to a white-hot liquid. At the hot end of the plant are the furnaces. 1.7.1 Mixing: the principal raw materials are weighed and mixed in the proper proportions. This mixture is called the batch. The manufacturer then adds cullet to the batch. Cullet is either recycled glass or waste glass from a previous melt of the same kind of glass. Adding cullet to the batch eventually reduces the amount of heat needed to melt the new batch of raw materials. Besides, materials that otherwise would be wasted get used in this manner. Sometimes, glassmakers produce a new batch entirely from cullet. After mixing, the batch goes to the furnaces. 1.7.2 Melting: the mixture melts at 2600° to 2900° F (1425° to 1600° C), depending on its composition. In the past, the batch was melted in refractory pots (small clay pots), heated in wood or coal

burning furnaces, which still are used for hand working. In modern glass plants, most glass is melted in large tank furnaces. They are special refractory pots and hold up to 3,000 pounds (1,400 kilograms) of glass. They are heated by gas or oil, and a single furnace may contain 6 to 12 pots. Small quantities of optical glass, art glass, and specialty glass are still made in refractory pots. Larger quantities of glass are made in furnaces that are called day tanks because the process that goes on in them takes about 24 hours. These tanks can hold 1 to 4 tons (0.9 to 3.6 metric tons) of glass. 1.8 Shaping and Finishing of Glass When working with molten glass, five basic methods are employed to produce an almost limitless variety of shapes: casting, blowing, pressing, drawing, and rolling. After the shaping process, annealing is used to increase the strength of the glass. Tempering and other finishing techniques may also be used to further strengthen the glass. For traditional glass bead production also the same procedure is followed but manually. 1.8.1 Blowing: introduction of the blowing process in about 1st century B.C. on the Phoenician coast, and its rapid diffusion to other places, made largescale glass production possible. This changed the status of glassware from an elite item to an everyday material. Thus blowing became the standard way of shaping glass vessels from the 1st century B.C. to the present day (Fig. 15). Using a hollow iron pipe about 4 to 5 feet (1.2 to 1.5 meters) long with a mouthpiece at one end, the glassblower, or gaffer, collects a small amount of molten glass on the end of the pipe and rolls it against a paddle or metal plate to shape its exterior and cool it slightly. The gaffer then blows into the pipe, expanding the glass into a bubble (Fig. 16). By

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constantly reheating it at the furnace opening, blowing, and rolling, the gaffer controls the form and thickness of the glass. The bulb can be squeezed, stretched, twirled, and cut. From time to time, the worker reheats the glass to keep it soft. When the red-hot glass has been given its final shape, it is removed from the pipe. Glass can also be blown into iron-moulds. Stretching the hot hollow bulb while blowing produces the glass pipe and cutting them into pieces to make beads is the most ancient of bead production techniques. This produces its own typical debitage. 1.8.2 Pressing: This is accomplished by dropping a hot gob of glass into a mould, then pressing it with a plunger until it spreads and fills the inside of the mould. To be pressed, an article must be of such a shape that the plunger can be withdrawn. Baking dishes, glass blocks, and lenses are often pressed. 1.8.3 Drawing: Molten glass also can be drawn directly from the furnace to make tubing, sheets, fibers, and rods of glass. Almost all flat glass produced today is float glass. It is shaped by drawing a wide sheet of molten glass into a furnace containing a bath of molten tin. This furnace is called a float bath because the glass “floats” in an even layer on the perfectly smooth surface of the molten tin. Drawing a stream of molten glass out of the furnace makes a glass rod. Drawing the molten glass around a rotating cylinder or cone called a mandrel makes tubing. Air blowing through the mandrel causes the glass to form a continuous tube. Indo-Pacific beads at Papanaidupet are produced more or less in the same manner, the only exception being that instead of machines highly skilled craftsmanship is used to produce them

(see chapter III). However in recent times this is also being done mechanically and in India Prasant Beads Industry of Varanasi produces such mechanized Indo-Pacific beads (Fig. 17). Fiberglass is also made by drawing the molten glass through tiny holes in the bottom of the furnace. 1.8.4 Rolling: Plate glass was originally made by rolling molten glass on a flat surface; later, it was made by continuous rolling between double rollers. 1.8.5 Casting: This is an ancient process. Molten glass is poured into a mould and allowed to solidify (Fig. 18). The glass may be poured either from ladles or directly from the furnace, or drained from the bottom of the furnace. Casting is used in the production of architectural glass pieces, art glass, laser glass, and telescope mirrors.

Fig. 18: Casting of glass

1.8.6 Lampworking: This is a method of reshaping solid glass into new forms by reheating it. Lamp-workers reheat various kinds and sizes of glass tubing and rod over a blowtorch fired by gas, oxygen or oil. They can then bend, twist, stretch, and seal the softened glass into a variety of objects. In this way, lampworkers make a variety of beads and sometimes moulds are used to give them different shapes (see chapter III). Besides, miniature animals, vases, sail ships, scientific equipment, and parts for

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incandescent lamps and various kinds of industrial equipment are made using this technique. 1.8.7 Annealing: Reheating the glass and gradually cooling it according to a planned time-and-temperature schedule is called annealing (Fig. 19). It is a process that removes the stresses and strains remaining in glass after shaping. Most glassware is annealed just after it has been formed. If it is not annealed, glass may shatter from tension caused by uneven cooling. Almost all glass beads produced either with traditional technologies or with modern are annealed after production to avoid cracking.

Fig. 19: Annealing chambers at a glass industry in Firozabad

1.8.8 Tempering: This is a process in which a glass article that is already formed is reheated until almost soft. Then, under carefully controlled conditions, it is chilled suddenly by blasts of cold air or by plunging it in oil or certain chemicals in a liquid state. This tempering treatment makes the glass much stronger than ordinary glass. Glass articles can also be tempered with chemicals. Glass may be decorated in a number of ways, including cutting, using facets, grooves, and depressions: engraving is done using a diamond point, metal needle, or rotating wheels; etching is

done using acid; sandblasting is done using sand, flint, or powdered iron; in cold painting, paint is applied to glass but not affixed by firing; in enamel painting, enamel colours are painted and then affixed through firing; and in gilding gold leaf, gold paint, or gold dust is applied. 1.9 Firozabad: the Glass Capital of India Firozabad is a small town in the Indian State of Uttar Pradesh, 40 kilometres from Agra and the Taj Mahal. The town has a natural cluster of labour-intensive small-scale glass manufacturers and secondary producers of decorated ware, bangles, beads, handmade tumblers and tableware. There are also a few medium scale units using semi-automatic equipment to manufacture industrial glass products such as automobile headlight lenses, glass bulbs, shells and consumer products such as bowls and ashtrays. The glass industry over here accounts for almost 70 percent of the country’s glass production in the smallscale sector and is also critical to the livelihood of the town’s population. Most importantly, it has the monopoly over the glass and glass rod supply to the bead producers in India. There were/are instances of both local glass production at bead production places and at various other places but most could not stand the stiff competition given by Firozabad in the recent past. The furnaces used by the industry are modified forms of a Japanese design, which has been acquired many decades ago, without understanding the basic design. This results in decreased furnace life and fuel efficiency. The different types of furnaces employed in the cluster are: (i) tank furnace (coal fired), (ii) tank furnace (oil fired), (iii) open pot furnace, (iv) closed pot furnace,

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and (v) muffle furnace, used for the finishing of bangles. In addition, there are a few, partially automated units employing oil-fired furnaces. The primary form of energy used in the cluster has been coal, followed by residual fuel oil (RFO). Being located within the Taj Trapezium Zone, the industry now also faces the consequences of the Supreme Court mandate banning the use of fuels other than natural gas within the area. 1.10 Beads Beads are small, colourful, frequently standardized, inexpensive and often quite beautiful. They can be arranged in almost endless configurations. Beads are universal, and are one of the oldest forms of human expression. They can and have been made from virtually any solid material (Francis 1982a). They have been worn in strings or necklaces, which was the common mode of ornamentation known from very ancient times. What interest more is the variety of their shapes, mode of decoration and the different material employed in their manufacture (Margabandhu 1971: 764). Inorganic beads become very important in archaeological findings due to its durability and are generally protected from weathering or corrosion by some constituent in the soil in which they lie, preserves shape and colour and decoration. During the early phase of bead research, Eisen (1916: 2) defined a bead as “a unit of necklace and perforated by one or several bores”. Horace Beck, who introduced a systematic approach for studying beads for the first time, mentioned “to describe a bead fully, it is necessary to state its form, perforation, colour, material and decoration” (Beck 1928: 1). Later Sleen (1973: 16) added the importance of manufacturing methods in the study of beads. Going beyond the mere descriptive

classification of beads Kenoyer (1986: 16), Kanungo (2001b, 2002b, 2002c) argued for their symbolic value. Dubin (1987: 17) elaborated by saying that “beads so often mirror the culture of which they are a part that they tell us a great deal about the social, political, economic, and religious lives of the people who have made and worn them”. Basa (1991, 1994-95), Basa et al. (1991), Glover and Henderson (1994), and Francis (1990a, 1990b, 1 991b, 1996, 2002a) emphasized beads as an important item of trade in Asia. Margabandhu (1971: 1203) generalized comment on ancient technology as “technological development is closely linked to the various industrial and technical arts and other developments during a particular period”. This echoed by Deo (2000: viii), writing about Indian beads mentioned, “Indian Beads represent the culture and technology of the period to which they belong”. Francis (2002a) summed everything about beads in the following words, “they [beads] function in the economic, social, identical, and aesthetic realms of culture. They encode human behaviours, including those difficult to assess archaeologically. The ancients held them in awe. They [beads] were magical as well as valuable. They incorporate powers and were both stores and evidence of wealth”. Beads, amulets and pendants help to interpret certain aspects of social life in the past. Though this is true for most of the societies in India, such an interpretation gains enhanced tempo owing to the corroborative evidence met with in ancient literature and ethnographical evidences. Beads have been used in many instances to escape the evil eye, and it naturally takes the form of the “eye” on the body of the beads and other allied forms. Certain beads are invested with medicinal properties which are supposed to cure some ailments. Sometimes they are used

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as charms. The religious significance of certain beads and pendants is evident in many cases. Beads may also indicate the social status of the user. Certain bead materials, if non-indigenous (as for instance, lapis lazuli) have their origin in distant lands which indicate regional or commercial contacts or/and cultural migrations. Beads and pendants are thus capable of providing very useful data in building up the cultural history of a society (Deo 2000: 1). Combinations of these qualities make beads especially interesting artefacts to study. However this also adds to the limitation of bead study in dating any associated materials as rightly pointed out by Mackay (1944) in the following words: Possession of magical properties – so often ascribed to beads in early days – such as protection from the evil eye or from disease, sentimental and aesthetic reasons also may cause beads to be preserved from generation to generation; and being small and mostly rounded in one plane at least, they are likely to roll down or be washed away by rain from their original level. Besides remarking in his introduction that the large amount of wear on some of the beads found in relic caskets at the Dharmarajika stupa and elsewhere at Taxila that they were already old and valued at the date when they were buried. The study of ancient Indian glass beads has received very scanty attention because accurately dated specimens are comparatively few and are inadequately published. The subject has four main aspects (i) archaeological data; (ii) ethnographic investigation; (iii) scientific and technological study of dated specimens; and (iv) literary references to glass beads in Indian literature. Unless these all are marshalled fully no accurate

picture of the glass beads of ancient India can be obtained. 1.10.1 Early Beads Beads first appear with the advent of modern man, Homo sapiens, at least forty thousand years ago, and probably have been made and used by every culture in the world since then. However, use of organic material beads could be much earlier. They have always been treated as important personal possessions and are well represented in the archaeological records. The earliest known beads are associated with Neanderthal man. They were discovered at La Quina, an archaeological site in France, and have been dated to approximately 38,000 B.C. They are made from grooved animal teeth and bones and were worn as pendants. They are unique to the Neanderthal period. Recently, shell beads of about 40,000 B.C. have been found in Ucagizli Cave in Turkey (Powell 2002: 12) (Fig. 20). More sophisticated bead craftsmanship developed during the Gravettian and Aurignacian periods (30,000-18,000 B.C.). Grooving ornaments gave way to perforation; pieces of bone and ivory were ground into definite bead shapes and decorated with incisions. Important bead discoveries from this period have been made at the sites of Dolni Vestonice and Pavlov in Czechoslovakia. Some of the beads were carved in the shape of female breasts and torsos and were probably associated with rituals for increasing fertility (Dubin 1987: 22). It is only in the Upper Palaeolithic period in western Europe, known as the Chatelperronian period (c. 31,000 B.C.), that beads appear in quantity and as creations of modern man (Dubin 1987: 21). That this period witnessed an elaborate development both in the design

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of individual beads, and in the ways in which beads and pendants were combined and used is universally recognized (Francis 1981, 1982b). Upper Palaeolithic beads have been found at several localities in India, China, and Korea; however the date of this period in this region is about 17,000-10,000 B.C. With the invention of the technology of storing surplus food, the Neolithic man probably got more time for development of the crafts. Further with the introduction of irrigation systems, river valley societies in Mesopotamia (presentday northern Syria and Iraq), India, and Egypt evolved into sophisticated, complex city-states. By 3500 B.C. metal weapons and tools came into use alongside traditional stone implements. Of great significance for the study of beads was the expansion of long-distance trade between the rapidly evolving, agriculturally intensive civilizations of the Mediterranean and the mountain cultures of western Asia. In the earliest civilizations, one way in which social differences were reflected was the display of ornaments, including beads. The uneven distribution of the regions’ resources created networks of commercial relations that united these societies and encouraged the exchange of cultural artefacts. For example, Lapis lazuli was mined in the ancient Afghan region of Badakhshan, fifteen hundred miles away from the Sumerians and a thousand miles away from the Indus people, who exercised no political control over Afghanistan’s production centres or the trade routes traversing the rugged plateaus; yet they were the major users of Lapis lazuli. Mesopotamian and Egyptian priests and kings employed full-time jewellers, and through their patronage bead making technology developed rapidly. Indus people were not far behind with their sophisticated and large scale production and use of beads.

Both beads and their raw materials to make them have been important trade items for Millennia. However, throughout antiquity, raw materials were traded more often than finished beads (Dubin 1987: 30). Finished beads were traded usually by more technically advanced cultures to less advanced ones. The early Greeks and Mycenae, who established trading contacts with the Bronze Age cultures in the Baltic, exchanged copper and bronze implements for rare amber, with which they made beads. In effect, they extended their technical expertise to the less developed European regions while absorbing new materials and forms of adornment. Eventually, large quantities of glass beads would be carried thousands of miles by the ancient Phoenician and Roman seafaring civilizations. Towards the beginning of the first millennium B.C. and in subsequent centuries a full-fledged urban revolution took place. Beads are not an exception to this development. This is evident from the beads found at Hastinapura, Ujjain, Pataliputra, Rajghat, Rajagriha, Vaisali, Kausambi, Paithan and many other sites, which includes a large number of glass beads. Although glass beads are known by the Seventh and Eighth Dynasties (c. 21812160 B.C.) in Egypt, they were first manufactured for a large commercial market beginning with 1400 B.C. The new Kingdom, especially the later phases of the Eighteenth Dynasty (c. 1350 B.C.), is generally considered to be the world’s first great glassmaking epoch. The proximity of Egyptian glass factories to the palaces at Thebes, Amarna, and Shurak attest to the royal patronage of glassmaking. Soon glass was manipulated to make beads. Once practical techniques had been discovered to transform beads and its secret was

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known to the local craftsman, glass gradually replaced all other materials to a considerable extent: first as expensive specimens which served the elite; later, the common folk could use the glass on account of the easy manipulation and mass production at low cost. Since then it has been the most important material for bead manufacture. This is because of its beauty, durability, versatility and pliability. This is evident from the finding of most ancient glass in the form of beads. However, in the early period and still among the simple living communities the preferred choice of colour remained the same as that of stone; for example, the Egyptians favoured deeply coloured opaque glass, since it closely resembled lapis lazuli and turquoise, and Nagas of India prefer dark red or bluish-green coloured opaque glass, which resembles the colour of carnelian and agate. A decline in glassmaking skills occurred in Egypt after the end of the nineteenth Dynasty (c. 1200 B.C.), and glass virtually disappeared after the fall of the New Kingdom (1085 B.C.). It was revived in Ptolemaic times, during the fourth century B.C., when Alexander the Great founded Alexandria, a cosmopolitan centre with international trading links. The term “Roman” and “Roman-period” glass are used to describe glass production from 100 B.C. to A.D. 400 within the boundaries of the Roman Empire, including the factories at Syria, Egypt, Italy, Switzerland, Rhineland, France, and England. Everywhere the Romans went, they took glass beads to trade. Produced in a large range of colours, patterns, and frequently complex techniques, Roman-made glass beads were widely coveted (Dubin 1987: 55). More glass was made in the first century A.D. than in the previous fifteen hundred years. Because the material was widely obtainable, relatively inexpensive, and no longer reserved for the elite,

everyone could now afford to wear beads. 1.10.2 Early Beads from India In undivided India beadmaking was one of the most ancient arts since in most places the requisite materials were ready to hand (Basa 2002: 4); this was not the case in Mesopotamia, where even the commonest stone was difficult to procure (Marshall 1931: 510). Some of the oldest beads in the world have been found in India. Disc beads of ostrich eggshell and an olivia shell bead from Patne in Maharashtra date to about 23,000 B.C., and a bone bead and several cattle incisor teeth grooved for stringing, found at the Kurnool Cave, date to 17,000 B.C. Evidence of beads in Mesolithic sites are found at Langhnaj (Sankalia 1965), where objects like dentalium shell, perforated vertebrate of birds and perforated pieces of bone have been recorded as decorative ornaments, and the site of Mahadaha (Sharma et al. 1980) in Uttar Pradesh has yielded perforated bone ornaments along with evidence of the stages of their manufacture (Fig. 21).

Fig. 21: Bone beads with evidence of manufacture, Mahadaha (After Sharma et al. 1980)

By the early Neolithic period (7000-5500 B.C.), beadmaking technology was

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sufficiently developed for beads to be shaped and not just simply grooved or pierced. Beads of softer stones, such as steatite, turquoise, lapis lazuli, and alabaster, were produced and traded in the early Indus valley site of Mehargarh (Basa 2002: 3; Dubin 1987; Kenoyer 1986: 19; Vidale 1995). The Mehargarh excavations also revealed that pump or bow drills with chert bit were used to perforate stone beads. Besides these, we also have similar evidence from Hallur, Tekkalkota in south India and in the burials at Nagarjunakonda. Evidence of beads and pendants, well made and neatly perforated, has come to light from Mahagara in Uttar Pradesh (Sharma et al. 1980); Hallur in Karnataka reported perforated terracotta discs, whereas Chirand in Bihar has given beads of steatite and faience and Pusalpadu have reported steatite disc beads in a Neolithic context (IAR 1962-63: 6). It is, however, with the Harappan and Chalcolithic urban complexes that one comes across the spectacular evidence of stone and shell beads indicative of an established local industry. Niharika (1993) reports more than thirty varieties of stones used by the Harappans and more than nineteen by the Chalcolithic people to make beads. However, there are some exceptions, like the absence of beads in Chalcolithic sites of Jorwe, Maheshwar and Nasik. It is quite likely that this has to do with insufficiently excavated area than the culture. Bead makers of Harappa, which alongside Mohenjo-daro was one of the twin capitals of the Indus civilization, mastered stone bead cutting by 2600 B.C., and they probably traded carnelian and agate beads to Sumer, 1600 miles to the west. There were also beads of bone, shell, pottery, faience, steatite (including glazed steatite), onyx, amethyst, feldspar, turquoise, lapis lazuli, copper, bronze, silver, and gold. Beadmakers in the Chalcolithic period were also not far

behind in employing longer cylinder stone drills made of chert and jasper. There is evidence of the use of even copper drilling at Inamgaon (personal observation). With the fall of Indus civilizations about 1600 B.C., long-distance trade in Indian beads diminished for the next thousand years. Although beads appear to have been made in quantity, they were primarily for local use. From the day of the Indus Valley civilization to the present, Indian craftsman have produced exquisite beaded jewellery. Quantities of beads from archaeological sites, as well as early icons, reliefs on friezes, and literary texts, affirm that beaded jewellery has always been important to all classes of Indian society; rich and poor, sacred and secular. Ancient terracotta figurines, often representing the gods of the common people, were depicted in typical daily dress wearing beaded necklaces, earrings, girdles, and bracelets. Typical examples are from sites like Chandraketugarh and Tamluk (Fig. 22). Sculptures of Buddha are not far behind in these characteristics. 1.10.3 Ancient Literature Mention of glass (kƗca) and its byproducts most prominently that of beads occurs in early BrƗhman̟ical (Sanskrit) and Buddhist literature. Chaudhuri (1986), Deo (1987, 2000), Dikshit (196465, 1969), Ghosh (1924) and Mukharji (1888) lists a few of them; for instance in the Yajurveda (c. 1200 B.C.) kƗca is mentioned as one of the articles of which female ornaments were made by means of stringing with gold thread. In ĝatapatha BrƗhman̟a (c. 800 B.C.), the word kƗca refers to glass beads which were used for decoration of horses in the AĞvamedha sacrifice. Besides, there are references to women wearing glass beads and to the wearing of or threading of one

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hundred and one beads of glass. The Taittiriya BrƗhman̟a also refers to the wearing of glass. Coming to the Sutra period (c. 600 B.C.), one comes across references to glass beads in the Baudhayana Srauta Snjtra and in Manava Srauta Snjtra. The MƗhavagga section of Buddhist text Vinaya Pit̜aka (fifth to fourth century B.C.) alludes to the use of shoes ornamented with glass as being forbidden to the Buddhist bhikshus. The Chullavagga similarly forbids the use of glass bowls. One of the earliest south Indian text Manimekalai (3, 64), refers to palingu meaning glass or quartz in Tamil which is possibly a curruption of the Sanskrit word sphatika though the prakrit phalika (quartz), occurs in the Bhattiproru inscription of the second century B.C. (Srinivasan and Banerjee 1953: 113). RƗmayan̛a refers to the makers of glass, the ‘kachakara’. Kautilya’s ArthaĞƗstra (third century B.C.) alludes to the making of glass at two places: 1) Adhikarana 14, AdhyƗya 1, Snjtra 12, lays down that in order to punish the enemy, obstacles like the smoke of Puti, KaranҔja leaves….as in manufacture of glass, by burning cowdung etc., should deliberately be created; 2) another passage Adhikarana 2, AdhyƗya 14, Snjtra 45 though somewhat currupt but interpreted to be the process of making gold-foiled glass beads. It describes about the piercing of glass beads in a molten stage for the purpose of setting ornaments and the setting of glass-fragments (kĞepana) in gold ornaments for the preparation of the socalled glass-gems. Amongst the various punishment inflicted for stealing, it is ordained that a person stealing articles made of copper, bronze, tin, glass and ivory was to be fined 46-96 pan̟as; thus glass objects were classified among the miscellaneous objects. Glass is also mentioned in the MƗhƗbhƗrata, and in Yuktikarata. The effects on the human system of drinking water out of a glass tumbler are stated to be the same as those

of drinking out of a crystal cup. Some of the Puranas like the Matsya, the Vishnu, the Bhagawata, etc. assigned to Gupta period (third to fifth century A.D.) refers to kƗca. Br̛hatsamhitƗ (sixth century A.D.) also mentions glass. Apart from these, references to glass-vessels for preserving medicines can be seen in texts like Charaka and ĝusruta SamhitƗ. In the AmarakoĞa (seventh century A.D.) mention of glass vessel, cup and dish are made. In later period there is mention of spectacles in Vyasoyogi Charita by Somnath Kavi (c. 1446-1539 A.D.). 1.10.4 Ethnography Unlike the clay tablets in west Asia, we have little information about the method of glass making in ancient India, nor do we know how raw materials for glass were quarried. There are nineteenth century British Government accounts of glass industries in India by anonymous 1895, Dobbs 1895; Halifax 1892; and Mukherjee 1895. In the twentieth century there has not been any study on the Indian glass as a whole, and except for the solitary work History of Indian Glass by M.G. Dikshit (1969), nothing noteworthy has been done. Since then not only have thirty-five years of discovery and new technologies to study them passed, but Dikshit’s study also lacks any ethnographic work and discussions on production technologies of glass and glass beads. However, in India, glass beads are commonly used even today and particularly with traditional values by the tribal world. More particularly, they are produced using more or less the same techniques that have been used for thousands of years in several places in India. Of course, the modern technologies have also emerged in the meantime. However, both co-exist together perhaps due to the fact that tradition in India is a closed-door system. Traditionally glass beads are produced in India in a major way in at least three different locations, using altogether

26 26

different techniques. These are at: 1) Papanaidupet, Andhra Pradesh (drawing method); 2) Purdalpur, Uttar Pradesh (furnace-winding and manual pulling/drawing method); and 3) Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh (lamp-winding method) (see chapter III). Each production process leaves behind debitage unique to its individual manufacturing process. Archaeologically, it is imperative to identify and record these production techniques of glasswork and to identify the various specific waste products to formulate certain criteria that can be used to draw better inferences about archaeological sites from which glass debitage has been found. These production places have not only been producing beads for the local need but for export throughout the world since

early historic time (second century B.C.) (Francis 2002a; Kanungo 2000-01, 2001a, 2004). India has not only been the cradle of ancient civilization but also shows a continuity in age-old traditions, both in the general belief system that pervades the whole of India, and in the culture of numerous primitive communities located in pockets across the country. Some of them are large-scale users of glass beads since long. To understand the procurement-to-dispersal mechanism of beads and their use by the present day primitive communities like the Bondos and Juangs of Orissa and the Nagas of Nagaland, ethnographic studies have been carried out (see chapter IV) (Map 1).

27 27

Chapter 2 Glass and Glass Beads in India Beginning in the second century B.C., glass beads were made at different locations throughout India using indigenous techniques (Dubin 1987: 194).

2.1 Ancient Glass and Glass Beads in India Archaeological excavations conducted at various sites in India have revealed rich occurrence of protoglass (glazed steatite/quartz, faience and glazed ware) and glass objects associated with various cultural horizons dating from the first millennium B.C. through the medieval period, and into the nineteenth century. They have wide distribution both in space and time. Archaeologists often seem to regard the glass finds automatically as imports coming from the Near East and Roman world in earlier periods, and from England, the Continent, China, and Iran, in later periods. The Periplus mentions Roman export of both raw glass and glassware. The ancient Indian literary records are silent on import of glass from the western world. However, the archaeological data on Roman glass in India strongly corroborates the references in the Periplus to glass imports into India (Gupta 1997). Stern (1986) suggests that it was convenient for Mediterranean shippers to bring raw glass to India as it served as good ballast for transportvessels. On reaching India, Mediterranean glass found a ready market because of the existence of a highly evolved glass working industry in the subcontinent. On their part the Indians, besides marketing glass products of Roman glass in the domestic arena, exported the products to southeast Asia and the Mediterranean. Probably, some of this glass really was imported, but there are good reasons for believing that much of this early glass was actually made in India (Brill 1987: 2).

Compared to what is known about the history of glass made in western world, our knowledge of ancient glass in India is quite sparse. Many fundamental questions about the history of glass and glassmaking still remain unanswered for both India and southeast Asia. Moreover no attempt has ever been made to understand the origin of glass beads as an entity separate from glass (Kanungo 2000-2001: 337). In India, glass appeared 500 to 1000 years later than in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Once the manufacturing processes were standardized, during the latter half of the first millennium B.C. glass objects were produced on a mass scale. The very material and objects made of the glass found during this period bear a eloquent testimony to the fact that the making of glass in a furnace and later remaking and shaping them to beads had been fully understood and utilized to the maximum extent by the artisan of the times (Margabandhu 1975: 73). The Indians learned the technique of glass bead manufacture, probably independently, only around first millennium B.C. Since then evidence of glass have been unearthed from more than 200 ancient Indian sites. Most of them are found in the form of beads. The earliest evidence of glass beads (two well made unweathered black and white tabular eye beads) in India is reported from Bhagwanpura in the HarappanPGW overlap phase (period I), c. 14001000 B.C. (Joshi 1993). The occurrence of one glass bead in period II (Protohistoric) at Navdatoli shows that glass was not unknown to the people of

28 28

this period (Deo 1955a: 10). The evidence of glass in Chalcolithic period is very poor, found only at Maski. During the next cultural phase of Indian history, i.e., PGW, we find that the occurrence of glass, is quite common and widespread. It is found at several sites in India which are widely separated from each other. Glass finds, although limited in number, been a constant feature in all the levels, from sixth century B.C. onwards. However, sites of Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) culture have yielded only a few beads (Niharika 1993). We are not sure whether the early glass and/or its technological skill came to India from the West or was developed indigenously or whether both of these events took place simultaneously. Attempts to answer this question has been negligible. There have been contradictory statements on this issue: on the basis of glass findings at Taxila and Arikamedu, Marshall (1951) and Wheeler et al. (1946) thought them to be of foreign origin. On the contrary, typical Indian designs on some early glass specimens of Taxila, Mohenjo-daro’s glazed pottery and evidence of glass in the Chalcolithic level at Maski, and at PGW sites (supposed to be devoid of any foreign association) have led Dikshit (1969), Bhardwaj (1987) and Singh (1989) to argue for indigenous origin of glass. Deo (2000: 26) takes a middle path by mentioning that though much of the glass at Taxila was imported into India through its foreign settlers, there is reason to believe that some of the beads are indigenous. It is difficult to say how far early foreign contacts were responsible for the introduction of glass but the stray specimens reported do not point to anything definite. The evidence of stratified eye beads which form the next important (post PGW) stage in the study of glass in India, possibly supports the impression that mature glass came to India from the Mediterranean countries.

The site of Kopia in Basti district, dated to about 5th century B.C., has yielded innumerable glass beads, thousands of glass fragments, fragments of clay crucible with glass sticking to them (glass was melted in them), big pieces of glass and lumps of unworked glass (Abdurazakov 1987: 38; Dikshit 1969: 39; Lal 1987: 45; Roy and Varshney 1953; Sen and Chaudhuri 1985: 64-65). One large block of glass weighs about 76 kilograms and measures 45x30x22.5 cm (Lal 1987: 45). The technique of glass manufacture was well known since seventh-sixth centuries B.C. (Margabandhu 1971: 1219, 1985: 327). Unfortunately, a few excavation reports of Indian sites yielding glass objects have discussed the manufacturing techniques involved and none the basis of the same. The beginning of the Christian era witnessed the ushering of foreign cultural elements in Indian life. This is reflected not only in new shapes, but also in the introduction of new materials like the Mediterranean fine-grained corals and glass (Deo 2000: 6). By the dawn of Christian era the use of glass for beads has been found to be more popular. Many techniques were adopted for the manufacture of beads and ornaments during this period (Margabandhu 1985: 203). In Deccan, with the establishment of the Sultanates, the country witnessed the rise of small-scale cottage industries for the fabrication of glass beads, as evidenced by the discoveries at Kolhapur and Nevasa in Maharashtra, and Maski in Karnataka and Sirpur in Madhya Pradesh (Deo 2000: 6). Abdurazakov (1987: 38) speaks of finding of fragments of the Middle Age glass at nine archaeological sites in India: Nalanda, Assam, Kurukshetra, Udaigiri, Ahichchhatra, Arikamedu, Kausambi, and Jaipur. He mentions the evidence of

29 29

glass and clay pots (used for glass production) at Dargai in Pakistan too. In Mauryan and Sunga periods beads of all kinds were plentiful including those made of glass (Alkazi 1996: 7). The best evidence is that of glass seals from Patna, Maheshwar, Ujjain and three glass seals from Mauryan phase at Taxila. The seals are mostly of green and pale blue colour, carefully moulded and subjected to annealing, to remove the internal strain. Pully shaped earplugs, beads and bangles constitute the bulk of the glass articles known from specimens from Kausambi, Ahichchhatra, Rajghat and Patna. With the beginning of the Christian era the use of glass was quite common. Finding at Taxila, Nevasa, Arikamedu and other sites present evidence for this. Excavations at Nasik, Karad, Kolhapur, Maski, Chandravalli and Kondapur have each yielded valuable materials of high quality from Satavahana period (first century B.C.-early third century A.D.). Wound and drawn beads are often met with (Deo 2000: 27). Beads with white stripes are known to have come from Kolhapur, Kondapur, Maski, Prakash, Nevasa and Ter in the Deccan. These beads are common enough at Ujjain and Tripuri. The lacuna in our knowledge about the other contemporary Indian glass objects is almost certainly due to inadequate excavations of historical sites. By the time of Harsa (seventh century A.D.), glass was no longer a luxury as it must have been in the Satavahana period and was even used by mendicants and aboriginals (Agrawal 1953: 186; Kanungo 2002b). The chemical analysis of the specimens of about eighteen areas (e.g., Ahichchhatra, Taxila, Kausambi, Kolhapur, Kopia, Kurukshetra, Nalanda, Tripuri, Rajghat, etc.) show that the Indian workers were well-acquainted with the raw materials and colouring agents used for the preparation of glass.

In some of the specimens of Taxila glass, the presence of lead oxide and in some of the Tripuri specimens (200 B.C.) the presence of Barium oxide have been found. Presence of lead in glass gives rise to the formation of crystal glass and that of Barium imparts to glass high resistance to heat. It appears that Indian workers were also aware of these properties much earlier than the glass makers of the Babylonion and a few other countries like Assyria and Rome (Chaudhuri 1986: 98). Francis (1985a, 1990a, 1990b, 1991b, 1994a, 2002a, n.d.) based on his extensive work on Arikamedu glass beads argues that glass beads from Arikamedu were made from local glass because of the presence of high potassium that was rare in the western glass of that period. The question of the origin of the raw glass used in the Indian bead industry has not received much attention. Most scholars have simply assumed that the glass was fused at the same location where it was formed into objects. The technology involved in bead making is relatively simple; craftsmen are known to make beads and bangles locally in many places where they were not able to fuse their own raw glass. The attractive colours used in ancient Indian beads belong to the so-called specialized glasses. Even today, most glassworkers bring their raw glass from elsewhere; this is also customary in the modern Indian bead industry. The reason for this division is, that the fusing of glass from basic materials and the forming of glass into objects are two entirely different processes, requiring different type of furnaces and a different technology. Both processes can take place in one glass centre, but this has always been exceptional.

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2.2 Glass Beads and Glass Findings from Indian Archaeology Archaeological excavations conducted at various sites in India have revealed rich occurrence of glass objects associated with various cultural horizons. They have wide distribution both in space and time. However, barring some excavations reports, glass, an important archaeological evidence has not received due attention. In some reports, sites have been loosely mentioned as glass manufacturing centres without evaluating the evidence at hand. The difficulties are further compounded, as adequately documented data is not readily available. Thus in this chapter, an attempt is made to compile all available evidence of glass and glass beads from early times with whatever available context and description as has been reported in the annual reports of the official journal of Archaeological survey of India, to examine its distribution with time and space. Important glass findings reported in individual publications are also included. All the glass and glass beads findings are tabulated in six columns. In the first, list of sites are given in the alphabetical order irrespective of their location and period. Geo-coordinates of most of the sites are also given. In case of unavailability of the same of site, district geo-coordinates are given. In the second the district and the state, to which the site belong, are given. There have been some changes in political boundaries, and terminology, of the districts and states due to formation of new districts and states with the passage of time, the old district and state name are still maintained as reported in the corresponding references. In the third column the period and/or date of the layer, in which evidence of glass is found are given. This should not be considered as the date of the site as a whole. Wherever neither dates nor period is

available, attempt has been made to provide the period indicators like that of associated coins or pottery. Though the fourth column is made for only glass and glass beads but other material used for manufacturing them are also given; also beads of other material if reported together on the same line. In the fifth column, beads of other material, whatever importance of the layer, and the claim regarding the glass and glass beads are noted. In the sixth and last column reference of the corresponding report is given. Moreover four different tables such as beads from (i) Archaeological Survey of India Annual Reports 1902 – 1937, (ii) Ancient India 1946-1966, (iii) Indian Archaeological Review 1954 – 1998 and (iv) other source are made intentionally to maintain the purity of claims. In most instances the terminology used in the following tables from summaries of the excavation reports has not been changed from the original. This means that some of them, especially the older ones, will appear to be somewhat archaic. It is also fair to note that the summaries/ descriptions in Archaeological Survey of India Annual Reports, and Indian Archaeology: A Review itself are generally very short and the most preliminary sort of reports. They are not necessarily the final word on an excavation’s result, therefore information in this guide must be used critically, though in most cases the final reports have not yet seen the light of the day. Entries in the gazetteer have been listed site wise alphabetically. Although all efforts are made to make this survey of glass and glass beads from India as exhaustive as possible, yet it might have missed some evidences appearing in stray publications. However, this survey helps greatly in comparing the glass findings in India and drawing important conclusion on them.

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2.2.1 List of Abbreviation Used in the Sixth Columns of the Following Tables: A.H. A.I.H. A.I.H.C.

Ancient History Ancient Indian History Ancient Indian History Culture AMU Aligarh Muslim University ASI Archaeological Survey of India AU Allahabad University BACRI Birla Archaeological & Cultural Research Institute BHU Banaras Hindu University BISM Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal BNSSVAK Bodhisattva Nagarjun Smarak Sanstha Va Anusandhan Kendra BU Barkatullah University CU Calcutta University DC Deccan College DCAAM Department of Cultural Affairs, Archaeology & Museum GDA Government Department of Archaeology GDAM Government Department of Archaeology and Museum

GDR GRU GKU GWU HGVY IA KPJRI KRU KU MRU MSU MU NGU NU PNCASIM

PNU PU SU TMU TU VA VSU

Government Directorate of Research Garhwal University Gorakhpur University Guwahati University Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavdyalaya Institute of Archaeology K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute Karnataka University Kurukshetra University Marathwada University Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Madras University Nagarjuna University Nagpur University Prachya Niketan Centre of Advanced Studies in Indology & Museology Punjab University Patna University Sagar University Tamil University Telugu University Vikram University Varanaseya Sanskrit University

District/State Muzaffarpore Bihar

Gwalior Madhya Pradesh

Allahabad Uttar Pradesh

Delhi 28°40ǯ; 77°14ǯ

Besnagar 23°32ǯ; 77°48ǯ

Bhita 23°05ǯ; 80°00ǯ

Bijai Mandal

2 fragments of azure blue bead, length 3/8". Blue bead, length 3/16". 1) 46 green, polygonal beads, diameter 3/8" – 1/16", 2) Green, polygonal bead, diameter ¼", 3) 2 beads covered with thin layer of gold leaf, diameter 3/8" & 1/8", 4) 3 bluish beads, diameter 5/16" - 3/16", 5) Deep blue bead, and 6) A fragmentary bead, diameter 7/16". Glass beads

Mauryan/Sunga A.D. 3rd century A.D. 5th century

Coins of Alaud-d-Din Khilji, Qutbu-d-Din,

Gupta Period

Maurya/Sunga 2nd century B.C.

Post Gupta

Glass & glass beads A blue glass with facets. A long and flat glass of greenish yellow hue. 3 glass beads: 1) Small barrel-shaped and green coloured, 2) Round yellow glass bead with doted bands and 3) Long cylindrical shaped stone bead of brown colour. 2 beads: 1) Translucent, blue, cube, and corner cut off bead and 2) Translucent, red and threesided pyramid shaped bead. Translucent yellowish white, flattened barrel bead. 2 glass beads: 1) Tiny glass bead, diameter 7/16Ǝ, orange shaped and dark blue in colour and 2) Glass bead, height 9/16Ǝ, chimney shaped and perforated through the height and blue in colour. 75 small black beads are found near eastern gate of city.

Period/Date A.D. 4th-5th century

These beads are found in two treasure wells along

Numerous beads of other varieties and claimed to be a bead manufacturing site.

Stone-top casket lid, copper bangles and beads of terracotta, carnelian, jasper, agate and crystal.

Other related details It was an important Gupta centre and capital of Licchavis and Vaisali. Plenty of stone beads have also been reported.

Srivastava and Mandal 1930-34:

Marshall 1911-12: 94.

Bhandarkar 191415: 66-88.

Reference Spooner 1913-14: 98-185.

Table 2: Glass and glass beads finding in Indian archaeology as reported in Archaeological Survey of India Annual Reports from 1902–1937.

Site Basarh 25°58ǯ; 88°11ǯ

2.2.2

32

Sirkap mound

Taxila 33°40ǯ; 72°45ǯ

Lower city of Sirkap

In block D a glass (?) signet for ring engraved figure of a lion was found and in block E amber glass fragment with ridges was found on surface.

Spear-shaped pendant of green glass, 7/8Ǝ long.

A seal impression in glass, 1/2Ǝ diameter and bearing a legend in Brahmi characters of the 3rd century B.C. Two oval glass gems, one with flat face banded in green, white and blue; engraving indistinct two encabuchon, of dull brown glass.

A.D. 6th century

Nalanda Bihar

Nalanda 23°8ǯ; 85°27ǯ

Bhir mound

Coloured glass beads

Monastery No 2 Coins of Andhra period (A.D. 3rd century)

Guntur Andhra Pradesh

Nagarjunikonda 16°31ǯ; 79°14ǯ

Block E Uppermost periodearly Kusana or late Palava Second period Saka-Palava Lowest period Greek Coin of Diodotus Antiochus II and 160 punch marked coins.

Glass & glass beads

Period/Date Firuz Shah Tughlaq etc.

District/State

Site

Gold smith’s crucible (?) of terracotta, 3 9/16Ǝ x 1 15/16Ǝ across mouth; pierced with small hole at base. Gold ornaments are found in large number. Many more ornaments of gold, silver, bronze, shell and terracotta.

Lot other ornaments of gold, copper and terracotta.

Other related details with pieces of ivory, and china and beads of pearl, red coral, gold and ruby. A few gold leaf flowers, rock crystals, coral and pearl beads were enclosed in a tiny gold casket shaped like a stupa found inside a small silver casket of similar shape.

Marshall 1914-15: 1-35.

Marshall 1912-13: 1-52.

Page 1926-27: 139.

Longhurst 1928-29: 103.

Reference 147.

33

Site

Sirkap mound

Mound of Akra Sirkap mound

District/State

Monastery C, D and E. Block D Parthian period rebuilt of Monastery.

Block G

One reddish brown glass bead in the form of fish pierced lengthwise, length 1Ǝ and three other glass beads.

5 beads of glass, 4 of which coral coloured and the other burnt dark. Bangles of shell, copper and glass.

Fragments of glass, paste and limestone. A glass flask of sea-green colour. A glass seal engraved with a lion.

Stupa S9

Early Kusana and Scyths-Parthian strata

Glass & glass beads Inside an earthen pot from U1 a casket of gandhara stone was found. Inside this relic casket 124 beads of different shape and material are found including that of glass.

Period/Date Dharmarajka stupa

Many more other ornaments are found in hoards.

Many more gold ornaments and also tortoise and fish shaped beads.

Other related details Beads were of various shapes: round, 24-sided, amygdaloid, lenticular, octagonal and irregular; one in the form of monkey and two of tortoise. The material used were carnelian, green jasper, topaz, limestone, aquamarine, garnet, amethyst, mother-of-pearl, crystal, ruby, bone and glass. One of the carnelian beads is of the shape and make common in Maurya times.

Marshall 1926-27: 116. Marshall 1927-28: 59. Marshall 1928-29: 60-62.

Sahni 1923-24: 66. Marshall 1924-25: 48-49.

Reference Marshall 1915-16: 1-38.

34

Site

Bhir mound

District/State

Stupa no IV A silver coin of the Dioskourn type of Azilises and Roman coin issued by Augustus. Deposit was made in early part of A.D. 1st century 16 coins of which 6 are punch-marked and 10 local Taxilian coins.

Period/Date Minor stupas of A.D. 4th or 5th century

Highly polished cylindrical black glass earplug with slightly concave sides. One end decorated with 10 flutes radiating from the centre but the other end is slightly convex, diameter 1.75Ǝ, length 1Ǝ.

Glass & glass beads In stupa A5, was found a small earthen pot containing 2 beads: one of shell and another was of black glass. Beads of other materials are also noticed from this stupa. In stupa A15, was found another crushed jar containing 3 beads, of blue glass, agate and coral respectively. In stupa A1 in relic chamber in a casket of steatite, found a spherical casket covered in gold-leaf contained many beads including 2 green of glass. In the casket, some glass beads were found.

Khan sahib 193637: 30.

Other related details Reference Other materials found in the Marshall 1930-34. same pot are, a piece of carnelian finger ring and 2 pieces of coral. A gold ear ornament set with 3 pearls was also found. Other beads were 1 barrel shaped bead of beryl, 6 pearls and 1 decayed bead of bone. Khan sahib 1934Other antiquities include 35: 30. half of the goldsmith’s mould with four grooved ear-pendants, rosettes on one face and four channels for pouring molten and two socket holes.

35

District/State Barelley Uttar Pradesh

Stratum I: A.D. 850 1100

Stratum II: A.D. 750 – 850

Stratum III: A.D. 350 – 750

Stratum IV: A.D. 100 – 350

Stratum VI & V: 100 B.C. – A.D. 100

Stratum VII: 200-100 B.C.

Stratum VIII: 300200 B.C.

Period/Date Stratum IX: before 300 B.C.

Glass and glass beads More than 100 glass beads are found from excavation and many more from surface. From the excavated materials, 28 are of green glass beads, their shades were ranging from a bright leaf-green to a dull green; 12 transparent and rest are opaque. Colouring agents appears to be copper in most cases, but 3 or 4 seem to be coloured with iron. Most of them are wire wound and few moulded beads. They are distributed in all strata, only one from strata VIII, while none from IV. Besides, the common shapes, like spherical and oblate, there are number of hexagonal forms (barrel, cylinder and flattened), corner less cubes, cubes and circular lenticular, some rare shapes are a curved pendant and a double chamfered cylinder, square in section. 12 blue-green glass resembling the Persian blue shades. Only 3 stratified attributed to strata IVc and I. Mostly cane-glass, wound on a spoke and in several cases flattened to form a lenticular shape when the glass was plastic. Out of 33 blue glass beads a very large percentage is coloured with cobalt or copper, distributed in strata IV to I. Glass is generally of very good quality and the beads are moulded, there being only a few instances of cane-glass. Most popular shapes are spherical and oblate. A blue millifiori glass – a small barrel lenticular bead with lug-collars, having a millifiori pattern on it. The composite white and black glass beads are

The technology hypothesized for green and blue glass beads are wirewound and moulding. Besides, there were evidences of millifiori and gold-foil beads, whose technology are altogether different.

A thin film of salt is visible on several transparent beads. Here it is interesting to note that at Purdalpur some bead-workers rub salt on the mandrel before winding glass beads onto it. This helps in detaching the beads from mandrel easily.

Other related details Among surface collection one specimen is of red glass with white core. It is a cylinder tube bead, having a white porcelainous matrix, over which a transparent red coloured glass is coated.

Table 3: Glass and glass beads finding in Indian archaeology as reported in Ancient India 1946-1966.

Site Ahichchhatra 28°5ǯ; 79°25ǯ

2.2.3 Reference Dikshit 1952a: 53.

36

District/State

Pondicherry

Site

Arikamedu 11°55ǯ; 79°50ǯ

A.D. 1st–2nd century

Period/Date

Glass and glass beads 7 orange glasses – short barrel annular shaped distributed in strata IV and III. The colour is due to cuprous oxide. 8 gold foiled glass beads from strata IV. 5 beads of dark-red opaque glass distributed in strata VIII to II. With the exception of one moulded, all are made from long canes and are fire polished. 15 specimens of black glass beads out of which 9 are from stratified deposit. Oldest from stratum IX, 3 from stratum VIII, 2 from stratum I. All are opaque cane glass and fire polished, only exception being the bicone pentagonal bead, which is a coiled bead. 6 specimens of composite black and white glass beads have been found. Materials used for the manufacture of beads are: chalcedony quartz, including agate and carnelian; crystalline quartz, including crystal and amethyst; shell, bone, gold, terracotta, faience and glass. A majority of the beads is made of glass. The range of colour is limited, shades of blue and green colours are most popular throughout, followed by copper-red; less common colour being white and black. Whilst yellow, violet, brown and grey are rarely represented. The material is generally opaque but sometimes translucent; transparent glass is absent. A few very tiny glass beads, spherical or spheroid in shape, have been found in all periods. Some glass beads from the later strata in the southern sector are misshaped in manufacture. From ‘Sangam’, more than 200 beads of various materials were found in the excavations, besides a number of unfinished ones and fragments of semiprecious stones doubtless intended for the industry. It is evident that beads were manufactured on a large scale at

India imported glass from West along with coral, lead, copper, tin, vases, lamps, and wine, and at first coined money.

2) by twisting a number of canes of coloured glass into the requisite shape with an alternating band or bands of white introduced into the spirals at the time of finishing.

1) by adding a intermediate layer of white glass in between two strips of black and by moulding them into the requisite shape.

Other related details produced by two process:

Wheeler et al. 1946: 95-97.

Reference

37

District/State

Chitaldrug 14°13ǯ; 76°24ǯ Karnataka

Meerut Uttar Pradesh

Site

Brahmagiri

Hastinapur 29°9ǯ; 78°3ǯ

Glass and glass beads The lug-collared beads first make their appearance in the ‘Arretine’ period (first half of 1st century A.D.), and continue throughout the post Arretine layers of the Northern sector to the latest period of the southern (2nd century A.D.). Out of 54 bangles from the town-site, none from phase I (stone axe culture), one fragmentary shell bangle was found in phase II (Megalithic), and the remainders, variously of shell, clay, bone, glass, bronze and gold were derived from phase III (Andhra period). From town site out of 77 beads 5 were glass.

First appearance of lugcollared beads in fist half of A.D. 1st century. The abundance of glass in the Andhra series is noteworthy.

Other related details Arikamedu.

Wheeler 1947-48: 263-64.

Reference

First good evidence of regular use of glass bangles prior to A.D. 1st century in India. I. OCP (pre 1200 Glass bangles are the largest among the bangles Glass bangles are decorated Lal 1954-55: 5with a very familiar device, 151. B.C.) and mostly from period V. Most of these are i.e., tiny studs round the II. PGW (800-1000 opaque, but some are translucent and some are outer edge. The use of B.C.) stratified. stratified glass is also III. NBP (early 3rd The occurrence of glass bangles in period II is noteworthy as till that dates that was the earliest. common. century B.C. - early In all out of 18 glass beads, 10 are fragmentary. Out of 211 beads including 6th century B.C.) one pendant, of which 116 The colour ranges from black to deep blue and IV. Red ware (late are of terracotta, 12 copper, green. They include 4 opaque beads of which A.D. 3rd century – 1 each of gold and ivory the spherical ones are made of terracotta. Glass early 2nd century and 3 of bone; rest beads are found in all the periods except I and B.C.) comprises carnelian, agate, V. Glazed ware (early are distributed as follows: period II: 1; period A.D. 5th century – III: 10; period IV: 3; and period V: 4. The other chalcedony, onyx, crystalline quartz, amethyst, shapes met with are long or short cylinder late 11th century) green jasper, faience and circular. glass.

Phase III Andhra period

Period/Date

38

District/State Raichur Karnataka

Dhule Maharashtra

Site Maski 15°57ǯ; 76°38ǯ

Prakash 21°30ǯ; 74°21ǯ

Twenty-one glass beads and few bangles.

Twelve glass beads.

Period III Early historic

Period IV Medieval

Period IV About the end of

Period III Middle of the 2nd century B.C. to end of A.D. 6th century Early historic

Five beads from period III Fourteen beads from period IV Beads are made either by spirally winding or by drawing canes or by simple drawing of the viscous matter on the tip of an instrument. Besides, the distinctive technique of perforating these by a poker, which produces a burred edge on one side, is also evident on some beads. One green glass bead, copper coloured and a translucent pendant, mallet shaped are found from an early level of period III. Colours of the glass beads are yellow, shades of green, blue and black, besides composite ones

Six beads and few bangles of glass. Bangles are plain and artless, and also poorly represented.

Period II Megalithic

Period II c. 600-100 B.C. Early iron age

Glass and glass beads Four glass beads. They are the only Chalcolithic glass evidence in India.

Period/Date Period I Chalcolithic

Other related details Beads were outstanding. They were variously of amethyst, carnelian, agate, chalcedony, coral, shell, glass and paste. An exclusive shape in paste is a concave-sided square (star shaped) tabular bead, decorated with four incised circles on each side. The occurrence of glass bangles in the strata prior to Christian era is significant. Other material used for beads were of coral, shell, paste, terracotta and of various silicon materials. Two unstratified glass beads have also been recovered. The presence of few unfinished specimens in various stages indicates local manufacture of beads. The collection includes one bead each of banded cane, gadrooned and segmented or double variety and mallet or club-shaped pendant. Other shapes comprise: barrel 7; spherical, 1 from period IV; long cylinder circular, 5 from period III

Thapar et al. 196465: 110-11.

Reference Thapar 1957.

39

Site

District/State

Period/Date A.D. 6th century to 11th century Historic

Eight examples of bichrome and polychrome variety of glass bangles were found in period IV. The bichrome ones show a basal black or tan band over which either a plain thin strip or a design in yellow art dots are applied and fused with the body. On the polychrome ones, combinations of yellow and green over basal black in pleasing contrast are much in evidence. The occurrence of polychrome glass bangles in levels ascribable to the close of the A.D. 1st millennium is also corroborated at Ujjain and Yeleswarm. Hitherto it was known to occur only around the A.D. 14th century.

Of the 45 glass bangles, 2 came from period II, 4 from period III, 38 from period IV and 1 from an unstratified deposit. Occurrence of monochrome bangles in the earliest levels of period II is noteworthy. Excavations at Nagda and Ujjain have also indicated the use of monochrome glass bangles in c. 6th -5th century B.C.

The excavation also yielded five rings, two of copper and three of glass. Glasses are represented in translucent red, opaque blue and green, and measure on an average 2 cm in diameter.

Glass and glass beads with a yellow matrix and green coating are found. The hypothesised technique of manufacture of glass beads are winding, drawing and poking.

Other related details Reference & IV; standard convex and gourd, one each and a long cylinder square faceted resembling a corner less cube (?), one from period IV. Glass bangles are of two varieties, translucent and opaque. Of these, the former, available in lightgreen and blue colours and with pentagonal and circular in section, is stratigraphically earlier than the later, represented in black, green and lapis lazuli blue colours and having circular, rectangular and plano-convex sections. Black bangles are abundant in period IV. Quite a number of them are not completely circular. The occurrence of such deformed examples speaks of local industry. Where as the translucent variety with pentagonal section seems to have been manufactured by the use of mould. Pulling out the plastic glass to the required shape apparently made a majority of the opaque bangles.

40

District/State Khurda Orissa

Sirkap mound

Site Sisupalgarh 20°13ǯ; 85°51ǯ

Taxila 33°40ǯ; 72°45ǯ

Phase III A.D. 50 – early 2nd century

Found between phases I (mid 1st century B.C. – beginning of Christian era) and II (beginning of Christian era – A.D. 50).

Period/Date Early historic 3rd century B.C. to A.D. 4th century

From total fifty-five glass beads, thirty-six small opaque beads are found in a group. Their colour ranges from dark-yellow to orange and copperred and are disc cylinder circular in shape. The remaining glass beads are usually opaque but at times translucent and had different colours; the shape also takes different forms. Colour varies from blue, grey opaque, white opaque, green opaque, light-blue, white iridescent glass, black opaque, and blue translucent. Grooved collared and long barrel beads were also found. Nineteen glass bangles mostly green or blue in colour, generally opaque and rarely translucent, found with a white chalky coating. They occur at all levels.

Twelve terracotta pendants and nine fragments of glass bangles have also been found.

Glass and glass beads Total 180 beads variously of carnelian (terracotta in one instance), onyx, agate, chalcedony, amethyst, glass, terracotta and copper.

Other related details 148 terracotta ear ornaments (one of lead), 9 finger rings and 28 bangles of terracotta, copper, ivory, bone and glass (9 fragments) were recovered. These were confined to periods II and III. Their introduction to the site, therefore, presumably took place towards the end of the 2nd century A.D. Numerous examples of ear ornaments moulds are also recovered.

Ghosh 1947-48: 73, 79.

Reference Lal 1947-48: 89.

41

Period V 150 B.C. – A.D. 200 Period V

Top two layers, trenches ADG-1 to ADG-18. Period II A.D. 200-900

Period II 1st century B.C. beginning of Christian era. Period I 5th–1st century B.C. NBP and rouletted ware Period II 1st century B.C. A.D. 5th century Black and red ware, and rouletted ware

Nagpur Maharashtra

Hoshangabad Madhya Pradesh Dharampuri Tamil Nadu

Hissar Haryana

Ramanathpuram Tamil Nadu

Adam 21°; 79°27ǯ

Adamgarh 77°45ǯ; 22°45ǯ Adiyamankottai 10°45ǯ; 79°40ǯ

Agroha 29°15ǯ; 75°35ǯ

Alagankulam 9°20ǯ; 78°55ǯ

Period/Date

District/State

Glass beads of different hues such as green, blue, black and yellow, and shell beads.

A large number of beads made of green and blue glass and coral.

Bangle pieces of shell and glass.

Glass bangles and paste beads.

486 beads of terracotta, glass, bone, ivory, copper, agate, carnelian, chert and chalcedony. Bead industry evidenced by various shaped beads in various stages of manufacture made of glass, terracotta, semi-precious stones, steatite, kaolin, shell, bone and copper. Few terracotta and carnelian beads with line designs and a crystal bead with an excellent finish are found. Glass beads are found in plenty. Few pieces of glass and glass bangles.

Glass and glass beads

Beads of other materials are of agate, crystal, carnelian, aquamarine and jasper. Coin of Roman emperor Arcadius I (A.D. 383-408).

Few iron beads have also been found.

Claimed to be a bead production centre on the basis of findings of beads at various stages of production. Some bead polishers are also found.

Copper pendants.

Other related details

1990-91: 68. A. A. Majeed, GDA.

1960-61: 13. R.V. Joshi, ASI. 1980-81: 65. K.V. Raman, Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU. 1979-80: 31. GDA.

Reference/Work lead by 1988-89: 56. A. Nath, ASI. 1989-90: 65, 1990-91: 50. A Nath, ASI.

Table 4: Glass and glass beads finding in Indian archaeology as reported in Indian Archaeological Review from 1954 –1998.

Site

2.2.4

42

District/State

Tiruchchirappalli Tamil Nadu

Meerut Uttar Pradesh

Mahbubnagar Andhra Pradesh Rewa Madhya Pradesh

Kamrup Assam

Sultanpur Uttar Pradesh

Site

Alagarai 10°5ǯ; 78°10ǯ

Alamgirpur 29°29ǯ; 77°1ǯ

Alampur 15°50ǯ; 78°05ǯ Amahata 23°20ǯ; 80°20ǯ

Ambari 26°11ǯ; 90°45ǯ

Amethi 26°45ǯ; 81°05ǯ

Exploration Red, black-slipped and NBP ware.

Wheel made pottery and a fragment of Chinese celadon ware. Period I A.D. 7th–13th century

Period II PGW, black-slipped, black and red ware. Period IV A.D. 14th-17th century Medieval structure. Megaliths

Period I 3rd–4th century B.C. Black and red ware and russet coated ware Period II A.D. 1st century

Period/Date In the lowest levels, a large number of beads of shell with their shape similar to the barley grains have been found. New shapes of glass beads.

Beads of shell and glass.

A few rings of iron and copper.

Among beads of other material there are a few terracotta beads, 4 carnelian and 5 coral beads.

Beads and bangles of terracotta and glass.

Pieces of green glass and bangles.

Glass and glass bracelets.

200 Megalithic sites.

Glass bangles and beads of semi-precious stones from corresponding habitation sites.

Glass bangles

New innovation in the shape of glass and paste beads. Bangles of glass and shell made their appearance. Beads of glass.

Other related details

Glass and glass beads

1958-59: 54. Y.D. Sharma, ASI. 1986-87: 11. H.N. Singh, ASI. 1980-81: 38. G.R. Sharma, Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, AU. 1968-69: 3-4. Dept. of Anthropology, GWU. 1987-88: 9. T.C. Sharma, Dept. of Anthropology, GWU. 1986-87: 89. M.C. Joshi, ASI.

Reference/Work lead by 1963-64: 21. Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU.

43

Wardha Maharashtra

Arambha 20°34ǯ; 78°59ǯ Arikamedu 11°55ǯ; 79°50ǯ

Pondicherry

Nawadah Bihar

In trenches AV 91-VI and AV 91-VII Mediterranean amphora and a three letter graffiti, perhaps a title of early Chola rulers.

Period II Red ware and coarse red ware Vishnu temple of latter Gupta period. Period V Medieval grey pottery. 2nd-early 1st century B.C. Megalithic pottery

Early centuries of Christian era

North Arcot Tamil Nadu

Apsad 25°4ǯ; 85°39ǯ

Few pieces of green glass.

Second phase A.D. 13th-15th century

A crystal bead or pendant with two perforations.

In Northern sector large quantity of shell, glass and semiprecious stones were found in a pit of trench AV 91-VI; and a furnace like structure was indicative of the industrial use of some of the space in the area.

A small piece of blue glass from an imported ribbed bowl.

Terracotta beads.

Five beads of semi-precious stones and 6 of terracotta.

Terracotta beads of various shapes.

Glass industry.

Other related details

Stone and glass beads, two of which have traces of gold leaf, and a few glass bangles.

Beads of terracotta, stone and glass; bangles of glass and bronze. Glass bangles.

One glass bead.

Two glass beads.

One site was noticed with evidence of glass industry.

Glass and glass beads

Exploration

Anantpur 14°30ǯ; 77°10ǯ Antichak 25°19ǯ; 87°16ǯ Appukalu 12°53ǯ; 78°59ǯ

Period/Date

Anantpur Andhra Pradesh Bhagalpur Bihar

District/State

Site

1961-62: 4. R.C.P. Singh and B.P. Sinha, PU. 1979-80: 70. K.V. Raman, Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU. 1973-74: 10-11. B.P. Sinha, GDAM. 1979-80: 14. S.R. Roy, GDAM 1991-92: 73-74. A. Nath, ASI. 1989-90: 87. Vimla Begley, Pennsylvania Univ. 1990-91: 58. Vimla Begley, Pennsylvania Univ.

Reference/Work lead by 1987-88: 1. GDAM.

44

Yavatmal Maharashtra

Arni 20°50ǯ; 70°15ǯ Atranjikhera 27°42ǯ; 78°44ǯ

Period IV

Bahal

Polychrome Bahmani bangles.

Beads of semi-precious stones and glass.

Phase III, Iron age

East Khandesh

Beads of semi-precious stones and glass.

Beds of copper, crystal, glass and terracotta.

Wheel made pottery

Bhilwara Rajasthan

NBP Early historic

Faizabad Uttar Pradesh

Glass objects.

Glass and lac bangles.

Bagor 25°21ǯ; 74°23ǯ

Period I PGW

Gurgaon Punjab

Autha 27°50ǯ; 77°05ǯ Ayodhya 26°48ǯ; 82°14ǯ

Period IV Red ware

Bangles of shell and glass.

Period VII A Jaina temple

Kanpur Dehat Uttar Pradesh

Ear-studs and beads of semi-precious stones, pearls, gold, glass, terracotta, shell, and glass bangles. Glass bangles.

Glass beads and wastes.

Northern sector 1st century B.C.

Period III Post Mauryan to Satavahana Period III PGW/Iron Age

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

Aunahan 79°56ǯ; 26°37ǯ

Etah Uttar Pradesh

District/State

Site

A square shaped copper amulet was found around the neck of a burial at trench E. Along with this bangle

Terracotta beads. Burntbrick structures, laid in mud-mortar were noticed in this period.

Beads of semi-precious stones.

Other related details

1956-57: 18.

1964-65: 33. K.M. Srivastava, ASI. 1969-70: 41. A.K. Narain, Dept. of A.I.H. & Archaeology, BHU. 1967-68: 41. V.N. Misra, DC. 1968-69: 28. V.N. Misra, DC.

Reference/Work lead by 1991-92: 90. Vimla Begley, Pennsylvania Univ. 1978-79: 72. Dept. of A.I.H. & Archaeology, NU 1965-66: 47. R.C. Gaur, Dept. of History, AMU. 1979-80: 76. R.C. Gaur, Dept. of History, AMU. 1995-96: 99. G.T. Shendey, ASI.

45

Micro beads of glass and two fragmentary bangles.

Beads of various shapes of terracotta, rockcrystal, lapis-lazuli, carnelian, glass, agate and jade. Raw materials used for bead making are glass, terracotta, carnelian and coral.

Period III Megalithic

Period IV Early historic

Period II Satavahana Period III Kadamba phase Period IV Post Kadamba Period II Indus culture

Period IV Rajput-Sultane times. Red and thick grey-

Kolar Karnataka

Uttara Kannada Karnataka

Hissar Haryana

Agra Uttar Pradesh

Banahalli 12°58ǯ; 78°66ǯ

Banavasi 14°36ǯ; 75°54ǯ

Banawali 29°31ǯ; 75°30ǯ Batesvara 26°56ǯ; 78°33ǯ

Period III Iron age

Beads of faience and glass.

Glazed beads.

Micro beads of semi-precious stones, glass, paste, lac and coral, in addition to glass bangles. Beads of terracotta, semi-precious stones, lac, coral and glass. Few glass beads and bangle pieces.

Large number of glass bangles and beads.

Period II Early historic

Udaipur Rajasthan

Balathal 24°43ǯ; 73°59ǯ

A.D. 1300 to 1700

Maharashtra

Glass and glass beads

20°35ǯ; 75°5ǯ

Period/Date

District/State

Site

A small percentage of micaceous red ware. Coins of post-Vijayanagara period. Clay crucibles

A spurt in bead making was evidenced. Diverse material and shapes come in vogue.

Mughal glazed ware and Chinese golden ware were suggestive enough for dates. Beads of semi-precious stones like jasper, carnelian, banded agate, steatite, paste, shell and terracotta. Few pieces of terracotta bangles. Beads of stone with bands, copper, arecanut shaped terracotta, and shell bangles.

Other related details

1983-84: 27-28. R.S. Bisht, GDAM. 1975-76: 43. J.S. Nigam, ASI.

1985-86: 44. B. Narasimhaiah, ASI. 1986-87: 45. B. Narasimhaiah, ASI. 1994-95: 40, 1995-96: 44. K.P. Poonacha, ASI.

1983-84: 45. L.K. Srinivasan, ASI.

1993-94: 96, 1996-97: 98. V.N. Misra, DC.

Reference/Work lead by M.N. Deshpande, ASI.

46

Aurangabad Maharashtra

Patiala (now Fateh Garh Sahib) Punjab

Broach Gujarat

Bhokardan 20°16ǯ; 75°47ǯ

Brass 30°38ǯ; 76°22ǯ

Broach 22°42ǯ; 72°50ǯ

Kusana Phase PGW mixed with black-slipped ware and Kusana ware. Period I Tentatively beginning of the period is 3rd

Period II Gupta idiom sculpture Medieval period

Satavahana period Mound I

Period II A.D. 8th-12th century

Dehra Dun 30°20ǯ; 78°3ǯ Uttar Pradesh

Bharat Mandir

black ware. Satavahana period

Period/Date

Period IB PGW appearance

District/State

Gulbarga 17°20ǯ; 76°50ǯ Karnataka Bhagwanpura Kurukshetra 30°4ǯ; 76°57ǯ Haryana

Benagutti

Site

Beads of glass, terracotta and semi-precious stones like agate, chert and chalcedony.

Glass bangles.

Beads of glass, terracotta and semi-precious stones and glass bangles.

Over thousand beads, pendants and amulets of agate, carnelian, crystal, lapis, jade, glass, jasper, faience and terracotta. Polychrome bangles.

Glass bangles and beads.

Semiprecious beads made of chalcedony, agate, carnelian, crystal, faience and paste; glass bangles and copper necklaces. Bangles in sea-blue and black glass.

Glass and glass beads

Beads were found in large quantities at all stages of fabrication and the shapes

Terracotta ear studs and bangles. Dishes of glazed wares, cooking vessels with rustication and shootmarks, miniature pots and basins, etc.

A dozen bead moulds.

More than sixty coins of copper and lead datable to late Satavahana period. A large number of terracotta ghata (pot) shaped and incised biconical beads.

Other related details

1959-60: 19. K.V. Soundara Rajan,

1993-94: 91. K.K. Rishi, DCAAM.

1982-83: 96. K.P. Nautiyal, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, GRU. 1972-73: 20-21. S.B. Deo, NU. 1973-74: 20. S.B. Deo, NU. 1991-92: 91, 1993-94: 91, 1996-97: 90. K.K. Rishi, DCAAM.

1997-98: 80. K. Veerbhadra Rao, ASI. 1975-76: 17. J.P. Joshi, ASI.

Reference/Work lead by

47

Cherman

Beads of terracotta, glass, ivory, crystal, agate and bone. Glass beads

Period III Late Kusana to Gupta

A.D. 13th-16th century

Vaishali Bihar

Trichur

Beads of agate, carnelian, jasper, glass, shell, terracotta, faience, paste and lapis lazuli.

Stone and glass beads. Terracotta crucibles.

Beads of semi-precious stones, glass and terracotta.

Period III Early historic

Chandahadih

Chandravalli 14°13ǯ; 76°23ǯ Chechar

Bhagalpur Bihar

Champa 25°15ǯ; 86°56ǯ

Bangle pieces and beads of glass.

Glass beads and bangles.

Stone and glass beads and glass bangles. Beads of terracotta, stone, glass and bone. Pendants of terracotta.

Mahbubnagar Andhra Pradesh

Chagatpur 15°58ǯ; 78°14ǯ

Period III About A.D. 1000 Medieval glazed ware Period III Medieval times A coin issued by Humayun Shah Bahamani. Phase IA Black and NBP ware

Period IV Glass bangles. Medieval glazed ware

Glass and glass beads

Muzaffarpur 26°7ǯ; 85°22ǯ Bihar Chitradurga Karnataka

Shahabad Bihar

Buxar 25°34ǯ; 84°1ǯ

century B.C. Black and red ware.

Period/Date

CMP-IM Phase I NBP and late NBP phase Gupta level Period II Red ware

District/State

Site

Reference/Work lead by ASI.

Bangle pieces of conch.

At CMP IK findings of stone moulds indicate it to be Gupta period jeweller manufacturing centre.

1977-78: 15. S.R. Roy, GDAM. 1977-78: 29. V. Mishra, ASI. 1988-89: 9. B.K. Sharan, ASI. 1968-69: 10.

1971-72: 5. S. Verma, PU. 1974-75: 9, 1975-76: 7. B.P. Sinha, GDAM.

are spherical, barrel, triangular-sectioned and disc. A gold armlet weighing 252 1963-64: 9. grams. B.P. Sinha, GDAM 1965-66: 11. B.P. Sinha, GDAM. 1977-78: 11. GDAM.

Other related details

48

Kerala

Parambu 10°10ǯ; 76°45ǯ Chirand 25°45ǯ; 84°50ǯ

Sultanpur Uttar Pradesh

Aurangabad Maharashtra

Danwa 26°5ǯ; 81°56ǯ

Daulatabad 19°55ǯ; 75°10ǯ

Saran Bihar

District/State

Site

Complex of A.D. 16th – 17th century

Exploration Red, black-slipped, NBP and coarse grey ware. Muslim period Near Delhi gate

Period III Red ware and medium coarse ware Kusana affiliation. Period V Beginning of Christian era. Period V Red ware of early Christian era

Period/Date

A heap of human bones and pieces of skull in association with a glass bangle and two finger rings.

Glass bangles and sherds of celadon ware, two with Chinese character at their base.

Glass bangles

Glass bangles.

Glass bangles.

Objects of glass.

Glass and glass beads

Many other ornaments.

Beads of terracotta, jasper and crystal.

Stone beads.

Other related details

1971-72: 7. B.P. Sinha, GDAM. 1981-82: 14. B.K. Narain and A.K. Singh, Dept. of A.I.H. & Archaeology, PU. 1986-87: 89. M.C. Joshi and J.S. Nigam, ASI. 1981-82: 49. M.S. Mate, C.L. Suri and P.N. Kamble, DC, BISM, MRU and ASI. 1984-85: 51. M.S. Mate, C.L. Suri and P.N. Kamble, DC, BISM, MRU and ASI.

Reference/Work lead by K.V. Soundara Rajan, ASI. 1963-64: 7. B.P. Sinha, GDAM.

49

District/State

Karnal Haryana

Sabar-kantha Gujarat

Site

Daulatpur 29°57ǯ; 76°56ǯ

Devnimori 23°39ǯ;

Large number of glass bangles, glass and beads of semiprecious stones and terracotta.

Glass bangles.

Medieval A gold coin of Yadava period.

Indo-Islamic Period

Stupa and findings of Kshatrapa period.

Pieces of glass bangles.

Period II PGW Period III Early historic

Fragments of hollow cylindrical objects of blue glass.

Beads of glass, stone and terracotta; glass and shell bangles.

Bangles of copper, shell and glass Beads of glass, carnelian and terracotta.

Period III Grey and NBP ware

Beads made of carnelian, glass, terracotta, chalcedony; bangles of different types and colours.

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

A gold leaf.

Beads of terracotta and stone, and copper bangles.

Copper finger ring, amulet, earring and buckle; ivory pendant and stone beads.

Other related details

Reference/Work lead by 1985-86: 57, 1988-89: 46. M.S. Mate, C.L. Suri and P.N. Kamble, DC, BISM, MRU and ASI. 1986-87: 60. M.S. Mate, C.L. Suri and P.N. Kamble, DC, BISM, MRU and ASI. 1987-88: 83. M.S. Mate, C.L. Suri and P.N. Kamble, DC, BISM, MRU and ASI. 1968-69: 9. U.V. Singh and Suraj Bhan, Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, KU 1977-78: 23. U.V. Singh, Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, KU 1962-63: 8. R.N. Mehta,

50

Gorakhpur Uttar Pradesh

Jamnagar Gujarat

Sagar Madhya Pradesh

Dwarka 22°15ǯ; 69°0ǯ

Eran 24°5ǯ; 78°10ǯ

Guntur Andhra Pradesh

73°26ǯ Dharanikota 16°34ǯ; 80°17ǯ

Dhuriapur 26°25ǯ; 83°15ǯ

District/State

Site

DWK1 15th-14th century B.C. DWK3 A.D. 5th century Period III First five centuries of Christian era Period IV A.D. 16th–18th century Period III 200 B.C. Red polished ware

Beads of terracotta, carnelian, glass, paste, chalcedony, crystal and shell.

Abundance of glass and lac bangles.

Beads of terracotta, glass, shell and semiprecious stones.

Polychrome glass bangles in layer 5.

Glass bangles from layer 3.

Bangles made of terracotta and glass.

Glass bangles of various colours.

Fragments of shell bangles.

Stone beads.

A goldsmith’s mould.

Perhaps imported through oceanic and riverine trade.

An assortment of glass objects. In strata of phase II with megalithic black-andred ware fine glass bangles of mottled chocolate and black colours. Glass bangles and earrings of a bewildering variety and shape.

At DKT-2 Sherds of rouletted and NBP ware.

Period II Megalithic Black and red ware. Period III Rouletted ware Period III 200 B.C. – A.D. 500 Kusana and Gupta

Interesting finding is an earring of pasm-leaf.

Other related details

Glass objects of varying shapes and colours.

Glass and glass beads

Phase II c. 200 B.C. Black and red ware.

Period/Date

1961-62: 25. Dept. of A.I.H.C.

1960-61: 18. Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, K.D. Bajpai, SU.

1990-91: 72. P. Singh, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, BHU. 1979-80: 27. S.R. Rao, ASI.

Reference/Work lead by MSU. 1962-63: 2. M. Venkataramayya, ASI. 1963-64: 2. M. Venkataramayya, ASI. 1964-65: 2. K. Raghavachary, ASI.

51

District/State

Jhansi Uttar Pradesh Agra Uttar Pradesh

Basti Uttar Pradesh

Guntur Andhra

Site

Erich 24°5ǯ; 78°10ǯ Fatehpur Sikri 27°6ǯ; 77°39ǯ

Ganwaria & Salargarh 27°26ǯ; 83°7ǯ

Garapadu 16°30ǯ;

Beads of glass, terracotta, jasper and carnelian; bangles of glass, lac and shell.

Period IV Massive stone fortification Period III Coins of western Kshatrapa A.D. 4th century Period III A.D. 1st–6th century Period II 600-200 B.C. Medieval

Early historic

Period III NBP, early Kusana period Period I (Kusana) 8th–6th century B.C.

Glass bangles.

Red and glazed ware.

Apart from beads, bangle pieces of shell and glass were also found.

Beads of glass and semi-precious stones, and glass bangles.

Beads of glass and semi-precious stones.

Glass bangles.

Glass pieces and bangles, bangle pieces and a silver ring.

Mughal period Usual red ware

Few glass beads, fragments of bangles and Surahis.

Glass bangle pieces.

Shell and glass bangles.

Beads of terracotta, crystal, shell and glass.

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

A gold coin of Yadava period. Area to the west of western wall of horse and camel stables.

Stone beads.

Other related details

Reference/Work lead by & Archaeology, K.D. Bajpai, SU. 1964-65: 17. Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, K.D. Bajpai, SU. 1987-88: 78. V.D. Jha, HGVY. 1989-90: 100. H.N. Singh, ASI. 1979-80: 72. J.P. Srivastava and R.C. Gaur, ASI and AMU. 1981-82: 66, 1983-84: 84, 1984-85: 85. S.S. Biswas, ASI. 1985-86: 73. S.S. Biswas, ASI. 1986-87: 74. Sankar Nath and R.C. Gaur, AMU. 1974-75: 40. K.M. Srivastava, ASI. 1975-76: 50. K.M. Srivastava, ASI. 1992-93: 1. G. Kamalkar and

52

Pradesh

Sultanpur Uttar Pradesh

80°10ǯ

Gauriganj 26°10ǯ; 81°40ǯ Gilaulikhera 26°37ǯ; 78°5ǯ

1992-93: 41. K.P. Poonacha, ASI.

Beads of glass, crystal and other semi-precious stones and terracotta, and glass bangle pieces.

Beads of crystal and other semi-precious stones and terracotta besides glass and bangle pieces.

Fragments of glass bangles.

Beads of glass and semi-precious stones.

1989-90: 45. K.P. Poonacha, ASI. 1975-76: 20. S.R. Rao, ASI. 1983-84: 38. B.S. Nayal, ASI. 1987-88: 37. B. Narasimhaiah, ASI. 1991-92: 41. K.P. Poonacha, ASI.

BACRI & NGU. 1986-87: 90. M.C. Joshi and J.S. Nigam, ASI. 1981-82: 34, 1983-84: 52. R.K. Sharma, PNCASIM. 1971-72: 2, 1974-75: 3. Mohd.A. Khan, GDA.

B.R.Subramanyam,

Reference/Work lead by

Beads of terracotta and glass, and glass bangles.

5 gold coins of Vijayanagara period found in northeast of Saraswati temple.

Medieval times

Bellary Karnataka

Beads of terracotta and stone. Beads of agate, carnelian, jasper, amethyst, crystal and terracotta. Copper and silver rings inset with carnelian and jasper stones.

Ivory and glass bangles.

Glass bangle pieces.

Early medieval A.D. 485-519

Uttara Kannada Karnataka

Gudnaput 14°30ǯ; 74°55ǯ Hampi 15°20ǯ; 76°30ǯ

Fragments of ivory.

Glass objects and bangles.

Beads of faience paste and glass with segmented, gadrooned, cylindrical and disc types, and glass bangles of various colours.

Crystal beads.

Other related details

Glass pieces, bangles and beads.

Glass and glass beads

Nobleman’s palace no. 11

Muslim period

Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh

Exploration Red, black-slipped and NBP ware Period IV Gupta Period V, Post-Gupta

Period/Date

Golconda 17°23ǯ; 78°29ǯ

Morena Madhya Pradesh

District/State

Site

53

Gold pendants; beads of semi-precious stones and ivory, and glass bangles. One gold bead and some gold-coated glass beads. Gold treated glass beads.

Period IV Late medieval Period III NBP

Silver coins of Gupta King

Gupta and Kusana structures Period III Kusana period Rastrakuta A.D. 709 A.D. 18th–12th century A furlong to the east of the temple site.

Saharanpur Uttar Pradesh

Lucknow Uttar Pradesh

Mandasor Madhya Pradesh

Hulas 24°42ǯ; 77°22ǯ Hulas Khera 26°41ǯ; 81°1ǯ

Indragarh 24°27ǯ; 75°45ǯ

Hemmige 12°28ǯ; 76°45ǯ

Kurukshetra Haryana Mysore Karnataka

Harsh-ka-tila

Early historic level

Beads of glass and stone; fragments of bangles of ivory, shell and glass. Fragments of bangles of glass, ivory and shell, cowries, beads of carnelian, jasper, quartz, glass and terracotta.

Beads of terracotta, glass and carnelian.

Glass and terracotta beads, bangles of glass and shell. Glass and lacquer bangles.

Period VI Pieces of glass bangles and beads. Medieval glazed ware Rajput level Glass bangle pieces.

Ghata shaped and arecanut shaped terracotta beads, disc, glass and carnelian beads.

Gurgaon 28°28ǯ; 77°1ǯ Haryana

Beads of glass, terracotta and semi-precious stones, and bangles of glass.

Northeast of the Saraswati temple near the rock-cut temple. Period III NBPW

Harnol

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

District/State

Site

Near the Shiva temple

Terracotta and shell bangle pieces and terracotta wheels. An iron arrow-head.

Other related details

Reference/Work lead by 1993-94: 55. K.P. Poonacha, ASI. 1997-98: 34. B.R. Mani, ASI. 1997-98: 40. B.R. Mani, ASI. 1990-91: 20. B.M. Pande, IA. 1963-64: 26. M. H. Rao, GDA. 1962-63: 12. K.D. Bajpai, SU. 1978-79: 60. K.N. Dikshit, ASI. 1980-81: 71. R.C. Singh, GDA. 1983-84: 89. R. Tewari, GDA. 1985-86: 82. R. Tewari, GDA. 1958-59: 28. Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, H.V. Trivedi and V.S. Wakankar, SU.

54

Kadipur

Sultanpur

Allahabad Uttar Pradesh

Delhi

Exploration

Exploration Sultane and Mughal period Exploration Early historic Period VI Early historic

Delhi

Jhatkira III mound Jhusi 25°29ǯ; 81°55ǯ

Exploration PGW, grey ware and Kusana red ware

Delhi

Jhatkira I mound 28°31ǯ; 76°58ǯ Jhatkira II mound

Beads of glass, jasper, agate and carnelian.

Period IIIB Mature PGW level NBP ware levels

Glass bangles and micro beads, bracelets and

Glass, stone and shell bangles.

Blue glass bangle pieces.

Pieces of glass bangles.

Antiquities of glass and semi-precious stone beads. Glass bangles, pieces of green glass bottles of medieval times.

Beads of carnelian, terracotta and glass. Bangles made of shell, ivory, glass and terracotta. Beads of terracotta agate, jasper, amethyst, carnelian, crystal and glass, and terracotta bangles.

Period III Coins belonging to Sikandar Lodi Period III NBP

Etah Uttar Pradesh

Beads and pendants of carnelian, glass, crystal and agate.

Period I NBP

Kanpur Uttar Pradesh

Jakhera 27°50ǯ; 78°44ǯ

Bangles of glass and shell.

A.D. 3rd century

Osmanbad Maharashtra

Irla 18°15ǯ; 76°10ǯ Jajmau 26°25ǯ; 80°20ǯ

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

District/State

Site

Terracotta arecanut shaped

Semi-precious stone beads.

Ring and bangles of copper and violin.

An antimony rod of copper.

A hoard of 36 copper coins belonging to Sikandar Lodi.

Beads of terracotta, and siliceous materials.

Other related details

1991-92: 16. B.R. Mani, ASI. 1991-92: 16. B.R. Mani, ASI. 1994-95: 71. J.N. Pal, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, AU. 1986-87: 91.

Reference/Work lead by 1989-90: 69. A.P. Jamkhedkar, GDAM. 1976-77: 54. R.C. Singh, GDA. 1976-77: 54. R.C. Singh, GDA. 1974-75: 44. K.A. Nizami, Dept. of History, AMU. 1986-87: 78. M.D.N. Shahi, Dept. of History, AMU. 1991-92: 15. B.R. Mani, ASI.

55

Uttar Pradesh

Tanjavur 10°47ǯ; 79°8ǯ Tamil Nadu Chingleput Tamil Nadu

26°10ǯ; 82°20ǯ

Kambarmedu

Kanchipuram 12°50ǯ; 79°42ǯ

District/State

Site

Bangle pieces of glass and shell; beads of paste, soapstone and semi-precious stones.

slags.

Glass and glass beads

Period IA 200–100 B.C. Russet coated painted ware, red and black ware.

Beads of glass, terracotta and paste.

Period II Red polished ware Period III Late medieval

Beads of terracotta, glass, shell and paste.

Beads, studs and decorated bangle pieces of glass.

Beads of glass, paste and semi-precious stones.

Trench KCM4 Rouletted ware

Period II, Medieval Glass beads and bangles. A copper coin of Raja Raja Chola I (A.D. 980-1014) was found at a lower level. Beads of carnelian, crystal, paste, terracotta and Buddhist shrine glass. Bangles of glass, shell and terracotta. chamber Early century of Christian era

Red, black slipped, NBP and Muslim glazed ware. Medieval Chola period

Period/Date

Terracotta ear ornaments.

Coin moulds of Satavahana period.

and ghata shaped beads.

Other related details

1970-71: 32. T.S. Mahalingam, Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU. 1771-72: 43. C. Krishnamurty, Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU. 1972-73: 30. C. Krishnamurty, Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU. 1974-75: 38. C. Krishnamurty, Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU.

1962-63: 12. R. Subrahmanyam, ASI.

1982-83: 89. C.L. Suri, ASI.

Reference/Work lead by M.C. Joshi and J.S. Nigam, ASI.

56

Period II Medieval

A temple A.D. 6th – 8th century

Period III Early medieval Period VI Late medieval

Period II A.D. 300-1000 Period III A.D. c. 1000 onwards

Nainital Uttar Pradesh

Jullundur Punjab Amravati Maharashtra

Wardha Maharashtra

Karvan 22°00ǯ; 73°15ǯ Kashipur 28°09ǯ; 78°31ǯ Kathpalon 31°5ǯ; 75°52ǯ Kaundanpur 20°55ǯ; 78°05ǯ Khairwada 21°0ǯ; 78°29ǯ

Monghyr 25°23ǯ; 86°28ǯ Bihar Vadadora Gujarat

Karnachaura

Glass bangles and beads.

Glass beads and bangle pieces in large quantity.

Two pieces of stratified glass bangles.

Beads of semi-precious stones and glass.

Copper and glass bangles.

Monochrome and polychrome bangles.

Bangle pieces of glass.

Fragments of glass bangles.

Cave, 24 clay sealings of the Nalanda type showing Buddha seated in bhumisparsa mudra inscribed in the characters of the A.D. 8th – 9th century Period I Pala period

Bombay Suburban Maharashtra

Beads and bangles of glass, stud of glass and stone, and a few beads of semi-precious stones.

Period III A.D. 800-1500

Kanheri 18°4ǯ; 73°55ǯ

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

District/State

Site The glass beads of this period are slightly bigger in size than periods I and II.

Other related details

1979-80: 13. A. K. Prasad, GDAM. 1977-78: 22. C. Margabandhu, ASI. 1965-66: 54. Y.D. Sharma, ASI. 1976-77: 42. J.P. Joshi, ASI. 1961-62: 30. M.G. Dikshit, GDA. 1981-82: 52. S.B. Deo, Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, NU.

1969-70: 22. S.R. Rao, ASI.

Reference/Work lead by

57

Puri Orissa

Khalkatapatana 19°51ǯ; 86°2ǯ Khangabok 93°98ǯ; 24°55ǯ

Sultanpur Uttar Pradesh

Ballia Uttar Pradesh

Periyar Tamil Nadu

Medak Andhra Pradesh

Khartuni 26°21ǯ; 81°51ǯ

Kheradih 26°10ǯ; 83°50ǯ

Kodumanal 11°05ǯ; 77°30ǯ

Kohir 17°35ǯ; 77°40ǯ

Thoubal Manipur

District/State

Site

Early historic Early century of Christian era

Beads of terracotta, glass and semi-precious stones.

Period IV Red ware type of early Christian era Iron smelting people

Glass bangles.

Beads and bangles of glass and shell.

Glass beads and bangles. Evidence of glass bead making industry.

Glass bangles.

Glass and paste beads.

Glass bangle pieces.

Glass and glass beads

Period II NBP

Meritime contact A.D. 12th–15th century Hand made pots (sometime decorated) and bronze implements. Red and black slipped ware

Period/Date

Number of beads of semiprecious stones. Quartz lumps, found placed on floor level, were suggestive of their use as raw material for bead making industry. Terracotta beads

The finds of red glass, both finished and unfinished, along with glass canes suggested a local glass bead industry. Copper ornaments.

Chinese celadon, spherical and arecanut shaped terracotta beads. Found in secondary potburials.

Other related details

1987-88: 6. GDAM.

1990-91: 67. Dept. of Epigraphy, TMU.

Reference/Work lead by 1994-95: 62. K. V. Rao, ASI. 1995-96: 59. S. B. Singh and Idrani Devi, GDA. 1986-87: 92. K.K. Sinha and B.P. Singh, Dept. of A.I.H. & Archaeology, BHU 1981-82: 68-69. K.K. Sinha, BHU.

58

District/State

Vaishali Bihar

Dewas Madhya Pradesh

South Arcot Tamil Nadu

Mahbubnagar Andhra Pradesh

Chingleput Tamil Nadu

Aurangabad Maharashtra

Site

Kolhua 25°59ǯ; 85°7ǯ

Kotra 22°25ǯ; 77°15ǯ

Kudikadu 11°25ǯ; 79°48ǯ

Kundavelli 16°14ǯ; 77°59ǯ

Kunnattur 12°30ǯ; 79°55ǯ

Kusan 19°28ǯ; 75°23ǯ

Satavahana period 200 B.C. to A.D. 100

Rouletted ware, amphorae pieces (both original and imitated) 1st century B.C. A.D. 2nd century Period IIA A.D. 8th – 12th century Period IIB A.D. 13th – 16th century Megalithic Period I Contemporary Black and red ware Glass beads with lug-collars, cobalt-coloured melon and gadrooned beads.

Beads of terracotta, quartz, glass and coral in various shapes and colours.

Beads of terracotta, glass, shell and semiprecious stones; bangles of glass and shell; rings of shell, glass and copper. Rings of glass, shell, copper and iron.

Large number of beads made of glass and various semi-precious stones.

Beads and hopscoterracottah in terracotta, stone and glass. Shell and glass bangles, and glass beads.

Gupta period

Period III 800-300 B.C.

Beads of terracotta, stone and glass.

Glass and glass beads

Stupa and Ashok pillar complex

Period/Date

Glass bangles.

Raw materials used in the bead making viz., glass and various types of semiprecious stones were found in plenty.

Copper ring and Iron nails.

Other related details

1956-57: 34, 1957-58: 38. V.D.Krishnaswa mi and Ballabh Saran, ASI. 1965-66: 28. M. G. Dikshit, GDAM.

Reference/Work lead by 1989-90: 12. B. Sahai, Dept. of A.I.H. & Archaeology, PU. 1990-91: 4. L.C. Singh, ASI. 1988-89: 41, 1990-91: 36. R.G. Pandeya, BU. 1987-88: 103, 1988-89: 80. K.V. Raman, Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU. 1978-79: 39. N.C. Ghosh, ASI.

59

District/State

Delhi

Bahraich Uttar Pradesh

New Delhi 28°35ǯ; 77°14ǯ

Site

Lalkot 28°32ǯ; 77°11ǯ

Mahet 27°31ǯ; 79°7ǯ

Makhdum Sahib’s Mosque

Fragments of green glass bottles and vases.

Period II Late A.D. 13th or early 14th century Period II Glazed ware and foreign elements like Chinese celadone and porcelain. Period II 31 coins of early Delhi Sultane. Vicinity of Surajkund area.

Phase III Post Mosque phase A.D. 1300-1517 A copper coin of Bahlol Lodi (A.D. 1451-1488)

Beads of glass and semi-precious stones, and bangle pieces of glass, ivory and bone.

Period I Phase III Rajput

Beads of glass and jasper.

Glass bangles of different colours.

414 beads and pendants of glass, terracotta, semi-precious stones and other material; 178 bangle pieces of glass and other materials; and 189 copper coins of the Rajput Kings and early Sultans of Delhi. Glass rings, bangles and beads of semi-precious stones.

Beads of semi-precious stones, glass and terracotta, and glass bangles.

Glass and glass beads

Period IV A.D. 13th– first half of 14th century

Period/Date

Beads of semi-precious stones mainly agate, carnelian and ivory combs.

Green glass made its remarkable presence in this period.

Fragments of a large number of thin green glass vessels and bottle probably with concave base. A copper coin of 12th century A.D. with Nagri legend.

Other related details

1994-95: 10-11. B.R. Mani, ASI. 1993-94: 104-5. L.C. Singh, ASI. 1973-74: 11. T.N. Khazanchi, ASI.

1992-93: 9. B.R. Mani, ASI. 1992-93: 12. B.R. Mani, ASI. 1993-94: 25. B.R. Mani, ASI.

Reference/Work lead by 1991-92: 15. B.R. Mani, ASI.

60

District/State

Bilaspur Madhya Pradesh

Burdwan West Bengal

Banda Uttar Pradesh

Saran Bihar

Site

Malhar 21°50ǯ; 77°14ǯ

Mangalkot 23°33ǯ; 87°55ǯ

Manikpur 24°45ǯ; 81°20ǯ

Manjhi 25°50ǯ; 84°30ǯ

Period IC Punch marked coins 1st century B.C./A.D.

Period III 300 B.C. to close of 1st century B.C. Period IV Kusana (A.D. 100300) Exploration Association with Megaliths

Bangles of glass.

Megaliths at the foot and slope of hills are usually strews with large number of potsherds and glass bangles.

The evidence of several unfinished beads, flaked stones and finished beads in semiprecious stones, glass and crystal indicates local manufacture. Beads of semi-precious stones, crystal, carnelian, glass, jasper, agate, onyx and terracotta. Beads of semi-precious stones and glass.

Beads of terracotta, glass and semi-precious stones.

Satavahana and earlier times.

Period V Gupta

Beads of semi-precious stones, glass and terracotta.

Glass and glass beads

Period III A.D. 700 - 900

Period/Date

Local bead manufacture claim.

Other related details

1980-81: 70. P.C. Pant, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, BHU. 1983-84: 16. T.N. Roy, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, BHU.

Reference/Work lead by 1974-75: 22, 1975-76: 23. K.D. Bajpai, Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, SU. 1977-78: 31. K.D. Bajpai, Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, SU. 1987-88: 114. S.K. Mukherjee, Dept. of Archaeology, CU 1989-90: 109. S.K. Mukherjee, Dept. of Archaeology, CU.

61

Rewa Madhya Pradesh

Sehore 23°12ǯ; 77°5ǯ Madhya Pradesh Guntur Andhra Pradesh

Munahi 24°37ǯ; 82°13ǯ

Nadner

Nagarjunakonda

Kanpur 26°28ǯ; 80°19ǯ Uttar Pradesh

Second period 3rd and last subperiod of NBP

Uttar Pradesh

MatinMahadev

Period IV A.D. 200 – 600

Ghazipur Uttar Pradesh

Masaon 25°10ǯ; 82°25ǯ Mathura 27°31ǯ; 77°14ǯ

Historical Many Muslim copper coins and one of Kusana period Phase I Transitional from Chalcolithic to Iron age. Phase II Sturdy well-baked red ware. Period IIIA 500 - 400 B.C. Period V 200 B.C. – A.D. 200 Medieval

Kshatrapas-Vakataka coin A.D. 300 - 650 Historical Western Kshatrapas Vakatakas

Nagpur Maharashtra

Mansar 21°24ǯ; 79°15ǯ

Period/Date

District/State

Site

Beads of agate, jasper, carnelian, shell, bone, glass and terracotta.

Glass bangles and terracotta beads.

Bangles and beads of glass and shell.

Glass bangles and beads of semi-precious stones.

Glass bangles and iron fragments.

Beads of carnelian, agate, crystal, paste and glass.

Beads of shell, glass and crystal.

Shell and glass bangles.

Beads, pendants, earrings and studs trickles in silver, copper, terracotta, siliceous materials, glass and shell. Glass pendants and terracotta from all periods.

Glass and glass beads

3 phases of copper smith’s furnace and workshop, with several moulds and copper coins.

Number of iron objects.

Other related details

1955-56: 26. R.Subrahmanyam ASI.

1986-87: 57. C.B. Trivedi, PNCASIM

1980-81: 39. G.R. Sharma, AU.

Reference/Work lead by 1994-95: 57. Amarendra Nath, ASI. 1997-98: 133. J.P. Joshi and A.K. Sharma, BNSSVAK. 1964-65: 43. R.B. Narain, VSU. 1954-55: 15. M. Venkataramayya, ASI. 1965-66: 49. V.N. Misra, DC.

62

South Arcot Tamil Nadu

Nattamedu 12°55ǯ; 78°54ǯ

Narhan

Karimnagar Andhra Pradesh East Kameng 26°60ǯ; 92°20ǯ Arunachal Pradesh Gorakhpur 26°45ǯ; 83°22ǯ Uttar Pradesh

Nagnoor 18°00ǯ; 79°00ǯ Naksaparvat

Surface exploration Rouletted ware

Period II Increase in blackslipped ware

A.D. 13th – 16th century

Period IB PGW 12th–6th century B.C. Medieval A.D. 1300 - 1600 Exploration

Rupar Punjab

Nagiari 30°37ǯ; 76°41ǯ

Period/Date

Last phase of Ikshvaku period or later Ikshvaku period

District/State

16°31ǯ; 79°14ǯ

Site

Beads of paste and glass, and cylindrical glass like objects in different colours, with holes for threading.

Beads of glass, agate and terracotta.

A large number of fragments of greenish/bluish glass pieces have been found.

Beads of semi-precious stones, glass and terracotta, and a few bangle pieces.

Glass beads and bangles.

The nearness of the site to the sea shore, the occurrence of the sherds of rouletted ware along with glass objects in large numbers suggest that this site may prove to be one of the early coastal trade centres of south India in

Few carnelian and terracotta beads.

Said to have 400 temples.

Copper beads.

In the Monastic area.

Glass bangles.

Bangle pieces and green glass.

Beads are ascribable to the early medieval times.

Other related details

Glass beads.

Glass and glass beads

1984-85: 90. P. Singh, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, BHU. 1965-66: 25. Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU.

1993-94: 7. D.K. Bora, GDR.

1980-81: 3. GDAM.

Reference/Work lead by 1957-58: 8. R.Subrahmanyam ASI. 1957-58: 9. R.Subrahmanyam ASI. 1988-89: 74-75. K.K. Rishi and Kuldip Singh, GDA.

63

Khammam 17°15ǯ; 80°9ǯ Andhra Pradesh Ahmednagar Maharashtra

Nelakondapalli

Nevasa 19°34ǯ; 74°54ǯ

District/State

Site

Period IV 1st century B.C. Early historic or Satavahana Period VI Medieval

Roman contact continuation to Earlyhistoric

Polychrome glass bangles.

Beads of stone, terracotta and glass.

The Roman contact was suggested on the basis of this glass findings and also an imitation (in lead) or original coin of Tiberius. Unique ivory seal incised with several Buddhist symbols like the triratna, svastika and twin fish. Bangle making in glass seems to have been a local industry.

beginning of Christian era. Beads of stone and semiprecious stone.

Shell, ivory and glass bangles.

Monastic complex Coins of Ikshvaku and Vishnukundin period Early historic The beads were of various shapes and materials including clay, glass, paste, faience, steatite and semiprecious stones. Fine, translucent, light blue glass bangles and beads.

Other related details

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

1955-56: 10-11. H.D. Sankalia, DC.

1954-55: 7. H.D. Sankalia, DC.

1993-94: 3, 1996-97: 1. GDAM.

Reference/Work lead by

64

District/State

Bharatpur Rajasthan

Site

Noh 27°14ǯ; 77°26ǯ

Monochrome bangle and rings of glass.

Period IV 2nd century B.C. early Christian era Satavahana coins Indo-Roman period 1st century B.C. to end of A.D. 3rd century

Period V Kusana period

Glass beads and bangles. The site had been inhabited by a fairly large number of people following a single profession, viz. manufacture of glass beads and bangles.

Period IV 15th – 18th centuries Muslim-Maratha

Bangles of shell, glass and terracotta.

Beads of semi-precious stones and glass.

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

This fifth phase, notably for the industry of fine polychrome glass bangles is dated with the help of the coins of the Bahamani period.

The claim is based on the discovery of profuse quantities of glass objects together with glass slag and waste in the debris and a circular oven (diameter of 2 ft. and 6Ǝ and depth of 1 ft. 7Ǝ) in a corner of one of the rooms. Its sides were burnt red. Its contents comprised bichrome glass slag, lime and cow-dung, all found in abundant quantities one over the other. The colour of the glass slag and over burnt and twisted waste glass pieces was the same as that of the bangles.

Other related details

1965-66: 38. Vijay Kumar, GDAM.

1960-61: 21, 7. H.D. Sankalia, DC.

Reference/Work lead by 1959-60: 26. H.D. Sankalia, DC.

65

Pandigadda 17°35ǯ;

Period I 300 B.C. – A.D. 100

Period II Red and black ware Period III A.D. 9th century Late early historic A.D. 4th–5th century

Aurangabad Maharashtra

Chingleput Tamil Nadu

Medak Andhra

Period II Megalithic

North Arcot Tamil Nadu

Bangles of shell and glass.

Glass beads.

Beads of crystal and glass.

Glass beads.

Beads of glass, crystal and terracotta, and bangles of glass and terracotta.

Blow pipes, crucibles and few pieces of bangle.

A.D. 13th – 14th century

Padavedu 12°40ǯ; 79°05ǯ Pairyampalli 12°30ǯ; 78°36ǯ Paithan 19°28ǯ; 75°24ǯ Pallavamedu 12°50ǯ; 79°42ǯ

Tiruvannamalai Tamil Nadu

Nagpur Maharashtra

Pachkheri 20°55ǯ; 79°30ǯ

Green glass bead, and green and black glass bangles.

Beads of terracotta, glass, ivory and stone.

Beads of semi-precious stones, glass and terracotta.

Basti Uttar Pradesh

Orai 26°44ǯ; 82°48ǯ

Beads of terracotta, glass, ivory and stone.

Period IV NBP, absence of PGW Period V Sunga-Kusana period Period IV PGW, absence of NBP Kusana and Gupta period. Bangles of shell, glass and terracotta.

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

Period V Medieval

District/State

Site

Beads of jasper, chalcedony and terracotta.

Crystal ear-reels

Terracotta sealing with an inscription in Gupta Brahmi characters reading Sri Gajantasya with a bull on top. A copper coin of Muhammed Shah I of Bahami dynasty (14th century A.D.).

A steatite casket.

A steatite casket.

Other related details

1987-88: 6. D. H. Rao, J.

1965-66: 28. M.G. Dikshit, GDA. 1970-71: 33. R. Nagaswamy, GDA.

1993-94: 98. N. Kasinathan, GDAM. 1967-68: 29. S.R. Rao, ASI.

1992-93: 70. A. Nath, ASI.

1971-72: 42. R.C. Agrawal, GDAM. 1996-97: 135. B.R. Mani, ASI.

Reference/Work lead by 1970-71: 32. R.C. Agrawal, GDAM.

66

Pradesh

Mandasor Madhya Pradesh Bhandara Maharashtra

77°40ǯ

Pasewa

Prakash 21°30ǯ; 74°21ǯ

Perur 11°00ǯ; 78°30ǯ Prahaladpur 25°26ǯ; 83°27ǯ

13 km northeast of village Dhanapur Uttar Pradesh West Khandesh Maharashtra

Coimbatore Tamil Nadu

Peddab-ankur Karimnagar 18°35ǯ; Andhra 79°20ǯ Pradesh

Pauni 20°48ǯ; 79°39ǯ

District/State

Site

Period II 5th – 1st century B.C. Period IV Post A.D. 5th century

Surface finding from exploration NBPW association

Period II-IIA Red ware and coarse variety of black and red ware Period II A.D. 3rd – 6th century

Period III Sunga Period IV Satavahana

Black and red ware

Period/Date

Beads of semi-precious stones, glass and terracotta. Painted glass bangles

Glass bangles.

Beads of glass, terracotta, paste and gold.

Glass beads.

A well made glass amulet with symbols over it.

Beads of stone, glass and terracotta.

Folded glass beads.

Glass and glass beads

Beads of different material, ear studs (terracotta) and copper bangles.

Other related details

1954-55: 13. B.K. Thapar, ASI.

1968-69: 2. Mohd. A.W. Khan, GDAM. 1970-71: 34. K.V. Soundara Rajan, ASI. 1961-62: 52. P.K. Khasnavis, BHU.

Reference/Work lead by V.P. Rao and C. Ramadevi, ASI. 1957-58: 30. M.G. Dikshit, GDA. 1993-94: 77. A. Nath, ASI.

67

Raisen Madhya Pradesh Murshidabad 24°10ǯ; 88°16ǯ West Bengal

Raisen fort 23°20ǯ; 77°47ǯ Rajbadidanga Glass objects.

Terracotta beads, glass bangles and iron pieces.

Period III Early historic

Mahbubnagar 16°44ǯ; 77°59ǯ Andhra Pradesh

Pydigutta

Phase I to phase VI Mostly early historic

Glass wine bottles with amphalos bases and glass bangles. Pieces of glass bottles. Fifty micro beads of glass.

Mughal period

Delhi

Purana Qila 28°38ǯ; 77°12ǯ

Fragments of glass bangles.

Beads of semi-precious stones, glass and paste. Semi-precious stone includes that of carnelian, crystal, quartz, amethyst, agate and chalcedony. Quartz beads outnumber the rest.

A.D. 2nd – 3rd century

Puduru/Pudur Nellore y Andhra 15°51ǯ; 78°9ǯ Pradesh

Uppermost phase A.D. 15th century

Glass and glass beads

District/State

Period/Date

Site

Reference/Work lead by 1994-95: 2, 1995-96: 2. Kamalakar and V.V. Krishna Sastry, BACRI.

1969-70: 5, 1971-72: 7, 1972-73: 9. B.B. Lal, M.C. Joshi and B.K. Thapar, ASI. 1977-78: 12. Pear shaped and tabloid beads of terracotta; beads of GDAM. jasper, carnelian, rockcrystal; bangles of shell, carved with round pellets and copper bangles, decorated with beaded design. 1976-77: 30. M.D. Khare, ASI. 1964-65: 51. S.R. Das, Dept. of Archaeology, CU.

Indo-Roman trading centre. Claimed to be glass and glass bead manufacturing centre. A large quantity of iron slags and vitreous material indicate the local manufacture of iron implements as well as glass for making beads. Beads of semi-precious stones.

Other related details

68

Monastery

Period I

Cuttack Orissa

Pauri

Ratnagiri 20°38ǯ; 86°20ǯ Ratura

Glass bangle pieces

Few porcelain and glass pieces.

Beads and pendants of terracotta, glass, faience and precious and semi-precious stones.

Antiquities of different periods.

Bangles of shell, glass and terracotta.

Polychrome glass bangles.

Beads of stone, terracotta and glass.

39 beads of terracotta, stone and glass.

20 beads of terracotta, stone, glass and copper.

Beads of terracotta, glass and semi-precious stones.

Period I 6th – 3rd century B.C. Period II 2nd century B.C. to A.D. 1st century Period III A.D. 2nd – 4th century Period VI A.D. 15th – 11th century Period III Beginning of Christian era to A.D. 300

Varanasi Uttar Pradesh

Rajghat 25°4ǯ; 83°1ǯ

Glass and glass beads

Various periods

Period/Date

District/State

Site

Carnelian beads

Noteworthy are boar shaped bead of carnelian (period IV), an agate bead with its both ends covered with embossed gold sockets and a copper wire running through the perforation (period V). Dumped on the floor of western cell.

Glazed red ware

NBPW

Other related details

1958-59: 34. D. Mitra, ASI. 1988-89: 87.

1960-61: 37-39. A.K. Narain, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, BHU. 1963-64: 59. A.K. Narain, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, BHU. 1964-65: 45. A.K. Narain, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, BHU.

Reference/Work lead by 1957-58: 50-51. A.K. Narain, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, BHU.

69

Beads of glass, faience, shell, copper, bone and terracotta; bangles of copper, glass and shell.

Constructed in A.D. 1546

PGW phase

Kusana to late Kusana

Delhi

Ludhiana Punjab

Salimgarh Fort 28°39ǯ; 77°14ǯ Sanghol 30°48ǯ; 76°12ǯ

Satanikota 15°55ǯ;

Sarhat

Sankisa 27°20ǯ; 79°20ǯ Sannati

Glass bangle pieces.

Period IIB Introduction of iron

Ujjain Madhya Pradesh

Runija 23°05ǯ; 75°15ǯ

Bangles and rings in shell and glass. As many as 200 beads have been recovered. Of these, glass

Monochrome and bichrome glass bangles.

Megalithic

Period II 1st century B.C. -

Glass beads.

Satavahana period

Gulbarga 17°20ǯ; 76°50ǯ Karnataka Banda 25°29ǯ; 80°20ǯ Uttar Pradesh

Kurnool Andhra

Thirty-two glass bangle pieces and beads.

Sunga-Kusana-Gupta

Farrukhabad Uttar Pradesh

Evidence of Mughal glass, glass bangles, and semi-precious stone beads.

Glass bangles and ivory beads.

2nd century B.C. – A.D. 2nd century

Uttar Pradesh

Glass and glass beads

30°21ǯ; 78°59ǯ

Period/Date

District/State

Site

A turtle shaped pendants of shell.

Five copper coins.

Among the important antiquities of 19th century lead pendant studded with glass. Beads of terracotta and stone.

Other related details

1987-88: 98. C. Margabandhu, ASI. 1989-90: 91-92. C. Margabandhu, ASI. 1996-97: 142. B.R. Mani, ASI. 1988-89: 33. A.P. Sagar, ASI. 1980-81: 70. P.C. Pant and Sunil Kumar, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, BHU 1977-78: 9. N.C. Ghosh,

Reference/Work lead by K.P. Nautiyal, Dept. of A.I.H.C. & Archaeology, GRU. 1980-81: 39. V.S. Wakankar and M.D. Khare, VU. and GDAM. 1994-95: 6. B.R. Mani, ASI.

70

District/State

Pradesh Exploration in District Satara Maharashtra Nagpur Maharashtra

Rupnagar Punjab

Raipur Madhya Pradesh Gorakhpur Uttar Pradesh

Gaya Bihar

Site

78°14ǯ Satara 17°40ǯ; 73°50ǯ Shirkanda 21°30ǯ; 79°43ǯ

Singh Bhagwanpur 25°35ǯ; 81°39ǯ

Sirpur 21°20ǯ; 82°11ǯ Sohgaura 26°35ǯ; 83°37ǯ

Sonepur 24°56ǯ; 84°57ǯ

Beads of terracotta, glass and shell. Few bangles of glass and shell.

ChalcolithicMegalithic period

Period IV NBPW

Period I Last quarter of A.D. 5th century Period IV Medieval Coins of Muhammad Shah Ibrahim, Shah Sultan and Akbar Period V Medieval Beads of terracotta, glass and stone.

Beads of stone, terracotta and glass.

Glass bangles, including stratifies and polychrome specimens, also showing stud along the margins; beads of glass and semi precious stones.

A large quantity of polychrome bangles.

Glass was used for bead and bangles. Also found a faience bangle piece. Bangles of glass, shell, terracotta, lapis lazuli, carnelian and agate.

alone accounts for nearly fifty percent. Shell and glass bangles.

A.D. 3rd century Surface

Period I 700 - 400 B.C. Period III A.D. 900 - 1500

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

This suggests local industry.

Glass was used for bead and bangles. A tortoise made from milky white quartz, perhaps served as pendant.

Other related details

1974-75: 47. V.S. Pathak, GKU. 1956-57: 19. Vijayakanta Mishra, KPJRI.

1991-92: 69. A.M. shahstri, Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, NU. 1980-81: 51. Y.D. Sharma, Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, PNU. 1955-56: 27. M.G. Dikshit, SU. 1961-62: 56. G.C. Pande, GKU.

Reference/Work lead by ASI. 1961-62: 34. Aundh Museum

71

District/State

Bahraich Uttar Pradesh

Allahabad Uttar Pradesh

Kurnool

Site

Sravasti 27°31ǯ; 82°2ǯ

Sringaverapura 25°35ǯ; 81°39ǯ

Srisailum

Beads of terracotta, stone and glass.

Period III Introduction of NBPW Period II NBPW

Pieces of glass bangles.

Period II A.D. c. 1st - 4th century

101 beads of carnelian, glass, steatite,

Beads of glass and semi-precious stones.

Glass and shell bangles

Corroded copper coins of Kanishka of standard type with Greek legend.

Glass beads and bangles of different colours.

Red ware, black ware, grey ware and NBPW.

Sealing in Kusana and Gupta Brahmi characters (Ramayana site) Kusana to late Kusana (Ramayana sites) Historical

Beads of semi-precious stones, mainly banded agate and carnelian etc.

Glass and shell bangle fragments.

Period I Sunga-Kusana red ware

Important findings include a leach shaped beads of banded agate and an axeamulet of carnelian. Terracotta and semiprecious stone beads.

Glass beads including two eye beads. Bangles mainly of green glass.

Copper ornaments

Other related details

Period I 1st–4th century B.C. PGW

A large number of antiquities, variously of stone, glass, copper, iron, bone, ivory and terracotta. Beads of stone, terracotta and glass.

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

1986-87: 76. B.S. Raman and Y. Aboshi, ASI and Kansai Univ. 1995-96: 81. L.C. Singh and Y. Aboshi, ASI and Kansai Univ. 1997-98: 81. G.T. Shendey and Y. Aboshi, ASI and Kansai Univ. 1983-84: 85. B.B. Lal and K. N. Dikshit, ASI. 1984-85: 86. B.B. Lal and K. N. Dikshit, ASI. 1989-90: 4.

Reference/Work lead by 1059-60: 14. Vijayakanta Mishra, KPJRI. 1961-62: 4, 1960-61: 5. B.S. Verma, KPJRI. 1958-59: 48-50. K. Sinha, ASI.

72

Andhra Pradesh

Yamuna Nagar Haryana

Sultanpur Uttar Pradesh

Gaya Bihar

Osmanabad Maharashtra

16°05ǯ; 78°52ǯ

Sugh 30°9ǯ; 77°23ǯ

Sultanpur 26°4ǯ; 82°21ǯ

Taradih 24°41ǯ; 84°57ǯ

Ter 18°20ǯ; 76°10ǯ Tharsa 21°15ǯ; 79°20ǯ

Nagpur Maharashtra

District/State

Site

Period II Early historic (pre-Satavahana)

Period VII Monastery period of Pala Stupa, Roman materials

Period I 5th – 1st century B.C. Period II 1st century B.C. – A.D. 3rd century Exploration Red, black and red slipped ware Period IV Gupta and Late Gupta Period V Kusana period

Period/Date

Glass bangles.

A roman glass bottle of the Mediterranean type.

Beads of terracotta, stone, glass and bone. Bangles of glass, copper and shell. Terracotta and kaoline figures with typical ornaments and headdress. Beads of semi-precious stones, terracotta and shell.

Beads of semi-precious stones.

Bangles of terracotta, bone and glass.

Beads of stone, glass and terracotta; bangles of terracotta, copper and glass.

Terracotta pendant.

Other related details

Glass bangles and lump.

Beads of semi-precious stones, terracotta and glass. Beads of jasper, agate, terracotta and glass.

chalcedony and terracotta, and fragments of bangles made of shell, steatite, glass, carnelian and terracotta.

Glass and glass beads

1989-90: 67-68. A.M. Shastri,

Reference/Work lead by K. Thimma Reddy, School of History, Culture & Archaeology, TU. 1993-94: 53, 1995-96: 25. D.S. Malik and A. Acharya, GDAM. 1986-87: 92. M.C. Joshi and J. S. Nigam, ASI. 1982-83: 16. Ajit Kumar, GDA. 1985-86: 9, 1987-88: 11. Ajit Kumar, GDA. 1986-87: 24. Ajit Kumar, GDA. 1967-68: 35. GDAM.

73

Tiruvellore Tamil Nadu

Madurai Tamil Nadu

Guna Madhya Pradesh

T-Kallupatti 9°43ǯ; 77°50ǯ

Tumain 24°50ǯ; 77°42ǯ

Period II 2nd century B.C. – A.D. 1st century Period III A.D. 1st – 5th century

Period I Russet coated painted ware Period II Fine red slipped ware Period III Coarse ill-fired red slipped & unslipped pottery. Black-and-red ware, black ware, red slipped and orange slipped ware and coarse ware. Figurine of Ganesa, datable to A.D. c. 13th century Period II Black and red ware

Tiruchchirappalli Tamil Nadu

Tiruverkadu 13°5ǯ; 80°13ǯ

Wheel made grey and red ware

Bamer Rajasthan

Beads of terracotta, stone and glass and bangles of shell, copper and glass.

Beads of terracotta, stone and glass.

Beads of terracotta, semi-precious stones, rock crystal, glass and paste.

Glass objects like beads and bangles.

Beads of glass, paste and semi-precious stones; glass and shell bangles. Large number of beads of glass, paste and other materials; bangles of glass and shell.

Beads of glass and paste in various shapes.

Stray fragment of glass bangles and fragments of shell bangles occurred in upper 10 cm.

Glass bangles.

Period III Late historic (Vakataka)

Tilwara 25°52ǯ; 72°50ǯ Tirukkambuliyur 10°48ǯ; 78°13ǯ

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

District/State

Site

Earring of quartz and terracotta.

Copper rings and coins in addition to few unidentifiable iron pieces. Fragment of amphorae jars were also collected from the deposit.

Copper antimony rod.

The beads of bone and carnelian were found within 30 cm below surface.

Beads of semi-precious stones and terracotta.

Other related details

1979-80: 69. L.K. Srinivasan, ASI. 1971-72: 28. K.D. Bajpai, Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology,

1995-96: 71, 1996-97: 105. S. Gurumurthy, Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU.

1961-62: 28, 1962-63: 14. Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU.

Reference/Work lead by Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, NU. 1967-68: 41. V.N. Misra, DC.

74

District/State

Ujjain Madhya Pradesh

Tiruchchirappalli Tamil Nadu

Belgaum Karnataka

Chingleput Tamil Nadu

Site

Ujjain 23°12ǯ; 75°48ǯ

Uraiyur 10°45ǯ; 78°40ǯ

VadagaonMadhavapur 15°15ǯ; 76°25ǯ

Vadavur 12°35ǯ;

The beads found are in various shapes such as tubular, drum, bicone, and made of terracotta,

Beads of semi-precious stones, shell and glass.

First half of A.D. 1st century-beginning of 3rd century

Exploration Early medieval

Three beads of lapis lazuli, carnelian and glass.

Large number of glass, paste and stone beads and a few bangles.

Period III

Site 2 Late Satavahana period

Beads of terracotta, semi-precious stones, shell, bone, paste and glass.

Bangles of shell, terracotta and glass; ear ornaments of jasper, crystal and glass.

Plain and decorated bangles of terracotta, stone, shell, glass and copper.

Period III A.D. 8th – 14th century

Period II 3rd – 2nd century B.C NBPW Period III A.D. 5th century

Bangles of shell, glass and copper.

Period IV A.D. 6th – 12th century Period II, NBP Beads of terracotta and glass.

Glass and glass beads

Period/Date

A bead manufacturing site, yielding beads, in various

Iron bead

Other related details

1972-73: 16. K.D. Bajpai, Dept. of A.I.H.C.& Archaeology, SU. 1956-57: 27. N.R. Banerjee, ASI. 1957-58: 36. N.R. Banerjee, ASI. 1965-66: 27. Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU. 1967-68: 31. Dept. of A.H. & Archaeology, MU. 1974-75: 17. A. Sundara, Dept. of A.I.H. & Epigraphy, KRU. 1977-78: 25. A. Sundara, Dept. of A.I.H. & Epigraphy, KRU. 1979-80: 68. P. N. Babu,

Reference/Work lead by SU.

75

Yeleswaram 16°28ǯ; 79°13ǯ

Period II Roman coin of Septimius Severus.

Glass beads.

Glass bangles.

Muzaffarpur 26°7ǯ; 85°22ǯ Bihar Nalgonda Andhra Pradesh

Virpur

Period III Red ware

Two glass beads.

NBPW 600 – 200 B.C.

Muzaffarpur Bihar

Glass and glass beads

Vaisali 25°58ǯ; 85°11ǯ

Period/Date agate, chalcedony, glass and so on.

District/State

79°45ǯ

Site stages of manufacture, crucibles etc. Near the Stupa along with a soapstone casket, a small conch, a small piece of gold-leaf and a copper punch-marked coin.

Other related details

1962-63: 2-3. Mohd. A.W. Khan, GDA.

1961-62: 7. S.R. Roy, KPJRI.

1957-58: 11. A.S. Altekar, KPJRI.

Reference/Work lead by ASI.

76

Poona Maharashtra

24-Pargana West Bengal

Chandoli 19°10ǯ; 73°58ǯ

Chandraketugarh 22°41ǯ;

Sunga-Kusana Period IV

Medieval-Muslim

Variety of glass beads, bangles and rings of different colour and shapes.

1st period (Bahamani period A.D. 1435-1518)

Kolhapur Maharashtra

Brahmapuri (Kolhapur) 16°41ǯ; 74°71ǯ

Three glass beads of different shapes, to wit, short cylinder in ultramarine blue, collared cylinder in sea green glass and a tiny globular in pink glass. Glass beads along with rouletted ware and semiprecious stone beads.

Good quality of glass wires, glass slags, and ashes mixed with lime and parts of kiln are found in different parts of the site.

Glass & glass beads Glass objects comprised mostly bangles. Majority of the glass antiquities belong to period II (post-Satavahana - Early medieval) c. 3rd century onwards.

Period/Date Satavahana - Early medieval

District/State Nagpur Maharashtra

Other related details A good amount of glass slag and vitrified glass fragments have been found in period II. These tend to imply local manufacture of glass in post-Satavahana period. The glasses are of very good quality and well preserved. The presence of glass slags and number of unfinished beads at their various stages of manufacture shows that there was a flourishing bead-making industry. Besides, a huge quantity of bangles, complete and fragmentary types also suggest the presence of glass bangle industry, perhaps on the ground where excavation was conducted. The presence of mould-line on collared cylinder bead indicates it to be fashioned in a mould.

Table 5: Important glass and glass beads finding in Indian archaeology as reported in various other publications.

Site Bhokardan 20°16ǯ; 75°47ǯ

2.2.5

Das Gupta 1960.

Deo 1965: 108.

Sankalia and Dikshit 1952; Chaudhuri 1986: 96.

Reference Verma 1974: 201

77

Karimnagar Andhra Pradesh Jamnagar Gujarat

24-Pargana West Bengal

Dhulikatta 18°40ǯ; 79°20ǯ Dwarka 22°15ǯ; 69°0ǯ

Harinarayanpur 22°8ǯ; 88°13ǯ Jokha

Surat

Surat Gujarat

Sabarkantha Gujarat

District/State

Dhatva 21°8ǯ; 73°07ǯ

Site 88°42ǯ Devnimori 23°39ǯ; 73°26ǯ

Beads of stone, glass, terracotta and faience

Five glass beads: 1) Annular wound bead with white bands, 2) Faceted, hexagonal, semitransparent, scarlet in colour, 3) Eye bead, barrel shaped, flush white spots spirally arranged on a black background, opaque, 4) Short oblate, opaque, turquoise blue, and 5) Eye-bead, barrel-shaped, raised spots in white spirally arranged on a black background, opaque. Glass beads.

Period IV Gujrat Sultans and Muslim period A.D. 10th century

3rd century B.C. to A.D. 1st century

Four glass beads: 1) Globular, opaque & purple, 2) Globular, transparent & white, and 3 and 4) Truncated hexagonal, faceted, transparent & pale shade of Persian blue.

Glass beads.

Glass objects include, a curved portion of the neck of a glass bottle, deep-blue in colour; a flint glass of flat petal-shaped objects which is partly devitrified; and a part of the flat side of a blown bowl. From 6 glass beads 4 came from period III and 2 from period II. They are of black, blue, green in colour and circular, collared biconical, spheroid, rectangular faceted and tiny in shapes.

Glass & glass beads

Period III A.D. 7th – 8th century

Period II (6th century B.C. to A.D. 2nd century) Period III (Iron Age to 5th/4th century B.C.) Satavahana

Period/Date

One large solid ear-stud of

Bead-making centre.

Five specimens of polychrome glass bangles from period IV are earlier by one-two century than rest of India. Produced with winding technology.

Other beads are of terracotta, conch, carnelian and chalcedony.

Other related details

Mehta and

Singh 1983: 154.

ARDAMAP 197475: 7; 1975-76: 78; 1976-77: 15-17. Mate 1966: 43.

Mehta 1975: 20.

Dikshit 1966: 103104.

Reference

78

Glass beads of short-barrel, concave ends, red and opaque. Six glass beads have been found. Colour varies from dark-blue, green and golden yellow. Two beads are with a layer of gold leaf inside. Large number of finished and unfinished glass beads as well as vitreous slags of amorphous shapes. Eleven glass beads.

Period VI Post NBP Satavahana period

Red slipped ware, black-and-red ware and rouletted ware A.D. early centuries

A.D. 2nd century

Pune Maharashtra

North Arcot Tamil Nadu

Medak Andhra Pradesh

Karad 20°13ǯ; 73°3ǯ

Karaikadu 11°40ǯ; 79°46ǯ Karur 10°55ǯ; 78°00ǯ Kondapur 17°0ǯ; 78°1ǯ

Trichy Tamil Nadu

One glass bead of short-cylindrical, circular cross-section, black and opaque.

Period V Maurya-Sunga

Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh

Kakrehta (Rupnath) 23°37ǯ; 80°23ǯ

A large number of glass beads have been found in the Kondapur excavation. There is a collection of 700 beads in the Museum. Most of the beads are of lenticular barrels in shape with lug-collars. Numerous specimens of globular and cylindrical beads are also obtained. Transparent glass is used for 15 beads. Copper

Glass slags and glass beads.

Vijayanagara coins

Raichur Andhra Pradesh

Glass & glass beads have been obtained

Period/Date

District/State Gujarat

Site 21°10ǯ; 73°07ǯ Kadkal 16°40ǯ; 76°10ǯ

Bead prepared by rotating a small amount of molten glass round a pointed spoke; wire wound bead; twirling a long glass wire round a tube and its ends fused together and the

Glass bead production centre. Also claimed to be a trading centre.

Different types of coloured bangles were manufactured on large scale to the satisfaction of local people. Out of 93 pieces found 66 comes from this period. 27 bangle pieces as that of preceding period. Bangles of shell and glass are found.

Other related details black glass has also been found. Moulds for Vijayanagara coins were found together with a glass slag near a furnace which is believed to have been used for the manufacture of beads.

Dikshit 1952b.

Basa 1992: 101.

Ramachandran 1980: 111-12.

Mandala 1949.

Reference Chowdhary 1971: 50. Department of Archaeology, Nizam’s Dominions, Report from 1936-37: 17, cited in Deo 2000: 11. Sharma and Mishra 1992: 137, 204.

79

Site

District/State

Period/Date

Glass & glass beads and cobalt are the two most popular colouring ingredients.

Other related details Reference surface cracked during the process of cooling; mould beads; cylindrical barrel with collars effected by scratching with a pointed instrument while the glass was hot; groove collared; biconical bead prepared by twirling a wire cone into a requisite shape; doublestrop method; moulded glass of a transparent bluish green hue and perforation is made by inserting a rod through the bead when the glass was plastic which leaves a conical depression at one end and the other end has a burred edge; large bead of melon type cut from a long tube having eleven gadroons; segmented glass beads and cutting near the edges show that it was prepared out of long canes by blowing; lenticular diamond shaped beads and produced by taking two shades of pale blue glass and swirled with a layer of milky opaque glass between them and then moulded; chevron

80

Basti Uttar Pradesh

Karimnagar 18°26ǯ; 79°8ǯ Andhra Pradesh Patna Bihar

Kopia 26°52ǯ; 83°4ǯ

Kotalinga

Kumrahar 25°37ǯ; 85°10ǯ

District/State

Site

Period V (A.D. c. 450-600)

Period IV (A.D. c. 300-450)

Out of 86 beads of different material glass accounts for 26. 13 glass beads came from period III, 11 from period IV and 2 from period V. The glass is either translucent or opaque and the range of colour is limited. The more common colours are green and blue. Shapes are spherical, cylindrical with facets, drum, convex and cylindrical having white etched bands with double spiral bands and few irregular shape and

Some glass beads and few gold-foil beads.

Innumerable glass beads and slags of various sizes and shapes, and numerous lumps of melted glass in various colours were scattered there. The most striking finding specimens are the tiny glass beads perforated with extremely fine holes. These are brilliantly coloured and highly polished.

5th century B.C.

Period II Satavahana, 2nd century B.C.- A.D. 1st century Period III (A.D. c. 100-300)

Glass & glass beads

Period/Date

Other related details beads; collar gadrooned; gold foiled; some other beads interpreted to be produced by at first a tubular matrix of white opaque glass was turned round a wire and a thick coating or ruby red translucent glass was applied over this white matrix. Number of clay crucible, possibly used for heating or melting glass have been found. All these pieces are soda-lime glass containing a high percentage of alumina. Important glass factory site. Manufacturing centre for semi-precious stone beads.

Altkekar and Mishra 1959: 13234.

ARDAMAP 198182: 19-22; Francis 1986a: 54.

Roy and Varshney 1953; Dikshit 1969: 39; Sen and Chaudhuri 1985: 64-65; Abdurazakov 1987: 38; Lal 1987: 45.

Reference

81

District/State

West Nimar Madhya Pradesh

Surat Gujarat

Kaira Gujarat

Site

Maheshwar 22°11ǯ; 75°36ǯ

Malvan 21°71ǯ; 72°42ǯ

Nagara 70°38ǯ; 21°41ǯ

Period II Grey black pottery, characterize probable dates from the end of the A.D. 1st millennium Period I Mid 1st millennium B.C Period II 3rd century B.C. - 00 A.D./B.C. Period III 00 A.D./B.C. – A.D. 8-9 century

Period VII Muslim-Maratha

Period VI – Early historic III A.D. 100 – 500

Period V - Early historic II 100 B.C. - A.D. 100

Period/Date

Glass objects consisting of fragments of possibly bottles, bangles and beads have been found. Glass slags were noticed in period III and IV. Out of total 81 glass beads; 3 are from period I and II; 64 from period III and 15 from period IV. Shape of these beads varies from circular, spheroid, tubular, gold-foil, tiny, gadrooned,

Fragments of glass bangles are the only glass objects

Glass & glass beads elliptical too. One spherical gold foil bead has also been found. Out of 11 glass beads recovered 2 are from period V, 8 from period VI and 1 from period VII. The beads are of various shapes such as spherical, truncated barrel, globular, hexagonal cylinder and irregular cylinder. The colours employed are deep blue, deep green, yellow, sea green and solid white.

74 pieces of glass objects. The bangles mostly belong to period II, III and IV. The most important objects were the glass slags and the fragments of drawn glass with rounded ends. These indicate that glass was manufactured at Nagara in

Deo 1958a: 185, 189; 1958b: 215, 220.

Besides, several fragmentary pieces and bangle pieces, pulley like discs and a seal with elephant impression were also found. On surface 48 beads of various material were collected by Mrs. Sankalia, which brings to light beads in all stages of manufacture. Three glass slag pieces and an unperforated rod of Muslim-Martha period have been found.

Mehta 1968.

Srivastava 1995: 79.

Reference

Other related details

82

District/State

Gorakhpur 26°45ǯ; 83°22ǯ Uttar Pradesh

Nasik Maharashtra

West Nimar Madhya Pradesh

Patna Bihar

Site

Narhan

Nasik-Jorwe 20°0ǯ; 73°51ǯ

Navdatoli 22°11ǯ; 75°36ǯ

Pataliputra 25°37ǯ;

Period II (Kusana)

Period VII Muslim-Maratha

Period III Protohistoric

Period III Roman contact Period IV Early Muslim

Period V A.D. 300-600 Period IIA Early historic

Period III 600 - 200 B.C. Period IV 200 B.C. – A.D. 300

Period II c. 800-600 B.C.

Period/Date Period IV A.D. 14th – 18th century

The glass beads were mostly from period III but stray examples were also met with in period II.

Five glass beads. Out of which one is long barrel circular bead of black glass with three white bands on the body. One glass bead of long barrel circular in shape and black in colour with white lines. Out of 7 glass beads, 6 belong to period III-IV, and 1 comes from the layer of period IIA. Colours used are green and blue. Shapes like low truncated barrel and globular are represented by three specimens 2 from period III-IV, and 1 from IIA. Out of 3 gold-foil beads from period III-IV, 2 are of short barrel groove collared and the third is a barrel, tabular and groove-collared beads. Out of 4 glass beads found, 1 from period III, 2 from period VII and 1 came from surface. Two described beads are: 1) small ashy-white, conical bead with rounded base and 2) globular bead with dark blue body having round and solid white “eye” like dots.

Glass & glass beads collared biconical, square, rectangular and biconical. Colour varies from green, blue, yellow, white and deep blue. Two glass beads. Out of which one is long tubular circular bead of translucent glass of dull white colour with band. Five glass beads.

One specimen of devitrified glass has been found in the Muslim-Maratha period, besides few pieces of bangles and glass slags. Glass though known from period II was mostly in use in later periods.

One interesting bead is of composite glass technically called blotched. It consists of yellow matrix covered over by green glass and belongs to period III-IV.

Other related details period IV.

Sinha and Narain 1970: 84.

Deo 1958a: 178; 1958b: 220.

Deo 1955b: 88-89.

Singh 1994.

Reference

83

Punch marked coins

Varanasi Uttar Pradesh

Jaipur State Rajasthan

Prahladpur 25°26ǯ; 83°27ǯ Raiah 26°20ǯ; 76°10ǯ

Sirpur 21°20ǯ;

Sanjan 20°11ǯ; 72°48ǯ Shamalaji 23°41ǯ; 73°26ǯ

NBPW

Raichur Karnataka

Piklihal 16°7ǯ; 76°34ǯ

End of Medieval period and beginning

Period II A.D. 50 - 400 Period IIA A.D. 400 -1000

Sabarkantha Gujarat

Chattisgarh Madhya

Medieval

Valsad Gujarat

Early historic Medieval

Wardha Maharashtra

Paunar 20°47ǯ; 78°41ǯ

Period/Date Period III (Muslim Maratha) Period IIA 4/3 – 1 century B.C. Period IIB 1st century B.C. A.D. 2nd/3rd century Period III A.D. 3rd – 8th century Period IV A.D. 10th/11th 15th/16th century

District/State

Site 85°10ǯ

Dikshit 1969: 68; Chaudhuri 1986:

Mehta and Patel 1967.

Gupta et al. 20012002: 187-188.

Puri n.d.: 41.

Narain and Roy 1968.

Allchin 1960: 109.

Deo and Dhavalikar 1968: 78, 82-83.

Claimed to be bead manufacturing centre on the number of findings. Period III is the prosperity period and evidence of beads is one reason to attest.

Thirty-seven bangle fragments from Medieval and 21 from topmost layer.

Reference

Other related details

Five hoards of 3,075 silver punch-marked coins and several hoards of copper coins have been unearthed. Glass artefacts in plenty are found consisting Glass lumps, fused vessels fragments, bangle fragments and ring fragments and an inlay fragments. piece were found. A flat disc bead of black glass has been obtained Few pieces of bangle and from period II. fragments of unidentifiable objects found from a pit sealed by layer 6 of period IIA. In the township area near the cluster of monastic Existence of large quantity buildings revealed a large number of thick of glass slags and drawn

Glass beads findings show that glass of good quality was manufactured.

Glass & glass beads One greenish glass collared beads from period II has some design on it. Out of 31 glass beads recovered 1 came from period IIA, 1 from IIB, 10 from III, 8 from IV and 11 from surface. Shape varies from globular, long barrel, oblate, short cylinder, triangular cylinder, hexagonal bicone, hexagonal cylinder, short cylinder, long cylinder, and silver foiled long collared barrel. Colour varies from white translucent, opaque black, lemon yellow, deep blue, turquoise, sea green, copper glass and green glass with lemon yellow matrix. One glass bead from Medieval and mixed deposit and 5 from Early historic. All are spherical small beads of pale green colour. Out of 2 glass beads, 1 is long barrel circular, black in colour from a late phase.

84

District/State Pradesh

Mathura Uttar Pradesh

Bahraich Uttar Pradesh

Site 82°11ǯ

Sonkh 27°29ǯ; 77°31ǯ

Sravasti 27°31ǯ; 82°2ǯ

Period VI/VII Gupta – Medieval times Period I, NBPW 600-300 B.C.

Period V Kusana

Period II Maurya – Sunga Period III 2nd – 1st century B.C. Period IV Ksatrapas

Period/Date of Muslim rule Probably of Kalchuri period.

2 glass beads of green and blue colour. The green one is of oblique cylinder in shape. 6 green glass beads of spherical, cylindrical and dagger or spindle shapes have been found. 2 green glass beads of annular and tiny shape, 3 blue glass beads of prism hexagonal, circular flat rimed and short cylinder shape. One yellow bead of small annular shape has also been found. 45 green, 43 blue, 9 black, 2 yellow, 5 millefiori and 6 gold-foiled glass beads have been found. They are of spherical/spheroid, ellipsoid, cylindrical, small oblique cylinder, long cylinder, long barrel circular/hexagonal, short barrel rectangular/circular, barrel with rudimentary rims, short barrel circular sometime with rim, half barrel circular, circular flat rimmed, irregular circular, prism hexagonal, bicone, long pyramid rhombic, truncated bipyramid square, lenticular, annular, tiny ellipsoid, biconvex disc circular, lenticular circular, barrel hexagonal, pyramid square, segmented and spindle shape. 11 green, 3 blue, 6 black, 3 yellow and 1 millefiori beads have been recovered. Their shapes also vary as that of preceding period. Out of total 169 beads 22 were glass which includes 7 stratified glass showing colour

Glass & glass beads potsherds of storage jars in which glass was melted or annealed. Plenty of beads, bangles and bracelets have been noticed.

An interesting glass bead is spiral bead of stratified

Other related details wires suggests that perhaps glass was actually made and worked there. Variety of bangle seems to be mainly prepared there.

Sinha 1967: 60.

Peach 1993: 298 – 302.

Reference 96-97; Deo 2000: 11.

85

Historic period 4th century B.C. A.D. 400 Period II Red polished ware

Period IB c. 300-150 B.C.

Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh Mehsana Gujarat

Vaisali Bihar

Tripuri 25°25ǯ; 82°22ǯ Vadnagar 23°48ǯ; 72°36ǯ Vaisali 25°58ǯ; 85°11ǯ

Period II c. 150 B.C. – A.D. 100

Period II c. 257 B.C.-50 B.C.

Period/Date

District/State

Site

Out of total 8 glass beads, one is opaque navy blue, globular; one is opaque black small barrelshaped; one is cylindrical colourless but iridescent, and another is iridescent, large hexagonal barrel-shaped.

From a small number of beads finding at the site, one is made of glass, recovered from trench II. Total number of beads described is 6. Out of which one is opaque black, long cylinder and fragmentary; one is opaque black long barrelshaped; and another is opaque black, barrelshaped.

Glass & glass beads combinations. The glass beads were evenly distributed in both the periods. Shape of the beads varies from eye beads, spherical, spiral white over black glass, blue barrel circular, light green standard irregular bicone diamond, greenish white opaque vase-shaped, black glass standard barrel circular with a depression at one end and black glass short convex bicone circular. Beads and ear ornaments of glass.

The excavation yielded a total of 93 beads out of which glass accounts for 18. This period appears to be the richest period for bead manufacture when glass was introduced and beads were made also of shell and numerous varieties of semiprecious stones including crystal and topaz.

Other related details glass from period II wherein a thread of white glass was found round the black.

Krishna Deva and Mishra 1961: 6063.

Subba Rao and Mehta 1955: 33.

Sankalia 1966: 11.

Reference

86

Site

District/State

Period/Date Period III c. A.D. 100 – 300 Period IV c. A.D. 300 – 600 Period III NBPW Some glass beads are of shape of long barrel circular and short rectangular.

2 glass beads.

Glass & glass beads 2 glass beads.

As many as 1412 beads of various materials are reported. Terracotta figurines, found from the site, suggest that both males and females of ancient Vaisali wore garlands of beads.

Other related details

Sinha and Roy 1968.

Reference

87

88 2.3 Discussion The production of glass was one of the most advanced technical processes of the ancient world. Most of the early evidence for glass has been found in the form of beads. There has been a lot of discussion about the numero uno position of ancient Indian beads in the world of beads at large. This is substantiated by a large amount of glass beads finding in a wider geographical area, which is clear from the tables no. 2, 3, 4 and 5. Glass beads are found practically at every corner of India and there is not a single period after first millennium B.C. in general and PGW phase in particular, that looks like a gap in this. Small beads (mostly IndoPacific) are found in large number in south Indian sites where as wire-wound (furnace wound) and cane made beads (lamp wound) are found in large number in North and Deccan. In Deccan, IndoPacific beads are also found in plenty. From more than 210 ancient Indian sites which have yielded evidence of glass. Glass beads occur in about 155 sites and 36 are claimed to have been manufacturing sites. The above mentioned tables show 212 sites which have yielding evidence of glass and glass beads. Their state wise distribution is as follows: Andhra Pradesh - 22, Arunachal Pradesh - 1, Assam - 1, Bihar - 18, Delhi - 6, Gujarat – 12, Haryana - 7, Karnataka - 12, Kerala - 1, Madhya Pradesh - 19, Maharashtra - 26, Manipur – 1, Orissa 3, Pondicherry - 1, Punjab - 6, Rajasthan - 5, Tamil Nadu - 21, Uttar Pradesh - 46 and West Bengal - 4. Likewise out of 36 bead manufacturing centres, 3 are from Andhra Pradesh, 1 from Bihar, 1 from Delhi, 1 from Gujarat, 1 from Haryana, 3 from Karnataka, 3 from Madhya Pradesh, 6 from Maharashtra, 1 from Pondicherry, 1 from Punjab, 6 from Tamil Nadu, 7 from Uttar Pradesh and 2 from West Bengal. Though it appears that the number of glass and glass beads finding sites is more in north India, the

manufacturing centres are nearly the same in both north and south India. In comparison to the quantity and distribution of glass beads in India, archaeological evidence of glass bead manufacturing is only scarcely available and not from good contexts. Nevasa is probably the only exception. There is hardly any evidence of glass making tools, either. The evidence of bead manufacture has been primarily in the form of slags, crucibles, fragments and finished and unfinished beads occurring at a particular site. The main centres of glass bead manufacture in Ancient India include Ahichchhatra and Kausambi in north India, Arikamedu and Karaikadu in south India, and Kolhapur and Nevasa in the Deccan. Apart from these, there are a number of other states and regions that have yielded some evidence of glass bead manufacturing (Map 3), and some may have even been engaged in the export of beads. These include: Andhra Pradesh: In about second century A.D. at Kondapur, Medak district, glass beads of different varieties and different production techniques, like wire-wound, mould, chevron, and gold foil beads (Dikshit 1952b), have been found. Large numbers of glass beads and iron are found in the second to third century A.D. at Puduru, Nellore district (IAR 1994-95: 2). At Kadkal, moulds of Vijayanagara coins were found together with glass slag near a furnace, which is believed to have been used for the manufacture of beads (ADHNZ 1936-37: 17). Deo (2000: 9) reports evidence of furnace, glass slag and glass wire at Kadkal. Bihar: Glass beads and stone moulds have been recovered from Champa, Bhagalpur district (IAR 1974-75: 9).

89

1. Adam, 2. Ahichchhatra, 3. Alagarai, 4. Arikamedu, 5. Atranjikhera, 6. Banahalli, 7. Bhagwanpura, 8. Bhita, 9. Bhokardan, 10. Brahmagiri, 11. Broach, 12. Chamapa, 13. Harinarayanpur, 14. Hastinapur, 15. Kadkal, 16. Karaikadu, 17. Kausambi, 18. Khairadih, 19. Kolhapur, 20. Kondapur, 21. Kopia, 22. Lalkot, 23. Mangalkot, 24. Maski, 25. Navdatoli, 26. Nevasa, 27. Padavedu, 28. Prakash, 29. Pudury, 30. Singh Bhagwanpur, 31. Sirpur, 32. Taxila, 33. Ter, 34. Tirukkambuliyur, 35. Tripuri, 36. Uraiyur, 37. Vadvur Map3: Glass bead production centres in ancient India

90 Delhi: Profuse amounts of green glass and beads have been found in Period II (late thirteenth or early fourteenth century A.D.) at Lalkot, Delhi (IAR 1993-94: 25). Gujarat: Beads were found in large quantities in all stages of fabrication in Period I (beginning of third century B.C.) at the site of Broach, Broach district (IAR 1959-60: 19). Karnataka: Diverse materials and shapes of beads including those of glass were found in Period III (Iron age) at Banahalli, Kolar district (IAR 1986-87: 45). Glass and glass beads are found in abundance in phase III (Andhra Period) at Brahmagiri, Chitaldurg district (Wheeler 1947-48: 263). Madhya Pradesh: A number of waste pieces and glass slag were recovered from early historic Navdatoli in west Nimar district (Deo 1971: 360-61). At Sirpur, a large number of glass beads were found near crucibles containing glass batch, which was taken as an indication of a glassmaker’s house being situated near the excavated area. In addition, the site yielded large quantities of glass slag and drawn wire, and numerous beads and bangles (Chaudhuri 1986: 96-97; Deo 2000: 11; Dikshit 1969: 68). This evidence is assigned to the Kalchuri period. Tripuri was also not far behind with the evidence of large number of beads and slags. Maharashtra: Numerous beads and a dozen bead moulds have been recovered from Satavahana period at Bhokardan, Aurangabad district (IAR 1972-73: 2021). From post-Satavahana and early Medieval periods (third to twelfth century A.D.), large amounts of glass slag and vitrified glass fragments were found (Verma 1974: 201). The glass slag and large numbers of unfinished beads in various stages of manufacture, indicate

with a great degree of certainty that glass was actually manufactured at Brahmapuri, Kolhapur district (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952: 98). Numerous glass beads and a few bead polishers were unearthed from Period V (150 B.C.- A.D. 200), at Adam, Nagpur district (IAR 1989-90: 65; 1990-91: 50). Some unfinished specimens in various stages of bead production have been recorded at Prakash (early historic level), Dhulia district (Thapar et al. 1964-65: 110-111). At Nevasa, glass beads constitute nearly one-fifth of the total aggregate of beads. Besides the use of coloured glass, these beads represent various techniques of glass and bead manufacture. Glass beads are restricted mostly to Period V (IndoRoman) and few from period IV (early historic) and VI (Muslim-Maratha). The stratigraphic yield of glass objects shows that though glass was known in period IV, it developed as cottage industry only in period VI. This must have been due to the arrival of new cultural forces (Deo 1960b). Pondicherry: At Arikamedu, a plethora of beads was found; a number of these were unfinished (Wheeler et al. 1946: 95-97). In later years, various scholars have written about the beads from Arikamedu (Francis 1987, 1990b, 1991b, 2002a, n.d.; Stern 1987a, 1991). Punjab: In Period I (700-400 B.C.) at Singh Bhagwanpur, Rupnagar district, glass was used for bead and bangles (IAR 1980-81: 51). Tamil Nadu: Innovative shapes of glass and paste beads are reported from Period II (first century A.D.) at Alagarai, Tiruchchirappalli district (IAR 1963-64: 21). There is evidence for half-finished beads from Tirukkampuliyur and Uraiyur in the Tiruchirapalli district of Tamil Nadu (Gururaja Rao 1970: 265). Beads in various stages of manufacture and crucibles of stone are found in

91 association with early Medieval cultural assemblages at Vadavur, Chingelput district (IAR 1979-80: 68). At Karaikadu, North Arcot district, large numbers of finished and unfinished glass beads, raw materials used in the manufacturing process, as well as vitreous slags of amorphous shapes were found in association with rouletted ware (IAR 1988-89: 80; Ramachandran 1980: 11112). At Padavedu, Tiruvannamalai district, blowpipes and crucible were found in a Period dated to thirteenth to fourteenth century A.D. (IAR 1993-94: 98). Uttar Pradesh: Khairadih, in eastern Uttar Pradesh, has yielded evidence of finished and unfinished varieties of red glass, slag pieces, and cane from Period II (700-200 B.C.); it is reported to have been a local glass bead industry centre (IAR 1981-82: 68). Also reported are micro-beads of blue glass from Period I (1100-700 B.C.) (IAR 1982-83: 93). The site of Kopia, Basti District, dated to the fifth century B.C., has yielded innumerable glass beads, thousands of glass fragments, fragments of clay crucibles with glass sticking to them (glass was melted in them), big pieces of glass, and lumps of unworked glass (Abdurazakov 1987: 38; Dikshit 1969: 39; Lal 1987: 45; Roy and Varshney 1953; Sen and Chaudhuri 1985: 64-65). Numerous beads are found in the Gupta levels at Bhita, Allahabad district (Marshall 1911-12: 94).

PGW overlap phase (period I), c. 1400-1000 B.C. (Joshi 1993: 117). In the Ganga Valley, the occurrence of glass beads is associated with the PGW culture (c. 1000-600 B.C.). At Atranjikhera glass beads are reported from a period dated to c. 1200-600 B.C. (Gaur 1983: 218) and at Hastinapura they are found in Period II dated to c. 1100-800 B.C. (Lal 1954-55: 94). In the south, at Maski four beads are reported in the Chalcolithic level, dated to c. 800 B.C. (Thapar 1957: 107) and at Arikamedu from c. 300 B.C. (Wheeler et al. 1946); in the Deccan, at Nevasa, they are found around 700 B.C. (Sankalia et al. 1960; Varshney et al. 1988: 149). In the northwest, Taxila has revealed a number of glass beads, which speaks of Taxila as a trading centre in the sixth century B.C. (Marshall 1951). 2. More concentration of ancient glass beads are in north India than in Central and Deccan which is followed by south India. There is less distribution of them in east and west part of India.

West Bengal: Several unfinished and finished beads of both stone and glass are found in Period V (Gupta) at Mangalkot, Burdwan district (IAR 1987-88: 114) and at Harinarayanpur, 24 Pargana district (Singh 1983: 154).

3. Beads of black, green, blue and red colour including various shades of them are the most common colours of Indian glass beads. Other less common colours are yellow, white and orange. Besides, beads of translucent colours also occur but concentration is mostly in north India.

The general observation on Indian glass beads are: 1. The earliest evidence of glass beads in India is reported from Bhagwanpura in the Harappan-

4. Small beads (Indo-Pacific) are found in large number in south Indian sites where as wire-wound (furnace wound) and cane made beads (lamp wound) are found in

92 large number in North and Deccan. In Deccan, Indo-Pacific beads are also found in plenty. 5. Spherical (mostly referred to as round) glass beads are the most widely distributed shape; barrel, cylindrical, cube, oval and annular being relatively more common than those of polygon, oblate, spherical and elliptical shape. There are representation of various other shapes of importance i.e., melon/gadrooned shaped (claimed to be of Indian origin) and some very rare shapes as that of the pyramid (certainly foreign).

8.

Lug collared and groove collared glass beads of opaque browny red are found in south India, for example at Arikamedu and Alagankulam.

9.

Gold-foil beads are an important development in the glass bead production technology, are found throughout India, though less in number. Evidence comes from number of sites such as, Sirkap, Taxila (first century A.D.), Kausambi (c. 300 B.C.A.D.200), Nevasa IV (150-50 B.C.) and in V (50 B.C.A.D.200), Bhita (Kusana period), Brahmapuri (Kolhapur) in Satavahana period, Nasik (Period II and IV), Kondapur, Nagra (00 B.C./A.D.-eighth century A.D.) and in fourteenth century A.D., Ter (Satavahana), Karad (Satavahana), Arikamedu (IndoRoman), from early century of Christian era from Chandavali, Tripuri, Rajghat (A.D. 100-300), Paithan and Ahichchhatra (A.D. 350-750), and Kaundanyapur. There are number of sites which has given evidence of silver foil beads too.

10.

In Mauryan period high quality glass used to be manufactured which is proved both archaeologically and literally. Seals from Patna (Jayaswal 1924: 189-192; 1934: 4), Maheswar in West Nemar district (Deo 1958b: 220; Sankalia 1953: 5-8), and some polychrome glass disc from Kosam (Dikshit 1964-65) attest to this.

6. Basa (1993a: 93) suggests despite the recovery of a few hexagonal biconical glass beads of translucent greenish colour from Kausambi and Narhan in north India, that this is a more common bead type of south India. Finding of one such glass bead without perforation at Arikamedu (Debreul collection at Government Museum, Madras) suggests Arikamedu was one of the production centres of such beads. 7. Round beads of opaque browny red and opaque orange red glass, made by the drawn method, are found extensively in various parts of India. However, it is in south India that their concentration is most dense. Winding beads are more common in both north India and in the Deccan.

93 Chapter 3 Glass Beads Production In fabrication of glass many techniques were employed… , possibly evolved out of long practice in several centres of glass industry (Margabandhu 1985: 204).

3.1 Introduction In spite of numerous references to glass objects and beads both in archaeological records and ancient literature, there is precious little to be found in them about the specificities of people, techniques, tools, furnace and trading of the product involved. Neither have any excavation reports of Indian sites yielding glass beads have discussed the manufacturing techniques involved nor has any site yielded any tool used in making glass beads. A few have hinted at the recovered beads to have been produced by winding on a wire, but on what basis this was done has not been indicated by them (Deo 1971: 361; Dikshit 1952a: 53, 1952c: 98; Thapar et al. 1964-65: 110111). However, a study of the morphology of ancient glass beads and their debitage can speak of the probable method used to produce the beads. This aspect of glass beads is very important as all the known traditional production techniques require different technological strategies which are unique and which leave distinct debitage which are also many a time distinctive of the variety of beads. The discovery of glass tubes with some spherical and other designed glass beads at an archaeological site may not necessarily mean that it is a glass bead production centre. However, the discovery of micro-beads (Indo-Pacific) with perforated and unperforated glass tubes of different lengths along with other waste material indicates that it is probably an Indo-Pacific glass bead manufacturing centre (Francis 1990b; Kanungo 2000-201; Stern 1991). A highly developed and complex furnace is required for Indo-Pacific beads, whereas small hearth-like furnaces or comparatively large 14-20 seater

furnaces are made for furnace winding; no furnace is however required for lamp winding. Glass has long been the most important of bead materials. Technically, heating raw glass above its melting point and allowing it to cool without crystallizing produce glass beads. There are many ways to manipulate a bit of glass into a bead. Over the centuries, glassworkers have tried almost every imaginable technique to make beads. Winding, dipping, drawing, mould pressing, marvering, cutting, grinding and drilling and a combination of these methods, makes the glass beads. Right from the very early period they are made at different places using indigenous techniques. Most of the beads found at archaeological sites in the Indian subcontinent seem to be produced using either drawing, scooping or winding, and/or moulding techniques. They are the three ancient most and important techniques of bead manufacture and are in use in India even today. Of course, there exist many other techniques of bead manufacture, and beads produced by them are also found in Indian archaeological context, but their number is comparatively less and many a time hypothesised to have been imported; if not the bead itself then the skill. Ethnographically, there are three presentday major glass bead industries in India, which not only produce beads using altogether different traditional techniques, but also export them. These are at: 1) Purdalpur, Uttar Pradesh (furnace winding and manual pulling/drawing method); 2) Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh (lamp winding method);

94 and 3) Papanaidupet, Andhra Pradesh (drawing method). Each production process leaves behind debitage unique to its individual manufacturing process. Archaeologically, it is imperative to identify and record these production techniques of glass bead manufacture and to identify the various specific waste products rather than merely speaking of beads and of production centres on the basis of statistics. In other words, glass beads need to be classified by their techniques of manufacture. Glass bead production needs to be studied with the other cultural material associated with it (Kanungo 2000-2001: 337). Process of bead making involve division of labour and specialization on the various stages of manufacture; for a single artisan is not expected to work through all the stages of bead making, such as the procuring of the material, its shaping, cutting, polishing, stringing and other stages in bead making. Thus, there is a need to understand and identify the stages of manufacture and its debitage at each stage of production. Followings are the accounts of the three above mentioned glass bead production places which use all at together different traditional technologies. All steps in the bead making process are presented here, with particular attention to the waste produced by each operation. Apart from these three techniques, many other techniques are also briefly discussed. 3.2 Winding Technique Glass is a “super-cooled liquid”. The major ingredient in most glasses is silica, which needs a very high temperature to melt. It cools and hardens very fast. This leaves a very short span of time for the craftsmen to shape it. However, since ancient times, artists have found ways to exercise their creative will in designing/shaping glass into beads. The furnace winding and moulding technique

is regarded as the oldest, simplest and most common method of bead making (Basa 1993a: 93; Francis 1992a: 15; Sleen 1973: 23). The general features of the winding methods are seen in the twisted-rope like structure, transversely elongated air bubble, almost horizontal lines and sometime the presence of more than one colour in the bead (Basa 1993a, 2002). Francis (1983: 194) refers to two winding methods: furnace winding and scoop winding. In scoop winding, the bead maker first gets the molten glass from the furnace in a scoop and trails it on the rod. It is difficult to distinguish between the beads made by furnace winding and scoop winding. These beads have traditionally been used with the harnesses of donkeys, cattle, horses, camels and elephants (Fig. 23). As well as having a decorative effect, these beads have been attributed with strong protective powers helping to ward off the ‘evil eye’ (Kock and Sode 1995). Such use of beads is probably one of the important reasons for the craft of glass bead making to have survived to the present day. The belief is so strong that the present author who is a native of Orissa remembers his childhood when putting black wound beads around his family cows and crossing nude over a cow seven times whenever the cow appeared to be ill and unable to stand up, where practices widely prevalent. These practices have survived till date. Besides, glass beads have also become a part and parcel of life with many simple living communities (Kanungo 2000, 20002001, 2001a, 2001b, 2002c). Of several ways to wind beads, two are common in India: one is lamp winding, widely used in and around Varanasi and Purdalpur, and the second is furnace winding used at Purdalpur. However, all wound beads share one characteristic: the fabric of the glass, including any additives/residues, is oriented around the

95 perforation. In other words, striation marks can be seen parallel to the perforation in such beads (Fig. 24). Very often differently designed moulds are used to give various shapes to the bead. These techniques are discussed below. 3.2.1 Lamp winding: Glass is transformed into rods or sticks which are called canes. Workers melt them at a small heat source, traditionally a lamp (hence the name). The glass is then wound around a wire or a thin mandrel. While the glass is still hot, the bead may be shaped or given decoration using glass canes of other colours (Fig. 25). These beads can be annealed in the lamp flame. Once cooled, beads are knocked down. Traditionally, beads are produced following this technique at various places around the world. They are Italy (Venice), Czech Republic (Bihemia), Germany (New Gablonz), India (Varanasi), China (various places), Indonesia (Jombang), France and USA (Francis 1992a: 15). 3.2.2 Furnace winding: Glass is heated in a crucible in the furnace. An iron rod (mandrel) is dipped into the glass, and while being taken out, with a dexterous twist, the glass bead is built up (Fig. 26). While still hot, it may be shaped with paddles and other tools or other glass may be added for decoration. Ethnographically, we find that beads are produced using this technique in many parts of the world. These are China (various places), Middle East (Hebron, Greece, Bida), Turkey, Egypt (Cairo), Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, India (Purdalpur), Pakistan (Hyderabad) and Nigeria (Francis 1992a: 15). Distinguishing the beads produced by these two techniques is not easy, as far as ancient material is concerned. However, the internal features in wound beads can provide important clues. A black film of iron oxide from the mandrel is often left

behind when a bead is furnace-wound. A powdery deposit may be left when a bead is lamp-wound because the operation requires a separator on the wire to remove the finished bead (Fig. 27). However, nowadays these deposits are often removed using various chemicals. As per the difference between drawn and wound beads in general is concerned, the air-bubbles present in both is distinct and Sleen (1956a: 205) mentioned that when the bubbles are elongated or lying in lines parallel to the perforation, the beads must have been drawn; and when they were elongated perpendicularly to the perforation they must have been wound beads. This view is widely accepted even today. 3.2.3 Moulded Beads: Wound beads can be pressed or spun in a half-mould to give them a special shape, but true moulding of beads was a development of the Bohemians (or Czechs) in northern Czechoslovakia (Francis 1992a: 17). The original moulds were hand-held tong affairs into which a bit of hot glass from a cane was placed. In ancient Indian moulded glass beads, usually a very thin rim is seen (Fig. 28). This is caused by

Fig. 28: Rim on the mould beads

two reasons. On joining the mould, the flow of excess glass creates a thin circumference around the piece or the rim which is caused by differences created by differential cooling of the

96 glass in the upper and lower faces of the mould. In the recent past, with technological development, such marks are removed successfully by polishing the beads in a rotating drum with carborundum powder (Figs. 29 and 30). 3.3 Purdalpur: The Centre of Furnace Wound Beads 3.3.1 Introduction The village Purdalpur is also known as Purdalnagar in recent maps. It is located in the Sikandaragaon Tehsil of Hathras district, Uttar Pradesh. The whole village’s economy is based on glasswork, particularly that of glass beads and bangles. Almost all the people are engaged in one way or the other in the bead production cycle. The men of the village either work on the bead furnace or in activities related to the bead industry, like the shops of glass, bead, mould, etc., in glazing furnaces, or the work of making furnaces. The women do the job of cleaning and stringing of beads. The people who are not engaged in this furnace bead cycle are engaged in lamp bead production. There are a few agricultural cultivators, but, on their return from the fields, even they cut and collect the branches of brushwood to supply to the bead makers in their oxcarts every day and their women make cow-dung cakes for the fuel. Clusters of beautiful cow-dung stores in the form of houses are located in the village (Fig. 31). The smith and the metal caster make moulding tools, mandrels, blowlamps, air nozzles and spring moulds. Girls and their mothers can be found cleaning and stringing the large quantities of beads. The people who are not engaged in furnace-wound beads are engaged in lamp-winding beads, which are produced in home.

Fig. 31: Cow-dung cakes stored in house form

The roads in the region are busy with the transportation of glass, glass beads and bangles, either on head or on cycle or on overloaded carts pulled by a camel. The size of the load is as much a result of voluminous and careful packing as of the glass material. Besides, this one can see cartfuls of brushwood or cow-dung cakes being transported. The state buses going to and one from Purdalpur are always booked with several packets of glass, glass beads and bangles. All the small nullahs crossing the village roads are also full of bead debitage. In other words, the whole village and the surrounding area is littered with glass bead debitage. 3.3.2 Furnace Wound Glass Beads The beads are made with ductile glass wound upon a mandrel. The wound material is given shape by rolling it forwards and backwards on a smooth metallic surface (usually a piece of old well-worn railway girder) with the mandrel as an axis. The mandrel is a piece of round steel about a metre long with a conical end. The form-iron is an oblong piece of iron plate which is used to forge the bead into its final shape (Fig. 32). The bead is shaped with frequent use of a form-iron and/or by rolling in a single or multi-channelled trough (Fig. 33). While still hot, it may be designed variously with paddles, form-irons and other tools (Fig. 34). A wound bead can be re-inserted in the furnace when it is

97 still hot and stripped or coated with another coloured glass with the help of a second mandrel. Two colours can be maintained in one crucible as glass in these crucibles is not allowed to become liquid. To make beads of some special pattern, shape or edged form, various open moulds or double spring-moulds are used. Several such wound beads are built on a single mandrel.

Fig. 32: Shaping the wounds

Fig. 33: Use of form-iron

Fig. 34: Some tools used by the bead makers

When the bead is finished, the mandrel is stroked hard with an iron tool called the mala so that the hole gets a little bigger and the bead is knocked off during the brief period when the iron cools and contracts faster than the glass and the hole is left when the mandrel is removed. The perforation circumference of the resultant bead will vary according to the tapering end of the mandrel. The bead is allowed to slide down into a small clay pot placed immediately below the working port which functions as an annealing pot (Fig. 35). When the pot is full, it is covered with hot ash from the furnace and placed in sunlight (if available) and allowed to cool slowly (Fig. 36). This is necessary to prevent stresses and cracks from appearing in the bead. Still one does find plenty of such cracked beads and bangles around the furnace area and village (Fig. 37). However, in most of the cases glass workers put the cracked beads and bangles back in to the furnace for remelting and it is the duty of children to collect such debitage (Fig. 38) and sort it according to colour. But this re-melting does not result in a symmetrical colour. Even when the bead or bangle is to be embellished with multi-coloured glass and other design material like gold and silver foil or different coloured glass powder, it is generally not re-melted unless a mixture is what it desired. This leads to accumulation of such debitage in much more quantity and has the potential of altering the statistics of debitage of all varieties of bead production. No form of slip is used in making such wound glass beads (Fig. 39). This is clearly visible as a black layer of iron oxide on the inside of the hole in the beads. On an average 50 gm in 1 kg of beads comes out as debitage at the furnace.

98 technique that has been used since ancient times. The pattern on an engraved iron plate is filled with fine powdered glass, after which the hot bead is rolled over the pattern so that the glass powder sticks to it. The glass is then heated, and the bead is finally moulded with a form-iron.

Fig. 35: Sliding down of beads into annealing pot

Fig. 36: Bead full pots covered with burnt ash

Fig. 38: Collected glass debitage for reuse

3.3.3 Fancifying The initial wound beads are usually monochrome and opaque. It has been a common practice to decorate the beads with applied threads or eye motifs. The so-called ‘powder-glass’ beads are wound beads, usually black, with a pattern of powdered glass melted into the surface. This is an Indian decorative

Another form of decoration coming from olden times involves rolling the hot bead in either small coloured particles or crushed glass or in coloured and twisted glass threads. With this method, the desired pieces of glass are placed for heating on an iron plate positioned just in front of the working port. After the bead has been rolled in the coloured glass, it is heated so that the attached glass melts into the bead (Fig. 40). The bead is given its final shape with a form-iron. For an inner filling the hot wound glass is rolled over some other coloured glass powder and then given another coat of transparent glass. In all the towns and country areas around Purdalpur there are several workshops specialized in silk-printing decoration on beads. Other companies stain or treat the surface of the beads chemically in a different way. By heating the glass beads in small furnaces, and applying a thin layer of metallic oxides, the beads are given a metallic appearance. Some workshops treat the glass beads so that they obtain a mother-of-pearl-like glow, and thus come to resemble true pearl. Treatment with hydrofluoric acid gives the beads a matt surface. The furnace used for this metallic look is generally made of furnace bricks, clay bricks and clay. The furnace looks like a fourshelved cupboard (two on each side). The walls are made of furnace bricks where as the roof is made of clay and the channel to feed fuel and remove the ash is made of furnace and clay bricks (Fig. 41). The roof needs to be repaired every 20 days. Beads are placed inside these

99 shelves, spread in a clay over-lined tin tray for about 15 minutes and then treated chemically for the appearance. The trays are placed in and removed from the furnace with the help of a long handled drawing tool made of iron. At all these fancifying workshops one sees the reject of broken and other imperfect beads. 3.3.4 Bangles Here is described, the technology involved in the production of only those glass bangles which are produced from a bigger amount of wound glass. The bangle makers first wind a larger amount of glass on a mandrel that is made for beads, and then follow the same process as that for beads, the only exception being that while making the bangle they keep rotating the mandrel keeping a iron wire in between the wound glass and mandrel (Fig. 42). This results in a larger perforation and, when it is still hot, the worker, with lightning speed puts the wound glass on an arm-ring cone which is attached with a metre-long iron rod and this is also rotated like a mandrel using his open palm held against the handle to facilitate backwards and forwards movement on the girder. The cone is held upward in a slanting position towards the opening of the furnace, and throughout the process the iron wire is maintained between the cone and the glass wound/ring. This permits gradual enlargement of the wound glass from the tip of the cone. The wound glass is allowed to slip down to the broad base of the cone until the requisite size of either bracelet or bangle is achieved (Fig. 43). The arm-ring cone is made of clay and is rough on surface. It has a number of grooves over it for size control (Fig. 44). For making of bracelets the help of a single-channelled trough is taken. Bangles also can be appliquéd with different coloured glass as in the case of beads.

Fig.: 43: Bangle is being formed on an armring cone

Fig. 44: Arm-ring cone

3.3.5 Furnace At Purdalpur, one sees a profusion of furnaces right from the entrance to the village (Fig. 45). In contrast to general opinion that glasswork areas are placed on the outskirts of habitational areas as they generate enormous heat, at Purdalpur, they are occasionally located inside the habitational area. However, in most cases they are a little away from the habitational area. At present there exist about two hundred furnaces at which the bead makers produce various forms of glass beads, bangles and many other small objects like Mahadev (Shiv-linga). All the bead makers are males and the great majority of them are Muslims. There are normally fourteen to twenty bead makers working in each of the glassworks. Each furnace house has one furnace inside, and a small clay and brick locker in one corner for safekeeping of tools and glass cakes. Almost all the

100 furnaces have a thatched roof, which is very high in the centre and has low margins at the two sides supported on six to eight brick/wooden pillars. The bigger tools like drawing iron, arm-ring cone, mandrel, grabbing iron, stirring iron, glass maker’s pipe, etc. are left inside this open house after the day’s work without any fear of theft (Figs. 46 & 47).

Fig. 45: A furnace wound bead factory

Fig. 46: Ground plan of a wound bead furnace

At the furnace each glass worker has his own place of work, where he sits on the ground or on a sack while he works. Many of the workers have achieved mastery over a variety of differently designed beads while a few specialize only in making particular types of beads, bracelets and bangles.

The bead makers construct their own furnace. This job is led by one of the experienced bead makers and takes about a week. However, there are certain young professionals in the village who have mastered the art of furnace making. A number of rectangular, sun-dried clay

101 plates are placed standing upright around the pit that is to serve as the base of the fire-chamber. These plates separate the individual workstations. The number of

plates shows how many bead makers can work around the finished furnace. The circumference of the furnace is bounded with a line of clay bricks at ground level.

Fig. 47: Top view of wound bead furnace

Fig. 48: A furnace under preparation

A clay dome is made either by directly building over the clay plates, or separately built in an inverted stone/cement basin (in which the animals are fed), and placed laterally over the standing clay plates. In any case, the top is left open and is covered with a clay plate only when the furnace is in use (Fig. 48). This opening facilitates a regular change of crucibles. The furnace is built of coarsely tempered clay mixed with chopped straw. This practice of adding fine chopped straw to strengthen the ‘poor’, ‘lean’ or sandy clay has been an ancient technique (Singh 1989: 187). When the furnace is fired, the straw burns off, leaving a highly porous clay furnace that can cope with the great range of temperatures between the day’s high working temperature and the night’s cooling off. Outside every furnace house, clay is stored in a pit and everyday one of the workers tramples on it while pouring water. Four Y-shaped wooden poles are placed close to the furnace in a square layout to dry the wood over it for the next day’s fuel.

called the window, and just inside it there is a small open crucible for the glass, measuring about 25 by 40 cm and made of clay mixed with chopped straw. The windows are uniquely designed for various products like beads, bangles and other objects. It is also necessary to change the crucibles continually, because a crucible will normally be burnt out after about two weeks (Fig. 49). When crucibles are replaced or the structure is repaired, the outside of the old furnace is built on with new, straw-tempered clay. The logical construction of the furnace is derived from the experience of generations, transmitted from father to son over hundreds of years. With this type of furnace, one can produce temperatures that are high enough for the making of glass beads and arm-rings with the least possible consumption of fuel. In normal circumstances the furnace can be used for about half a year, depending entirely on how carefully it was built and maintained (Fig. 50). Thus one sees continuous reconstruction of furnaces in the village and they are generally made at the same place after demolishing the earlier ones completely. This results in an abundance of fired clay fragments with glass spilling, clay pots, clay plates, armrings, broken crucibles with a glass layer and bricks and other debitage littered

The furnace is made in such a way that the various types and forms of beads, bangles and other minor objects can be made at each workstation. The opening from which the glass is picked up is

102 around the glass-works. One can see the piling-up of such debitage around after hundreds of years of breaking and making anew of furnaces. Once fired and broken, clay cannot be reused for furnace activities.

Fig. 49: Broken/burnt crucibles

Fig. 50: A burnt furnace

When work is going on in the furnace, it is fired exclusively with dry deciduous brushwood. These quick-burning branches produce a lot of flame and thus higher temperatures, while the production of large quantities of charcoal is avoided. Dried branches are preferred to real logs because with these one can better control the firing of the furnace. Work in the glassworks begins early in the morning at around 4 oƍ clock, with the stroker lightning the furnace with logs of wood and cow-dung cakes. It takes about an hour and a half for the furnace to reach the right temperature for

the day’s work to begin. An iron pipe is used to blow the air into fire. The crucibles are filled with broken glass either broken from new cakes or collected. It takes about half an hour for the glass to melt sufficiently for beads and arm-rings to be made. Very often new cold glass is added at the back of the crucible while work is going on from front. When this has melted, the bead maker mixes them well and pulls it to the front of the crucible with a stirring iron. There is no age restriction for the bead makers; they are of a mixed age group ranging from seven years to any age upwards. Generally one of them keeps on singing movie songs mixed with various risqué expressions. Such bawdy singing is not merely an entertaining optionality, but is considered imperative for a productive and enjoyable working session! The prevailing mood at such sessions being what it is, any query put to a worker at that time brings forth a risqué double entendre as a response. Once the pots cools down the beads are taken out for temporary cleaning and sorting and the debitage consisting of cracked beads and closed perforation is thrown near by. This is the job for children and elders alike. 3.3.6 Raw Material Raw glass in the cake form comes from the glass furnaces of Firozabad, the glass city which is about 70 km from this village. Pouring the liquid glass over a heavy plate of stone or iron from a crucible scoop and exposing it to rapid cooling makes it brittle and thus easy to break when it is to be used. Some glassworkers of the Purdalpur village melt together various pieces of cast-off glass and produce coloured cakes of raw glass which they can either sell or keep for later use. These glass cakes are broken into pieces before putting into the bead furnace. The bead maker who

103 comes to glass furnaces always gets some beads along with him to the factory for colour matching and very often he leaves behind these beads in the factory. 3.3.7 Trader At Purdalpur there is a section of people who generally do not themselves produce beads, preferring to play the role of middlemen for the traders in big cities like Varanasi, Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Bangalore, etc. There are a number of such local traders in Purdalpur village but generally none of them sends beads to the international market directly. Banaras Beads Limited (BBL), which is the biggest trader of glass beads in India, has a main office at Varanasi and has been dealing with international trading of both lamp-wound beads (own production) and furnace-wound beads ordered through a middleman like Ashok Upadhyaya of Purdalpur, or other smaller dealers. Ashok Upadhyaya is a middleman for the BBL and also sends beads to other cities. The details of this middleman’s modus operandi and BBL’s network are presented below as a case study. Orders for beads of specific style come to Ashok Upadhyaya; the beads are either designed by the BBL or by its clients from various parts of the world. Villagers from different furnace houses come empty handed to Upadhyaya and go away with the models, orders for specific quantity, glass and mould/dye (if required) and sometime even with advance payment. After they complete the job they get the beads back to Upadhyaya and quality assurance and weighing of products takes place before the balance payment is made and new orders are placed (Fig. 51). Bead makers re-sort the beads for the debitage like half moulded, closed perforation, cracked beads, beads with air bubble and transportation debitage, all of which is generally thrown away nearby, leading to

piling of such debitage near a place where beads are not actually made. However, slag fragments are not to be found here. But transportation of raw glass from here to the workers’ place, and of beads brought from the furnace without proper packing results in pieces of them being found in the nearby debitage. Sometime new shapes are invented accidentally while winding the beads in a different manner than the targeted one. The author witnessed one such piece, sorted by a bead maker as debitage in Upadhyaya’s house-cumshop, which came to be so appreciated that more beads of that type were ordered. In case of highly designed pendants payment is made on the basis of number rather than weight. Out of 3½ kg of beads, 66 pieces weighing 75 gm were debitage, and most of them were claimed to be transportation waste (Fig. 52).

Fig. 52: Transportation debitage

There are a lot of people in the village only engaged in mould/dye making (Fig. 53), and one finds plenty of model beads with them. These models may have travelled from almost any part of the earth, and might have different colouring content. The same applies to the model which goes to the local furnaces to be copied as per the end client’s requirement. Interestingly enough the dye maker generally breaks the model beads into two parts to make the mould/dye more accurate. Thus this also becomes a location for bead debitage. In

104 case the mould/dye maker’s place is away from production place, the corresponding debitage could accumulate at this far off place.

discarded, leading to the piling-up of such material in the village where stringing takes place rather than at the production centre. The same procedure is followed in the case of beads that are sold directly from the Purdalpur traders. Once sold/exported unstrung, it is not unlikely that bead debitage will be found at the end-user’s or stringer’s place (Kanungo 2000-01, 2001a). To summarise, the glass bead debitage is found at the following locations:

Fig. 53: A mould making shop at Purdalpur

3.3.8 Stringing and Cleaning of Beads Once the beads come to BBL, they are cleaned thoroughly and polished/rubbed on a gunny bag or coir mat. In the process of cleaning the perforation, which is done by pulling the bead forward and backward on a aluminium wire fixed to the ground and some chemical treatment, a few of the beads break apart. The cleaning is also done at village level. After sorting, the beads are either packed for export or sent to different neighbouring villages for stringing (Fig. 54). In the latter case, they

Fig. 54: Stringing of beads at nearby village

are sorted more efficiently as per their symmetry, and most of the unfinished, half finished and odd pieces are

x x x x x x x x x x

Production place. Village nullahs. Middlemen and trader’s place. Place of cleaning. Re-annealing and glazing place. Transportation route (due to hole in the sack which is very common). Glass factory where the bead maker generally takes some debitage to get glass of same colour. Quality assurance sorting place. Mould maker’s place. User’s place.

In the last four decades or so, Purdalpur and its network of about 250 villages surrounding the village in a radius of about 250 km have emerged as the largest complex of lamp-winding beads in the world. Details of the production and postproduction processes are discussed in the following section on Lamp winding Beads of Varanasi, as there lies the parent organisation. The products are marketed through the BBL and also through various other outlets based in metros like Mumbai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Delhi etc., where they reach via middlemen settled in Purdalpur.

105 3.4 Varanasi: The Lamp Winding Bead Complex 3.4.1 Banaras Beads Limited In India, today the lamp winding technique is practised and mastered by the Banaras Beads Limited (BBL) of Varanasi. The industry was established in 1940 by Late Shri Kanhaiya Lal Gupta after getting training under the able guidance of a Czech couple, Mrs. & Mr. Henrich, who had visited the Ceramic Engineering Dept. of Banaras Hindu University. BBL produces all its beads by lamp winding. For this, the material requirement is very small but craftsmanship is of a very high standard. Material requirements are: glass canes of different colour, blow-lamps, a tin to cover the lamps, a pair of bellows made of wooden planks and skin, mandrel or iron wire, an aluminium finger cap, China clay or kaolin, a stone-stand with channel (mahadeva), some hand-held tongs (dohri chimti), spring moulds (chimta), an open half-mould (sacha), a flat iron strip with raised edge of about 30 x 3 x 0.5 cm (chipna) and a chiselshaped shaping spatula (kahari) (Fig. 55). Until as late as 1980, BBL was producing its own glass canes, but now they are brought from Firozabad. BBL has developed its own press moulds for its use. These moulds are like the moulds discussed in the above sections on Purdalpur but instead of perforation on top they have figures with a perforation groove on both the half-moulds attached to a tong. Such moulds are also noticed from archaeological sites, for an instance a flattish tile with depressions for square beads has been recovered from the archaeological site of Brahmapuri (Kolhapur) (Sankalia and Dikshit 1952). The author in his exploration around the mound of Kausambi, Allahabad in 2001, found one such half mould. It is made of

terracotta and designed to produce melon shaped beads (Fig. 56).

Fig. 55: 1: stone - stand with channel, 2: spring mould, 3: hand – held tong, 4: spatula, 5: a flat iron strip (chipna), 6: open half-mould

Fig. 56: A terracotta mould from Kausambi

3.4.2 Raw Material The main raw material e.g., glass canes are brought from Firozabad. A gaffer stirs the mixture in the furnace with an iron bar on the end of which he gathers viscous mass of red hot glass. After this he fixes another bar and on making both the rods little far results in spreading of the malleable glass. Then the gaffer gives one rod to a second one, who runs with it at full speed, pulling the glass mass out into a rod, which solidifies instantly by cooling and appears as a shiny rod. This long rod is then cut down to handy lengths of two or three feet (Fig. 57). Thus produces raw material for wound beads. These rods are also produced in some glassmaking houses at Purdalpur.

106 Sasini (the last two places are near Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh and the factories are now closed).

Fig. 57: Glass rods are cut into pieces

The gaffer first winds the required amount of glass on an iron rod then by fasting one end around an iron hook that has driven into place in the street outside the glasswork, he pulls the glass rods much like that at Firozabad. When glass rods are removed from the iron rod in the end, the hardened glass residues comes out with an iron oxide impression on it. This production has its own unique debitage (Fig. 58) and the finding of the same would indicate the rod production.

Fig. 59: In-situ pieces of crucible at Asi

Fig. 60: Surface findings at Asi (pieces of glass, crucibles and slags)

Fig. 58: Debitage of glass rod production

Since 1962-1963, BBL used to produce its own canes in the Banaras Glass works (till 1975 its name was Ashok Glass Industry) at Asi, near Lanka of Varanasi, where the debitage of pots, rods, and pieces of glass lie still (Figs. 59 and 60) along with one table (Fig. 61). The first employee in this industry was Ahir Dixit (from BHU). Before 1962, canes were brought from Firozabad, Balabali and

Fig. 61: Abandoned glass pulling table at Asi

3.4.3 Bead Production Craftsmen sit on a wooden stool keeping the requisite materials on a worktable on which blowlamps are fixed and a pair of bellows beneath (Fig. 62). Lamps are

107 and, dohri chimti is used for both shaping and separating the beads while they are still in a semi-molten state on the mandrel. Before the finished beads are send to exporter or trader, the women of the village clean the China clay or kaolin out of the holes by pulling the beads back and forth on twisted metal wire (Fig. 66).

Fig. 62: Lamp-wound bead making tables

fixed on the chest height and the flame is directed forward to one point. Flame is topped with a tin cover for protecting vision and providing clarity of observation. There are from two to eight work places at the table, one of the craftsmen working on a work place keeps on treading the bellows (Fig. 63).

Fig. 64: A craftsman in his position

Fig. 63: Treading the bellows

Fig. 66: Women cleaning the bead holes

(After Kock and Sode 1995)

They provide a continuous air supply, through three to seven air ducts to the lamps which makes it possible to achieve a temperature high enough for the glass to be melted and worked. Stone stand with a channel is kept below the flames (Fig. 64). Then the craftsman putting a finger cap on his index finger picks up a mandrel, dips it in kaolin and starts winding the glass canes around it. The number of beads produced depends on the length of the mandrel, beads size and shape (Fig. 65). Both Chipna and Kahari are used for pressing and moulding glass,

Most wound beads are produced with either one or a combination of the followings three techniques: 3.4.4 Simple wound beads: They are produced by simply winding the different colour glass canes around the mandrel; and a master craftsman gives it any shape excluding that of figures. For shapes like drop and bicone, he uses a small open half mould of iron kept on the floor. The design is grooved in the iron. Craftsmen twirl the mandrel with hot wound glass on this groove to get the shape.

108 3.4.5 Appliqué beads: For making different designs on beads the craftsman uses different coloured glass canes. Once the desired shape is given to a wound bead and it is still hot, the craftsman goes on designing beads with different coloured canes as per the requirement. This can also be done after cooling and reheating (imposing and over imposing). 3.4.6 Mould beads: After winding the glass and when it is still hot on the rod, the press tongue mould is used for giving various shapes and for designing figures. 3.4.7 Debitage: Once the canes become too small to hold and get near the lamp, they are discarded (Fig. 67). These pieces generally have one end with a sharp cut and another end with clogged molten glass. Sometime canes are broken during transportation or otherwise to too small shapes to use. These broken pieces would generally have sharp cuts on both ends (Fig. 68). Here one has to consider that the craftsman who melts the canes knows very well that debitage may be recycled for making long canes again. This considerably reduces debitage. In the process of melting the canes to wind and design, small drops fall on the channelled stone stand and are accumulated nearby. Sometimes, on pressing the mould, extra glass comes out of the joint in the form of very irregular thin pieces (Fig. 69).

Such pieces are also found near the hole cleaning and polishing/rubbing area but in very small sizes. Once the beads are produced they are polished/rubbed on a gunny bag or coir mat (Fig. 70). After sorting, the beads are either packed for export or sent to different neighbouring villages for stringing. In the latter case, they are sorted more efficiently as per their symmetry, and most of the unfinished, half finished and odd pieces are discarded, leading to the piling-up of such material in the village of stringing rather than in the production centre.

Fig. 70: Polishing of beads

Fig. 71: Workshop at Adityanagar village

Fig. 69: Fallen glass drops from the rods

Curiously enough in such a big production centre one finds only four to eight master craftsmen. The designer in the BBL either designs a new variety or clients come with their own designs. By a trial and error method clients’

109 satisfaction is achieved. Once the final design is achieved, the master craftsmen of BBL teach the same to invited villagers. On requirement villagers stay there for a few days to learn and to practise. Once satisfied with their work, BBL gives them the order; for production of beads ultimately, the bulk of production takes place in the villages

Map 4: Bead producing villages of BBL

(Fig. 71). The industry’s numero uno position is maintained, not at this centre alone but over the whole complex comprising 11 villages spread over the three districts of Uttar Pradesh, namely Varanasi, Mirzapur and Sonbhadra. Table 6 lists the BBL production centres in Uttar Pradesh (Map 4).

110 Table 6: List of BBL Production Centres: Sr. No.

Name of village

District

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Adityanagar Tenui Kaparphorwa Kashipur Nigatpur Magari Banpurwa Chakia Madhupur Gangwar Baradih

Varanasi Varanasi Varanasi Varanasi Varanasi Varanasi Varanasi Mirzapur Sonbhadra Sonbhadra Sonbhadra

Since lamp beads are of different varieties, normally a master craftsman makes around 600 to 800 grams of plain beads or 100 to 400 grams of fancy beads per day. Learners only make plain beads; and achieve a target of 300 to 400 beads per day. BBL trades an astonishing 50,000 varieties of glass beads which are exported worldwide. It exports both

Map 5: Export network of BBL

Approximate distance from BBL in Km 5 12 15 16 20 27 16 25 70 73 78

‘lamp-wound’ and ‘furnace-wound’ beads to over 50 countries, the more important of which are, Japan, China, Hong Kong, Thailand, Philippines, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Senegal, Ivory Coast, Kenya, South Africa, countries of western Europe, USA, and Canada. However, 50% of the export is to the United States (Map 5).

111 Beads from BBL started travelling to these far off places (exported directly) only from 1971. Till then very less quantity of export used to take place through middlemen. However, by 1971 BBL had spread its trading network throughout India. Customer came from far off places like Kohima (Nagaland), Dibulgarh (Assam), etc. in regular interval to buy trunk loads of beads. Kanhyalal, the founder of the BBL went to northeast India at least once in a year to get new order and also to know the traditional designs of those people, modelling which glass beads use to be produced. This is evident enough to know as to how these glass beads have been passed on to the tribal world of India in a great quantity (see Chapter IV). Beads produced by winding technique have begun to be used by the urban people only in recent times but they have been used by primitive communities all over the world since ancient times. Two such user communities are the Juang of

Orissa (Kanungo 2001b) and the Ao Naga of Nagaland (Kanungo 2002b, n.d.) (see Chapter IV). Likewise as mentioned in the previous section there are many more villages centring Purdalpur which also produce lamp-wound beads in great quantity but are traded via the middlemen. These middlemen sometime channel the beads again through the centres like BBL. Rest all moves in more or less in same modus operandi as mentioned earlier for the BBL’s production. Lamp-bead making started in Purdalpur in 1955 by Surendra Mohan Pathak, after he got trained in ITI college of BHU. Though this initiator changed his profession later on, the craft was picked up very fast by the villagers as they were well acquainted with the glass bead making for generations with furnace-winding technology. Here are listed, 101 villages and their distance from Purdalpur from where they take order and deliver the products.

Table 7: List of Villages of Lamp-Wind Bead Production: Sr. No.

Village/town name

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Khaspur Totaikangala Ajgara Bajjhera Sikandargaon Chichabali Sihori Asoi Dharampur Nagaria Navapur Sindholi Vaman-nagra Bhimpur Naglasekha Chitrakut Naglamia Varraga Jarera Kararmai

Approximate distance from Purdalpur in km 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 8 8

112 Sr. No.

Village/town name

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.

Lodhipur Naglabidsa Pandapur Pohra Sitapur Talimpur Naglamasand Piplinagla Bahadi Bharatpur Bhenkuri Bostoi Chomroli Dohketi Jamalpur Mathurapur Mohanpura Rampur Salempur Talimpur Bordhsoli Nagladanda Sarai Hansai Hirapur Kinayatpur Malhamai Medhamai Saradamai Sultanpur Mallhamai Bhimpur Bopdei Gopi Budhera Daba Dabi Nagalasakat Pilaktera Ramnagar Sankarpur Santipur Dariyapur Manakpur Chandpur Akrabad Alipur Guddhha Irkhidi Kheria Kuagaon

Approximate distance from Purdalpur in km 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 17 17 18 20 20 20 20 20 20

113 Sr. No.

Village/town name

72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101.

Mandanpur Naukhela Patherisarai Rejua Uldapur Patna Nlanu Suhabali Hiranagara Jalesore Agarpur Baddhanu Bilabali Vijayagarh Gangiri Changeli Gaganpur Hiranagara Jinehra Rejua Gokulpur Nijra Rehemapur Tehra Firozabad Naglanensukh Pateali Sukuabad Ujjhani Badainu

3.5 Drawing Method The technique of drawing long tubes from a hot gather of glass was an important advance in the history of glass technology. Evidence of drawn glass tubes is lines parallel to the perforation (external striations) and elongated air bubbles in the same axis. Moreover, when the maximum diameters of a number of beads are similar and quite small, it is quite possible that the beads are manufactured by the drawn method. In this method, glass beads are made from tubes of glass which have been pulled or drawn, and subsequently cut into smaller segments. The earliest glass tubes are reported from the royal palace in Amarna, Egypt dated to about the 14th

Approximate distance from Purdalpur in km 20 20 20 20 20 22 23 23 25 25 30 30 30 30 33 40 40 40 40 40 50 55 60 60 65 85 88 200 220 250 (near Barelley)

century B.C. (Stern 1987b: 346). Glass tubes could be made in different ways and for different purposes such as beads, bottle-necks and decorations. The simplest drawing technique is used in many glass industries in Firozabad. 3.5.1 Simple Drawing In this process, the gaffer puts one end of a pipe into the molten-glass pot in the furnace and winds a small quantity of glass on end of the pipe. By blowing into the other end of the pipe a small amount of air, he converts the glass blob to a bubble on the pipe. Then the pipe is kept on an iron/wooden stand and an apprentice keeps on rolling it slowly, blowing into the pipe at intervals (Fig. 72). Once the glass gets a little cool, the

114 gaffer again takes it into the furnace to wind additional glass onto this bubble. Taking it out of the furnace, he blows it once more and twirls it again on a wooden stand (Fig. 73) for about 5 minutes and then twirls it inside a basin which holds just enough water to submerge the glass bubble partially (Fig. 74).

removed from the rod in the end, the hardened glass residues comes out with an iron oxide impression on it. However, as far as beads are concerned they are produced in large quantity at Papanaidupet and with altogether different technology. They are commonly known as Indo-Pacific beads.

Fig. 78: Characteristic curved glass bits Fig. 72: Maintaining the bulb

After about 5 minutes of this treatment, the gaffer takes the pipe with the stillmalleable glass on it and shapes it by rolling on a stone platform. He then starts blowing it again and with the help of another person he attaches a second pipe to the mounted glass. They both then give a twist (Fig. 75) and start pulling apart the two pipes (Fig. 76) even as the gaffer continues to blow (Fig. 77). This combination of blowing and pulling apart the glass results in a pipe, the thickness of which is dependent on the coordinated manner of blowing and pulling apart by the two artisans involved. The floor of the working area is usually covered with a layer of straw to prevent any impurities and collapsing of glass. Once the glass pipes have been drawn, they are cut into the required size to be transported. Then they can be cut again as per the enduser’s requirement. Its debitage is unique to the process. The ends of the drawn glass-pipe result in thick, characteristically curved glass bits (Fig. 78) which are broken off and subsequently recycled. When pipes are

3.6 Papanaidupet: The Indo-Pacific Bead Production Centre 3.6.1 Introduction The beads produced at Papanaidupet are commonly known as Indo-Pacific beads, and are generally three to five millimetres in diameter. In cross section they are usually round, but their profiles differ so much that they may be oblate, discoidal, tubular, or other shapes. Beck (1930: 176-178) first reported on these beads when discussing excavated material from Kuala Selinsing, Malaysia. Later he identified these beads at various places around the Indo-Pacific region. This type of beads has been named variously by scholars as ‘Trade Wind Beads’ (Sleen 1956b: 27), ‘Trade Wind Beads Chemical Group’ (Davison 1972, cited in Francis 1990b: 1), and ‘IndoPacific Monochrome Drawn Glass Bead’ (Francis 1985a: 44). Finally, on the basis of their distribution from southern Africa to Korea, Francis (1986b) coined them as ‘Indo-Pacific Beads’. Their distribution is even wider than the shores of these seas, but the term fits the location of their

115 known manufactures (Francis 2002a: 20). Recently Gupta (1999: 12) has taken this horizon up to Japan. The spatial and temporal distribution of Indo-Pacific beads is one of the important and extraordinary facts about them. They are found during a period of more than two thousand years in regions as far removed as Ghana and China, Mali and Bali, South Africa and South Korea (Francis 2002a: 20). The Indo-Pacific beads occur in great numbers in south India; they were common from 300 B.C. onwards at Taxila and are found at many other Indian sites. They travelled both to the East and the West, following the same routes and the same destinations as the agate and carnelian beads. These beads appear in East Africa between 200 to 1600 A.D., in Malaysia and Vietnam by about 1000 A.D., and in Sumatra in the beginning of the 1st century A.D. (Dubin 1987: 195). There is probably not a country in Asia that does not have these beads (Francis 1990b: 1). Francis (2002a) and Stern (1987a, 1991) have compared the Indo-Pacific debitage with that of Arikamedu and have hypothesized that the technique followed before 2000 years and present day Papanaidupet is one and the same. Arikamedu was the earliest production site of these beads and operated for the longest period (Francis n.d.). It was the cradle of Indo-Pacific bead making (Francis 2002b). IndoPacific beads are first produced using the lada technique of using iron pipe at Arikamedu at about 3rd century B.C. (Francis 1996: 141). These beads constitute 88% of all glass beads at Arikamedu. Not only these beads were widespread, but the unique bead making method has been identified at no less than ten sites in what are now six modern countries: India, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia (Francis 2002a, 2002b). Today, Indo-Pacific glass beads are produced with traditional technique at

Papanaidupet in Chittoor district (Andhra Pradesh). Though Francis (1985a, 1990a, 1990b, 1991b, 1994a1, 2002a, n.d.) and Stern (1987a, 1987b) speak about the technique of production followed at Papanaidupet, they provide no details about the furnace, various technological aspects such as the use of potsherds, cow-dung, and wooden pounding. 3.6.2 Papanaidupet: an Ethnographic Survey 3.6.2.1 Glassmaking Both glass and glass bead production need trained and skilful people. The glass used at Papanaidupet comes from two sources. It mostly is brought commercially from the factories of Firozabad. Since the mid-1980s, glass has been made at Papanaidupet. It is made in large clay crucibles fired in furnaces. Chemical and workers come from Firozabad, Uttar Pradesh but the sand is from Gudar in Andhra Pradesh. However in the recent past at Papanaidupet much of the glass is produced by re-cycling the discarded glass (Fig. 79), as producing glass by taking sand efflorescence is comparatively much more expensive. For this purpose, ingredients and skilled glass workers are hired temporarily from Firozabad’s large factories. It is a good example of a production centre being different from the place of labour class. Sometimes glass chunks are purchased from Firozabad itself.

1

Francis (1994) suggests that the people of Papanaidupet are descendents of the great Arikamedu bead industries and have moved to the present location in the 16th century. Francis (2002) also mentions about meeting a old man of 80 years old in 1985 who had informed him that his father and grandfather had done the same work there; however the present author after systematic ethnographic survey could not able to take the industry beyond a century.

116 furnace) made of bricks for putting rawglass and colouring agents on it, and a small igloo-like tunnel on the fourth side for drawing the tubes (Figs. 81 and 82). On every alternate day a layer of mud is applied to its surface. Every year or so a new furnace is required to be created as the older one develop cracks due to heat.

Fig. 79: Collected glass pieces for recycling

3.6.2.2 Furnace The furnaces are located outside the habitation area as they generate enormous heat and work throughout the night. A dome shaped furnace is constructed of clay, mud bricks and iron, on a pit about 1½ m deep (Fig. 80). It has four openings for different purposes, a high port with iron base for the ‘lada’ (an iron pipe used in bead production), a low one for fuel, a trough on one side having high platforms (10% sliding towards the

Fig.: 81: Ground plan of Indo-pacific Bead Furnace

Fig. 80: The pit

117 keeps the fire going till the glass starts melting (Fig. 84).

Fig. 82: Top view of the Indo-Pacific Bead furnace

3.7 First Firing Operation Firing is required for two different purposes: first, for melting the glass and, second, for rounding off the cut segments (to be discussed later). Before the process starts, a slurry of cow-dung is smeared all over the mud-brick platform. To cover the glass chunks for firing, earthen pots are broken to required size and a hole is made at one end for picking them up with iron rods/hooks. These potsherds are smeared with ash mixed with water (Fig. 83). This is done apparently to avoid the sticking of glass to the platform and the coverings. Logs are placed inside the furnace.

3.7.1 Preparing the Glass Cone Once the glass melts, potsherd coverings are taken out. The glass is picked up on a metal-sheathed pole called ‘gedda paru’ repeatedly (Fig. 85) (depending on the amount and melting of glass). It is kneaded in the furnace (Fig. 86) and in the meantime another gedda paru is inserted into the whole glass for twisting it to get a better mixture (Fig. 87). When the glass is completely melted, the whole mass of glass is taken out, and then put onto a long iron tube, called ‘lada’. This is the most important tool (Fig. 88) and a typical one. It is an iron pipe having a flaring end at one end to hold the glass. Patches of glass left on the gedda paru eventually fall off or gedda paru is smashed on a nearby stone, which results in knocking off of thin, slightly curved glass flakes, having rough inside surface and shiny, smooth exteriors, and often with a "tail" (Figs. 89 and 90). "Gedda paru flakes" indicate working glass with these tools (Francis 1990b: 13; 2002a: 22). The ‘lada’ with glass is inserted into the furnace, which continues to be heated, till it becomes soft enough to be given the required shape. It is then taken out of the furnace to be run atop a low wall with a large stone platform to give it a conical shape (Figs. 91 and 92). A long iron rod with pointed end, called chetak, is put into the lada and thrust at the base of the cone for perforating the cone from base to apex. For achieving this shape and perforation glass mass is heated again and again with periodical thrusting of chetak2. Often before piercing the

Fig. 83: Potsherds smeared with cow-dung 2

Glass cakes are broken up and placed on the brick platform adjacent to the furnace. Chunks of glasses are covered with the ash-smeared potsherds. The furnace is then fired up and the worker

Francis points out the piercing of the glass on lada after the satisfactory cone is formed (Francis 2002: 23), however from the authors systematic observations, it may be concluded that by the time the cone is made the perforation is also near the completion as the workers keep on

118 cone, sufficient amount of burnt brick powder/sand is inserted inside the ‘lada’, so that the ‘chetak’ may pierce the glass smoothly. This facilitates in procuring a hollow tube without the use of blowpipe.

Fig. 88: Glass is being mounted on lada

Fig. 91: Rolling the glass mass on a stone platform

3.7.2 Drawing the Tubes Two wooden/iron poles are driven into the ground at a distance of about 1 m away from the lada port and the distance between the two poles is equal to that of the lada port. Glass cone with lada is placed inside the furnace, and it is also kept between the two driven poles to maintain the lada from rolling out in any other direction than the tunnel. Two workers keep on rolling the lada with glass, on the base (made of iron) of the lada port and chetak remains inside the lada. On the opposite side, a master makes some prayers (Fig. 93) and then takes a metal hook, with U shaped tip and tries to grab the tip of the cone. Sometime it takes several attempts to grab the tip to the requirement (Fig. 94). The lump of glass, which comes with the hook on the pull, is broken off and tube is pulled having a small piece of cloth/sack in hand at a distance of 5 m (Fig. 95). The tube is pulled out and broken into an average length of 1 m. The drawing of tubes takes place with the help of two masters alternatively (Fig. 96). The thickness and thinness of the tube depends on the master who pulls the tube: the more the speed, the thinner the tube. A slight mistake in pulling the tube makes the glass tube touch the floor and when it touches the furnace the tube gets the impurity and sometime in this process the tube breaks down, requiring the process of grabbing the cone tip once again.

Fig. 92: Giving conical shape to glass mass

thrusting the chetak in continuous intervals while making the cone.

Fig. 93: Everywhere there is God

119 complete perforation. One can find pilling of such glass rods around the furnace area (Fig. 98).

Fig. 94: Pulling of the tube

Fig. 97: Checking for the perforation

Once the glass on lada becomes too small in quantity for the tubes to be drawn it is taken out and put under the sun. Patches of glass left on the lada eventually fall off (Fig. 99). Finding of these debitage in archaeological sites would indicate the use of lada (Fig. 100). Fig. 95: Characteristic debitage of repeated initial draws

Fig. 99: Fallen glass pieces from lada under sun Fig. 96: Drawing of the tubes

At regular intervals, an old master with help of a kerosene lamp keeps on checking whether the perforation is through or not. He breaks a small piece from a drawn tube and checks whether the light is passing through or not (Fig. 97). If not, he instructs the person holding the ‘lada’ to push the ‘chetak’ a little more to pass air through for making

A large amount of waste is likely to be produced in manually drawn tubes. Usually the waste is in the shape of ‘U’ glass lumps, one side thick and other side thin, and unperforated glass tubes of different lengths. Besides this, Francis mentions other shapes such as horns and twisted tubes as wastes (Francis 1990b: 13). They are some of the characteristic indicators of Indo-Pacific glass bead production.

120

Fig. 100: Tools used in the process

Fig. 102: Cutting tools

3.7.3 Cutting the Tubes Cutting takes place during daytime inside the village, which is a kilometre away from the production centre. A worker takes about a dozen tubes in his hand, lays them on a blade driven into the ground, and with another blade slices off pieces from them (Figs. 101 & 102). Last portions of tubes, about 2-3 cm in length are discarded (as it becomes impossible to hold and cut). These pieces are expected in plenty near the cutting area, as they are not passed further for any other processing. However, in remote areas of Nagaland (Konyaks) and Orissa (Kutia Kondhs) there exists a fashion of making and using necklaces out of these cut tubes.

3.8 Second Firing Operation After the segmentation, they are taken to a kiln for reheating. Reheating is done for rounding the sharp edges and giving glaze to the beads. Kiln is generally located close to the main furnace. This kiln is squarish in shape with rounded edges and tapering end having two ports in it, one for putting wooden logs and another small passage for ventilation (Fig. 103). The workers pack the segments in ash and stir on a flat ceramic tray in the kiln (Fig. 104). After stirring for about 20 to 30 minutes they are taken out and sieved to remove the ash. Sometimes beads stick together in this operation. Examples of beads sticking to the tray are also found. Then the beads are repacked with the husk and pounded lightly with a wooden pounding for glazing them (Fig. 105). Francis observed that the second firing operations carried out by a wife-andhusband team (Francis 2002a: 24). However, this cannot be generalized though it is observed in some cases.

Fig. 101: Cutting of glass tubes

121 glass beads. As the waste finding are distinctive for different steps, it should be possible to identify them in the archaeological context.

Fig. 103: Bead rounding kiln

Fig. 105: Pounding of beads

The finished beads are taken to a sieving machine having different sizes of sieves in descending order from top to bottom for separating them in different sizes (Fig. 106). Next operation is stringing or packing them off to market.

Fig. 106: Sieving of beads

It is thus clear that there would be separate areas for different steps involved in the production of ancient Indo-Pacific

3.9 Stringing the Beads At Papanaidupet women folk are involved in stringing the beads (107). Beads are sold without stringing too. In the latter case, it has been observed that the unstrung beads are usually packed along with some amount of debitage.

Fig. 107: Stringing of beads in the village of Papanaidupet

In any case, stringers discard the beads that cannot be strung such as broken beads, unperforated and half-perforated beads, beads with too small holes, collapsed beads, small knots, and bead clumps (while reheating). Knots like waste product is encountered at all stages of bead making (Fig. 108). ‘Knots’ are formed by bits of foreign/refractory material which blocks the interior of the tubes, commonly including a swell in the side. According to Stern (1987a: 26) this is the most telling remains of drawing process. The tube makers remove large, obvious ones, the cutters smaller ones, and the bead stringers the smallest ones (Francis 2002a: 24). The finding of such material at an archaeological site could be interpreted as a waste during stringing, and not necessarily bead making. Unstrung glass beads from Papanaidupet reaches the Bondos of Orissa and Konyak Naga of Nagaland via

122 middlemen (Kanungo 2000: 21), and they string them at their own place. According to Bronson (1990: 221), the lada is a labour-saving device developed from the normal blowpipe. There is no positive evidence, he said, of the ancient use of this method, let alone it’s being a common method in the early centuries of the Christian era. On the other hand Francis (1990b, 1991b, 2002a, n.d.) and Stern (1987a, 1987b, 1991) have demonstrated that formal correspondence between beads made by the lada method at Papanaidupet and ancient beads from Arikamedu, both in South India is seen in the form of horns, bangle like tubes, amorphous pieces, tubes and finished beads with knots, cut-out knots, knots in ridged tubes, flared tubes and collapsed tubes. Stern (1987b: 351) also argues that lada functions in the opposite way to the blowpipe, by sucking air due to differential pressure and not from blowing air into the tube. According to Stern (1987b) the secret of lada method, lies in the use of crushed brick while piercing the cone, which not only facilitates the piercing of a hole through the glass, but it also creates a void between the butted end of the inner mobile rod and the beginning of the glass thread as it is drawn out at the back of the cone. 3.10 Other Beads By-Products of Indo-Pacific Beads There are some beautiful by-products of the Indo-Pacific beads such as collar beads, grooved collar beads, lug collared beads and other. These by-products show the ability of the craftsman of the IndoPacific industry to manipulate the drawn tubes. 3.10.1 Collar Beads Beads decorated with an extra bit of material are known as collar beads. Though it is found in different context as

early as 2nd-3rd millennium B.C. at Ur (Wooley 1934: 366), Qua and Badari and Mohenjodaro (Mackay 1938) but a distinctive style in glass is developed in the early historic period in India. They were made in large number, but hardly exported out of India (Sleen 1973: 74). One such bead is found from Taxila from a period of 4th century B.C. and many from period of 3rd century B.C. (Beck 1941) and they are also found at early historic period at Nevasa and Vaisali. Their popularity waned after 3rd century A.D. or so. Apart from them, the collar beads are found in Karaikadu (India), Mantai (Sri-lanka), and Oc Eo (Vietnam). Glass collar beads were made from preformed drawn glass tubes which were slightly reheated incised with a paddle, and then cut apart into individual beads (Francis 1985b: 117). Sometimes the tube was flattened with a paddle after the beads had been shaped. Other material used for these beads were shell, bone, semiprecious stones and faience. There are two variety of collar beads viz., 1) grooved collared and ii) lug collared. Grooved collars are simple tubes with grooves around both ends and lug collars are with flattened bodies and prominent collars on the ends. Wheeler on examining the Arikamedu beads (1946: 96) and Sankalia and Dikshit (1952a: 9293) after examining beads from Arikamedu, Taxila, Kolhapur and Brahmapuri are of the opinion that grooved collared beads predated the lugcollared ones. Grooved Collar Beads A tube was reheated and a small toll, the edge of a paddle, or a wire formed a groove at the end and another one a centimetre or so along the length the tube which was then cooled and cut apart. The beads were afterward heated and tumbled

123 in the same manner as Indo-Pacific beads. Lug Collared Beads Glass tube was heated and stretched out into a spindle shape. At either end of the spindle, where the tube’s diameter was diminishing, the tube was grooved and the excess ends cut off. The bead was then flattened into its final shape. Apart from these, Francis talks of other by-products like Paddled beads, pinched beads, square drawn tubes and striped drawn beads (Francis 2002a: 43-44). 3.10.2 Clay Mould Beads This method was observed by Wild (1937: 96-97) at the Gold coast and had hypothesized about the introduction of technique from Ivory coast. The process consists essentially of filling holes in clay moulds with powdered glass of different colours, followed by firing and grinding. Moulds were made from a good local clay, which possibly contained a high percentage of kaolin. They had no definite shape, but were made roughly by hand into flat slabs from 1 inch to 1½ inches in thickness. Holes, more or less circular, at irregular intervals, were formed in the clay; the diameters and depths varied as required to suit different sized beads. In the centre of each hole is a much smaller hole going right down through the mould to its other side, and into these smaller holes the midribs of leaf-stalks or cassava (Manihot spp.) about the length of a safty-match stick, are inserted. The cassava is first made wet and smeared with clay, the effect of which is to cause the cassava to carbonise and not burn away when fired. 3.10.3 Coiling This technique is advocated by Lugay (1974: 154). He refers to two type of coiling: 1) ring coiling and 2) spiral coiling. They are nothing but varieties of winding method. Beads were probably

made by heating a chunk of glass and allowing it to trail onto a wire suspended horizontally (Francis 1991a: 111). 3.10.4 Dipping Method This method is also proposed by Lugay (1974: 157). It involves dipping a solid rod into the glass melt and pulling out of the melt. A bead is formed by the glass attached to the rod after cooling. Beads of small diameter are likely to be formed in this way and the resultant perforation of both ends would be concentric and of the same shape, normally a perfect circle (Basa 1993a: 95). Bronson (1990: 221), who is sceptical about the Indo-Pacific bead production with lada technology in ancient times, is of the opinion that most of the monochrome beads are produced using this technique especially those from Khlong Thom. However, he accepts dipping method as a hypothetical reconstruction rather than based on concrete evidence. 3.10.5 Folded Beads These are made from flattened rods of glass, folded round a wire and shaping it by rotating in the same way as wound beads. Often the line where the ends were melted together is easily visible, running parallel to the perforation. It is seen on some specimens at Bhokardan, Brahmapuri and Kondapur (Margabandhu 1985: 204). Sleen (1956a: 205) assumed this technique to be in use before the drawing of beads became common practice. However, in Indian context (Margabandhu 1985: 204), it is mentioned to be a rare technique practised during Satavahana period. 3.10.6 Pressed Beads When half-molten, beads of all forms can easily be pressed e.g. into hexagonal or square beads, even into bicones or barrels or barrels with flattened ends.

124 3.10.7 Bored Beads Beads are bored from either one side or two sides. In case of both side boring the perforation meets in an angle.

Dikshit (1952: 101) had suggested that the paucity of these beads indicates that either they were imported or locally imitated from the foreign specimens.

3.10.8 Double Strip Method (Margabandhu 1985: 204) It is a common and popular technique which consists of fusing together of two flat strips of glass of identical shapes with a metal wire in between for the perforation.

Gold-foiled beads are made from sections of tube, generally colourless, covered in the foil and then dipped into the molten glass for protection and added brilliancy. Sections of the composite tube were then placed on a wire and pinched at intervals to form the segment; in some cases there was final fire-polish (Boon 1977: 193).

3.10.9 Twisted Beads (Margabandhu 1985: 205) In preparing small beads it was common to take a small lump of molten glass on a thin wire and to rotate it briskly till it acquired the requisite shape. Annular and spherical beads were made in this technique. 3.10.10 Hand-Perforated In this method, small ferrules of semimolten glass are dropped on an earthen platter and are then pierced with a pointed spoke/hot iron nail lifting while still plastic. In this the lateral end of the bead leaves a burred edge. Many beads are made in this technique which process is also described in Arthasastra. 3.10.11 Gold-Foil Beads The origin of gold-foil beads in India is still ambiguous. However, since the glasses used were mostly transparent, having no inclusions and air bubbles, it suggests advancement in technology and perfection in the skill of manufacture. It is an important category of glass beads from not only in western India, but also in the Deccan, south and north India (Dikshit 1969: 57; Singh 1980-81: 15859; Basa 2002: 9). Both Dikshit and Singh considered India as the gold-foil bead making region during ancient times. Contradicting their view, Francis (1986a: 54) argues for the Egyptian origin of these beads. While studying Brahmapuri gold-foil glass beads, Sankalia and

The technique by which a thin layer of gold leaf is laminated between two layers of transparent or semitransparent glasses was known in old world and in ancient India from very early period (Singh 1980-81). This technique is said to have reached its zenith under Bishop Damasus towards the middle of 4th century A.D. Arthasastra in Adhiharana 2 Adhyaya-14 and Sutra-45 describes the process of making it (cited in Dikshit 1964-65: 67). 3.10.12 Chevron Beads (Kock and Sode 1995: 23) The production of chevron beads is done in India at Purdalpur. The process involved is highly specialized and needs skilled and experienced bead makers. First, an iron pipe, around which some milk-white glass is wound, is then blown to form a narrow cylinder about 25 cm long. While the glass on the pipe is kept hot, the glassmaker makes a triangular, red glass cane of the same length as the parison. This glass cane, with five others, is placed like a comb on the white mass. The process continues with flat plates of white glass being laid upon the pointed combs. Both strengths and experience are needed to control the star shape which is thus built up out of the soft glass. Throughout the process the glassmaker also has to take care that the hole blown in the centre does not collapse.

125 When the desired number of layers have been added, and the parison, now weighing about 4 kg, is ready for pulling, an assistant brings a hot pontil that is fixed to the other end of the parison. With this, the mass is slowly drawn out into a thread about 12 m long which is divided into suitable lengths which are slowly cooled in trays of warm ash. The canes are subsequently cut into short pieces, corresponding to the length of the finished beads. The ends of the cut pieces are finally polished so that the characteristic star motif of the beads appears. 3.10.13 Hollow-Glass Beads (Kock and Sode 1995: 13) These beads are produced at three production centres in Firozabad. The blown hollow-glass beads are made in small furnaces with four to six chambers in each furnace. Two bead makers work at each chamber. A simple glass tube is used as the bead makers’ pipe. By dipping the end of the pipe down into the liquid glass mass, the bead maker

gathers, the quantity glass he is going to use. He blows out to a tube about half a meter long with the help of some tongs. At lightning speed and with the elegance of a craftsman he puts this still hot and malleable tube in between two oblong brass half-moulds. The two-part mould is closed, the glassmaker blows the drawn tube out into the mould, and when it is re-opened the tube has turned into a continuous row of conjoined beads. For silver plating the inside of the beads, a solution of silver nitrate, ammonium, potassium carbonate and cyanide in distilled water is used. The workman sucks this mixture up into several glass tubes at once so that the silver covers the inside of the glass. By suing ambercoloured glass tubes one gets the beads to have the appearance of gold beads. Blue and green beads are also made, both with and without silvering on the inside, and black beads. Finally the long tube is broken into single beads that are placed on a string.

126 Chapter 4 Users of Glass Beads Just as the archaeologist unearths with infinite care the brittle remnants of past civilizations, the anthropologist contemplates with nostalgic affection the way of life of people he was fortunate enough to know before their traditional world fell to pieces (Haimendorf 1933: preface).

Map 6: Map of the Bondo country (After Elwin 1950)

4.1 Introduction The adornment and decoration of the human body features is documented in all known cultures and societies. There is practically no section of human beings, that does not use one kind of ornament or the other. Irrespective of caste, creed and nationality, men and women are everywhere alike in their love for wearing ornaments, and one general statement that may be enunciated is that the love for ornament is practically ingrained in all human beings. All do not, however, use the same kinds of ornaments everywhere; each section of people has got its own specific types or ornaments and its own mode and place of wearing them. This difference in age, sex

and nationality of the wearer, the lapse of time, the march of civilization and ‘culture contact’, - also do account for considerable differences. Traditionally, costume marked a person out as belonging to a discrete cultural unit, and often indicated his or her standing within that community. Nowhere does this old order change yielding place to the new, so quickly and considerably, as in the nature of ornaments (Pisharoti 1931: 259). While research has been conducted on the ancient beads of India for many years, those utilized by simple communities for centuries have rarely been considered seriously. In India we

127 still have some of the original users of traditional ornaments from very early time and this chapter deals with few of them like that of Bondos and Juangs of Orissa, and Nagas of Nagaland. Where usage of beads is imbibed within tradition, there it has remained unchanged. To understand the symbolic value of the use of beads, modes of wearing, and its cycle we probably have no better option than by studying them. These simple communities reside in the isolated hilly tracts. Selection of these three communities is done as they are considered to be the most beaded (glass) communities of India, who wear beads of wide varieties. Their geographical locations are nowhere in the vicinity of glass bead production centres. The usage of beads is not only decorative for them but also of symbolic importance. As their cultures differ from each other and are indigenous to their lands, the study of their beads are made individually rather than by clubbing these together. Though all these three communities viz., Juang, Bondo and Naga predominantly use glass beads, the beads of other material used by them is also given due importance (in case of Nagas except Konyak and Aos rest use more carnelian, agate and shell). Moreover among these simple communities beads cannot be completely separated from their dress. 4.2 Beads Among The Bondo 4.2.1 The Bondos The Bondos are an isolated AustroAsiatic linguistic community inhabiting the hills of Malkanagiri district (up to 1994 a subdivision of Koraput district) of Orissa, (18q 15' to 18q 30' N and 82q 15' to 82q 30' E), with an approximate elevation of 1000 m above MSL. The distribution of the Bondos is confined to 32 villages spread over an area of 130 sq km with a population of 5, 895 (Census 1981: 10). They are broadly divided into three groups viz., hill or Bara-Jangar,

foothill/plain Bondos, and Gadaba1 influenced Bondos. Among them, the hill Bondos are considered to be the most primitive (Map 6). They have been documented and classified as ‘primitive’ and ‘uncivilised’ on the basis of certain characteristic traits viz., minimal use of attire, stone-age modes of hunting, gathering, and food preparation, and, limited social intercourse (May 1873: 237; Thurston 1909: 207; Senapati and Sahu 1966: 99). These traits remain unchanged even today. Inhospitable to strangers, they have a firm belief that the surrounding ecosystem is their property, and they brook no interference of any kind. They practise ‘slash and burn’ cultivation and rear cattle, pigs and goats for meat and not milk (Haimendorf 1943b: 162), which is true even today. They also practise fishing, but it plays a minor role in their subsistence. In most of the Bondo houses, a pigsty is constructed within the home, generally a low walled mud enclosure located in a corner of the living room. Haimendorf (1943a: 168, 1943b: 232), while studying their religious, matrimonial arrangements and burial rituals, puts forth the Bondo culture as akin to the Megalithic and Neolithic cultural phase. This is substantiated by Elwin’s (1950) extensive study emphasising the socio-cultural aspect of the Bondos. 4.2.2 Costume The Bondos are known for their sparse use of clothes. They use beads not merely for ornamentations but also as a mode of dress (Kanungo 2000: 20), hence a 1

The Gadabas are one of the huntinggathering community settled in the district of Malkanagiri and are believed to be the ancestral community of most of the simple communities of this region including the Bondos.

128 reference to their attire becomes necessary. The dress code and ornaments of the Bondos form an inseparable part of their cultural identity, which is unique to them2. Traditionally, Bondo men wear two cloths, one round the loin drawn in between the legs and other the headband, very often made of palm leaf (Elwin 1950: 15-16; Haimendorf 1943a: 169, 1943b: 162; Ramdas 1931: 245; Patnaik et al. 1984: 20) and are proud to show their varying hairstyle. Ramdas (1931: 245) even noticed them with some coloured beads round the neck. However, in recent days they have taken to wearing a piece of white cloth up to the knees and rarely shirts. Their ornamentation includes small earrings in the upper part of the helix, aluminium bracelets in one or both arms and cheap and flimsy strings of tawdry brass beads and pendants around the neck. In contrast the upper torso of the women, from neck down to the navel, is covered by several strings of beads of various materials like glass (predominant), shell, roots and coins (Fig. 109). The lower half is covered with a narrow piece of handwoven cloth (ringa) held in place by a bead-string or brass waist-band in such a manner that it fails to cover the hips in totality. In recent past they wore skirts of woven kerang fibre (Calotropis gigantean) (Fig. 110), “She wears no pubic cloth, and when she squats she 2

In respect of their sparse dress and heavy ornamentation, the Bondos are a uniquely distinct social entity and they stand apart from all other tribal and non-tribal group of the region. Their nearest parallel comes from Konyak Nagas in Nagaland State of northeast India, bordering Myanmar (Haimendorf 1943b: 162; Sen 1987: 55; Kanungo 2002c). The presence of these culturally distinctive and unique communities in eastern and north-eastern needs a detailed anthropological and archaeological investigation.

shields her modesty either by masses of beads that fall over her knee or by manoeuvring her skirt to meet the exigencies of the situation” (Watts 1970: 74). The present author does not find much difference in this regard even today on the hills of the Bondo land.

Fig. 110: Ringa and a brass waistband of Bondo women

4.2.3 Female Ornamentation Bondo women are one of the most ornament-loving groups in India. Irrespective of age, they are inclined to adorn themselves with various ornaments. Around the shaven head, they wear two types of headbands viz., Turuba or Kurtop made of grass or fillets of palmyra palm. These are set and tied around the head and on them several rounds of white seed glass bead strings (lobeda) are hooked (Fig. 111). These are then wound around the head to form a turban-like head-dress. Both the headband and the lobeda are used simultaneously, the turuba or the palm fillet, prevents the lobeda from falling off the head. The turuba is made of kerang grass plaits in a fishnet style (Fig. 112). Aluminium rings/ yokes (khagla) of various sizes, 8 to 10 in number, are put on around the neck along with the necklaces of glass beads (mali), about 100 to 200 strands in number, along with some strings of cowrie shells (Moneta moneta) and of coins. The khagla and mali serve the purpose of covering the upper part of the body. Brass bangles

129 (sungri), 5 to 6 in number, are used as bracelets on both the hands. Earrings (limbi) made of brass are worn in both ears. Small aluminium circlets (orti) are used as finger rings.

choices (Fig. 113). Traders generally provide four packets (450 gm each) of unstrung glass beads to a Bondo woman. In return, they receive three packets of strung glass beads. Thus the women earn the surplus packet of beads for themselves as remuneration for their labour.

Fig. 112: Turuba (headband made of kerang grass)

Arms, legs and faces are often tattooed. Tattooing is practised with the help of thorns; the pigment is prepared from a mixture of charcoal and the sap of Bassia latifolia. Tattooing among the men is confined to arms, which is also rare. 4.2.4 Beads Traditionally, Bondo women cover their upper bodies exclusively with beads, predominantly of glass. They prefer yellow coloured glass beads for making necklaces while white seed beads are preferred for headbands. As a rule they do not purchase beads and under no circumstances do husbands provide money to their spouses for buying the same. The women have three major means of access to beads: 1. Almost all the women in the surrounding region are fond of bead necklaces. Traditionally, they prefer beads strung with kerang fibre. The Bondo hills are one of the main sources of kerang and the Bondo women have achieved mastery in collecting and processing kerang and for stringing the beads in different patterns so as to match distinct

Fig. 113: A Bondo woman preparing the kerang fibre (After Elwin 1950)

2. In each harvesting season, it is a common practice among the Bondos to leave aside a small amount of grain on the threshing floor after the threshing activity is over. The girls collect and divide this among them, and turn it into flour. They sell the flour and utilise the money for purchasing ornaments. Earlier, they used to exchange grains for beads. 3. On frequent visits of Bondo boys to the girl's dormitories of neighbouring villages, especially during festivals, they present rings and beads to the girls whose favours they wish to win. The headbands and beads made of organic materials like cowries, sierey (Symplocos cochinchincsis) and balam (Coix lachryma jobi Linn.) are processed by the Bondos themselves. Balams are collected in the month of April from the nearby forest and pierced with a bamboo thong. This type of beads were/are used worldwide (Francis 1984:

130 194-95). It is popularly known as Job’s rear and found in eastern Timor in a context dated to pre-3000 B.C. (Glover 1979: 18), at Harappan site of Kuntasi (Kajale 1996) and Padri both in Gujarat (V. Shinde, personal communication), at Chalcolithic Balathal, and at the Megalithic site of Bhagimohari in Maharashtra (Misra and Mohanty 2001: 42). In sierey preparation, the seeds are boiled first and then rubbed on a stone to peel off their outer cover. While still raw, they are pierced with bamboo needles. Turmeric powder is sprinkled over the beads and they are dried under the sun prior to stringing (Fig. 114).

Fig. 114: A sierey bead

The Bondos get unperforated cowries (shells) from the market and rub the dorsal part on a flat stone until a perforated is achieved. These are then strung with kerang fibre. Once in the local market, Bondo women always look for some old coins, which they collect to make beads. They are given the shape of beads by the local ironsmith either by perforating or by hammering a loop along one edge. Sometime, the bead traders get them readymade. These are subsequently strung with kerang fibre and are often interspaced with glass beads. Usually the load of ornaments for a traditional Bondo woman is about 20 kg

(Fig. 115) (personally weighed by the author). This flattens the breasts and often disturbs the erect posture too (Fig. 116).

Fig. 115: A Bondo couple in village Bodopada

In some Bondo villages women use lobeda only after marriage. There are no special ornaments for ceremonial occasions. The well-off members can afford to use large number of khaglas and their women put on more bead necklaces. These neck-decorations, which cost few thousand rupees or more on an average, are the most valuable possessions of the Bondos. The Bondo desire for bead ornaments is so ardent that even during severe physical inconvenience they are reluctant to remove them3. Ornaments are not taken off even during sex, pregnancy, illness and time of hardships (Fig. 117). 4.2.5 Death and Inheritance of Ornaments Regarding the jewellery of Bondo women on death there are two contradictory statements: 3

During the fieldwork, the author was told about a Bondo female admitted in the Khairaput sub-divisional hospital in a severe condition. When the lady was visited in the hospital, she had already expired. However she was still clad with all varieties of traditional ornaments.

131 1. Some of the jewellery of the deceased person is burnt with the corpse (Thurston 1909: 216). 2. Everything worth saving is preserved, even the little strip of cloth over the genitals is removed before the cremation (Senapati and Suha 1966: 118). However, today their valuable ornaments (predominantly various coloured glass bead strings) are shared among the daughters and in case of a daughterless woman, by women from her parental side. This is called heirlooming4 of beads. The portion of ornaments given by her husband (if any) is kept by him or his relatives. In any case some amount of used beads are cremated with the dead along with other belongings. In some cases, bead strings are kept by the side of the dead body, either at the feet or over the head and cremated along with the body. Today with the influence of various social organisations working on the hills de-ornamentation of the Bondos have already started. Author’s observation in weaving societies run by a social organisation on hills which employs only Bondo women for weaving are as follows: in the beginning, they come to work wearing ringa and beads, then slowly switch over to saris, along with the usual bead ornamentation. 4

Formal pattern of heirloom succession still exists among many minority groups, including those in southeast Asia. Many of these people have been marginalized. In most cases, they were literally driven from the lowlands into less bountiful but more protective mountainous regions by newcomers who seized their old territories. Heirloom beads are not limited to southeast Asia. They are found in Mexico (Francis 1992b; 1994b), Africa (Francis 1992b), and probably elsewhere.

Subsequently, saris are worn with beads worn only on the head. However, by this time they begin growing hair on their heads. Finally they dress in saris akin to the women of the surrounding plains (Fig. 118). This process is ongoing with subsequent employment of new recruits. This has resulted in place like Mudilipada, finding of two sisters walking hand in hand with contrasting ornamentation, one wearing a sari, without any traditional ornaments, working in social organisation, and, the other with only beads and traditional ringa and managing domestic affairs (Fig. 119). 4.2.6 The Source of Glass Beads Most of the glass beads, brought into this area, are from the weekly markets of Muniguda and Matili or via the Domb5 peddlers, traders who visit the hills to sell ornaments at regular intervals. Weekly markets are the only sources for the Bondos to come across and interact with the non-tribals. There are altogether 5 weekly markets (hata) located in and around the Bondo territory. Among them Muniguda, 17 km from Mudilipada (approximately 18q 26½' N and 82q 19' E) and Matili, 23 km from Mudilipada, are two important markets for tribal ornament trading. Today, Ganesh Behera6 (a thirty-seven year old Domb), is believed to be the most successful bead trader among the Bondos. For the last three generations, his family has been engaged in this 5

Domb is a simple living community that lives in the district of Malkanagiri and is known for its business skill.

6

For the past five years, Behera has been buying back the old beads form the Bondo due to the demand from exhibitors and collectors, resulting in more than a quintal of old and new glass beads stockpiled in the trader’s house.

132 business. He also sells beads to the adjoining tribes, like the Koya, Gadaba and Didayi. He gets the glass beads of community's choice from Kolkata's old market. However, as per his information the glass beads are originally produced at Reniguntha, near Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh nearly 400 km to the south of Bondo country. It is interesting to mention here, that Papanaidupet, a traditional Indo-Pacific glass bead manufacturing centre (see chapter IV)7 is located just 10 km away from the Reniguntha Railway Station. After a thorough examination of the bead samples collected from the Bondo Hills, Peter Francis Jr. (1999 personal communication) and the present author are convinced on the basis of morphology and colour that the beads are those produced at Papanaidupet (Kanungo 2000-01). “The cloth at present used is of comparatively recent introduction, and seems to be a slight infringement of the taboo. The original cloth and supporting string were undoubtedly made of jungle fibre, and the modern clothing is brought about with cotton thread. Similarly, the Bondo Poroja necklaces of cheap beads, blue and white, must be modern, and most obviously so the fragments of tin that they work into their chains” (Thurstone 1909: 219-20). 4.2.7 Conclusion Modernization has brought remarkable changes to the Bondo culture. We do not find any traditional costume among the plain Bondos. The costume of hill Bondos, owing to their contact with the plain and modern people is also changing very fast. The rigidity of dress taboo seems to be loosing its authority day by 7

Papanaidupet has been a production centre of glass beads of same variety and in same style from 17th century (Francis 1994. 2002).

day. At Mudilipada and Andahala, senior Bondos do not prevent junior ones from wearing non-traditional clothes and removing their ornaments. The predominant barter economy or ornaments is slowly disappearing. It is likely that in the near future the culture of the Bondos disappear and they will be adopting the modern way of life. 4.3 Beads Among The Juang 4.3.1 The Juangs The Juang comprise one of the major aboriginal communities of Orissa State. Inhabiting the forested districts of Keonjhar, Dhenkanal and Angul, they divide themselves into two groups: the Thaniya (those who stayed behind) and the Bhagudiya (those who did not). According to the 1981 census, there were 30,285 Juang who claimed to be autochthons of Gonasika8, a hilly region encompassing 12 villages which is considered to be the capital of the Juang. Gonasika has an elevation of about 1,000 m A.S.L., and is the source of the Baitarani river in Keonjhar district. The latter, which is home to most of the Juang, is 8,240 km in extent, and consists of two quite distinct ecosystems. The eastern part has valleys and lowlands, while the west is mountainous with extensive plateaus and peaks reaching nearly l,100 m A.S.L. Juang material culture, especially their costume, has undergone profound changes since the arrival of Europeans. Unfortunately, little is known about Juang culture before it began to degenerate. The accounts of Samuells 8

The Juang believe that Gonasika is their original homeland, where they had a mythical origin. With the passing of time, some Juangs moved away from Gonasika. At present, those who do not reside within the territory of Gonasika are considered Bhagudlya, while those who do are Thaniya.

133 (1856: 295-303) and Dalton (1872: 152156) are the only ones that describe their traditional dress. Juang costume changed quickly after 1870, when Captain F.J. Johnstone, the Superintendent of Keonjhar State, induced the women to dress themselves in clothes (Elwin l948: 10-ll; Hunter l893: 94; Risley 1891: 353). Before that they wore only beads and the leaves of Terminalia bialata (Elwin 1948).

No covering is worn on the upperpart of the person; but most of the females I have seen had necklaces of coloured earthenware beads (made by themselves they told me) which hung down to their waists in numerous folds; and nose, ear, and hair ornaments, sketches of which will be found in the accompanying engravings, were common amongst them.

4.3.2 Juang Beads: A Retrospection E.A. Samuells published the first report on the Juang in 1856. He described the Juang of the undivided Cuttack District thus:

Their hair was generally of the shock order, but was gathered rudely into a knot at the back of the head, and fastened by a string terminating at each end in a silver or brass button (Samuells 1856: 296-297).

The dress of the men is the ordinary one of the native peasantry, but the women wear no clothes whatsoever. Their sole covering consists of two large bunches of leaves (or rather of twigs with the leaves attached) of which one is worn in front and the other behind. The twigs are sometimes fastened togetherenerally loose, and are kept in position by a string of glazed earthen-ware beads passed twenty or thirty times round the waist and over the stems of the twigs. It is from this original costume that the tribe have obtained from their neighbours the name of Puttooa— quasi the people of the leaf. They call themselves Juanga. The leaves which I observed in use were those of the sál, the jamoon, the koorye, and the chaldua, but I was told that the leaves of the bur, the peepul, the mhowa and the kendooa, in fact all large and smooth leaves are used indifferently. These leaves are changed daily, and are generally in consequence clean and freshlooking.

This is not only the first publication on the Juang, but also one of the first attempts to describe beads ethnographically. The study is illustrated with drawings by Major Strange which depict beaded Juang women (Fig. 120) and a bead string from a girdle (Fig. 121). In the above quote, Samuells describes various aspects of Juang culture, some of which are very important in understanding their beads. These include details about the material composing the beads, the shape of the beads, the mode of wearing them, the amount of beads worn by the Juang, and the makers of the beads.

Fig. 120: Drawing of Juang woman (After Major Strange in Samuells 1856)

134 wore a profusion of necklaces of glass beads (Fig. 123), and brass ornaments in their ears and on their wrists... (Dalton 1872:155).

Fig. 121: Drawing of Juang bead girdle (After Major Strange in Samuells 1856)

Colonel Dalton was the next to document the Juang, at a time when cloth was replacing leaves under the direction of Captain Johnstone. Dalton's observations were made in Dhenkanal District in the late 1860s: The females of the group had not amongst them a particle of clothing, their sole covering for purposes of decency consisted in a girdle composed of several strings of beads from which depended before and behind small curtains of leaves (Fig. 122). Adam and Eve sewed fig leaves together and made themselves aprons. The Juangs are not so far advanced; they take young shoots of the Asan (Terminalia iomentosa) or any tree with long soft leaves, and arranging them so as to form a flat and scale like surface of the required size, the sprigs are simply stuck in the girdle fore and aft and the toilet is complete. The girls were well developed and finely formed specimens of the race, and as the light leafy costume left the outlines of the figure entirely nude, they would have made good studies for a sculptor. The beads that form the girdle are small tubes of burnt earthen ware made by the wearers. They also

Fig. 122: Juang women (After Dalton 1872)

Fig. 123: Juang couple (After Dalton 1872)

Dalton not only mentions the use of both burned earthenware beads and glass beads, but also notes how differently the two were worn: the former to hold the lower dress and the latter for necklaces. There are a number of legends concerning the origin of traditional Juang costume. The most common among them is as follows: The river goddess emerging for the first time from the Gonasika rock, came suddenly on a rollicking party of Juangs dancing naked, and ordering them to adopt leaves on the moment as a covering, laid on them the curse that they must

135 adhere to that costume for ever or die (Dalton 1872: 156).

could make her barren or unclean (Elwin 1948:43).

The most exhaustive paper by far on the Juang was published by Elwin in 1948. Concentrating on the district of Angul, he had this to say about their costume: The leaf-dress is a simple and natural one (Fig. 124). So long as the Juang live to themselves in the recesses of their hills, so long as there are no out side eyes to pry and stare, it is well adapted to the innocent ways of the people. Any kind of large leaf can be used. The leaves are brought from the jungle in the early morning, laid on the ground in rows and pressed flat with earth or stones. A girdle is made with a large number of bugles [tubular beads] of baked earth which are threaded onto strips of bark-cord; the girdle is a substantial thing, fairly heavy, sometimes as thick as a dozen or fifteen rows of cords and bugles. The leaves are stuck into this by the sprigs so as to form thick aprons back and front; the loins are left uncovered. These leaves are full of magic, and have to be carefully protected. The previous day's leaves are thrown away very early in the morning while it is still dark, not even the husband knowing where. They are thrown into a pit and the wearer spits on them. Great care must be taken to pick up any leaf or bit of leaf that falls from the girdle.... if a leaf is left on the ground and someone treads on it, the wearer may die. If the parents of a girl trod on the leaf or stepped over it, it would be a sin equivalent to incest. If a witch could get hold of the leaf, she could send a tiger to devour the wearer or a snake to bite her; she

Fig. 124: Juang women during dance (After Elwin 1948)

Elwin not only details the procedure of preparing the women's daily dress, but also discusses the material used for threading the beads: bark cord which some traditional Juang and all the Bondo still use for threading glass beads. It is interesting to note that while modern Juangs no longer utilize the leaf dress, the beads they now use (like the discarded leaves in Elwin's account) are spat upon before they are discarded or new ones are worn to avoid black magic. Elwin goes on to say that the traditional costume of the Juang is on the verge of disappearing. However, he notes that women continue to wear the leaf dress on religio-ceremonial occasions in general and in the interior regions in particular: In Keonjhar and Dhenkanal the leaf-dress soon became a thing of the past. But it survived in Pal Lahara. N.K. Bose found women wearing leaves in 1928 and I did so also in 1942. And everywhere there are certain survivals. Many Juang women wear a few leaves under their cloth as a magical protection. At a wedding the bride is attired in her traditional leafdress. At dances the Juang put on their leaves with the utmost willingness and are

136 evidently delighted to have any excuse to do so. The belief in the power of the worn leaf is as strong as ever (Elwin 1948: 45-46). The Juang have been the subject of a number of other studies as well, but none of them has stressed beads. No scholar has subsequently recorded either earthenware beads or leaf dress among these people. At least, Peter Francis, Jr. (1998: personal communication) has questioned the accuracy of the early accounts which identify the girdle beads as "earthen ware" and "glazed earthenware," wondering—especially in the latter instance—if they might not have been composed of opaque dull-red glass instead9. Unfortunately, none of the "earthenware" beads are preserved in any museum. Although both Samuells (1856: 297) and Dalton (1872: 153) were told that the beads were locally made, Dalton (1872: 153) states emphatically that the Juang "neither spin nor weave, nor have they ever attained to the simplest knowledge of pottery." It is, therefore, possible that at least some of the beads were imported glass specimens. Terracotta beads, including tubular varieties, are currently produced in the village of Panchmura in the Bishnupur district which is about 100 km northwest of Kolkata. As observed by the author, the potter-cum-bead maker makes a long, thin cylinder in his workshop and cuts it into pieces before colouring them with deep ochre and firing them in a kiln. The oxidation technique (air is allowed into the kiln during firing) is used to obtain a red colour, while the reduction technique (air is not allowed to enter the kiln) is used to produce black beads. A lack of scientific investigation and excavation in the region of the Juang, coupled with the 9

The mutisalah [Indo-Pacific beads] are sometime erroneously described as a terracotta bead (Lamb 1956b).

non-use of earthenware beads by the Juang for generations, presently make it impossible to determine if there was trade between the Panchmura bead maker; and the Juang in the past. However, it is important to note that most of the glass beads presently used by the Juang come from the Kolkata old market to be discussed below. 4.3.3 Modern Juang Beads The Juang used to be one of the most ornament-loving peoples in tribal India. Now only the older Juang women maintain this tradition (Fig. 125), especially at Gonasika. The increasing price of beads, the disintegration of the folk arts, and the impact of modernization and poverty have all played a role in the extinction of this tradition. Just five decades ago, the Juang used to wear only beads and no clothes, like the present-day Bondo.

Fig. 125: A Juang woman in the village of Kadalibadi

Traditionally, no Juang should be without at least a single bead string around the neck. For them it is a symbol of courage and fortune. One specific case is the single red bead worn at the neck of Srikant Juang, the only Juang to graduate from Keonjhar Government College Boys Hostel, which is for him the identity of Juang. When putting on any new beads, irrespective of the sex or age of the person, the tradition is to invoke the name of Thaniputi, the village deity

137 (Fig. 126). On a child's first birthday, the parents present it with its first thread of beads, and such gifts continue irrespective of the child's sex until about the age of five. Thereafter, only girls continue to receive gifts of beads. The gifts increase with every festival until marriage. During the marriage proposal, a fancily dressed middleman (madhyasta) visits the bride's house with a sacred stick from the youth dormitory10 and a number of variously coloured bead strings from the groom's parents (Fig. 127). On receipt of these beads, the bride's parents confirm the proposal. Richer suitors send more strings of colourful beads (Fig. 128) and pohala. All the bride's beads are combined with other ornaments in preparation for her approach to the marriage platform (mandap). During the ceremony, the groom presents her with the marriage string (ahuda mali) which is fashioned of alternating white and reddish-brown glass beads (Fig. 129). This is the beginning of her re-ornamentation as on her first visit to her parents' place following the wedding, the new wife brings back her old ornaments (Fig. 130). At the end of the life cycle, all the beads worn at the time of death are generally burned with the body.

10

A dormitory (mandagarh) well made of carved beams and pillars stands in the center of all the Juang villages of Keonjhar. This is the school of folk culture and the storehouse-cum-temple for the musical instruments. It is a big, comfortable habitation open along one side and with a high verandah. On the occasion of every important event in their corporate life, the males assemble here, encircling a continuously burning fire in the middle of the dormitory. Each and every auspicious event begins here. Visitors are entertained in the dormitory, including wedding guests.

Fig. 126: The thaniputi or village deity of Guptaganga

The Juang use mostly glass beads (Fig. 131), followed in popularity by beads fashioned from seeds, silver and old coins. Bought from peddlers or obtained at the local weekly market, the glass beads usually come from the Kolkata old market (which sells beads produced at Varanasi and Purdalpur) or from Andhra Pradesh (which sells beads produced at Papanaidupet).

Fig. 131: Variety of beads

They make the seed beads themselves. The most common seeds used for this purpose are those of Symplocos cochinchincsis and Coax lachryma jobi Linn., known locally as bomo (Fig. 132) and erimindri, respectively.

138

Fig. 132: Bomo (seed) bead necklace

The silver and old-coin beads are produced by the local ironsmith (kamara). To make silver beads, the ironsmith melts some silver in the form of old coins and jewellery in an old cane, and pours it into a mould which is sometimes decorated internally with traditional designs. The mould is generally of stone but is sometimes also made of clay by the smith. Coin beads are produced either by perforating a coin or by hammering a loop to one edge. Coins perforated by driving a nail through them are cheaper than those with drilled holes. While performing fieldwork among the Juang, the author wondered why these people adopted red beads as their symbol. Two explanations are provided by legends current among the Juang. One relates that during a war between the Juangs and the tigers, only the redbeaded Juang survived. The red bead, therefore, became auspicious. The other legend states that the father of the Juang, a saint who lived on the Gonasika hill, used a string of red beads as a rosary. Following his preference, later generations adopted the colour as well. From a scientific viewpoint, it is possible that the locally produced earthenware beads were consistently red (which is quite possible if the beads were fired in an open fire or a kiln which allowed air to enter) and wearing them eventually became a tradition.

4.3.4 Conclusion Modernization has brought noticeable changes to Juang culture. These people, who once bedecked themselves with strings of beads from neck to navel, now wear only 5-15 strings of glass beads of different colours, but mostly red and mostly in necklaces. Boys use a string of bomo beads and/or a single string of red glass beads. Elderly women prefer traditional ornaments and cover most of their body with beads (Fig. 133). Middleaged persons wear a mixture of new glass or plastic beads and traditional beads, but only during festive occasions. The young prefer plastic and metal beads because they are readily available and economical, too. They usually wear old red-glass beads only as an ethnic symbol. However, during festivals they use all the glass beads they have at home. There is no evidence of the use of earthenware beads among the present-day Juang.

139 4.4 Glass Beads Among the Nagas

Map 7: Map of Nagaland with their distribution (After Ganguli 1984)

4.4.1 The Nagas Of all numerous tribal communities inhabiting the vast tract of mountainous country in northeast India, Garos, Khasias, Sintengs, Mikirs, Kacharis, Kukis, Nagas, Singphus, and Khamtis the largest community numerically, as well as territorially, is the “Naga”. The name Naga given to them by their Aryan speaking neighbours the Assamese, means ‘naked’ (Naga). Their area roughly lies between the parallels of 25° and 28° north latitude, and 93° and 97° east longitude, between the Brahmaputra plains and the hill ranges to the west of the Chindwin valley in upper Burma spreading over an area of 16,579 sq km.

The majority of the Nagas live on the Indian side of the Indo-Burmese border and are spread throughout the Indian states of Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur; the majority of them live in Nagaland; very little is known of those residing inside Burma (present day Myanmar). The origin of the Naga race is veiled in obscurity. Most probably they migrated towards their present homes from different directions across the mountains, possibly following the overland route and or the tracks extensively used by the Chinese traders and embassies between

140 China and India, from China to upper Burma and Assam (Ganguli 1984: 6). They split up into a number of mutually exclusive groups who do not understand each other’s speech. However, all speak Tibeto-Burman languages. There are sixteen major groups of Nagas viz., Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang, Khiamnungan, Konyak, Lotha, Rengma, Sangtam, Yimchunger, Zeliang, Chirr, Makware, Phom, Sema and Tikhir. Out of these, the first nine inhabit the present Nagaland, which has been divided into 8 districts viz., Kohima, Phek, Wokha, Mokokchunk, Tuengsang, Mon, Zunheboto and Dimapur (Map 7). Nagaland was for centuries virtually inaccessible to outsiders, and the political developments of the last half a century have turned it once more into a forbidden land, closed not only to foreign travellers but even to Indian citizens lacking a legitimate reason for crossing its carefully guarded border. Nagas have never been subjugated by any external political agency, except for occasional encounters with the Ahom kings, till British annexation. While instances of the first Ahom-Naga contacts were confined to the northern and north-eastern Nagas, the British were the first to come into regular contact with the Nagas inhabiting the south and southwest of the hills, particularly with the most numerous Angami Nagas. Never the less there has been references about the Nagas or to akin of them in Vedic times then in Brahman and Purana. The first historical record about them is that of Hiuen Ts’ang who reached Kamarupa (Assam) in A.D. 638 on the invitation of the Assam King BhaskaraVarman Kumara. In this though one does not get the detailed description of the ornaments used but reference of profuse use of glass beads by the inhabitants are found. It is also evident that the region

had lively trading activity as the then trade route from China to India, led through Assam. From 13th century A.D. there exist reliable information about the Assam and the Nagas in records of Buranji, a comprehensive chronicle of Ahoms, who invaded the country in A.D. 1228-1230. While instances of the first Ahom-Naga contacts were confined to the northern and north-eastern Nagas, the British were the first to come into regular contact with the Nagas inhabiting the south and southwest of the hills, particularly with the most numerous Angami Nagas. In 1826, Assam and Manipur were brought under British rule. The first acquaintance with the Angamis (cited in Butler 1875: 311) appears to have commenced in 1831-32, when captains Jenkins, Pemberton, and Gordon were deputed to explore a route through their country, with a view to opening out direct communication between Assam and Manipur. Before the arrival of English administration and American missionaries, the Nagas did not wear much clothes. They were persuaded to clothe themselves, at least to cover their lower body. For the men of the southern Nagas like the Angami, Maram, Mao, Chaksang etc. a narrow black kilt worn around the hips was introduced, while men of the central and north-eastern Nagas were satisfied with a belt, from which hung in front a little apron universally called lengta. However, they load themselves with ornaments made mostly of carnelian, glass, ivory, tushes, brass wire, shells and cowries. One no longer sees Nagas in such lengta except on ceremonial occasions or in the very remote interiors. Konyak women-folk in interiors, and the Nagas of Burma still use only a red striped kilt not wider than 20 to 30 cm around their hips (the closest parallel to this is only the Bondos of Orissa).

141 The ornamentation of the Nagas is so complicated that it was hard to decide exactly how to begin the study of their glass beads. It has been a difficult task to not only differentiates beads from other ornaments of Nagas but even to identity where ornamentation ends and clothing begins. Even considering only glass beads, the attempt could have been to give a general sketch of Naga beads, or it could be a detailed description of the beads of each group. The first alternative would have meant a detailed description, in which almost every statement would have to be qualified with many exceptions as each group and sub-group of Nagas have their unique choices of ornamentation. The second would have entailed a description overburdened with details as they use many beads of other than that of glass. Therefore, it was decided to concentrate only on the glass beads amongst the Naga groups as a whole, with references to beads of other material wherever it is impossible to differentiate one from the other. 4.4.2 Beads of Nagas The ornaments are very important to Nagas because besides providing the basic needs of the people, they serve as a criterion for categorising the people into the heroic class and the commoners that’s the hierarchy. It is not easy now to reconstruct the image of the Nagas as they prior to the external influence which began only in the last century. However, it is clear that ornaments have played a very crucial role in marking hierarchy among them, as most of the ornaments are not to be worn as one would like but to be acquired in accordance with fulfilling strict traditions. Unlike the above discussed communities like Juang and Bondos of Orissa, Naga women do not adorn themselves as much as the men do. Glass beads have been in use with the Nagas since we know them attested by the British literature of the

19th century. Woodthrope (1882a) mentioned that most of the ornaments consist chiefly of a large number of necklaces of all sorts and sizes, from large pieces of shell (three or four in a necklace) to those of the smallest glass beads. Although the Nagas as a whole exhibit a general similarity of culture and have much in common in their way of life and their customs, there are many individual characteristics that differentiate one Naga group from another. There are variations in physic characteristics, dress, habits, and great differences in language. The following are descriptions about the use of glass beads by three major Naga groups viz., Konyak, Ao and Angami. 4.4.3 Konyak The Konyaks constitute a major section of the Nagas and are the major user of glass beads, especially of Indo-Pacific beads. The villages like Chui, Cingphoi, Kongnue, Langkhai, Teae, Wakshing, Wanching and Yosah in Nagaland are predominantly inhabited by them. Konyak women use glass beads in mass quantity (Fig. 134), like the Bondos of Orissa and even during the most strenuous work do not put away their ornaments. Round their neck they wear several chains of black beads made of wild banana seeds, and over them a pretty necklace of yellow and red glass beads in several rows, joined in front with square pieces of cut sea-shell (Fig. 135). On the wrists they wear a number of metal bangles or conch shells and just above the elbow heavy brass armlets. On ears, they put a bunch of orange feathers of small birds, tied together with an orchid stalk attached to a thin bamboo stick.

142

Fig. 134: A Konyak woman Haimendorf in Jacob 1990)

(After

Fig. 135: Few necklaces of Konyak women, made of Indo-Pacific beads

During head-hunting days the ornamentation was very rich among them and was strictly guarded with many social customs. Head-taker’s were considered as war-heroes and allowed to decorate themselves with all kinds of ornaments. However, some of these ornaments have been preserved with acceptance of alternatives. As early as 1930s, alternatives to head-hunting for acquiring the right to use certain ornaments were in vogue and Haimendorf (1933: Chapter XXI) records that in head-hunting dance even the smallest boys, as yet too young to live in the youth dormitory (morung), were all dressed up in hats and feathers and even six-year-old boys took part in this dance, thus acquiring the right to wear the headhunting dress. The autocratic Konyak readily pile these ornaments one on top of the other. Yet, the social taboo is so

strong that when the author visited the village of Chui, which is 8 km away from the heart of Mon town in 1999 the villagers needed the permission of the village elders or the council members for displaying the rich traditional ornaments. In fact Chui village is one of the oldest Konyak villages and has maintained its tradition to a considerable extent. The village Chui is situated in the lower Konyak area and is dominated by a powerful chief, a member of the old ruling Angh clan and the overlord of several smaller villages. Nowadays girls use skirts made of IndoPacific beads only in festivals, which was a common future in olden days. This is made of about 25 to 40 lines of strings of glass beads arranged and strung with the help of local fibre and is worn around the waist over a wrapping-up of shawl (mekhala). Making of this skirt requires a large number of beads which are made/strung on the hills itself, probably resulting in huge amount of debitage at the place of stringing. Such skirts are made and worn by Aos and Semas also. Over the petticoat, the Sema women puts a string of cowries as a belt, and under it a broad girdle of yellow Indo-Pacific glass beads extending well below the hips, so broad as to suggest that this was originally the piece-de-resistance of the costume (Fig. 136). 4.4.4 Ao Ao women distinguish themselves among other Naga women with their colourful dress, mass of personal ornaments and hair-style. Over the richly embroidered skirt and shawl she hung four heavy string of carnelian and shell beads. The typical and most precious Ao women’s necklace is made of large carnelian beads altering with miniature brass trumpets (Fig. 137). Another precious ornaments of Ao women is a pair of crystal ear ornaments about 5 cm square and about half an inch thick (Fig. 138). The Aos

143 call this type of earrings tongbang. The most antique ones are in polished rock

Fig. 138: Ao earring: tongbang

crystal and are called mailbong naru. These are worn all the time at home and while working in the fields and ordinarily are not removed even at night. In order to wear them, the holes in the earlobe must be wide enough to allow half the width of the earring to go through. For this the hole in the lobe of the ear is bored at infancy and is gradually enlarged with cotton wool and wooden plug till it is big enough to take the tongbang which is worn with the opening pointing downwards. Such rings are also used by Tangkhul Nagas of Manipur. Possession of these earrings is judged potentially dangerous and they are, therefore, subjected to rules which neutralize the negative charges. For example, a new owner of the khanas (Tangkhul terminology for tongbang) sacrifices a chicken on his way home so that his wife or daughter will have a long life and, thereby, enjoy the acquisition of these valuable objects. Ganguli (1984: 132) and Kaping (1998: 107) report about the use of the same ear ornaments by the Tangkhul Nagas of the Somra tract on the India-Burma border. In the olden days, these earrings were often valued at a mithun (Bos frontalis frontalis) a piece; they used to come from far off, hence the great value. However, considering their cost and availability, both these ear ornaments and beads are fast loosing

their grounds to glass imitations (Fig. 139). Nowadays these imitation earrings and beads are in large scale use. Use of glass earrings is also noticed by Somare and Vigorelli (1992: 138). 4.4.5 Angami Perhaps Angamis are the most referred communitew in the Indian subcontinent. Referring to Angami Man’s ornaments of 19th century Butler (1875: 320) mentioned use of strings of glass beads around the neck along with those of other material like stone, shell, blood-red carnelian of a long hexagonal shape, and peculiar yellow stones. He has described at length the dress and costume of the Angamis of that time (Fig. 140), which was more common till recently among the easternmost Nagas like Konyaks but is no more in use among the Angamis.

Fig. 140: Angami man as seen by Butler 1875

The most interesting description given by Butler (1875: 327) is that of women’s clothing (Fig. 141), which is more or less the same as that of Konyaks of recent past and present day Bondos of Orissa: The dress of the women, though neat, decent, and picturesque in its way, is not nearly so showy as that of the men, and forms another noticeable instance of the female withdrawing from the contest wherever she finds the male a rival in the same filed on indulgence in,

144 an love of personal decoration. The most important perhaps, though least seen, portion of a woman’s dress is of course the petticoat, which is usually a piece of dark blue home-spun cotton cloth, about 2 feet in breadth, which passing round the hips overlaps about 6 inches. This is partially, if not entirely, covered by the folds of the next most important article in clothing, a broad cotton cloth, whose opposite corners are taken up and made to cross over the chest, thus covering the bosoms, and are tied in a knot over the shoulders. Finally, a second cloth is worn, either thrown loosely over the shoulders, or wrapped round the hips and tucked in at the waist. In the cold weather, they generally add an extra cloth, whilst in the warm weather, or when employed in any kind of hard work, such as tilling their fields, &c., they generally dispense with both these, and drop the corners of the other, or in other words simply strip to the waist. Round their throats they love to load themselves with a mass of necklaces of all kinds, glass, cornelian, shell, seeds, and stone. In their ears the young girls wear a peculiar pendant formed of a circular bit of white shell, whilst above their elbow they wear thick heavy bracelets, or armlets, of brass, and a metal that looks like pewter. The young girls until they marry shave their heads completely, a very queer, ugly custom for which I have never succeeded in getting any adequate reasons, nor can I suggest one. The married women braid or loop up their hair very much after the manner of the Irish peasantry, often adding a few foreign locks to make

up for any deficiency. Brides are generally to be recognized at a glance, from their hair being allowed to fall in waving masses round the head, not being long enough to be tied up.

Fig. 141: Angami woman as seen by Butler 1875

During the same time period Woodthrpoe (1882a) mentioned the necklaces of the Angami men of the Mao group of villages, which consist of carnelian (long hexagonal shaped pieces) and coloured glass beads, and a peculiar dull yellow stone besides white conch shell. Tsubo is the most prized of necklaces among the Angamis (Fig. 142). Originally among the Chekrama Angamis this necklace was more of a prerogative. Because of its spectacular aspect other Naga groups, such as Chakhesangs, the Aos, the Semas and the Rengmas adopted it later with some modifications. The material for making this necklace consists of carnelian, different colour of glass, pearl and ivory or bone. Both men and women wear it, and men preferably wear the type with a big shell at its end only. When this necklace is worn, the big shell rests on the back just below the neck and sometimes a wooden pad keeps it raised. The geometry of the strings of shell, glass and carnelian beads is arranged in rows with bone, ivory or horn at intervals. The bone or ivory spacers are

145 decorated with geometrical patterns. This necklace is quite large and it consists of 5 to 8 strings of beads and shells. Both men and women wear it, and men preferably wear the type with a big shell at its end (Fig. 143). Of Kabuls (a sub-group of Angami Naga) Colonel McCulloch states (cited in Hodson 1911: 34) that “the women are fond of ornaments and they wear many till they are married. These consist of glass beads and brass ornaments on the arms; gold or silver ornaments do not, I think, exist among them. In their festivals, the men wear their peculiar ornaments of which the most prized are necklaces of red pebble. A single stone of this sort is sometimes valued at five metins [mithuns], but such stones are usually heirlooms and are sacredly preserved.” An interesting feature of the marriage among Angamis is that both the bride and the groom do not wear any special dress or jewellery for the marriage. They are simply dressed in a new set of their traditional dress. 4.4.6 Social Status and Ornament For the Nagas, ornaments are more than a matter of aesthetics. Indeed, their importance is such that ornaments are part of the definition of being truly human. It is only from a corpse that ornaments are removed. Perhaps the Nagas are unique to the extent that their particular ethnic grouping and sub-grouping can be distinctively identified from their attire. Butler (1875: 325) rightly points out that “every Naga group uses a peculiar pattern of cloth, and thus any individual can at once be easily identified by his tartan”. In Naga society ornaments whose use is not subjected to social control are rare. In

fact, the majority of them distinctly help in tracing a holder’s membership to a certain clan, to an age group, or to a rank. The ornaments demonstrate also that a person has complied with some rituals or ceremonies and it is taboo to wear them without being entitled to do so. Furthermore, the ornaments are not only the expression of status, but a source of power. The uncertainty of division between ornament and amulet provides them with the faculty of exercising good or bad influences, and therefore they must be handled with care. For this reason in the past a new bead necklace was first given to a dog to wear, so that the bad spirit possibly living in it would have afflicted the animal and not the person wearing it later (Somare and Vigorelli 1992: 142). This is still prevalent among the Tangkhul Nagas of Manipur (Kaping 1998). In Naga society ornaments are acquired to climb higher in social hierarchy and many have recorded this. To note a few: every male Naga, if he is to acquire merit and status in this world and the next, must give a series of feasts, every detail of which is strictly prescribed. It probably takes him from youth to middle age to accomplish (Mills 1935: 134). At stated stages in the series he and his wife gain the right to wear special clothes, which increase in splendour and in the elaborateness of their embroidery the further he advances. It is important to remember that, no matter how rich a man may be, he can win the right to these clothes and carvings only by giving the feasts. The right to wear them is strictly controlled (Jacobs et al. 1990: 103). A man who has duly performed all the prescribed ceremonies is entitled to wear a large shawl embroided with pictures of animals and birds he had killed in the jungle and those slaughtered for the villager’s feast. This special cloth and a necklace of coloured beads mark him out among his fellow clansmen as a person

146 of high social standing (Ganguli 1984: 65). In recent past, it was the ambition of every Naga to take a head, not only for the sake of the glory he wins for himself and the magical benefits he confers on his village, but for the sake of the ornaments it entitles him to wear. Mills (1935: 134-135) records the story of the days when headhunting was discouraged with a heavy hand in British territory and the invariable complaint of Nagas living there was “our ornaments will die out”. He also mentions about the then prevailing option to keep the ornamentation alive but with social control, as of killing a tiger instead of a head to acquire the status equivalent to head taking. Among the Ao’s the poor women are not allowed to wear more than two strings of beads on their neck, but the wives of rich men can wear as many strings as they like. The wealth, happiness and nationality of a person can be ascertained from the ornament he or she wears (Majumdar 1924: 33) There exists always some exception and Mills (1926: 41) recorded one such in 1920s as, the right to wear the ordinary ornaments of a warrior-boar’s tushes, gauntlets, baldric and so on - can be bought by a small payment to the village elders. Hutton (1926) observes the same among Aos. Among the independent Konyaks, when the time comes for an Ang’s son to have picked on his face the tattoo which only a warrior may display, it is a common practice for a party to go out and get a head in the boy’s name and give it to him. Likewise Haimendorf (1933: chapter XII) reports about the prevailing option of those days in the Wakshing country - the people had sometimes brought slaves and cut off their heads, thus gaining the magical virtue without running any risk. Such a

deed was certainly considered less glorious than the slaying of an enemy in a raid, yet it conferred the right to the ornaments of a head hunter. These systems had at least the advantage of preserving an exceedingly picturesque dress from extinction. 4.4.7 Ornament on Death Ornaments among Nagas are socially ruled on death too. Among many Nagas, on unnatural death everything including ornaments are left behind, either at the place of death or in the house, occupied by the family of the deceased person. This practice was present among most of the Nagas in the past but is now restricted to only the interiors. A custom still followed by the Lothas is that in the event of an accursed death, that is to say, a death in childbirth or by drowning or other accident, everything the household of the dead man possessed is abandoned. Even coins are thrown on the ground and never touched again (Mills 1935: 135). Among Lhota Nagas, in case of unnatural death like falling from a tree, the custom is that not even the house is allowed to be burnt till it collapse on its own. No body enters or touches the belongings including the money and ornaments (Mills 1938). The Hatigoria men who died violent deaths like getting attacked by tigers or by accident, were simply tied upon the spot where they fell, without covering or ornaments, as their death was attributed to their having incurred the special disfavour of their gods. This custom was prevalent among many of the other groups also (Woodthorpe 1882b). Among Konyaks, losing a head on a raid is considered disgraceful [it was the same with other Nagas too]. No honour is accorded to slain heroes, and their whole

147 families suffer from the disgrace, for custom compels them to abandon their houses and throw away their property and ornaments (Haimendorf 1933: chapter XIX). 4.4.8 Inheritance When a woman dies, her friends and relatives hang a basket with their offerings on a post by the head of the grave. These are packets of rice with five, not six pieces of meat as in the case of a man. On a bamboo stand by the side of the grave they hang the departed woman’s clothing, ornaments and utensils which she had used during her life, and which she will again need in the land of the dead. For six days after the death of a man and five days in the case of a woman no member of the bereaved family may speak to a stranger. After this period of mourning the clothing, ornaments and weapons are brought back from the grave and symbolically replaced by old cheaper ones. The last offering to the dead who departed during the past year are placed by a path near the village on the day of the Tuku-Emung ceremony, when harvest come and the end of the agricultural year are celebrated. On that day all weapons, clothes and ornaments are removed from the graves. Relatives go early in the morning to the outskirts of the village where they erect a new bamboo structure or place a flat stone and on it put their last gifts. Thus not many valuable ornaments are destroyed with the death of the owner but are shared by the relatives. Owing to patrilineal nature of inheritance, property moves down in agnatic fashion. Daughters virtually inherit nothing. However, a man may gift a property to his daughter. This part of the property remains with her till death. After that it again goes back to her brothers or nearest male cousins. However, women own movable property like animals, jewellery, cloths etc. A

woman’s own property goes to her children, and her personal ornaments always to the daughters. 4.4.9 Trade Ganguli (1984: 7) reports from the Ahom chronicle, that lively trade and commerce flourished between the Bori Nagas and the Assamese. The Nagas bartered and sold their agricultural products like salt, cotton, medical herbs; they brought also ivory, bees wax, mats and daos (axe) to exchange for rice, cloth and beads from Assam. Majumdar (1924: 42) lists the export and import items from and to Nagas in 1920s: the indigenous products of the Naga hills brought down for sale on the plains are cotton, rubber, tea, sugar-cane, cardamom etc., while their chief imports are beads, bangles made of glass, zinc or brass, boars tusks, ivory and glass “natuls”. These are chiefly imported from Calcutta, Bombay and Burma. The Angamis are noted for their widespread commercial activity in which connection they have to visit distant places. There is a public path to Burma through Manipur and the Sema hills which route is generally adopted by the Nagas. The Nagas are fond of necklaces of the polished hexagonal carnelian beads, Indo-Pacific beads (especially Konyaks) and wound beads used by Aos and other Nagas from the time they are known. Cambay (Gujarat) has been the production centre of this carnelian beads since Harappan times. There has been no reference to such bead production at any other place in last two centuries. Likewise the available evidences suggest that Indo-Pacific beads are produced only at Papanaidupet and furnace-wound beads at Purdalpur for last two centuries or so. Thus it may be inferred that there should have been a flourishing trade contact between Nagaland and Cambay, Papanaidupet and Purdalpur. Though at

148 present this trade is direct, it is highly unlikely that in the past there existed any direct trade contact between Cambay, Papanaidupet and Purdalpur, and Nagaland due to the geographical and cultural limitations of the Nagas. It should be noted here that for last half a century or so Naga traders have direct trading with the Cambay. However, the Indo-Pacific glass beads and majority of wound beads still reach them via Calcutta and Assam. There is a plenty of references to Nagas having contact with the plains of Assam and Manipur for trading and these places might have played the role of meeting point for the trade of beads. Due to over pricing and unavailability the original materials are making place for the imitated glass. There exists reference of the same from 1920s. However, for last four decades these imitated ornaments have been becoming very popular and in this trade of imitation, Banaras Beads Limited (BBL) of Varanasi has made inroads by producing ornaments in traditional designs and supplying them to the local traders. BBL official records reveal that the founder Kanhyalalji has travelled at least twenty times to Assam and other north-eastern states between 1950-70 not only to sell the beads but to identify and collect the traditionally valued designs. 4.4.10 Conclusion Perhaps there is no aspect of Naga life which has not come under modern influence. Even the Nagas of Burma, usually considered to be more primitive than their Indian counterparts are gradually being assimilated by their Shan and Kachin (Jhingpaw) neighbours (Bacon 1965: 679). As early as 1920s, Hutton was aware of these changes,

which is evident from his writing of (1921: preface): “old beliefs and customs are dying, the old traditions are being forgotten. The number of Christians or quasi-Christians is steadily increasing and the spirit of change is invading and pervading every aspect of village life.” The same continues today as reported by Mehrotra (1992: 175): Angami Nagas are passing through a transitional phase, and everything in their culture is in process of flux and change. They are adopting new ways of life, specifically disregarding their age-old ways. It is believed that, before Christian missionaries encouraged use of textile clothing for moral reasons, the only piece of clothing women wore were belts of glass beads, as was the case until recently with little girls. Subsequently a narrow strip of cotton, barely reaching the knee, was introduced. It is wrapped around the waist and kept in position by a string of beads which is sometimes so broad as to reach below the hips. Besides this women almost never wore any other piece of clothing, because the Konyaks think that too much clothing reduces fertility and it is an obstacle to having large families. For thousands of years the Nagas remained untouched by the higher civilizations of neighbouring countries like India and Myanmar. Yet even before the British opened this country to some western influence, the seclusion of the Naga hills was never as great as that of a pacific island. Foreign goods, such as cowrie-shells, carnelian and plenty of glass beads, and metal implements were very much in use from the day they are known. These must have been bartered from village to village for hundreds of years.

149 Chapter 5 Conclusion 5.1 Discussion In comparison with commonly occurring archaeological material such as pottery or metals, the occurrence of glass in ancient sites is quite less in frequency. Glass was never produced, on a very large scale, or over so wide an area as other materials. This is due to the fact that it required an advanced technological skills to generate and maintain the required temperature for production of glass for long periods. Though the origin of glass is obscure, the Roman period, the New Kingdom Egypt, and the era of Islamic dominance in the Mediterranean (c. 600-1400 A.D.) are generally considered the greatest phases of ancient glassmaking and ancient glass bead production. Glass bead production requires a unique technique only secondary to the production of glass itself and in most cases this comprises reworking of already manufactured glass. Technical sophistication of bead manufacturing often mirrors the general technological level of society. In the Indian context literary data and archaeological evidence points to the same time period for the occurrence of glass. Reference of kaca comes from the Brahaman group of texts which are assigned to the same time period as that of the PGW. Glass becomes more common in the NBP period. This is also reflected in literary data of 4th-5th century B.C. which abounds in references to glass. Glass beads started appearing within the Indian archaeological context from the 1st millennium B.C. They occur in large numbers from the 6th century B.C. onwards. Glass is more abundantly seen at the dawn of the Christian era. In the early Christian era beads were not only found throughout length and breadth of the country but were also produced using

indigenous techniques. Subsequently, many places emerged as production centres of a flourishing glass industry, as it had become by now an article of common use and was no longer a precious and rare commodity. Archaeologically there are 212 ancient Indian sites which have yielded evidence of glass, out of which 155 are reported to have glass beads and 36 have been claimed as bead manufacturing sites. The criteria of these claims are largely based on findings of large quantities of beads with unperforated, half-perforated and broken parts, along with crucibles of glass and slag. For example on the basis of findings of different varieties of glass beads Alagarai, Banahalli and Medak; on the basis of large number of beads at Adam (with bead polisher), Bhita, Bhokardan (with stone moulds), Brahmagiri, Champa, Lalkot and Pudury; on the basis of findings of glass slags and glass pieces at Kadkal (slags are found near a furnace like structure), Navdatoli and Singh Bhagwanpur are claimed to be glass bead manufacturing centres. There are also a number of sites such as Arikamedu, Brahmapuri, Broach, Harinaraynpur, Karaikadu, Khairdih, Kopia, Mangalkot, Nevasa (with oven), Prakash, Sirpur, Tirukkampuliyr, Uraiyur, and Vadavur which have yielded evidence not only of a large number of glass beads but also of unfinished beads, crucibles, wires and slag. These claims are based on statistics rather than on scientific observations of the bead making processes. A study of present day traditional production centres and end users of glass beads, shows that finding such debitage do not automatically indicate that the site is a bead production centre. The bead production cycle involves a number of stages or processes. Debitage at each

150 stage of the production cycle differs and all steps in the fabrication of beads need not necessarily take place at one place. Debitage which is considered to be an indicator of bead production in the case of archaeological sites, may also be found at the consumer end. Thus, identifying a glass bead production centre does not depend merely on finding of enormous quantities of beads, fragments, unperforated and half perforated beads, a small number of knots, etc. Production centre may also yield tools, furnaces, waste, debitage, raw materials and the means for economic exploitation of a precious trading commodity. No archaeological site except Medieval Nevasa has as yet given evidence of a glass bead furnace. Therefore, the claims of the above mentioned sites being glass bead production centres should be viewed with reservations. Methods followed in the making of glass beads range from the simple winding types to the complex kind of polychrome, “goldfoil” and other bead making techniques. Every variety has its own unique debitage. Debitage of Indo-Pacific beads production is altogether different from beads produced with winding technology; and debitage of lamp winding and furnace winding differs considerably. Thus in the archaeological context, not only do beads need to be classified and recorded, but the debitage also needs to be carefully collected and catalogued. This can speak volumes about the probable technology used at a specific place. Wound glass, a labour intensive process, involves the winding of molten glass around a metallic rod or wire, similar to the way thread is wound around a spool. In the manufacture of drawn-glass beads, however, drawn canes with a central hole are produced as a raw material from which great numbers of nearly identical beads can be created in a short time. In contrast to wound-

glass beads, which are individually made and therefore expensive, drawn beads are made in great numbers and are relatively cheap. Hence it has a greater distribution. Except Arikamedu, which has been proved to be an Indo-Pacific bead producing centre on the basis of debitage (Fig. 144), debitage of glass beads have not been studied properly and sites socalled, bead production centres were not excavated on a large scale. Repeated attempts to trace glass debitage at sites like Nevasa, Brahmapuri, Tripuri, etc. have not become fruitful. However looking at the morphology and percentage of beads at these sites it can safely be said that if at all they were bead producing centres; then Nevasa and Brahmapuri were producing beads with winding technology (Fig. 145), and at Tripuri (Fig. 146) the techniques resembles that of Indo-Pacific bead. In the collection of Tripuri beads in the Deccan College, there are two pieces of swollen drawn glass tubes with sharp edges and one knot which are in fact not beads, but debitage of bead production (Fig. 147). Though most of the beads from Nevasa and Brahmapuri appears to be made by winding technology, there are good number of beads of Indo-Pacific beads by-products. Nevasa beads include some pieces of Indo-Pacific beads, few glass tubes and some by-products of Indo-Pacific beads (Fig. 148).

Fig. 144: Glass bead production debitage from Arikamedu

151 400-1300) (Map 11) and 50 sites in late Medieval period (A.D. 1300-1800) (Map 12).

Fig. 146: Indo-Pacific beads from Early Historic Tripuri

The evidence of glass in Indian archaeology is spread in both time and space. Though there has been claims at regular intervals by different authors about the glass being introduced to India from outside sometime in Indo-roman period, yet the evidence of the same from as many as 29 sites in association with PGW, Megalithic and Iron Age (1200– 600 B.C.) gives ample evidence about glass was known much earlier and could have been produced locally (Map 8). Besides, there are also stray evidence of glass in Bhagwanpura (PGW-Harappan overlapping), Dwarka (late Harappan) and Maski (Chalcolithic), which are of much earlier cultures. Likewise there are 36 sites, which have given evidence of glass beads in association with NBPW or in the period in between 600-300 B.C. (Map 9). However, with the beginning of early historic phase and more particularly in the early Christian centuries the evidence of glass from as many as 123 sites suggest large scale use (Map 10). The period of the present study is between 300 B.C. and A.D. 400 associated with the cultural phases characterised red ware, red polished ware, russet coated painted ware, red and black slipped ware, black slipped ware and rouletted ware. All the same, during the Medieval Period there is clear indication that glass was becoming quite common as evidenced by its presence at 72 sites in early Medieval period (A.D.

Considering the spread of glass and glass beads in ancient India, it is highly likely that around early Christian era there should have been more regional major producers of glass beads other than Arikamedu in south. In this regard Kopia in north with its strategic location, abundance of glass, glass, beads, crucibles and other debitage on the surface stands apart and further work follows by a systematic excavation of this site could result in better understanding of the ancient glass technology in India. A centre like BBL is not a bead production centre, but a trading complex or hub, which gets the orders, and forwards them to Purdalpur bead producers via middlemen. Furnace workers and mould makers get the foreign material, lacking any direct contact or knowledge of BBL’s export. In accordance with this observation, it is not unlikely that in ancient India too, decentralization of bead production was followed, with control over trading activity being maintained in a geographically important place. This could be one of the reasons why such a large number of bead production centres in ancient India have purportedly been found. Rather than insisting on their being “manufacturing centres”, we may consider the hypothesis discussed above and re-examine such sites in the light of the present research. As trading by sea was relatively more secure and land routes were limited, the coastal sites would have played a major role in trading activities of exporters like BBL. At present, although the major trading takes place from BBL, the actual production takes place in villages around Purdalpur and Varanasi in a radius of

152

1. Alamgirpur, 2. Amahata, 3. Atranjikhera, 4. Autha, 5. Bagor, 6. Banahalli, 7. Bhagwanpura, 8. Brass, 9. Daulatpur, 10. Hastinapur, 11. Jakhera, 12. Jhatikra, 13. Kodumanal, 14. Kotra, 15. Kunnattur, 16. Manikpur, 17. Maski, 18. Munahi, 19.Nagiari, 20. Narhan, 21. Pairyampalli, 22. Pallavamedu, 23. Pasewa, 24. Runija, 25. Sanghol, 26. Sarhat, 27. Shirkanda, 28. Sravasti, 29. T-Kallupatti Map8: Evidence of glass and glass beads in Indian Archaeology between 1200 – 600 B.C.

153

1. Alagankulam, 2. Amethi, 3. Ayodhya, 4. Benagutti, 4. Champa, 6. Danwa, 7. Daulatpur, 8. Dharanikota, 9. Dhatva, 10. Ganwaria and Salargarh, 11. Gauriganj, 12. Harnol, 13. Hastinapur, 14. Hulas, 15. Jajmau, 16. Jakhera, 17. Kadipur, 18. Kheradih, 19. Kopia, 20. Kotra, 21. Malvan, 22. Mathura, 23. Munahi, 24. Nadner, 25. Narhan, 26. Noh, 27. Paunar, 28. Prahaladpur, 29. Prakash, 30. Rajghat, 31. Singh Bhagwanpur, 32. Sonepur, 33. Sravasti, 34. Sugh, 35. Tumain, 36. Vaisali Map9: Evidence of glass and glass beads in Indian Archaeology between 600 – 300 B.C.

154

1. Adam, 2. Adamgarh, 3. Adiyamankottai, 4. Agroha, 5. Ahichchhatra, 6. Alagankulam, 7. Alagarai, 8. Appukalu, 9. Arikamedu, 10. Arni, 11. Aunhan, 12. Ayodhya, 13. Bagor, 14. Balathal, 15. Banahalli, 16. Banavasi, 17. Basarh, 18. Besnagar, 19. Bhita, 20. Bhokardan, 21. Brahmagiri, 22. Brass, 23. Broach, 24. Chandahadih, 25. Chandraketugarh, 26. Chandravalli, 27. Chechar, 28. Chirand, 29. Daulatpur, 30. Devnimori, 31. Dharanikota, 32. Dhatva, 33. Dhulikatta, 34. Dhuriapur, 35. Eran, 36. Erich, 37. Ganwaria and Salargarh, 38. Garapadu, 39. Hari-narayanpur, 40. Hastinapur, 41. Hemmige, 42. Hulas Khera, 43. Irla, 44. Jhatkira, 45. Jhusi, 46. Kakrethta, 47. Kanchipuram, 48. Karad, 49. Karaikadu, 50. Karur, 51. Kausambi, 52. Khairwada, 53. Khangabok, 54. Khartuni, 55. Kheradih, 56. Kohir, 57. Kolhua, 58. Kondapur, 59. Kotalinga, 60. Kudikadu, 61. Kumrahar, 62. Kusan, 63. Maheshwar, 64. Malhar, 65. Mangalkot, 66. Manjhi, 67. Mansar, 68. Masaon, 69. Maski, 70. Matin - Mahadev, 71. Nadner, 72. Nagara, 73. Nagarjunakonda, 74. Narhan, 76. Nasik-Jorwe, 77. Nattamedu, 78. Nelakondapalli, 79. Nevasa, 80. Noh, 81. Orai, 82. Paithan, 83. Pandigadda, 84. Pataliputra, 85. Paunar, 86. Pauni, 87. Peddabankur, 88. Perur, 89. Piklihal, 90. Prakash, 91. Puduru, 92. Pydigutta, 93. Raiah, 94. Rajbadidanga, 95. Rajghat, 96. Ratura, 97. Sanghol, 98. Sankisa, 99. Sannati, 100. Satanikota, 101. Satara, 102. Singh Bhagwanpur, 103. Sisupalgarh, 104. Sonkh, 105. Sravasti, 106. Sringaverapura, 107. Srisailum, 108. Sugh, 109. Sultanpur, 1108. Taradih, 111. Taxila, 112. Ter, 113. Tharsa, 114. Tilwara, 115. Tirukkambuliyur, 116. Tripuri, 117. Tumain, 118. Ujjain, 119. Vadagaon - Madhavapur, 120. Vadnagar, 121. Vaisali, 122. Virpur, 123. Yeleswaram

Map10: Evidence of glass and glass beads in Indian Archaeology between 300 B.C. – 400 A.D.

155

1. Adiyamankottai, 2. Ahichchhatra, 3. Alagankulam, 4. Ambari, 5. Anantapur, 6. Apsad, 7. Arambha, 8. Atranjikhera, 9. Banavasi, 10. Basarh, 11. Benagutti, 12. Bharat Mandir, 13. Bhita, 14. Bhokardan, 15. Buxar, 16. Champa, 17. Chechar, 18. Daulatabad, 19. Dhuriapur, 20. Dwarka, 21. Eran, 22. Fatehpur Sikri, 23. Gilaulikhera, 24. Gudnaput, 25. Harsh–ka-tila, 26. Hastinapur, 27. Hulas Khera, 28. Indragarh, 29. Jokha, 30. Kambarmedu, 31. Kanchipuram, 32. Kanheri, 33. Karnachaura, 34. Kashipur, 35. Katpalon, 36. Khairwada, 37. Kolhua, 38. Kumrahar, 39. Kundavelli, 40. Maheshwar, 41. Malhar, 42. Mangalkot, 43. Mansar, 44. Masaon, 45. Maski, 46. Nagarjunakonda, 47. Nagnoor, 48. Nalanda, 49. Narhan, 50. Pallavamedu, 51. Pandigadda, 52. Paunar, 53. Perur, 54. Prakash, 55. Ratnagiri, 56. Sanjan, 57. Shamalaji, 58. Singh Bhagwanpur, 59. Sirpur, 60. Sohgaura, 61. Sonkh, 62. Sringaverapura, 63. Taradih, 64. Taxila, 65. Tharsa, 66. Tirukkambuliyur, 67. Tripuri, 68. Tumain, 69. Ujjain, 70. Uraiyur, 71. Vadavur, 72. Vaisali Map 11: Evidence of glass and glass beads in Indian Archaeology between 400 – 1300 A.D.

156

1. Alampur, 2. Ambari, 3. Antichak, 4. Bahal, 5. Batesvara, 6. Bijai Mandal, 7. Brahmapuri, 8. Buxar, 9. Chagatpur, 10. Chandoli, 11. Chermanparambu, 12. Daulatabad, 13. Dwarka, 14. Eran, 15. Fatehpur Sikri, 16. Golconda, 17. Hampi, 18. Harsh – ka - tila, 19. Hemmige, 20. Jhatkira, 21. Kadipur, 22. Kadkal, 23. Kanchipuram, 24. Karvan, 25. Kaundanpur, 26. Khairwada, 27. Khalkata - patana, 28. Kundavelli, 29. Lalkot, 30. Maheshwar, 31. Makhdum Sahib’s Mosque, 32. Matin - Mahadev, 33. Nagiari, 34. Naksaparvat, 35. Nasik - Jorwe, 36. Navdatoli, 37. Nevasa, 38. Pachkheri, 39. Padavedu, 40. Pataliputra, 41. Paunar, 42. Purana Qila, 43. Raisen fort, 44. Rajghat, 45. Salimgarh Fort, 46. Singh Bhagwanpur, 47. Sirpur, 48. Sohgaura, 49. Tiruverkadu, 50. Uraiyur

Map 12: Evidence of glass and glass beads in Indian Archaeology between 1300 – 1800 A.D.

157 about 250 km. Thus BBL is likely to have less or no debitage as compared to that observed in surrounding village centres. In contrast, in the villages the finished products will be almost completely absent, as they are brought back to BBL for export.

Juangs; and combining the both are the Nagas.

Here it must be specified that production of glass and that of glass beads are two entirely different processes and evidence of one of them may not always be taken as evidence of the other. Even the stringing of the beads may not involve the manufacturing of glass or glass beads.

5.2.1 The Bondos: Users of IndoPacific Beads (Fig. 149) Bondos never buy beads, they earn them. The major source of this acquisition is by stringing the beads for other communities living in the vicinity, as none including the Bondos in the vicinity prefer to wear the beads strung by any material other than kerang fiber. The Bondo hills are the source of this kerang fiber and for centuries Bondo women have mastered the traditional and distinct style of stringing beads using this material. The bead seller gives four packets of beads to the Bondo woman and in return gets three packets of strung beads, the fourth packet goes to the Bondo woman as payment for her labour.

The survival of the Indo-Pacific bead making at Papanaidupet and furnacewound bead making tradition at Purdalpur represents the continuation of an export commodity that dominated the entire Indo-Pacific region in the 1st millennium. 5.2 Ethnoarchaeology Though in the archaeological record from post Buddhist period onward, there has been decline in fabrication of glass beads, it still remains the popular material among the people of hills, where it has been replacing all other materials used for ornamentation. The communities like the Juang, Bondo and Naga are considered to be some of the most ornamented communities of the world. Of all the ornaments, used by them glass beads are likely to be the most numerous and best preserved artefacts in an archaeological deposit, as almost all other beads used by them are organic in nature with the exception of stone beads of Nagas. Cowries are generally not discarded due to their rarity and monetary value. Transfer and disposal of huge amount of glass beads takes place in the hills of users like the Bondo, Juang, and Naga. Among them the largest users of Indo-Pacific glass beads are the Bondos; wound beads are the

The following conclusions pertaining to ethnoarchaeological investigation have been drawn on the basis of the author's research amongst the Bondos and Juangs.

Production of kerang string and stringing of beads generally takes place in two places viz., a) in front of the girls youth dormitory (Salanidingo), where unmarried girls assemble and spend their days stringing beads, and, evenings singing folk songs, and b) inside the bamboo fencing of Bondo houses1, where Bondo women string their beads and weave cloth. Another place where the beads may be seen are the cremation grounds. For an experimental study, an analysis based on surface collection of glass beads and their waste in the Bondo hills were carried out. Grids of 5x5 m were laid down at three different locations. From

1

Each Bondo houses is fenced with bamboo mats.

158 the grids; knots2, perforated, halfperforated, unperforated, broken, and intact beads were recovered, and counted. The following are the details of the site selection and the results obtained: 1. In Ondrahal village, in front of the 'Salanidingo', a total of 1,145 glass beads and bead fragments were identified. These comprise: one knot, 103 perforated beads (of which most had holes too small for stringing by fibre and some were presumably fallen beads), 397 semi-perforated beads, 32 unperforated beads, and, 612 fragments of beads. 2. In Badapada village, inside the bamboo fencing of a villager, 216 glass beads and fragments were identified, out of which 3 were knots, 65 were perforated beads, most of which had holes too small to be strung by fibre and some presumably fallen beads, 39 were semiperforated, 12 unperforated beads, and, the rest (97) fragments of beads. 3. In the cremation ground of village Mudilipada, 745 glass beads and bead fragments were identified, out of which 502 were fully perforated beads, 9 were semi-perforated, 3 unperforated beads, 98 collapsed/melted beads, and, the rest (133) were fragments of beads. Here mention must be made that the material was collected at all the three localities by brushing the surface only. Total depth of penetration did not exceed 5 cm.

2

Discarded piece of glass tube with swelling, which resembles a knot in a tree produced by bits of foreign material which blocked the interior during the process of drawing the tube from furnace (Francis 1990, 1991; Kanungo 2000-2001; Stern 1987a).

Francis (1990b: 13) and Kanungo (20002001) mention that in the production centre at Papanaidupet, the debitage consists of 'U' shaped glass lumps, one side thick and another side thin, and, bangle-like pieces. Other shapes include horns, twisted tubes, and amorphous unperforated pieces. It has been observed at Papanaidupet that the unstrung beads are usually packed along with some amount of debitage (Kanungo 20002001). Thus, when the beads are traded unstrung, there is every possibility the debitage at the end-user’s place, would be very similar to that seen amongst the Bondos, namely imperfect tubes which are often twisted, unperforated, semiperforated beads etc. Archaeologists should be aware of these facts when they come across such rich glass findings in the absence of direct evidences of glass bead manufacture. A large number of glass beads and debitage do not necessarily represent manufacture as seen in the study area. Here, the claim of indigenous origin3 of glass beads in India on the basis of sites not being situated on the trade route and not having any other 'foreign' associated material, stands questioned. The concept of foreign to people like the Bondos is vague. The hill Bondos hardly come down except for weekly markets and very few of them frequent these markets. Most of the Bondos prefer to stay in the hills and rarely visit the markets. This is the place where contact with the people from plains and the bead trader takes place. Apart from this, the bead traders sometimes pedal to the Bondo villages, which are located on the periphery of the plain. The only foreign commodity that 3

Dikshit (1969: 6) has argued for an indigenous production of glass beads for, a) discovery of glass beads at Maski, and b) evidence of glass from many PGW sites which all are neither in the normal zone of trade nor have yielded any foreign material.

159 reaches the Bondos is the glass beads from Papanaidupet, the rest of the material culture being indigenous. Hence to argue that as the material culture is indigenous, the glass beads were locally produced would lead one to an erroneous conclusion, and this should be borne in mind whilst interpreting similar archaeological remains4. 5.2.2 The Juangs: Users of Furnace Wound Beads (Fig. 150) Though the Juang neither use the amount of beads as those used by the Bondos nor restrict themselves to the use of kerang fibre alone for stringing, they still string their own beads in most cases. Unlike the Bondos, the Juang use wound beads produced at Purdalpur. These beads reach them via Hyderabad or Kolkata. Here mention must be made of the Changu dance performed by the Juang in front of their youth dormitory. They dance with extensive ornamentation which consists mainly of necklaces of glass beads. This dance forms an integral part of their life (Kanungo 2002a). As they wear plenty of glass beads during this dance very often strings break and beads cascade to earth. Although they are collected immediately, many remain lost, thus making this a place where numerous beads are waiting to be found.

4

Most of the sites have been reported as bead manufacturing centres on the basis of the findings of either glass slag or halfdone beads or both. However, the evidence of glass production and finding of glass beads need not necessarily mean that the site itself was a glass bead manufacturing centre. Glass and glass beads can be produced separately and the latter even strung in different places (Kanungo 20002001).

Fallen beads are also found where stringing is done, but in a smaller quantity as the Juang use comparatively large beads in small numbers. Chances of unperforated and broken beads reaching Juang area along with the new ones is much less as compared to the Bondo case. This is not only due to the fact that beads used by them are bigger in size but because they often get there already strung. Very often the Juangs just restring the beads, with a stronger string. Thus an ethnoarchaeological approach similar to that carried out on Bondo hills resulted in finding of 12 wound beads and a few broken pieces near the Thaniputi (village god), exactly in front of the youth dormitory (mandagarh) in the village of Guptaganga and 23 beads at a cremation ground where some specimens were actually collapsed. However, no unperforated or semiperforated beads or other debitage of glass bead manufacture were seen here. 5.2.3 The Nagas: Users of Multiple Bead Type (Fig. 151) An investigation in the Naga hills and especially in the places where the Nagas desert their houses with all their belongings including ornaments after the unnatural death of a member would have helped this study in more ways than one. But the prevailing custom in these villages and the socio-political situation did not allow such work to be carried out. However, one can easily draw the probable results of such study in a village on Konyaks where it would not have been much different than that of Bondos considering the amount of beads they use. Beads were and are one of the most important trading commodities since time immemorial. Glass beads used and, once discarded survive almost for ever (unless subjected to accidental high firing), leaving behind important clues in the archaeological record. If studied properly

160 they can be of great help in reconstructing and interpreting the past. Limited investigations on the hills of Bondo and Juang have shown that an area like this in an archaeological context could have been easily misinterpreted as a glass bead production centre. The study of Bondo, Juang and Naga beads shows how minor antiquities like beads can travel from region to region without either having a trade route or direct contact or cultural relations with the place of manufacture, thus precluding the possibility of indirect-trade, simultaneously bringing into perspective direct long distance trade irrespective of any political or social transactions territories enroute.

beads, from the first stages of production to the various end-uses, traverses a spatially wide area, with possibility of ‘debitage-like’ deposits accumulating at various stages. However, while beads, once produced, tend to ‘travel’ to distant places, their production requires a complex web of processes, techniques and skills which are likely to be available at only a limited number of locations. This is especially so in the case of furnace winding and Indo-Pacific bead production. In the lamp winding technique, considering the minimum requirement of infrastructure and to some extent skills (if not intended to produce highly stylised and specialized beads) this would not have been the case.

Given that glass beads constitute an important antiquity, with a high survival rate, and a size and usage pattern that ensures wide dispersal, it is important to correlate archaeological evidence with current knowledge of production processes. This includes production, transport, the users – mode of acquisition, and the use and disposal of the glass beads. In doing so we begin to understand how the whole life cycle of

Thus the dispersal is of the artefacts, not of the whole web of production and transportation processes, which implies that care has to be exercised before any site with bead debitage can be considered a bead ‘production centre’. As a major outcome of the present study is that the different types of debitage described here can be used for identifying different bead manufacturing stages in archaeological sites.

161

Fig. 5: Broken crucible pieces and glass slags from Trench 2

Fig. 9: Broken crucibles, frit and tuyere

Fig. 12: Potsherds found in the trenches

Fig. 15: Painting of a melting furnace by John Mandeville: 15th century (After Kottmann 2002)

Fig. 16: Expanding the bubble

Fig. 17: Drawing ports of mechanical Indo-Pacific bead producing furnace at Prashant Bead Industry

162

Fig. 20: 40, 000 years old shell beads from Ucagizli Cave, Turkey (After Powell 2002)

Fig. 22: Mother Goddess from Tamluk (After Postel 1989)

Fig. 23: A cattle with wound beads at Papanaidupet

Fig. 24: Wound beads showing striation marks

Fig. 25: Different colour glass is used to design a lampwound bead

Fig. 26: A furnace wound bead is being built up

163

Fig. 27: Interiors of furnace and lamp wound beads

Fig. 29: Stages of mechanised produced and polished beads

Fig. 30: Mechanical polishing of beads to remove the rim

Fig. 37: Cracked beads lying scattered as debitage next to furnace

Fig. 39: Debitage of furnace wound bead production

Fig. 40: Appliquéing the hot wounds with different coloured glass powder

164

Fig. 41: Glazing furnace

Fig. 42: A big wound is drawn for bangle

Fig. 51: A bead maker with his beads at Upadhyaya’s Fig. 65: Wound beads on rods shop

Fig. 67: Piling of glass rod pieces for recycling

Fig. 68: Debitage of lamp wound bead production

165

Fig. 73: Rolling the hollow mass of glass on wooden stand

Fig. 74: Cooling of the glass mass inside a water basin

Fig. 75: Spreading the glass with a twist

Fig. 76: Pulling of the glass tube apart

Fig. 77: Continuous blowing by the gaffer

Fig. 84: Furnace is on fire

166

Fig. 85: Half-melted glass chunks are picked up on the iron rod

Fig. 86: Glass on rod is kneaded into the furnace

Fig. 87: Mixing of glass

Fig. 89: Gedda paru with flakes

Fig. 90: Characteristic Gedda paru flakes

Fig. 98: Glass bead drawing debitage next to furnace area

167

Fig. 104: Stirring the beads

Fig. 108: Characteristics debitage of Indo-Pacific bead production

Fig. 109: Variety of beads used by a Bondo women

Fig. 111: A Bondo woman seeing a magazine

Fig. 116: A Bondo woman with her daughter in village Kirsanipada

Fig. 117: A Bondo women during her daily routine

168

Fig. 118: Bondo girls working in the weaving societies in transition

Fig. 119: Two Bondo sisters in village Mudilipada, one with sari works for a weaving society and the other stays at home

Fig. 127: Middlemen on his way to make marriage proposal in the village of Guptaganga

Fig. 128: The three most common necklaces currently in use by the Juang (Courtesy Dr. Pradeep Mohanty)

Fig. 129: Various glass bead necklaces, including marriage strings (ahuda mali) of reddish brown and white beads (Courtesy Dr. Pradeep Mohanty)

Fig. 130: A newly married woman on her way to her parent’s home to return her old ornaments in the village of Phulabadi

169

Fig. 133: A Juang lady with her grand son (Courtesy Dr. Pradeep Mohanty)

Fig. 136: Sema women on their festival (Courtesy Dr. Timothy Kaping)

Fig. 137: Ao necklace

Fig. 139: Imitated necklaces in a shop at Kohima

Fig. 142: Close-up of Tsubo

Fig. 143: Two Naga girls wearing Tsubo

170

Fig. 145: Varieties of glass beads from Early Historic Nevasa

Fig. 147: Indo-Pacific beads and its debitage from Early Historic Tripuri

Fig. 148: Indo-Pacific beads, one small drawn tube and its by-products from Early Historic Nevasa

Fig. 149: Fully beaded Bondo girls

Fig. 150: Juang women

Fig. 151: A Naga lady

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SOUTH ASIAN ARCHAEOLOGY SERIES EDITED BY ALOK K. KANUNGO

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