Geospatial Technology to Support Communities and Policy: Pathways to Resiliency 3031525604, 9783031525605

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Geotechnologies and the Environment

Swagata Ghosh Maya Kumari Varun Narayan Mishra Editors

Geospatial Technology to Support Communities and Policy Pathways to Resiliency

Geotechnologies and the Environment Volume 26

Series Editors Jay D. Gatrell, Department of Geology & Geography, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL, USA Ryan R. Jensen, Department of Geography, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA

The Geotechnologies and the Environment series is intended to provide specialists in the geotechnologies and academics who utilize these technologies, with an opportunity to share novel approaches, present interesting (sometimes counter-­ intuitive) case studies, and most importantly to situate GIS, remote sensing, GPS, the internet, new technologies, and methodological advances in a real world context. In doing so, the books in the series will be inherently applied and reflect the rich variety of research performed by geographers and allied professionals. Beyond the applied nature of many of the papers and individual contributions, the series interrogates the dynamic relationship between nature and society. For this reason, many contributors focus on human-environment interactions. The series are not limited to an interpretation of the environment as nature per se. Rather, the series “places” people and social forces in context and thus explore the many socio-spatial environments humans construct for themselves as they settle the landscape. Consequently, contributions will use geotechnologies to examine both urban and rural landscapes.

Swagata Ghosh  •  Maya Kumari Varun Narayan Mishra Editors

Geospatial Technology to Support Communities and Policy Pathways to Resiliency

Editors Swagata Ghosh Department of Geography, School of Earth Sciences Central University of Karnataka Kalaburagi, Karnataka, India

Maya Kumari Amity School of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development Amity University Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

Varun Narayan Mishra Amity Institute of Geoinformatics and Remote Sensing (AIGIRS) Amity University Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

ISSN 2365-0575     ISSN 2365-0583 (electronic) Geotechnologies and the Environment ISBN 978-3-031-52560-5    ISBN 978-3-031-52561-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52561-2 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

Climate Change, an integral part of today’s world, is treated as the deleterious impact of worldwide unprecedented urbanization and industrialization. Society is exposed to an extensive range of climate risks by facing, intense heat waves, heavy cloudbursts, forest fire, melting of glaciers, sea level change, aerosol pollution, green-house gas emission, prolonged periods of drought, life-threatening air temperature, extreme land surface temperature, and many more. To combat such critical situation and develop smart and sustainable society, building climate resilience of the society is the way out. Climate resilience combines the ability of a society to anticipate, prepare for, cope with, adapt to, and transform in response to climate change in the form of perilous incidents, trends, or anomalies. Global, local, and hyper-local climate action plans and its implementation will support regions vulnerable to climate disaster, contribute to several sustainable development goals, and finally build a climate-resilient nation. Geospatial technologies including Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information System (GIS), Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and Internet Mapping Technologies acquire data referenced to the earth surface; use it for mapping, analysis, and modeling; and generate quantitative/qualitative information. In the geospatial world, remote sensing is used for collection of data about atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere with some instrument generally placed on airplanes and satellites. GIS is a spatial information system for capturing, storing, managing, manipulating, analyzing, displaying, and querying geographically related data which produce information, useful while making decisions. A GNSS calculates accurate ground locations. Internet Mapping or web mapping technologies use Internet to view, assess, or distribute geospatial data in map form which are not restricted any more with only GIS professional but a wider audience. To build a climate-resilient nation, it is important to examine different aspects of climate change, causes, effects, and response. Geospatial Technology is an asset to monitor such aspects of climate change which contribute to making adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate-induced disaster risk reduction. Geospatial technology

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can be used in global to local monitoring, modeling, visualization, prediction of weather parameters, air quality (carbon emissions, particle pollution, etc.), water (freshwater and ocean water) quality, and land quality. Such use of geospatial technology and its outcome can contribute to climate action plans, water management, and land management practices; design weather alert system and mitigate the impacts of climate change on different sectors like agriculture (through flood and drought), biodiversity, human health, etc.; and build climate-resilient nation. Availability of climate change data acquired by NASA and ISRO satellites and sensors encouraged various researchers to spread climate literacy in different sectors of the society. Despite such boom, gap exists in the systematic arrangements of basics, concepts, and theories of climate change phenomena; past, present, and future trends of traditional, current, and upcoming geospatial technology in building climate-­ resilient world; limitations of geospatial technology in the climate-induced risk reduction; and ample knowledge and experience of eminent researchers in this research area. Further, the evolving trend in geospatial technology creates a discomfort in the world of decision-makers and practitioners averting it from being adopted. The book entitled Geospatial Technology to Support Communities and Policy: Pathways to Resiliency could address such gap by summarizing the application of geospatial technology in broad range of categories to gauge the exposure of the society toward climate-induced multi-hazard risk and contribute toward strategic decision-making to increase the capacity and decrease the vulnerability of the nation toward climate-induced disasters. The potential readers of this book are researchers, academicians, urban planners, environmentalists, policymakers, scientists, ecologists, administrators, etc. working in the field of climatic hazard assessment and climate resilience. In Chap. 1, editors provide their insights into the multifaceted application of technology to empower disaster resilience and explore the key geospatial perspective. This chapter presents numerous opportunities for enhancing preparedness, response, and recovery efforts with the advancements in remote sensing, big data, and cloud computing for holistic disaster risk management. It also highlights the existing challenges and lists the concerted efforts required to leverage this technology effectively. In Chap. 2, importance and different aspects of river conservation and water resource management are presented with a comprehensive review of the present-­ day state of rivers and the threats posed by human activity. By bringing together the most recent research from around the world on river and watershed restoration, rehabilitation, and conservation, this chapter identified critical knowledge gaps and set clear goals for further study and action. Considering the harmful impact of the human activity over worldwide watershed, aquatic ecosystem, and water quality, this chapter recommends preparation and implementation of a physically sound framework for management strategies for river rehabilitation and conservation in conjunction with local/regional river managers.

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In Chap. 3, geospatial techniques are used to perform quantitative morphometric analysis for prioritizing sub-watersheds of the Chulband River basin, Maharashtra, India. In the analysis, shape, linear, and relief of sub-watersheds (SWs) within the Chulband River basin are considered. To rank and prioritize sub-watersheds, totally 20 morphometric aspects were applied. SW4, SW3, and SW6 are ranked as having high priority. Such findings serve as a valuable tool in identifying regions with high levels of soil erosion. In Chap. 4, effects of groundwater, soil quality, and rainfall on agriculture in Bagh River Basin, India, are analyzed using geostatistical techniques. With the use of GIS and the Water Quality Index (WQI), several complex mathematical algorithms are employed to model and analyze groundwater and soil data. Physical and chemical properties of water were analyzed by Gibbs diagram. The soil fertility index shows a steady decline from 1980 to 2005. This study can be helpful for better river basin management and research. In Chap. 5, seven-decadal rainfall variation as response to climate change in Tumakuru district, a semiarid region of Karnataka, India, is analyzed. Trend of rainfall during 1952–2019 is analyzed using Mann-Kendall (MK) and Innovative Trend Analysis (ITA). The present research on ITA over MK method reveals that ITA is reliable for accurate rainfall trend identification, and it has the capability for finding the hidden variation in rainfall. The stations are reflecting a significant upward trend. This study will be beneficial not only for analyzing the trend but also to have an impact on the socioeconomic conditions of the people. In Chap. 6, AI-based rainfall-runoff modeling is performed for sustainable water management in Potteruvagu Watershed, located in the Indian state of Odisha. The main aim of this chapter is to create a precise streamflow model for runoff estimation by comparing three AI models – random forest regression model (RF), artificial neural network (ANN), and k-nearest neighbor regression model (KNN)  – for monthly streamflow modeling. Compared to other two models, RF has better performance, achieving high R2 (0.94) and NSE (0.92) values during the training period and R2 (0.74) and NSE (0.67) values during the testing period. The findings suggest that the RF model can serve as a valuable tool for sustainable water resources management, flood control, and environmental planning applications. In Chap. 7, the use of optical and microwave remote sensing is elaborated for building flood resilience through flood risk assessment. This chapter highlights the importance of Sentinel-1A and Sentinel-1B series of remote sensing data, UAV-­ LiDAR system, Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission, and Multi-sensor Precipitation Estimate along with the advancements in processing technologies based on cloud computing like the Google Earth Engine (GEE) in making near real-time flood hazard mapping and monitoring possible and also contribute in the development of automated services. In Chap. 8, GIS and remote sensing methods are tested for determining the spatiotemporal extent of drought in Jodhpur, Rajasthan. This study examines how monsoon patterns affect vegetation indexes in the desert zone over a 7-year period (2015–2021). NDVI was computed using a series of Moderate Resolution Image

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Spectrometer (MODIS) data for Pre- and Post-Monsoon. With NDVI and SPI combined, drought-related events can be measured in near real-time, allowing developers to provide accurate information for drought preparation, mitigation measures, and response planning. With the chapter’s potential, nations will be able to proactively allocate resources, plan resilient infrastructure, and support sustainable agricultural practices to tackle drought-related challenges. Additionally, it facilitates informed policymaking that ensures long-term climate resilience. In Chap. 9, power of machine learning is examined in forest fire risk analysis and resilience. While emphasizing the importance of properly weighing the ethical and practical implications of applying Machine Learning (ML) to forest management decisions, this chapter discusses new trends and knowledge gaps in this area. A thorough overview of fire detection strategies, including advancements, problems, and future potential, is presented in this chapter along with the difficulties and limitations of fire detection approaches. In Chap. 10, the potential of machine learning–based models is discussed for forest fire risk and resilience. The chapter discusses the basic types, causes, and effects of forest fire. It discusses the potential of predictive modeling, weather-based modeling, topographic modeling, and resilience modeling for fire behavior analysis and prediction. In Chap. 11, advanced application of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for rapid surveying and mapping is illustrated through a case study from Maharashtra, India. Using ground control points (GCP) data in the Patgaon region, Maharashtra, India, this study assessed the capability of the UAV to perform topographic surveying by collecting 289 images at a height of 100 m above the settlement area. An orthophotograph of 2.91  cm GSD covering 45.4  ha of area was generated. By choosing ample ground control points, an absolute station accuracy of 0.00237 m RMSE was achieved. This chapter is useful for understanding the application of drones for mapping and monitoring critical sites for environmental management. In Chap. 12, application of digital technologies and remote sensing in precision agriculture has been assessed for sustainable crop production. This chapter emphasizes basic concept and purpose of precision agriculture for optimized returns on agricultural inputs used and along with that our natural resources are also preserved. Use of satellite as well as aerial imagery for weather prediction, observing crop heath indicators, and application of fertilizers at variable rates in an agricultural field contribute to precision agricultural revolution. In order to improve topographical mapping and planting accuracy, machine data was aggregated and used for soil data collection. This chapter is useful for the adoption of sustainable agriculture which protects the natural resources and gives direction toward sustainable development. In Chap. 13, a comprehensive review of different aspects of soil resource management in geo informatics domain is presented. Potential of visual image interpretation, image transformation techniques, soil survey and soil mapping land use and land cover mapping in GIS platform, moisture stress in soils, and soil salinity assessment in soil resource analysis is explained. This chapter is useful for assessing land productivity potential, land capability class and soil site suitability for agricultural land use management.

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In Chap. 14, application of geospatial techniques has been explained for smart village planning through a case study of Muzaffarnagar district, India. A study is performed to create a parcel-level strategy for the advancement of the land and water assets existing in the Muzaffarnagar area using combined LISS IV and CARTOSAT-I satellite data. The cadastral maps from four Lohia villages (Kurwa, Mohammadpur Rai Singh, Jaitpur, and Garhi Nawabad) and other thematic maps are produced to pace the volume of labor. The findings show that conducting check-­ road-­bund (CRB) is an important step that needs to be done in each of the selected communities. In Chap. 15, different spatial analysis techniques used for LULC change detection over Delhi NCR is discussed. A wide range of literature is used in this study to examine different approaches for assessing regional and temporal differences in land use. Since the 1990s, the Delhi NCR metropolitan city has experienced considerable urban growth and economic activity. Using this research, we can gain a better understanding of the complex interactions between human activities and the environment in rapidly urbanizing metropolitan areas. In Chap. 16, spatial and temporal changes in strength of vegetation in Akola District, Central India, have been analyzed using spectral indices like Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) with the help of Google Earth Engine (GEE). The EVI values demonstrate some fluctuation over the 15-year period. However, a visual examination of the data suggests a relatively stable pattern in EVI values for most regions, with no significant increasing or decreasing trend observed. The Mann-Kendall and Sen’s slope analyses provide valuable insights into the trends and changes in different parameters across various Tehsils. The results of such a study can provide researchers and forest managers with valuable insights into Akola District’s forest cover dynamics, can help identify areas of concern, detect changes in vegetation patterns, and assist in making informed decisions about conservation, reforestation, and sustainable resource use. The understanding of the forest ecosystem will be crucial to ensuring its long-term health and vitality, as well as promoting community and environmental well-being. In Chap. 17, different health risks posed by particle pollution and resilience measures are discussed. Different types of particles, their sources, and specific pollutants present in particulate matter, different particles and their health impacts, various formulas/methodologies for risk assessment and evaluation, types of mitigation strategies, and building resilience are discussed in the chapter. The chapter is useful for developing a comprehensive strategy to protect public health, reduce exposure to particle pollution, and improve resilience to its adverse effects by combining risk evaluation, mitigation strategies, and resilience-building measures. In Chap. 18, the concepts and policy contexts associated with resilience and vulnerability are discussed. This chapter explains these concepts which are crucial for developing effective policies and interventions in various policy domains. By incorporating resilience principles into urban planning, environmental management, and public health policies, societies can become better equipped to cope with the challenges of the twenty-first century.

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This edited book entitled Geospatial Technology to Support Communities and Policy: Pathways to Resiliency contains chapters written by prominent researchers and experts. It will serve as a book for researchers and practitioners in the field of application of geospatial technology in climate-induced disaster management which will contribute toward building climate-resilient world.

Karnataka, India  Swagata Ghosh   Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India  Maya Kumari   Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India  Varun Narayan Mishra

Acknowledgments

It would not have been possible for the edited book Geospatial Technology to Support Communities and Policy: Pathways to Resiliency to come to fruition without the grace of God. We are grateful to Hon’ble Vice Chancellor of Central University of Karnataka; Hon’ble Vice Chancellor of Amity University, Noida; Head of the department of Geography, Central University of Karnataka; Head of Amity Institute of Geoinformatics and Remote Sensing and Amity School of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development, Amity University, Noida, for their encouragement and support. Our sincere thanks go out to all of our colleagues, friends, and family members who, in one way or another, provided constant moral support for us. We are extremely grateful to the publisher for providing us with the opportunity to collaborate with them and bringing out the content in such a presentable way. Swagata Ghosh Maya Kumari Varun Narayan Mishra

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Contents

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Insights into the Multifaceted Application of Technology to Empower Disaster Resilience: A Geospatial Perspective����������������    1 Swagata Ghosh, Maya Kumari, and Varun Narayan Mishra

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 River Conservation and Water Resource Management ����������������������   11 J. L. Prameena Sheeja, N. Priyanka, and G. Bhaskaran

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Morphometric Analysis for Prioritizing Sub-watersheds of the Chulband River Basin, India, Using Geospatial Techniques������������������������������������������������������������������   29 Padala Raja Shekar and Aneesh Mathew

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A GIS Based Study of the Effects of Groundwater, Soil Quality and Rainfall on Agriculture in Bagh River Basin, India����������������������������������������������������������������������   47 Nanabhau Kudnar, Varun Narayan Mishra, Devendra Bisen, Vasudev Salunke, and Ravindra Bhagat

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Statistical Approach to Visualize the Seven-­Decadal Rainfall Variation as Response to Climate Change in a Semiarid Region of Karnataka, India��������������������������������������������   75 Sanjay Kumar, Krishna Kumar S, S. A. Ahmed, and Jyothika Karkala

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AI-Based Rainfall-Runoff Modelling for Sustainable Water Management in Potteruvagu Watershed, India������������������������   95 Padala Raja Shekar and Aneesh Mathew

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Building Flood Resilience Through Flood Risk Assessment with Optical and Microwave Remote Sensing������������������  109 Kumar Rajeev

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Satellite Image-Based Drought Monitoring: Vision to Enhance Drought Resilience ��������������������������������������������������  129 S. L. Borana and S. K. Yadav

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The Power of Machine Learning in Forest Fire Risk Analysis and Resilience: Navigating Best Practices, Challenges, and Opportunities ��������������������������������������������������������������  149 Atharva Awatade, Pratap Pawar, and D. Lakshmi

10 Machine  Learning for Forest Fire Risk and Resilience������������������������  171 Smita Varma, Soumendu Shekar Roy, and Praveen Kumar Rai 11 A  dvanced Application of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for Rapid Surveying and Mapping: A Case Study from Maharashtra, India������������������������������������������������  185 Nandakishore, Swati Sharma, and Avaneesh Kumar 12 Application  of Digital Technologies & Remote Sensing in Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Production������������������  203 Mohammad Usama 13 Advances  in Soil Resource Management in Geoinformatics Domain: A Comprehensive Review��������������������������������������������������������  225 Ragini Kumari, B. K. Vimal, Praveen Kumar Rai, Sunita Paswan, and Rahul Kumar Misra 14 S  mart Village Planning Towards Sustainability Using Geospatial Techniques – A Case Study of Muzaffarnagar District, India������������������������������������������������������������  241 Gaurav Tripathi, Ritambhara Kumari Upadhyay, Chandra Shekhar Dwivedi, and Achala Shakya 15 A  Review of Spatial Analysis Techniques Used for LULC Change Detection Over Delhi NCR in the Past Two Decades��������������  263 Yashvita Tamrakar and Swati Sharma 16 Assessment  of Spatial and Temporal Changes in Strength of Vegetation Using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI): A Case Study from Akola District, Central India ��������������������������������  289 Abhijeet Ambadkar, Pranali Kathe, Chaitanya B. Pande, and Pranaya Diwate 17 Particle  Pollution and Health – Risk and Resilience Evaluation��������  305 Ambrina Sardar Khan and Prateek Srivastava 18 Resilience  & Vulnerability: Concepts and Policy Contexts������������������  327 Syed Shahid Mazhar, Farhina Sardar Khan, Prateek Srivastava, and Ambrina Sardar Khan

Chapter 1

Insights into the Multifaceted Application of Technology to Empower Disaster Resilience: A Geospatial Perspective Swagata Ghosh, Maya Kumari, and Varun Narayan Mishra

Abstract Disasters pose significant challenges to the communities affected. The impact of natural disasters, such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and floods, can be devastating, causing loss of life, destruction of infrastructure, and displacement of individuals. Effective disaster management requires a comprehensive strategy that combines community support, policy-making, and resilience-building efforts. Geospatial technologies have ushered in an era of unprecedented capabilities, offering profound insights into our world’s complex dynamics. Significant application of earth observation dataset and geospatial technology in land planning, water resource management, crop management, forest fire, landslide, flood, drought, air pollution etc. make these tools indispensable in shaping resilient societies. Despite the limitation of data quality, technological accessibility, skill gaps, privacy concerns, and integration hurdles, present chapter uncover the intricate facets that temper the expansive potential of geospatial technologies. The journey toward resilience, policy efficacy, and community support requires a visionary approach to chart a course toward a more sustainable and technologically empowered future. Keywords Disaster risk reduction · Resilience · Geospatial technology · Sustainable development · Community support · Policy

S. Ghosh (*) Department of Geography, School of Earth Sciences, Central University of Karnataka, Kalaburagi, Karnataka, India e-mail: [email protected] M. Kumari Amity School of Natural Resources and Sustainable Development (ASNRSD), Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India V. N. Mishra Amity Institute of Geoinformatics and Remote Sensing (AIGIRS), Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 S. Ghosh et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technology to Support Communities and Policy, Geotechnologies and the Environment 26, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52561-2_1

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1.1 Introduction In today’s rapidly evolving world, both natural and human-induced disasters and other unforeseen events pose significant threats to communities, economies, and livelihoods. The impact of these disasters extends beyond the immediate destruction and loss of life. They also have severe implications for the environment and human health. For instance, floods can lead to water pollution, as sewage systems and waste management facilities may be overwhelmed, causing contamination of water sources (Shankar et al. 2023). Air pollution can occur due to the burning of debris and the release of pollutants from damaged industries and vehicles, construction dust, smoke released from stubble burning (Sharma et  al. 2021, 2022, 2023). Climate transformations resulting from these disasters can also affect the overall quality of life, with changes in temperature, rainfall patterns, and other climatic factors impacting agriculture, water availability, and overall ecosystem health (Kumar et al. 2022a, b; Ghosh et al. 2021). Research on disaster risk reduction (DRR) demonstrated that disasters are often not caused by hazards solely, but by the combination of vulnerabilities (the extent to which society is likely to be damaged by a hazard), exposures (the degree of proximity between society and hazards), and ability of the society to anticipate (awareness of potential hazards), respond to (actions after a disaster to restrict further damage), and recover (rebuild and restore) from them. However, compared to response-based disaster management approaches, anticipative, prevention-based disaster risk reduction strategy is a current global need (Aitsi-Selmi et al. 2015). In light of the Sendai Framework, governments and international communities around the world are encouraged to develop disaster risk reduction strategies that will not only reduce mortality and disaster losses but will also contribute to the achievement of United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Paunga and Lassa 2020). Building a disaster-resilient society is one of the major steps towards fulfilling environmental aspects of SDGs and achieving a better and more sustainable future of planet earth for better livelihood (Shayan et al. 2022). Resilience building is the process of strengthening a community’s capacity to withstand and recover from disasters. Nowadays, it is crucial to establish a comprehensive framework that encompasses risk assessments, monitoring and evaluation of pre & post-disaster scenarios, implementing mitigation measures, raising awareness, and collaboration between government and private organizations for disaster risk reduction and building resilience. Resilience building involves improving infrastructure, implementing early warning systems, enhancing land-use planning, fostering social networks, improving education and healthcare systems, and promoting livelihood diversification (Sisto et al. 2019).

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Community support plays a pivotal role in reducing the disaster risk to the society and building resilience. When individuals and communities are empowered and actively engaged, they can contribute to the development and implementation of effective strategies. Building awareness and understanding of the risks, promoting a culture of preparedness, and encouraging social cohesion are essential components of community support. By involving local residents, organizations, and community leaders, disaster management efforts can be tailored to the specific needs and characteristics of each community. Additionally, disaster risk to the society can be reduced significantly by designing effective policy and its implementation. Policies provide a framework for decision-making, resource allocation, and coordination among various stakeholders. They help to establish guidelines, regulations, and standards that ensure the resilience and safety of communities. Policy making should be based on a thorough understanding of the risks and vulnerabilities specific to the region. It should also consider the socio-economic context, local governance structures, and existing legal frameworks. Additionally, policies must be flexible and adaptable to changing circumstances and emerging risks. Moreover, global action will be needed within the framework of international collaboration and unanimity to reduce disaster risk worldwide (Bello et al. 2021).

1.2 Emerging Trend of Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience Building Besides the existing roles or processes by the traditional institutions (government agencies and local communities), emerging trends of disaster risk reduction and resilience building demands investment in technologization to provide valuable insights and evidence-based solutions for enhancing the potential of community-­ based disaster preparedness initiatives, response, and recovery efforts (Orimoloye et  al. 2021). Innovations in technology like Artificial intelligence, Big data, Geospatial Technologies (Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information System (GIS)), Internet of Things (IoT), Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), Data mining, Social Media contributing towards spatial data collection and management and community engagement have wider potential in solving various disaster related issues (Samarakkody et al. 2023). In the present chapter, we focus on unprecedented capabilities of Geospatial technologies in disaster management and shaping resilient societies. We also highlight some of the key challenges that hinder the successful implementation of advanced technologies in disaster response and recovery efforts. Finally, this chapter explores the future scope of geospatial technology in enhancing disaster resilience and preparedness.

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1.3 Disaster Resilience: Role of Geospatial Technology The key role of using geospatial technology is to comprehend the origins, mechanisms, and outcomes of spatial heterogeneity, while its aim is to offer a scientific basis for developing and asserting the landscape in a sustainable manner (Bibri 2021; Rai et al. 2022). With the advent of advanced geospatial technologies, acquiring and analyzing the data related to the earth surface becomes easy which produces information, useful while making decisions. Advanced Geospatial technologies including Remote Sensing, GIS, LIDAR, and UAVs acquire data referenced to the earth surface. Images from multi-sensor satellites and recent developments in the computing facilities have made geospatial technologies not only powerful but also an essential research tool. Geospatial technology has great potential to monitor such aspects of climate change which contributes to making adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate-induced disaster risk reduction (Tomaszewski et  al. 2020; Manfré et al. 2012). The advanced Geospatial technologies can be used from local to global scale modeling, visualization, prediction, of changing climate change scenarios. Despite recent advancements in geospatial technologies, there is still a gap between its enormous potential and applied decision and policy making. Additionally, maintaining pace with the pace of ever-changing technology can also be challenging. It is therefore needed to address this gap by providing the insights of advanced tools and techniques in making effective, informed, data-driven decisions. Geospatial technologies have wider potential in (i) the management of natural resources, (ii) management of agricultural land and soil carbon stock, (iii) development of real-­ time decision support systems for strategic operations in forest fire mitigation, (iv) monitoring of landscape changes over space and time, (v) water resource management, (vi) dynamic simulation of climate change, (viii) improvement of climate projections. To maximize the understanding of relevant geospatial information, a variety of stakeholders should be involved. Nevertheless, with earth observation datasets and advanced spatial analysis with GIS, one can effectively analyze and manage extreme events caused by climate change. An integrated approach with earth observation data, computational modeling tools and the communities’ perception is useful for policy-making, and future resilience. Moreover, Geospatial technology plays a crucial role in addressing the limitations of community support during disasters. It further enriches the policies for management with the quantitative data. Geospatial Technology is now becoming more viable through the development of a series of various meteorological and earth observation satellites, communication satellites, GIS, and satellite-based navigation systems. It plays a crucial role in addressing the limitations of community support during disasters by identifying populations and infrastructure at risk, tracking the damage which could be used as the input for planning the recovery and improving the coordination between different entities engaged in the disaster management and crowdsourced data.

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1.3.1 Allocation of Resources Geospatial technologies help in optimizing resource allocation in case of disasters through superimposing data on population density, damaged infrastructure, and medical facilities. GIS coupled with decision support systems is useful to prioritize the exploitation of critical resources. It makes sure the quick and effective supplies of medical kit, food, water, and emergency services, to disaster affected areas.

1.3.2 Civilian Engagement and Crowd-Sourced Data Geospatial Technology enables effective communication and coordination among various stakeholders involved in disaster management. Modern technologies such as smartphone apps, internet of things (IOT), facilitate the engagement of residents by enabling them to report incidents, share photos, and specific information during disasters. Through these crowdsourced data, emergency workers can react quickly in a better way to changing circumstances. Participation of common people in disaster response activities raises the engagement and collaboration of communities, improving overall disaster resilience.

1.3.3 Risk Assessment, Vulnerability Analysis and Prediction Modeling Geospatial technologies continued to play a key role in delivering together interdisciplinary subjects to improve awareness and provide intelligence for decision making to prepare and respond to natural disasters and accurate prediction of potential hazards. It plays a crucial role in risk assessment and vulnerability analysis by providing essential tools for the collection, investigation, and visualization of spatially reference datasets. It also aids in developing robust disaster management plans and identifying areas at maximum risk. Disaster management authorities make use of modeling, simulation, and visualization tools of geospatial data in successful knowledge generation and decision support procedure.

1.3.4 Post-disaster Recovery and Reconstruction Geospatial technologies contribute greatly to long-term recovery and construction during post-disaster. It helps in developing comprehensive plans for restoration of infrastructure that considers disaster resilience and environmental sustainability. It may be accomplished by the communities in a way to reduce the vulnerabilities in future for providing major resilience against disasters.

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1.4 Limitations With continuous development in earth observation, imagine technology, there is a boost in the application areas from regional to global scales including natural resource management, agricultural, forestry & wildlife, natural disaster and hazard management, decision making etc. However, as we delve into the realm of geospatial technologies, it is imperative to acknowledge the nuanced limitations that accompany their immense potential (Richardson et al. 2019).

1.4.1 Data Quality and Accuracy Incomplete or inaccurate data can compromise the reliability of analyses and decision-­making processes. Resolving this limitation necessitates concerted efforts in research and development to enhance data validation methods, implements real-­ time data updates, and establish stringent quality assurance protocols.

1.4.2 Technological Accessibility A significant challenge lies in the unequal access to advanced geospatial technologies among different communities and regions, resulting in a digital divide (Young et al. 2021). Future considerations should revolve around initiatives that bridge this technological gap, including the development of user-friendly interfaces, capacity-­ building programs, and policies aimed at ensuring equitable access.

1.4.3 Capacity Building and Education The effective application of geospatial technologies requires a skilled workforce, and the current landscape exhibits a gap in the availability of professionals with the necessary expertise (Sharma et al. 2022). Addressing this limitation requires collaboration between academic institutions, industry, and government in building a proficient geospatial workforce capable of leveraging the full potential of these technologies (Curtis 2019).

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1.4.4 Privacy and Ethical Concerns Geospatial data collection often involves sensitive information, raising legitimate concerns about privacy and ethical use. Development of robust ethical frameworks and privacy-preserving algorithms, accompanied by clear guidelines and regulations will ensure the responsible use of geospatial data (Armstrong and Ruggles 2006).

1.5 Future Scope In the ever-evolving landscape of geospatial technologies, the journey does not conclude with the acknowledgment of limitations; instead, it propels us towards a compelling exploration of the future scope.

1.5.1 Enhanced Data Resolution and Accuracy Advances in satellite technology and sensor capabilities present an opportunity for higher-resolution and more accurate geospatial data with cutting-edge sensor technologies and satellite systems.

1.5.2 Integration with Emerging Technologies The combination of geospatial technologies with emerging fields such as artificial intelligence and blockchain presents an opportunity to enhance analytical capabilities aiming to create innovative solutions addressing complex societal challenges (Kawasaki et al. 2013).

1.5.3 Ethical and Inclusive Practices Prioritizing ethical considerations to ensure geospatial technologies are deployed inclusively and without contributing to social inequalities is an opportunity. Future directions should involve research and policy development addressing issues of data bias, privacy, and community engagement, fostering ethical practices in the application of geospatial technologies.

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1.5.4 Continuous Education and Capacity Building Ongoing efforts to educate and train professionals require collaborative initiatives between academia, industry, and government focusing on continuous education programs, workshops, and capacity-building efforts to cultivate a skilled and dynamic workforce capable of navigating the evolving landscape of geospatial technologies. Finally, it can be remarked that as the technology continues to advance and we collect more accurate and detailed spatial data, the potential for geospatial technology to enhance resilience will continue to grow.

References Aitsi-Selmi A, Egawa S, Sasaki H, Wannous C, Murray V (2015) The Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction: renewing the global commitment to people’s resilience, health, and well-­ being. Int J Disaster Risk Sci 6:164–176 Armstrong MP, Ruggles AJ (2006) Geographic information technologies and personal privacy. Cartographica 40(4):63–73. https://doi.org/10.3138/RU65-­81R3-­0W75-­8V21 Bello, O., Bustamante, A., & Pizarro, P. (2021). Planning for disaster risk reduction within the framework of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development Bibri SE (2021) Data-driven smart sustainable cities of the future: an evidence synthesis approach to a comprehensive state-of-the-art literature review. Sustainable Futures 3:100047 Curtis MD (2019) Professional Technologies in Schools: the role of pedagogical knowledge in teaching with geospatial technologies. J Geogr 118(3):130–142. https://doi.org/10.108 0/00221341.2018.1544267 Ghosh S, Vidhata NKG, Kumar S, Midya K (2021) Seasonal contrast of land surface temperature in Faridabad: an urbanized district of Haryana, India. In: Tenedório J, Estanqueiro R, Henriques C (eds) Methods and applications of geospatial technology in sustainable urbanism. IGI Global, Hershey, pp 217–250. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-­1-­7998-­2249-­3.ch008 Kawasaki A, Berman ML, Guan W (2013) The growing role of web-based geospatial technology in disaster response and support. Disasters 37(2):201–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-­7717.2012.01302 Kumar S, Ghosh S, Singh S (2022a) Polycentric urban growth and identification of urban hot spots in Faridabad, the million-plus metropolitan city of Haryana, India: a zonal assessment using spatial metrics and GIS. Environ Dev Sustain 24(6):8246–8286. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10668-­021-­01782-­6 Kumar S, Midya K, Ghosh S, Singh S (2022b) Pixel-based vs. object-based anthropogenic impervious surface detection: driver for urban-rural thermal disparity in Faridabad, Haryana, India. Geocarto Int 37(25):8543–8566. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2021.2002429 Manfré LA, Hirata E, Silva JB, Shinohara EJ, Giannotti MA, Larocca APC, Quintanilha JA (2012) An analysis of geospatial technologies for risk and natural disaster management. ISPRS Int J Geo Inf 1(2):166–185 Orimoloye IR, Belle JA, Ololade OO (2021) Exploring the emerging evolution trends of disaster risk reduction research: a global scenario. Int J Environ Sci Technol 18:673–690 Paunga F, Lassa J (2020) Setting an agenda for entrepreneurial governments: a global baseline assessment of disaster risk reduction investment. Int J Disaster Manag 30(1):36–52 Rai PK, Mishra VN, Singh P (2022) Geospatial technology for landscape and environmental management: sustainable assessment and planning. Springer, Singapore

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Richardson M, Jacoby D, Coady Y (2019) Retrofitting realities: affordances and limitations in porting an interactive geospatial visualization from augmented to virtual reality. In: 2018 IEEE 9th annual information technology, electronics and mobile communication conference, IEMCON 2018, pp 1081–1087. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEMCON.2018.8614978 Samarakkody A, Amaratunga D, Haigh R (2023) Technological innovations for enhancing disaster resilience in smart cities: a comprehensive urban Scholar’s analysis. Sustainability 15(15):12036 Shankar B, Ghosh S, Mishra VN, Kumari M, Singh U (2023) Flood detection and flood mapping using multi-temporal synthetic aperture radar and optical data. In: Rai PK (ed) Advances in water resource planning and sustainability. Advances in geographical and environmental sciences. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­981-­99-­3660-­1_8 Sharma V, Ghosh S, Bilal M, Dey S, Singh S (2021) Performance of MODIS C6. 1 dark target and deep blue aerosol products in Delhi national capital region, India: application for aerosol studies. Atmos Pollut Res 12(3):65–74 Sharma V, Ghosh S, Kumari M, Taloor AK, Singh S, Arola A, Devara PC (2022) Analysis and variation of the Maiac aerosol optical depth in underexplored urbanized area of National Capital Region, India. J Landsc Ecol 15(3):82–101. https://doi.org/10.2478/jlecol-­2022-­0019 Sharma V, Ghosh S, Dey S, Singh S (2023) Modelling PM2. 5 for data-scarce zone of northwestern India using multi linear regression and random forest approaches. Ann GIS 29(3):415–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475683.2023.2183523 Shayan NF, Mohabbati-Kalejahi N, Alavi S, Zahed MA (2022) Sustainable development goals (SDGs) as a framework for corporate social responsibility (CSR). Sustainability 14(3):1222 Sisto A, Vicinanza F, Campanozzi LL, Ricci G, Tartaglini D, Tambone V (2019) Towards a transversal definition of psychological resilience: a literature review. Medicina 55(11):745 Tomaszewski BM, Moore EA, Parnell K et al (2020) Developing a geographic information capacity (GIC) profile for disaster risk management under United Nations framework commitments. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 47:101638 Young SG, Datta J, Kar B, Huang X, Williamson MD, Tullis JA, Cothren J (2021) Challenges and limitations of geospatial data and analyses in the context of COVID-19. Springer, Cham, pp 137–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­72808-­3_8

Chapter 2

River Conservation and Water Resource Management J. L. Prameena Sheeja, N. Priyanka, and G. Bhaskaran

Abstract For living things to survive, water is necessary. The main sources of fresh water for agriculture, industry, and domestic use are rivers. They are crucial for the production of hydroelectric electricity. Today’s rivers are severely contaminated as a result of manmade factors that have an impact on the ecology. Reviewing the current state of rivers and the dangers posed by anthropogenic activity is the goal of the current study. Exploitation of natural resources is also a result of population growth. They examined trends in recent scientific literature publications and their perspective on the effects of human development on rivers. Pollution, climate change, acid rain, increased nutrient load, soil erosion, invasion of foreign species, etc. are the most significant anthropogenic threats. The future of the river ecology is seriously in jeopardy, thus it is crucial to put new environmental plans into action and keep an eye on them. Keywords Biodiversity · Sustainable development · Water quality · Climate-resilient nation

2.1

Introduction

The global freshwater ecosystem is sensitive to both the environment and human activity. The significance of lakes in the global biogeochemical cycle and their contribution to ecological balance are being recognized more and more. Water is the most precious resources and is necessary for all living beings to survive. Population expansion, urbanization, and industrialization all contribute to an increase in water J. L. Prameena Sheeja (*) SDNB Vaishnav College for Women, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India e-mail: [email protected] N. Priyanka · G. Bhaskaran Centre for Water Resources Management (CWRM), University of Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 S. Ghosh et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technology to Support Communities and Policy, Geotechnologies and the Environment 26, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52561-2_2

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demand. As a result, we are dealing with a number of issues, including a decrease in water resources and a declining groundwater level (Kumar et al. 2023). Due to the introduction of pollutants into the water bodies, the quality of the surface and groundwater is declining. Climate change has an impact on how water resources are distributed as well (Nistor et al. 2020). Water is necessary for all living creatures to both exist and cope with the issues associated with general water scarcity. There are various ways to conserve water, including educating the public, installing rainwater harvesting infrastructure, connecting rivers, etc. (Rai et al. 2017, 2018). It is essential to plan the cropping pattern by avoiding crops that need a lot of water and to practice agriculture based on the availability of water. Water can be saved by using drip irrigation, and some crops can thrive on less water. This helps farmers produce a high output while reducing excessive water loss from agriculture. This helps to protect water resources and use them wisely in a sustainable way (Mani et al. 2022). Understanding the impacts of anthropogenic activities on the watershed is made easier to study on water and sediment assessments carried out by Vieira et al. (2022) on water and silt samples from southern Brazil. The study of microbiological and physical-chemical processes as well as heavy metals like lead, Cadmium, Zinc, Copper, Nickel and Chromium were carried out. SQGs were also employed in the study to calculate the Ecological Risk Potential, Enrichment Factor, Geo accumulation Index, and Water Quality Index (TEL and PEL). The results raised concerns about how well these plants are able to clean the water samples because they revealed that all of the study’s water samples were polluted with faecal and total coliforms. Pesticide levels in the water are undetectable and are in the following order: Copper > Zinc > Chromium > Nickel > Lead > Cadmium. The water of Lakshmi Narayana Temple, Kachabeshwarar Temple, and Thamarai Kulam Pond was in the good category as per class C regulations, according to Perumal and Gopalsamy (2020). Due to anthropogenic activities, runoff, etc., the temple pond’s water quality index rating is low. The correlation and regression analysis revealed a substantial positive association between total dissolved solids and chloride and sulphate. Some of the metrics, which indicate the many sources of pollution, do not significantly correlate with one another. It is expected that all of the water in the temple pond is suitable for fish farming without requiring any further treatment and that, with the proper care, it may be consumed. The distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus in the Three Gorges Reservoir as well as the effects of sediment adsorption and desorption on nitrogen and phosphorous were examined by Wenjie et  al. in 2020. The current study looked into the relationship between sediment nitrogen and phosphorus content. The main cause of the spatiotemporal distribution of nitrogen and phosphorus has been proven to be sedimentation. The Three Gorges Reservoir in China’s soil and silt has been characterized as being heavily polluted with heavy metals by Wang et al. (2016). The last several decades have seen significant changes in aquatic habitats as a result of pollution causing activities. Using 12 physicochemical characteristics over the course of 3 years, from 2017 to 2019, Sharma et al. (2020) computed the Yamuna River’s water quality index in Uttarakhand. Using the numerous inspection stations

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set up by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), India, the values of the physico-chemical parameters under consideration have been tracked. The Yamuna River in Dehradun was quite contaminated, according to the water quality index research conducted there during the year 2017. Plans for construction and upkeep were put into action to restore the Yamuna River’s cleanliness and raise the water quality index. Attempts were attempted to resuscitate the 350  km long Hindon River by Bhatnagar et al. in 2017 since it is slowly dying from heavy pollution and extensive water abstraction. The analysis utilized the already available information on water quality and combined it with basin level elements like the basin’s water budget, the effects of using irrigation water imported from neighbouring basins, and the pervasive growth of crops that consume a lot of water, such sugarcane. Using field observations, primary research, and data at the basin level, the study produced radically divergent recommendations for protecting the river. The basin-level conservation strategy demonstrated how the river’s health and the basin’s environmental stability are interdependent. Ameeth Basha et  al. (2016) collected water samples from several Chinna Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu localities and studied various water quality indicators. Effects of urban sewage, agricultural runoff, and dyeing effluents on water quality have been researched. The importance of Kanchipuram is that it is a developing city due to its temples, silk industry, and textile industry. This study demonstrated how to identify the physical and chemical characteristics of water samples. Because of the topography, the groundwater was first hard and alkaline. In order to estimate the pollutant load, the evaluated data were compared to the benchmark values. According to the findings, the majority of the water samples fell within a few characteristics of the water quality guidelines. In an effort to shed light on the best course of action for restoring Mathura’s ailing Yamuna River, Bhargava (2006) came to the conclusion that solid waste collection and disposal, along with domestic, industrial, and agricultural activities, are the main causes of the river’s pollution. The problem is exacerbated by widespread river bathing, exposed feces, and the dumping of deceased animals. The management of the collection and disposal of the city’s garbage is neither effective nor scientific. Due to a culture of poor hygiene, indiscipline, and ignorance, the general population is also to blame. According to the study’s conclusions, there is a genuine need to raise public awareness, and avoiding people who are untrained in environmental technology can speed up the cleaning of the Yamuna River.

2.2 Environmental Impacts In India, embankments have long been used as flood prevention measures. The old embankments that private persons built to safeguard their farms are proof of this. Government interest in the issue peaked throughout the past century, mostly due to the inadequacy of private efforts in the field of flood management. As a result,

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several carefully planned embankments were built on several of the rivers that were often causing flood damage. These steps mostly served to protect the controlled sections of northern India’s canal networks and the deltaic stretches of east flowing rivers in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. According to Assireu et al. (2022), the quality of rivers and watersheds is declining due to an increase in anthropogenic activity. The previous century has seen a sharp expansion in human technological and engineering capacity, which has harmed the rivers. These measures had harmful effects on rivers and watersheds and were highly detrimental. He wrote review papers on a variety of subjects, including the evaluation of ongoing watershed restoration initiatives (Flitcroft et  al. 2022; Macedo et al. 2022; Neeson et al. 2022), as well as the proposal of novel, efficient restoration strategies (Kaushal et al. 2022; Pennock et al. 2022). By reducing erosion and silting, it is crucial to link watershed sediments with watershed restoration (Kaushal et al. 2022; Rai et al. 2017). In a research published in 2022, Macedo et al. looked at restoration projects that had been carried out at three urban stream locations in the Brazilian city and were rated successful in terms of socio environmental improvement after 10 years. The test sites were employed to collect samples during pre-intervention (2004–2007), early post–intervention (2008–2011) and late post–intervention (2018–2019) periods to look at water quality, physical habitat structure, and benthic macro invertebrate assemblages. They added three reference stream locations (for the years 2018–2019), and they discussed how people felt about the interventions. It was also discovered that throughout a 10-year period, there were notable improvements in measurements of water quality, minor enhancements in physical habitat and macro invertebrate indicators, and elevated social awareness of environmental changes among the population. The riparian and estuarine ecosystems that depend on yearly flood cycles are negatively impacted by the shifting flows of all rivers. Man-made dams are perceived as long-lasting landscape features that might cause this alteration, despite the fact that successful dam removal has been occurring as part of international efforts at restoration (Chenoweth et al. 2022). Perumal and Gopalsamy (2020) investigated how environmental changes affected the water quality of ponds in Kanchipuram. The goal of the study is to assess the temple pond’s water quality by taking into account elements like pH, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, chlorides, sulfates, iron, and total coliforms. Inland water tolerance limits from ISI-IS: 2296- 1982 standards are compared to the results. The water in the temple pond was found using the water quality index. To ascertain the relationship between the parameters affecting water quality, a statistical study on correlation and regression analysis is conducted. The water quality index of temple ponds are ranges from extremely good to very poor. All measured metrics, with the exception of dissolved oxygen, were found to be within the acceptable range. The study revealed that the pond water is not suitable for drinking and can be used for fish culture. In her 2019 study, Anderson examined how rivers connect people, places, and other types of life, fostering and supporting a variety of cultural notions, beliefs, and

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ways of living. We can better understand the beneficial relationships between river flows and people by using the concept of environmental flows as a framework. It highlights the diversity and interdependencies of human flow relationships, such as those that are assessed and negotiated in respect to the interconnections between river flow and human well-being, spiritual needs, cultural identity, and environmental flows. Future assessments of environmental flow must be centered on this knowledge of the variety of approaches to understanding, relating to, and using rivers. Freshwater is the most essential component for life and is essential for the health of ecosystems. In an effort to draw attention to river systems in India, Sinha et al. (2013) noted rivers as an essential supply of freshwater and the constantly rising demands on society. Water security and biodiversity are threatened by river degradation. Most river management initiatives in India have focused primarily on water allocation and water quality, with little or no effort put into river rehabilitation. By anticipating future demands, it is vital to take fresh water into account as a finite resource. Between 1950 and 1990, more than Rs. 2700 crores were spent, but the flood problem and the area affected by floods have gotten worse. It is crucial to implement sustainable river management since the Himalayan River systems are a crucial source of freshwater. River systems in India were highlighted by Sinha et  al. (2013), who also discussed how important rivers are as a supply of freshwater and the rising demands on civilization. Threats to biodiversity and water security result from river degradation. In India, the majority of river management initiatives have focused primarily on water allocation and water quality, with little attention paid to river rehabilitation. It is important to think of fresh water as a finite resource when projecting future demands. The flood problem and the area impacted by floods in India have grown significantly despite investing more than Rs. 2700 crores between 1950 and 1990. As a crucial source of freshwater supply, the Himalayan river systems must practise sustainable river management. In their review article from 2000, Dinesh Kumar and Ballabh examined the water issues, new problems, and management difficulties in India. In the coming decades, there will be an increase in demand for water due to population development, particularly in metropolitan areas. Due to surface water pollution and groundwater degradation, water resources are still being depleted. Human activities have deteriorated coastal waters, polluted rivers, and diminished fisheries (Bernhardt et al. 2005).

2.3 River Rejuvenation The drought is brought on by a lack of precipitation over a prolonged length of time, which causes a shortage of water, according to varied long-term circumstances of balance between precipitation and evapo- transpiration in a particular place. It is frequently accompanied by other climatic conditions that can greatly induce its intensity, including high temperatures, strong winds, and low relative humidity.

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In order to build a robust and secure economic foundation, especially in the country’s dry and drought-prone regions, water management and conservation measures are now more important than ever. Kaushal et al. (2022) examined the experience of securing river flows using irrigation water in their case study of the Karula River in the Ganga. In order to address the declining river flows brought on by water use for irrigation (80%), domestic and industrial use, as well as other uses (20%), a cooperative effort involving farmers, the Irrigation and Water Resources Department, local government, and a conservation organization sought to increase flows in the Karula River in the Ganga. The importance of environmental conservation and river conservation programmes in promoting people’s health was emphasized by Mathers et al. in their study from 2022. Regulations for river conservation efforts must be developed by the local government policies, and river functions must be maintained by river conservation policy. As a means of preserving the environment, specific regulation products in the form of regional regulations must be created for river conservation programmes. By restoring a system to its “Stage 0 condition,” as suggested by Flitcroft et al. in 2022, rehabilitation efforts would be redirected towards process-based restoration, such as reconnecting rivers with their floodplains by lowering sediment, water and nutrient flows to promote lateral and vertical connectivity at base flows. This tactic renders traditional monitoring techniques that focus on single-thread channels inadequate to capture the pre- and post-project site conditions, inspiring the development of cutting-edge monitoring techniques. Neeson et al. in 2022 looked at the financing and participation trends for five freshwater conservation programmes in the US. The authors emphasized important differences between young programmes, which could develop exponentially or logistically, and older programmes, which normally grow more slowly. Changes in legislation that generates new funding sources, shifting priorities, programme management changes that align it with new funding sources, and increases in individuals are only a few exogenous and internal elements that may have an impact on participation in mature programmes. Changes in programming, according to him are windows of opportunity for carefully refocusing conservation efforts to make the most of recently created resources. In 2022, Pennock and colleagues analyzed the conditions needed for desert river capes to be effectively conserved. It is important to research the various impacts of rising human water demand, ongoing drought, introduction of non-native species, and climate change. For the protection and rehabilitation of river cliffs to be successful, it is crucial to emphasize the natural flows and significant floods. The study recommended broad-reaching solutions for protecting in Stream flows, increasing the amount of water available each year, and working with nature by implementing low-tech process-based tactics such flow reduction and channel narrowing caused by vegetation. According to Chang and Ghani (2022), increased urbanization hastens the consequences of anthropogenic development activities’ changes in land use and land cover in river catchment areas, which result in higher surface runoff and more sediment discharge. The analysis of channel alterations and sediment transport

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phenomena, including bed material transfer from upstream to the estuaries, is focused on the Pahang River Basin in Peninsula Malaysia. Very coarse sand and gravel made up the majority of the sediment distribution size in the Pahang River following the flood in December 2014. A study of river geometry revealed that a moderate slope can result in a lesser flow than is often seen in alluvial rivers during flood events. Hence, a quantitative evaluation of sediment load will be crucial for managing future river basins. Trivedi and Awasthi (2021) investigated the drop in river flow and drying that is seen in sub catchments and watersheds during non-monsoon seasons. The construction of dams and the usage of water for agriculture are the main causes of rivers losing water. Climate change changes the patterns of rainfall, which causes more evaporation and a decrease in river flow. The need for fresh water rises along with population growth is alarming. One of the most well-known fields of applied water resources science is river restoration, which encourages basic river research to fill knowledge gaps that prevent successful restoration. Policies, tactics, and plans at the project, national, and international levels can all be combined to assist river restoration. Regulations must be in place in order to sustain the results of river restoration. Sutrisno et al. (2020) made the case that today’s human life is challenged by river conservation. All elements of the biological structure in river areas must be avoided when the river ecosystem is in a damaged state. As a developing nation, Indonesia has made attempts to optimize its natural resources in order to meet local economic demands. Poverty contributes to the deterioration of the quality of the river environment, and efforts are made to maintain the quality of the river conditions through legal procedures and institutional coordination through oversight in order to preserve the river’s ecosystem. Seeteram et al.’s research on the United Republic of Tanzania, a country rich in freshwater resources and biodiversity, was conducted in 2019. This highlights the importance of rivers and demonstrates why it’s important to safeguard the freshwater and terrestrial species that rely on them. The key problems that seriously jeopardize the water security for river ecosystems and humans include human population growth, agricultural development, changes in river flow, industrialization, invasive species, and climate change. The significance of freshwater systems and their biota has to be widely and amply understood. Bringing attention to the importance of freshwater habitats, particularly rivers, for the survival of animals, could be a starting point for raising awareness and educating the general public. In 2017, Goswami worked on a seven-year river revitalization project with the goal of reviving the River Kumudavathi by replenishing groundwater. Throughout the entire river basin, which spans two districts like Bangalore Rural and Ramanagar, 18 mini-watersheds were designed. To maintain water even in the middle of the summer and increase groundwater potential in the nearby wells, water ponds have been constructed along the streams. The last three summers, the water level has not decreased. In order to boost soil moisture, boulder checks have been placed across stream routes to slow down water flow and hold the water longer for percolation. An essential component of the strategy was to plant trees along the river’s course to control soil erosion.

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In their 2017 study, Tiwale et al. evaluated the Manjra River rejuvenation project that was carried out in Latur, Maharashtra in 2016 under the leadership of Art of Living and RSS Jankalyan Samiti. He evaluated the expansion and deepening of the Manjra River to quench the thirst of Latur city by looking at the hydrology of the basin. The analysis showed that the revitalization of the Manjra River has not increased the amount of drinking water available to the city of Latur even slightly, leaving all efforts useless. It also analysed the project’s contribution to its intended purpose. After such massive work that was deemed successful and even after a good monsoon that saw 21% more rainfall than usual in Marathwada, Latur city was receiving water. Ad hoc or small-scale river restoration operations are unlikely to be able to address these obstacles, according to Speed et al. (2016) study on the difficulties of modern river restoration. The complex and dynamic nature of river ecosystems calls for a systems-based approach that takes into account the physical, socio-economic, political, and cultural facets of the interconnected river and human systems. The relationships among external factors, watershed and river processes, river health, the supply of ecological services, and social priorities must be recognized and addressed in restoration plans. Policies, strategies, and project-level plans, such as river basin, development, and conservation plans, can all be used to promote river restoration. The community-driven approach to artificial recharge using traditional water gathering techniques was described by Singh (2016). He emphasized that mobilizing civil society and the community for action on natural resource management and conservation for rural upliftment is the greatest strategy to safeguard the environment and ensure the farmers in Indian villages a prosperous future. Local people used traditional water gathering techniques to revitalize a nearby river, rehydrate the groundwater, and regreen a community. The development of water harvesting talabs led to an increase in the shallow aquifer’s water level, an increase in the area planted in single and double crops, and an increase in the amount of forest cover thanks to social forestry and agroforestry. In their presentation of 20 river restoration cases from across Europe, Muhar et al. (2016) quantified the effect of restoration on ecosystem services such as the provision of agricultural products, wood, infiltrated drinking water, regulation of flooding, nutrient retention, carbon sequestration, and recreational hunting and fishing, kayaking, biodiversity conservation, and appreciation of scenic landscapes services. The findings demonstrated a large increase in ecosystem services, over and beyond considerable variability, which was primarily brought about by cultural and regulating functions. Wohl et al. (2015) examined the challenges associated with putting restoration into practice and concentrated on the approaches employed by contemporary practitioners, such as having clearly defined objectives, a thorough grasp of rivers as ecosystems, and the role of restoration as a social activity. Additionally, it examined challenges for scientific understanding in river restoration related to physical complexity supporting biogeochemical function, stream metabolism, stream ecosystem productivity, characterizing response curves of different river components, understanding sediment dynamics, and increasing understanding of the significance of

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incorporating climate change considerations and resiliency into restoration planning. According to Grill et al. (2015), 41% of the water used for irrigation around the world is used at the expense of ecological integrity requirements, which are described as “the quantity, timing, and quality of freshwater flows and levels necessary to sustain aquatic ecosystems that, in turn, support human cultures, economies, sustainable livelihoods, and well-being” by Arthington et al. (2018). According to Van Alphen and River (2000), current river management is centred in large part on limiting natural dynamics through beneficial interventions like groynes and permanent beds. It is determined that it necessitates significant financial outlays, ongoing expenses, and the rehabilitation of the natural environment. This necessitates a deep comprehension of the sizes and edges of natural river dynamics and how they interact with interventions. The co-operation of floodplain authorities and management organizations is necessary to attain these goals, and doing so will necessitate knowledge presentation, decision-making, and negotiation skills. It has also been noted that decision support systems are crucial tools for the future river management. Using several types of intelligent algorithms, Karami et al. (2022) envisioned a revolutionary method for calculating sediment loads in dam reservoirs. River flow, sediment concentration, and temperature are the input data while sediment load is the output data. Their findings indicate a strong association between sediment concentration and discharge and sediment rate, but a weak correlation between the two. Sensitivity analysis, the traditional Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS), and evolutionary algorithms were all used in the modelling. The performance of ANFIS in estimating the amount of silt in the catchment area can be improved by the introduction of intelligent algorithms. The Himalayan region, which is particularly vulnerable due to its fragility and is of growing concern to environmentalists and planners of natural resources, was the subject of a study by Kumar et  al. in (2023). The study of the Mandakini River Basin is located in the centre of the Garhwal Himalayan region, which has a significant risk of soil erosion because of a number of hydro-geomorphological elements. Precipitous slope, geology, rough terrain, land usage, and drainage pattern are some of the contributing elements. The study basin’s erosion-prone areas were thus identified using weighted sum analysis (WSA), sediment production rate (SPR), and Technique of Order Preference Similarity to the Ideal Solution with Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP-TOPSIS) models in conjunction with geographic information systems and remote sensing. It is estimated using a variety of characteristics, including shape, landscape, and linear parameters. The central Himalayan Mandakini river basin’s sub-watersheds (SW) were all given varied levels of priority for all models with model performance. Except for high erosion-prone locations, the results are nearly identical. According to the SPR model’s findings, 23 sub watersheds in the north central, eastern, and southern regions of the basin experience very severe erosion in very broad areas. AHP-TOPSIS is the most effective model for determining soil erodibility, according to the results of the model evaluation. The research can assist in making accurate decisions to develop a framework for soil erosion management strategies and to promote soil conservation goals.

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In an experiment conducted in the Flinta River, Central Poland, concentrated on changes in hydro-morphological conditions in a small low land river observed during the experiment. On the riverbed, a row of three plant basket hydraulic structures was set up, and over the course of 3 years, a number of hydraulic data were recorded. The weighted sum analysis (WSA), sediment production rate (SPR), and Technique of Order Preference Similarity to the Ideal Solution with Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP-TOPSIS) models, along with geographic information systems and remote sensing, were used to identify the study basin’s erosion-prone areas. The installation of vegetative sediment traps revealed the presence of plant debris deposition that affected the hydrodynamics of flow. Several hydro morphological processes were also started in the river. Additional simulations showed that the proposed plant basket hydraulic structures can enhance the river’s hydro morphological condition. Ahmed Barakat et  al. (2018) used images from the Sentinel-2A MSI and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer that were acquired in 2001 and 2015, respectively, to quantify the changes in the Eastern region of the Béni-Mellal province using the supervised classification algorithm and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). The paper claims that changes in land usage have led to an increase in the amount of forest area. Demissie et  al. (2017) evaluated LULC changes and their causes in the Libokemkem District of South Gonder, Ethiopia, using Landsat data from 1973 to 2015. According to their investigation, about 60.1% of the LULC had altered over the course of 42 years. de Waroux and Lambin (2012) examined forest changes in argan forests (Morocco) using aerial photographs and satellite pictures taken between 1970 and 2007. They found that the forest density decreased by 44.5% over the study period. To ascertain the impact of depth decay and porosity on groundwater age, XiaoWei Jiang et al. (2010) conducted a study using a numerical simulation technique. The groundwater age distribution in the study was numerically approximated by solving the two-dimensional steady state groundwater flow and age transport equations for simple restricted rectangular basins. The results demonstrated that the depth-­ declining hydraulic conductivity and porosity contribute to simultaneous groundwater ageing and rejuvenation in basins with topographically driven water flow. While the area of the rejuvenated zones and the relative age of groundwater at the lowest discharge point both decrease, the highest relative age in the basin increases with the decay exponent. The effects of depth-declining hydraulic conductivity and porosity were taken into consideration when interpreting the ages and residence times of subsurface fluids and surface waters fed by discharge from regional basins like springs, lakes, rivers, and wetlands, even though this was not done in the majority of earlier studies. Hammi et  al. (2010) used aerial photographs taken in the Azilal province of Morocco in 1964 and Spot 5 satellite images from 2002 to study land cover changes in the at Bouguemez Valley, which is situated in the Central High Atlas Mountains. They discovered that over the previous 38 years, there had been a relative loss of 20.7% of the total forest area and 8.7% of the mean canopy cover, which had an

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impact on forest ecosystems. Using multi-temporal Landsat TM data, Yuan et al. (2005) mapped and monitored land cover change in the seven county Twin Cities Metropolitan Region of Minnesota during 1986, 1991, 1998, and 2002. Wetland, forest, and agricultural land decreased from 69.6% to 60.5% between 1986 and 2002, while urban land increased from 23.7% to 32.8% of the total area.

2.4 Sustainable Development There are many obstacles in the way of developing a sustainable, equitable, and effective management of India’s water resources. Developing sustainable water management plans is significantly hampered by the lack of proper scientific data about the quantity and quality of water, the demand for water in various industries, and the nature, severity, and causes of water problems. The development of technically workable, economically viable, ecologically sound, and socially acceptable water management solutions is not happening, despite advances in water technology. The interlinking of rivers was researched by Srinivas et al. in (2022) in order to promote the equitable and sustainable distribution and use of water resources. Many water resource planning and management stakeholders have varying, ambiguous, and opposing perspectives on the interlinking rivers approach and its results. It benefits the nation’s economic prosperity, yet there is rising worry about the detrimental effects on the environment. Watershed planners throughout the world require a decision support system to efficiently plan the implementation of interlinking of rivers projects in order to ensure sustainable development. In 2018, Zhang et al. researched China’s river basin management. The Earth’s whole biosphere is supported by its abundant supply of water. Rejuvenating aquatic ecosystems and their supporting roles as well as guaranteeing the sustainable development of basins depend on the coordinated management of water resources. The management of water resources in river basins in China has been the subject of numerous studies, but the available information is quite scant. The improvement of the aquatic ecosystem and its critical importance to human life must be the main goals of China’s river basin water resource management. Understanding ecosystem services begins with classifying their many functions. The study of classification schemes for ecosystem services provides a crucial basis for understanding aquatic ecosystems, which is crucial for managing water resources. Even though the classification scheme for aquatic ecosystems in watersheds has not yet been finalized, it is currently more extensive and systematic. According to Youssef and Ali (2017) neglecting rivers might be one of the major factors in a city’s demise, whereas restoring rivers is crucial for human survival and growth. He put out a plan to resurrect the vanished rivers. Formerly dirty, the Beirut River in Lebanon is now used for investments, tourism, and other activities that improve the city’s quality of life. In response to comments from residents of the neighbourhood surrounding the Beirut River, solutions have been developed to resurrect neglected waterways by establishing cultural activities along their banks.

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Rehabilitating the abandoned river and transforming it into a sustainable basin could change the city’s identity. Everard (2016) launched a successful community-based groundwater recharge effort in three local catchments, including the Arvari, Sarsa, and Baghani in the semi-arid north of Rajasthan, India, in order to understand how successes were reached and could be replicated. They recreated the traditional village administrative structures and took part in the creation and upkeep of water harvesting systems that were technically and economically effective. Thanks to the appropriate, integrated social and technological solutions preserving this beneficial cycle, the environmental quality and the wellbeing of the local community have both increased. Shashank Shekhar (2016) emphasized the environmental flow evaluation and came to the conclusion that environmentally sustainable river resource development is urgently needed. The benefits of the river ecosystem will be available to humanity for many generations with the help of a process-based understanding of the river environment. The notion of environmental flow aids in determining the growth of river resources within sustainable bounds. The restoration of environmental flow within the river system is a necessary step in the process of river rejuvenation, and planners and policymakers must incorporate this idea into their plans for the development of water resources. A number of initiatives, including the river’s course from Gangotri to Diamond Harbor, were highlighted by Vyas (2016). According to his analysis, the Ganga receives contaminants, and their quantity is cyclically rising. As a result, new sewage treatment facilities must be built in order to clean the river. In addition to this riverside development, the cleaning programme will be made easier. In 24 cities where the river pollution level is high, the Madhya Pradesh government has planned a scheme to set up water plants and sewage treatment plants. The government suggested using the treated water for industry, fire protection, and agriculture. The department of town and country planning will carry out the projects. 14 places along the Narmada River will be cleaned as part of the government’s plan, however the other places are situated on rivers like Betwa, Shivna, Mandakini, Parvati etc. Singh (2015) carried out a ground-breaking study on the water cycle and management in the dry desert, a natural laboratory from which he gained “enlightenment” on community driven integrated water management and established the harmony between water, people, and the environment. Communities in the Alwar district of western Rajasthan’s Arwari River basin successfully tried this watershed management strategy. A notable success of the Project was the restoration of the five dry rivers in the Arwari basin, Ruparel, Arvari, Sarsa, Bhagani, and Jahajwali, to perennial flows by the construction of 11,000 water harvesting facilities and artificial recharge. The Yamuna River, which originates in the Himalayas and is the greatest tributary of the Ganga River, into which it empties at Allahabad, was the subject of a 2009 study by Gopal and Sah. Intense agriculture and burgeoning industrial activities are both present in the heavily populated Yamuna drainage basin. The river flow depends on very unpredictable monsoonal rainfall because a large portion of the basin is semi-arid. Dams and barrages have thus been used to control the river and

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its tributaries for agricultural and domestic water supply for more than a century. Untreated home and industrial wastewater discharges have put the river system under growing anthropogenic stress. Specifically from Delhi to Agra, residential and industrial effluents significantly contaminate the River Yamuna. After their confluence near Etawah, the larger inflow of the River Chambal aids the River Yamuna in partially recovering. The Yamuna River’s water quality has rapidly declined over the past 30 years, fisheries have disappeared and the biotic communities have undergone substantial changes, according to studies of the river’s biota conducted along its length. According to Witter et al. (2006), basin management has taken the place of river management in recent years due to climate change and the requirement for sustainable water systems. The four primary difficulties caused by the transition are: establishing an effective regional administration that acts as a network authority; enhancing collaboration with other water managers; enhancing efficiency and achieving goals at minimal expense and communicating openly. His study describes how water managers attempt to address the problems and particular focus is placed on the requirement for improved coordination between environmental and water policies.

2.5 Climate: Resilient Nation Water management and conservation are crucial because India is one of the nations affected by climate change and is experiencing water stress. Over the past century, most of Asia has experienced warming trends and an increase in temperature extremes. Most climate change concerns, such as floods, droughts, and cyclones, are related to water. Water scarcity and worries about water quality are anticipated to be key challenges for most countries in the region in the near future as a result of growing water demand and poor management. The signals as observations from the globe are continuously being captured on the multi-date remote sensing satellite photos. Watershed delineation, groundwater table fluctuations, water quality, other spectral indices related to water resource analysis, the spatiotemporal distributions of surface water and ground water, the morphometric analysis, interactions between surface and ground water, potential evapotranspiration (PET), and the analysis of water mask data. Water resources are being contaminated by home and industrial wastes as a result of the increased urbanisation, which causes water-borne illnesses. Increasing water demands result in interstate conflicts and agricultural losses since there is insufficient irrigation of the land. Due to poor management and administration by local stakeholders, the water resources are either heavily exploited or polluted. In addition to regularly replenishing and conserving water supplies, monitoring and controlling demand is highly advised for sustainable growth. Remote sensing will be used to monitor the quantity and quality of water resources, which will produce more accurate results that will be applied to the decision-making process in a number of areas, including

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the assessment of the risk of drought, food security, water scarcity, flood risk zones, floor space index (FSI), and reconnaissance drought index (RDI). Applications of remote sensing to water resources aim to study hydrology, meteorology, and agronomy. For the purpose of conserving water resources, the geospatial database is utilised to quantify and examine water quality factors (Priyanka et al. 2023). India is ranked seventh among the most vulnerable nations for 2019 in the Global Climate Risk Index. Millions of people in India are anticipated to live in climate hotspots by 2050. The majority of people lack access to potable water, while desertification and land degradation have an influence on Indian territories. Groundwater resources for irrigation are running out, and surface water is polluted. Most Indian residents live in rural areas that are heavily dependent on rainfall and lack effective irrigation facilities. Enhancing the planning and financial mechanism for sustainable water management and showcasing climate-resilient water management practices are imperative. Starting at the ridge, it is our responsibility to save every drop of water and significantly lower the volume of surface runoff and water velocity. This makes it possible to better manage the flow of water from the ridge to the valley and ensures the effectiveness, economic stability, and longevity of soil and water conservation projects farther downstream. Remote sensing, Geo-Information-Systems (GIS), and non-spatial data on land, water, soil, forests, climates, plants, and pastoral resources are all used in the planning process. The goal is to reduce soil erosion while increasing rainfall gathering, conservation and land productivity. For overall climate resilience, sustainable water management, which includes the preservation of healthy ecosystems, is essential. It is imperative to make sure that both natural and human systems can adapt to changing conditions, deal with extreme future events, and change during times of crisis. It is therefore necessary to manage water resources in an integrated manner that balances the needs of ecosystems and humans while also considering the effects of climate change in the future. This applies to not only the immediate needs of the water sector, such as storage, supply, and sanitation, but also to other sectors that rely on the availability and quality of water resources. This is accomplished by combining data on local climate change, creating a system to track impacts, and using creative methods for managing water, land, and plants holistically. The use of agro-ecological and sustainable agricultural practices increases the climate-resilience of rural areas in India and lessens the negative effects of climate change on the water sector. Global cooperation is needed to address the climate problem and pave the road for a sustainable future.

2.6 Conclusion By bringing together the most recent research from around the world on river and watershed restoration, rehabilitation, and conservation, this research topic hopes to identify critical knowledge gaps and set clear goals for further study and action. A framework must be offered in order to establish an integrated, systems perspective

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on these complex, varied and socially produced environmental concerns. Due to the growing anthropogenic pressures that are harming aquatic ecosystems and water quality around the world, river and watershed restoration is becoming an increasingly difficult environmental task. Rivers have been severely harmed and heavily controlled as a result, freshwater biodiversity is diminishing, and essential ecological services are being lost. These human activities and disturbances have a more harmful impact on watersheds and rivers than was ever imagined. Regrettably, human activities have affected watersheds all over the world, resulting in innumerable rivers being restricted and polluted, as well as many coastal areas having habitat degradation or declining fisheries. In conjunction with local/regional river managers, a physically sound framework for management strategies for river rehabilitation and conservation would then be used. Regulations must be in place to safeguard the advantages of river restoration and keep them from being eroded by activities within the basin, such as upcoming development, in order to sustain the results of river restoration. In light of this, this study provides some of the revitalization efforts made both in India and overseas in light of river conservation and water resource management.

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Chapter 3

Morphometric Analysis for Prioritizing Sub-watersheds of the Chulband River Basin, India, Using Geospatial Techniques Padala Raja Shekar and Aneesh Mathew

Abstract Prioritizing watersheds is becoming more crucial for the preservation of natural resources, especially when it comes to watershed planning. Watershed delineation and prioritization within a broad river basin are necessary for proper natural resource planning and management for long-term development. This chapter was conducted to examine the characteristics of the watershed and the morphology of the river in the Chulband River Basin. The morphometric analysis can be obtained by utilizing geospatial techniques. The importance of quantitative watershed parameters, including shape, linear, and relief, has been considered, and to rank and prioritise sub-watersheds (SWs), 20 morphometric aspects were chosen. The three, four, and six sub-watersheds are ranked as having a high priority, while the two others, SW1 and SW5, are ranked as having a medium priority, and SW2 is ranked as having a low priority. This study’s results serve as a valuable tool for identifying regions with high levels of soil erosion. The Chulband River basin’s high-priority subwatersheds could implement water and soil conservation measures. Keywords Chulband · Morphometric analysis · GIS · RS

3.1

Introduction

A watershed is a geographical and hydrological region that collects and channels run-off water to a common point, typically determined by the presence of ridges and gullies. A watershed in hydrology is a region from which runoff water flows into a particular location within a system of drainage (Clarke 1966). Due to the predictable flow of water, a watershed is an ideal unit for implementing activities related to

P. R. Shekar (*) · A. Mathew Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 S. Ghosh et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technology to Support Communities and Policy, Geotechnologies and the Environment 26, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52561-2_3

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water management (Yadav et al. 2014). The watershed approach, focuses on management, optimal planning, and development, aiming to utilize all-natural resources for effective development and improved quality of life (Singh et al. 2014). The development of a drainage system and its flow patterns, both spatially and temporally, are influenced by numerous variables, including shape, hydrogeological setting, physiography, land use, size, and soil erosion zones (Horton 1945). In the past, many researchers focused on individual channel, treating them as standalone units, without considering the entire watershed. This method entailed measuring geographical parameters statistically, analysing the geometry of the surface mathematically, analysing the size and shape, and describing the drainage system quantitatively. Such characterizations of watersheds have been explored by authors (Kanhaiya et al. 2019; Strahler 1964; Sahu et al. 2014; Shekar and Mathew 2022a; Agarwal 1998; Rai et al. 2017). Several hydrological aspects, including slope, size, drainage density, and shape, can be correlated with the aspects (Magesh et al. 2012). Therefore, morphometric analyses play a crucial role in providing insights into the formation of different surface processes. These analyses involve measuring linear, aerial, and relief aspects to better understand the land’s surface (Shekar and Mathew 2022b; Banerjee et al. 2015; Rai et al. 2018). Researchers have used morphometric analyses to gain information related to the formation of land processes. Stream evaluation is also an essential part of morphometric analysis, involving the measurement of many river properties (Reddy et al. 2002). Traditionally, morphometric parameters used for drainage analysis were obtained from field surveys. These parameters are valuable due to their availability, simplicity, and cost-effectiveness. The data is in non-digital format, takes a lot of work to extract basin aspects. To overcome these limitations, the data is digitized to integrate it with remote sensing and GIS data. Because imagery from satellites offer a synoptic view of vast areas, RS approaches are especially practical for morphometric research. The rapid advancement of spatial information technologies, such as RS, and GIS has revolutionized water and soil resource management and planning, surpassing conventional approaches. Compared with traditional ground surveys, RS and GIS allow for the quick capture of comprehensive information about resources from broader basin areas (Singh and Kanhaiya 2015; Strahler 1957). Furthermore, morphometric aspects have been used for watershed prioritization, aiding in the identification of potential areas and zones prone to erosion (Jasmin and Mallikarjuna 2013). The incorporation of RS and GIS technologies has significantly enhanced the efficiency and accuracy of watershed analysis, facilitating a more comprehensive understanding of hydrological processes and enabling informed decision-making in resource management. Over the years, numerous researchers have studied the morphometric aspects of drainage basins and sub-basins in different regions worldwide using conventional methods. These studies have provided valuable insights into the physiographic settings of river basins. In recent times, researchers have also utilized GIS and RS approaches to analyse morphometric parameters (Mani et al. 2022). The integration of geospatial technologies allows for a comprehensive assessment of geo-­morphologic and geo-graphic features within a basin area. These features are important in the

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hydrological studies, including the assessment of groundwater potential and the identification of priority basin regions. By leveraging RS and GIS, researchers can effectively analyse morphometric characteristics and obtain a deeper understanding of the hydrological processes at play within a river basin (Sreedevi et al. 2013). The present chapter holds great significance in building a climate-resilient nation by prioritizing watersheds and identifying sub-watersheds for conservation measures. Through morphometric analysis and geospatial techniques, the study determines key watershed characteristics and ranks their importance. The findings serve as a valuable tool to address soil erosion and manage water resources effectively. The goal of this chapter was to assess the morphometric aspects of watersheds in the Chulband basin, India, in order to prioritize sub-watersheds (SWs) for effective management planning. To achieve this goal, the study utilized GIS and RS techniques.

3.2 Study Area The Chulband basin, located in the Maharashtra state of India. Spanning an area of around 1693 square kilometres, this basin is characterized by the presence of the Godavari River, which serves as its main river. The Godavari River is joined by the Pranhita River, which, in turn, receives water from its sub-tributary, the Wainganga River, as well as the local Chulband River. The Chulband watershed, specifically investigated in this study, is situated within the Maharashtra state of India (Fig. 3.1). The geographical coordinates of the catchment range from approximately 79° 45′ 0′′ to 80° 25′ 0′′ East longitude and 20° 45′ 0′′ to 21° 20′ 0′′ North latitude. The outlet of the watershed is located at 20° 54′ 44′′ North and 79° 55′ 40′′ East, precisely at the Salebardi site location.

3.3 Methods The study primarily concentrated on analysing the aerial, linear, and relief aspects or parameters of the SWs. Different processes were used to designate the watershed after the DEM data processing as shown in Fig. 3.2. These processes were carried out using ArcGIS 10.7 software. The sub-watersheds, referred to as SW1 to SW6, were classified based on their stream length, stream order, stream number, and watershed area through linear morphometric analysis. The study examined and categorized three groups of morphometric features or aspects or parameters or characteristics: linear, areal or shape, and relief aspect. Empirical techniques were used to assess these characteristics, as shown in Table 3.1. Following the calculation of all morphometric aspects or parameters, the subsequent step involved determining the rank of individual aspects for all SWs. The compound parameter (Cp) value was generated for each SW after the ranks for the various aspects within each sub-­watershed were determined. The SWs were classified into 3 groups: low,

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Fig. 3.1  Map of the Chulband Basin’s location

medium, high. This categorization provides an understanding of the relative importance or priority of each sub-watershed within the Chulband river basin based on their morphometric characteristics as shown in Fig. 3.2.

3.4 Results and Discussion In the case of the Chulband watershed, which consists of six sub-watersheds, morphometric analysis was conducted to evaluate and prioritize these SWs based on several criteria. These criteria encompass the areal, relief, and linear aspects of the basin. The analysis involved examining various parameters to gain a comprehensive understanding of the basin’s aspects.

3.4.1 Linear Parameters Stream Order (U) A categorization scheme for streams based on their placement within a hierarchical network was first proposed by Strahler in 1964 and is known as the Strahler stream order. It starts with first-order streams, which are the smallest, resembling tiny

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SRTM-DEM Processing over DEM Fill Flow direction Flow accumulation Stream definition Stream to features

Defining sub-watersheds Morphometric Analysis

Linear Aspects

Stream Order Stream Number Stream Length Bifurcation Ratio Stream Length Ratio Mean Bifurcation Ratio Mean Stream Length Ratio Stream Frequency Drainage Density Drainage Texture Length of Overland Flow Rho Coefficient Drainage Intensity Infiltration Number Constant of Channel Maintenance

Relief Aspects

Areal/Shape Aspects

Maximum Elevation Minimum Elevation Relief Relief Ratio Relative Relief Ruggedness Number

Watershed Area Watershed Perimeter Watershed Length Circulatory Ratio Elongation Ratio Form Factor Lemniscate Ratio Shape Index Compactness Coefficient

Compound Parameter Value Ranking Prioritization of Sub-watersheds

Fig. 3.2 The Morphometric Analysis’s Methodology

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Table 3.1  Aspects of the Chulband basin’s morphology Parameters or aspects Linear aspects Constant of channel maintenance (Ccm) Mean steam length (Lsm) Bifurcation ratio (Rb) Drainage intensity (Di) Stream length ratio (Rl) Infiltration number (If) Stream length (Lu) Rho coefficient (ρ) Drainage density (Dd) Drainage texture (Dt) Stream number (Nu) Stream order (U) Stream frequency (Fs) Length of overland flow (Lo) Relief aspects Ruggedness number (Rn) Relative relief (Rhp) Relief ratio (Rh) Relief (Bh) Areal/shape aspects Elongation ratio (Re) Compactness coefficient (Cc) Circulatory ratio (Rc) Form factor (Ff) Shape index (Sb) Lemniscate ratio (K)

Formulae/Methods Ccm = (1/ Dd) Lsm = (Lu / Nu) Rb = (Nu/Nu + 1) Di = (Fs/Dd) Rl = Lu/Lu − 1 If = (Fs × Dd) Lu = Lu1 + Lu2 + ⋅⋅⋅ + Lun Rlm/Rbm Dd = (∑Lu)/A Dt = (∑Nu)/P Nu = Nu1 + Nu2 + ⋅⋅⋅ + Nun Hierarchical rank Fs = (∑Nu)/A Lo = (1/(2Dd)) Rn = (Bh × Dd) Rhp = (H × 100/P) Rh = (Bh/Lb) Bh = (H–h) Re = (2 ∗ (A/π)0.5)/(Lb) Cc = (P/2(πA)0.5) Rc = 4πA/P2; where π = 3.14 Ff = (A/Lb2) Sb = (1/ Ff) K = (Lb2 /4A)

finger-­like unbranched tributaries. When two 1st order streams merge, they form a 2nd order stream. The combination of 2nd order streams leads to the creation of 3rd order streams, and this pattern continues as higher-order streams form through the merging of equal or different order streams. In this classification system, each stream order is represented by the letter “U” followed by a numerical value, indicating its position in the stream hierarchy. Figure 3.3 provides a visual representation of the sub-watersheds and their corresponding drainage networks within the Chulband watershed. The Chulband watershed consists of six sub-watersheds, with SW1, SW4, and SW6 classified as fifth-order streams, and SW2, SW3, and SW5 classified as fourth-order streams. The overall drainage structure of the Chulband watershed exhibits a dendritic to sub-dendritic pattern, indicating a branching network of streams converging towards a common outlet.

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Fig. 3.3  Sub-watersheds and drainage networks are represented on this map

Stream Number (Nu) The number of streams in each stream order sequence inside the catchment is counted. (Horton 1945). In this chapter, SW4 (503) and SW5 (178) exhibited the maximum and minimum number of Nu, respectively. Stream Length (Lu) It is the average length of streams within each stream order category in a basin. In this chapter study, the largest and smallest stream lengths were observed in SW4 (540 kilometers) and SW1 (216 kilometers), respectively. Bifurcation Ratio (Rb) In this chapter, SW5 exhibited the highest. On the other side, SW2 demonstrated the minimum. Stream Length Ratio (Rl) In this chapter, SW2 exhibited the highest value. On the other side, SW3 demonstrated the lowest value. According to Horton (1945), there are two basic laws that establish a connection between the quantity of distinct U and Lu in a river basin. The first rule, sometimes referred to as the law of stream numbers, explains how the Rb serves as the foundation of an inverted geometric series that shows the relationship between the Nu of a

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given order and its U.  The coefficients of determination (R2) in Fig.  3.4 show a substantial association between U and Nu, ranging from SW3 (0.97) to SW4 (0.90). The second rule, also referred to as the law of Lu, gives information on the average length of a particular U in terms of the U, the typical length of first U, and the stream length ratio. With R2 ranging from SW3 (0.99) to SW4 (0.81), Fig. 3.5 shows a high association between U and Lu.

Fig. 3.4  Number and order

Fig. 3.5  Length and order

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Mean Bifurcation Ratio Among the sub-watersheds analyzed, SW1 exhibited the highest bifurcation number value of 9.33, indicating a relatively complex and branched stream network (Strahler 1957). On the other side, SW6 had the lowest value of 4.25, suggesting a less complex stream network with fewer bifurcations. Stream Frequency (Fs) Stream frequency can be categorized as either low or high, and its value is relative among the watersheds studied in a research area. In the current chapter, SW1 exhibited a higher stream frequency value of 1.37, indicating a denser distribution of channel segments within this sub-watershed. On the other hand, SW5 had a lower stream frequency value of 0.91, suggesting a relatively sparser distribution of channel segments within this particular sub-watershed. Mean Stream Length Ratio It displays the proportion of a specific basin’s entirety of streams to its total length. In the chapter, SW2 exhibited the highest mean stream length value of 0.68, indicating relatively longer streams on average within this SWs. On the other side, SW4 had the lowest value of 0.43, suggesting shorter streams on average within this particular sub-watershed. Drainage Density In the present chapter, SW1 exhibited a higher drainage density of 1.35, indicating a relatively denser network of streams within that sub-watershed. Conversely, SW6 demonstrated a lower drainage density of 1.08, suggesting a sparser distribution of streams within that particular sub-watershed. Drainage Texture It provides insights into the spatial distribution and connectivity of streams within the watershed. In this chapter, SW6 exhibited a higher drainage texture value of 2.45, indicating a relatively maximum stream segment density in relation to the perimeter of that sub-watershed. On the other hand, SW2 displayed a minimum drainage texture value of 1.34, suggesting a comparatively lower stream segment density relative to its perimeter within the study region.

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Length of Overland Flow A higher value indicates a greater potential for surface runoff, while a lower value suggests a lower propensity for surface runoff (Schumm 1956). In the present study, SW6 exhibited a higher length of overland flow value of 0.46, indicating a relatively larger contribution to surface runoff within that sub-watershed. On the other hand, SW1 displayed a lower length of overland flow value of 0.37, suggesting a comparatively lower contribution to surface runoff within the study region. Rho Coefficient It provides insights into the storage capacity of the river system and serves as an indicator of the basin’s level of river development (Horton 1945). In this chapter, SW4 exhibited a higher value of 21.77. Conversely, SW2 displayed a lower value of 7.24. Drainage Intensity It provides insights into the relationship between the density of streams and their distribution within a basin (Faniran 1968). In the chapter, SW6 exhibited a higher drainage intensity value of 1.09, indicating a relatively higher concentration of streams in relation to the drainage density in that sub-watershed. On the other hand, SW5 displayed a lower drainage intensity value of 0.78, suggesting a relatively lower concentration of streams in relation to the Dd in that particular sub-watershed. Infiltration Number It represents the combined effect of the density and distribution of streams within a watershed, indicating the potential for water infiltration into the surrounding soil (Faniran 1968). In the current chapter, SW1 exhibited a higher infiltration number value of 1.85, indicating a relatively higher potential for water infiltration based on the combination of Fs and Dd in that sub-watershed. Conversely, SW5 displayed a lower infiltration number value of 1.06, suggesting a relatively lower potential for water infiltration in that particular sub-watershed. Constant of Channel Maintenance In the present chapter, SW6 exhibited a higher channel maintenance constant value of 0.92, indicating that a larger surface area of the watershed is required to support each kilometer of stream segment in that sub-watershed. On the other hand, SW1 displayed a lower channel maintenance constant value of 0.74, suggesting a relatively lower requirement of watershed surface region to support each kilometer of stream segment in that specific SW.

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3.4.2 Areal/Shape Parameters Relief In the current chapter, SW5 exhibited a higher relief value of 0.46. On the other side, SW6 displayed a lower relief value of 0.13. Relief Ratio In the chapter, SW5 exhibited a higher relief ratio of 0.02, indicating a relatively greater variation in relief compared to its length. Conversely, SW6 displayed a lower relief ratio of 0.004, suggesting a smaller variation in relief relative to its length. Relative Relief Relative relief, denoted as Rhp and calculated using the perimeter and watershed area, is a measure used to assess the variation in relief within a watershed (Melton 1957). In the current study, SW5 demonstrated a higher relative relief value of 0.70, indicating a greater variation in relief compared to its size. Conversely, SW6 exhibited a lower relative relief value of 0.22, suggesting a lesser degree of relief variation relative to its size. Ruggedness Number Ruggedness number, as defined by Strahler (1964), is the product of watershed Dd and relief within the same unit. In the chapter, SW5 demonstrated a maximum ruggedness number of 0.54, indicating a greater combination of relief and Dd. On the other hand, SW6 exhibited a minimum ruggedness number of 0.15, indicating a lower combination of relief and Dd.

3.4.3 Relief Parameters Watershed Area In this study, the basin region is characterized as the land region contained within the watershed boundary. The total extent of the watershed covers 1693  km2. Figure 3.6 illustrates that SW4 encompasses a considerable watershed area, whereas SW1 has a comparatively smaller area.

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Fig. 3.6  Area of Chulband watershed

Watershed Perimeter In this study, the watershed perimeter refers to the outer boundary that surrounds the territory of a watershed. It serves as a means to assess the size and configuration of a basin by measuring it along the divide between adjacent basins. Figure 3.7 illustrates that SW4 exhibits a substantial watershed perimeter, whereas SW5 displays a comparatively smaller perimeter in this analysis. Circulatory Ratio In this analysis, SW5 exhibits a high Rc value of 0.24. Conversely, SW4 demonstrates a low Rc value of 0.08. Elongation Ratio (re) The results of this present chapter indicate that SW1 has high Re of 0.61. On the other hand, SW4 has low Re of 0.57.

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Fig. 3.7  Perimeter of Chulband watershed

Form Factor The findings of this study reveal that SW1 exhibits a high Ff value of 0.29, indicating a relatively compact shape (Horton 1932). In contrast, SW4 displays a low Ff value of 0.25, suggesting a more elongated shape. Lemniscate Ratio The lemniscate’s value serves as a parameter for assessing the steepness of the watershed (Chorley et al. 1957). The results indicate that SW4 exhibits a high K value of 0.99, suggesting a relatively steep gradient. On the other hand, SW1 demonstrates a low K value of 0.86, indicating a less steep gradient in comparison. Shape Index In this study, the shape index is derived by taking the reciprocal of Ff, as originally suggested by Horton (1932). The shape index serves as an indicator of the overall shape characteristics of a watershed. SW4 possesses a high shape index of 3.97, indicating a more elongated shape. Conversely, SW1 exhibits a low shape index of 3.43, suggesting a relatively less elongated shape in comparison.

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Compactness Coefficient In this chapter, SW4 demonstrates a high Cc value of 3.59, indicating a relatively compact shape. Conversely, SW5 exhibits a low Cc value of 2.05, suggesting a less compact shape in comparison. Morphometric Sub-watershed Prioritization and Ranking The parameters had varying correlations with soil erosion based on their nature. For linear and relief aspects, which directly correlate with soil erosion, a higher value indicated a higher rank, implying that sub-watersheds with higher values in these aspects were more susceptible to soil erosion. Conversely, for areal features, which indirectly correlate with soil erosion, a higher value indicated a lower rank, signifying that sub-watersheds with larger values in these aspects were less prone to soil erosion. To determine the ranking, each feature was assigned a rank of one for the sub-watershed with the lowest value. Subsequent ranks were assigned in ascending order based on the feature values. This ranking process was carried out for each parameter, resulting in a set of individual ranks for each sub-watershed (Nookaratnam et al. 2005). The individual ranks of the 19 morphometric features were averaged for each sub-watershed. This averaging process generated a single value, referred to as Cp, for each sub-watershed. The Cp value served as an indicator of the SWs overall vulnerability to soil erosion, taking into account all the morphometric aspects considered. The ranking and Cp calculation were likely presented in Table  3.2, displaying the individual ranks and the corresponding Cp values for each SW. The present study region divided the SWs into three main categories: high priority, medium priority, low priority. SWs with Cp values ranging from 3.15 to less than 3.48 were classified as high priority, indicating their significance and the need for immediate attention. Those with Cp values from 3.48 to less than 3.82 were categorized as medium priority, requiring attention in the near future. Lastly, SWs with Cp values from 3.82 to less than 4.15 fell into the low priority category, implying that they could be addressed later in the development process. Among the sub-­watersheds, SW4, SW3, and SW6 were identified as high areas, SW1 and SW5 as medium-priority areas, and SW2 as a low-priority area. Figure 3.8 displays SW priority map for the Chulband watershed. This prioritization based on the morphometric analysis allows for targeted soil conservation efforts, with a focus on the high-priority sub-­watersheds. By considering the specific morphometric characteristics associated with soil erosion, this approach facilitates more effective and efficient allocation of resources and implementation of conservation strategies within the Chulband watershed.

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Table 3.2  Calculating of priority Aspects Mean bifurcation ratio Mean steam length ratio Stream frequency Drainage density Drainage texture Length of overland flow Rho coefficient Drainage intensity Infiltration number Constant of channel maintenance Relief Relief ratio Relative ratio Ruggedness number Circulatory ratio Elongation ratio Form factor Lemniscate ratio Shape index Compactness coefficient Compound parameter Ranking Priority

SW1 6 5 1 1 2 6 4 2 1 6 5 4 2 5 4 6 6 1 1 3 3.55 5 Medium

SW2 5 1 5 2 6 5 6 5 5 5 4 5 4 4 2 3 3 4 4 5 4.15 6 Low

SW3 3 3 4 5 3 2 3 4 4 2 3 3 3 3 5 4 4 3 3 2 3.3 2 High

SW4 1 6 3 4 4 3 1 3 3 3 2 2 5 2 1 1 1 6 6 6 3.15 1 High

SW5 4 2 6 3 5 4 5 6 6 4 1 1 1 1 6 5 5 2 2 1 3.5 4 Medium

SW6 2 4 2 6 1 1 2 1 2 1 6 6 6 6 3 2 2 5 5 4 3.35 3 High

Conclusions The morphometric analysis of SWs highlights the effectiveness and time efficiency of employing RS and GIS methods compared to traditional approaches. In this study, a quantitative morphometric analysis was conducted using geospatial technology to assess the shape, linear, and relief aspects or parameters of six SWs within the Chulband River basin. Sub-watershed prioritization plays a crucial role in soil and water conservation planning, and the morphometric analysis results provide valuable insights for this purpose. Based on the prioritization, the SW4, SW3, and SW6 were identified as high-priority areas. The results of this present chapter contribute to informed decision-making and planning processes for water and soil conservation.

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Fig. 3.8  Sub-watersheds morphometric analysis

References Agarwal CS (1998) Study of drainage pattern through aerial data in Naugarh area of Varanasi district U.P. J Indian Soc Remote Sens 24(4):169–175 Banerjee A, Singh P, Pratap K (2015) Morphometric evaluation of Swarnrekha watershed, Madhya Pradesh, India: an integrated GIS based approach. Appl Water Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s13201-015-0354-3 Chorley RJ, Malm DEG, Pogorzelski HA (1957) A new standard for estimating drainage basin shape. Am J Sci 225:138–141 Clarke JI (1966) Morphometry from maps, Essays in geomorphology. Elsevier Publ. Co., New York, pp 235–274 Faniran A (1968) The index of drainage intensity: a provisional new drainage factor. Aust J Sci 31(9):326–330 Horton RE (1932) Drainage basin characteristics. Trans Am Geophys Union 13:350–361 Horton RE (1945) Erosional development of streams and their drainage basins; hydro physical approach to quantitative morphology. Bull Geol Soc Am 56:2 75–3 70 Jasmin I, Mallikarjuna P (2013) Morphometric analysis of Araniar river basin using remote sensing and geographical information system in the assessment of groundwater potential. Arab J Geosci 6(10):3683–3692 Kanhaiya S, Singh BP, Singh S, Mittal P, Srivastava VK (2019) Morphometric analysis, bedload sediments, and weathering intensity in the Khurar River Basin, Central India. Geol J 54(1):466–481 Magesh NS, Chandrasekar N, Kaliraj S (2012) A GIS based automated extraction tool for the analysis of basin morphometry. Bonfring Int J Ind Eng Manag Sci 2(1):32–35

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Mani A, Kumari M, Badola R (2022) Morphometric analysis of Suswa River Basin using geospatial techniques. Engineering Proceedings 27(1):65 Melton MA (1957) An analysis of the relations among elements of climate, surface properties and geomorphology. Project NR 389- 042, technical report 11, Columbia University Nookaratnam K, Srivastava YK, Rao V, Amminedu E, Murthy KSR (2005) Check dam positioning by prioritization micro-watersheds using SYI model and morphometric analysis – remote sensing and GIS perspective. J Indian Soc Remote Sens 33:25–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/ BF02989988 Rai PK, Mohan K, Mishra S et al (2017) A GIS-based approach in drainage morphometric analysis of Kanhar River Basin, India. Appl Water Sci 7:217–232 Rai PK, Chandel RS, Mishra VN et al (2018) Hydrological inferences through morphometric analysis of lower Kosi river basin of India for water resource management based on remote sensing data. Appl Water Sci 8:15 Reddy GPO, Maji AK, Gajbhiye KS (2002) GIS for morphometric analysis of drainage basins. GIS India 11(4):9–14 Sahu N, Reddy GPO, Kumar N, Nagaraju MSS, Srivastava R, Singh SK (2014) Characterization of landforms and land use/land cover in basaltic terrain using IRS-P6 LISS-IV and Cartosat-1 DEM data: a case study. Agropedology 24(2):166–178 Schumm SA (1956) Evaluation of drainage system and slopes in badlands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey. Geol Soc Am Bull 67(5):597–646 Shekar PR, Mathew A (2022a) Morphometric analysis for prioritizing sub-watersheds of Murredu River basin, Telangana State, India, using a geographical information system. J Eng Appl Sci 69:44. https://doi.org/10.1186/s44147-022-00094-4 Shekar PR, Mathew A (2022b) Evaluation of morphometric and hypsometric analysis of the Bagh River Basin using remote sensing and geographic information system techniques. Energy Nexus 7:100104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100104 Singh S, Kanhaiya S (2015) Morphometry of the Barakar river basin, India: a remote sensing and GIS approach. Int J Curr Res 7(7):17948–17955 Singh P, Gupta A, Singh M (2014) Hydrological inferences from watershed analysis for water resource management using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Egypt J Remote Sens Space Sci 17(2):111–121 Sreedevi PD, Sreekanth PD, Khan HH, Ahmed S (2013) Drainage morphometry and its influence on hydrology in a semi-arid region: using SRTM data and GIS.  Environ Earth Sci 70(2):839–848 Strahler AN (1957) Quantitative analysis of watershed geomorphology in drainage basin morphometry. Benchmark papers in geology 41, edited by H.S. Schumn. Trans Am Geophys Union 38(6):913–920 Strahler AN (1964) Quantitative geomorphology of drainage basins and channel networks. In: Chow V (ed) Handbook of applied hydrology. McGraw Hill, New York, pp 439–476 Yadav SK, Singh SK, Gupta M, Srivastava PK (2014) Morphometric analysis of upper tons basin from northern foreland of peninsular India using CARTOSAT satellite and GIS. Geocarto Int 29(8):895–914

Chapter 4

A GIS Based Study of the Effects of Groundwater, Soil Quality and Rainfall on Agriculture in Bagh River Basin, India Nanabhau Kudnar , Varun Narayan Mishra Vasudev Salunke , and Ravindra Bhagat

, Devendra Bisen,

Abstract In this paper, we investigated the geostatistical assessment of soil health, fertility, and quality, as well as groundwater and rainfall, and their impact on agriculture in the Bagh River Basin (BRB) of India. All physical, chemical, and biological components of rivers can be studied using the model. With the use of GIS and the Water Quality Index (WQI), several complex mathematical algorithms employ models to model and analyze groundwater and soil data. Physical and chemical properties of water were analyzed by Gibbs diagram as determined by Bureau of Indian Standards. The Analytical hierarchical process (AHP) weight EC