Geography of Roman-Iranian Wars: Military Operations of Rome and Sasanian Iran 8362447133, 9788362447138

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Geography of Roman-Iranian wars Military operations of Rome and Sasanian Iran

Uniwersytet Przyrodniczo-Humanistyczny w Siedlcach Instytut Historii i Stosunków Międzynarodowych Zakład Dziejów Dawnych

Katarzyna Maksymiuk

Geography of Roman-Iranian wars Military operations of Rome and Sasanian Iran

Siedlce 2015 3

© Copyright by Katarzyna Maksymiuk, Siedlce 2015 © Copyright by Uniwersytet Przyrodniczo-Humanistyczny w Siedlcach, Siedlce 2015 Recenzent: prof. dr hab. Mariusz Mielczarek (Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii, PAN Łódź) Redakcja: Anna Madej Redakcja językowa: Iwona Czyżak Indeks: Katarzyna Maksymiuk Opracowanie map: Katarzyna Maksymiuk Zdjęcia: Katarzyna Maksymiuk Na okładce: The rock relief of Šāpur I, Naqš-e Rostam Katarzyna Maksymiuk ISBN 978–83–62447–13–8

Instytut Historii i Stosunków Międzynarodowych Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczo-Humanistycznego w Siedlcach 08-110 Siedlce, ul. Żytnia 39 tel. 25 643 18 47 e-mail: [email protected] Skład i łamanie: Pracownia Wydawnicza WH Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczo-Humanistycznego w Siedlcach 08-110 Siedlce, ul. Żytnia 39, p.2.45 tel. 25 643 18 68 e-mail: [email protected] Projekt okładki: Adam Kubik [email protected] Druk i oprawa: Totem Inowrocław

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Acknowledgments I would like here to convey my sincere thanks to Professor MARIUSZ MIELCZAREK for his patience and invaluable guidelines which helped me give this book its final shape. I am also deeply indebted to Professor WITOLD WITAKOWSKI, for his helpful remarks concerning the authors of Syriac source texts. Presenting to the readers a new version of my work, I cannot omit to mention Professor JERZY LINDERSKI, the correspondence with whom constituted the main inspiration for the present publication.

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Contents List of abbreviations .......................................................................................

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1. Preface ………………….................................................................................

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1. 1. Introductory Remarks ............................................................................ 1. 2. Historical sketch .................................................................................... 1. 3. Principles of map design .........................................................................

11 13 27

2. Maps .........................................................................................................

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2. 1. Military operations, directions of march routes, battle sites (229–628) .... Map I. 1. Military operations in 229–240 ………............................................... Map I. 2. Military operations of Gordian III in 242–244 ……............................. Map I. 3. Military operations of Šāpur I in 253–256 (according to ŠKZ) ........... Map I. 3a. Activities of Hormozd Ardašīr in Lesser Armenia in 253 AD. .......... Map I. 4. Military operations of Šāpur I in 260–261 (according to ŠKZ) ........... Map I. 4a. Military operations of Odenathus ................................................... Map I. 5. Military operations of Carus and Numerianus in 282–284 .............. Map I. 6. Military operations in 296–298 ........................................................ Map I. 7. Military operations of Šāpur II in 312–360 ....................................... Map I. 8. Military operations of Julian in 363 AD. .......................................... Map I. 9. Military operations of Theodosius II in 421 AD. ................................ Map I. 10. Military operations of Kawād I in the years 502–504 ...................... Map I. 11. Military operations in the years 527–531 ....................................... Map I. 12. Military operations in years 540–543 ............................................. Map I. 12a. Military operations in Lazica in years 541–556 ............................. Map I. 13. Military operations in years 572–578 ............................................. Map I. 14. Military operations in years 580–582 ............................................. Map I. 15. Military operations in the years 582–589 ....................................... Map I. 15a. Military operations in the Caucasian region in 588–589 ............... Map I. 16. Military operations of Xusrō II in 603–622 ..................................... Map I. 16a. Military operations in Persarmenia in years 603–607 ................... Map I. 17. Military operations of Heraclius in years 622–628 .......................... Map I. 17a. Military operations of Heraclius in Persarmenia in 624–627 ……… 2. 2. Territorial changes due to peace treaties ................................................. Map II. 1. Territorial changes due to the treaty of 298 AD. .............................. Map II. 2. Territorial changes due to the treaty of 363 AD. .............................. Map II. 3. Territorial changes due to the treaty of 562 AD. .............................. Map II. 4. Territorial changes due to the treaty of 591 AD. .............................. 2. 3. Changes concerning Roman-Iranian border in years 224–591 ................ Map III. 1. Roman-Iranian border in 226 AD .................................................. Map III. 2. Roman-Iranian border in 298 AD .................................................. Map III. 3. Roman-Iranian border in 363 AD................................................... Map III. 4. Roman-Iranian border in 387 AD .................................................. Map III. 5. Roman-Iranian border in 565 AD .................................................. Map III. 6. Roman-Iranian border in 591 AD .................................................. Map III. 7. The southern border ...................................................................... Map III. 8. Strata Diocletiana .......................................................................... Map III. 9. Mesopotamia and Syria, landforms ................................................

29 29 32 35 39 40 44 46 48 50 55 60 62 65 68 72 75 79 81 84 86 90 92 96 99 99 101 103 105 107 107 107 108 108 109 109 110 110 111 7

Map III. 10. Near East, landforms ......................................................................

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3. Index of place names ...............................................................................

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4. Index of sources .......................................................................................

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5. Lists of Sasanian kings and Roman emperors ........................................

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6. Figures ......................................................................................................

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List of figures .................................................................................................

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List of abbreviations AASS: Acta Sanctorum (Paris, 1863–1940) AB: Analecta Bollandiana (Bruxelles, 1882–.) CCSG: Corpus Christianorum Series Graeca (Turnhout, Louvain, 1976–.) CFHB: Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae (Berlin, 1966–.) CSCO: Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium (Paris, Leipzig, Louvain, 1903–.) CSHB: Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae (Bonn, 1828–1897) EHR: English Historical Review (Oxford, 1886–.) FHG: Fragmenta Historicum Graecorum (Paris, 1841–1870) GCS: Die Griechischen Christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten [drei] Jahrhunderte (Leipzig, Berlin, 1897–.) LCL: The Loeb Classical Library (London, Cambridge Mass., 1911–.) MGH: Monumenta Germaniae Historica (Berlin, 1877–1919) PO: Patrologia Orientalis (Paris, 1907–.) SC: Sources Chrétiennes (Paris, Lyon, 1941–.) SH: Subsidia Hagiographica (Bruxelles, 1886–.)

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1. Preface 1. 1. Introductory Remarks In 2012 Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities published my book under the Polish title Geografia wojen rzymsko-irańskich. Działania Rzymu i Iranu w okresie sasanidzkim. The enthusiastic reception of the book inclined me to further work on it. Geography of Roman-Persian wars. Military operations of Rome and Sasanian Iran, is a revised and expanded translation of the book, written in response to the numerous suggestions regarding the first edition of the book published only in Polish, a language that is not widely known. The fact that there is no equivalent publication in any of the EU official languages served as further motivation for the preparation of an English version of my previous work. The present work is primarily addressed to students of history who acquire their first experiences in exploring the history of the Near East. The idea of designing maps depicting topography of Roman-Iranian armed conflicts was born a few years ago, under the inspiration of a book authored by the renowned historian, E. KETTENHOFEN, 1 who reconstructed the march routes of Šāpur I (242–272)’s army on the basis of Res Gestae Divi Saporis. 2 Moreover, the fact that even the publications which are devoted solely to Roman-Iranian wars in the third and the fourth century AD, for instance S. LIEU, M. DODGEON, G. GREATREX, 3 or B. DIGNAS and E. WINTER, 4 typically include only a few maps as a conventional yet often inelaborate appendix, acted as additional motivation for my work. Undoubtedly, atlases such as The Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients 6 and Armenia: A Historical Atlas, 7 are invaluable in studies of geography of the ancient Near East, however, none of them contains detailed maps of all Roman-Iranian wars.

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The following maps have been created on the basis of source texts reporting wars waged by Rome against the Sasanian Iran. Only these towns and provinces which were mentioned by ancient writers while reporting specific conflicts have been marked on the maps. Moreover, the present work contains only maps of military operations in which Roman and Iranian armies directly participated. Hence, it does not include the information about the conquest of the Near East by Palmyra under the rein of Zenobia, 8 as well as pacifications of uprisings in Armenia9 (unless the E. KETTENHOFEN, Die römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts. n. Chr. nach der Inschrift Sāhpuhrs I. an der Ka’be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ), Wiesbaden 1982. 2 M. SPRENGLING, Shahpuhr I, the Great on the KaaBah of Zoroaster, American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature 57, 1940, 341–420; A. MARICQ, E. HONIGMANN, Recherches sur les Res Gestae Divi Saporis, Bruxelles 1953; A. MARICQ, Res Gestae Divi Saporis, Syria 35, 1958, 295–360; G. GNOLI, L’inscription de Šābuhr à la Ka’be-ye Zardošt et la propaganda sassanide, in: Histoire et cultes de l’Asie centrale preislamique, eds. P. BERNARD, F. GRENET, Paris 1991, 57–63; Z. RUBIN, The Roman Empire in the Res Gestae Divi Saporis, in: Ancient Iran and the Mediterranean World, ed. E. DĄBROWA, Electrum 2, Kraków 1998, 177–185; PH. HUYSE, Die dreisprachige Inschrift Sabuhrs I. an der Kaba-i Zardust, London 1999. 3 M. DODGEON, S. LIEU, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History, New York 1991; G. GREATREX, S. LIEU, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London 2002. 4 B. DIGNAS, E. WINTER, Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge 2007. 5 The Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, ed. R. TALBERT, Princeton 2000. 6 Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, Beihefte Reihe B, Geisteswissenschaften, Wiesbaden 1972. 7 R. H. HEWSEN, Armenia A Historical Atlas, Chicago/London 2001. 8 G. DOWNEY, Aurelian’s Victory over Zenobia at Immae A. D. 272, Transactions of the American Philological Association 81, 1950, 57–68; A. BALDINI, Il ruolo di Paolo di Samosata nella politica culturale di 1

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Roman troops indeed participated in them), since, in the author’s understanding, they were the internal affairs of Rome or Iran. A similar situation took place in the case of wars between the Jafnids and the Naṣrids, 10 who, especially in the sixth century AD, played an increasingly greater role in the borderland area. Likewise, these conflicts have also been excluded since the forces of Rome and Iran were not directly engaged in them. Furthermore, the author does not consider the entry of the Roman troops into Iran with the aim of deposing Bahrām VI Čōbīn in 591 AD 11 as an instance of the Roman-Iranian conflict because in that situation Xusrō II Parvēz (590–628) was the legitimate ruler. Analyzing the second part of the maps encompassing territorial changes written into the peace treaties, it may seem that in the course of 400 years of the mutual Roman-Iranian relationships only four such treaties were concluded. Obviously, there were many more of them, yet only the quoted four entailed the shifting of the borders between Iran and Rome. The author is fully aware of the problem of evaluating authenticity of source documents, in particular, the accounts relating military conflicts. The difficulty concerns not only propaganda or emotional factors (i.e. situations in which particular authors omitted certain ‘inconvenient’ facts) but, above all, the problem lies in the sources of information about particular events. This issue is especially apparent in such a seemingly straightforward matter as the reconstruction of Julian’s military expedition to Iran in 363 AD. In this case there are two detailed descriptions of march routes available, one related by Ammianus Marcellinus,12 the other reported by Zosimos. 13 Usefulness of Ammianus Marcellinus’s account is incontestable, as he was a soldier and an eye witness personally participating in the described events. 14 Yet, one cannot entirely dismiss the text by Zosimos either, although it Zenobia e la decizione di Aureliano ad Antiochia, Rivista storica dell’antichità 5, 1975, 59–78; J. GAGÉ, La montée des Sassanides et l’heure de Palmyre, Paris 1964; R. STONEMAN, Palmyra and its Empire: Zenobia’s Revolt against Rome, Ann Arbor 1992; T. KOTULA, Aurèlien et Zénobie. L’Unité ou la division de l’Empire, Wrocław 1997; U. HARTMANN, Das palmyrenische Teilreich, Stuttgart 2001; P. SOUTHERN, Empress Zenobia: Palmyra’s Rebel Queen, London/New York 2008; R. WINSBURY, Zenobia of Palmyra: History, Myth and the Neo-classical Imagination, London 2010. 9 С. L. SANSPEUR, La neutralité de Byzance face a l’insurrection Arménienne contre le Perse (450), Revue des Études Arméniennes 16, 1982, 151–155; M. L. CHAUMONT, Armenia and Iran, Encyclopaedia Iranica 2, 1987, 417–438. 10 TH. NÖLDEKE, Die Ghassanidischen Fürsten aus dem Hause Gafna’s, Berlin 1887; F. ALTHEIM, R. STIEHL, Die Araber in der Alten Welt, Berlin 1965; G. ROTHSTEIN, Die Dynastie der Lahmiden in al-Hıra. Ein Versuch zur arabisch-persischen Geschichte zur Zeit der Sasaniden, Berlin 1968; C. E. BOSWORTH, Iran and the Arabs before Islam, in: The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3.1, ed. E. YARSHATER, Cambridge 1983, 593–612; I. SHAHÎD, Byzantium and the Arabs in the fifth century, Washington 1989; I. SHAHÎD, Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth century, Washington 1995; P. CASEY, Justinian, the Limitanei, and Arab-Byzantine Relations in the Sixth Century, Journal of Roman Archeology 9, 1996, 214– 222; M. WHITTOW, Rome and the Jafnids: Writing the History of a Sixth-Century Tribal Dynasty, in: The Roman and Byzantine Near East, v. 2, Some recent archaeological research, ed. J. H. HUMPHREY, Portsmouth 1999, 207–224; M. MIOTTO, Bisanzio e la difesa della Siria: Arabi foederati, incursioni arabe e conquista islamica (IV–VII secc.), Porphyra 10, 2007, 5–28; F. MILLAR, Rome’s Allies in Late Antiquity: Conceptions and Representations from within the Frontiers of the Empire, in: Commutatio et Contentio: Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East in Memory of Zeev Rubin, eds. H. BÖRM, J. WIESEHÖFER, Düsseldorf 2010, 199–226; G. FISHER, Between Empires: Arabs, Romans, and Sasanians in Late Antiquity, Oxford/New York 2011. 11 P. GOUBERT, Les rapports de Khosrau II, roi des rois sassanide, avec l’empereur Maurice, Byzantion 19, 1949, 81–98; D. FRENDO, Theophylact Simocatta on the Revolt of Wahram Chobin and the Early Career of Khusrau II, Bulletin of the Asia Institute 3, 1989, 77–88; P. POURSHARIATI, Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire, London/New York 2008, 122–130. 12 Ammianus Marcellinus: Römische Geschichte, ed. W. SEYFARTH, vols. IV, Berlin 1968–1971. 13 Zosime, Histoire Nouvelle, ed. F. PASCHOUD, vols. III, Paris 1971–1989. 14 G. CRUMP, Ammianus Marcellinus as a military historian, Wiesbaden 1975; T. D. BARNES, Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality, New York 1998; Philological and Historical Commentary on Ammianus Marcellinus, eds. J. DEN BOEFT, J. W. DRIJVERS, D. DEN HENGST, H. TEITLE, Leiden 1991–.; G. SABBAH, Ammianus Marcellinus, in: Greek and Roman Historiography in

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was created ca. 150 years after Julian’s campaign on the basis of Eunapios. Moreover, the authenticity of Zosimos’s account has been frequently questioned due to his anti-Christian attitude. 15 Additionally, a striking quantitative disproportion between the western and Iranian accounts adds to the list of problems pertaining to the reconstruction of the analysed warfare operations. In the eastern written documents the military and political activities of Iran towards Rome are only marginally referred to, even in the cases of the rulers who were successful in battles with the Roman forces, for instance Šāpur I or Šāpur II (309–379). Such a situation may be explained by the fact that, from the Iranian perspective, wars waged against Rome were to a large extent treated as peripheral matters.

1. 2. Historical sketch Until the second half of the second century AD the border between Rome and Iran was marked by the Euphrates, with Mesopotamia16 regarded as an integral part of the Parthian state.17 The shifting of the border 18 took place due to the acLate Antiquity. Fourth to Sixth Century A.D., ed. G. MARASCO, Leiden 2003, 43–84; D. BRODKA, Ammianus Marcellinus. Studien zum Geschichtsdenken im vierten Jahrhundert n. Chr., Kraków 2009. 15 A. MOMIGLIANO, Pagan and Christian Historiography in the Fourth Century A.D., in: The Conflict between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century, ed. A. MOMIGLIANO, Oxford 1963, 79–99; W. GOFFART, Zosimus, the First Historian of Rome’s Fall, The American Historical Review 76, 1971, 412–441; M. SALAMON, Problem upadku państwa rzymskiego w greckiej historiografii powszechnej początku VI wieku (Zosimos i Eustatiusz z Epifanii), in: Problemy schyłku świata antycznego, ed. A. KUNISZ, Katowice 1978, 115–129; E. WIPSZYCKA, Wstęp, in: Zosimos, Nowa Historia, tr. H. CICHOCKA, Warszawa 1993, 5–47; W. LIEBESCHUETZ, Pagan Historiography and the Decline of the Empire, in: Greek and Roman Historiography in Late Antiquity. Fourth to Sixth Century A.D., ed. G. MARASCO, Leiden 2003, 177–218; J. ALMEIDA, Count Zosimus the Historian, San Jose 2007. 16 Geographically it concerns the area of north Mesopotamia; L. DILLMAN, Haute Mésopotamie orientale et pays adjacents. Contribution à la géographie historique de la région, du V s. avant l’ère chrétienne au VI s. de cette ère, Paris 1962; W. EILERS, Iran and Mesopotamia, in: The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3.1, ed. E. YARSHATER, Cambridge 1983, 481–504; P. EDWELL, Between Rome and Persia, The middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra under Roman control, New York 2008. 17 N. C. DEBEVOISE, A Political History of Parthia, Chicago 1938; K. H. ZIEGLER, Die Beziehungen zwischen Rom und dem Partherreich. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Volkerrechts, Wiesbaden 1964; K. SCHIPPMANN, Grundzüge der parthischen Geschichte, Darmstadt 1980; E. DĄBROWA, La politique de l’état parthe à l’égard de Rome-d’Artaban II à Vologèse I (ca 11–ca 79 de n. e.) et les facteurs qui la conditionnaient, Kraków 1983; A. D. H. BIVAR, The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids, in: The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3.1, ed. E. YARSHATER, Cambridge 1983, 21–99; E. DĄBROWA, Le programme de la politique en Occident des derniers Arsacides, Iranica Antiqua 19, 1984, 149–165; J. WOLSKI, Imperium Arsacydów, Poznań 1993; M. J. OLBRYCHT, Parthia et ulteriores gentes. Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen dem arsakidischen Iran und den Nomaden der eurasischen Steppen, München 1998; R. SHELDON, Rome’s Wars in Parthia: Blood in the Sand, London 2010; M. J. OLBRYCHT, Imperium Parthicum- kryzys i odbudowa państwa Arsakidów w pierwszej połowie I wieku po Chr., Kraków 2013. 18 In the Sassanian period a term “frontier” between Rome and Iran was in principle an abstract notion because on this area due to geographical conditions there was never a borderline in a political-military sense. None of the rulers had possibility of isolating inhabitants who moved freely in the border zone [B. ISAAC, The Meaning of the Terms Limes and Limitanei, The Journal of Roman Studies 78, 1988, 125–147; J. MATTHEWS, Hostages, Philosophers, Pilgrims, and the Diffusion of Ideas in the Late Roman Mediterranean and Near East, in: Tradition and Innovation in Late Antiquity, eds. F. M. CLOVER, R. S. HUMPHREYS, Madison 1989, 29–50; C. R. WHITTAKER, Frontiers of the Roman Empire, Baltimore/London 1994, 99–101; H. ELTON, Frontiers of the Roman Empire, London 1996, 97–99; A. LEWIN, The New Frontiers of Late Antiquity in the Near East. From Diocletian to Justinian, in: Frontiers in the Roman World. Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Durham, 16–19 April 2009), eds. O. HEKSTER, T. KAIZER, Leiden 2011, 233–264; M. SOMMER, Modelling Rome’s Eastern Frontier. The Case of Osrhoene, in: Kingdoms and Principalities in the Roman Near East, eds. T. KAIZER, M. FACELLA, Stuttgart 2011, 217–226]; One of the activities aimed at ensuring control over the borderland were deportations of its inhabitants [F. ALTHEIM, R. STIEHL, Ein asiatischer Staat. Feudalismus unter den Sasaniden und ihren Nachbarn, Wiesbaden 1954, 138–139; E. KETTENHOFEN, Das Staatsgefängnis der Sasaniden, Die Welt des Orients 19, 1988, 96–101;

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tions of Septimius Severus (193–211), who crossed the Euphrates and established the provinces of Mesopotamia and Osrhoene. The main towns in the region, such as Edessa, Carrhae, Singara, Resaina and Nisibis fell under the Roman rule.19 Since 214 AD, when the local dynasty of Hatra was ousted, Rome exercised control over Adiabene.20 This allowed Rome to assume control of the trade routes leading through the northern Mesopotamia. 21 After the Romans’ capture of Nabataea, and the creation of the province of Arabia Felix in 106 AD,22 the trade routes to Europe leading through Spasinu Charax became of paramount importance to Iran.23 In the third century AD Hatra, Dura Europos and Palmyra, due to their connections with Rome, grew to main trade centres. Prior to his struggle for the throne, Ardašīr I (224–242) made for the Persian Gulf24 as controlling the sea traffic in the region

E. KETTENHOFEN, Deportations II. In the Parthian and Sasanian period, Encyclopaedia Iranica 7, 1996, 297–308; M. MORONY, Population Transfers between Sasanian Iran and the Byzantine Empire, in: La Persia e Bisanzio, Atti dei Convegni dei Lincei, Roma 14–18 ottobre 2002, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei 201, 2004, 161–180; K. MOSIG-WALBURG, Deportationen römischer Christen in das Sasanidenreich durch Shapur I. und ihre Folgen - Eine Neubewertung, Klio 92.1, 2010, 117–156]. 19 A. R. BIRLEY, Septimius Severus. The African Emperor, London 1971, 183; M. G. ANGELI BERTINELLI, I Romani oltre l’Eufrate nel II secolo d. C. (le province di Assiria, di Mesopotamia e di Osroene), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 9.1, 1979, 3–45; T. KOTULA, Septymiusz Sewer. Cesarz z Lepcis Magna, Wrocław 1987, 45–49; F. MILLAR, The Roman near East 31 B.C.– A.D. 337, Harvard 1994, 144; A. LUTHER, Dura-Europos zwischen Palmyra und den Parthern. Der politische Status der Region am Mittleren Euphrat im 2. Jh. n. Chr. und die Organisation des palmyrenischen Fernhandels, in: Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World. Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction (5th International Melammu Conference 2002), eds. R. ROLLINGER, C. ULF, Stuttgart 2004, 325–348; D. POTTER, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, London/New York 2004, 217. 20 J. W. DRIJVERS, Hatra, Palmyra, Edessa. Die Städte der syrisch-mesopotamischen Wüste in politischer, kulturgeschichtlicher und religionsgeschichtlicher Beleuchtung, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.8, 1977, 799–906; M. SARTRE, Wschód rzymski. Prowincje i społeczeństwo prowincjonalne we wschodniej części basenu Morza Śródziemnego w okresie od Augusta do Sewerów (31 r. p. n. e. – 235 r. n. e.), Wrocław 1997, 59; M. SOMMER, Hatra. Geschichte und Kultur einer Karawanenstadt im römisch-parthischen Mesopotamien, Mainz am Rhein 2003; The peace treaty of 218 kept most of Mesopotamia in the hands of the Arsacids [T. DARYAEE, Sasanian Persia, The Rise and Fall of an Empire, London/New York 2009, 3]; L. E. PATTERSON, Caracalla's Armenia, Syllecta Classica 24, 2013, 173–199. 21 L. BOULNOIS, La Route le da Soie, Paris 1963; M. G. RASCHKE, New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.9.2, 1978, 604–1378; G. K. YOUNG, Rome’s Eastern Trade. International Commerce and Imperial Policy 31 BC–AD 305, London/New York 2001. 22 J. I. MILLER, The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire, Oxford 1969, 135; A. NEGEV, The Nabateans and the Provincia Arabia, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.8, 1977, 520–686; M. SARTRE, Rome et les Nabatéens, Revue des Études Anciennes 81, 1979, 37–53; J. TAYLOR, Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans, Cambridge 2002, 59–78. 23 S. NODELMAN, A preliminary history of Characene, Berytus 13, 1960, 83–123; J. F. HANSMAN, Charax and the Karkheh, Iranica Antiqua 7, 1967, 21–58; RASCHKE 1978, 630; R. DREXHAGE, Der Handel Palmyras in Römischen Zeit, Münstersche Beiträge zur antiken Handelsgeschichte 1.1, 1982, 17–34; D. POTTS, Arabia and the Kingdom of Characene, in: Araby the Blest: Studies in Arabian Archaeology, ed. D. POTTS, Copenhagen 1988, 137–167; M. SCHUOL, Die Charakene. Ein mesopotamisches Königreich in hellenistisch-parthischer Zeit, Stuttgart 2000; J. HILL, Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE, Charleston 2009. 24 ALTHEIM, STIEHL 1965, 166; G. WIDENGREN, The establishment of the Sasanian Dynasty in the light of new evidence, in: La Persia nel medioevo, Atti del convegno sul tema: La Persia nel Medioevo, Roma, 31 marzo – 5 aprile 1970, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei 160, 1971, 711–782; R. N. FRYE, Bahrain under the Sasanian, in: Dilmun: New Studies in the Archaeology and Early History of Bahrain, ed. D. POTTS, Berlin 1983, 167–170; V. PIACENTINI, Ardashīr i Pāpakān and the Wars against the Arabs: Working Hypothesis on the Sasanian Hold of the Gulf, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 15, 1985, 57–77; J. WIESEHÖFER, Ardašīr I – History, Encyclopaedia Iranica 2, 1987, 371– 376; D. KENNET, The decline of eastern Arabia in the Sasanian period, Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 18.1, 2007, 86–122.

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would enable the Sasanians to gain monopoly over the trade with the Far East. 25 It appears that these aspirations constituted the main motivation for close relations between the new dynasty and the Naṣrids of Hira. 26 In 224 AD the power in Iran was taken over by the Sasanians, 27 who sought to regain influence over the territory previously ruled by the Parthians. 28 The change of the dynasty in Iran was perceived as a threat to the position of Rome in the Near East. 29 It seems, however, that the main goal of the first Sasanian kings was the removal of the opposition centred around the ousted Arsacid Dynasty. The strongest bastion of the opposition to the “new rule” proved to be Armenia, 30 the kingdom which already in the time of the Parthians had served as an arena for the RomanIranian rivalry. 31 Under Mithridates II’s (123–87) rule Armenia came into the sphere H. SCHIWECK, Der Persische Golf als Schiffahrts- und Seehandelsroute in Achämenidischer Zeit und in der Zeit Alexanders des Großen, Bonner Jahrbücher 162, 1962, 4–97; B. C. COLLESS, The Traders of the Pearl. The Mercantile and Missionary Activities of Persian and Armenian Christians in South-Asia, Abr-Nahrain 9, 1969/1970, 17–38; A. D. H. BIVAR, Trade between China and the Near East in the Sasanian and Early Muslim Periods, in: Pottery and Metalwork in T’ang China, ed. W. WATSON, London 1970, 1–8; A. WILLIAMSON, Persian Gulf Commerce in the Sassanian Period and the First Two Centuries of Islam, Bastanshenasi va Honar-e Iran 9/10, 1973, 97–109; D. WHITEHOSE, A. WILLIAMSON, Sasanian Maritime Trade, Iran 11, 1973, 29–49; D. POTTS, The Sasanian Relationship with South Arabia: Literary, Epigraphic and Oral Historical Perspectives, Studia Iranica 37, 2008, 197–213; A. HOJABRI-NOBARI, S. M. MOUSAVI KOUHPAR, H. VAHDATINASAB, A. KHOSROWZADEH, Trade and Cultural Contacts between Northern and Southern Persian Gulf during Parthians and Sasanians: A Study Based on Pottery from Qeshm Island, The International Journal of Humanities 18.2, 2011, 89– 115. 26 J. A. BELLAMY, The New Reading of the Namārah Inscription, Journal of the American Oriental Society 105, 1985, 31–48. 27 A. CHRISTENSEN, L’Iran sous les Sassanides, Copenhagen 1944; R. FRYE, The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians, in: The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3.1, ed. E. YARSHATER, Cambridge 1983, 116–180; R. GYSELEN, La géographie administrative de l’empire sassanide, les témoignages siglloraphiques, Paris 1989; K. SCHIPPMANN, Grundzüge der Geschichte des sasanidischen Reiches, Darmstadt 1990; B. KAIM, Irańska ideologia władzy królewskiej w okresie panowania Sasanidów, Warszawa 1997; POURSHARIATI 2008; DARYAEE 2009; M. CANEPA, The Two Eyes of the Earth: Art and Ritual of Kingship between Rome and Sasanian Iran, Berkeley/Los Angeles/London 2009; J. W. DRIJVERS, Rome and the Sasanid Empire: Confrontation and Coexistence, in: A Companion to Late Antiquity, ed. Ph. ROUSSEAU, Oxford 2009, 441–454; M. J. OLBRYCHT, Iran pod panowaniem dynastii Sasanidów (224–651), in: Historia Iranu, ed. A. KRASNOWOLSKA, Wrocław 2010, 223–285; K. MAKSYMIUK, Pogranicze persko-rzymskie w działaniach Husrowa I Anuszirwana (531–579). Geneza problemów polityczno-religijnych w relacjach Iranu i Rzymu w okresie sasanidzkim, Siedlce 2011; M. R. SHAYEGAN, Arsacids and Sasanians: Political Ideology in Post-Hellenistic and Late Antique Persia, Cambridge 2011. 28 K. MAKSYMIUK, Kształtowanie się polityki zachodniej Sasanidów, in: Z antycznego świata: ReligioCultus-Homines, eds. W. APPEL, P. WOJCIECHOWSKI, Toruń 2000, 135–157; K. MAKSYMIUK, Polityka Sasanidów wobec wschodnich prowincji Cesarstwa Rzymskiego w III w. n.e., Siedlce 2005. 29 B. CAMPBELL, War and Diplomacy: Rome and Parthia, 31 BC–AD 235, in: War and Society in the Roman World, ed. J. RICH, London 1993, 213–240; J. WIESEHÖFER, Ancient Persia from 550 BC to 650 AD, London/New York, 2001, 151–221; MAKSYMIUK 2005, 32–35. 30 P. ASDOURIAN, Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen Armenien und Rom, von 190 v. Chr. bis 428 n. Chr. Ein Abriss der armenischen Geschichte in dieser Periode, Venedig 1911, 122–123; M. L. CHAUMONT, Recherches sur l’histoire d’Armenie de l’avènement des Sassanides à la conversion du royaume, Paris 1969, 25–47; А. А. МАРТИРОСЯН, Армения и первые Сасаниды, Историкофилологический журнал 3, 1975, 149–172; CHAUMONT 1976, 159; D. LANG, Iran, Armenia and Georgia, in: The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3.1, ed. E. YARSHATER, Cambridge 1983, 518; MAKSYMIUK 2005, 34. 31 Lesser Armenia (or Armenia Minor) was the Roman province lying west and northwest of the river Euphrates. The reason for military conflicts between Rome and Iran was Greater Armenia (or Armenia Maior) – Persarmenia; J. MARQUART, La province de Parskahayk, Revue des Études Arméniennes 3, 1966, 252–314; M. L. CHAUMONT, L’Arménie entre Rome et l’Iran. De l’avènement d’Auguste à l’avènement de Dioclétien, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.9.1, 1976, 71–194; T. B. MITFORD, Cappadocia and Armenia Minor, Historical Setting of the limes, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.7.2, 1980, 1169–1228; LANG 1983, 505–536; E. KETTENHOFEN, Die Ar25

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of interest of the Parthians.32 According to the agreement between Nero (54–68) and Valagaš I (51–78), the Armenian throne was given to the younger line of the Arsacids and the emperor was to merely formally appoint the new ruler. 33 Obviously, Rome was reluctant to renounce its real influence in Armenia. Not only was the country of great economic importance,34 but what is more, it played a key role as an ideal military base for possible future operations carried out in the direction of Roman Cappadocia and Lesser Armenia. Additionally, it constituted a natural barrier warding off nomadic attacks from the north.35 The Roman-Iranian rivalry was not confined solely to the territories in the vicinity of the border. Both powers strived for gaining control over the Caucasus by means of various alliances which would secure their interests in this region.36 In years 238–240 Ardašīr I, in an attempt to reclaim the lands of the Arsacids, conquered Carrhae, Nisibis and Hatra. 37 The destruction of Hatra appears to sakiden in den armenischen Quellen, in: Das Partherreich und seine Zeugnisse, ed. J. WIESEHÖFER, Stuttgart 1998, 325–353; B. ZEKIYAN, L’Armenia tra Bisanzio e l’Iran dei Sasanidi e momenti della fondazione dell’ideologia dell’Armenia cristiana (secc. V–VII). Preliminari per una sintesi, in: Crossroad of Cultures. Studies in Liturgy and Pahistics in Honor of Gabriele Vnkler, eds. H. J. FEULNER, E. VELKOVSKA, Roma 2000, 717–744; A. DE SIENA, I romani e l’importanza strategica dell’Armenia alla fine del VI sec. d.C., Padus-Araxes 9, 2006, 4–9; K. MAKSYMIUK, Armenia w polityce pierwszych Sasanidów, in: Grecy, Rzymianie i ich sąsiedzi, eds. K. NAWOTKA, M. PAWLAK, (Antiquitas 29), Wrocław 2007, 345–354. 32 J. MARQUART, Ērānšahr nach der Geographie des ps. Moses Xorenacci: Mit historisch-kritischem Kommentar und historischen und topographischen Excursen, Berlin 1901, 109; DEBEVOISE 1938, 41– 42; P. ARNAUD, Les guerres des Parthes et de l’Arménie dans la première moitié du premier siècle av. n.è. Problèmes de chronologie et d’extension territoriale (95 B.C.–70 B.C), Mesopotamia 22, 1987, 129– 146; M. J. OLBRYCHT, Mithridates VI Eupator and Iran, in: Mithridates VI and the Pontic Kingdom, ed. J. M. HØJTE, Aarhus 2009, 163–190; M. J. OLBRYCHT, Mithradates I of Parthia and His Conquests up to 141 B.C., in: Hortus Historiae, eds. E. DĄBROWA, M. DZIELSKA, M. SALAMON, S. SPRAWSKI, Kraków 2010, 229–240; M. J. OLBRYCHT, Subjects and Allies: the Black Sea Empire of Mithradates VI Eupator (120–63 BC) Reconsidered, British Archaeological Reports 2240, 2011, 275–281. 33 F. CUMONT, L’iniziazione di Nerone da parte di Tiridate d’Armenia, Rivista di Filologia 61, 1933, 146– 154; A. STÉPANIAN, Le Traité de Randée et le “couronnement" de Tiridate l’Arsacide à Rome, Revue des Études Arméniennes 11, 1975/1976, 205–218; OLBRYCHT 1998, 179–180, 183; D. SALVO, La crisi romano-partica del 54–63 d.C.: la prospettiva romana nel resoconto di Tacito, ὅρμος - Ricerche di Storia Antica n.s. 1, 2008/2009, 226–239. 34 CHAUMONT 1987, 433; MAKSYMIUK 2011, 48. 35 J. WOLSKI, Caucase et Mer Noire entre Rome et les Parthes, in: Actes du XVI ème Congrès International des Scientes Historiques, Bukarest 1980, 27–36; J. WOLSKI, L’Arménie dans la politique du HautEmpire Parthe (env. 175–87 av. n.è.), Iranica Antiqua 15, 1980, 251–267. 36 V. MINORSKY, Transcaucasica, Journal Asiatique 217, 1930, 41–112; С. Т. ЕРЕМЯН, Страна "Махелония" надписи Кааба-и-Зардушт, Вестник древней истории 4, 1967, 47–58; C. TOUMANOFF, Manuel de Généalogie et de Chronologie pour le Caucase chrétien (Arménie, Géorgie, Albanie), Rome 1976; D. BRAUND, Georgia in Antiquity. A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC– AD 562, Oxford 1994; M. BAIS, Albania caucasica: ethnos, storia, territorio attraverso le fonti greche, latine e armene, Milano 2001, 72–148; Ch. SETTIPANI, Continuité des élites à Byzance durant les siècles obscurs: les princes caucasiens et l’Empire du VIe au IXe siècle, Paris 2006; G. SARTOR, L’Empire des Théodoses et les regna Orientis (379–450): politique militaire et diplomatie impériale à l’égard des foederati orientaux, Antiquité Tardive 16, 2008, 43–84; S. H. RAPP, Caucasia and the First Byzantine Commonwealth: Christianization in the Context of Regional Coherence, January 19, 2012 (pdf: http://www.nceeer.org, access 7.04.2012). 37 M. ROSTOWCEW, Caravan Cities, Oxford 1932, 116; C. B. WELLES, The Chronology of Dura, Eos 48, 1956, 467–474; A. RÖSGER, Die Darstellung des Perserfeldzugs des Severus Alexander in der Historia Augusta, Bonner Historia Augusta Colloquium 1975–1976, Antiquitas 4.13, 1978, 167–174; M. L. CHAUMONT, A propos de la chute de Hatra et du couronnement de Shapur Ier, Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 27, 1979, 207–237; J. WIESEHÖFER, Die Anfänge sassanidischer Westpolitik und der Untergang Hatras, Klio 64, 1982, 437–447; KETTENHOFEN 1982, 21–22; W. FELIX, Antike literarische Quellen zur Außenpolitik des Sasanidenstaates, I:224–309, Wien 1985, 36–38; X. LORIOT, Les premières années de la grande crise du III siècle: De l’avènement de Maximin le Thrace (218) à la mort de Gordian III (244), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.2, 1985, 657–787; D. POTTER, Alexander Severus and Ardashir, Mesopotamia 12, 1987, 147–157;

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have been the most important goal of the campaign. On the one hand, the connections of the Hatrene aristocracy with the Arsacids acted as the main motivation, 38 on the other hand, economic competition between Hatra and Hira might have also played a role. 39 Rome reacted rapidly. Although Emperor Gordian III (238–244) managed to regain Carrhae and Nisibis,40 nevertheless he was defeated by Šāpur’s I army in the battle of Pērōz Šāpur in 244 AD 41. The peace treaty concluded by Philip the Arab (244–249) with the Iranian ruler did not introduce any territorial changes in Mesopotamia. Assuming control of Armenia reigned by the Arsacids became of the utmost priority for Šāpur I, which explains why Iran made no territorial claims while the emperor pledged not to intervene in Armenia’s affairs. 42 In the second half of the third century AD Rome was facing crisis and hence the Romans could not engage in effective eastern politics. 43 Šāpur I aptly made use of the circumstances and in 252 r. placed his son Hormozd Ardašīr (252–272) on the Armenian throne.44 In order to prevent any Roman intervention aiming at backing the Arsacids, Šāpur I attacked Syria and Cappadocia (253–256). 45 In the final E. KETTENHOFEN, Die Eröberung von Nisibis und Karrhai durch die Sasaniden in der Zeit Kaiser Maximins (235/236 n.Ch.), Iranica Antiqua 30, 1995, 159–177; MAKSYMIUK 2005, 41–43; EDWELL 2008, 168. 38 MAKSYMIUK 2005, 39–40. 39 WIESEHÖFER 1982, 440. 40 X. LORIOT, Itinera Gordiani Augusti, I, Un voyage de Gordien III à Antioche en 239 après J.C.?, Bulletin de la Societè Française de Numismatique 26.2, 1971, 18–21; E. KETTENHOFEN, The Persian campaign of Gordian III and the inscription of Sapuhr I at the Ka’be-ye Zartošt, in: Armies and frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia. Proceedings of a colloquium held at University College Swansea 1981, ed. S. MITCHELL, Oxford 1983, 151–171; B. HAMACHER, Der Heerzug Gordians III. durch Kleinasien 242, Münstersche Numismatische Zeitung 13, 1983, 19–32; EDWELL 2008, 169–172. 41 LORIOT 1975, 763–774; D. J. MCDONALD, The death of Gordian III - another tradition, Historia 30, 1981, 502–508; KETTENHOFEN 1982, 19; FELIX 1985, 48–49; POTTER 2004, 234; MAKSYMIUK 2005, 55–56; M. A. KAYA, III. Gordianus’un Pers (=Sasani) Seferi: Güzergah, Savaşlar ve İmparatorun Ölümü, Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi 20.1, 2005, 157–167; U. HUTTNER, Von Maximinus Thrax bis Aemilianus, in: Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser. Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. (235–284). Band 1, eds. K. P. JOHNE, Berlin 2008, 161–221, 188. 42 Th. PEKARY, Le «tribut» aux Perses et les finances de Philippe l’Arabe, Syria 38, 1961, 275–283; CHAUMONT 1969, 46; R. GÖBL, Der Triumph des Sasaniden Sahpur über die Kaiser Gordianus, Philippus und Valerianus, Wien 1974, 12; KETTENHOFEN 1982, 34; E. WINTER, Die sasanidisch-römischen Friedensvertrage des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Ch., Frankfurt/Lang 1988, 97–107; C. KÖRNER, Der Perserfriede von 244 n. Chr. und Meilensteinfunde aus Kappadokien, in: Siedlung und Verkehr im römischen Reich, ed. R. FREI-STOLBA, Bern 2004, 317–329; MAKSYMIUK 2005, 57; DIGNAS, WINTER 2007, 119–122; K. MOSIG-WALBURG, Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg 2009, 64. 43 A. ALFÖLDI, Studien zur Geschichte der Weltkrise des 3. Jahrhunderts nach Christus, Darmstadt 1967; F. HARTMANN, Herrscherwechsel und Reichskrise. Untersuchungen zu den Ursachen und Konsequenzen der Herrscherwechsel im Imperium Romanum der Soldatenkaiserzeit (3. Jahrhundert n. Chr.), Frankfurt am Main 1982; B. BLECKMANN, Die Reichskrise des III. Jahrhunderts in der spätantiken und byzantinischen Geschichtsschreibung. Untersuchungen zu den nachdionischen Quellen der Chronik des Johannes Zonaras, München 1992; K. STROBEL, Das Imperium Romanum im „3. Jahrhundert“. Modell einer historischen Krise?, Stuttgart 1993; H. BÖRM, Die Herrschaft des Kaisers Maximinus Thrax und das Sechskaiserjahr 238. Der Beginn der „Reichskrise“?, Gymnasium. Zeitschrift für Kultur der Antike und humanistische Bildung 115, 2008, 69–86; O. HEKSTER, Rome and its Empire, AD 193–284, Edinburgh 2008; Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser. Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. (235–284). Band 1, eds. K. P. JOHNE, Berlin 2008; C. KÖRNER, Transformationsprozesse im Römischen Reich des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Chr, Millennium. Jahrbuch zu Kultur und Geschichte des ersten Jahrtausends n. Chr. 8, 2011, 87–123. 44 CHAUMONT 1976, 171; R. H. HEWSEN, The Successors of Tiridates the Great: A Contribution to the History of Armenia in the Fourth Century, Revue des Études Arméniennes 13, 1978/1979, 99–126; KETTENHOFEN 1982, 41–42; M. SCHOTTKY, Dunkle Punkte in der armenischen Königsliste, Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 27, 1994, 223–235; MOSIG-WALBURG 2009, 80–83. 45 A. ALFÖLDI, Die Hauptereignisse der Jahre 253–261 n. Chr. im Orient im Spiegel der Münzprägung, Berytus 4, 1937, 41–68; W. ENßLIN, Zu den Kriegen des Sassaniden Schapur I, Münich 1949, 33–35; TH. PEKARY, Bemerkungen zur Chronologie des Jahrzehntes 250–260, Historia 11, 1962, 123–128;

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phase of his military campaign he destroyed Dura Europos, 46 which in combination with the earlier destruction of Hatra (in 240), led to the unprecedented increase of Palmyra’s importance in controlling trade routes in Syria. The direct encounter of the Iranian king with the emperor at the battlefield of Edessa ended in Valerian’s (253–260) defeat. 47 Having plundered Syria and the southern coast of Asia Minor, Iranian troops retreated to Iran. 48 Then the Roman army under the leadership of Odenathus, the ruler of Palmyra, encroached on the abandoned territory and, facing no resistence, reached Ctesiphon. 49 The weakness of the Roman Empire, which came to light during Šāpur’s I campaign, enabled Palmyra under the reign of Zenobia to gain control in the Roman east.50 The takeover of power by Aurelian (270– 275) was followed by the conquest of Palmyra and, in the following year, the destruction of the city.51 The demise of Palmyra coincided with the death of Šāpur I, which was the most probable cause of Iranian army’s passivity. The resumption of military activities took place in 283 AD, when Carus (282–283) captured Ctesiphon. However, this success was not fully taken advantage of by Rome, because the emperor died and his son and successor Numerianus (283–284) was soon defeated by Bahrām II (276–293) in the northern Mesopotamia. 52 The reign of Diocletian (284–305) turned out to be decisive for the distribution of power in the Near East. The emperor modernized the defence system by creating limes named Strata Diocletiana. 53 Then in 290 AD he introduced Tiridates III (290– KETTENHOFEN 1982, 79–83; STROBEL 1993, 220–256; MAKSYMIUK 2005, 57–71; U. HARTMANN, Mareades–ein sasanidischer Quisling?, in: Ērān ud Anērān. Studien zu den Beziehungen zwischen dem Sasanidenreich und der Mittelmeerwelt, eds. J. WIESEHÖFER, Ph. Huyse, Stuttgart 2006, 105–142; T. GNOLI, From Praepositus praetenturae to Dux Ripae. The Roman “Grand Strategy” on the Middle Euphrates (2nd–3rd Cent. AD), in: The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest: Proceedings of a Colloquium held at Potenza, Acerenza and Matera, Italy (May 2005), eds. A. LEWIN, P. PELLEGRINI, Oxford 2007, 49–55; MOSIG-WALBURG 2009, 43–44. 46 H. R. BALDUS, Uranius Antoninus. Münzprägung und Geschichte, Bonn 1971, 263–265; C. J. BRUNNER, The Iranian Epigraphic Remains from Dura Europos, Journal of the American Oriental Society 92, 1972, 492–497; B. GOLDMANN, A. M. G. LITTLE, The Beginning of Sassanian Painting and Dura-Europos, Iranica Antiqua 15, 1980, 283–298; D. J. MCDONALD, Dating the Fall of Dura-Europos, Historia 35, 1986, 45–68; S. JAMES, Excavations at Dura-Europos, Final Report VII: The Arms and Armour, and Other Military Equipment, London 2004, 21–35, 30–39. 47 A. ALFÖLDI, Die römische Münzprägung und die historischen Ereignisse im Osten zwischen 260 und 270 n.Chr., Berytus 5, 1938, 47–91, 71; G. ŁOPUSZAŃSKI, La date de la capture de Valérien en la chronologie des empereurs gaulois, Cahiers de l’Institut d’Etudes Polonaises en Belgique 9, Bruxelles 1951, 60; J. GAGÉ, Comment Sapor a-t-il „triomphé” de Valérien?, Syria 42, 1965, 343–388; PEKARY 1962, 123; B. STOLTE, The Roman Emperor Valerian and Sapor I, King of Persia, Rivista degli Studi Orientali 1, 1971, 157–162; R. CARSON, The date of the capture of Valerian I, in: Actes du 9ème Congrès international de numismatique, eds. T. HACKENS, R. WEILLER, Louvain 1982, 461–465; E. KETTENHOFEN, Das Jahr 7 Kaiser Valerians, Nāme-ye Irān-e Bāstān 1, 2001, 17–22; A. GOLTZ, U. HARTMANN, Valerianus und Gallienus, in: Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser. Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr., ed. K. P. JOHNE, Berlin 2008, 223–295. 48 KETTENHOFEN 1982, 97–126; RUBIN 1998, 183‐185; MAKSYMIUK 2005, 72–76; A. LUTHER, Roms mesopotamische Provinzen nach der Gefangennahme Valerians (260), in: Ērān ud Anērān. Studien zu den Beziehungen zwischen dem Sasanidenreich und der Mittelmeerwelt, eds. J. WIESEHÖFER, PH. HUYSE, Stuttgart 2006, 203–219. 49 L. DE BLOIS, Odenatus and the Roman-Persian War of 252–264 A.D., Talanta 6, 1975, 7–23; D. POTTER, Palmyra and Rome. Odenathus’ Titulature and the Use of the Imperium Maius, Zeitschrift für Papirologie und Epigraphik 113, 1996, 271–285; K. MAKSYMIUK, Odenat-Rzymianin czy Palmyreńczyk, EOS 85, 1998, 143–154; HARTMANN 2001, 162–230; SOUTHERN 2008, 57–82. 50 See note 8. 51 MAKSYMIUK 2005, 86–88. 52 T. JONES, A Chronological Problem: The Date of the Death of Carus, The American Journal of Philology 59, 1938, 338–342; H. BIRD, Diocletian and the deaths of Carus, Carinus and Numerian, Latomus 35, 1976, 123–132; FELIX 1985, 100–102; WINTER 1988, 130–137; MAKSYMIUK 2005, 93–94. 53 A. LEWIN, Dall’Eufrate al Mar Rosso: Diocleziano, l’esercito e i confini tardoantichi, Athenaeum 68, 1990, 141–165; J. W. EADIE, The transformation of the eastern frontier 260–305, in: Shifting Frontiers in Late Antiquity, eds. R. W. MATHISEN, H. S. SIVAN, Aldershot/Hampshire 1996, 72–82;

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–330) of the Arsacid dynasty to the Armenian throne.54 Iranian intervention under the leadership of Narseh (293–302) ended in the Roman victory in the battle of Satala.55 The peace treaty concluded in 298 AD, due to which Narseh withdrew from Armenia and renounced his claim to the Trans-Tigritania and established Roman protectorate in Iberia. 56 Apart from the territorial changes, a decision concerning Nisibis, which turned out to be of paramount importance for the later Roman-Iranian relations, was made. Namely Diocletian made this city the only place for trade exchange between the two countries, putting Rome in the privileged position in relation to Iran. 57 The significance of this decision lied in the fact that after the destruction of Hatra, Dura Europos and Palmyra the trade routes moved from the Euphrates to the Tigris. 58 Moreover, it seems that the relocation of the emperor’s seat to Constantinople by Constantine I (305–337) also reflects the shift in the centre of gravity of the Roman politics to the East in the fourth century. 59 Religious activities of Constantine I ushered in a new phase in the Roman-Iranian relations, juxtaposing Christian Rome against Mazdean Iran. 60 During the military actions of Šāpur II (309–379) against Constantius II (337–361), for the first time in the Iranian state mass persecutions of Christians took place, as Christians were suspected of sympathizing with Rome.61 C. ZUCKERMAN, Sur le dispositif frontalier en Arménie, le limes et son évolution, sous le Bas-Empire, Historia 47, 1998, 108–128; B. ISAAC, The Near East under Roman Rule, Amsterdam 1998, 172–205; M. KONRAD, Research on the Roman and early Byzantine frontier in North Syria, Journal of Roman Archaeology 12, 1999, 392–410; A. LEWIN, Diocletian: politics and limites in the Near East, in: Limes XVIII. Proceedings of the 18th international congress of Roman frontier studies held in Amman, Jordan (September 2000), ed. P. FREEMAN, Oxford 2002, 91–101; A. LEWIN, Limitanei and comitatenses in the Near East from Diocletian to Valens, in: L’armée romaine de Dioclétien à Valentinien Ier. Actes du Congrès de Lyon (12–14 septembre 2002), eds. Y. LE BOHEC, C. WOLFF, Paris 2004, 227–236. 54 CHAUMONT 1969, 95–96; C. TOUMANOFF, The Third Century Armenian Arsacids: A Chronological and Genealogical Commentary, Revue des Études Arméniennes 6, 1969, 233–281; E. KETTENHOFEN, Tirdad und die Inschrift von Paikuli. Kritik der Quellen zur Geschichte Armeniens im späten 3. und frühen 4. Jh. n. Chr., Wiesbaden 1995, 48–55. 55 T. D. BARNES, Imperial Campaings A. D. 285–311, Phoenix 30, 1975, 179–186; C. ZUCKERMAN, Les campagnes des tétrarques, 296–298. Notes de chronologie, Antiquité Tardive 2.2, 1993, 65–70; J. EADIE, The Transformation of the Eastern Frontier, 260–305, in: Shifting Frontiers in Late Antiquity, eds. R. MATHISEN, H. SIVAN, Aldershot 1996, 72–82; S. WILLIAMS, Diocletian and the Roman Recovery, London 2000, 78–86; B. LEADBETTER, Galerius and the Eastern Frontier, in: Limes XVIII. Proceedings of the 18th international congress of Roman frontier studies held in Amman, Jordan (September 2000), ed. P. FREEMAN, Oxford 2002, 85–89; DIGNAS, WINTER 2007, 84–88; CANEPA 2009, 84–99; MOSIG-WALBURG 2009, 91–121. 56 WINTER 1988, 152–215; E. WINTER, On the regulation of the Eastern frontier of the Roman Empire in 298 ad, in: The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, eds. D. FRENCH, C. LIGHTFOOT, Oxford 1989, 555–571; DIGNAS, WINTER 2007, 122–130; MOSIG-WALBURG 2009, 122–157. 57 WINTER 1988, 192–199. 58 MILLAR 1994, 438–439; DIGNAS, WINTER 2007, 196. 59 D. BAKER, The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory, Cliodynamics: The Journal of Theoretical and Mathematical History 2.2, 2011, 218–251. 60 T. D. BARNES, Constantine and the Christians of Persia, The Journal of Roman Studies 75, 1985, 126–136; M. R. VIVIAN, A Letter to Shapur: The Effect of Constantine’s Conversion on Roman-Persian Relations, Ann Arbor 1987; K. M. GIRARDET, Die Konstantinische Wende und ihre Bedeutung für das Reich. Althistorische Überlegungen zu den geistigen Grundlagen der Religionspolitik Konstantins d. Gr., in: Die Konstantinische Wende, ed. E. MÜHLENBERG, Gütersloh 1998, 9–122; D. FRENDO, Constantine’s Letter to Shapur II, Its Authenticity, Occasion, and Attendant Circumstances, Bulletin of the Asia Institute 15, 2001, 57–69; V. POGGI, Constantino e la chiesa di Persia, in: Costantino il Grande nell’età bizantina, (Atti del Convegno Internazionale di studio, Ravenna, 5–8 aprile 2001), eds. A. CARILE, G. BONAMENTE, Bologna 2003, 61–95; H. BRANDT, Konstantin der Große. Der erste christliche Kaiser, München 2006, 68–135; C. M. ODAHL, Constantine the Great and Christian Imperial Theocracy, C:ESAR 3, 2007, 89–113; MOSIG-WALBURG 2009, 267–282. 61 P. DEVOS, Les Martyrs persans à traveurs leurs actes syriaques, in: La Persia e il mondo GrecoRomano, Atti del convegno sul tema: La Persia e il mondo Greco-Romano, Roma 11–14 aprile 1965, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei 76, 1966, 213–242; G. G. WIESSNER, Untersuchungen zur syrischen Literaturgeschichte I: Zur Märtyrerüberlieferung aus der Christenverfolgung Schapurs II, Göttingen 1967; W. SCHWAIGERT, Das Christentum in Huzistan im Rahmen der frühen Kirchengeschichte Persiens bis

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Despite numerous individual victories of the Iranian army in Mesopotamia, Rome was successful in sustaining Nisibis, the main aim of Šāpur’s II attacks. 62 The attempts of Šāhānšāh rulers striving to acquire supremacy over Armenia were hindered by the introduction of Christianity in this kingdom by Tiridates III, 63 a step aiming at binding Armenia with the Empire. The two countries’ relations became closer not only on the religious grounds but also politically because Constantine warranted the succession of Tiridates’s son.64 This agreement was most probably a result of the ruler’s problems with the Armenian opposition strongly tied to the Iranian tradition.65 Julian’s (361–363) military expedition proved to be rich in consequences for the entire balance of power in the borderland. Although the emperor reached Ctesi-

zur Synode von Seleukeia-Ktesiphon im Jahre 410, Marburg 1989, 103–175; S. BROCK, Christians in the Sasanian Empire: A Case of Divided Loyalties, Studies in Church History 18, 1982, 1–19; M. L. CHAUMONT, La christianisation de l’Empire iranien: Des origines aux grandes persécutions du 4e siècle, Louvain 1988; K. MOSIG-WALBURG, Die Christenverfolgung Shâpûrs II. vor dem Hintergrund des persisch-römischen Krieges, in: Inkulturation des Christentums im Sasanidenreich, eds. A. MUSTAFA, J. TUBACH, G. VASHALOMIDZE, Wiesbaden 2007, 171–186; MAKSYMIUK 2011, 82–84; K. MAKSYMIUK, Some remarks on Christian church in Iran in the 5th century AD, in: Історія релігій в Україні, Львів 2014, 19–24. 62 J. B. BURY, The date of the battle of Singara, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 5.2, 1896, 302–305; B. H. WARMINGTON, Objectives and Strategy in the Persian War of Constantius II, in: Limes. Acts of the XI Limes Congress, ed. J. FITZ, Budapest 1977, 509–520; M. MAROTH, Le siège de Nisibe en 350 ap. J.-Chr. d’après des sources syriennes, Les Annales Archeologiques Arabes Syriennes 27, 1979, 239– 243; M. PAPATHEOPHANES, The alleged death of Shapur II’s heir at the battle of Singara. A western reconsideration, Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 19, 1986, 249–261; C. S. LIGHTFOOT, Facts and fiction – The third siege of Nisibis, Historia 37.1, 1988, 105–125; R. C. BLOCKLEY, Ammianus Marcellinus on the Persian Invasion of A. D. 359, Phoenix 42, 1988, 244–260; R. C. BLOCKLEY, Constantius II and Persia, in: Studies in Latin Literature and Roman History 5, ed. C. DEROUX, Brüssel 1989, 468–489; C. S. LIGHTFOOT, Sapor before the walls of Amida, in: The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, eds. D. FRENCH, C. LIGHTFOOT, Oxford 1989, 285–294; K. MOSIG-WALBURG, Zur Schlacht bei Singara, Historia 48, 1999, 330–384; R. W. BURGESS, The dates of the first siege of Nisibis and the death of James of Nisibis, Byzantion 69, 1999, 7–17; K. MOSIG-WALBURG, Zur Westpolitik Shapurs II, Studia Iranica 25, 2002, 329–347; N. LEŃSKI, Two Sieges of Amida (AD 359 and 502–503) and the Experience of Combat in the Late Roman Near East, British Archaeological Reports 1717, 2007, 219– 236; MOSIG-WALBURG 2009, 213–215; В. А. ДМИТРИЕВ, К вопросу о месте «ночного» сражения под Сингарой, Вестник Военного университета 3, 2010, 87–90; T. SZELĄG, Amida 359, Warszawa 2012. 63 H. CASTRITIUS, Der Armenienkrieg des Maximinus Daia, Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum 11/12, 1968/1969, 94–103; R. W. THOMSON, Mission, Conversion and Christianization: The Armenian Example, Harvard Ukrainian Studies 12/13, 1989, 28–45; B. ZEKIYAN, Quelques réflexions préliminaires sur l’identité chrétienne de l’Arménie: L’universalité de la Parole et son incarnation dans la vie de l’ethnos = Christian identity of Armenia: The universality of the Word and his incarnation in the life of ethnos, Connaissance des Pères de l’Eglise 81, 2001, 21–37; A. MARDIROSSIAN, Le synode de Valarsapat (491) et la date de la conversion au christianisme du Royaume de Grande Arménie (311), Revue des Études Arméniennes 28, 2001/2002, 249–260; E. KETTENHOFEN, Die Anfänge des Christentums in Armenien, Handēs Amsōreay 116, 2002, 45–104; R. W. THOMSON, Syrian Christianity and the Conversion of Armenia, in: Die Christianiserung des Kaukasus: The Christianization of Caucasus (Armenia, Georgia, Albania), ed. W. SIEBT, Wien 2002, 159–169; W. SEIBT, Der historische Hintergrund und die Chronologie der Christianisierung Armeniens bzw. der Taufe König Trdats (ca. 315), in: Die Christianiserung des Kaukasus: The Christianization of Caucasus (Armenia, Georgia, Albania), ed. W. SIEBT, Wien 2002, 125–133; B. ZEKIYAN, The Iranian Oikumene and Armenia, Iran and the Caucasus 9.2, 2005, 231–256; K. MOSIG-WALBURG, Der Armenienkrieg des Maximinus Daia, Historia 55, 2006, 247–255; A. STERK, Mission from Below: Captive Women and Conversion on the East Roman Frontiers, Church History 79, 2010, 1–39. 64 R. H. HEWSEN, In Search of Tiridates the Great, Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies 2, 1986, 11–49; M. L. CHAUMONT, Une visite du roi d’Arménie. Tiridate III à l’empereur Constantin à Rome?, Byzantina-Sorbonensia 12, 1996, 55–66; R. W. THOMSON, Constantine and Trdat in armenian Tradition, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 50, 1997, 277–289. 65 DIGNAS, WINTER 2007, 180; MAKSYMIUK 2011, 48–56.

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phon, 66 after his death Jovian (363–364) was forced to abandon Diocletian’s acquisitions. According to the subsequent peace treaty the emperor renounced his rights to the Trans-Tigritania, Singara, Castra Maurorum and Nisibis. Although Iran took Nibis, its residents were allowed to leave the city.67 It is likely, that the purpose of this provision written into the treaty was to save the numerous Christian community from possible persecutions.68 Moreover, the treaty demanded the withdrawal of Rome’s backing for Armenian rulers. 69 The Romans did not intend to obey by the treaty. Rome’s reluctant attitude to compliance with the treaty’s regulations was further strengthened by the king’s actions in Iberia aiming at the dethronisation of Sauromaces (361–363/370–378), 70 which eventually shattered the balance of power in the Caucasian region. Shortly after the death of Jovian, counting on Rome’s neutrality in the matter, Šāpur II led his army to Armenia. The Armenian aristocracy’s request for help in overthrowing king Aršak (350–368) served as a convenient pretext for the Iranian ruler.71 King Aršak was murdered and his son Pap (370–375) sought the emperor’s help. In 371 the Roman troops intervened in Armenia, but in the course of military operations previous alliances were reversed, which resulted in the murder of Pap. 72 Varazdat (374–378) introduced to the Armenian throne by Va66 M. BROK, De perzische expeditië van Keizer Julianus volgens Ammianus Marcellinus, Groningen 1959; N. H. AUSTIN, Julian at Ctesiphon: a fresh look at Ammianus’ account, Athenaeum 50, 1972, 301–309; R. T. RIDLEY, Three notes on Julian’s expedition (363), Historia 22, 1973, 317–330; L. TRÜMPELMANN, Triumph über Julian Apostata, Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 25, 1975, 107–111; G. WIRTH, Julians Perserkrieg. Kriterien einer Katastrophe, in: Julian Apostata, ed. R. KLEIN, Darmstadt 1978, 455–507; W. E. KAEGI, Constantine’s and Julian’s strategies of strategic surprise against the Persians, Athenaeum 69, 1981, 209–213; CH. W. FORNARA, Julian’s Persian expedition in Ammianus and Zosimus, Journal of Hellenic Studies 111, 1991, 1–15; M. JACZYNOWSKA, Imitatio Alexandri. Parę uwag na temat perskiej wyprawy cesarza Juliana, Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici, Historia 29, 1996, 133– 148; M. GAWLIKOWSKI, L’empereur Julien sur les bords de l’Euphrate, in: Des Sumériens aux Romains d’Orient: la perception géographique du monde. Espaces et territoires au Proche-Orient ancien. Actes de la table ronde du 16 novembre 1996 organisée par l’URA 1062, ed. A. SÉRANDOUR, Paris 1997, 145–155; E. DĄBROWA, Naval Operations during Persian Expedition of Emperor Julian (363 AD), in: The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest: Proceedings of a Colloquium held at Potenza, Acerenza and Matera, Italy (May 2005), eds. A. LEWIN, P. PELLEGRINI, Oxford 2007, 237–242; MOSIGWALBURG 2009, 283–304; BRODKA 2009, 76–105. 67 J. TEIXIDOR, Conséquences politiques et culturelles de la victoire sassanide à Nisibe, in: Les relations internationales. Actes du colloque de Strasbourg 15–17 juin 1993, eds. E. FRÉZOULS, A. JACQUEMIN, Paris 1995, 499–510. 68 D. BUNDY, Bishop Vologese and the Persian siege of Nisibis in 359 C.E.: A study of Ephrem’s Memre on Nicomedia, Encounter 63, 2002, 55–63; D. BUNDY, Early Asian and East African Christianities, in: The Cambridge History of Christianity, vol. 2, eds. A. CASIDAY, F. NORRIS, Cambridge 2008, 118–148. 69 R. TURCAN, L’abandon de Nisibe et l’opinion publique (363 ap. J.C.), in: Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire offerts à André Piganiol, ed. R. CHEVALIER, Paris, 1966, 875–890; R. C. BLOCKLEY, The Romano-Persian peace treaties of ad 299 and 363, Florilegium 6, 1984, 28–49; B. GUTMANN, Studien zur römischen Aussenpolitik in der Spätantike (364–395 n. Chr.), Bonn 1991, 162–164; E. CHRYSOS, Räumung und Aufgabe von Reichsterritorien. Der Vertrag von 363, Bonner Jahrbücher 193, 1993, 165–202; R. SEAGER, Ammianus and the Status of Armenia in the Peace of 363, Chiron 26, 1996, 275–284; K. EHLING, Der Ausgang des Perserfeldzuges in der Münzpropaganda des Jovian, Klio 78, 1996, 186–191; DIGNAS, WINTER 2007, 131–134; MOSIG-WALBURG 2009, 305–324. 70 C. TOUMANOFF, Studies in Christian Caucasian History, Georgetown 1963, 460–461; E. CHRYSOS, Some Aspects of Roman-Persian Legal Relations, Kleronomia 8, 1976, 1–48; BLOCKLEY 1984, 36–37; BRAUND 1994, 260; N. LEŃSKI, Failure of Empire. Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century a.d., Berkeley/Los Angeles/London 2002, 165; CH. HAAS, Mountain Constantines: The Christianization of Aksum and Iberia, Journal of Late Antiquity 1.1, 2008, 101–126. 71 N. BAYNES, Rome and Armenia in the Fourth Century, English Historical Review 25, 1910, 625–643; GUTMANN 1991, 162–191; MAKSYMIUK 2011, 53. 72 N. G. GARSOÏAN, Politique ou orthodoxie? L’Arménie au quatriéme siécle, Revue des Études Arméniennes 4, 1967, 297–320; HEWSEN 1978/1979, 115–116; GUTMANN 1991, 172; SEAGER 1996, 277–278; LEŃSKI 2002, 167–182; M. MAZZA, Bisanzio e Persia nella tarda antichità: note su guerra e

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lens (364–378) was soon overthrown by the local aristocracy. Ultimately, Armenia was taken over by Šāpur’s II ally, Manuēl Mamikonean (378–385). 73 The death of Šāpur II and the threat of the Gothic raids on Rome 74 enabled Manuēl Mamikonean to remain in power. Another internal war in Armenia, which broke out after his death, led to the partitioning of the country under the ensuing agreement between Theodosius I (378 –395) and Ńāpur III (383–388). 75 In 394 AD Bahrām Šāpur (394– 414), the Iranian king’s brother, came to the throne of Persarmenia. 76 In 428 AD Bahrām V (420–439) changed the status of Armenia by introducing the system of military government, though the position of marzbān could also be held by a member of the local aristocracy. 77 The threat posed by the Hephthalites led to closer relations between Rome and Iran. 78 The only military conflicts in the fifth century were Theodosius’s II (408– 450) failed attempt to take over Nisibis in 421 AD and Yazdgerd’s II (439–457) efforts aiming at receiving financial aid from the Roman Emperor.79 On the basis of the

diplomazia nella seconda metà del IV secolo d.C., in: Da Costantino a Teodosio il Grande: cultura, società, diritto. Atti del Convegno Internazionale Napoli, 26–28 Aprile 2001, ed. U. CRISCUOLO, Napoli 2003, 405–440; N. LEŃSKI, The Chronology of Valens’ Dealings with Persia and Armenia, 364–378 CE, in: Ammianus After Julian: The Reign of Valentinian and Valens in Books 26–31 of the Res Gestae, eds. J. DEN BOEFT, J. W. DRIJVERS, D. DEN HENGST, H. C. TEITLER, Leiden 2007, 95–127. 73 D. M. LANG, Armenia, cradle of civilization, London 1980, 162; SEAGER 1996, 275–284; A. E. REDGATE, The Armenians, Oxford 1999, 137; J. PREISER-KAPELLER, The administrative history of Byzantine Armenia from the 5th to the 7th century, Wien 2001, 45–46; LEŃSKI 2002, 185; V. M. KURKJIAN, History of Armenia, Los Angeles 2008, 107. 74 N. AUSTIN, Ammianus’ Account of the Adrianople Campaign: Some Strategic Observations, Acta Classica 15, 1972, 77–83; T. BURNS, The battle of Adrianople. A reconsideration, Historia 22, 1973, 336– 345; B. RUTKOWSKI, Bitwa pod Adrianopolem (9. VIII. 378 r.) i jej następstwa, Meander 11/12, 1978, 525–539; U. WANKE, Die Gotenkriege des Valens: Studien zur Topographie und Chronologie im unteren Donauraum von 366 bis 378 n. Chr., Bern 1990; M. MĄCZYŃSKA, Wędrówki ludów. Historia niespokojnej epoki IV i V w., Warszawa/Kraków 1996, 76–81; N. LEŃSKI, Initium mali Romano imperio: Contemporary Reactions to the Battle of Adrianople, Transactions of the American Philological Association 127, 1997, 129–168; T. SZELĄG, Bitwa pod Adrianopolem, 9 sierpnia 378, Zabrze 2006; D. GAZDA, Adrianopol 378, rzeka Frigidus 394, 2007, 5–122; R. VAN NORT, The battle of Adrianople and the military doctrine of Vegetius, New York 2007, 1–315; R. EISENBERG, The Battle of Adrianople: A Reappraisal, Hirundo, The McGill Journal of Classical Studies 8, 2009/2010, 108–120. 75 J. DOISE, Le partage de l’Arménie sous Théodose 1er, Revue des Études Anciennes 7, 1945, 274– 277; K. STOCK, Yazdan-Friy-Sapur. Ein Grossgesandter Sapurs III. Ein Beitrag zur persisch-römischen Diplomatie und Diplomatik, Studia Iranica 7, 1978, 165–182; R. C. BLOCKLEY, The division of Armenia between the Romans and Persians at the end of the fourth century ad, Historia 36, 1987, 222–234; G. GREATREX, The background and aftermath of the partition of Armenia in AD 387, Ancient History Bulletin 14, 2000, 35–48. 76 DARYAEE 2009, 43. 77 R. C. BLOCKLEY, East Roman Foreign Policy, Leeds 1992, 60; J. HOWARD-JOHNSTON, The two great powers in late antiquity. A comparison, in: The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East: States, Resources and Armies, ed. A. CAMERON, Princeton 1995, 157–226, 178; N. G. GARSOÏAN, The Marzpanate (428–652), in: The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, ed. R. G. HOVANNISIAN, New York 1997, 95–115; G. GREATREX, Rome and Persia at War 502–532, Leeds 1998, 45; G. TRAINA, La fine del regno d’Armenia, in: La Persia e Bisanzio, Atti dei Convegni dei Lincei, Roma 14–18 ottobre 2002, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei 201, 2004, 353–372. 78 Z. RUBIN, Diplomacy and war in the relations between Byzantium and the Sassanids in the fifth century ad, in: The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, eds. P. FREEMAN, D. KENNEDY, Oxford 1986, 677–695; B. A. LITVINSKY, The Hephthalite Empire, in: History of Civilizations of Central Asia, v. 3, The Crossroads of Civilizations: AD 250 to 750, ed. B. A. LITVINSKY, Paris 1996, 135–162; M. GREATREX, G. GREATREX, The Hunnic Invasion of the East of 395 and the Fortress of Ziatha, Byzantion 69, 1999, 65–75. 79 O. SCHRIER, Syriac Evidence for the Roman-Persian War of 421–422, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 33, 1992, 75–86; BLOCKLEY 1992, 61; G. GREATREX, The two fifth-century Wars between Rome and Persia, Florilegium 12, 1993, 1–14; F. MILLAR, A Greek Roman Empire: power and belief

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agreement reached in 422 AD 80 the emperor consented to covering the costs of defense against the Hephthalites, and both parties pledged to discontinue erection of new strongholds along the border.81 In 502 AD, unable to reimburse Rome for the expenses of his campaigns against the Hephthalites, as well as in response to the claims of Anastasius I (491–518) regarding Nisibis, Kawād I (488–497/499–531) attacked the Roman territory and seized Amida. 82 After the deportation of Amida’s residents to Iran, 83 the king ‘resold’ the city to the emperor. Anastasius I resolved to strengthen the Roman defense system in Mesopotamia, not only by renovation of the existing fortresses but also by building Dara. This decision met with severe protests of the Iranian court. 84 It is difficult to unequivocally point to the cause of the following war, although competition over control of Lazica, 85 financial disagreements and Rome’s attempts to take over Nisibis must have all played a decisive role. The large-scale use of the military forces of their Arabian allies, the Naṣrids and the Jafnids, by both sides of the conflict constituted a novel warfare strategy. The ensuing military operations that took place in the years 527–531 did not bring about any territorial changes in Mesopotamia.86 In 532 AD Xusrō I Anōšīrvān (531–579) made under Theodosius II (408–450), Berkeley 2006, 66–74; G. GREATREX, Deux notes sur Théodose II et les Perses, Antiquité Tardive 16, 2008, 19–25. 80 Renewed in 441. 81 L. SAKO, Le rôle de la hiérarchie syriaque orientale dans les rapports diplomatiques entre la Perse et Byzance aux Ve–VIIe siècles, Paris 1986, 78–80; BLOCKLEY 1992, 58–61; J. WIESEHÖFER, From Achaemenid Imperial Order to Sasanian Diplomacy: War, Peace, and Reconciliation in Pre-Islamic Iran, in: War and Peace in the Ancient World, ed. K. A. RAAFLAUB, Oxford 2007, 121–140, 131; MAKSYMIUK 2011, 46–47. 82 А. ЧЕКАЛОВА, Иешу Стилит или Прокопий? (К вопросу о манере изображения греческими и сирийскими авторами войны между Византией и Ираном в 502–506 гг.), Византийский Временник 42, 1981, 71–77; GREATREX 1998, 83–119; M. DEBIÉ, Du Grec en Syriaque: La transmission du récit de la prise d’Amid (502) dans l’historiographie, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 96, 2004, 601– 622; K. KLEIBER, Alexander’s Caspian Wall - A Turning-Point in Parthian and Sasanian Military Architecture?, Folia Orientalia 42/43, 2006/2007, 173–195; LEŃSKI 2007, 219–236; M. MEIER, Anastasios I. Die Entstehung des Byzantinischen Reiches, Stuttgart 2009, 194–201; G. GREATREX, Procopius and Pseudo-Zachariah on the Siege of Amida and its Aftermath (502–6), in: Commutatio et Contentio: Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East in Memory of Zeev Rubin, eds. H. BÖRM, J. WIESEHÖFER, Düsseldorf 2010, 227–251. 83 Ch. JULLIEN, La minorité chrétienne 'grecque' en terre d’Iran à l’époque sassanide, in: Chrétiens en terre d’Iran: implantation et acculturation, ed. R. GYSELEN, Paris 2006, 105–142. 84 B. CROKE, Marcellinus and Dara: a fragment of his lost de temporum qualitatibus et positionibus locorum, Phoenix 38, 1984, 77–88; L. M. WHITBY, Procopius and the development of defences in Upper Mesopotamia, in: The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, eds. P. FREEMAN, D. KENNEDY, Oxford 1986, 717–735; B. ISAAC, The Limits of Empire. The Roman Army in the East, Oxford 1992, 254– 255; K. KARAPLI, Δάρας, μια πόλη-φρούριο στην Άνω Μεσοποταμία (6ος-11ος αιώνες), in: Κλητόριον εις μνήμην Νίκου Οικονομίδη, ed. A. KIUSOPULU, Athens/Thessalonike 2005, 137–160. 85 C. TOUMANOFF, Christian Caucasia between Byzantium and Iran. New Light from Old Sources, Traditio 10, 1954, 109–189; C. TOUMANOFF, Armenia and Georgia, in: The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 4.1, ed. J. HUSSEY, Cambridge 1966, 593–637; M. G. ANGELI BERTINELLI, Al confine tra l’impero romano e la Persia in età tardoantica: la questione della Lazica, Quaderni catanesi di studi classici e medievali 1, 1989, 117–146; D. BRAUND, Procopius on the economy of Lazica, The Classical Quarterly 41.1, 1991, 221–225; A. CARILE, Il Caucaso e l’Impero Bizantino (secoli VI–XI), in: Il Caucaso: cerniera fra culture dal Mediterraneo alla Persia, Settimane di Studi del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’Alto Medioevo 43, 1996, 9–80. 86 R. SCOTT, Diplomacy in the sixth century: the evidence of John Malalas, in: Byzantine Diplomacy, eds. J. SHEPARD, S. FRANKLIN, Aldershot 1992, 159–165; SHAHÎD 1995, 134–142; GREATREX 1998, 151–214; В. В. СЕРОВ, Персидские войны Юстиниана I: финансовый аспект, Алтайский государственный университет. Востоковедные исследования на Алтае: сборник статей, Барнаул 2, 2000, 29–44; J. F. HALDON, The Byzantine Wars: Battles and Campaigns of the Byzantine Era, Stroud 2001, 28–35; G. GREATREX, Byzantium and the East in the Sixth Century, in: The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian, ed. M. MAAS, Cambridge 2005, 477–509; A. D. LEE, The Empire at War, in: The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian, ed. M. MAAS, Cambridge 2005, 113–133; H. ELTON, Army and Battle in the Age of Justinian (527–65), in: A Companion to the Roman Army, ed. P. ERDKAMP, Oxford 2007, 532–550; C. LILLINGTON-MARTIN, Archaeological and Ancient Literary Evidence

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peace with Justinian I (527–565) due to which he withdrew his army from Lazica. 87 Financial problems connected with the state reforms introduced by Xusrō I 88 were the cause of the renewed Iranian attacks on the Roman territory. In 540 AD taking advantage of Justinian’s I engagement in Europe,89 Xusrō I was able to intrude as far as Antioch.90 The following year a conflict broke out in Lazica, 91 whose ruler Gubazes II (541–555) acknowledged the supremacy of Iran. The Iranian troops took over Petra from the Roman hands. 92 Resumed military operations were carried out in 542 AB but were soon suspended due to the outbreak of the plague which decimated the inhabitants of Syria 93. In 543 AD Justinian decided on the breach of the policy of non-intervention in Armenia’s internal affairs. The Roman troops undertook a failed attempt to capture Dvin, while at the same time the Iranian army entered Mesopotamia. 94 The ceasefire agreement of 545 AD did not include Lazica, turned to Justinian I with the request for his intervention whose ruler in 548 AD. 95 In 549 AD the Roman army secured victory over the Iranian forces on the river Hippis, however due to the reversal of alliances, Iranians were driven away from Lazica only as late as seven years later.96 The peace treaty of 562 AD ensured Roman protectorate in Lazica.97 Justinian’s successor, Justin II (565–578), sought war with the for a Battle Near Dara Gap, Turkey, AD 530: Topography, Texts and Trenches, British Archaeological Reports 1717, 2007, 299–311; I. HUGHES, Belisarius: The Last Roman General, Yardley 2009, 36–64; K. MAKSYMIUK, Problem obrony Kaukazu w relacjach irańsko-rzymskich w okresie sasanidzkim, in: Między wschodem a zachodem. Kaukaz wczoraj i dziś, ed. K. ŻARNA, D. POPEK, Rzeszów 2013. 87 P. CRONE, Kavad’s heresy and Mazdak’s revolt, Iran 29, 1991, 31–33; GREATREX 1998, 213–218; M. MEIER, Das andere Zeitalter Justinians. Kontingenzerfahrung und Kontingenzbewältigung im 6. Jahrhundert n.Chr., Göttingen 2003, 294; GREATREX 2005, 488; A. DEMANDT, Die Spätantike, römische Geschichte von Diocletian bis Justinian 284–565 n. Chr., München 2007, 240; S. MITCHELL, A History of the Later Roman Empire AD 284–641. The Transformation of the Ancient World, Oxford 2007, 395; MAKSYMIUK 2011, 96. 88 M. GRIGNASCHI, La riforma tributaria di Hosro I e il feudalismo Sassanide, in: La Persia nel medioevo, Atti del convegno sul tema: La Persia nel Medioevo, Roma, 31 marzo–5 aprile 1970, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei 160, 1971, 87–147; G. GNOLI, The Quadripartition of the Sassanian Empire, East and West 35, 1985, 265–270; Z. RUBIN, The Reforms of Khusro Anushirwan, in: The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East 3: States, Resources and Armies, eds. A. CAMERON, L. CONRAD, Princeton 1995, 227–297; A. GARIBOLDI, Il regno di Xusraw dall’anima immortale: riforme economiche e rivolte sociali nell’Iran sasanide del VI secolo, Milano 2006; OLBRYCHT 2010, 245–246; M. R. JACKSON BONNER, Six Problèmes d’interprétation dans les règnes de Pērōz, Balāš, Jāmāsp et Kavād, Historia i Świat 4, 2015, 101–119. 89 J. A. S. EVANS, The Age of Justinian: Circumstances of Imperial Power, London/New York 1996, 126–150; R. BROWNING, Justinian and Theodora, Piscataway 2003, 101–114; T. C. JACOBSEN, The Gothic War: Rome’s final conflict in the West, Yardley 2009; HUGHES 2009, 111–182. 90 G. DOWNEY, The Persian Campaign in Syria in A.D. 540, Speculum 28, 1953, 340–348; M. WHITBY, Procopius and Antioch, in: The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, eds. D. FRENCH, C. S. LIGHTFOOT, Oxford 1989, 537–553; E. KISLINGER, D. STATHAKOPOULOS, Pest und Perserkriege bei Prokop. Chronologische Überlegungen zum Geschehen 540–545, Byzantion 69, 1999, 76–98; GREATREX 2005, 489; H. BÖRM, Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum. Chosroes I und der sasanidische Einfall in das Oströmische Reich 540 n. Chr., Chiron 36, 2006, 301–328; MAKSYMIUK 2011, 96–98. 91 I. COLVIN, Procopius and Agathias on Roman and Sasanian intervention in Lazika in the sixth century, Oxford 2003. 92 BRAUND 1994, 292–297. 93 P. HORDEN, Mediterranean plague in the Age of Justinian, in: The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian, ed. M. MAAS, Cambridge 2005, 134–160; F. RETIEF, L. CILLIERS, The epidemic of Justinian (542 AD), Acta Theologica Supplementum 7, 2005, 115–127; H. N. KENNEDY, Justinianic Plague in Syria and the Archaeological Evidence, in: Plague and the End of Antiquity. The Pandemic of 541–750, ed. L. K. LITTLE, Cambridge 2006, 87–98. 94 MAKSYMIUK 2011, 99. 95 T. SIZGORICH, Reasoned Violence and Shifty Frontiers: Shared Victory in the Late Roman East, in: Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices, ed. H. A. DRAKE, Aldershot 2006, 165–174; MAKSYMIUK 2011, 100. 96 BRAUND 1994, 296–311; GREATREX, LIEU 2002, 111–122; GREATREX 2005, 489. 97 I. SHAHÎD, The Arabs in the Peace Treaty of AD 561, Arabica 3, 1956, 181–213; S. VEROSTA, Die oströmisch-persischen Verträge von 562 n. Chr. und ihre Bedeutung für das Völkerrecht, Anzeiger

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Iranian state, which may be evidenced by his claims of renegotiating the treaty of 562 AD. 98 Preparing for the warfare Justin II initiated negotiations with the Turks, 99 in response to which Xusrō I made military intervention in Arabia. 100 In 572 AD Justin II financially aided the anti-Iranian uprising in Armenia, 101 while the Roman army made a failed attempt to regain Nisibis. A swift counter-attack of the Iranian army ensued, with the result of seizing Dara by Xusrō. 102 Taking advantage of the reversed alliances, Xusrō I apointed the member of local aristocracy, Gōrgōn Mehrān, to the position of marzbān, thanks to whom Iranian control in Armenia was gradually restored. 103 Since 577 AD peace negotiations were conducted, in which one of the key provisions was Iran’s supremacy over Armenia. These prolonged negotiations were caused by the death of the rulers both in Rome and in Iran. 104 The rejection of the new peace treaty by Hormozd IV (579–590) led to the

der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Kl. 102, 1965, 153–156; P. ANTONOPOULOS, Peter the Patrician. The Byzantine diplomat, official and author, Athens 1990, 110–111; SHAHÎD 1995, 268–272; DIGNAS, WINTER 2007, 138–148; MITCHELL 2007, 394; WIESEHÖFER 2007, 132–134; A. D. LEE, Treaty-making in Late Antiquity, in: War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History, eds. Ph. DE SOUZA, J. FRANCE, Cambridge 2007, 107–119; I. DIMITROUKAS, The Trip of the Great Persian Embassies to Byzantium Duringt he Reign of Justinian I (527–565) and its Logistics, BYZANTINA ΣΥΜΜΕΙΚΤΑ 18, 2008, 171–184; A. GARIBOLDI, Le clausole economiche della Pace dei 50 anni (561/62), Bizantinistica 2.11, 2009, 249–259; A. PANAINO, Il duplice volto del protocollo aggiuntivo sulle minoranze religiose nella “Pace dei 50 anni”, Bizantinistica 2.11, 2009, 273–299; A. DE SIENA, La politica dell’equilibrio romano-iranico e le nationes mediae di area caucasica: il caso della Lazica nel 561, Bizantinistica 2.11, 2009, 229–248; E. NECHAEVA, Embassies, negotiations, gifts : systems of East Roman diplomacy in Late Antiquity, Stuttgart 2014, 113–116. 98 H. TURTLEDOVE, Justin II’s observance of Justinian’s Persian Treaty of 562, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 76, 1983, 292–301. 99 M. GRIGNASCHI, La chute de l’empire hephthalite dans les sources byzantines et perses et le problème des Avars, Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 28, 1980, 219–248; J. HARMATTA, The struggle for the „Silk Route” between Iran, Byzantium and the Turk empire from 560 to 630 A.D., in: Kontakte zwischen Iran, Byzanz und der Steppe im 6.–7. Jahrhundert, ed. C. BÁLINT, Budapest 2000, 249–252. 100 TURTLEDOVE 1983, 298; BOSWORTH 1983, 606–607; SHAHÎD 1995, 364–372. 101 L. M. WHITBY, The Emperor Maurice and his Historian: Theophylact Simocatta in Persian and Balkan Warfare, Oxford 1988, 250–275; N. G. GARSOÏAN, L’Eglise arménienne et le grand schisme d’Orient, Louvain 1999, 250–262; WHITBY 1988, 254–256; S. P. COWE, The significance of the Persian War (571–91) in the Narratio de rebus Armeniae, Le Muséon 104, 1991, 265–276; B. ISAAC, The army in the late Roman East: the Persian Wars and the defence of the Byzantine provinces, in: The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East 3: States, Resources and Armies, eds. A. CAMERON, L. CONRAD, Princeton 1995, 125–155; Z. RUBIN, Armenia in the fifth and sixth century, in: The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14, eds. A. CAMERON, B. WARD-PERKINS, M. WHITBY, Cambridge 2000, 662–677; J. PREISERKAPELLER, Kaysr, tun und ’asabiyya. Der armenische Adel und das Byzantinische Reich im späten 6. Jh. in der Darstellung des Sebeos zugeschriebenen Geschichtswerks, in: Junge Römer-Neue Griechen. Eine byzantinische Melange aus Wien. Beiträge von Absolventinnen und Absolventen des Instituts für Byzantinistik und Neogräzistik der Universität Wien, eds. M. POPOVIC, J. PREISER-KAPELLER, Wien 2008, 187–202; J. HOWARD-JOHNSTON, The Sasanians Strategig Dilemma, in: Commutatio et Contentio: Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East in Memory of Zeev Rubin, eds. H. BÖRM, J. WIESEHÖFER, Düsseldorf 2010, 52. 102 H. TURTLEDOVE, The Immediate Successors of Justinian, Los Angeles 1977, 205–211. 103 S. SZADECZKY-KARDOSS, Bemerkungen zur Geschichte (Chronologie und Topographie) der sassanidisch-byzantinischen Kriege, Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 24, 1976, 109–114; POURSHARIATI 2008, 103. 104 Justin died in 578; Xusrō I Anōšīrvān died in 579; HOWARD-JOHNSTON 2010, 54–55.

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eruption of another war waged in years 580–589 in Mesopotamia, 105 Armenia and the Caucasian region.106 In 589 AD the commander of the Iranian army, Bahrām VI Čōbīn, rebelled against Hormozd IV. 107 The king was murdered and his son Xusrō II (590–628) sought help with the Roman emperor. Joint armies defeated Bahrām VI Čōbīn in the battle of 591 AD on the river Blarathos in Atropatene 108. In return for the Roman intervention and assistance in the fight with the usurper, under the subsequent peace treaty Xusrō II ceded a substantial territiory to Rome.109 It was obvious that Iran would seek any pretext for changing the political balance in the near East. Such an opportunity appeared in 602 AD with the outbreak of Phocas’s (602–610) mutiny.110 Between 603 AD and 610 AD Xusrō II, on the pretext of removing the usurper, captured Roman fortresses in Mesopotamia and Armenia. Then within the course of several years the Iranian troops got hold of Jerusalem, Ephesus and Chalcedon. The conquest of Egypt constituted the culmination of the campaign.111 Only in 622 AD was is possible for the Romans under the reign of Heraclius (610–641) to undertake counter-offensive. According to the Christian accounts, the novel character of Heraclius’s campaign was revealed in its very name as ‘a crusade’ revenging the act of looting the relics of the holy cross from Jerusalem.112 In the course of milE. STEIN, Studien zur Geschichte des byzantinischen Reiches, vornehmlich unter den Kaisern Justinus II und Tiberius Constantinus, Stuttgart 1919, 93–95; TOUMANOFF 1963, 380–382; M. SARTRE, Trois études sur l’Arabie romaine et byzantine, Bruxelles 1982, 190–192; WHITBY 1988, 274; SHAHÎD 1995, 455–478; GREATREX, LIEU 2002, 162–166. 106 M. HIGGINS, The Persian War of the Emperor Maurice (582–602). Part I: The Chronology, with a Brief History of the Persian Calendar, Washington 1939, 38–40; TOUMANOFF 1963, 380–381; WHITBY 1988, 277–280; GREATREX, LIEU 2002, 167–181. 107 See note 11. 108 HIGGINS 1939, 53–54; P. RIEDLBERGER, Die Restauration von Chosroes II, in: Ancient Iran and the Mediterranean World, ed. E. DĄBROWA, Kraków 1998, 161–175; S. TYLER-SMITH, Calendars and coronations: the literary and numismatic evidence for the accession of Khusrau II, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 28, 2004, 33–65; POURSHARIATI 2008, 128–130. 109 E. HONIGMANN, Die Ostgrenze des Byzantinisches Reiches, Bruxelles 1935, 29–30; P. GOUBERT, Byzance avant l’Islam. vol. I: Byzance et l’orient sous les successeurs de Justinien, l’empereur Maurice, Paris 1951, 167–170; WHITBY 1988, 304; E. WINTER, Legitimität als Herrschaftsprinzip: Kaiser und „König der Könige” im wechselseitigen Verkehr, in: Migratio et Commutatio, eds. H. J. DREXHAGE, J. SÜNSKES, St. Katharinen 1989, 72–92. 110 WHITBY 1988, 388; J. LIEBESCHUETZ, Decline and fall of the Roman city, Oxford 2003, 255. 111 M. MORONY, Syria under the Persians, 610–629, in: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the History of Bilad al-Sham during the Early Islamic Period, eds. M. BAKHIT, I. ABBAS, Amman 1987, 87– 95; R. ALTHEIM-STIEHL, Wurde Alexandria im Juni 619 n. Chr. durch die Perser erobert? Bemerkungen zur zeitlichen Bestimmung der sâsânidischen Besetzung Ägyptens unter Chosrau II. Parwêz, Tyche 6, 1991, 3–16; R. ALTHEIM-STIEHL, The Sasanians in Egypt-Some Evidence of Historical Interest, Bulletin de la Société d’Archéologie Copte 31, 1992, 87–96; J. RUSSELL, The Persian invasion of Syria/Palestine and Asia Minor in the reign of Heraclius: archaeological and numismatic evidence, in: The Dark Centuries of Byzantium (7th–9th c.), ed. E. KONTOURA-GALAKE, Athens 2001, 41–71; E. VENETIS, The Sassanid Occupation of Egypt (7th Cent. AD) According to Some Pahlavi Papyri Abstracts, Greco–Arabica 9/10, 2004, 403–412; POURSHARIATI 2008, 140–149; A. GARIBOLDI, Social Conditions in Egypt under the Sasanian Occupation (619–629 CE), La Parola del passato 64, 2009, 321–353; G. AVNI, The Persian Conquest of Jerusalem (614 C.E.)-An Archaeological Assessment, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 357, 2010, 35–48; Ö. SUBAŞI, Bizans İmparatorlarının Theodosiopolis ve Çevresindeki Faaliyetleri, Turkish Studies 5.3, 2010, 1827–1859; Y. STOYANOV, Defenders and Enemies of the True Cross: the Sasanian Conquest of Jerusalem in 614 and Byzantine Ideology of Anti-Persian Warfare, Vienna 2011; J. MAGNESS, Archaeological Evidence for the Sasanian Persian Invasion of Jerusalem, in: Shaping the Middle East: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in an Age of Transition 400–800 C.E., eds. K. HOLUM, H. LAPIN, Maryland, 2011, 85–98; P. SÄNGER, The Administration of Sasanian Egypt: New Masters and Byzantine Continuity, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 51, 2011, 653–665. 112 A. FROLOW, La vraie croix et les expéditions d’Héraclius en Perse, Revue des Études Byzantines 11, 1953, 88–105; V. GRUMEL, La reposition de la vraie croix à Jérusalem par Héraclius. Le jour et l’année, Zeitschrift für Byzantinistik 1, 1966, 139–149; J. W. DRIJVERS, Heraclius and the Restitutio Crucis. 105

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itary operations in 624 AD the Roman troops captured and destroyed one of the main Mazdean temples, Ādur Gušnasp. 113 The unsuccessful siege of Constantinople in 626 AD by the allied forces of the Avars and the Iranians proved to be a turning point of the war. Heraclius won a decisive victory in the battle of Niniveh 114 and, without any resistance of the Iranian forces, reached Ctesiphon.115 The last of the Roman-Iranian wars ended with the palace coup, due to which Xusrō II was murdered. 116 Status quo ante bellum was restored in the East.117

1. 3. Principles of map design The maps have been divided into three categories. The first of them is devoted to military conflicts (2. 1) and is marked with I, the second group concerns territorial changes resulting from the peace treaties (2. 2) is marked with II while the third collection (2. 3) marked with III includes maps depicting changes to the Roman-Iranian border in particular time periods, a map showing territories of the Naṣrids and the Jafnids as well as a map of the Roman defense system in the south, known as Strata Diocletiana (III. 9; III. 10). 118

Notes on symbolism and ideology, in: The Reign of Heraclius (610–641). Crisis and Confrontation, eds. J. REININK, B. STOLTE, Leuven 2002, 175–190; N. BERGAMO, Expeditio persica of Heraclius: Holy War or Crusade?, Porphyra 12, 2008, 94–107. 113 H. HUMBACH, Atur Gušnasp (Alur Gusnasp und Takht i Suleiman), in: Festschrift für Wilhelm Eilers, ed. G. WIESSNER, Wiesbaden 1967, 189–191; M. BOYCE, Adur Gushnasp, Encyclopaedia Iranica 1, 1985, 475–476. 114 12 December 627: W. KAEGI, Heraclius. Emperor of Byzantium, Cambridge 2003, 161. 115 V. MINORSKY, Roman and Byzantine Campaigns in Atropatene, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 11, 1944, 243–265; Я. A. МАНАНДЯН, Маршруты персидских походов императора Ираклия, Византийский временник 3, 1950, 133–153; N. OIKONOMIDES, A chronological note on the first Persian campaign of Heraclius (622), Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 2, 1976, 1–9; J. M. FIEY, The Last Byzantine Campaign into Persia and Its Influence on the Attitude of the Local Populations Towards the Muslim Conquerors 7–16 H./628 AD, in: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the History of Bilad al-Sham During the Early Islamic Period up to 40 AH/640 AD, ed. M. A. BAKHIT, Amman 1987, 96–103; P. SPECK, Das geteilte Dossier. Beobachtungen zu den Nachrichten über die Regierung des Kaisers Herakleios und die seiner Söhne bei Theophanes und Nikephoros, Bonn 1988; J. HOWARD-JOHNSTON, The Official History of Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns, in: The Roman and Byzantine Army in the East, ed. E. DĄBROWA, Kraków 1994, 57–87; J. HOWARDJOHNSTON, Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns and the Revival of the East Roman Empire, 622–630, War in History 6, 1999, 1–44; C. ZUCKERMAN, Heraclius in 625, Revue des Études Byzantines 60, 2002, 189–197; P. COBB, W. KAEGI, Heraclius, Shahrbaraz and Tabarı, in: al-Tabarī: A Medieval Muslim Historian and His Work, ed. H. KENNEDY, Princeton 2002, 121–143; M. WHITBY, George of Pisidia’s presentation of the emperor Heraclius and his campaigns: variety and development, in: The Reign of Heraclius (610–641). Crisis and Confrontation, eds. J. REININK, B. STOLTE, Leuven 2002, 157–174; F. TROMBLEY, Military cadres and battle during the reign of Heraclius, in: The Reign of Heraclius (610– 641). Crisis and Confrontation, eds. J. REININK, B. STOLTE, Leuven 2002, 240–260; J. HOWARDJOHNSTON, Pride and Fall: Khusro II and His Regime, 626–628, in: La Persia e Bisanzio, Atti del Convegno internazionale (Roma, 14–18 ottobre 2002), Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei 201, 2004, 93–114; W. SEIBT, ... Zog Herakleios 625 wirklich in das “Land der Hunnen”?, in: Byzantina Mediterranea, eds. K. BELKE, E. KISLINGER, Wien 2007, 589–596; POURSHARIATI 2008, 149–153. 116 POURSHARIATI 2008, 153–160; T. DARYAEE, When the End is Near: Barbarized Armies and Barracks Kings of Late Antique Iran, in: Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies, Proceedings of the 6th European Conference of Iranian Studies, held in Vienna, 18–22 September 2007, eds. M. MACUCH, D. WEBER, D. DURKIN-MEISTERERNST, Wiebaden 2010, 43–52. 117 The peace treaty of 628 between Heraclius and Kawād aimed at a restoration the borders would be those which had existed between Rome and Iran before the beginning of the war in the year 602; A. STRATOS, Byzantium in the Seventh century, Amsterdam 1968, 245–256; N. OIKONOMIDÈS, Correspondence between Heraclius and Kavadh-Široe in the Paschal Chronicle (628), Byzantion 41, 1971, 269–281; GREATREX, LIEU 2002, 226–227; DIGNAS, WINTER 2007, 148–151. 118 For better readability, the author omitted to mark landforms on the maps.

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Each of the maps in 2. 1 and 2. 2 is accompanied by a short description and references to the source texts on the basis of which it has been constructed. 119 Despite unavoidability of certain repetitions, the author opted for the listing of all the relevant references separately for each of the maps as well as for general bibliography to section 2. 3. An obvious necessity in the work of this type was the inclusion of the index of geographical names, which is placed in section 3. In comparison to the Polish edition of this book, the current work also contains the index of personal names. The next part lists the full references to the cited text sources. The work is completed with an appendix including parallel chronologically ordered lists of Roman and Iranian rulers. Although in the literature of the field it has been customary to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire, established after the death of Theodosius I (379–395), as the Byzantine Empire, nevertheless for its inhabitants the state was a direct continuation of the Roman Empire. 120 Thus, in the source text encompassing the researched period the term Byzantine Empire was never used in reference to the Eastern Roman Empire. This observation does not concern only the so called western accounts. According to the Iranian texts from the Sasanian period, the neighbouring country in the west was called Rome.121 Therefore, in the listing of the rulers the author did not introduce the division into the Roman and Byzantine emperors. Following the appendix the reader may find several photos showing the remnants of the defense system in the Near East as well as a relief of Xusrō II Parvēz of Taq-e Bostan, depicting the image of a heavy armoured Iranian horse rider. 122

119 The numbers of books and chapters are the same as the ones given by the publisher. However, in some cases where the division into chapters was not clear, the page numbers are given. 120 MILLAR 2006, 4–7; A. KALDELLIS, Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition, Cambridge 2007, 1–9; L. JAMES, Byzantium: A Very, Very Short Introduction, in: A Companion to Byzantium, ed. L. JAMES, Chichester/Malden 2010, 1–8. 121 MAKSYMIUK 2011, 33. 122 M. MICHALAK, The origins and development of sassanian heavy cavalry, Folia Orientalia 24, 1987, 73–86; M. MIELCZAREK, Cataphracti and clibanarii. Studies on the Heavy Armoured Cavalry of the Ancient World, Łódź 1993; M. ZAKERI, Sāsānid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society: The Origins of ’Ayyārān and Futuwwa, Wiesbaden 1995, 48–56; J. MOVASSAT, The Large Vault at Taq-i Bustan: A Study in Late Sasanian Royal Art, Lewiston 2005; P. SKUPNIEWICZ, O ciężkozbrojnej jeździe Sasanidów, Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici. Archeologia 30, 2006, 151–174; M. COMPARETTI, Iconographical Notes on Some Recent Studies on Sasanian Religious Art (with an Additional Note on an Ilkhanid Monument, by Rudy Favaro), Annali di Ca’ Foscari 45.3, 2006, 163–200.

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2. Maps 2. 1. Military operations, directions of march routes, battle sites (229–628) Map I. 1. Military operations in 229–240

Striving for direct military confrontation with Rome, Ardašīr I (224–242) marched his troops to Roman Cappadocia, and then made an attempt to seize Nisibis (229). Emperor Severus Alexander (222–235) ordered concentration of the army in Antioch (231). His plan was to carry out a simultaneous attack from three directions: from the north through the mountains of Armenia, from the west through Mesopotamia and from the south through the Syrian Desert and Dura Europos (the main part of the forces, under the command of the emperor himself). The intrusion of Roman troops onto the Iranian territory forced Ardašīr to abandon the siege of Nisibis and to march in the direction of Ctesiphon (232). Presumably, the Iranian troops encountered the southern group, though no details of the battle are known. Ultimately, the Iranian campaign terminated with Severus Alexander’s decision to retreat to Antioch (233). Taking advantage of Rome’s weakness, resulting from the change on the Roman throne, the Iranian ruler conquered Carrhae, Nisibis and Hatra (238–240). Yet, he was not able to take over Dura Europos (239). Antioch: Herodian VI 4. 3; VI 6. 2–4; VI 6. 6; Historia Augusta, Severus Alexander 53. 2 Armenia: Cassius Dio LXXX 3. 3; Herodian VI 5. 1; VI 5. 5; Historia Augusta, Severus Alexander 58. 1; Ioannes Zonaras XII 15 Cappadocia: Georgius Syncellus, p. 437; Ioannes Zonaras XII 15

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Carrhae: Ioannes Zonaras XII 18; Georgius Syncellus, p. 443 Dura Europos: SEG 7 (1934) 743b Euphrates: Herodian VI 5. 2 Hatra: Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis 18. 1–16; Cassius Dio LXXX 3. 2 Media: Cassius Dio LXXX 3. 3; Herodian VI 5. 1; VI 5. 5; VI 5. 7; VI 6. 2 Mesopotamia: Cassius Dio LXXX 4. 1–2; Herodian VI 2. 1–2; VI 2. 5; VI 6. 4–5; Ioannes Zonaras XII 15 Nisibis: Georgius Syncellus, p. 437; p. 443; Ioannes Zonaras XII 15 Palmyra: CISem. II 3932 Parthia: Cassius Dio LXXX 3. 3: Herodian VI 5. 6–7; VI 6. 5 Persia (Persis) 123: Herodian VI 5. 7 Syria: Cassius Dio LXXX 4. 1–2; Herodian VI 2. 1–2; Ioannes Zonaras XII 15 Tigris: Herodian VI 2. 1; VI 5. 2 Bibliography: ASDOURIAN P. (1911): Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen Armenien und Rom, von 190 v. Chr. bis 428 n. Chr. Ein Abriss der armenischen Geschichte in dieser Periode, Venedig, 121–125. CHAUMONT M. L. (1979): A propos de la chute de Hatra et du couronnement de Shapur Ier, Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 27, 207–237. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 71–77. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1991): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History (AD 226–363), New York, 13–28. EDWELL P. (2008): Between Rome and Persia, The middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra under Roman control, New York, 151–177. FELIX W. (1985): Antike literarische Quellen zur Außenpolitik des Sasanidenstaates, I:224–309, Wien, 36–38. HALFMANN H. (1986): Itinera principium. Geschichte und Typologie der Kaiserreisen im Römischen Reich, Stuttgart, 231–233. KETTENHOFEN E. (1982): Die römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts. n. Chr. Nach der Inschrift Sāhpuhrs I. an der Ka’be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ), Wiesbaden, 21–22. KETTENHOFEN E. (1995): Die Eröberung von Nisibis und Karrhai durch die Sasaniden in der Zeit Kaiser Maximins (235/236 n.Ch.), Iranica Antiqua 30, 159–177.

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Persia in the meaning of a province and not a state (Persis).

LORIOT X. (1975): Les premières années de la grande crise du III siècle: De l’avènement de Maximin le Thrace (218) à la mort de Gordian III (244), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.2, 657–787. MAKSYMIUK K. (2005): Polityka Sasanidów wobec wschodnich prowincji Cesarstwa Rzymskiego w III w. n.e., Siedlce, 41–43. MARICQ A. (1957): Les dernières années de Hatra: L’alliance romaine, Syria 34, 288–296. MILLAR F. (1993): The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337, Cambridge, 147–151. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2009): Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg, 26–31. POTTER D. (1987): Alexander Severus and Ardashir, Mesopotamia 12, 147–157. POTTER D. (2004): The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, London/New York, 234. RÖSGER A. (1978): Die Darstellung des Perserfeldzugs des Severus Alexander in der Historia Augusta, in: Bonner Historia Augusta Colloquium 1975–1976, Antiquitas 4, 13, 167–174. WIESEHÖFER J (1982): Die Anfänge sassanidischer Westpolitik und der Untergang Hatras, Klio 64, 439–440. WÓJCIKOWSKI R. S. (2015): Kawaleria perska w okresie wczesnosasanidzkim. Aspekty społeczne i militarne, T. 1, Oświęcim, 175–196.

31

Map I. 2. Military operations of Gordian III in 242–244

The concentration of the Roman forces in Antioch coincided with the death of Ardašīr I (242). Gordian III (238–244) crossed the Euphrates in the vicinity of Zeugma, and then took over Carrhae (243). After defeating the Iranian army near Resaina the emperor progressed towards Nisibis. Since the Iranian soldiers had left the town, Gordian (243) easily captured it. Strengthened by the Armenian contingent the legions left Nisibis and marched south along the Khabur River, crossing the Euphrates near Circesium. Gordian’s goal was Ctesiphon. However, he did not manage to reach the capital of Iran as he was defeated by Šāpur I (242–272) in the battle of Pērōz Šāpur in 244 AD. Antioch: Historia Augusta, Gordiani Tres 26. 5; 26. 6; 27. 5 Asurestan: ŠKZ 5/3/8 Carrhae: Historia Augusta, Gordiani Tres 26. 6; 27. 6; Georgius Syncellus, p. 443; Ioannes Zonaras XII 18; Zosimos I 18. 3 Circesium: Eutropius IX 2. 3; Festus 22; Historia Augusta, Gordiani Tres 34. 2; Paulus Orosius VII 19. 5 Ctesiphon: Historia Augusta, Gordiani Tres 27. 6; Georgius Syncellus, p. 443; Ioannes Zonaras XII 18 Euphrates: Eutropius IX 2. 3; Iohannes Antiochenus, frag. 147; Oracula Sibyllina XIII 17; Paulus Orosius VII 19. 5 Meshike: ŠKZ 5/4/9 Nisibis: Historia Augusta, Gordiani Tres 26. 6; 27. 6; Georgius Syncellus, p. 443; Ioannes Zonaras XII 18; Zosimos I 18. 3 32

Rhesaina: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 5. 17 Syria: Eutropius IX 3. 1; Historia Augusta, Gordiani Tres 26. 5 Tigris: Iohannes Antiochenus, frag. 147 Bibliography: DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 77–80. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1991): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History (AD 226–363), New York, 29–38. EDWELL P. (2008): Between Rome and Persia, The middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra under Roman control, New York, 168–177. ENßLIN W. (1949): Zu den Kriegen des Sassaniden Schapur I, Münich, 118, 5–17. FELIX W. (1985): Antike literarische Quellen zur Außenpolitik des Sasanidenstaates, I:224–309, Wien, 48–49. GÖBL R. (1974): Der Triumph des Sasaniden Sahpur über die Kaiser Gordianus, Philippus und Valerianus, Wien, 16–17. HALFMANN H. (1986): Itinera principium. Geschichte und Typologie der Kaiserreisen im Römischen Reich, Stuttgart, 233–234. HERRMANN K. (2013): Gordian III. Kaiser einer Umbruchszeit, Speyer, 132–170. HAMACHER B. (1983): Der Heerzug Gordians III. durch Kleinasien, Münstersche Numismatische Zeitung 13, 19–32. KAYA M. A. (2005): III. Gordianus’un Pers (=Sasani) Seferi: Güzergah, Savaşlar ve İmparatorun Ölümü, Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi 20.1, 157–167. KETTENHOFEN E. (1982): Die römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts. n. Chr. Nach der Inschrift Sāhpuhrs I. an der Ka’be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ), Wiesbaden, 19–31. KETTENHOFEN E. (1983): The Persian campaign of Gordian III and the inscription of Sapuhr I at the Ka’be-ye Zartošt, in: Armies and frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia. Proceedings of a colloquium held at University College Swansea 1981, ed. S. MITCHELL, Oxford, 151–171. LORIOT X. (1971): Itinera Gordiani Augusti, I, Un voyage de Gordien III à Antioche en 239 après J.C.?, Bulletin de la Societè Française de Numismatique 26. 2, 18–21. LORIOT X. (1975): Les premières années de la grande crise du III siècle: De l’avènement de Maximin le Thrace (218) à la mort de Gordian III (244), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.2, 763–774. MAKSYMIUK K. (2005): Polityka Sasanidów wobec wschodnich prowincji Cesarstwa Rzymskiego w III w. n.e., Siedlce, 55–56. MAZZARINO S. (1971): La tradizione sulle guerre tra Shabuhr 1. e l’impero romano: prospettiva e deformazione storica, Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 19, 59–82. 33

MILLAR F. (1993): The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337, Cambridge, 151–154. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2009): Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg, 31–43. POTTER D. (2004): The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, London/New York, 234– 236. STOLTE B. (1970): De dood van keizer Gordianus III en de onbetrouwaarheid van de Res Gestae Divi Saporis, LAMPAS 2, 377–384. WINTER E. (1988): Die sasanidisch-römischen Friedensvertrage des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Ch., Frankfurt/Lang, 80–83. WÓJCIKOWSKI R. S. (2015): Kawaleria perska w okresie wczesnosasanidzkim. Aspekty społeczne i militarne, T. 1, Oświęcim,198–202.

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Map I. 3. Military operations of Šāpur I in 253–256 (according to ŠKZ)

The second military campaign of Šāpur I against Rome consisted of three military actions: the march into Syria (253) and into Lesser Armenia (253; Map I. 3a) as well as the attack on Dura Europos and Circesium (256). The Iranian army moved along the Euphrates, omitting Roman fortresses whose resistance could delay the march. The encounter with the Roman legions took place in the northern Mesopotamia, leading to the battle of Barbalissus (253). By defeating the Romans, Šāpur I had an open route to Syria. In Hierapolis the Iranian army was divided: the southern group reached Raphanea while the northern division moved through Zeugma in the direction of Seleucia. Then the two armies jointed their forces in order to conquer the main city in Syria, Antioch (253). After the seizure of Antioch, the Iranian army struck in two directions: the northern, reaching Germanikeia and the southern in the region of the upper Orontes, where the Iranians lost the battle of Emesa (253). Unfortunately, the lack of historical data makes it impossible to reconstruct the events until 256 AD, the time of Šāpur’s I second capture of Antioch and the destruction of Dura Europos. Alexandria: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 296; ŠKZ 9/7/16 Anatha: ŠKZ 7/5/12 Antioch: Anonymus post Dionem, frag. 1; Ammianus Marcellinus XX 11. 11; XXIII 5. 3; Eunapius Sardianus, vit. Soph. VI 5. 2; Historia Augusta, Tyranni Triginta 2. 2; KSM/KNRm/KKZ 17/37/ 11; Libanius, oratio LX 2–3; Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 295; XII, p. 296; Oracula Sibyllina XIII 125; Chronique de Se’ert, p. 221; ŠKZ 9/7/15; Zosimos I 27. 2; III 32. 5 Apamea: ŠKZ 8/6/14 Ariste: ŠKZ 10/7/17 35

Barbalissos: ŠKZ 6/5/11; 8/6/13 Batnae: ŠKZ 11/8/18 Beroea: Oracula Sibyllina XIII 129; ŠKZ 8/6/13 Birth Arupan: ŠKZ 7/5/12 Birth Asporakan: ŠKZ 7/5/12 Cappadocia: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 296; Eutychius, Annales, p. 110 Carrhae: Ammianus Marcellinus XX 11. 11 Chalcis: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 295; Oracula Sibyllina XIII 130; ŠKZ 8/6/13 Chamath: ŠKZ 10/7/17 Chanar: ŠKZ 11/8/18 Cilicia: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 296; Zosimos III 32. 5 Circesium: ŠKZ 10/8/17 Cyrrhus: ŠKZ 9/7/16 Daphne: Libanius, oratio LX 2–3 Dichor: ŠKZ 10/7/17 Doliche: ŠKZ 10/8/17 Dura Europos: ŠKZ 10/8/17 Emesa: IGLS 1799; Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 296; Oracula Sibyllina XIII 150–154 Euphrates: Oracula Sibyllina XIII 123 Germanicia: ŠKZ 10/8/17 Gindaros: ŠKZ 9/7/15 Hierapolis: Oracula Sibyllina XIII 129; ŠKZ 8/6/13 Larmenaz: ŠKZ 9/7/15 Mesopotamia: Zosimos I 27. 2 Nicopolis: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 296; ŠKZ 9/7/16 Nisibis: Tabarī 826; Eutychius, Annales, p. 109 Ourima: ŠKZ 8/6/14 Rephaneia: ŠKZ 8/6/14 Rhosus: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 297 Seleucia: ŠKZ 9/7/15

36

Seleukobelos: ŠKZ 9/7/16 Sinzara: ŠKZ 10/7/17 Soura: ŠKZ 7/5/12 Syria: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 296; Oracula Sibyllina XIII 119; XIII, 153; ŠKZ 6/5/11; Eutychius, Annales, p. 110 ; Tabarī 826 Zeugma: ŠKZ 8/6/14 Bibliography: ALFÖLDI A. (1937): Die Hauptereigisse der Jahre 253–261 n. Chr. im Orient im Spiegel der Münzprägung, Berytus 4, 41–68. BALDUS H. R. (1971): Uranius Antoninus. Münzprägung und Geschichte, Bonn, 236– 265. BALTY J. Ch. (1987): Apamée: nouvelles données sur l’armée romaine d’Orient et les raids sassanides du milieu du IIIe siécle, Comptes Rendus des Séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 213–241. DARYAEE T. (2010): To Learn and to Remember from Others: Persians Visiting the Dura-Europos Synagogue, Scripta Judaica Cracoviensia 8, 29–37. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 80. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1991): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History (AD 226–363), New York, 42–50. EDWELL P. (2008): Between Rome and Persia, The middle Euphrates, Mesopotamia and Palmyra under Roman control, New York, 173–199. EDWELL P. (2010): The Sources for Rome’s Wars with Shapur I: Eurocentric and Eastern Perspectives, Ancient West & East 9, 155–179. ENßLIN W. (1949): Zu den Kriegen des Sassaniden Schapur I, Münich, 103–106. FELIX W. (1985): Antike literarische Quellen zur Außenpolitik des Sasanidenstaates, I: 224–309, Wien, 54–63. GAGE J. (1952): Les Perses à Antioche et les courses del’hippodrome au milieu du IIIe siècle. À propos du “transfuge” syrien Mariadès, Bulletin de la Faculté des Lettres de Strasbourg, 301–324. GNOLI T. (2007): From Praepositus praetenturae to Dux Ripae. The Roman “Grand Strategy” on the Middle Euphrates (2nd–3rd Cent. AD), in: The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest: Proceedings of a Colloquium held at Potenza, Acerenza and Matera, Italy (May 2005), eds. A. LEWIN, P. PELLEGRINI, Oxford, 49–55. GRENET F. (1988): Les Sassanides à Doura-Europos (253 ap. J.-C.), réexamen du matériel épigraphique iranien du site, in: Géographie historique au Proche-Orient. Syrie,

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Phénicie, Arabie, grecques, romaines, byzantines, eds. P. GATIER, B. HELLY, J. REYCOQUAIS, Paris, 133–158. HARTMANN U. (2006): Mareades-ein sasanidischer Quisling?, in: Ērān ud Anērān. Studien zu den Beziehungen zwischen dem Sasanidenreich und der Mittelmeerwelt, eds. J. WIESEHÖFER, Ph. HUYSE, Stuttgart, 105–142. JAMES S. (2011): Stratagems, Combat, and "Chemical Warfare" in the Siege Mines of Dura-Europos, American Journal of Archaeology 115.1, 69–101. KETTENHOFEN E. (1982): Die römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts. n. Chr. Nach der Inschrift Sāhpuhrs I. an der Ka’be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ), Wiesbaden, 79– 122. KETTENHOFEN E. (1996): Deportations II. In the Parthian and Sasanian period, Encyclopaedia Iranica 7, 297–308. LUTHER A. (1999): Die Einnahme von Birtha Asporaku durch Sapor I, Göttinger Forum für Altertumswissenschaft 2, 77–84. MAKSYMIUK K. (2005): Polityka Sasanidów wobec wschodnich prowincji Cesarstwa Rzymskiego w III w. n.e., Siedlce, 57–71. MAKSYMIUK K. (2007): Kilka uwag dotyczących deportacji mieszkańców Antiochii przez Szapura I, in: Eurazja i Antyk, eds. A. BEDNARCZUK, E. BUGAJ, W. RZĄDKA, Poznań, 145–153. MARICQ A., HONIGMANN E. (1953): Recherches sur les Res Gestae Divi Saporis, Bruxelles, 154–160. MAZZARINO S. (1971): La tradizione sulle guerre tra Shabuhr 1. e l’impero romano : prospettiva e deformazione storica, Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 19, 59–82. MCDONALD D. J. (1986): Dating the Fall of Dura-Europos, Historia 35, 45–68. MILLAR F. (1993): The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337, Cambridge, 154–165. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2009): Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg, 43–44. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2010): Deportationen römischer Christen in das Sasanidenreich durch Shapur I. und ihre Folgen – Eine Neubewertung, Klio 92.1, 117–156. PEKARY Th. (1962): Bemerkungen zur Chronologie des Jahrzehntes 250–260, Historia 11, 123–128. ROSTOWCEW M. (1934): Das Militärarchiv von Dura, in: Papyri und Altertumswissenschaft, Vorträge des 3. Internationalen Papyrologentages in München vom 4. Bis 7. 9. 1933, eds. W. OTTO, L. WENGER, München, 351–378. ROSTOWCEW M. (1943): Res Gestae Divi Saporis and Dura, Berytus 8.1, 17–60. WÓJCIKOWSKI R. S. (2015): Kawaleria perska w okresie wczesnosasanidzkim. Aspekty społeczne i militarne, T. 1, Oświęcim, 203–207.

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Map I. 3a. Activities of Hormozd Ardašīr in Lesser Armenia in 253 AD.

Following the subjugation of Greater Armenia (252), presumably in order to prevent the emperors intervention on behalf of the Arsacids, Hormozd Ardašīr (252– 272) attacked the Roman province of Lesser Armenia (erroneously referred to as Cappadocia in ŠKZ). The reconstruction of Hormozd Ardašīr’s campain is impossible because out of six towns mentioned in ŠKZ, only three can be reliably localised. Artangil 124: ŠKZ 11/8/19 Cappadocia: ŠKZ 11/8/18 Domana: ŠKZ 11/8/19 Phreata 125: ŠKZ 12/9/19 Satala: ŠKZ 11/6/18 Souida126: ŠKZ 11/8/19 Souisa: ŠKZ 11/8/19 Bibliography: See Map I. 3.

124 125 126

Uncertain location. Uncertain location. Uncertain location.

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Map I. 4. Military operations of Šāpur I in 260–261 (according to ŠKZ)

During his third campaign Šāpur I marched into Osrhoene. Valerian’s (253– 260) attempt to hold off the Iranian army ended in his failure in the battle of Edessa (260), in the course of which the Roman emperor was captured. Having defeated Valerian, Šāpur I went in the direction of Samosata, where he started negotiations with Macrianus Major (the usurper). The Roman forces withdrew from Samosata to Emesa, thus opening the route to Asia Minor. Šāpur I attacked Cilicia and meeting no resistance moved to Tarsus, where the Iranian army was divided into two groups. One of them aimed at plundering the towns on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. This subdivision managed to reached Sellinos but then retreated under the force of Roman army in the vicinity of Pompeiopolis. The second division of the Iranian army made for Tyana, from which it raided Iconium, and then attacked Cappadocia and Lesser Armenia. Having plundered the Roman towns in their way, the Iranian soldiers retreated to Iran (261). Adana: ŠKZ 17/13/28 Aigeai: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 296; ŠKZ 16/12/28 Alexandria: ŠKZ 16/12/27 Anazarbos: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 296; ŠKZ 17/13/29 Anemourium: ŠKZ 18/14/31 Antioch (on the Orontes): Georgius Syncellus, p. 466; Tabarī 826; Ioannes Zonaras XII 23; Zosimos I 36 Antioch: ŠKZ 19/14/31 Augustina: ŠKZ 17/13/28 40

Birtha (Barata?): ŠKZ 20/15/33 Caesarea: Georgius Cedrenus, p. 454; KSM/KNRm/KKZ 18/39/12; ŠKZ 19/15/32; Georgius Syncellus, p. 466; Ioannes Zonaras XII 23 Cappadocia: Agathias IV 24. 3; Chronicon 724, p. 98; Hieronymus, p. 220; KSM/KNRm/KKZ 18/39/12; ŠKZ 15/11/26; Georgius Syncellus, p. 466; Tabarī 826; Ioannes Zonaras XII 23; Zosimos I 36 Carrhae: ŠKZ 12/9/19; 12/9/20; 14/11/24 Cilicia: Agathias IV 24. 3; Hieronymus, p. 220; KSM/KNRm/KKZ 18/38/12; ŠKZ 15/11/26; Georgius Syncellus, p. 466; Tabarī 826; Ioannes Zonaras XII 23; Zosimos III 32. 5 Comana: ŠKZ 19/15/32 Dometioupolis: ŠKZ 19/15/32 Edessa: Petrus Patricius, frag. 11; ŠKZ 12/9/19; 12/9/20; 14/11/24; Georgius Syncellus, p. 466; Ioannes Zonaras XII 23 Epiphaneia: ŠKZ 18/14/31 Euphrates: Petrus Patricius, frag. 11; Ioannes Zonaras XII 23 Flavias: ŠKZ 18/13/30 Iconium: ŠKZ 20/15/34 Kastabala: ŠKZ 18/13/30 Katabolos: ŠKZ 16/12/28 Kelenderis: ŠKZ 18/14/31 Korykos: ŠKZ 17/13/29; Georgius Syncellus, p. 466 Kybistra: ŠKZ 20/15/33 Laranda: ŠKZ 20/15/34 Lycaonia: Georgius Syncellus, p. 466 Mallos: ŠKZ 16/12/28 Mesopotamia: Agathias IV 24. 3; Aurelius Victor 32. 5; Festus 23; Eutropius IX 7; Epitome de Caesaribus 32. 5–6 Mopsuestia: ŠKZ 16/12/28 Myonpolis: ŠKZ 19/14/31 Neronias: ŠKZ 18/13/30 Nicopolis: ŠKZ 18/13/30 Orontes: Ioannes Zonaras XII 23

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Pompeiopolis: Georgius Syncellus, p. 466 Rhakoundia127: ŠKZ 20/15/33 Samosata: ŠKZ 16/12/27 Sebaste: ŠKZ 17/13/29; Georgius Syncellus, p. 466 Sebasteia: ŠKZ 20/15/33 Seleucia: ŠKZ 19/14/31 Selinus: ŠKZ 18/14/31 Syria: Agathias IV 24. 3; Chronicon 724, p. 98; Hieronymus, p. 220; KSM/KNRm/KKZ 18/38/12; ŠKZ 15/11/26; Georgius Syncellus, p. 466; Tabarī 826; Ioannes Zonaras XII 23 Tarsus: KSM/KNRm/KKZ 18/38/12; ŠKZ 17/13/28; Georgius Syncellus, p. 466; Ioannes Zonaras XII 23 Tyana: ŠKZ 19/15/32 Zephyrion: ŠKZ 17/13/29 Bibliography: ALFÖLDI A. (1937): Die Hauptereigisse der Jahre 253–261 n. Chr. im Orient im Spiegel der Münzprägung, Berytus 4, 41–68. ALFÖLDI A. (1938): Die römische Münzprägung und die historischen Ereignisse im Osten zwischen 260 und 270 n. Chr., Berytus 5, 47–91. CARSON R. (1982): The date of the capture of Valerian I, in: Actes du 9ème Congrès international de numismatique, eds. T. HACKENS, R. WEILLER, Louvain, 461–465. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 80–84. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1991): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History (AD 226–363), New York, 49–58. EDWELL P. (2010): The Sources for Rome’s Wars with Shapur I: Eurocentric and Eastern Perspectives, Ancient West & East 9, 155–179. ENßLIN W. (1949): Zu den Kriegen des Sassaniden Schapur I, Münich, 7–31. FELIX W. (1985): Antike literarische Quellen zur Außenpolitik des Sasanidenstaates, I: 224–309, Wien, 57–80. GAGÉ J. (1965): Comment Sapor a-t-il „trimphé” de Valérien?, Syria 42, 343–388. GÖBL R. (1974): Der Triumph des Sasaniden Sahpur über die Kaiser Gordianus, Philippus und Valerianus, Wien, 7–31.

127

42

Uncertain location.

GOLTZ A., HARTMANN U. (2008): Valerianus und Gallienus, in: Die Zeit der Soldatenkaiser. Krise und Transformation des Römischen Reiches im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr., ed. K. JOHNE, Berlin, 223–295. HALFMANN H. (1986): Itinera principium. Geschichte und Typologie der Kaiserreisen im Römischen Reich, Stuttgart, 236–238. KETTENHOFEN E. (1982): Die römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts. n. Chr. Nach der Inschrift Sāhpuhrs I. an der Ka’be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ), Wiesbaden, 97– 126. KETTENHOFEN E. (2001): Das Jahr 7 Kaiser Valerians, Nāme-ye Irān-e Bāstān 1, 17–22. LUTHER A. (2006): Roms mesopotamische Provinzen nach der Gefangennahme Valerians (260), in: Ērān ud Anērān: Studien zu den Beziehungen zwischen dem Sasanidenreich und der Mittelmeerwelt, eds. J. WIESEHÖFER, Ph. HUYSE, Stuttgart, 203–219. MAKSYMIUK K. (2005): Polityka Sasanidów wobec wschodnich prowincji Cesarstwa Rzymskiego w III w. n.e., Siedlce, 72–76. MAZZARINO S. (1971): La tradizione sulle guerre tra Shabuhr 1. e l’impero romano: prospettiva e deformazione storica, Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 19, 59–82. MILLAR F. (1993): The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337, Cambridge, 166–169. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2009): Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg, 44–49. STOLTE B. (1971): The Roman Emperor Valerian and Sapor I, King of Persia, Rivista degli Studi Orientali 1, 157–162. WÓJCIKOWSKI R. S. (2015): Kawaleria perska w okresie wczesnosasanidzkim. Aspekty społeczne i militarne, T. 1, Oświęcim, 207–211.

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Map I. 4a. Military operations of Odenathus

The first clash with the Iranian forces took place presumably during the campain of Šāpur I when Odenathus could have faced the troops withdrawing from Emesa (253). Undoubtedly, as the Roman ally, Odenathus must have carried out military actions in Babylonia, when he destroyed Nehardea (259). After the proclamation of Macrianus Major and his two sons as emperors (260), Odenathus backed Gallienus (253–268). Taking the advantage of the departure of the usurper’s main forces for Europe, Odenathus seized Emesa (261). Then leading the Roman troops, he entered Mesopotamia, capturing Carrhae and Nisibis (262). The reconstruction of his march route and the dating of the Iranian campaign, in the course of which Odenathus is supposed to have reached Ctesiphon(262–266?), are problematic. Carrhae: Historia Augusta, Gallieni Duo 12. 1 Ctesiphon: Eutropius IX 10; Festus 23; Hieronymus, p. 221; Historia Augusta, Gallieni Duo 10. 6–7; Tyranni Triginta 15. 4; Paulus Orosius VII 22. 12; Georgius Syncellus, p. 467; Zosimos I 39. 2 Emesa: Anonymus post Dionem, frag. 1; Historia Augusta, Gallieni Duo 3. 3; Ioannes Zonaras XII 24 Euphrates: Georgius Syncellus, p. 466 Mesopotamia: Eutropius IX 10; Festus 23; Historia Augusta, Gallieni Duo 12. 1; Tyranni Triginta 15. 3; Iordanes, Romana 290; Paulus Orosius VII 22. 12 Nehardea: Rav Sherira Gaon, p. 82 Nisibis: Historia Augusta, Gallieni Duo 12. 1; Tyranni Triginta 15. 3

44

Palmyra: Festus 23; Historia Augusta, Valeriani Duo 4. 2; Hieronymus, p. 221; Zosimos I 39. 1 Phoenicia: Georgius Syncellus, p. 466 Syria: Eutropius IX 10; Festus 23; Paulus Orosius VII 22. 12 Bibliography: DE BLOIS L. (1975): Odenatus and the Roman-Persian War of 252–264 A.D., Talanta 6, 7–23. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 158–150. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1991): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History (AD 226–363), New York, 59–72. FELIX W. (1985): Antike literarische Quellen zur Außenpolitik des Sasanidenstaates, I:224–309, Wien, 80–87. HARTMANN U. (2001): Das palmyrenische Teilreich, Stuttgart, 162–230. MAKSYMIUK K. (1998): Odenat-Rzymianin czy Palmyreńczyk, EOS 85, 143–154. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2009): Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg, 49–53. POTTER D. (1996): Palmyra and Rome. Odenathus’ Titulature and the Use of the Imperium Maius, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 113, 271–285. SOUTHERN P. (2008): Empress Zenobia: Palmyra’s Rebel Queen, London/New York, 57–82.

45

Map I. 5. Military operations of Carus and Numerianus in 282–284

Carus’s (282–283) troops marched through Mesopotamia with no major obstacles made by the Iranian forces, capturing Babylon, Seleucia and Ctesiphon (283), and then crossing the river Tigris. The emperor’s death, whose circumstances remain unclear, interrupted the campaign. His successor, Numerianus (283–284), intended to continue his father’s campaign, yet his expedition soon terminated in the northern Mesopotamia, when the Roman army was defeated near Carrhae (284) by Bahrām II (276–293). The emperor sought refuge in Carrhae, but the town was also conquered by the Iranians. Antioch: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 303 Babylon: Nemesianus 72 Babylonia: Chronographus 354, p. 148 Euphrates: Moses Khorenats’i II 79 Carrhae: Chronicon Paschale, p. 510; Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 303; XII, p. 304 Ctesiphon: Aurelius Victor 38. 3; Georgius Cedrenus, p. 464; Epitome de Caesaribus 38. 1; Eutropius IX 18. 1; Festus 24; Hieronymus, p. 224; Historia Augusta, Carus, Carinus et Numerianus 8. 1; 9. 1; Iordanes, Romana 294; Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 302; Paulus Orosius VII 24. 4; Georgius Syncellus, p. 472; Ioannes Zonaras XII 30 Mesopotamia: Aurelius Victor 38. 2; Historia Augusta, Carus, Carinus et Numerianus 8. 1 Persis: Nemesianus 72

46

Seleucia: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 5. 3; Chronographus 354, p. 148; Eutropius IX 18. 1; Festus 24; Hieronymus, p. 224; Iordanes, Romana 294; Paulus Orosius VII 24. 4; Ioannes Zonaras XII 30 Tigris: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 5. 3; Eutropius IX 18. 1; Festus 24; Hieronymus, p. 225; Iordanes, Romana 294; Nemesianus 67; Paulus Orosius VII 24. 4; Georgius Syncellus, p. 472; Ioannes Zonaras XII 30 Bibliography: BIRD H. W (1976): Diocletian and the deaths of Carus, Carinus and Numerian, Latomus 35, 123–132. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1991): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History (AD 226–363), New York, 98–105. FELIX W. (1985): Antike literarische Quellen zur Außenpolitik des Sasanidenstaates, I: 224–309, Wien, 100–102. MAKSYMIUK K. (2005): Polityka Sasanidów wobec wschodnich prowincji Cesarstwa Rzymskiego w III w. n.e., Siedlce, 93–94. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2009): Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg, 53–60. PINK K. (1963): Der Aufbau der römischen Münzprägung in der Kaiserzeit, VI.2, Carus und Söhne, Numismatische Zeitschrift 80, 5–68. POTTER D. (2004): The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, London/New York, 279– 280. WINTER E. (1988): Die sasanidisch-römischen Friedensvertrage des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Ch., Frankfurt/Lang, 130–137.

47

Map I. 6. Military operations in 296–298

Taking advantage of Diocletian’s (284–305) engagement in Egypt, Narseh (293–302) attacked Armenia and Syria (296). The army dispatched against him, commanded by Galerius (305–311), was crushed by the Iranian forces between Carrhae and Callinicum (297). After Diocletian’s arrival in Antioch, a new campaign began. A part of the army under the command of Diocletian marched into Mesopotamia, while Galerius’s main forces, aided by Danubian legions, struck from Armenia, triumphing over Narseh’s army in the battle of Satala (298). After the battle Galerius moved south and reached Asorestan. However, because of Diocletian’s orders, he did not make an attempt of capturing Ctesiphon. Armenia (Lesser Armenia): Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 5. 11 Armenia: Aurelius Victor 39. 34; Eutropius IX 25; Festus 25; Lactantius 9. 6; P’awstos Buzand III 21; Asurestan: Agathangelos I 123 Babylon: Constantine, p. 177 Callinicum: Eutropius IX 24; Paulus Orosius VII 25; Theophanes A.M. 5793 Carrhae: Eutropius IX 24; Paulus Orosius VII 25; Theophanes A.M. 5793 Mesopotamia: Aurelius Victor 39. 33; Festus 14; Eutropius IX 25; Paulus Orosius VII 25; Theophanes A.M. 5793 Satala: P’awstos Buzand III 21 Syria: Agathangelos I 123; Theophanes A.M. 5793; Ioannes Zonaras XII 31

48

Bibliography: ASDOURIAN P. (1911): Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen Armenien und Rom, von 190 v. Chr. bis 428 n. Chr. Ein Abriss der armenischen Geschichte in dieser Periode, Venedig, 133–137. BARNES T. D. (1975): Imperial Campaings A. D. 285–311, Phoenix 30, 179–186. CANEPA M. (2009): The Two Eyes of the Earth: Art and Ritual of Kingship between Rome and Sasanian Iran, Berkeley/Los Angeles/London, 84–99. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 84–88. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1991): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History (AD 226–363), New York, 106–117. ENßLIN W. (1942): Zur Ostpolitik des Kaisers Diokletian, Münich, 35–53. FELIX W. (1985): Antike literarische Quellen zur Außenpolitik des Sasanidenstaates, I: 224–309, Wien, 110–116. LEADBETTER B. (2002): Galerius and the Eastern Frontier, in: Limes XVIII. Proceedings of the 18th international congress of Roman frontier studies held in Amman, Jordan (September 2000), ed. P. FREEMAN, Oxford, 85–89. MAKSYMIUK K. (2005): Polityka Sasanidów wobec wschodnich prowincji Cesarstwa Rzymskiego w III w. n.e., Siedlce, 98–100. MILLAR F. (1993): The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337, Cambridge, 177–178. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2009): Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg, 91–121. POTTER D. (2004): The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180–395, London/New York, 292– 293. WILLIAMS S. (2000): Diocletian and the Roman Recovery, London, 78–86. ZUCKERMAN C. (1993): Les campagnes des tétrarques, 296–298. Notes de chronologie, Antiquité Tardive 2.2, 65–70.

49

Map I. 7. Military operations of Šāpur II in 312–360

Šāpur’s II (309–379) army entered Osrhoene and conqured Constantina (312), most likely in order to force the Romans, under the command of Maximinus Daia (309–313), to retreat from Armenia. However, Šāpur’s II failure to capture Amida and the subsequent loss in the battle of Narasara (336) with the Romans turned out to be a true prelude to the real long-lasting conflict. The first phase of it (337– 350), was not particularly fruitful for the Iranians operating in Mesopotamia. Even though they defeated the Roman army in the vicinity of Singara (344, 348) twice, despite several attempts Šāpur II was not able to achieve the main goal of his expedition, namely Nisibis (337, 346, 350), which still remained under the Roman control. The turning point came towards the end of the war, when within two years Iran took over Amida, Bezabde and Singara (359–360). Amida: Ammianus Marcellinus XIX 9. 9; XX 11. 4; Festus 27; Hieronymus, p. 236; Ioannes Zonaras XIII 9 Anzaba: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 6. 19 Armenia (Lesser Armenia): Ammianus Marcellinus XIX 8. 12; XX 11. 4; Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 312 Armenia (Persarmenia): Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 312 Armenia Prima: Ioannes Malalas, XII, p. 312 Armenia Secunda: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 312 Batnae: Ammianus Marcellinus XIV 3. 3

50

Bebase 128: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 10. 1 Bezabde: Ammianus Marcellinus XX 7. 1; XX 11. 6; XXI 13. 1; Bezabde, p. 316; Hieronymus, p. 236; Theophanes A.M. 5852 Busan 129: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 10. 1 Capersana 130: Ammianus Marcellinus XXI 7. 7 Cappadocia: Ammianus Marcellinus XX 11. 4 Castra Maurorum: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 6. 9 Constantina = Maximianopolis: Festus 27 Edessa: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 5. 7; XX 11. 4; XXI 7. 7; XXI 13. 1 Eleia = Hileia 131: Festus 27 Euphrates: Ammianus Marcellinus XIV 3. 3; XVIII 5. 7; XIX 8. 9; XX 11. 4; XXI 7. 7; XXI 13. 2 Hierapolis: Ammianus Marcellinus XXI 13. 8 Hileia = Eleia: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 5. 7 Lacotena 132: Ammianus Marcellinus XX 11. 4 Maximianopolis = Constantina: Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 312 Melitene: Ammianus Marcellinus XIX 8. 12; XX 11. 4 Mesopotamia: Ammianus Marcellinus XIV 3. 1–2; XX 6. 1; XX 6. 9; XX 7. 17; XXI 13. 1; XXI 13. 8; Chronicon Paschale, p. 533; 536; Eutropius X 8. 2; Festus 27; Hieronymus, p. 234; Jacobus Edessenus, p. 289; Mika’el Rabo VII 3; Theophanes A.M. 5828; 5829; 5837 Mygdonius: Julian, oratio III 11–12; Mika’el Rabo VII 3; Theodoret II 30. 5–6 Narasara 133: Festus 27 Nisibis: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 6. 8; XIX 9. 5; XIX 9. 9; Chronicon Paschale, p. 533; 536; Ephraem Syrus, Carmina XIII; Ephraem Syrus, Historia, col. 15–16; Festus 27; Hieronymus, p. 234; p. 236; Jacobus Edessenus, p. 289; Libanius, epistula 49; Libanius, oratio XVIII 205–211; Mika’el Rabo VII 3; Philostorgius III 23; Theodoret II 30. 1–14; Theophanes A.M. 5829; 5837; 5841; Ioannes Zonaras XIII 7; XIII 9; Zosimos III 8. 2; III 31. 3 Osrhoene: Ammianus Marcellinus XIV 3. 2; Ioannes Malalas XII, p. 312 Phaenicha 134: Ammianus Marcellinus XX 7. 16 ; XX 11. 24

128 129 130 131 132 133

Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain

location. location. location. location. location. location.

51

Reman 135: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 10. 1 Samosata: Ammianus Marcellinus XX 11. 4 Singara: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 5. 7; XVIII 9. 3; XIX 2. 8; XIX 9. 9; XX 6. 1; XX 6. 9; XX 7. 4; Julian, oratio I 18. 36; Festus 27; Eutropius X 10. 1; Hieronymus, p. 236 Sisara: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 6. 9; Festus 27 Syria: Ammianus Marcellinus XX 11. 32 Tigris: Ammianus Marcellinus XVIII 6. 9; XVIII 6. 19; XIX 5. 4; XX 6. 1; XX 7. 1; XXI 13. 2–3; Julian, oratio I 17. 7–21; Libanius, epistula 49 Virta: Ammianus Marcellinus XX 7. 17 Ziata: Ammianus Marcellinus XIX 6. 1 Bibliography: BARNES T. D. (1985): Constantine and the Christians of Persia, The Journal of Roman Studies 75, 126–136. BELCHER S. (2013), Ammianus Marcellinus and the Nisibene Handover of A.D. 363, in: War and Warfare in Late Antiquity. Current Perspectives, eds. A. SARANTIS, N. CHRISTIE, Leiden/Boston, 631–654. BLOCKLEY R. C. (1988): Ammianus Marcellinus on the Persian invasion of A. D. 359, Phoenix 42, 244–260. BLOCKLEY R. C. (1989): Constantius II and Persia, in: Studies in Latin Literature and Roman History 5, ed. C. DEROUX, Brüssel, 468–489. BUNDY D. (2002): Bishop Vologese and the Persian siege of Nisibis in 359 C.E.: A study of Ephrem’s Memre on Nicomedia, Encounter 63, 55–63. BURGESS R. (1999): The dates of the first siege of Nisibis and the death of James of Nisibis, Byzantion 69, 7–17. BURY J. B. (1896): The date of the battle of Singara, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 5. 2, 302–305. CASTRITIUS H. (1968/1969): Der Armenienkrieg des Maximinus Daia, Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum 11/12, 94–103. CHARLES M. B. (2007): The Rise of the Sassanian Elephant Corps: Elephants and the Later Roman Empire, Iranica Antiqua 42, 301–346. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 88–90.

According to Ammianus Marcellinus it is Bezabde however it seems that can be identified with Bēt Qardū. 135 Uncertain location. 134

52

ДМИТРИЕВ В. А. (2003): Состав персидской армии IV в. н. э. в известиях римского историка Аммиана Марцеллина, Метаморфозы истории. Альманах 3, 161–169. ДМИТРИЕВ В. А. (2010): К вопросу о месте «ночного» сражения под Сингарой, Вестник Военного университета 3, 87–90. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1991): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History (AD 226–363), New York, 126–200. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1995): Libanius and the Persian Wars of Constantius II, Acta Orientalia Belgica 9, 83–109. KETTENHOFEN E. (1996): Deportations II. In the Parthian and Sasanian period, Encyclopaedia Iranica 7, 297–308. LENSSEN J. (1999): The Persian invasion of 359: presentation by suppression in Ammianus Marcellinus’ Res Gestae 18.4.1 – 18.6.7, in: The Late RomanWorld and its Historian. Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus, eds. J. W. DRIJVERS, D. HUNT, London/New York, 40–50. LEŃSKI N. (2007): Two Sieges of Amida (AD 359 and 502–503) and the Experience of Combat in the Late Roman Near East, British Archaeological Reports 1717, 219–236. LEŃSKI N. (2007): The Chronology of Valens’ Dealings with Persia and Armenia, 364–378 CE, in: Ammianus After Julian: The Reign of Valentinian and Valens in Books 26–31 of the Res Gestae, eds. J. DEN BOEFT, J. W. DRIJVERS, D. DEN HENGST, H. C. TEITLER, Leiden, 95–127. LIGHTFOOT C. (1988): Facts and fiction-The third siege of Nisibis, Historia 37.1, 105–125. LIGHTFOOT C. (1989): Sapor before the walls of Amida, in: The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, eds. D. FRENCH, C. LIGHTFOOT, Oxford, 285–294. MAROTH M. (1979): Le siège de Nisibe en 350 ap. J.-Chr. d’après des sources sources syriennes, Les Annales Archeologiques Arabes Syriennes 27, 239–243. MATTHEWS J. (1986): Ammianus and the Eastern Frontier in the Fourth Century, in: The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, eds. P. FREEMAN, D. KENNEDY, Oxford, 549–564. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (1999): Zur Schlacht bei Singara, Historia 48, 330–384. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2002): Zur Westpolitik Shapurs II, Studia Iranica 25, 329– 347. MOSIG-WALBURG, K. (2006): Der Armenienkrieg des Maximinus Daia, Historia 55, 247–255. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2007): Die Christenverfolgung Shâpûrs II. vor dem Hintergrund des persisch-römischen Krieges, in: Inkulturation des Christentums im Sasanidenreich, eds. A. Mustafa, J. Tubach, G. Vashalomidze, Wiesbaden, 171–186.

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MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2009): Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg, 193–266. PAPATHEOPHANES M. (1986): The alleged death of Shapur II’s heir at the battle of Singara. A western reconsideration, Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 19, 249– 261. PORTMANN W. (1989): Die 59. Rede des Libanios und das Datum der Schlacht von Singara, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 82, 1–18. SEAGER R. (1997): Perceptions of Eastern Frontier Policy in Ammianus, Libanius, and Julian (337–363), Classical Quarterly 47, 253–268. SHAYEGAN M. R. (2004): On The Rationale Behind The Roman Wars Of ƽābuhr II The Great, Bulletin of the Asia Institute 18, 111–133. SZELĄG T. (2012): Amida 359, Warszawa. WARMINGTON B. H. (1977): Objectives and Strategy in the Persian War of Constantius II, in: Limes. Acts of the XI Limes Congress, ed. J. Fitz, Budapest, 509–520. WILSON A. (2001): Water-Mills at Amida: Ammianus Marcellinus 18.8.11, Classical Quarterly 51. 1, 231–236. WÓJCIKOWSKI R. S. (2015): Kawaleria perska w okresie wczesnosasanidzkim. Aspekty społeczne i militarne, T. 1, Oświęcim, 221–226. YILDIRIM E. (2012): Şapur'un 359 Yılındaki Amida Kenti Kuşatmasında Roma ve Parth Ordularının Kullandıkları Silahlar, Journal of International Social Research 5. 23, 455–475.

54

Map I. 8. Military operations of Julian in 363 AD.

Julian (361–363) set off from Antioch (5 March), marching across Mesopotamia. In Callinicum his army was joined by the fleet coming from Samosata. The towns on the trail along the Euphrates to Ctesiphon did not even attempt any defence. The first encounter with the Iranian forces took place as far as Ozogardana (22 April?). After the conquest of strongholds in the south (e.g. Pērōz Šāpur), the emperor reached Asorestan. Although the Roman army managed to vanquish the Iranians commanded by Sūrēn (26 May) in the close vicinity of the walls of Ctesiphon, they were not able to capture the town itself. Having crossed the Tigris, Julian headed north and then, near the river Douros, he crushed the Iranian division (16 June). The campaign finished with the emperor’s death in the battle of Toummara (26 June). Abuzatha136: Zosimos III 26. 1 Acceta 137: Zosimos III 28. 1 Achaiachala 138: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 2. 2 Adiabene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 3. 1; Zosimos III 12. 3 Anatha: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 1. 6 Antioch: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 2. 3; Artemii passio 69; Julian, epistula 98; Zosimos III 11. 4; III 12. 1

136 137 138

Uncertain location. Uncertain location. Uncertain location.

55

Assyria = Beth Aramaye: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 3. 1; XXIV 1. 1; XXIV 2. 6; Eutropius X 16. 1; Gregorius, contra Julianum V. 9; Libanius, oratio XVII 20; Sozomenus VI 4; Zosimos III 18. 6; III 19. 1 Babylon: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 2. 7; Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 330; 332; Sozomenus VI 5 Baraxmalcha: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 2. 3 Barroptha 139: Zosimos III 27. 1 Batnae: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 2. 7; Julian, epistula 98; Zosimos III 12. 2 Belias: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 3. 7 Beroea: Julian, epistula 98 Bersabora = Pirisabora: Zosimos III 17. 3; 18. 1 Besuchis 140: Zosimos III 20. 5 Beth Aramaye = Assyria: Chronicon 724, p. 104 Bithra 141: Zosimos III 19. 4 Callinicum: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 3. 7 Carrhae: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 3. 1; Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 329; Sozomenus VI 1; Zosimos III 12. 2 Chaboras: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 5. 1; XXIII 5. 4; Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 329; Zosimos III 12. 3 Chalcis: Julian, epistula 98 Circesium: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 5. 1; XXIII 5. 4; Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 329; Zosimos III 12. 3 Coche = Seleucia = Vēh Ardašīr = Kaukaba: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 5. 3; XXIV 6. 2; Gregorius, contra Julianum V. 10 Corduene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 8. 4–5 Ctesiphon: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 2. 7; XXIV 4. 8; XXIV 4. 31; XXIV 5. 6; XXIV 6. 12; XXIV 7. 1; XXIV 8. 6; Artemii passio 69; Chronicon 724, p. 104; Eunapius Sardianus, frag. 22; Eutropius X 16. 1; Festus 28; Gregorius, contra Julianum V. 9–10; Libanius, oratio I 133; Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 328. 330. 332–333; Paulus Orosius VII 30. 6; Socrates Scholasticus III 21. 4; Sozomenus VI 5; VI 8; Tabarī 842; Ioannes Zonaras XIII 13. 1; XIII 13. 10; Zosimos III 18. 6; III 20. 5 Cyrrhus: Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 328 Danabe 142: Zosimos III 27. 4 139 140 141 142

56

Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain

location. location. location. location.

Diacira: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 2. 3; Zosimos III 15. 1 Douros: Zosimos III 26. 4 Dura Europos: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 5. 8; XXIV 1. 5 Edessa: Sozomenus VI 1. ; Zosimos III 12. 2 Euphrates: Agathangelos III 13; Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 2. 2; XXIII 3. 1; XXIII 3. 7; XXIII 3. 9; XXIII 5. 1; XXIV 1. 2; XXIV 1. 6; XXIV 2. 12; XXIV 6. 1; Festus 28; Gregorius, contra Julianum V. 9–10; Ioannis Lydi, mensibus IV 118; Libanius, epistula 1367; Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 329–330; 332; Sozomenus VI 1; VI 5; Zosimos III 12. 1; III 12. 3; III 12. 5 Euphratesia: Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 328 Fissenia 143: Zosimos III 19. 3 Hierapolis: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 2. 6; Julian, epistula 98; Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 328–329; Zosimos III 12. 1–2 Hucumbra = Symbra 144: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 1. 4 Kaukaba = Coche = Vēh Ardašīr = Seleucia: Chronicon 724, p. 104 Litarbe: Julian, epistula 98 Macepracta 145: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 2. 6 Madaeana146: Festus 28 Maiozamalcha 147: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 4. 1; XXV 8. 18 Maranga: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 1. 11 Maronsa 148: Zosimos III 28. 2 Megia: Zosimos III 15. 3 Mesopotamia: Agathangelos III 13; Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 2. 7 Naarmalcha = Narmalaches: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 6. 1 Narmalaches 149 = Naarmalcha: Zosimos III 24. 2 Nisbara 150: Zosimos III 27. 2 Nischanaba151: Zosimos III 27. 2 Noorda: Zosimos III 26. 3 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151

Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain According Uncertain Uncertain

location. location. location. identification. Perhaps it concerns Media Atropatene. location. location. to Zosimos the river but it concerns „the Royal Canal”- Naarmalcha. location. location.

57

Osrhoene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 2. 7; Zosimos III 12. 2 Ozogardana = Zaragardia: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 2. 3 Pirisabora = Bersabora: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 2. 9; XXIV 5. 3 Sabatha 152: Zosimos III 23. 3 Samosata: Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 328; Zosimos III 12. 1 Seleucia = Vēh Ardašīr = Coche = Kaukaba: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 5. 3; Eunapius Sardianus, frag. 26; Zosimos III 23. 3 Sitha: Zosimos III 15. 3 Symbra = Hucumbra 153: Zosimos III 27. 2 Synca154: Zosimos III 27. 4 Thilutha: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV 2. 1 Tigris: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 3. 1; XXIII 3. 5–6; XXIV 6. 1–2; Chronicon 724, p. 104; Ephraem Syrus, contra Julianum II 18; Festus 28; Gregorius, contra Julianum V. 9–10 Ioannis Lydi, mensibus IV 118; Libanius, epistula 1508; Libanius, oratio XVII 19; Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 330; Sozomenus VI 2; VI 5–9; Zosimos III 12. 3– 4; III 24. 2; III 26. 1; III 27. 3 Tummara: Zosimos III 28. 3 Vēh Ardašīr = Seleucia =Coche= Kaukaba: Tabarī 842 Zaitha: Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII 5. 7 Zaragardia = Ozogardana: Zosimos III 15. 3 Bibliography: ARCE J. J. (1974): On Festus’ sources for Julian’s Persian Expedition, Athenaeum 52, 340–343. AUSTIN N. H. (1972): Julian at Ctesiphon: a fresh look at Ammianus’ account, Athenaeum 50, 301–309. BAYNES N. H. (1937): The death of Julian the Apostate in a Christian legend, The Journal of Roman Studies 27, 22–29. BLOCKLEY R. C. (1973): Festus’ source on Julian’s Persian expedition, Classical Philology 68, 54–55. BROK M. (1959): De perzische expeditië van Keizer Julianus volgens Ammianus Marcellinus, Groningen.

152 153 154

58

Uncertain location. Uncertain location. Uncertain location.

CHARLES M. B. (2007): The Rise of the Sassanian Elephant Corps: Elephants and the Later Roman Empire, Iranica Antiqua 42, 301–346. DĄBROWA E. (2007): Naval Operations during Persian Expedition of Emperor Julian (363 AD), in: The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest: Proceedings of a Colloquium held at Potenza, Acerenza and Matera, Italy (May 2005), eds. A. LEWIN, P. PELLEGRINI, Oxford, 237–242. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 90–94. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1991): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History (AD 226–363), New York, 201–206. FERGUSON M. (2013): Julian, Imperial Legacy, and the Sasanian Campaign, eSasanika 7, 1-11. FORNARA Ch. W. (1991): Julian’s Persian expedition in Ammianus and Zosimus, Journal of Hellenic Studies 111, 1–15. GAWLIKOWSKI M. (1997): L’empereur Julien sur les bords de l’Euphrate, in: Des Sumériens aux Romains d’Orient: la perception géographique du monde. Espaces et territoires au Proche-Orient ancien. Actes de la table ronde du 16 novembre 1996 organisée par l’URA 1062, ed. A. SÉRANDOUR, Paris, 145–155. IVIĆ N. (2004): Neutralizing Contingency: Ammianus Marcellinus as a Participant in Julian's Persian Campaign, 363 AD, Arcadia – International Journal for Literary Studies, 39.2, 322–332. KAEGI W. E. (1981): Constantine’s and Julian’s strategies of strategic surprise against the Persians, Athenaeum 69, 209–213. KELSO I. (1998): Ammianus Marcellinus and Procopius of Caesarea : the eastern campaigns of Julian and Justinian, 4th and 6th centuries A.D., Halifax, 3–34. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2009): Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg, 283–304. RIDLEY R. (1973): Three notes on Julian’s expedition (363), Historia 22, 317–330. SEAGER R. (1997): Perceptions of Eastern Frontier Policy in Ammianus, Libanius, and Julian (337–363), Classical Quarterly 47, 253–268. VANNESSE M. (2012): Ammianus Marcellinus on Julian's Persian Expedition: a Note on the Supply Chain, in: Studies in Latin Literature and Roman History, ed.C. DEROUX, Brussels, 639–645. WIRTH G. (1978): Julians Perserkrieg. Kriterien einer Katastrophe, in: Julian Apostata, ed. R. KLEIN, Darmstadt, 455–507. WÓJCIKOWSKI R. S. (2015): Kawaleria perska w okresie wczesnosasanidzkim. Aspekty społeczne i militarne, T. 1, Oświęcim, 226–230.

59

Map I. 9. Military operations of Theodosius II in 421 AD.

While marching through Persarmenia, Theodosius’s II (408–450) army made for Arzanene, where they crushed Bahrām’s V (420–439) army (421). Capitalizing on the situation that the Roman forces had left Mesopotamia, Bahrām V undertook the siege of Theodosiopolis. However, the Romans did not intend to rescue the besieged town. Instead, they tried to take over Nisibis, the main aim of their campaign. Under the walls of the town they defeated Mundhir’s I (431–473) soldiers coming to the rescue of Nisibis. The defeat of his ally forced the king to give up the siege of Theodosiopolis and to head for Nisibis. However, the military confrontation did not take place as, in order to avoid a two-front war (due to the attack of the Huns), Theodosius II concluded a peace treaty with Bahrām V (422). Armenia: Socrates Scholasticus VII 18. 9; VII 18. 19 Arzanene155: Socrates Scholasticus VII 18. 9; VII 18. 11; VII 18. 21; VII 21. 2 Euphrates: Socrates Scholasticus VII 18. 23 Mesopotamia: Socrates Scholasticus VII 18. 10–11; VII 18. 19; Nisibis: Socrates Scholasticus VII 18. 13; VII 18. 21; VII 18. 24 Syria: Socrates Scholasticus VII 18. 22 Theodosiopolis: Theodoret V 37. 6

155

60

Arzanene: Socrates, Kirchengeschichte, ed. G.C. Hansen. Berlin 1995, 364.

Bibliography: BLOCKLEY R. C. (1992): East Roman Foreign Policy. Formation and Conduct from Diocletian to Anastasius, Leeds, 59–66. GREATREX G. (1993): The two fifth-century Wars between Rome and Persia, Florilegium 12, 1–14. GREATREX G. (2008): Deux notes sur Théodose II et les Perses, Antiquité Tardive 16, 19–25. GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 36–45. MAZZA M. (2005): Bisanzio e Persia nella Tarda Antichità. Guerra e diplomazia da Arcadio a Zenone, in: M. MAZZA, Cultura, guerra e diplomazia nella tarda antichità. Tre studi, Catania 2005, 169–218. SCHRIER O. (1992): Syriac Evidence for the Roman-Persian War of 421–422, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 33, 75–86. SYVÄNNE I. (2015): The Reign of Bahrām V Gōr: The Revitalization of the Empire through Mounted Archery, Historia i Świat 4, 69–100.

61

Map I. 10. Military operations of Kawād I in the years 502–504

Theodosiopolis, conquered after a short siege (502), was the first goal of Kawād’s I (488–497, 499–531) military actions. Next the Iranian army moved south towards Amida, taking Martyropolis (502) on their way. In the meantime, Kawād’s I ally, Nu‘man II (500–504) ravaged the surroundings of Carrhae and Constantina. He was, however, defeated by the Romans near Tell Beshme (502). Only after the conquest of Amida (503) by Kawād I, was Anastasius I (491–518) galvanized into action, sending reinforcements to the East. Although the army marching through Arzanene was defeated by Kawād I, the remaining forces were able to take over Theodosiopolis, plunder Beth Arabaye and carry out a penal expedition to Hira (503). Nu‘man II, who operated mainly in Osrhoene, died in 504 due to injuries sustained in one of the battles. Soon military operations were suspended and peace negotiations between Rome and Iran began. Amida: Chronicon 1234, 51; Cyrille de Scythopolis, Jean 13; Ioannis Lydi, magistratibus III 53; Yeshu' the Stylite 52; 66; 71; 74; 75; 76; Ioannes Malalas XVI, p. 398; Marcellinus Comes, a. 502; 503; Procopius, Bella I 7. 3; I 7. 5; I 7. 11; I 7. 31; I 7. 33; I 8. 1; I 8. 7; I 8. 22; I 9. 1; I 9. 4; I 9. 14; II 13. 8; Tabarī 888; Theophanes A.M. 5996; 5997; 5998; Zachariah VII 3–5 Armenia: Procopius, Bella I 7. 3; Theophanes A.M. 5996; 5997; Zachariah VII 3 Arzamon: Procopius, Bella I 8. 10 Arzanene: Procopius, Bella I 8. 22; Zachariah VII 5 Ashparin 156: Yeshu' the Stylite 57

156

62

Uncertain location.

Batnae = Serug: Yeshu' the Stylite 63 Beth Arbaye 157: Yeshu' the Stylite 64 Callinicum: Yeshu’ the Stylite 64; Marcellinus Comes, a. 504 Constantina = Tella: Yeshu’ the Stylite 51; Procopius, Bella I 8. 10; I 8. 11; II 13. 8; II 13. 11–12; Theophanes A.M. 5996 Dahbana: Yeshu’ the Stylite 61 Dara 158: Yeshu’ the Stylite 54 Edessa: Yeshu’ the Stylite 52; 54; 55; 58; 59; 60; 62; 63; Procopius, Bella II 13. 8; Theophanes A.M. 5997 Euphrates: Yeshu’ the Stylite 54; 57; 60; 63–65 Euphratesia: Theophanes A.M. 5997 Harran: Yeshu’ the Stylite 51; 52; 59 Kallath = Nymphius: Yeshu’ the Stylite 66 Kephar Selem 159: Yeshu’ the Stylite 59 Khabur: Yeshu' the Stylite 57 Kubbe160: Yeshu’ the Stylite 60 Mabbug: Yeshu’ the Stylite 65 Martyropolis: Procopius, Bella I 8. 22 Melitene: Yeshu’ the Stylite 66 Mesopotamia: Yeshu’ the Stylite 66; Ioannes Malalas XVI, p. 398; Marcellinus Comes, a. 504; Procopius, Bella I 7. 3; Theophanes A.M. 5996; 5997; Zachariah VII 3 Nisibis: Yeshu’ the Stylite 54; 55; 69; 75; Theophanes A.M. 5996; 5997; 5998; Zachariah VII 5 Nymphius = Kallath: Procopius, Bella I 8. 21 Osrhoene: Theophanes A.M. 5997 Persarmenia: Yeshu’ the Stylite 75 Samosata: Yeshu’ the Stylite 57; Theophanes A.M. 5997 Serug = Batnae: Yeshu’ the Stylite 59; 60 Sinjar: Yeshu’ the Stylite 53; 55; 69 157 In text Beth Aramaye (surroundings of Ctesiphon) however Yeshu’ the Stylite writes about territories east of Nisibis so it must be Beth Arbaye. 158 Work was begun there in late 505 (Greatrex, Lieu 2002, 74). 159 Uncertain location. 160 Uncertain location.

63

Syficum 161: Marcellinus Comes, a. 503 Syria: Theophanes A.M. 5997 Tell Beshmai: Yeshu’ the Stylite 51 Tella = Constantina: Yeshu’ the Stylite 51; 55; 58 Theodosiopolis: Yeshu’ the Stylite 52; Ioannes Malalas XVI, p. 398; Theophanes A.M. 5996; Zachariah VII 3 Thilasamon 162: Procopius, Bella I 9. 14 Tigris: Yeshu’ the Stylite 53; 79; Zachariah VII 4 Tripyrgion 163: Zachariah VII 4 Bibliography: BRANDS G. (2004): Ein Baukomplex in Dara-Anastasiopolis, Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum 47, 144–155. DEBIE M. (2004): Du Grec en Syriaque: La transmission du récit de la prise d’Amid (502) dans l’historiographie, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 96, 601–622. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 100. GREATREX G. (1998): Rome and Persia at War 502–532, Leeds, 83–119. GREATREX G. (2010): Procopius and Pseudo–Zachariah on the Siege of Amida and its Aftermath (502–6), in: Commutatio et Contentio: Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East in Memory of Zeev Rubin, eds. H. BÖRM, J. WIESEHÖFER, Düsseldorf, 227–251. GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 62–73. HAARER F. (2006): Anastasius I. Politics and Empire in the Late Roman World, Cambridge, 29–72. KETTENHOFEN E. (1996): Deportations II. In the Parthian and Sasanian period, Encyclopaedia Iranica 7, 297–308. LEŃSKI N. (2007): Two Sieges of Amida (AD 359 and 502–503) and the Experience of Combat in the Late Roman Near East, British Archaeological Reports 1717, 219–236. MAKSYMIUK K. (2011): Pogranicze persko-rzymskie w działaniach Husrowa I Anuszirwana (531–579), Siedlce, 89. MEIER M. (2009): Anastasios I. Die Entstehung des Byzantinischen Reiches, Stuttgart, 174–222.

161 162 163

64

Uncertain location. Uncertain location. The district of Amida.

Map I. 11. Military operations in the years 527–531

The direct cause of the outbreak of the war can be attributed to the activities of the Arab allies of both states in the area of borderland. The Romans raided Persarmenia and with Gabala’s IV (512–529) backing made an attempt at taking Nisibis and Thebetha (527–528). In response to the Roman activity, Mundhir IV (527–554), allied with Kawād I, ravaged and plundered Syria (529). The direct encounter in battlefield took place in the proximity of Dara in Mesopotamia and near Satala in Armenia (530). Both battles ended in Justinian’s I (527–565) victories. Then the Romans raided and ravaged Arzanene, reaching Martyropolis (531). Kawād I undertook military actions in two directions: he sent Mundhir IV again to Syria while the main Iranian forces defeated the Romans near Callinicum (531). With the cessation of military operations due to the death of the Iranian king, the Huns allied with him reached Cilicia (531/532). Abgersaton 164: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 465 Amida: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 468; Procopius, Bella I 21. 6; Zachariah IX 5; IX 6 Ammodios 165: Procopius, Bella I 13. 15; Zachariah IX 3 Antioch: Theophanes A.M. 6021; Zachariah VIII 5 Apamea: Zachariah VIII 5 Armenia: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 473; Procopius, Bella I 15. 1; I 15. 3 Arzanene: Zachariah IX 5; IX 6

164 165

Uncertain location. Uncertain location.

65

Attachas: Zachariah IX 5 Bolum: Procopius, Bella I 15. 18; I 15. 32 Callinicum: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 462; XVIII, p. 465; Procopius, Bella I 18. 13 Chalcis: Procopius, Bella I 18. 8–9 Cilicia: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 473 Circesium: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 462 Citharizon: Zachariah IX 6 Cyrrhestica: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 473 Dara: Procopius, Bella I 12. 24; I 13.12; I 13. 16; I. 14. 11; I 16. 1; I 16. 6; I 16. 8; Zachariah IX 2; IX 3; IX 6 Emesa: Zachariah VIII 5 Euphrates: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 463; XVIII, p. 465; Procopius, Bella I 13. 11; I 18. 2; I 18. 4; I 18. 9; I 18. 13; I 21. 1; Zachariah IX 4; IX 6 Euphratesia: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 473 Gabbulon: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 462; Procopius, Bella I 18. 8 Hierapolis: Procopius, Bella I 13. 11 Litarbe: Theophanes A.M. 6021 Martyropolis: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 468; XVIII, p. 469; XVIII, p. 471; Procopius, Bella I 21. 5; I 21. 14; Zachariah IX 6; IX 5 Mesopotamia: Procopius, Bella I 14. 55; I 17. 2; I 17. 3; I 18. 4; I 21. 4 Mindouos 166: Procopius, Bella I 13. 1 Nisibis: Procopius, Bella I 12. 23; I 13. 2; I. 13. 10; I 14. 1; Zachariah IX 2; IX 3 Nymphius 167: Procopius, Bella I 21. 6; Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 468 Osrhoene: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 463; XVIII, p. 465 Persarmenia: Procopius, Bella I 12. 20–21; I 15. 1; I 15. 3–4; I 15. 18 Pharangium: Procopius, Bella I 15. 18 Samosata: Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 465 Satala: Procopius, Bella I 15. 9–10 Singara: Zachariah IX 2 Uncertain location, see LILLINGTON-MARTIN C. (2012), Hard and Soft Power on the Eastern Frontier: a Roman Fortlet between Dara and Nisibis, Mesopotamia, Turkey, Prokopios’ Mindouos?, The Byzantinist 2, 4–5. 167 See Map I. 10. 166

66

Sophene: Procopius, Bella I 21. 6 Soura: Procopius, Bella I 18. 14 Syria: Theophanes A.M. 6021 Thannuris 168: Zachariah IX 5; IX 6 Thebetha: Zachariah IX 2 Theodosiopolis: Procopius, Bella I 15. 1; I 15. 32 Tigris: Zachariah IX 5 Bibliography: ADONTZ N. (1970): Armenia in the Period of Justinian, The Political Conditions Based on the Naxarar System (translated with Partial Revisions, a Bibliographical Note and Appendices, by N.G. Garsoïan), Louvain, 110–125. CAMERON A. (1985): Procopius and the Sixth Century, Berkeley, 156–158. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge 100–106. ELTON H. (2007): Army and Battle in the Age of Justinian (527–65), in: A Companion to the Roman Army, ed. P. ERDKAMP, Oxford, 532–550. GREATREX G. (1998): Rome and Persia at War 502–532, Leeds, 151–214. GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 82–96. HALDON J. F. (2001): The Byzantine Wars: Battles and Campaigns of the Byzantine Era, Stroud, 28–35. HOWARD-JOHNSTON J. (2010): The Sasanians’ Strategic Dilemma, in: Commutatio et Contentio: Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East in Memory of Zeev Rubin, eds. H. BÖRM, J. WIESEHÖFER, Düsseldorf, 37–70. HUGHES I. (2009): Belisarius: The Last Roman General, Yardley, 36–64. LILLINGTON-MARTIN C. (2007): Archaeological and Ancient Literary Evidence for a Battle Near Dara Gap, Turkey, AD 530: Topography, Texts and Trenches, British Archaeological Reports 1717, 299–311. LILLINGTON-MARTIN C. (2013): Procopius on the struggle for Dara in 530 and Rome in 537-538, in: War and Warfare in Late Antiquity. Current Perspectives, eds. A. SARANTIS, N. CHRISTIE, Leiden/Boston, 599–630. SHAHÎD I. (1995): Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth century, Washington, 134– 142.

168

Uncertain location.

67

Map I. 12. Military operations in years 540–543

Taking advantage of Justinian’s I engagement in Europe, Xusrō I (531–579) lead his army along the Euphrates, laying siege to only these towns which did not decide to pay ransom. The conquest of Antioch (540) turned out to be the culminating point in the campaign. The Iranian army retreated, crossing the Euphrates in the vicinity of Barbalissus, and marched into Osrhoene. The first phase of the campaign ended with the Iranians approaching Dara. Capturing Antioch by Xusrō I galvanized Justinian I into action. In response, he dispatched an army under Belisarius’s command to the East. The Roman army destroyed Corduene, Arzanene and the region of Beth Arabaye, yet they were not able to seize Nisibis (541). Justinian’s I intervention in Persarmenia resulted in his defeat in the battle of Angł. In the meantime the Iranians conquered Sergiopolis-Rusafa (542). After leaving the town, Xusrō I left some of his forces in Osrhoene and then with the rest of the army under his own command he destroyed Callinicum (542). The Iranian siege of Edessa (543) was the final event of the war. Adarbiganon: Procopius, Bella II 24. 1 Anglon: Procopius, Bella II 25. 6; II 25. 10; II 25. 15; II 25. 17 Anthakia = Antioch: Firdawsī VI, p. 167 Antioch = Anthakia: Chronicon 1234, 56; Chronicon Edessenum 105; Evagrius IV 25; Ioannes Malalas XVIII, p. 480–481; Ioannis Lydi, magistratibus III 54 ; Iordanes, Romana 376; Marcellinus Comes addit. a. 540; Sebeos 69; Syméon stylite 57; Procopius, Bella II 7. 2; II 8. 1–35; II 9. 14; II 10. 5; II 26. 18; Pseudo-Dionysios II 69; Tabarī 898 Apamea: Chronicon Edessenum 105; Evagrius IV 26; Procopius, Bella II 11. 2; II 11. 4; II 11. 14; II 11. 16 68

Armenia: Evagrius IV 12 Arzanene: Jacobus Edessenus, p. 320 Batnae = Serug: Jacobus Edessenus, p. 321; Procopius, Bella II 12. 31 Beroea: Chronicon Edessenum 105; Evagrius IV 25; Procopius, Bella II 7. 1; II 7. 5; II 7. 19 Beth Arbaye: Jacobus Edessenus, p. 320; Procopius, Anecdota II 25; Procopius, Bella II 19. 11; II 19. 15; II 19. 18; II 24.12 Beth Balash: Chronicon 1234, 56 Callinicum = Kalinius: Chronicon 1234, 56; Iordanes, Romana 376; Jacobus Edessenus, p. 320; Procopius, Bella II 11. 28; II 21. 30; Sebeos 69; Zachariah X (index) 174 Chaboras = Khabur: Procopius, Bella II 5. 2; II 19. 29 Chalcis: Procopius, Bella II 12. 1 Chorzanene: Procopius, Bella II 24. 14 Cilicia: Iordanes, Romana 376; Sebeos 69 Circesium: Procopius, Bella II 5. 2; II 5. 4 Citharizon: Procopius, Bella II 24. 13 Corduene: Jacobus Edessenus, p. 320 Daphne: Evagrius IV 25; Procopius, Bella II 8. 25; II 11. 4 Dara: Corippus, Iohannis I 68–98; Evagrius IV 12; Procopius, Bella II 10. 21; II 11. 28; II 13. 18; II 13. 29; II 16. 6; II 18. 1 Doubios: Procopius, Bella II 25. 1; II 25. 5 Dura Europos: Procopius, Bella II 20. 24; II 21. 1 Edessa: Chronicon 1234, 56; Chronicon Edessenum 105; Evagrius IV 27; Jacobus Edessenus, p. 321; Procopius, Bella II 12. 7; II 12. 31; II 12. 33; II 26. 3; II 26. 5; II 26. 12 Euphrates: Chronicon 1234, 56; Evagrius IV 25; Procopius, Bella II 5. 2; II 5. 4; II 5. 8; II 6. 1; II 12. 3; II 19. 29; II 20. 1; III 20. 24; II 21. 2; Zachariah X (index) 174 Euphratesia: Procopius, Bella II 20. 17; II 20. 20 Hierapolis: Procopius, Bella II 6. 2; II 6. 8; II 6. 17; II 6. 21; II 20. 20; II 20. 23; II 20. 25 Kafr-tut 169: Agapius, p. 431 Kalinius = Callinicum: Firdawsī VI, p. 165–166; V, p. 169–170 169

Uncertain location.

69

Khabur = Chaboras: Zachariah X (index) 174 Mesopotamia: Jacobus Edessenus, p. 320; Procopius, Bella II 12. 3; II 16. 1; II 19. 31; II 26. 1 Nisibis: Corippus, Iohannis I 56–67; Evagrius IV 12; Procopius, Bella II 18. 1; II 18. 3; II 18. 15; II 19. 1; II 19. 8 Obbane: Procopius, Bella II 12. 4 Orontes: Iordanes, Romana 376; Procopius, Bella II 8. 3; II 8. 35 Persarmenia: Procopius, Bella II 24. 2; II 24. 11 Phison 170: Procopius, Bella II 24. 15 Rhesaina = Theodosiopolis: Agapius, p. 431 Rusafa = Sergiopolis: Chronicon 1234, 56 Seleucia: Evagrius IV 25; Iordanes, Romana 376; Procopius, Bella II 11. 1 Sergiopolis = Rusafa: Evagrius IV 28; Procopius, Bella II 5. 29; II 20. 2; II 20. 5; II 20. 7; II 20. 10; II 20. 13 Serug = Batnae: Chronicon 1234, 56 Sisauranon: Procopius, Anecdota II 18; Procopius, Bella II 19. 2; II 19. 24–25 Soura: Chronicon Edessenum 105; Evagrius IV 25; Iordanes, Romana 376; Procopius, Bella II 5. 8; II 5. 13; II 5. 15; II 5. 28; II 6. 2 Syria: Ioannis Lydi, magistratibus III 54; Iordanes, Romana 376; Marcellinus Comes addit. a. 540 Theodosiopolis (Armenia): Procopius, Bella II 24. 12–13; II 24. 15; II. 25. 1 Theodosiopolis = Rhesaina: Corippus, Iohannis I 68–98; Procopius, Bella II 19. 29 Tigris: Procopius, Anecdota II 23; II 25; Procopius, Bella II 19. 14; II 19. 17; II 19. 39 Zenobia: Procopius, Bella II 5. 4; II 5. 7 Bibliography: BÖRM H. (2006): Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum. Chosroes I und der sasanidische Einfall in das Oströmische Reich 540 n. Chr., Chiron 36, 301–328. CAMERON A. (1985): Procopius and the Sixth Century, Berkeley, 159–170. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 106–109. DOWNEY G. (1953): The Persian Campaign in Syria in A.D. 540, Speculum 28, 340– 348. 170

70

Uncertain location.

ELTON H. (2007): Army and Battle in the Age of Justinian (527–65), in: A Companion to the Roman Army, ed. P. ERDKAMP, Oxford, 532–550. GREATREX G. (2005): Byzantium and the East in the Sixth Century, in: The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian, ed. M. MAAS, Cambridge, 477–509. GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 102–114. HUGHES I. (2009): Belisarius: The Last Roman General, Yardley, 183–201. JACKSON BONNER M. R. (2012): Eastern Sources on the Roman and Persian War in the Near East 540-545, in: Appeared in Late Antiquity: Eastern Perspectives, eds. A. SILVERSTEIN, T. BERNHEIMER, Oxford, 42–56. KISLINGER E., STATHAKOPOULOS D. (1999): Pest und Perserkriege bei Prokop. Chronologische Überlegungen zum Geschehen 540–545, Byzantion 69, 76–98. MAKSYMIUK K. (2011): Pogranicze persko-rzymskie w działaniach Husrowa I Anuszirwana (531–579), Siedlce, 96–98. TROMBLEY F. (2005): The late Roman practice of war on the Syrian frontier (ad 502– 641), in: Krieg- Gesellschaft-Institution. Beiträge zu einer vergleichenden Kriegsgeschichte, eds. B. MEIßNER, O. SCHMITT, M. SOMMER, Berlin, 387–416. СЕРОВ В. В. (2000): Персидские войны Юстиниана I: финансовый аспект, Алтайский государственный университет. Востоковедные исследования на Алтае: сборник статей 2, Барнаул, 29–44. WHITBY M. (1989): Procopius and Antioch, in: The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, eds. D. FRENCH, C. S. LIGHTFOOT, Oxford, 537–553.

71

Map I. 12a. Military operations in Lazica in years 541–556

When the Iranian army entered Lazica and took Petra, the Roman garrisons left Pityus and Sebastopolis (541) without any resistance. Justinian’s I intervention took place only a few years later. The emperor’s forces besieged Petra (548), yet they did not manage to take over this stronghold because Xusrō’s I reinforcements sent to Lazica broke the siege (549). The main Iranian forces did not continue their military operations in the Caucasian region but withdrew to Persarmenia, which facilitated Roman victory in the battle on the Hippis river (549). Further warfare was carried out with alternating success until Rome’s victory in the battle of Phasis (556). Abasgia: Procopius, Bella VIII 4. 1; VIII 9. 15; VIII 9. 20 Apsilia: Agathias IV 13. 6; Procopius, Bella VIII 9. 15; VIII 9. 20; VIII 10. 3–4; VIII 10. 7 Archaeopolis: Agathias II 19. 1; II 22. 3; III 3. 5; III 6. 12; III 7. 11; III 17. 5; Procopius, Bella VIII 13. 3; VIII 13. 8; VIII 13. 23; VIII 13. 25; VIII 13. 30; VIII 14. 1; VIII 14. 4; VIII 14. 23; VIII 14. 46; VIII 16. 6; VIII 17. 17 Athenae: Procopius, Bella II 30. 14 Boas: Procopius, Bella II 29. 14; II 29. 22 Catharus 171: Agathias III 7. 8 Chytropolia 172: Agathias II 20. 5; II 21. 2; II 22. 1

171 172

72

Uncertain location. Uncertain location.

Colchis = Lazica: Procopius, Bella II 17. 2–3; II 29. 11; II 29. 32; II 30. 19; II 30. 31; VIII 1. 4; VIII 8. 39; VIII 13. 3; VIII 13. 5; VIII 13. 21; VIII 14. 46; VIII 14. 53; VIII 16. 7 Doconus: Agathias II 21. 10 Hippis: Procopius, Bella VIII 1. 6 Iberia: Agathias III 6. 2; III 19. 5; III 28. 10; IV 12. 1; IV 15. 4; IV 23. 2; IV 30. 6; Procopius, Bella II 17. 1; II 29. 29; II 30. 1; II 30. 21; II 30. 45; VIII 13. 3; VIII 13. 5; VIII 13. 12; VIII 13. 15; VIII 13. 21; VIII 16. 14; Sebeos 69 Kotais: Agathias II 19. 1; II 22. 3; III 6. 3; III 7. 1; III 28. 6; IV 15. 4; Procopius, Bella VIII 14. 48–49; VIII 16. 16; VIII 17. 19 Lazica = Colchis: Agathias III 1. 7; III 2. 1–2; IV 23. 1; IV 30. 5; IV 30. 7; Jacobus Edessenus, p. 321; Menander Protector, frag. 11; Procopius, Bella II 17. 1–2; II 29. 1; II 29. 3; II 29. 23; II 29. 28; II 30. 1; II 30. 29; II 30. 34; II 30. 46; VIII 1. 5; VIII 1. 7; VIII 9. 6; VIII 10. 4; VIII 11. 26; VIII 12. 17; VIII 13. 3; VIII 13. 12–13; VIII 14. 46; VIII 14. 54; VIII 16. 7; VIII 16. 13; VIII 16. 17; VIII 16. 26 Meschitha: Agathias II 22. 4 Mucheirisis: Agathias II 19. 1; III 6. 3; III 6. 9; III 7. 1; III 15. 1; III 19. 5; III 28. 6; III 28. 9; IV 13. 5; Procopius, Bella VIII 1. 5; VIII 14. 45–46; VIII 16. 14; VIII 16. 22; VIII 17. 11; VIII 17. 19 Neocnus 173: Agathias III 28. 8 Nesos: Agathias II 21. 6–7; II 21. 9 Onoguris: Agathias II 22. 3; III 3. 6; III 6. 2–3; III 7. 1 Petra: Jacobus Edessenus, p. 321; Procopius, Bella II 17. 3; II 17. 16; II 17. 18; II 17. 22; II 17. 27; II 19. 47; II 29. 1; II 29. 6; II 29. 8; II 29. 11; II 29. 22; II 29. 27; II 29. 34; II 29. 40; II 30. 2; II 30. 7; II 30. 21; II 30. 23–24; II 30. 30–31; II 30. 47; VIII 4. 5; VIII 8. 39; VIII 10. 4; VIII 11. 11; VIII 11. 26; VIII 11. 62; VIII 12. 17; VIII 12. 28; VIII 13. 3; VIII 13. 11–12; VIII 14. 4 Phasis (the fortress): Agathias III 19. 8–9; III 20. 8 Phasis = Reon (the river): Agathias II 19. 1; II 21. 10; II 22. 2; III 21. 3; IV 23. 2; Procopius, Bella II 29. 22–23; II 29. 27; II 30. 1; II 30. 11; II 30. 24; II 30. 34–35; VIII 1. 10; VIII 13. 2–3; VIII 13. 9; VIII 13. 23; VIII 13. 28; VIII 16. 6; VIII 16. 18; VIII 17. 12 Pityus: Procopius, Bella VIII 4. 4 Reon = Phasis 174: Procopius, Bella VIII 13. 3; VIII 14. 47 Rhizaeum: Procopius, Bella II 30. 14 Rhodopolis: Agathias IV 15. 1; IV 15. 3; Procopius, Bella VIII 13. 21 Sarapanis: Procopius, Bella VIII 13. 15; VIII 16. 17 173 174

Uncertain location. According to Procopius they are two different rivers.

73

Scanda: Procopius, Bella VIII 13. 15; VIII 13. 20 Scymnia: Procopius, Bella VIII 14. 53; VIII 16. 14 Sebastopolis: Procopius, Bella VIII 4. 4 Suania: Menander Protector, frag. 11; Procopius, Bella VIII 14. 53; VIII 16. 14 Telephis 175: Agathias II 19. 1–2; II 20. 5; II 20. 8; II 21. 7; II 21. 9; II 22. 2 Tzania: Procopius, Bella VIII 2. 5 Tzibile: Procopius, Bella VIII 10. 1; VIII 10. 7; VIII 17. 16 Uthimereos: Procopius, Bella VIII 14. 51; VIII 14. 53; VIII 16. 4; VIII 16. 12–13; VIII 16. 17 Bibliography: ALEMANI A. (2006): Sixth Century Alania: between Byzantium, Sasanian Iran and the Turkic World, in: Ēran ud Anērān: studies presented to Boris Il’ic Marsak on the occasion of his 70th birthday, eds. M. COMPARETI, P. RAFFETTA, G. SCARCIA, Venice, (pdf: Transoxiana, Webfestschrift Marshak 2003). BRAUND D. G. (1994): Georgia in Antiquity. A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia 550 BC – AD 562, Oxford, 292–311. COLVIN I. (2013), Literary Sources and Topography, in: War and Warfare in Late Antiquity. Current Perspectives, eds. A. SARANTIS, N. CHRISTIE, Leiden/Boston, 571– 598. ELTON H. (2007): Army and Battle in the Age of Justinian (527–65), in: A Companion to the Roman Army, ed. P. ERDKAMP, Oxford, 532–550. GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 115–122. MAKSYMIUK K. (2011): Pogranicze persko-rzymskie w działaniach Husrowa I Anuszirwana (531–579), Siedlce, 100. MAKSYMIUK K. (2015): Działania militarne w Lazyce (541-556) – znaczenie Kaukazu w relacjach irańsko-bizantyjskich, Rzeszów (forthcoming) TOUMANOFF C. (1966): Armenia and Georgia, in: The Cambridge Medieval History 4.1, ed. J. HUSSEY, Cambridge, 593–637.

175

74

Uncertain location.

Map I. 13. Military operations in years 572–578

Justin II (565–578) undertook military operations against Iran simultaneously Armenia and northern Mesopotamia. Although thanks to the help of its locals, the Romans managed to take over Dvin, nevertheless the military operations in Mesopotamia did not bring the expected results as the Romans were neither able to capture Thebetha nor Nisibis (572). Xusrō’s I reacted swiftly by attacking Syria and at the same time throwing his main forces across the Tigris to capture Dara (573). Xusrō’s I second campaing encompassed Lesser Armenia. With no difficulties, the Iranian army reached Theodosiopolis and then took over abandoned Sebastea and Melitene. Only in the course of their withdrawal in the direction of the Euphrates were the Iranians defeated by the Roman army (576). Towards the end of the war Xusrō I attacked Amida and Martyropolis and Justin II made another attempt to capture Nisibis (578). The military operations were interrupted due to the emperor’s death. Amida: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 14; Theophylact Simocatta III 12. 11; III 15. 12 Antioch = Theopolis: Chronicon 724, p. 112; Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 4; Mika’el Rabo X 9; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 8 Apamea: Chronicon 724, p. 112; Evagrius V 10; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 6; VI 8; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 9 Aphumon: Menander Protector, frag. 54; Theophylact Simocatta III 15. 14 Araxes: Sebeos 71 Armenia: Evagrius V 14; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 8; VI 9; VI 14; Sebeos 69; Theophylact Simocatta III 12. 11

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Artaz: Sebeos 68 Arzanene: Agathias IV 29. 8; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 15; Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 3; Menander Protector, frag. 54; Sebeos 68; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 2; III 14. 11; III 15. 12; III 15. 14; III 16. 1 Bagrewand: Sebeos 71 Barbalissos: Mika’el Rabo X 9 Basean: Sebeos 71 Beth Dama: Mika’el Rabo X 9 Bolorapahak: Sebeos 71 Caesarea: Evagrius V 14; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 8 Cappadocia: Evagrius V 14; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 8; VI 14 Chalcis: Mika’el Rabo X 9 Chlomaron: Menander Protector, frag. 57 Circesium: Evagrius V 9; Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 4; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 6; III 10. 8 Citharizon: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 14; Theophylact Simocatta III 15. 12 Constantina = Tella: Theophylact Simocatta III 15. 11–12 Corduene: Agathias IV 29. 7 Dara: Chronicon 1234, 65; Chronicon 724, p. 112; Evagrius V 9; V 14; Iohannis Biclarensis a. 575? 1; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 5; VI 6; VI 8; VI 13; Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 3; frag. 5; Menander Protector, frag. 54; Sebeos 69; Theophanes Byzantinus 4; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 4–5; III 11. 2; III 12. 9 Dvin: Sebeos 68 Edessa: Chronicon 1234, 65; 66 Euphrates: Evagrius V 9; V 14; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 9; Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 3; frag. 4; Sebeos 68; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 2; III 10. 6; III 10. 8; III 12. 11; III 14. 11 Gabbulon: Mika’el Rabo X 9 Gazara 176: Mika’el Rabo X 9 Haleb: Firdawsī VI, p. 413 Karin = Theodosiopolis: Sebeos 68 Khabur: Evagrius V 9; Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 4; Theophylact Simocatta III 10.7 Kt’ni 177: Sebeos 71 176

76

Uncertain location.

Maipherqat: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 14 Melitene: Eustratius, vita Eutychii 1721; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 8; VI 9; Evagrius V 14; Sebeos 70; Theophylact Simocatta III 14. 11 Mesopotamia: Evagrius V 8; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 14 Murts’: Sebeos 71 Nisibis: Chronicon 1234, 65; 66; Evagrius V 8–9; Iohannis Biclarensis a. 575? 1; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 2; VI 5; Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 3; frag. 4; Theophanes Byzantinus 4; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 4–5; III 10. 7; III 11. 1–2; III 16. 1 Osrhoene: Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 3; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 2 Persarmenia: Iohannis Biclarensis a. 571? 1; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 8; VI 28; Menander Protector, frag. 54; Theophylact Simocatta III 15. 10; III 15. 12–13 Qasrin: Mika’el Rabo X 9 Rhesaina: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 13 Sargathon 178: Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 3; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 4 Sebasteia: Eustratius, vita Eutychii, 1721; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 8 Sekila = Seleucia: Firdawsī VI, p. 413 Seleucia = Sekila: Chronicon 724, p. 112 Singara: Theophylact Simocatta III 16. 2 Sophene: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 14 Syria: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 8; VI 14; Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 4; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 8 Tell Beshmai: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 13 Tella = Constantina: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 13 Thamnon: Agathias IV 29. 7 Thebetha: Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 3; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 5 Theodosiopolis: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 8; VI 14; Theophylact Simocatta III 15. 11– 12 Theopolis = Antioch: Evagrius V 9 Tigris: Chronicon 1234, 65; 66; Evagrius V 9; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 15; Iohannes Epiphanus, frag. 4; Theophylact Simocatta III 10. 6; III 16. 2 Zirma: Agathias IV 29. 8

177 178

Uncertain location. Uncertain location.

77

Bibliography: COWE S. P. (1991): The significance of the Persian War (571–91) in the Narratio de rebus Armeniae, Le Muséon 104, 265–276. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 109–115. GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 137–162. HOWARD-JOHNSTON J. (2010): The Sasanians’ Strategic Dilemma, in: Commutatio et Contentio: Studies in the Late Roman, Sasanian, and Early Islamic Near East in Memory of Zeev Rubin, eds. H. BÖRM, J. WIESEHÖFER, Düsseldorf, 37–70. MAKSYMIUK K. (2011): Pogranicze persko-rzymskie w działaniach Husrowa I Anuszirwana (531–579), Siedlce, 101–104. SARRIS P. (2011): Empires of Faith - The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, c. 500– 700, Oxford, 226–231. SYVÄNNE I. (2009): The Battle of Melitene AD 576, Saga Newsletter 120, 32–64. SZADECZKY-KARDOSS S. (1976): Bemerkungen zur Geschichte (Chronologie und Topographie) der sassanidisch-byzantinischen Kriege, Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 24, 109–114. TROMBLEY F. (2007): The Operational Methods of the Late Roman Army in the Persian War of 572–591, in: The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest: Proceedings of a Colloquium held at Potenza, Acerenza and Matera, Italy (May 2005), eds. A. LEWIN, P. PELLEGRINI, Oxford, 321–356. TURTLEDOVE H. (1983): Justin II’s observance of Justinian’s Persian Treaty of 562, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 76, 292–301.

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Map I. 14. Military operations in years 580–582

Taking advantage of Hormozd’s IV (579–590) difficult situation Tiberius’s II (578–582) army crossed the Tigris and attacked Media (580). Southern Mesopotmia was the next military aim of Romans. Their forces reached Asorestan, yet the actions of the Iranian army in the north forced them to move quickly along the Euphrates in the direction of Callinicum. The arrival of the main forces did not prevent the plundering of Osrhoene by the Iranian soldiers who then retreated and found refuge in Nisibis (581). At the time when the Roman army attacked Arzanene, the Iranian forces struck Martyropolis and Amida. The Iranians were, however, defeated in the battle of (582). The emperor’s death disrupted further military operations. Amida: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 27 Anatha: Chronicon 1234, 74 Armenia: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 27 Arzanene: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 27; Menander Protector, frag. 57; 60 Babylonia = Beth Aramaye: Theophylact Simocatta III 17. 6 Beth Aramaye = Babylonia: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 16 Bethvashi 179: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 26 Caesarea: Theophylact Simocatta III 17. 5 Callinicum: Chronicon 1234, 74; Theophylact Simocatta III 17. 8; III 17. 10 179

Uncertain location.

79

Cappadocia: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 27; Theophylact Simocatta III 17. 5 Carrhae: Chronicon 819, 10 Citharizon: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 27 Constantina = Tela Mauzalat: Chronicon 1234, 74; Chronicon 819, 10; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 17; Theophylact Simocatta III 18. 1 Edessa: Chronicon 1234, 74; Chronicon 819, 10; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 17 Euphrates: Chronicon 1234, 74; Theophylact Simocatta III 17. 10 Maipherqat: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 27 Media: Theophylact Simocatta III 17. 3 Mesopotamia: Iohannes Ephesinus III 40; Menander Protector, frag. 64 Nisibis: Chronicon 1234, 74 Osrhoene: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 17 Persarmenia: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 27; Menander Protector, frag. 60; 64 Qartmin: Chronicon 1234, 74; Chronicon 819, 10 Rhesaina: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 17 Sophene: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 27 Syria: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 27 Tela Mauzalat = Constantina: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 26 Theodosiopolis: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 27 Tigris: Theophylact Simocatta III 17. 3 Tur Abdin: Chronicon 1234, 74 Bibliography: GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 162–166. SARRIS P. (2011): Empires of Faith - The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, c. 500– 700, Oxford, 232–235. TROMBLEY F. (2007): The Operational Methods of the Late Roman Army in the Persian War of 572–591, in: The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest: Proceedings of a Colloquium held at Potenza, Acerenza and Matera, Italy (May 2005), eds. A. LEWIN, P. PELLEGRINI, Oxford, 321–356.

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Map I. 15. Military operations in the years 582–589

In the initial phase of warfare, military operations were limited solely to Arzanene. Though Maurice’s (582–602) forces were defeated in the battle on the Nymphius (582) river, they were able to conquer the fortress of Akbas (583). Devastating the area around Nisibis (584) by the roman army forced Hormozd IV to undertake more active operations in Mesopotamia. The Iranian forces were defeated on the plains of Solachon, which enabled the Romans to enter the town of Corduene (586). It seemed that the successful seizure of the stronghold in Beiuades (587) would be squandered due to the revolt in the Roman army, however, despite the conflict with the emperor, the army took action in Persarmenia (588). Although the Romans lost the battle of Tsalkajur, they crashed the Iranian forces near Martyropolis on ther way back to Mesopotamia (588). The final events of the war were Hormozd’s IV takeover of Martyropolis and the Roman victory in the battle of Sisauranon (589). Akbas = Ocba: Theophylact Simocatta I 12. 1; I 12. 3 Amida: Theophylact Simocatta I 15. 1; II 9. 16 Antioch in Mygdonia = Nisibis: Theophylact Simocatta III 6. 1 Aphumon: Theophylact Simocatta I 12. 1; I 12. 3; II 9. 4; II 9. 9 Arzamon (the fortress): Theophylact Simocatta I 15. 15 Arzamon (the river): Theophylact Simocatta II 1. 5; II 1. 7 Arzanene: Theophylact Simocatta I 14. 1; II 7. 1–2; II 7. 5; II 8. 6; III 4. 2 Beïudaes: Theophylact Simocatta II 18. 7; II 18. 9 81

Beth Arbaye: Mika’el Rabo X 21; Theophylact Simocatta I 13. 11 Bibas 180: Theophylact Simocatta I 15. 15 Bouron: Theophylact Simocatta II 1. 5; II 2. 4 Bznunik’: Sebeos 71 Carcharoman: Theophylact Simocatta I 13. 4 Chaboras: Theophylact Simocatta I 13. 10 Chalat = Nymphius: Iohannes Ephesinus VI 36 Chlomaron: Theophylact Simocatta II 7. 6; II 8. 7; II 8. 11–12 Constantina: Theophylact Simocatta III 3. 8–9 Dara: Theophylact Simocatta II 4. 10; II 5. 7 Maipherqat = Martyropolis: Chronicon 1234, 78; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 36 Mambrathon: Theophylact Simocatta I 15. 14 Martyropolis = Maipherqat: Evagrius VI 14–15; Theophylact Simocatta I 14. 7; III 4. 1–2; III 5. 8; III 5. 11; III 5. 16 Matzaron: Theophylact Simocatta II 18. 7 Mesopotamia: Juansher, p. 217 Monocarton = Tiberiopolis: Theophylact Simocatta I 13. 3; I 14. 6 Nisibis = Antioch in Mygdonia: Evagrius VI 3; Theophylact Simocatta I 13. 5; III 4. 3; III 6. 1 Nymphius = Chalat: Theophylact Simocatta I 9. 5; I 12. 1; I 12. 6–7; I 13. 10; II 9. 16; III 4. 2 Ocba = Akbas: Evagrius VI 15; Iohannes Ephesinus VI 36 Sisauranon: Theophylact Simocatta I 13. 10; III 6. 1 Solachon: Theophylact Simocatta II 3. 12 Thamnon: Theophylact Simocatta II 10. 4 Theodosiopolis: Theophylact Simocatta I 13. 10; I 13. 12; II 10. 4; III 6. 2 Tiberiopolis = Monocarton: Theophylact Simocatta I 14. 6 Tigris: Evagrius VI 3; Theophylact Simocatta I 9. 5; I 13. 3; II 10. 1; II 10. 4 Tsalkajur: Sebeos 71

180

82

Uncertain location.

Bibliography: ALEMANI A. (2006): Sixth Century Alania: between Byzantium, Sasanian Iran and the Turkic World, in: Ēran ud Anērān: studies presented to Boris Il’ic Marsak on the occasion of his 70th birthday, eds. M. COMPARETI, P. RAFFETTA, G. SCARCIA, Venice, (pdf: Transoxiana, Webfestschrift Marshak 2003, access 7.04.2012 r.). GOUBERT P. (1951): Byzance avant l’Islam. vol. I: Byzance et l’orient sous les successeurs de Justinien, l’empereur Maurice, Paris, 63–127. GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 167–172. HIGGINS M. (1939): The Persian War of the Emperor Maurice (582–602). Part I: The Chronology, with a Brief History of the Persian Calendar, Washington, 24–41. TOUMANOFF C. (1966): Armenia and Georgia, in: The Cambridge Medieval History 4.1, ed. J. HUSSEY, Cambridge, 593–637. TROMBLEY F. (2007): The Operational Methods of the Late Roman Army in the Persian War of 572–591, in: The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest: Proceedings of a Colloquium held at Potenza, Acerenza and Matera, Italy (May 2005), eds. A. LEWIN, P. PELLEGRINI, Oxford, 321–356.

83

Map I. 15a. Military operations in the Caucasian region in 588–589

The Roman army allied with Guaram I (588–590), who had been placed on the throne of Iberia by the Romans, attacked Albania (588). However, the Romans could not continue the campaign because the Iranian army operating in Suania, strengthened by a contingent from the Turkish frontline, forced Emperor Maurice to shift his army to Lazica (589). The Romans won the victory in the battle near the Araxes river and then they attempted to capture Dvin. The military activities of Maurice in the Caucasian region facilitated Bahrām VI Čōbīn, the commander of the Iranian forces, to rebel, and then, with his faithful soldiers, to make for Ctesiphon. Capitalizing on the existing situation, the Roman army entered Atropatene (589/590). Adarbadagan = Atrpatakan: Juansher, p. 220 Albania = Ran: Theophylact Simocatta III 6. 17; III 7. 13 Araxes = Eras: Theophylact Simocatta III 6. 16; III 7. 13 Atrpatakan = Adarbadagan: Sebeos 74 Dvin: Sebeos 74 Eras = Araxes: Theophylact Simocatta III 6. 16 Javakhet’i: Juansher, p. 218 K’art’li: Juansher, p. 217 Canzacon: Theophylact Simocatta III 7. 2 Klarjet’i: Juansher, p. 218 84

Colchis = Lazica: Theophylact Simocatta III 6. 17; III 7. 7 Lazica = Colchis: Theophylact Simocatta III 6. 17 Mts‘khet‘a: Juansher, p. 218 Ran = Albania: Juansher, p. 217 Suania: Theophylact Simocatta III 6. 15–16 Bibliography: See Map I. 15.

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Map I. 16. Military operations of Xusrō II in 603–622

The murder of emperor Maurice (602) served as a pretext for the Iranians to instigate military actions against Rome. Xusrō II (590–628) reached the Euphrates, conquering within several years the following strongholds in Mesopotamia: Dara (604), Amida (606), Edessa (609) and Circesium (610). Then the Iranian army devastated Asia Minor, marching as far as Chalcedon (610). During the next campaign two armies were active on the Roman territory: the northern one, which conquered Caesarea in Cappadocia and then retreated to Armenia, and the southern one, which operated in Syria. The Romans tried to hold off the Iranian army but were defeated in the battle of Emesa (611). Without much resistance on the side of Rome, Xusrō II took over the main towns in the East: Antioch, Apamea (611), Tarsus, Damascus (613), Jerusalem, Ephesus and Chalcedon (614). The campaign ended with the Iranians entering Egypt (618). Adana: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Adhri‘at: Tabarī 1007 Aleppo: Mika’el Rabo X 25 Alexandria: Anonymus, Jean l’Aumônier 13; Chronicon 724, p. 112; Mika’el Rabo XI 1; Sebeos 105; Tabarī 1002; Theophanes A.M. 6107 Amida: Agapius, p. 449; Chronicon Anonymum, p. 25; Mika’el Rabo X 25; Sebeos 111; Theophanes A.M. 6116 Ancyra: Mika’el Rabo XI 3; Theophanes A.M. 6111 Antioch: Agapius, p. 450; Georges le Moine 166; Mika’el Rabo X 25; XI 1; Nicephorus Callistus XVIII 44; Sebeos 111; 114; Theophanes A.M. 6102

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Apamea: Agapius, p. 450; Theophanes A.M. 6102 Arabia: Anonymus, Jean l’Aumônier 13 Armenia: Chronicon 1234, 91; Mika’el Rabo X 25; Narratio 109; Nicephorus Callistus XVIII 43; Sebeos 107; 108; 113; 114; Theophanes A.M. 6100; 6113; 6115 Arzamon: Theophanes A.M. 6096 Bostra = Busra: Antonios, Georgii Chozebitae VII 30 Busra = Bostra: Tabarī 1007 Caesarea (Cappadocia): Agapius, p. 450; Georges le Moine 153; 154; Mika’el Rabo XI 1; Sebeos 113; 114; 123; Theophanes A.M. 6103 Caesarea (Palestine): Agapius, p. 451; Sebeos 115 Callinicum: Chronicon 724, p. 113 Cappadocia: Georges le Moine 153; Mika’el Rabo X 25; XI 1; Nicephorus Callistus XVIII 43; Sebeos 114; Theophanes A.M. 6100; 6103 Chalcedon: Agapius, p. 451; Chronicon Paschale, p. 706; 707; Mika’el Rabo X 25; XI 1; Nicephorus Callistus XVIII 43; Sebeos 122; Theophanes A.M. 6100; 6107; 6108 Cilicia: Mika’el Rabo XI 1; Sebeos 115; Theophanes A.M. 6113 Circesium: Chronicon 724, p. 113 Constantina: Anonymus, Jean l’Aumônier 13 Constantinople: Mika’el Rabo XI 3; Sebeos 123 Cyprus: Anonymus, Jean l’Aumônier 13 Damascus: Antiochus Strategos, p. 510; Antonios, Georgii Chozebitae VI 29; VII 30; Chronicon 724, p. 112; Mika’el Rabo XI 1; Theophanes A.M. 6105 Dara: Chronicon 724, p. 112; Chronicon Anonymum, p. 20–21; Mika’el Rabo X 25; Sebeos 107; 108; 110; Theophanes A.M. 6096 Edessa = Urha: Agapius, p. 449; Chronicon 724, p. 113; Chronicon 819, 10; Chronicon 846, p. 230; Chronicon Anonymum, p. 25; Chronicon Paschale, p. 698; Jacobus Edessenus, p. 324; Mika’el Rabo X 25; XI 1; XI 3; Sebeos 111; Theophanes A.M. 6095; 6096; 6102 Egypt: Mika’el Rabo XI 1; Sawirus ibn al-Muqaffa, p. 484; Theophanes A.M. 6107 Emesa: Agapius, p. 450; Chronicon 1234, 91; Chronicon 724, p. 113 Ephesus: Chronicon Paschale, p. 706 Euphrates: Chronicon 724, p. 113; Chronicon Anonymum, p. 25; Mika’el Rabo X 25; Sebeos 107; Theophanes A.M. 6116

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Galatia: Mika’el Rabo X 25; XI 1; Nicephorus Callistus XVIII 43; Theophanes A.M. 6100; 6111 Galilaea: Mika’el Rabo XI 1 Harran: Chronicon 724, p. 113; Chronicon Paschale, p. 698 Hierapolis = Mabbug: Theophanes A.M. 6096 Jerusalem: Agapius, p. 451; Anonymus, Jean l’Aumônier 9; Antiochus Strategos, p. 506–507; Antonios, Georgii Chozebitae VII 30; Chronicon 1234, 93; Chronicon 724, p. 113; Chronicon Anonymum, p. 25; 26; 27; Chronicon Paschale, p. 704–705 ; Mika’el Rabo XI 1; Sebeos 115; 123; Tabarī 1007 Karin: Sebeos 111; 113 Libya: Mika’el Rabo XI 1; Theophanes A.M. 6107 Mabbug = Hierapolis: Chronicon Anonymum, p. 25; Mika’el Rabo X 25 Marda = Mardin: Mika’el Rabo X 25 Mardin = Marda: Chronicon Anonymum, p. 25 Martyropolis: Chronicon Anonymum, p. 25; Theophanes A.M. 6116 Melitene: Sebeos 113 Mesopotamia: Agapius, p. 449; Mika’el Rabo X 25; XI 1; Sebeos 110 Palestine: Mika’el Rabo X 25; Nicephorus Callistus XVIII 43; Sawirus ibn alMuqaffa, p. 484; Sebeos 115; Theophanes A.M. 6106 Paphlagonia: Mika’el Rabo X 25; Nicephorus Callistus XVIII 43; Theophanes A.M. 6100 Phoenicia: Anonymus, Jean l’Aumônier 13; Mika’el Rabo X 25; Nicephorus Callistus XVIII 43 Qennesrin: Mika’el Rabo X 25 Rhodes: Agapius, p. 458; Chronicon 1234, 96; Chronicon 724, p. 113; Mika’el Rabo XI 3 Samosata: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Syria: Agapius, p. 449; Anonymus, Jean l’Aumônier 13; Mika’el Rabo X 25; XI 1; XI 3; Nicephorus Callistus XVIII 43; Theophanes A.M. 6102 Tarsus: Sebeos 115 Tella: Sebeos 111 Tigris: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Urha = Edessa: Sebeos 107; 110 Zenobia: Chronicon 724, p. 113

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Bibliography: ALTHEIM-STIEHL R. (1991): Wurde Alexandria im Juni 619 n. Chr. durch die Perser erobert? Bemerkungen zur zeitlichen Bestimmung der sâsânidischen Besetzung Ägyptens unter Chosrau II. Parwêz, Tyche 6, 3–16. AVNI G. (2010): The Persian Conquest of Jerusalem (614 C.E.)-An Archaeological Assessment, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 357, 35–48. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 115–118. FOSS C. (2003): The Persians in the Roman Near East, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 13, 149–170. GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 182–197. KAEGI W. (2003): Heraclius. Emperor of Byzantium, Cambridge, 39–57, 65–69, 74– 99. MAGNESS J. (2011): Archaeological Evidence for the Sasanian Persian Invasion of Jerusalem, in: Shaping the Middle East: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in an Age of Transition 400–800 C.E., eds. K. HOLUM, H. LAPIN, Maryland, 85–98. MORONY M. (1987): Syria under the Persians, 610–629, in: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the History of Bilad al-Sham during the Early Islamic Period, eds. M. BAKHIT, I. ABBAS, Amman, 87–95. PREISER-KAPELLER J. (2004): Magister militum per Armeniam - ὁ τῶν Ἀρμενιάκων στρατηγός. Überlegungen zum armenischen Kommando im 6. und 7. Jahrhundert (Considerations on the military command of Byzantine Armenia in the 6th and 7th century), in: Wiener Byzantinistik und Neogräzistik: Beiträge zum Symposion Vierzig Jahre Institut Byzantinistik und Neogräzistik der Universität Wien im Gedenken an Herbert Hunger, (Wien, 4.–7. Dezember 2002), ed. W. HÖRANDNER, Wien, 348–367. POURSHARIATI P. (2008): Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire, London/New York, 140–149. RUSSELL J. (2001): The Persian invasion of Syria/Palestine and Asia Minor in the reign of Heraclius: archaeological and numismatic evidence, in: The Dark Centuries of Byzantium (7th–9th c.), ed. E. KONTOURA-GALAKE, Athens, 41–71. SARRIS P. (2011): Empires of Faith - The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, c. 500– 700, Oxford, 242–249. STOYANOV Y. (2011): Defenders and Enemies of the True Cross: the Sasanian Conquest of Jerusalem in 614 and Byzantine Ideology of Anti-Persian Warfare, Vienna. SUBAŞI Ö. (2010): Bizans İmparatorlarının Theodosiopolis ve Çevresindeki Faaliyetleri, Turkish Studies 5.3, 1827–1859. VENETIS E. (2004): The Sassanid Occupation of Egypt (7th Cent. AD) According to Some Pahlavi Papyri Abstracts, Greco-Arabica 9/10, 403–412.

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Map I. 16a. Military operations in Persarmenia in years 603–607

The Roman army, which initially operated in the province of Shirak, was defeated in the battle of Getik (604). However, the Iranian forces did not undertake any further military actions and retreated to Atropatene. Next Xusrō II again marched in Persarmenia, which led to his takeover of Angł (605). Afterwards, Xusrō’s army turned to the west and defeated Phocas’s (602–610) forces who tried to resist the Iranian soldiers in the province of Basean. Then the Iranians marched through Satala to Nicopolis (606). On their return, the Iranian army conquered two main Roman strongholds, Theodosiopolis and Citharizon (607). Akank’: Sebeos 108 Angl: Sebeos 109; 110 Arastiay: Sebeos 111 Araxes: Sebeos 114 Arsanias: Sebeos 109 Atrpatakan: Sebeos 109 Ayrarat: Sebeos 107; 114 Basean = Phasiane: Sebeos 110; 111 Du: Sebeos 111 Dvin: Sebeos 107 Dzit’arich = Kitris: Sebeos 111

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Elevard: Sebeos 108 Erginay: Sebeos 108; 110 Gaylatuk': Sebeos 110 Getik: Sebeos 108 Horomots’marg 181: Sebeos 108 Iberia: Theophanes A.M. 6115 Karin = Theodosiopolis: Sebeos 111; 114 Kitris = Dzit’arich: Narratio 112 Nicopolis: Sebeos 111 Nig: Sebeos 114 Nymphius: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Ordru: Sebeos 111 Phasiane = Basean: Narratio 112 Satala: Sebeos 111 Shirak: Sebeos 108; 114 Shirakawan: Sebeos 108 Theodosiopolis = Karin: Narratio 112 Tiflis: Theophanes A.M. 6117 Tsalkotn: Sebeos 109 Valarshapat: Sebeos 114 Vanand: Sebeos 114 Bibliography: See Map I. 16.

181

Uncertain location.

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Map I. 17. Military operations of Heraclius in years 622–628

Heraclius’s (610–641) first success was the defeat of the Iranians in Armenia (622). In order to force Xusrō’s II army to the north, the Emperor attacked Persarmenia, conquering and then burning down Dvin. Then the Roman army entered Media Atropatene, where they profaned the Ādur Gušnasp temple. Not waiting for Xusrō’s II reaction, Heraclius retreated to Albania (624). The Iranian ruler decided to dispatch additional forces to Armenia, yet they were defeated in the battles of Diwtakan and Archesh (625). What is more, they did not manage to prevent Heraclius’s main forces from marching to Cilicia. The Iranian army active in Asia Minor was crushed near the Sarus river and an unsuccessful attempt to conquer Constantinople (626) by the Avars enabled Heraclius to concentrate his forces in the Caucasian region. After seizing Tiflis (627), the Romans moved south. Heraclius’s decisive victory in the war took place near Niniveh (627). Having defeated the Iranian army, with no further obstacles the emperor reached Ctesiphon (628). He did not, however, make an attempt to capture the capital city. He contented himself with plundering Lorestan. The war ended with the agreement concluded by Heraclius and Kawād II (628), who took over power after Xusrō II had been murdered. Adana: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Albania = Aluank’: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 11; II 12; Theophanes A.M. 6114 Aluank’ = Albania: Sebeos 125 Amida: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Araxes: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 12 Sebeos 125; 126 Archesh: Sebeos 125 92

Armenia: Georgius Pisides II 345; Mika’el Rabo XI 3; Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; Sebeos 126; 129; Tabarī 1003; Theophanes A.M. 6113; 6114; 6115 Atropatene = Atrpatakan: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 11 Atrpatakan = Atropatene: Sebeos 124; 126; 127; Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Ayrarat: Sebeos 124; 125 Barasroth: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Barzan: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Bebdarch 182: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Beklal 183: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Caesarea: Sebeos 124; 126 Cappadocia: Sebeos 124 Chalcedon: Mika’el Rabo XI 3; Sebeos 124; Theophanes A.M. 6117 Chamaetha: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Cilicia: Georgius Pisides II 340; Theophanes A.M. 6113 Constantinople: Chronicon Paschale, p. 714; Sebeos 124; Tabarī 1003; Theophanes A.M. 6117 Ctesiphon: Chronicon Paschale, p. 729; Movses Dasxuranc’i II 12; II 13; Sebeos 126; 127; Theophanes A.M. 6118 Daskarat al-Malik = Dastagerd = Saqarta: Tabarī 1004 Dastagerd = Daskarat al-Malik = Saqarta: Chronicon Paschale, p. 729; Theophanes A.M. 6114; 6118 Dvin: Sebeos 124; Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Euchaita: Vita Theodori 11 Euphrates: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Ganzak: Chronicon Paschale, p. 729–732; Sebeos 124; Theophanes A.M. 6114; 6118; Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Gayshavan 184: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10 Germanicia: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Gouedeser = Seleucia: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Great Zab: Theophanes A.M. 6118

182 183 184

Uncertain location. Uncertain location. Uncertain location.

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Halys: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Hamadan: Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Kalkhas: Chronicon Paschale, p. 730; Theophanes A.M. 6118 Karin: Sebeos 124; Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Kur: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 12 Lesser Zab: Chronicon Paschale, p. 730; Theophanes A.M. 6118 Lycus: Vita Theodori 11 Martyropolis: Theophanes A.M. 6116 May = Media: Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Media = May: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; Sebeos 125 Narbas: Chronicon Paschale, p. 731; Theophanes A.M. 6118 Nicomedia: Chronicon Paschale, p. 714 Niniveh: Sebeos 126; Tabarī 1004; Theophanes A.M. 6118 Nisibis: Sebeos 125; Tabarī 1003; 1004 Partaw: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 11 Pontus: Georgius Pisides II 256; Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai 42; Theophanes A.M. 6113 Pylae: Georgius Pisides II 10; Theophanes A.M. 6113 Rousa: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Samosata: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Saqarta = Dastagerd = Daskarat al-Malik: Mika’el Rabo XI 3 Sarus: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Sebasteia: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Seleucia = Gouedeser: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Siarsuron = Siazouros: Chronicon Paschale, p. 730 Siazouros = Siarsuron: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Syria: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Taranton: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Thebarmais: Theophanes A.M. 6114 Tiflis = Tp’ilisi: Agapius, p. 463–464; Movses Dasxuranc’i II 11; Theophanes A.M. 6117

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Tigris: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 11; II 12; II 13; Sebeos 127; Tabarī 1004; Theophanes A.M. 6116; 6118 Tornas: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Tp’ilisi = Tiflis: Juansher, p. 224; 225 Bibliography: BARISIC F. (1954): Le siège de Constantinople par les Avares et les Slaves en 626, Byzantion 24, 1954, 371–395. FIEY J. M. (1987): The Last Byzantine Campaign into Persia and Its Influence on the Attitude of the Local Populations Towards the Muslim Conquerors 7-16 H./628 AD, in: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the History of Bilad al-Sham During the Early Islamic Period up to 40 AH/640 AD, ed. M. A. BAKHIT, Amman, 96–103. GHODRAT-DIZAJI M. (2011): Disintegration of Sasanian Hegemony over Northern Iran (AD 623-643), Iranica Antiqa, 46, 315–329 GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 198–225. HOWARD-JOHNSTON J. (1994): The Official History of Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns, in: The Roman and Byzantine Army in the East, ed. E. DĄBROWA, Kraków, 57–87. HOWARD-JOHNSTON J. (1995): The siege of Constantinople in 626, in: Constantinople and its Hinterland, eds. C. MANGO, G. DAGRON, Aldershot, 131–142. HOWARD-JOHNSTON J. (1999): Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns and the Revival of the East Roman Empire, 622–630, War in History 6, 1–44. HURBANIČ M. (2008): The historical background and causes of Avar´s atack upon Constatinople in 626, Vojenská história 3. 12, 3–23. KAEGI W. (2003): Heraclius. Emperor of Byzantium, Cambridge, 122–174. МАНАНДЯН Я. A. (1950): Маршруты персидских походов императора Ираклия, Византийский временник 3, 133–153. MORONY M. (1987): Syria under the Persians, 610–629, in: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the History of Bilad al-Sham during the Early Islamic Period, eds. M. BAKHIT, I. ABBAS, Amman, 87–95. SARRIS P. (2011): Empires of Faith - The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, c. 500– 700, Oxford, 243–258. SEIBT W. (2007): ... Zog Herakleios 625 wirklich in das “Land der Hunnen”?, in: Byzantina Mediterranea, eds. K. BELKE, E. KISLINGER, Wien, 589–596. STOYANOV Y. (2011): Defenders and Enemies of the True Cross: the Sasanian Conquest of Jerusalem in 614 and Byzantine Ideology of Anti-Persian Warfare, Vienna. ZUCKERMAN C. (2002): Heraclius in 625, Revue des Études Byzantines 60, 189– 197.

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Map I. 17a. Military operations of Heraclius in Persarmenia in 624–627

The detailed depiction of Heraclius’s operations in Persarmenia on Map I. 17, would make it hardly readable. Therefore, Map I. 17a constitutes a supplement to the previous map. Albania = Aluank’: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 11; II 12; Theophanes A.M. 6114 Ali = Salbanon: Sebeos 125 Aliovit: Sebeos 125; 126 Aluank’ = Albania: Sebeos 125 Apahunik’: Sebeos 125 Araxes: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 12 Sebeos 125; 126 Archesh: Sebeos 125 Arts‘akh: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 11 Atropatene = Atrpatakan: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 11 Atrpatakan = Atropatene: Sebeos 124; 126; 127; Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Ayrarat: Sebeos 124; 125 Bagrewand: Sebeos 125 Ch‘or: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 11; II 12 Diwtakan: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10 96

Dvin: Sebeos 124; Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Egeria = Lazica: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 12 Euphrates: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Gogovit: Sebeos 126 Great Zab: Theophanes A.M. 6118 Her: Sebeos 126 Hrchmunk’185: Sebeos 125 Iberia = K’art’li: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 11; II 12; Sebeos 125 K’art’li = Iberia: Juansher, p. 224; 225; 226; 227 Kałankatuk: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 11 Karin: Sebeos 124; Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Klarjet’i: Juansher, p. 226 Kur: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 12 Lazica = Egeria: Agapius, p. 463–464 Martyropolis: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Media: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; Sebeos 125 Nakhchawan: Sebeos 124; 125; 126; Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Nymphius: Theophanes A.M. 6116 Ormi: Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 P’aytakaran: Sebeos 125 Partaw: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 11 Salbanon = Ali: Theophanes A.M. 6115 Shirak: Sebeos 126; Thomas Artsruni, p. 159 Siwnik‘: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10 Tiflis = Tp’ilisi: Agapius, p. 463–464; Movses Dasxuranc’i II 11; Theophanes A.M. 6117 Tigranakert: Sebeos 125 Tigris: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 11; II 12; II 13; Sebeos 127; Theophanes A.M. 6116; 6118 Tp’ilisi = Tiflis: Juansher, p. 224; 225 185

Uncertain location.

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Trtu: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10 Tslukk’: Sebeos 125 Uti: Movses Dasxuranc’i II 10; II 11 Vardanakert: Sebeos 126 Vrnjunik’: Sebeos 125 Zarewand: Sebeos 126 Bibliography: See Map I. 17.

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2. 2. Territorial changes due to peace treaties Map II. 1. Territorial changes due to the treaty of 298 AD.

Under the treaty concluded between Narseh and Diocletian, the Iranian king was forced to retreat from Sophene, Ingilene, Arzanene, Corduene and Zabdicene. The so called Trans-Tigritanian territory was given to the Armenian noble families remaining under the sovereignty of Rome. In this way Diocletian wanted to establish a buffer zone whose protection would not require the presence of additional Roman legions in that region. Moreover, Narseh agreed to Rome’s supremacy over Iberia, which since the Parthian period had been ruled by the Arsacid dynasty (189–284). The remaining arrangements of the treaty concerned trade matters, mainly the status of Nisibis. Armenia: Petrus Patricius, frag. 14 Arzanene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9; Petrus Patricius, frag. 14 Corduene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9; Petrus Patricius, frag. 14 Ingilene: Petrus Patricius, frag. 14 Media186: Petrus Patricius, frag. 14 Mesopotamia: Festus 14; 25 Moxoene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9 Nisibis: Petrus Patricius, frag. 14

186

See note below.

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Rehimene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9 Sophene: Petrus Patricius, frag. 14 Tigris: Festus 14; Petrus Patricius, frag. 14 Trans-Tigritania: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9; Festus 25 Zabdicene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9; Petrus Patricius, frag. 14 Zintha187: Petrus Patricius, frag. 14 Bibliography: BLOCKEY R. C. (1984): The Romano-Persian peace treaties of ad 299 and 363, Florilegium 6, 29–36. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 122–130. DODGEON M., LIEU S. (1991): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History (AD 226–363), New York, 115–116. MOSIG-WALBURG K. (2009): Römer und Perser: vom 3. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 363 n. Chr., Gutenberg, 122–157. PREISER-KAPELLER J. (2001): Die Verwaltungsgeschichte des byzantinischen Armenien vom 5. bis zum 7. Jahrhundert (Entstehung des Themas Armeniakon), Wien, 34–35. WINTER E. (1988): Die sasanidisch-römischen Friedensvertrage des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Ch., Frankfurt/Lang, 171–184. WINTER E. (1989): On the regulation of the Eastern frontier of the Roman empire in 298, in: The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, eds. D. FRENCH, C. S. LIGHTFOOT, Oxford, 555–571.

According to Peter the Patrician the fortress of Zintha, the fortress at the border between Media Atropatene and Armenia. Supposedly it was Ziata (mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus XIX 6. 1) at the Roman-Armenian border.

187

100

Map II. 2. Territorial changes due to the treaty of 363 AD.

Emperor Jovian made peace with Šāpur II, who enabled him to withdraw the Roman forces from Iran after Julian’s unsuccessful campaign. Šāpur II demanded that the lands lost due to the peace treaty of 298 AD be returned to him. However, he did not regain Sophene. Additionally, obtaining from Jovian 15 strongholds situated in that region was to act as a safeguard of Iran’s interests. The border was established on the Nymphius river. The emperor also ceded Nisibis, Singara and Castra Maurorum in the northern Mesopotamia. Šāpur II forced the residents of these towns to leave their dwellings, probably in order to remove any inhabitants that could potentially turn out to be disloyal to him. Jovian obligated himself not to intervene in Armenia. It is assumed that this peace had a temporary character, that is it was to terminate within 30 years. Armenia: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 12; P’awstos Buzandats‘i IV 21; Libanius, oratio XXIV 9; Philostorgius VIII 1; Zosimos III 31. 2 Aruestan: P’awstos Buzandats‘i IV 21 Arzanene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9 Castra Maurorum: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9 Corduene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9; Zosimos III 31. 1 Mesopotamia: P’awstos Buzandats‘i IV 21; Festus 29; Hieronymus, p. 243; Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 337; Paulus Orosius VII 31. 2; Socrates Scholasticus III 22. 7 Moxoene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9 Mygdonia: Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 336–337

101

Nisibis: Agathias IV 25. 6; Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9; XXV 7. 11; XXV 8. 13; Artemii passio 70; P’awstos Buzandats‘i IV 21: Chronicon 724, p. 104; Ephraem Syrus, contra Julianum II 25; Eunapius Sardianus, frag. 22; 29; Firdawsī V, p. 376; Festus 29; Hieronymus, p. 243; Iohannes Antiochenus, frag. 181; Yeshu’ the Stylite 7; Julian Romance, p. 220; 224 ; Libanius, oratio XXIV 9; Ioannes Malalas XIII, p. 336; Paulus Orosius VII 31. 2; Philostorgius VIII. 1; Socrates Scholasticus III 22. 7; Tabarī 843; Ioannes Zonaras XIII 14. 5; Zosimos III 31. 1; III 34. 2 Rehimene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9; Zosimos III 31. 1 Singara: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9; XXV 7. 11; Ioannes Zonaras XIII 14. 5 Tigris: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9 Zabdicene: Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 7. 9; Zosimos III 32. 1 Zalene 188: Zosimos III 31. 1 Bibliography: BLOCKEY R. C. (1984): The Romano-Persian peace treaties of ad 299 and 363, Florilegium 6, 28–49. CHRYSOS E. (1993): Räumung und Aufgabe von Reichsterritorien. Der Vertrag von 363, Bonner Jahrbücher 193, 165–202. DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 131–134. GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 1–13. PREISER-KAPELLER J. (2001): Die Verwaltungsgeschichte des byzantinischen Armenien vom 5. bis zum 7. Jahrhundert (Entstehung des Themas Armeniakon), Wien, 39–41. SEAGER R. (1996): Ammianus and the Status of Armenia in the Peace of 363, Chiron 26, 275–284. TURCAN R. (1966): L’abandon de Nisibe et l’opinion publique (363 ap. J.C.), in: Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire offerts à André Piganiol, ed. R. CHEVALLIER, Paris, 875–890.

188

See note 159.

102

Map II. 3. Territorial changes due to the treaty of 562 AD.

The arrangements of the treaty concluded between Justinian I and Xusrō I only to a small extent concerned the territorial changes. Rome paid tribute for its protectorate in Lazica (though Suania was excluded from this agreement). Nisibis, Callinicum and Dvin were guaranteed a privileged position in international trade, though the free movement of merchants who were not subjects of Rome or Iran was limited. Xusrō I acknowledged the status of Dara as a borderline stronghold. A novel aspect of the treaty (in comparison to the previous ones) was a commitment to enforce the treaty’s regulations also in the countries of their Arab allies. An additional clause specified the status of Christians in Iran. The peace treaty was to be in force for 50 years. Armenia: Menander Protector, frag. 11 Lazica: Agathias IV 30. 9; Menander Protector, frag. 11 Suania: Menander Protector, frag. 11 Tzon: Menander Protector, frag. 11 Bibliography: DIGNAS B., WINTER E. (2007): Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and Rivals, Cambridge, 138–148. GARIBOLDI A. (2009): Le clausole (561/62), Bizantinistica 2.11, 249–259.

economiche

della

Pace

dei

50

anni

GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 131–133. 103

LEE A. D. (2007): Treaty-making in Late Antiquity, in: War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History, eds. PH. DE SOUZA, J. FRANCE, Cambridge, 107–119. NECHAEVA E. (2014): Embassies, negotiations, gifts : systems of East Roman diplomacy in Late Antiquity, Stuttgart, 113–116. PANAINO A. (2009): Il duplice volto del protocollo aggiuntivo sulle minoranze religiose nella “Pace dei 50 anni”, Bizantinistica 2.11, 273–299. SHAHÎD I. (1956): The Arabs in the Peace Treaty of AD 561, Arabica 3, 181–213. TURTLEDOVE H. (1983): Justin II’s observance of Justinian’s Persian Treaty of 562, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 76, 292–301. VEROSTA S. (1965): Die oströmisch-persischen Verträge von 562 n. Chr. und ihre Bedeutung für das Völkerrecht, Anzeiger der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Kl. 102, 153–156. WHITBY M. (2007): Byzantine diplomacy: good faith, trust and co-operation in international relations in Late Antiquity, in: War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History, eds. PH. DE SOUZA, J. FRANCE, Cambridge, 120–140.

104

Map II. 4. Territorial changes due to the treaty of 591 AD.

In return for Rome’s assistance in taking over power in Ctesiphon, Xusrō II handed to Rome almost entire Armenia and Aruestan, including the strategic strongholds of Dara and Martyropolis. Moreover, Iberia was divided between Rome and Iran. Arestawan: Sebeos 76; 84 Armenia: Narratio 94; Sebeos 76; 84; Theophylact Simocatta IV 13. 24 Aruestan: Sebeos 76; 84 Ayrarat: Sebeos 76 Bznunik’: Sebeos 76; 84 Dara: Eustratius, vita Golindouch 23; Evagrius VI 19; Theophylact Simocatta IV 13. 24 Dvin: Narratio 94; Sebeos 76 Garni: Sebeos 84 Gogovit: Sebeos 84 Hats’iwn: Sebeos 84 Hurazdan: Sebeos 84 Iberia = K’art’li: Sebeos 76 K’art’li = Iberia: Juansher, p. 221 105

Koteik’: Sebeos 84 Maku: Sebeos 84 Martyropolis: Evagrius VI 19; Eustratius, vita Golindouch 23; Theophylact Simocatta IV 13. 24 Nisibis: Sebeos 76; 84 Tp’khis: Sebeos 76 Vaspurakan Gund: Sebeos 84 Bibliography: GOUBERT P. (1951): Byzance avant l’Islam. vol. I: Byzance et l’orient sous les successeurs de Justinien, l’empereur Maurice, Paris, 167–170. GREATREX G., LIEU S. (2002): The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars Part II AD 363–630, London, 174–175. WHITBY M. (2007): Byzantine diplomacy: good faith, trust and co-operation in international relations in Late Antiquity, in: War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History, eds. PH. DE SOUZA, J. FRANCE, Cambridge, 120–140.

106

2. 3. Changes concerning Roman-Iranian border in years 224–591 Map III. 1. Roman-Iranian border in 226 AD

Map III. 2. Roman-Iranian border in 298 AD

107

Map III. 3. Roman-Iranian border in 363 AD

Map III. 4. Roman-Iranian border in 387 AD

108

Map III. 5. Roman-Iranian border in 565 AD

Map III. 6. Roman-Iranian border in 591 AD

109

Map III. 7. The southern border 189

Map III. 8. Strata Diocletiana 190

189 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dioecesis_Orientis_400_AD.png, access 7.04.2012 r. (modified by K. Maksymiuk). 190 On the basis of Dodgeon, Lieu 1991, 123.

110

Map III. 9. Mesopotamia and Syria, landforms 191

Map III. 10. Near East, landforms

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karte_Mesopotamien.png access 7.04.2012 r. (modified by K. Maksymiuk).

191

111

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3. Index of place names Abasgia ( vAbazgoi,): tribe in Caucacus [Map I. 12a] Abgersaton ( vAbgersa/ton): fortress in Osrhoene Abuzatha ( vAbouzaqa.): fortress in Garamīkān Acceta ( vAcch,th): town in Garamīkān Achaiachala: fortress in Āsōristān Adana ( vAntio,ceia th,j Kiliki,aj, ; Adana, Adanos): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4; I. 16; I. 17] Adarbadagan see Ādurbādagān Adarbiganon see Ādurbādagān Adhri‘at: town in Palestine [Map I. 16] Adiabene see Nōdšīragān Ādurbādagān ( vAdourbadhnh,, Mhdi,a vAtropathnh,, Ādurbādagān, Āturpātakān): Province in Iran [Map I. I. 12; I. 14; 15a; 16a; 17; I. 17a] Aigeai (Aivge,a, Aegaeae): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Akank’ (Akanits’ dasht): plateau in the province of Shirak [Map I. 16a] Akbas ( vAχβυς, ;Okbaj): fortress in Sophanene [Map I. 15] Albania ( vAlbani,a): region in the Caucasus [Map I. 15a; I. 17; I. 17a] Aleppo see Beroea Alexandria ( vAlexa,ndria): town in Egypt [Map I. 16] Alexandria ( vAlexandre,tta, Alexandria ad Issum): town in Cilicia [Map I. 3; I. 4] Ali (Salbano.n): village in Apahunik’ [Map I. 17a] Aliovit: Province in Armenia [Map I. 17a] Aluank’ see Albania Amida ( ;Amida, Diarbeqir, Āmed): fortress in Sophanene [Map I. 7; I. 10; I. 11; I. 13; I. 14; I. 15; I. 16; I. 17] Ammodios ( vAmmwdi,wj, Amouda): fortress in Arzanene? Anatha ( vAnaqw,, Ana): fortress in Āsōristān [Map I. 3; I. 8; I. 14] Anazarbos ( vAna,zarboj, vAgrippia,da , Ain Zarba, Caesarea ad Anazarbus,): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Ancyra ( ;Agkura,): town in Galatia [Map I. 16]

116

Anemourium ( vAnemo,urion): town in Isauria [Map I. 4] Angl ( vAnglw/n): fortress in Bagrewand [Map I. 12; I. 16a] Anglon see Angl Anthakia see Antioch on the Orontes Antioch ( vAntio,ceia evpi. Kra/gw, Antiochia ad Cragum): town in Isauria [Map I. 4] Antioch in Mygdonia see Nisibis Antioch on the Orontes ( vAntio,ceia h` evpi. Da,fnh, vAntio,ceia h` evpi. ’Oro,ntou, vAntio,ceia h` Mega,lh, Qeou,polih, Anṭākīya, Andiok): town in Syria [Map I. 1; I. 2; I. 3; I. 4; I. 5; I. 8; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 16] Anzaba see Great Zab Apahunik’: Province in Armenia [Map I. 17a] Apamea ( vApa,meia): town in Syria [Map I. 3; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 16] Aphumon ( vAfou,mon): fortress in Arzanene [Map I. 13; I. 15] Apsilia ( vAyi,lia, Apsilae): tribe in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Arabia ( vArabi,a): Roman province [Map I. 16] Arastiay: town in Armenia Minor [Map I. 16a] Araxes ( vAra,xhj): a river in Armenia; a tributary of the Kur [Map I. 13; 15a; I. 16a; I. 17; I. 17a] Archaeopolis ( vArcaio,polij): fortress in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Archesh: fortress in Aliovit [Map I. 17; I. 17a] Arestawan: Province in Armenia [Map II. 4] Ariste ( vAre,qousa, vAri,sth, Arethousa): town in Syria [Map I. 3] Armenia (mega,lh vArmeni,a, Persapmeni,a, Armenia Maior): [Map I. 1; I. 6; I. 7; I. 9; I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14I. 16; I. 16a; II. 1; II. 2; II. 3; II. 4] Armenia (mikra, vArmeni,a, Armenia Minor): Roman province [Map I. 6; I. 7; I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 17] Arsanias (Aratsani): river in Armenia; tributary of the Euphrates [Map I. 16a] Artangil ( vArtangil...): town in Armenia Minor Artaz: Province in Armenia [Map I. 13] Arts‘akh: Province in Armenia [Map I. 17a] Aruestan: Province in Mesopotamia [Map I. 17a; II. 2; II. 4] Arzamon ( vArza,mwn, Arxamon): fortress in Mesopotamia [Map I. 10; I. 15; I. 16] 117

Arzamon ( vArza,mwn, Arxamon): river in Mesopotamia; tributary of the Chaboras [Map I. 15] Arzanene ( vArzanhnh. , Zalhnoi.): Province in Armenia [Map I. 9; I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 15; II. 1; II. 2] Ashparin: fortress in Mesopotamia Āsōristān ( vAssuri,a, Babuloni,a, Bēṯ Aramāyē): Province in Iran [Map I. 2; I. 5; I. 6; I. 8; I. 14] Assyria see Āsōristān Asurestan see Āsōristān Athenae ( vAqh/nai, Athenae): town in Tzani [Map I. 12a] Atropatene see Ādurbādagān Atrpatakan see Ādurbādagān Attachas: district in Sophanene Augustina ( vAugou,sta, Augousta) town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Ayrarat (Ararat): Province in Armenia [Map I. 16a; I. 17; I. 17a; II. 4] Babylon (Babulw,n): town in Āsōristān [Map I. 5; I. 6; I. 8] Babylonia see Āsōristān Bagrewand: Province in Armenia [Map I. 13; I. 17a] Barasroth (Barasrw,q): town in Gālūl [Map I. 17] Baraxmalcha: town in Āsōristān [Map I. 8] Barbalissos (Barbalisso,j): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 3; I. 12; I. 13] Barroptha (Barsafqa.j): town in Garamīkān Barzan (Barza/n): village in Ādurbādagān [Map I. 17] Basean: Province in Armenia [Map I. 13; I. 16a] Batnae (Ba,tna, Baṭnān): town in Osrhoene [Map I. 3; I. 7; I. 8; I. 10; I. 12] Bebase see Bibas Bebdarch (Bebda,rc): town in Garamīkān Beïudaes (Beioudae.j): fortress in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 15] Beklal (Bekla.l): town in Garamīkān [Map I. 17] Belias (Belecha): river in Osrhoene; tributary of the Euphrates [Map I. 8] Beroea (Be,roia): town in Syria [Map I. 3; I. 8; I. 12; I. 13; I. 16] 118

Bersabora see Meshike Besuchis (Bhsouci.j ): town in Āsōristān Beth Aramaye see Āsōristān Beth Arbaye ( Bēṯ ‘Arbāyē, Arbāyistān): Province in Iran [Map I. 10; I. 12; I. 15] Beth Balash see Barbalissos Beth Dama: town in Syria [Map I. 13] Bethvashi: river in the northern Mesopotamia Bezabde (Bedzakti., Beth Zabdaï, Zabdaion Chorion): fortress in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 7] Bibas (Bi,baj): town in the northern Mesopotamia Birth Arupan: fortress in Syria [Map I. 3] Birth Asporakan (Bi,rqa vAspwra,kou): fortress in Syria [Map I. 3] Birtha (Bi,rqa, Barata?): town in Lycaonia [Map I. 4] Bithra (Bi,qra): town in Āsōristān Boas (Bo,aj): river in Pontus [Map I. 12a] Bolorapahak: town in Basean [Map I. 13] Bolum (Bw/lon): fortress in Armenia [Map I. 11] Bostra see Busra Bouron(Bourw.n): river in Mesopotamia; tributary of the Chaboras [Map I. 15] Busan: town in the northern Mesopotamia Busra (Bo,stra, Buṣrā): town in Arabia [Map I. 16] Bznunik’: Province in Armenia [Map I. 15] Bznunik’: lake in Armenia [Map II. 4] Caesarea (Kaisa,reia): town in Cappadocia [Map I. 4; I. 13; I. 14; I. 16; I. 17] Caesarea (Kaisa,reia): town in Palestine [Map I. 16] Callinicum (Kalli,nikoj): town in Osrhoene [Map I. 6; I. 8; I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 14; I. 16] Canzacon see Ganzak Capersana: town in Euphratesia Cappadocia (Kappadoki,a): Roman province [Map I. 1; I. 3; I. 3a; I. 4; I. 7; I. 13; I. 14; I. 16; I. 17]

119

Carcharoman (Karcarwma.n): town in Sophanene [Map I. 15] Carrhae (Ka,rrai): town in Osrhoene [Map I. 1; I. 2; I. 3; I. 4; I. 4a; I. 5; I. 6; I. 8; I. 10; I. 14; I. 16] Castra Maurorum: fortress in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 7; II. 2] Catharus (Kaqaro,j): river in Lazica Ch‘or (Čor, Darband): fortress in Albania [Map I. 17a; II. 3] Chaboras (‘Abo,raj, Ḵābur): river in Mesopotamia; tributary of the Euphrates [Map I. 8; I. 10; I. 12; I. 13; I. 15] Chalat see Nymphius Chalcedon (Calkhdow,n): town in Bithynia [Map I. 16; I. 17] Chalcis (Calki,j, Chalcis ad Belum): town in Syria [Map I. 3; I. 8; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 16] Chamaetha (Camahqa/): region in Iran [Map I. 17] Chamath (Cama,q, Epiphaneia): town in Syria [Map I. 3] Chanar (Canar, ;Icnai): town in Osrhoene [Map I. 3] Chlomaron (Clwma,rwn): fortress in Arzanene [Map I. 15] Chorzanene (Corzianhnh,): Province in Armenia [Map I. 12] Chytropolia (Cutropo,lia, vOlla,ria): fortress in Lazica Cilicia (Kiliki,a): Roman province [Map I. 3; I. 4; I. 11; I. 12; I. 16; I. 17] Circesium (Kirkh,sion): fortress in Osrhoene [Map I. 2; I. 3; I. 8; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 16] Citharizon (Kiqari,zwn): fortress in Chorzanene [Map I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 16a] Coche see Seleucia on the Tigris Colchis see Lazica Comana (Ko,mana): town in Armenia Minor [Map I. 4] Constantina (Kwnstantinai,wn): town in Cyprus [Map I. 16] Constantina (Kwnstantinai,wn): town in Osrhoene [Map I. 7; I. 10; I. 13; I. 14; I. 15; I. 16] Constantinople (Kwnstantinou,polij): [Map I. 16; I. 17] Corduene (Kardouhenoi., Gordyene): Province in Armenia [Map I. 8; I. 12; I. 13; II. 1; II. 2] Ctesiphon (Ktesifw,n): [Map I. 2; I. 4a; I. 5; I. 8 I. 17]

120

Cyprus (Ku,proj): island in the Mediterranean Sea [Map I. 16] Cyrrhestica (Kurrhstikh,): region in Euphratesia [Map I. 11] Cyrrhus (Ku,rroj): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 3; I. 8] Dahbana (Dabana,, Davana): fortress in Osrhoene [Map I. 10] Damascus (Damasko,j): town in Phoenice Libanensis [Map I. 16] Danabe (Dana,rh): town in Garamīkān Daphne (Da,fnh): town in Syria [Map I. 3; I. 12] Dara (Da,raj): fortress in Mesopotamia [Map I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 15; I. 16; II. 4] Daskarat al-Malik see Dastagerd Dastagerd (Dastage,rd): town in Gālūl [Map I. 17] Diacira (Da,kira, Idu, Hit): town in Āsōristān [Map I. 8] Dichor (Dicw/r): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 3] Diwtakan: town in Uti [Map I. 17a] Doconus (Dokwno.j): river in Lazica; tributary of the Phasis [Map I. 12a] Doliche (Doli,ch): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 3] Domana (Do,ma): town in Armenia Minor [Map I. 3a] Dometioupolis (Dometi,opolij): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Doubios see Dvin Douros (Dou/roj, Torna.j): river in Garamīkān; tributary of the Tigris [Map I. 8; I. 17] Du: village in Basean [Map I. 16a] Dura Europos (Dou,ra Eurwpo,j): fortress on the right bank of the Euphrates [Map I. 1; I. 3; I. 8; I. 12] Dvin (Dou,bioj, Tibēn): town in Armenia [Map I. 12; I. 13; 15a; I. 16a; I. 17; I. 17a; II. 4] Dzit’arich see Citharizon Edessa ( ;Edessa, Orhāi, Rohā): town in Osrhoene [Map I. 4; I. 7; I. 8; I. 10; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 16] Egeria see Lazica Egypt (Ai;guptoj): Roman province [Map I. 16] Eleia: town in the northern Mesopotamia Elevard: town in Shirak [Map I. 16a]

121

Emesa ( ;Emesa): town in Phoenice Libanensis [Map I. 3; I. 4a; I. 11; I. 16] Ephesus ( ;Efesoj): town in Asia [Map I. 16] Epiphaneia ( vEpifa,neia, Oiniandos): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Eras see Araxes Erginay: town in Shirak [Map I. 16a] Euchaita (Euca,ita): town in Pontus [Map I. 17] Euphrates (Euvfra,thj): [Map I. 1; I. 2; I. 3; I. 4; I. 4a; I. 5; I. 7; I. 8; I. 9; I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 16; I. 17; I. 17a] Euphratesia (Euvfrathsi,a): Roman province [Map I. 8; I. 10; I. 11; I. 12] Fissenia (Fisseni,a): town in Āsōristān Flavias (Flauia,da, Flaviopolis): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Gabbulon (Gabboulw/n): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 11; I. 13] Galatia (Galati,ai): Roman province [Map I. 16] Galilaea: region in Palestine [Map I. 16] Ganzak (Gauzako.n): town in Ādurbādagān [Map I. 15a; I. 17] Garni: town in Siwnik‘ [Map II. 4] Gaylatuk': Province in Armenia [Map I. 16a] Gayshavan: town in Media Gazara (Gephyra?): town in Syria Germanicia (Germani,keia): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 3; I. 17] Getik: village in Nig [Map I. 16a] Gindaros (Gi,ndaroj, Genderra): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 3] Gogovit: Province in Armenia [Map I. 17a; II. 4] Gouedeser see Seleucia on the Tigris Great Zab (Za/b, Me,gan Zaba,n): river in Nōdšīragān; tributary of the Tigris [Map I. 7; I. 17; I. 17a] Haleb see Beroea Halys ( [Aluj): river in Asia Minor [Map I. 17] Hamadan (Haŋgmatana, Ecbatana, vAgbata,tana): town in Media [Map I. 17] Harran see Carrhae Hatra ( [Atra): town in Nōdšīragān [Map I. 1] 122

Hats’iwn: town in Gogowit [Map II. 4] Her (Zarewand): Province in Armenia [Map I. 17a] Hierapolis (‘Iera,polij): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 3; I. 8; I. 11; I. 12; I. 16] Hileia see Eleia Hippis ( [Ippoj): river in Caucacus [Map I. 12a] Horomots’marg: river in Vanand [Map I. 16a] Hrchmunk’: village in Apahunik’ Hucumbra (Su,mbra): village in Garamīkān Hurazdan: river in Armenia; tributary of the Araxes [Map II. 4] Iberia ( vIbhri,a): kingdom in the Caucasus [Map I. 12a; I. 15a; I. 16a; I. 17a; II. 4] Iconium ( vIko,nion): town in Lycaonia [Map I. 4] Ingilene ( vInthlhnh,): Province in Armenia [Map II. 1] Javakhet’i: Province in Armenia [Map I. 15a] Jerusalem (‘Ieroso,luma): town in Palestine [Map I. 16] K’art’li see Iberia Kafr-tut: fortress in Osrhoene Kalinius see Callinicum Kalkhas (Karka de Beth Selok?): town in Garamīkān [Map I. 17] Kallath see Nymphius Kałankatuk: village in Uti [Map I. 17a] Karin see Theodosiopolis in Armenia Kastabala (Kasta,bala, Hierapolis Castabala): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Katabolos (Kata,boloj): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Kaukaba see Seleucia on the Tigris Kelenderis (Kelenderi.j, Celenderis): town in Isauria [Map I. 4] Kephar Selem: village in Osrhoene Khabur see Chaboras Kitris see Citharizon Klarjet’i (Colapzhnh,): Province in Armenia [Map I. 15a; I. 17a] Korykos (Kw,rukoj): town in Isauria [Map I. 4]

123

Kotais (Kotia,i/j): fortress in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Koteik’(Kotayk’): Province in Armenia [Map II. 4] Kt’ni: town in Armenia Kubbe: village in Osrhoene Kur (Cyrrus): river in the Causacus [Map I. 17; I. 17a] Kybistra (Ku,bistra, Cybistra): town in Lycaonia [Map I. 4] Lacotena: town in Euphratesia Laranda (La,randa): town in Lycaonia [Map I. 4] Larmenaz (Larme,naza): town in Syria [Map I. 3] Lazica (Lazikh,, Kolci,j, Lāzīstān): kingdom in the Caucacus [Map I. 12a; I. 15a; I. 17a; II. 3] Lesser Zab (Mikro,n Zaba,n, Li,guj, Lu,kon): river in Nōdšīragān; tributary of the Tigris [Map I. 17] Libya (Libu,h): Roman province [Map I. 16] Litarbe (Lutargw/n): town in Syria [Map I. 8; I. 11] Lycaonia: (Lukaoni,a): Roman province [Map I. 4] Lycus (Lu,koj): river in Pontus [Map I. 17] Mabbug see Hierapolis Macepracta: village in Āsōristān Madaeana (Media?): [Map I. 8] Maiozamalcha: town in Āsōristān Maipherqat see Martyropolis Maku: town in Artaz [Map II. 4] Mallos (Mallo,j, Mallus): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Mambrathon (Mambraqw.n): place in Osrhoene [Map I. 15] Maranga: district in Nōdšīragān [Map I. 8] Marda see Mardin Mardin (Ma,rdij): fortress in Osrhoene [Map I. 16] Maronsa (Ma,rwnsa): village in Nōdšīragān [Map I. 8] Martyropolis (Marturo,polij, Mayyāfāreqīn, Nephrkert): town in Sophanene [Map I. 10; I. 11; I. 13; ; I. 14; I. 15; I. 16; I. 17; I. 17a; II. 4]

124

Matzaron (Matza,rwn): fortress in Osrhoene [Map I. 15] Maximianopolis see Constantina (Osrhoene) May see Media Media see Ādurbādagān Megia (Mhgi,a): town in Āsōristān [Map I. 8] Melitene (Mala,teia): town in Armenia Minor [Map I. 7; I. 10; I. 13; I. 16] Meschitha see Mts‘khet‘a Meshike (Pērōz-Šāpūr, Mhsich., Phrws-sabour, Bhrsabw/ra): town in Āsōristān [Map I. 2; I. 8] Mesopotamia (Mesopotami,a): Roman province [Map I. 1; I. 3; I. 4; I. 4a; I. 5; I. 6; I. 7; I. 8; I. 9; I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 15; I. 16; II. 1; II. 2] Mindouos (Mi,ndouoj): fortress in the northern Mesopotamia Monocarton (Mono,karton): fortress in Osrhoene [Map I. 15] Mopsuestia (Moyouesti,a): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Moxoene: Province in Armenia [Map II. 1; II. 2] Mts‘khet‘a: town in Iberia [Map I. 12a, I. 15a] Mucheirisis (Moch,rhsij): Province in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Murts’: river in Armenia; tributary of the Araxes [Map I. 13] Mygdonia (Mugdoni,a): region in the northern Mesopotamia [Map II. 2] Mygdonius (Mugdonio,j, Hirmas): river in the northern Mesopotamia; tributary of the Chaboras [Map I. 7] Myonpolis (Muonpo,lij): town in Isauria [Map I. 4] Naarmalcha (Narmala,chj, Nahar Malkā): King's Canal; canal linking the Tigris and the Euphrates [Map I. 8] Nakhchawan (Naqsh-e Jahān): town in Tslukk’ [Map I. 17a] Narasara: fortress in Sophanene Narbas ( vArba/j, Nahrawan canal): canal along the eastern shore of the Tigris and the lower course of the Diyala River [Map I. 17] Narmalaches see Naarmalcha Nehardea (Nher-da’ă) : town in Āsōristān [Map I. 4a] Neocnus (Ne,oknoj): a river of Lazica Neronias (Nerwnia,da, Irenopolis?): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] 125

Nesos (Nh,souj): fortress in Lazica Nicomedia (Nikomh,dia): town in Bithynia [Map I. 17] Nicopolis (Niko,polij): town in Armenia Minor [Map I. 16a] Nicopolis (Niko,polij): town in Syria [Map I. 3; I. 4] Nig: Province in Armenia [Map I. 16a] Niniveh (Nineuh,, Nainavā): town in Nōdšīragān [Map I. 17] Nisbara (Ni,sbara): town in Garamīkān Nischanaba (Niscana,dalbh): town in Garamīkān Nisibis (Ni,sibij, vAntio,ceia th/j Mugdoni,aj, Nṣibin, Naṣībīn): town in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 1; I. 2; I. 3; I. 4a; I. 7; I. 9; I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 15; I. 17; II. 1; II. 2; II. 4] Nōdšīragān ( vAdiabhnh,): Province in Iran [Map I. 8] Noorda (Noorda/): town in Gālūl [Map I. 8] Nymphius (Nu,mfioj): river in Armenia; tributary of the Tigris [Map I. 10; I. 11; I. 15; I. 16a; I. 17a] Obbane ( vObba,nhj): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 12] Ocba see Akbas Onoguris ( vOno.gourij): fortress in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Ordru: village in Basean [Map I. 16a] Ormi: town in Zarewand [Map I. 17a] Orontes ( vOro,nthj): river in Syria [Map I. 4; I. 12] Osrhoene ( vOsrohnh,): Roman province [Map I. 7; I. 8; I. 10; I. 11; I. 13; I. 14] Ourima (Ou;rima): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 3] Ozogardana (Zaragardi,a): town in Āsōristān [Map I. 8] P’aytakaran: town in P’aytakaran [Map I. 17a] Palestine (Palaisti,nh): Roman province [Map I. 16] Palmyra (Palmu,ra, Tadmor): town in Phoenice Libanensis [Map I. 1; I. 4a] Paphlagonia (Paflagoni,a): Roman province [Map I. 16] Partaw (P’artaw): town in Uti [Map I. 17; I. 17a] Parthia (Parqi,a, Parthava): Province in Iran [Map I. 1] Persarmenia see Armenia Maior

126

Persia (Persi,da, Fārs): Province in Iran [Map I. 1; I. 5] Persis see Persia Petra (Pe,tra): fortress in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Phaenicha: fortress in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 7] Pharangium (Fara,ggion): fortress in Sispiritis [Map I. 11] Phasiane see Basean Phasis (Fa,sij): fortress in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Phasis (Fa,sij, ‘Re,onta): river in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Phison (Fisw/n): fortress in Sophanene Phoenicia (Foinei,kh): Roman province [Map I. 4a; I. 16] Phreata (Fre,ata): town in Armenia Minor Pirisabora see Meshike Pityus (Pitou/j): fortress in Abasgia [Map I. 12a] Pompeiopolis (Pomphiou,polh): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Pontus (Po,ntoj): Roman province [Map I. 17] Pylae (Pu,lh): town in Bithynia [Map I. 17] Qartmin: monastery in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 14] Qasrin (Neocaesarea): town in Syria [Map I. 13] Qennesrin see Chalcis Ran see Albania Rehimene (‘Rhmhnoi.): Province in Armenia [Map II. 1; II. 2] Reman: town in the northern Mesopotamia Reon see Phasis Rephaneia (‘Refane,a): town in Syria [Map I. 3] Rhakoundia: town in Lycaonia Rhesaina see Theodosiopolis Rhizaeum (‘Rizou,j, Rhizus): town in Pontus [Map I. 12a] Rhodes (‘Ro,doj): island in the Mediterranean Sea [Map I. 16] Rhodopolis (‘Rodo,polij): fortress in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Rhosus (‘Rwsso.j): town in Syria [Map I. 3] 127

Rousa: (‘Rousa/): town in Garamīkān [Map I. 17] Rusafa see Sergiopolis Sabatha (Mei,naj Sabaqa.): town in Āsōristān Salbanon see Ali Samosata (Samo,sata): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 4; I. 7; I. 8; I. 10; I. 11; I. 16; I. 17] Saqarta see Dastagerd Sarapanis (Sarapani,j): fortress in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Sargathon (Sargaqo,n): fortress in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 13] Sarus (Sa,roj): river in Asia Minor [Map I. 17] Satala (Sa,tala): town in Armenia Minor [Map I. 3a; I. 6; I. 11; I. 16a] Scanda (Ska,nda): fortress in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Scymnia (Skumni,a): Province in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Sebaste (Seba,stia): town in Isauria [Map I. 4] Sebasteia (Seba,steia): town in Armenia Minor [Map I. 4; I. 13; I. 17] Sebastopolis (Sebasto,polij): fortress in Abasgia [Map I. 12a] Sekila see Seleucia Seleucia (Seleu,keia Pieri,a, Sekila): town in Syria [Map I. 3; I. 2; I. 12; I. 13] Seleucia (Seleu,keia, Seleucia ad Calycadnum): town in Isauria [Map I. 4] Seleucia on the Tigris (Seleu,keia h` evpi tou Ti,grh, Goudesh,r): town in Āsōristān [Map I. 5; I. 8; I. 17] Seleukobelos (Seleu,keia, Seleucia ad Belum): town in Syria [Map I. 3] Selinus (Selinou/j): town in Isauria [Map I. 4] Sergiopolis (Sergiou,polij): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 12] Serug see Batnae Shirak: Province in Armenia [Map I. 16a; I. 17a] Shirakawan: town in Shirak [Map I. 16a] Siarsuron (Sia,rzouron): town in Garamīkān [Map I. 17] Siazouros see Siarsuron Singara (Si,ggara): town in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 7; I. 11; I. 13; II. 2] Sinjar: hills near Singara [Map I. 10]

128

Sinzara (Si,nzara, Larissa): town in Syria [Map I. 3] Sisara see Sisauranon Sisauranon (Sisaura,nwn): fortress in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 7; I. 12; I. 15] Sitha (Si,qa): town in Āsōristān [Map I. 8] Siwnik‘: Province in Armenia [Map I. 17a] Solachon (Sola,cwn): fortress and plateau in Osrhoene [Map I. 15] Sophene (Sofhnh,): Province in Armenia [Map I. 11; I. 13; I. 14; II. 1] Souida (Soui,da): town in Armenia Minor Souisa (Soui,sa): town in Armenia Minor [Map I. 3a] Soura (Sou/ra): fortress in Osrhoene [Map I. 3; I. 11; I. 12] Suania (Souavi,a): Province in Lazica [Map I. 12a; I. 15a; II. 3] Syficum: fortress in the northern Mesopotamia Symbra see Hucumbra Synca (Si,gkh): town in Garamīkān Syria (Suri,a): Roman province [Map I. 1; I. 2; I. 3; I. 4; I. 4a; I. 6; I. 7; I. 9; I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 16; I. 17] Taranton (Ta,ranton): town in Armenia Minor [Map I. 17] Tarsus (Tarso,j): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4; I. 16] Tela Mauzalat see Constantina (Osrhoene) Telephis (Th,lefij): fortress in Lazica Tell Beshmai: fortress in Mesopotamia [Map I. 10; I. 13] Tella see Constantina (Osrhoene) Thamnon (Qa,mnwn): village in Corduene [Map I. 13; I. 15] Thannuris: fortress in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 11] Thebarmais (Qhbarmai/j): town in Ādurbādagān [Map I. 17] Thebetha (Qeboqw.n): fortress in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 11; I. 13] Theodosiopolis (Qeodosiou,polij): town in Osrhoene [Map I. 2; I. 9; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 15] Theodosiopolis in Armenia (Qeodosiou,polij): town in Armenia [Map I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 16; I. 16a; I. 17; I. 17a] Theopolis see Antioch on the Orontes 129

Thilasamon (Qilasa,mon): fortress in Armenia Thilutha: town in Āsōristān [Map I. 8] Tiberiopolis see Monocarton Tiflis (Tifi,lewj): town in Iberia [Map I. 16a; I. 17; I. 17a; II. 4] Tigranakert (Tigranocerta): town in Uti [Map I. 17a] Tigris (Diglit, Arvand Rud, Ti,grhj): [Map I. 1; I. 2; I. 5; I. 7; I. 8; I. 10; I. 11; I. 12; I. 13; I. 14; I. 15; I. 16; I. 17; I. 17a; II. 1; II. 2] Tornas see Douros Tp’ilisi see Tiflis Tp’khis see Tiflis Trans-Tigritania: territory on the upper Tigris [Map II. 1] Trtu: river in Armenia; tributary of the Kur [Map I. 17a] Tsalkajur: town in Bznunik’ [Map I. 15] Tsalkotn: Province in Armenia [Map I. 16a] Tslukk’: Province in Armenia [Map I. 17a] Tummara (Tou,mmara): town in Nōdšīragān [Map I. 8] Tur Abdin: region in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 14] Tyana (Tu,ana): town in Cappadocia [Map I. 4] Tzania (Tzanikh.): tribe in Pontus [Map I. 12a] Tzibile (Tzibilh.): fortress in Abasgia [Map I. 12a] Tzon see Ch‘or Urha see Edessa Uthimereos (Ou.qime,roj): fortress in Lazica [Map I. 12a] Uti: Province in Armenia [Map I. 17a] Valarshapat: town in Shirak [Map I. 16a] Vanand: Province in Armenia [Map I. 16a] Vardanakert: town in Bagrewand [Map I. 17a] Vaspurakan Gund (Vāspūrakān): Province in Armenia [Map II. 4] Vēh Ardašīr see Seleucia on the Tigris Virta: fortress in Arzanene [Map I. 7]

130

Vrnjunik’: town in Tslukk’ [Map I. 17a] Zabdicene (Zabdikhnh,): Province in Armenia [Map II. 1; II. 2] Zaitha (Zaiqa.): fortress in the northern Mesopotamia [Map I. 8] Zalene see Arzanene Zaragardia see Ozogardana Zarewand (Her): Province in Iran [Map I. 17a] Zenobia (Zhnobi,a): town in Syria [Map I. 12; I. 16] Zephyrion (Zefu,rion): town in Cilicia [Map I. 4] Zeugma (Zeu,gma): town in Euphratesia [Map I. 3] Ziata: fortress in Sophene [Map I. 7; II 1] Zirma (Zi,rma): river in Corduene; tributary of the Tigris [Map I. 13]

131

4. Index of sources Agapius: Kitab al’Unvan. Histoire universelle, écrite par Agapius de Menbidj, ed./tr. A. A. VASILIEV, (PO 8), Paris 1912. Agathangelos: Agathangelos, History of the Armenians, tr. R. W. THOMSON, New York 1974. Agathias: Agathiae Myrinaei historiarum libri quinque, ed. R. KEYDELL, (CFHB 2), Berlin 1967. Ammianus Marcellinus: Ammianus Marcellinus: Römische Geschichte, ed./tr. W. SEYFARTH, vols. I–IV, Berlin 1968–1971. Anonymus post Dionem: Anonymus qui Dionis Cassi historias continuavit, ed. C. MÜLLER, (FHG 4), Paris 1851, 192–200. Anonymus, Jean l’Aumônier: Une vie inédite de saint Jean l’Aumônier, ed. H. DELEHAYE, (AB 45), Bruxelles 1927, 5–74; Three Byzantine Saints: Contemporary Biographies of St. Daniel the Stylite, St. Theodore of Sykeon and St. John the Almsgiver, tr. E. DAWES, H. NORMAN, London 1948, 199–206. Antiochus Strategos: Antiochus Strategos, Account of the Sack of Jerusalem in AD 614, ed./tr. F. C. CONEYBEARE, (EHR 25), Oxford 1910, 502–517. Antonios, Georgii Chozebitae: Sancti Georgii Chozebitae confessoris et monachi vita auctore Antonio ejus discipulo, ed./tr. C. HOUZE, (AB 7), Bruxelles 1888, 95– 144. Artemii passio: Artemii passio, in: Die Schriften des Johannes von Damaskos, ed. B. KOTTER, vol. V, Berlin 1988, 185–245. Aurelius Victor: Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, ed. F. PICHLMAYR, rev. R. GRUENDEL, Leipzig 1970. Bezabde: Acta martyrum et sanctorum II, ed. P. BEDJAN, Leipzig 1891, 316–324. Cassius Dio: Cassii Dionis Cocceiani historiarum Romanarum quae supersunt, ed. U. P. BOISSEVAIN, vols. I–III, Berlin 1895–1901. Chronicon 1234: Chronicon anonymum ad a.c. 1234 pertinens, ed./tr. J. B. CHABOT, (CSCO 109), Louvain 1937; A. PALMER, The Seventh Century in the WestSyrian Chronicles, Liverpool 1993, 111–221. Chronicon 724: Chronicon Miscellaneum ad a. d. 724 pertinens, ed./tr. J. B. CHABOT, (CSCO 3–4), Paris 1903, 61–119. Chronicon 819: Chronicon anonymum ad annum Domini 819 pertinens, ed. J. B. CHABOT, (CSCO 109), Paris 1937, 1–16; A. PALMER, The Seventh Century in the West-Syrian Chronicles, Liverpool 1993, 75-82. Chronicon 846: Chronicon ad AD 846 pertinens, ed./tr. J. B. CHABOT, (CSCO 4), Louvain 1904, 157–238. Chronicon Anonymum: Chronicon Anonymum, ed./tr. I. GUIDI, (CSCO 1–2), Paris 1903, 13–32.

132

Chronicon Edessenum: Chronicon Edessenum, ed. I. GUIDI, (CSCO 1–2), Paris 1903, 3–11. Chronicon Bonn 1832.

Paschale:

Chronicon

Paschale,

ed. L. DINDORF, (CSHB

16–17),

Chronique de Se’ert: Histoire Nestorienne inédite, Chronique de Se’ert, ed. A. SCHER, tr. l’abbé Pierre, (PO 4), Paris 1908. Chronographus 354: Chronographus Anni CCCLIIII, ed. T. MOMMSEN, (MGH 9), Berlin 1892, 40–148. CISem.: Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (Paris 1881– .) Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis: Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis, eds. L. KOENEN, C. Römer, Opladen 1988. Constantine: Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum coetum, in: Eusebius Werke, ed. I. HEIKEL, (GCS 7), Leipzig 1902, 149–192. Corippus, Iohannis: Flavii Cresconii Corippi Iohannidos libri VIII, eds. J. DIGGLE, F. GOODYEAR, Cambridge 1970. Cyrille de Scythopolis: Les moines d’Orient: Les moines de Palestine, ed. A. J. FESTUGIÈRE, vol. III, Paris 1963. Ephraem Syrus, Carmina: S. Ephraemi Syri Carmina Nisibena, ed. G. BICKELL, Leipzig 1866. Ephraem Syrus, contra Julianum: Des heiligen Ephraem des Syrers Hymnen de Paradiso und contra Julianum, ed./tr. E. BECK, (CSCO 174–175), Louvain 1957. Ephraem Syrus, Historia: Historia sancti Ephremi doctoris Syrii, in: Sancti Ephraem Syri hymni et sermones, ed. T. J. LAMY, vol. II, Mechliniae 1886, col. 1–90. Epitome de Caesaribus: Epitome de Caesaribus, in: Sextus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, ed. F. PICHLMAYR, rev. R. GRUENDEL, Leipzig 1970, 133–176. Eunapius Sardianus: Eunapii Sardiani, ed. C. MÜLLER, (FHG 4), Paris 1851, 7–56. Eunapius, vit. Soph.: Eunapii Vitae Sophistarum, ed. C. GIANGRANDE, Rome 1956. Eustratius, vita Eutychii: Eustratii presbyteri Vita Eutychii patriarchi Constantinopolitani, ed. C. LAGA, (CCSG 25), Louvain 1992. Eustratius, vita Golindouch: Eustratius, Vita martyris Golindouch, in: Analekta Herosolymitikēs stachyologias, ed. A. PAPADOPOULOS-KERAMEUS, vol. IV, St. Petersburg 1897, 149–174. Eutropius: Eutropi Breviarium ab urbe condita, ed. C. SANTINI, Leipzig 1979. Eutychius, Annales: Eutychii Patriarchae Alexandrini Annales, eds. L. CHEIKHO, B. CARRA DE VAUX, H. ZAYYAT, vols. I–II, (CSCO 50–51), Paris 1906–1909. Evagrius: The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius, eds. J. BIDEZ, L. Parmentier, London 1898.

133

Festus: The Breviarium of Festus, ed. J. W. EADIE, London 1967. Firdawsī: Le livre des rois par Abou’lkasim Firdousi, tr. J. MOHL, vols. V–VI, Paris 1866–1868. Georges le Moine: Vie de Théodore de Sykéon par Georges le Moine, ed. A. J. FESTUGIÈRE, vols. I–II, (SH 48), Bruxelles 1970. Georgius Cedrenus: Georgius Cedrenus Ioannis Scylitzae ope, ed. I. BEKKER, vol. I, (CSHB 34), Bonnae 1838. Georgius Pisides: Georgii Pisidae, magnae ecclesiae diaconi et sceuophylacis, De expeditione Heraclii imperatoris contra Persas acroases tres, ed. I. BEKKER, (CSHB 32), Bonnae 1837, 3–46. Georgius Syncellus: Georgii Syncelli Ecloga Chronographica, ed. A. A. MOSSHAMMER, Leipzig 1984. Gregorius, contra Julianum: Gregorius Nazianzenus, Orationes IV-V (contra Julianum), ed. J. BERNARDI (SC 309), Paris 1983. Herodian: Herodian, History of the Empire from the Time of Marcus Aurelius, tr. C. R. WHITTAKER, vols. I–II, (LCL), London/Cambridge, Mass. 1969–1970. Hieronymus: Die Chronik des Hieronymus, ed. R. HELM, (GCS 47), Leipzig 1913. Historia Augusta: The Scriptores Historiae Augustae, tr. D. MAGIE, vols. I–III, (LCL), London/Cambridge, Mass. 1921–1932. IGLS: Inscriptions grecques et latins de la Syrie, ed. L. JALABERT (Paris 1929– .) Ioannes Malalas: Ioannis Malalae Chronographia, ed. L. DINDORF, (CSHB 15), Bonn 1831. Ioannes Zonaras: Ioannes Zonaras, Annales, eds. M. PINDER, WOBST, vols. I–III, (CSHB 42–43), Bonn 1841–1879.

T. BÜTTNER-

Ioannis Lydi, magistratibus: De Magistratibus Populi Romani, ed. A. C. BANDY, Philadelphia 1983. Ioannis Lydi, mensibus: Ioannis Laurentii Lydi, Liber de mensibus, ed. R. WÜNSCH, Leipzig 1898. Iohannes Antiochenus: Iohannes Antiochenus, ed. C. MÜLLER, (FHG 4), Paris 1851, 535–622. Iohannes Biclarensis: Iohannis abbatis biclarensis Chronica, ed. T. MOMMSEN, (MGH 11), Berlin 1894, 211–239. Iohannes Ephesinus: Iohannis Ephesini Historiae ecclesiasticae pars tertia, ed./tr. E. W. BROOKS (CSCO 105–106), Louvain 1952. Iohannes Epiphanus: Iohannes Epiphanus, ed. C . MÜLLER, (FHG 4), Paris 1851, 272–276. Iordanes, Romana: Iordanis Romana et Getica, ed. T. MOMMSEN, (MGH 5), Berlin 1882, 1–52.

134

Jacobus Edessenus: Chronicon Jacobi Edesseni, ed./tr. E. W. BROOKS, (CSCO 5– 6), Paris 1955, 261–327/197–255. Yeshu’ the Stylite: The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite, ed./tr. W. WRIGHT, Cambridge 1882. Juansher: Juansher, The History of Vaxt’ang Gorgasali, in: K’art’lis C’xovreba. Tek’sti dadgenili qvela dzirt’adi xelnaceris misedvit, ed. S. QAUKHCHISVILI, vols. I– II, Tbilisi 1955–1959, 139–244; Juanser, The History of Kings Vaxt’ang Gorgasali, in: Rewriting Caucasian. History: The Medieval Armenian Adaptation of the Georgian Chronicles, tr. R. W. THOMSON, Oxford 1996, 153–250. Julian Romance: Julian the Apostate, now translated for the first time from the Syriac original, tr. H. GOLLANCZ, London 1928. Julian: L’empereur Julien: Oeuvres completes, ed. J. BIDEZ, vol. I, Paris 1932. KKZ 192: M. BACK, Die sassanidischen Staatsinschriften. Studien zur Orthographie und Phonologie des Mittelpersischen der Inschriften zusammen mit einem etymologischen Index des mittelpersischen Wortgutes und einem Textcorpus der behandelten Inschriften, Leiden 1978, 472–489. Lactantius: Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, ed. J. CREED, Oxford 1984. Libanius, epistula: Epistuale 1-839, in: Libanii Opera, ed. R. FÖRSTER, vol. X, Hildesheim 1963. Libanius, oratio: Orationes LI-LXIV, in: Libanii Opera, ed. R. FÖRSTER, vol. IV, Leipzig 1908. Marcellinus Comes addit.: Marcellini Comitis Chronicae Additamentum, ed. T. MOMMSEN, (MGH 11) Berlin 1894, 104–108. Marcellinus Comes: Marcellinus Comes, Chronicon, ed. T. MOMMSEN, (MGH 11), Berlin 1894, 60–104. Menander Protector: Menandri Protectoris, ed. C. MÜLLER, (FHG 4), Paris 1851, 201–269; The History of Menander the Guardsman, ed. R. C. BLOCKLEY, Liverpool 1985. Mika’el Rabo: Chronique de Michel le Syrien, ed./tr. J. B. CHABOT, vols. I–IV, Paris 1899–1910. Movses Dasxuranc’i: The History of the Caucasian Albanians by Movses Dasxuranc’i, tr. C. DOWSETT, London 1961. Moses Khorenats’i: Moses Khorenats’i, History of the Armenians, tr. R. W. THOMSON, Cambridge, Mass. 1978. Narratio: La Narratio de rebus Armeniae, ed. G. GARITTE, (CSCO 132), Louvain 1952. Nemesianus: The Cynegetica of Nemesianus, ed. M. DONNIS, New York 1917, 24–35

The inscriptions of Kardēr: KKZ (Ka'ba-ye Zardošt, Naqš-e Rostam); KNRm (the rock relief of Šāpur I, Naqš-e Rostam); KSM (the rock relief of Bahrām II, Sar Mašhad).

192

135

Nicephorus Callistus: Nicephori Callisti, filii Xanthopuli, Ecclesiasticae Historiae Libri XVIII, ed. J. LANGI, vol. II, Paris 1630. Oracula Sibyllina: Die Oracula Sibyllina, ed. J. GEFFECKEN, Leipzig 1902. Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai: Constantinople in the Early Eighth Century: The Parastaseis Syntomoi Chronikai, eds. A. CAMERON, J. HERRIN, Leiden 1984. Paulus Orosius: Pauli Orosii Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII, ed. C. ZANGEMEISTER, Leipzig 1889. P’awstos Buzandats‘i: P’awstos Buzand’s, History of the Armenians, tr. R. BEDROSIAN, New York 1985. Petrus Patricius: Petrus Patricius, ed. C. MÜLLER, (FHG 4), Paris 1851, 181–192. Philostorgius: Philostorgius, Historia ecclesiastica, ed. J. BIDEZ, rev. F. WINKELMANN, (GCS 21), Berlin 1913. Procopius, Anecdota: Procopius, Anecdota, ed./tr. H. B. DEWING, vol. VI, (LCL), Cambridge, Mass. 1935. Procopius, Bella: Procopius, History of the Wars, ed./tr. H. B. DEWING, vol. I, (LCL), Cambridge, Mass. 1914. Pseudo-Dionysios: Incerti auctoris Chronicon Pseudo-Dionysianum vulgo dictum, ed. J. B. CHABOT, (CSCO 91), Paris 1927; Pseudo-Dionysius of Tel-Mahre, Chronicle, known also as the Chronicle of Zuqnin. Part III, tr. W. WITAKOWSKI, Liverpool 1996. Rav Sherira Gaon: The Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon, tr. N. D. RABINOWICH, Jerusalem 1988. Sawirus ibn al-Muqaffa: Sawirus ibn al-Muqaffa, Sawirus ibn al-Muqaffa, History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic church of Alexandria, ed. B. EVETTS, (PO 1), Paris 1904, 385–518. Sebeos: The Armenian History attributed of Sebeos, tr. R. W. Thomson, vols. I–II, Liverpool 1999. SEG: Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum, (Berlin 1923– .) ŠKZ 193: M. BACK, Die sassanidischen Staatsinschriften. Studien zur Orthographie und Phonologie des Mittelpersischen der Inschriften zusammen mit einem etymologischen Index des mittelpersischen Wortgutes und einem Textcorpus der behandelten Inschriften, Leiden 1978, 284–371. Socrates Scholasticus: Socratis Scholastici Ecclesiastica Historia, ed. R. HUSSEY, vols. I–III, Oxford 1853. Sozomenus: Sozomenus, Historia ecclesiastica, ed. J. BIDEZ, (GCS 50), Berlin 1960. Syméon stylite: La vie ancienne de Syméon stylite le jeune, ed. P. VAN DEN VEN, vols. I–II, (SH 32), Bruxelles 1962–1970.

193

Inscription of Šāpur I at Ka'ba-ye Zardošt (Naqš-e Rostam).

136

Tabarī: Annales quos scripsit Abu Djafar Mohammed ibn Djarir at-Tabari, ed. M. J. DE GOEJE, Leiden 1893; The Sāsānids, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids, and Yemen, tr. C. E. BOSWORTH, New York 1999. Theodoret: Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica, ed. L. PARMENTIER, (GCS 19), Leipzig 1911. Theophanes: Theophanes, Chronographia, ed. C. DE BOOR, vols. I–II, (CSHB 39– 40), Leipzig 1883–1885. Theophanes Byzantinus: Theophanes Byzantinus, ed. C. MÜLLER, (FHG 4), Paris 1851, 270–271. Theophylact Simocatta: Theophylact Simocatta, Historiae, ed. C. DE BOOR, rev. P. WIRTH, Stuttgart 1962. Thomas Artsruni: History of the House of the Artsrunik’, tr. R. W. THOMSON, Detroit 1985. Vita Theodori: Vita, educatio et miracula S. Theodori, ed. H. DELEHAYE, (AASS Novembris 4), Bruxelles 1925, 49–55. Zachariah: The Syriac Chronicle known as that of Zachariah of Mytilene, tr. E. W. BROOKS, F. J. HAMILTON, London 1899. Zosimos: Zosime, Histoire Nouvelle, ed. F. PASCHOUD, vols. I–III, Paris 1971–1989.

137

5. Lists of Sasanian Kings and Roman emperors Roman Emperor* Severus Alexander (222–235)

Šāhānšāh Ardašīr I (224–242)

Maximinus Thrax (235–238) Gordian III (238–244) Philip the Arab (244–249)

Šāpur I (242–272)

Trajan Decius (249–251) Trebonianus Gallus (251–253) Valerian (253–260) Gallienus (253–268) Claudius II (268–270) Aurelian (270–275)

Tacitus (275–276) Probus (276–282)

Hormozd I (272–273) Bahrām I (273–276) Bahrām II (276–293)

Carus (282–283) Numerianus (283–284) Carinus (284–285) Diocletian (284–305)**

Bahrām III (293) Narseh (293–302)

Galerius (305–311)

Constantine I (306–337)*** Constantine II (337–340) Constans (337–350) Constantius II (337–361) Julian (361–363)

138

Hormozd II (302–309) Ādur Narseh (309)

Šāpur II (309–379)

Jovian (363–364) Valens (364–378)**** Theodosius I (379–395) Ardašīr II (379–383) Arcadius (395–408)***** Theodosius II (408–450)

Marcian (450–457) Leo I (457–474) Leo II (474) Zeno (474–475)

Šāpur III (383–388) Bahrām IV (388–399) Yazdgerd I (399–420) Bahrām V (420–439) Yazdgerd II (439–457) Hormozd III (457–459) Pērōz I (459–484)

Basiliscus (475–476) Zeno (476–491)

Anastasius I (491–518)

Justin I (518–527) Justinian I (527–565) Justin II (565–578) Tiberius II (578–582) Maurice (582–602) Phocas (602–610) Heraclius (610–641)

Wardāxš (484–488) Kawād I (488–497) Zāmāsp (496–498) Kawād I (499–531)

Xusrō I Anōšīrvān (531–579)

Hormozd IV (579–590) Xusrō II Parvēz (590–628) ******

Kawād II (628) Ardašīr III (628–630) * The authoress wittingly omitted the Third Century Roman usurpers; ** Tetrarchy; *** Maximinus Daia (309–313); **** co-emperor of Valentinian I (364–375); ***** the Eastern Roman Empire; ****** Bahrām VI Čōbīn (591)

139

6. Figures

1. Amida.

2. Dara. 140

3. Dura Europos.

4. Nisibis.

141

5. Darband.

6. Taq-e Bostan.

142

List of figures 1. Amida, Constantius’s II walls and Valentinian’s I walls (Diyarbakır, Turkey) 2. Dara, Justinian’s I walls (Oğuz, Turkey) 3. Dura Europos, The Palmyrene Gate (near the village of Salhiyé, Syria) 4. Nisibis, the remnants of a stronghold (Nusaybin, Turkey) 5. Darband, Xusrō I Anōšīrvān’s walls (Derbent, Russia) 6. Xusrō II Parvēz , relief in Taq-e Bostan (Kermanshah, Iran)

143