General Report on Irrigation and Drainage in the Lower Menam Valley

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General report on irrigation and drainai

3

1924 023 604 600

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KINGDOM OF SIAM MINISTRY OF AGRICULTDRE

EN[ERAL REPORT ON

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE IN

THE

LOWER MENAM VALLEY BY J.

ROMAN VAN DER

HEIDE.

Engineer of the Waterstaat of Niitherlands India, temporarily placed at the disposal of the Siamese Government.

Printed by order of H. E.

CHOW PHYA DEVKSR WONGSE WIWADT,

Minister of Agriculture.

\y:

'

'i

T3 Hy^

fir

Preface to the printed Report.

Page.

FortDarding- letter.

General Report on irrigation and drainage.

...

1

Possibility of irrigation and drainage

2

Introduction I.

Slope of the land

3

Available quantity,

water

of.

-

-

-

8

Technical possibility II.

Utility of irrigation

Importance

13

and drainage

of rice

13

growing

14

Quantity of wafer required for rice fields Natiiral watersupjjly

-

-

-

Present

artificial

Drawbacks

of the

-

-

.

-

.

watercourses

.

.

.

-

-

klong system

.

-

.

:

.

on the fields under present conditions

.

-

Definition of irrigation and inundation canals

'

of

adequate irrigation

-

1.

Failure of crop

2.

Available time for cultivation

3.

Extension of cultivated

4.

Silt

5.

Paddy na muang

6.

Villages, gardens

7.

Drinking and flushing water

10,

III.

Urgency

of-

oi

-

-

22

;

arefi

-

26

-

-

:

'^'i

-

-

32

...

-

.

quality and quantity of crop

36

I'ice

.

-

-

-

.

as

-

41

-

42

.

4.-)

...... and orchards

.

Construction, of roads

improvements

Economical progress required

4(j

.

-

-

-

-

.

-

50

-

-

-

.49

-

-

... -

31.5

33

-

.Dry season crops .

31

-

on the fields

Navigation

-25

.

-

Available time for cultivation (continuation)

9.

.

-

Deterioration of Siamese

8.

.

23

Results of the present system

Advantages

ig

.

watersLipply

Klongs near the coast

Silt

is

-

17

...

Flow-off from adjacent fields of natural

-

-

Rainfall

Overflow

-

.

.

51^

55

.

.

.

..

.

gy

-

-

60

-

6L

CO'S'VENTS,— Continued.

Pape.

Revenue returns

64

IV. Outlines of the principal scheme

®^

Watersupply most required in the Lower Supply Lower

Menam

Menam

Valley

Valley to be taken off the great

-

-

Menam

-

-

67

-

-

68

Weir necessary across the great Menam; inundation canals 69

undesirable Site Of the weir

72

and headworks .

Headworks Capacity of the headworks

;

77

.

.

78

extent of the area

Extension of the area under cultivation

82

Capacity of the headworks

83

(

continued

)

Main canals

86

Distributaries and klongs

91

-

Relation between supply and drainage

-

-

92

.

Storage capacity

Drainage

.

-

-

-

-

93

Menam below Bangkok

Probable deepening of the

The Menam growing

salt

-

-

Other available rivers

Upper Menam

loo

.

jqi j^qo

.

plain

.

-|^Qg

Scheme of executing works Improvement

,q^

of the existing klongs

^qo

Supply system Costs of

Improvement

94 94

Navigation

V.

.

^^2 supply system

of drainiige

...

-

-

-

.

Observations and records for other schemes

'

.

jon

Staff and Surveying expenditure

Annual

financial requirements

Reduced capncity 125 VI.

Management, upkeep and revenne -

Cost of

-

128

management and upkeep

Financial returns of the supply system

VII.

Organisation of the service 136 1.

Separate- Department

-

-

136 2.

Sphere of activity

-

137

:

CO^TEtiTS,— Continued.

Page.

3.

(a.)

Improvement

(b.)

Preparing and construction of

(e.)

Management and maintenance

of existing

-

new schemes -

.

.

-

-

-

-

138

-

-

-

139

-

140

-

Collection of revenue

(e.)

Worlcs connected with irrigation and drainage

(/.

Advising

)

Staff of the

-

-

140 -

-

Department

140 141

•-

142

-

4.

Appoimtment

5.

Contracts concerning works

6.

Financial administration

7.

Legal regulations

144

of the officials

144

-

-

•

145

-

145 146

Coiiclusioii

Rainfall Statistics.

Printing errors.

Plan of the Lotoer

133

.

(d.)

Training of the staff

.

works

Menam

.">eeks.

extent, but this occni-s only at the end of the rainy season for a

when

level

any considerable

available to

In the beginning of the period of regular rains,

the

these

is

possible,

even

rivers.

very lowest tracts

higher regions. generally are flooded by drainage water from the

With

tlie

exception of these very lowest tracts, during the greatest part of

as before, the whole the period of vigorous growth, as well

Lower Siam

practically are dependent

upon

rainfall only,

of the

paddyfields of

where there are klongs and

where there are none. Only during the

last part of the

time of vigorous

growth a considerable

has a period of flooding, lasting generally extent of the land beyond the lowest tracts

from a few days

to a

few weeks, and

at the best a couple of

months.

though certainly consideAccordingly the main effect of the present system, confined to the low lying tracts of land rable in the localities concerned, is practically

[28]

of comparatively little extent, situated of

very

little

the klongs

importance in respect

may

be in the Lower

to

between the main

following

years)

may

is

numerous

Valley.

The following comparative statement

recorded, (the export of each year

can therefore be

the total rice crop of Siam, however

Menam

export of rice in the export season,

rivers; it

of

the rainfall at

the year for

Bangkok and

which the

rainfall

the is

obtained from the crop of one or two previous

sustain this conclusion.

The figures

about, rice export are produced by

j\Ir.

E.

Ambrose,

Assistant

Director General of Customs, and are partly derived from statistics kept at the office of the

Borneo Company Limited, Rangkok. Rainfall year

1882

Rainfall in

c.

m. Rice export

in

Eng. tons.

Year

of export.

[

down be

to

29

]

Hangkok and by the circumstance same proportion

for every year in the

Bangkok

that the rainfall of

-will

not

average rainfall of the ricegrowing

to the

part of the country.

Outside

its relation

with

rainfall, the export

shows a general tendency

to

increase, especially in the period before 1803.

A.

similar relation as between rice export and rainfall in

between the

and the

total crop

rainfall in Java, as the

Siam can be stated

statement given below will

show. In Java the rice for the most part

harvested

must

in

May and

refer to the

is

planted in December and January and

June, so that the figures

same

for

and harvest

year.

Average

rainfnll of 11

places in the principal

paddy

growing

gions of Java in year.

rainfall

rec.

m.

Estimated crop of the provinces under direct

Government control Java in millions of

in

chiefly

)

[30

]

This enormous difference must Be attributed partly of course

Siam the exported quantity

that in

a part only

is

;

about

60%

the

fact

but evidently a very great part

(

of the crop, as also to the fact that rainfall is less irregular in

chiefly to the influence of irrigation

to

of the

paddy

further

Java, and

fields of

Java having

a more or less regular artificial watersupply.

The agreement between scanty

rainfall

and small

and large export and the great difference

rainfall

rice

export and abundant

and large

small

betv\?een

rice

regard export shows obviously that upon the whole the existing klong system with prevent failure of crop by want of water.

to the total crop is of little avail to

This undoubledly results from the fact explained before, that only a small part of the total extent of

when

smallest

and

rainfall is scantiest,

consequence of scanty

set to

fect

by the watersupply as provided

because then the rise

by

supply

this

of the rivers is less

high

of shorter duration.

The frequent occurrence In

fields really profits

existing klongs, whilst moreover the extent of fields served

by the is

paddy

having some

rainfall, also explains the

artificial

way provided by

the existing Idongs.

This

of the crop,

great value the Siamese cultivators

water supply for their

and rent between the

in price

of failure of a considerable proportion

is

fields,

even in the very imper-

most evident from the difference

situated in the lowest strips of land in

fields

the

middle between the principal rivers and the more elevated land situated nearer

to

th6 rivers.

According price

and rent

to the investigations

I

made

into this matter, the land is cheapest in

in the high tracts near the river

increases towards the lowest middle parts,

and the value

where the flooding

Without exception the persons inteiTogated informed

in

general continually

is of

me

longest duration.

that the reason of

the price or rent of land being higher or lower depended chiefly upon or shorter. duration of the flooding.

proportion that people

pay

lands near to the rivers only

amount

to

80

Thfe

able period

ticals,

The

difference in

several cases

for tile lowest lands 9 to 10 1 to

ticals rent

the

longer

amounts

to this

per rai and for

2 ticals whilst in the first case the selling price

may

against 10 to 20 ticals in the last case.

few parcels

by the main

of land

which

rivers, are,

Summing up what was

I

in ordinary years are flroded for a consider-

was informed, considered

explained, fi'om the great

especially valuable.

irregularity of

the

rice

export of Siam,m,ay certainly be concluded, a proportional irregularity of the crop;

moreover

want

it

may

of water.

be taken as proved that this irregularity

is

caused principally by

These two facts show in the meantime, as already, mentioned, that

[31

the present system of artificial water supply

]

avail with respect to securing

is of little

a regular general crop and confirm the conclusion that, except

of the

the case

iti

small strips of land situated in the lowest parts between the rivers and a great part of the

Klong Rangsit lands, the paddy

watersupply [

the

are

Klong

Rangsit district not

on the

under

excluded],

was observed,

aljo

^

,

labouring

,

.

the nursery

of

period of the growth

first

depend exclusively on

and only

rainfall

artificial supply.

Besides what has ali'eady been mentioned, there

nrpsent con-

plain for their

In these lowest tracts,

only.

the

for

growth do they, enjoy any

for the later period of

Silt

rainfall

Menam

lower

the

of

sowing, the planting and the

fields, the

of the crop, the fields, as

fields

dependent on

practically

beds and of the

fields

another disadvantage

is still

-,

.

present system to be pointed out.

aicions.

among

^ general belief

Yi is

non-expert people

contributes particularly to the fertility of the

that

which

soil,

opinion that by the flooding a considerable quantity of In general

taken for granted that the

it is

power and, though

fertilizing

has demonstrated the

fact

enough.

experiments have been made,

case,

Moreover a

founded

on

the

carried to the fields.

the

of

silt

flooding

existing

belief is

silt is

this is not invariably the

often

the

has

rivers

great

agricultural practice

great

deal

scientific

of

instance by the agiicultural stations of Java, with

for

the result that the great manuring value of the

of

silt

numbers

of irrigation canals

has been proved most conclusively.

Siam

In

thei'e

of the silt of the

observed the

fact,

are no such dati but nevertheless the great fertilizing

Menam and

the

Meklong

livers

from the frequently

that whei'e on a paddy field close to an inlet of water directly from

from a running klong, a good deal

river or

evident

is

power

of

is

silt

deposited,

the

paddy

shows very obviously an extremely luxuriant growth, compaied with the surrounding plantations

a fact which can only be attributed to the effect of the deposited

;

To cause

and

to the fields,

system

of

its

effect, in

this,

any

case, the fertilizing silt

as will be shown,

of the •

banks

of the rivers,

occur very rarely from natural causes of silt carried on

on

(

it

to

;

and when

by the ovei-flowing water

may be

perhaps the

inundated

at

all

realised

first

is

it

it

has

been

is

be cariied

by the

existing

occui's, nearly the

filtered

out

only

whole quantity

and retained by the

grass or paddy or some other kind of plant) that

100 M. distance from the bank.

can

explained,

Only when

the

is

growing

fields are

a level reaching above the vegetation and the water was running over

current, some deposit of the banks with at least a perceivable

but the

of course

inundation klongs.

Overflowing

vegetation

not

is

must

silt.

nowhere the case

in

Lower Siam.

silt

can be expected,

^52

[

The

same

the

with

fields that get

condition as

water from the rivers hy means of the

they got

if

it

Idongs

by overflowing directly from the

are

rivers,

towards

in the .clongs this difference that in general the current

lower strips of land between the rivers is

]

tlie

in

only

flooded

so slow, that the greatest quantity of silt

is

fields along the banks. deposited on the bottom of the klongs instead of on the

fact that in general in the rainy season the

The parts

water

of the

quite clear, proves this, undeniably.

is

The

fertilising results of the present

very limited and unimportant

The

system

inundation

whether the water

solid substances over the fields or

all

)

water

and spread any

bulk

to the

be effected by an adequate system of supply

in general only

and inundation

the

of

regularly ref I'eshed.

is

any consideral)le quantity

fertilising silt in

origin

to carry

and whether the water can arrive with sufficient velocity

can

of

veiy commonly overestimated,

people hardly take into consideration the

Conveying

therefore

are

effect.

fertilising value of inundations in general if

because generally

fields

klongs in the middle

(

of

the

irrigation

canals that branch off in distributary canals and subdistribntaiies,

with a current of sufficient velocity

keep at least a great deal of the

to

silt

in

motion and fi'om which subdistiibutaries every part of the fields receives directly the required watersupply.

Definition ofi Irrigation and

The present ;

......

^

canals.

with the

is

consequences being

its

and conditions may be taken

ti'eated

above,

now

the

nito consideration

and

compared

pi'esent.

Before going on,

what

and

..^.

,

posibihties

Inundation

sitnation

meant by

it

may however

irrigation canals as

be of use

opposed

define

to

here

very precisely

to ininidation canals.

Those canals are called inundation canals which only di'awoff water available for artificial

supply at a certain rather high level of the feeding river.

These canals can be cut transvei'se

to

the main direction of the rivoi-s, as

the Siamese klongs in general are and which I'epresent the most primitive and simple kind,

or they can follow in principal the

rapid slope than has the river off-take at a

more elevated

itself,

level

to

main direction

so too or the

than the river has

Egyptian canals,

into iiTigation canals.

In

till

in latter years

in the

of

most

Siam the Menam Nawi may

as belonging to this last kind of canal.

river,

with

a

los.s

carry the water on snnie distance from the

of inundation canal is for instance the principal type

was

of ih.;

in

same

the of

roo-inn.

This kind

Punjab canals, and

them were transformed

some respects be considered

[as

]

Irrigation canals are those that can always draAv

also,

some water.

only contain

.rivers, if .the rivers

carry a considerable quantity of

named

perennial;

this

if

not

is

water from

feeding

the

the rivers, and hence the canals

If

water throughout the year, the canals are

the case,

they

named

are

seasonal

irrigation

canals.

Irrigation canals

Meklong

the

or the

drawn

Bangpakong

Menam Chow Pya

from the

off

rivers

would

from the Pasak,

or

be perennial, these rivers

of course

having also in the dry season a considerable discharge.

A

thoroughly adequate irrigation system requires

irrigation canals with distributaries

can be drained

off,

and a system

excavated for the construction ;high ridges along the rivers, floods from overflowing the

Adoantaqes of adequate

system

in

of the fields of

any undesired quantity

embankments, formed

by

chiefly

Lower Siam,

of

water

the

earth

the canals, destined to irrigate the fields, on the

which embankments serve

banks

of

under command, but also a drainage

to

prevent extraordinary high

at other places tlian those suitable for the purpose.

which would be connected with an adequate

'^^^ advantages, ij^rajnage

of

system

a

and subdis tributaries by which water can be

supplied at will to every part of the area

system by which from every part

only

not

will

now be coasidered

irrigation

comparison

in

and

with

the

irrigation.

present circumstances.

Failure ^^^P-

It

of 'the

has been shown and

the

In

first

place

attention

considerable shortage of water insufficient

ordinary

rainfall,

in the

most in

and

the

especially

rainfall.

in

.

.

As under. present conditions

much

-may be

of

way

that

an

against the

times caused by

ordinary pressing

want

of

water

for the regions concerned.

of

adequate irrigation

better than at present in the

the importance for

Siam

may

it

will be

always

most favourable year, be expected.

of these results of a

the average, the inferred from the difference between

maximum

fact,

howev.er, the available quantity of water is almost

plentiful crop as well therefore not only a regular but a

What would be

the

Accordingly failure of crop in consequence

always insufficient, whilst in consequence sufficient, that is to say,

to

efficacious

drought would be prevented and a regular crop secured

of

'

drawn

be

for rice cultivation,

experienced in times of very scanty

is

Lower Siam.

must

adequate irrigation system would provide '

scanty rainfall

generally acknowledged that

of failure of crop in

predominating cause

1.

is

lO years. the quantity of rice exported in the last

water supply

minimum and

the

34

[

]

The minimum export being 203,900 Eng

Eng

470,000

tons

;

(

average of

and 1898-1900

189-l:-96

and the

),

and 570,000 tons between the

when

maximum and

tons, the figures for 1893 are to be reduced by 100,000

about

export

maximum

maximum and

between the 775,500, the difference is about 300,000 tons for ordinary years

ordinary

tons, the

:

export

the average

minimum

the

or

about 200,000 and

470,000 tons.

The average at

$ 3.20 per picul

exported

per

Eng

rice,

according to the figures for the quantity and the value of the

as mentioned in the

Custom house returns

1898-1901

of

),

that the difference in the quantity of rice exported

ton, so

:

(

be put for the last 4 years (1898-1901)

may

price of export-rice

or ticals 90

between an

ordinary and the most favourable year represents a value of 27 millions of ticals and the difference between the

minimum and maximum

51V2 millions of

to the value of

ticals

of the quantity exported

or 18 millions

(

the case the exported quantity for 1893

is to

and 42V2 millions

amounts

of ticals

in

be reduced by 100,000 tons).

Every one acquainted with the agricultural conditions of Siam will agree that the loss of national wealth, expressed

Imputed

to

want

of sufficient

All the officials

imputed the repeated

by these differences, must be principally

water for the rice crop.

and cultivators

failure of crop

(

I

have questioned about the matter invariably

in

many

average once in 3 years or twice in 5 years

)

cases people said the crop failed in

to

want

of sufficient water.

Failure of crop occurs under three different forms namely, arable land

when on

is

at

when

first

not cultivated in consequence of unfavourable circumstances, secondly

cultivated fields the plants wither and die without bearing

crop and thirdly

when

any appreciable

a plantation bears a smaller crop than could be expected

under

normal conditions.

The

first

case occurs

when

to

be come hopeless for the season

in

the

the ;.

which are frequent

rainfall,

rains

are so late

that cultivation begins

the second case is generally caused in

Lower

Siam

the

;

third case

by breaks is

chiefly

connected with untimely cessation of the rains and the flooding. All three forms of failure of ci'op are

common

in

Siam and often occur

to

a great extent.

No

one,

who has seen

the effect of irrigation, has

thing as failure of crop practically occurs in regions irrigation

commanded by a

and drainage system, as the regular supply

successfully with

all

any doubt that such a

of

three forms of deficiency of rainfall.

water

is

really adequate

equal

to

cope

:

35

[

As a general example

and

40%

for

:

J

of the effect

of

may

irrigation

some statements about Java, where about 60% less irrigated

:

paddy

of the

be mentioned here

bouw

that have yielded crops has been per

„

more

the fields

or less irrigated

for the fields

more or

must be taken

It

(

paddy

fields

)

of 61-76 K. G.

)

paddy and

irrigated fields the supply rainfall in the

rainfall only, of

and

specified

under cultivation.

of the extent

the

for

greater

part

the

of

precarious and rather irregular and that the average

paddy growing regions

A more

14-3%

into consideration that

is

has failed totally

this period the crop

less irrigated at the rate of 4"4°/o

depending upon

„

„

7096 M.^

29-5 picul

Moreover on an average during

„

(

of the

depending upon rain only 190

„

„

or

watersupply depend upon rainfall only.

Over the 12 years period 1885/1896 the average produce

for

more

are

fields

Java

of

about 2 00 M.

taken from

can be

example

is

great

the

residency

of

Soorabaya, where about half the paddy fields are irrigated and the other hall depends

upon

rainfall only.

The average produce

of the fields in this residency that have- yielded a crop

in the 6 years period 1891-1896 has

for

382

the fields irrigated J,

picul

depending upon

„

paddy and

rainfall only 16'6 picul.

Moreover on an average for

been per bouw

pericM'the crop has failed totally:

over;' this

the fields irrigated at the rate of 0.9% and

depending upon

19-8%

rainfall only, of

of the extent

under

cultivation.

supply of the irrigated fields In the residency. of Soorabaya the water fields of Java in general superior to the supply of the irrigated

the average rainfall, rainfall of the

(

about 1-70 M.

paddy growing •

)

is

Verslagen).

The

The

numbers

figures

effect

of

the average crops are based

all

over

made

for statistical

country,

the

mean dry paddy

(

on the

results

of

purposes and landtax

published in the Xoloniale

in the ears.

adequate irrigation

residency neighbouring provinces in the

is

of,

especially

Brantas delta works. well irrigated by the

well exemplified by two

Soorabaya in Java:

bouws of paddy land (1 Sidoardyo, in which are 44,000 is

on the other hand

;

considerably less than the general average

the annual harvest-weighihg-experiments, in great

far

districts of Java.

The statements regarding

assessment,

is

The province

bouw=7096 M.^^iVie

The province

of Sidayo,

of

rais)

with 40,000

[36

]

In the former province the failure of

bouws, has no irrigation or drainage works.

0-l%

the rice crop in the most unfavourable year did not reach

the latter

67%

the average of failure in the period

J

and

of the total;

in

1896

889/1898 was 3-1%; but in

of the crop failed totally.

In the former province the average of the successful crop per unity of extent is

nearly three times greater and moreover of

much

better quality than in the later. In

the former the land tax paid is 12 guilders per bouw, in the latter

(The assessment

in

the latter

is

4--10

guilders, but

leSvS

than 3 guilders.

34%

an average of

is

written

off for failure of crop).

Besides the loss of their crop the cultivators of Lower Siam meet with other losses

connected with the

waiting for the regular

new sown paddy

is Inst,

system.

present

rainfall, to

begin

Firstly

much time

they loose

to till their fields

in

and secondly often the

frequently even twice in one season, by periods of drought

following short rainy periods or by untimely high water.

Loss

new sown paddy

of

occurs so often that a great deal of cultivators

reckon as a rule on sowing twice, which causes a loss for seed grain only, valued at about V4 Licals pei' rai.

Secondly one of the principal advantages, resulting from an adequate Anailable time ^for cuitiDation jj-piffation system, would be that the total space of time available for cultivation of quality and the main crop, rice, would be prolonged greatly, quantity ofi ;

crop.

Under statistics.

May

and October

work too

the present conditions, in ordinary years, according is

the first

month

It is. in

the. last.

in

which the

month

must grow wet and

,is

soft,

In the period of 6

months

falls

soil

being

May-October

(

must be ploughed and harrowed, the seed has

)

o.f

consequence

the

main

rivers,

of the flooding the available

a month or even a month and a

half

to

be sown,

must grow and mature.

In the lowest strips of land, between iti

rain

almost always at the best only half available, the fieldp

the seedlings transplanted and the crop

have referred,

of

soaked thoroughly by rain, the clayey

be worked diy.

stiff, to

first

which any considerable quantity

general practically impossible for the cultivators to

their fields before the soil is

hard and

the rainfall

to

to

time

to is

which

I

often

longer by at least

two months, when the high floods in the

rivers continue very long.

To lengthen somewhat the available time, principally In order

to plant, and to

ripen the crop, generally under present conditions a great part of the people are obliged to.

take to scooping or

pumping water from the klongs on the

fields

;

but as

has.

been

37

[

way

said before, in this

they can only provide a poor supply for

the fields in the immediate vicinity of

scooping or pumping

When

]

the

the labouring of the

over

this

reaping and planting.

for

work

greatly

is

prejudicial to

fields.

another method of lengthening the available time specially for reaping,

Still

commence

to

of

they take to scooping on behalf of their nursery beds, as also very

often occurs, then the time and labour spent on this

is

part

and the time spent on

klongs,

deducted from the time available

is

a small

to cut the

paddy when yet unripe and

go on cutting when

to

ripe.

The

necessity of employing these methods to lengthen the available time for

agricultural

operations must of course have a very unfavourable influence on the

quality as well

on the quantity

as

Moreover in years

of the crop.

and early

of very scanty rainfall

not only get a small and bad crop, but

»

.

fall of

rivers, people

the

besides in general they experience the

greatest trouble in reaping what crop they obtain. In

too in

young

such years, to

run

falls

when

the

slower,

water

is

before the rains have ceased and the rivers subside, and dies

to seed,

consequence of drouglit, wiihout giving any, crop

water

paddy generally

in the higher tracts tiie greatest part of the

ripens

at once

all

in the

lower tracts, however, the

of the crop does not quite

and there the greatest part

falls,

;

and

for the

most

fail,

part, of course,

but

very

prematurely, which causes the crop to be small and of bad quality.

must

In such cases people

intended

to

do

in

at least a couple of months,

short everywhere in the lower still

reap in

try to

tiirct-s

in

;

a

weeks what they

couple of

and quite unexpectedly hands

fall

consequence the crop already bad, grows

worse.

As a natural consequence

work

done in a hurry.

is

for the rains,

often

still

wait

till

woik the

The

soil

very difficult, as the

the ground

is

superficially

very

soil is stiff

molested

by the

tlie

in reverse proportion

urgency

this superficial

work

is

not always possible to

it is

if

cut, could not

extra labour

to the

their roots

of speed,

doing the paddy and often succeed in people a great deal of

forced idleness

conducted with the same speed,

is

superficial labouring of the

species which, at least

in

the agricultural

thoroughly soaked.

on the work, of course,

even seem inspired by

and even

and clayey and

all

weeks

cultivators, after waiting

Sowing and transplanting l)estow^ed

above circumstances

of the

soil,

whilst no flooding checks

To cope

with

;

the

being

The weeds

and sprouts being

withstand inundation

so.

haste.

care

little

many

they try to outgrow

weeds causes the

and moreover these weeds damage the crop

quantity. greatly both in quality and in

exent of In connection with the 6 months the space of time of 5 to

paddy

fields

worked by the

available in noi'mal

cultivators,

years for the cultivation

[

of th.e fields, enables

bulk

of the

become

38 T

them only

ripe in a period of 3 to 4V2

months

plant these kinds of paddy, which

to

bao) and these even often can not

( Icao

obtain their full requirements with regard to time and water.

Now

when

these kinds moreover, even

fully developed, neither give the

The more slow growing kinds

valuable rice nor the greatest crop.

(

most

kao nak), that

require 5 to 6V2 months to ripen, are in general considered as being greatly preferable in both respects, at least

when they

water

Siam generally

for instance, as in

When

is

by want of

in their growth,

the case.

however in Lower Siam the cultivators plant these kinds, the lack

water often causes the crop

of

impeded

are not

be poorer

to

in quality

and quantity than

that

of

the fast growing kinds. It

is

only in the lower strips

of land, frequently referred to,

midway between

growing kinds appears

the

main

and

in these parts the conditions with regard to labouring of the soil, also are

rivers, that cultivation of the slower

more favourable, whilst the same great

a

of

the

must

infer

deal

weeds

is

be possible;

to

much

the case with coping with the weeds, because

cannot

stand

inundation

and

die

if

cut

under

water.

As

I

from

my

inquiries,

lower parts people indeed get in

in these

general, besides a greater crop, a considerably higher price for

more elevated

in the

Siamese

tracts.

Complaints often have been made by the traders, as for instance was stated

Deterioration of

paddy than

their

rice. in

the last British Consular Repoi't about the

the Siamese rice brought to the market,

imputes

want

to

Bangkok

trade, that the

steadilly deteriorating,

is

of care in the selection of

the

seed-grain

and

quality

of

which the report in

cleanino-

and

preserving the grain, due principally to scarcity of labour:

These causes

course will always have

Siamese

the quality of the in

of

Lower Siam; but

it

rice in

general, as agricultui'al

.

reason

more, scarce and the cultivators attend less

to

to

their

to deteriorate

admit that labour

is

work now, than they

growinofoi-merlv

to do.

The contrary ced in

civil

is

most

likely

more probable, because the improvements introdu-

and financial administration,

police

and justice and the abolishment

and bondservice must have contributed greatly

and

methods are primitive

seems rather unacceptable that they could act

the quality, because there seems to be no

used

had a considerable influence on

,to

liberty

encouragement

of

action

of the people,

to their zeal

to the

general peace and

which consequently

and industry.

will

of corvee

security

have acted as an

[39

That

this

is

]

proved by the progress

really the case is

The imports have increased from $ 10,872,016 for

which regular records are available,

% 16,342,026 to

1888

in

to

the

1888,

in

$ 46,828,791; and the

from $ 27,214,042

total foreign trade

the fall of silver currency * and

with the fact that 1901 was a prosperous year (which however 1888 was the statistics of rice export [see page 28]

show^ most

evidently), the

principal

means

of

hands

Lower Siam, because scarcely any woman

Siam, families seem veiy large

swarming with

are

augmented annually by

The causes

their

the

of

and everywhere

in general

children

and

over

;

above

the country

in

population

the

this,

lives single

the is

a considerable immigration of Chinese.

must be looked

probabitity,

would be

acceptable, though the sanitary conditions of

too is not

the people are bad indeed in

villages

is

of subsistence, the rice cultivation.

Decrease

in

it

with decreasing care and industry of the people in

reconcile

to

also as

increase

exceedingly great and cannot but indicate a degree of progress, which difficult

year

first

$ 29,520,730 in 1901; the exports from

to

Even when keeping account with

$ 76,349,521.

of foreign trade.

Improved security

the

deterioration of

quality

Siamese

of

rice,

in

all

for in another direction.

of person

and property, enhanced

new

increase of population have caused people to open up

liberty

action

of

and

arable fields to of steadily

** but the most suitable tracts, specially with regard to water increasing extent, supply, fertility and transport

have had

to

content

connection herewith

be one of the causes

facilities,

themselves

being previously already favourably

with less

yield a pooi'er crop, both of tlie deterioration of

A second cnuse can be

in quality

under cultivation

will

and with

of the corvee

;

this

in will

traced to the neglect to of up-keep of the klongs, in

have deteriorated.

worse and the crop

their slow current they

have a strong tendency

and the attention paid

to

of the lands

These klongs, as was explained, are

obstruct the entrance constructed without any headsluices to silt,

which

fields,

and quantity

people

Siamese paddy.

consequence whereof the watersupply has grown Ibno-

situated

occupied,

of

sand and heavy

to silt up.

reforms in other directions,

The

abolition

may have been

this neglect. one of the principal causes of

A irreo-ular,

third cause

may

and the duration

be sought in

of the time of

* The average, price of silver in

** The amount

having decreased and grown more

high river level having grown shorter in

London was 42|d per

st|

.ounce in 1888 and

27-^^d. in

1901.

paddy landtax was in the year 112 ( 1893/94 ), a very prosperous per unity of extent in the year 120 Tic. 2.914.389.— .The assessment

of the

and in vear Tic. 1.357.861.43 same. both years was the

riiinfall

[•

consequence

of progressive devastation

Warington Smyth's the

case

in-

the

hill

40

]

wliich

forests,

of

book "Notes of a journey on

basin, principally

with the necessity of frequent changing of the fields for

hill rice

both in the Upper and in the Lower

Menam

Decrease of

Valley.

prejudice the development of the crop and will

to

Mr.

in

be

to

connection

in

cultivation.

appears to be a current opinion in Siam that rainfall has been decreasing

It

tends

stated' (see

upper MeJco?ig p. 25)

the

Menam

regions of the upper

is

rainfall, of course,

induce people to

besides

reap unripe and overripe paddy.

A

fourth cause

may

be that, in consequence of

other rice growing countiies, while the quality of the trade

A

with regard

fifth- cause

may be

work

could

will be

of the country people for things

an increased percentage of the

ci'op,

for their

including

own

under present circumstances, which

of course also

to the quality of the crop.

Last though not

least,

the

fact that

many decades

during

a

continually

increasing quantity of rice has been e.xported, will have deprived the soil of a part of

its

manure

or

and

will

use.

some cases people may have taken up more land than

in

satisfactorily

damaging

sell

wants

which they otherwise would have kept

of poorer quality,

Besides for the same reason, they

to

demands

deteriorating in Siam, the

is

be enhanced.

to

that increase of the

they have to buy compells them

paddy

appear

to quality

impi-ovement in

a,gi'icultui-al

fertilising substances,

by deposition

which are not

of silt in

in

j^-reat

any way replenished by means

any important quantity.

This process continues

have a prejudicial influence on the crop.

The

fact in question

acting together

;

is-

most

but however this

principal irapedini'^nts to

likely

may

improvement

due

to all

be, there is

the above mentioned causes

no doubt that by removing the

of agricultui'e,

namely, the

want

water

of

and, in connection therewith, of sufficient time for proper tillage of the fields for the requirements of full of the better

growth and ripening

of the

and

rice crop in general,

and

kinds of paddy in particular, further deterioration of the Siam rice could

not only be checked, but on the conti'ary, the quality could be

Under present circumstances the conditions to

of

have a positive tendency continually

to

grow

of

growth

of adaptation, so that

worse even the best kinds

of

paddy

when

the

will deteriorate

improved.

for the

crop

a|)ne'ir

The plants adapt themsolv

woi'se.

to this alteration of circumstances, the rice plants specially

and complete faculty

much

having a very

conditions are altei-ed to

On the contrary

quickly.

conditions are changing to the better, cmsequently the paddy also will improve

importing seed

of

kinds of paddy that are already adapted

the process of adaptation and

improvement

of the local

to

seed

'b

better circumstances

can be

introducing better seed without improvement of the conditions

but prove deceptive.

if

of

growth

ri

[141

]]

Better growth of the crop and cultivation of the better kinds of rice

however not only tend

expected

^oailable time jor cultioation )

the

of

of the crop also can

be

considerably above the best average quantity under present conditions.

to rise

It

but in consequence

rice,

more favourable circumstances, the average quantity

of the

continuation.

improve the quality

to

would

will easily

be seen from what follows, that an adequate irrigation system

'^ould improve greatly the conditions of

paddy growing by causing a great prolonga-

tion of the space of time available for cultivation.

The quantity

water available for irrigation in the dry

of

season and in

the very beginning of the rainy season would enable the cultivators,

and sow

prepare it is

necessary

their nurseries

to wait, until the rains

and are regular enough

possible,

Owing

may be

still

to

transplanted

amount

to

earlier

make

it advisible,

of

many

water that

to

with a

fair

chance

of

this

success.

kinds of Siamese paddy, the seedlings

no considerable

thei'efore

;

the

the uncertainty of the rise' of

be available

will

make

soil sufficiently to

even when one meter high

due

when

than under present conditions,

have soaked the

a fortunate peculiarity of

difficulty will be experienced

of the

far

required, to

if

to saturate

river

and work the

and

fields^ after

the nurseries have been prepared.

This peculiarity of these' kinds of paddy

an interesting example

is

plants adapting themselves to the conditions they have still

is

shown by the already mentioned gauge observations

korn from 1896

till

now, a couple of w«eks before the rains begin

of the great in the lower plains, the discharge

begins

deal with, and this and

floating paddy, are most remarkable agricultural achievements.

more the

As

to'

Most

to rise.

likely nearly a

Menam, and

at lock Chulalong-

to fall fairly regularly

also of the otner rivers,

month, but certainly more than half a month

present conditions are soaked before the time the fields under the

be worked, the discharge

want

water supply

of

of the

to

of the rivers will

be sufficient

to

sufficiently

to

meet the fuh momentary

cultivators soak the fields thoroughly, in proportion as the

are able to labour them.

When

the rains in the lower plains cease

a period

is still

'of

two months

and

probably also.tho other main rivers of the rice crop.

wants .

strips, of

month

ment

half during

end

of

October,

which the great

have a sufficient

discharge

for

Menam all

rivers can profit for a period land midway between the main

December

there

and

the then

the lowest Under present conditions inordinary years only

or so of the high floodlevel

of

a

the

at

or the

rivers,

about a

because generally at the commence-

subsided so the high floods have already

the lowes fields. of real profit, even for

of

much

as to be on longer

;

[42

therefore certainly no

It is

exaggeration

to-

expect

principal crop, will at least be prolonged

of the

cultivation

ordinary years for the

irrigation system, the time available in

by an adequate

that,

half as far as regards

by two months and a

the bulk of the fields that practically depend upon the rainfall only, and one

and a half

the

for

between the main

now most

favourably

midway

small strips of land

situated

month

rivers.

Besides iiicreasing the available time for the cultivation, regular supply of

water will enable people

work

it,

which

have the

to

and accelerate working the

will faciUtate

commence

thoroughly soaked, before they

soil

to

and coping with the

fields

weeds, and therefore even involuntarily improve the labouring and weeding.

The consequence

of

must be:

this

all

more favourable

conditions

for'

ricegrowing in general, and better cultivation of better kinds of paddy in particular thus improvement of the quality and quantity of the crop.

The importance that in

Java

of

improvement

of quality

Siamese

general the price of imported

in

quality Java rice

per picul, whilst the good the very best Java rice

(

Indramayoe

may

6V9

costs

be inferred from

the fact

4V2 to 5

guilders

rice is

often fetches 8 to 9 guilders

)

a picul, and

to 7 guilders

and more

for

export to Europe. * '

The market value

Rangoon and Saigon

rice,

of

Siam

which

Siamese cultivator and Siamese

much more A

less to

abundant I'ice

a

encouraging and seems greatly in favour of the

is

soil,

rainfall

growing,

sky

because then the

3.

already higher than that of

Hurmah and Cochin China

the rainfall being in

favourable for rice growing than in Siam.

with regard

Extension

now

rice in general is

is

probability

all

no longer

is

only the water required

clouded

less

a disadvantage

supplied artificially,

is

and sunshine more profuse.

advantage

considerable

third

if

in

connected

with

an

adequate

irrigation

of culticated art-a.

system would considerably,

by the same hands

be, that the extent of land tillable in'

consequence

of the

be saturated and inundated at

will

work being and

easier

the

of

when

entire

for agricultural operations being prolonged by at least

the

space

soil

of

increase

will

can always

time available

two months and a half

the ordinary fields and one month and half for the small part of most

for

favourably

situated lands. In the present conditions the cultivators often lose for

weeks

till

rain has fallen sufficiently and

begin the work.

Then they must huny on

as

is

guilders per picul.

in

)

much

(

1898 respectively for 8.54

and

time

by waiting

regular enough to enable

them

to

as possible in labouring the fields,

* The rice of Indramayoe and of Kandanghauer was

about 40,000 pioul

their

8.88

Reports Chamber of Commerce, Batavia

sold

and ).

in

at

Batavia

(

in

1899 for 8-61

lots

of

and 9-60

^3]

[

in

sowing and in planting

when

ripeness

have

the crop in a

when

the main rivers,

The want

of inundation

dying and

to flourish instead of

during the labouring of the

causes the weed

when

them overwhelming

i

the crop.

Wit'i

cut under water.

To lengthen somewhat the time available

ripening

the

for

the

of

crop

the rivers are falling, most of the cultivators are obliged to ta.ke to scooping

and pumping.

This operation produces only

deal of time, which

is

take to scooping or

often the case, the time spent on this

is

working the

small results and occupies a great

deducted from the time, available for harvesting.

When people are obliged to

for

fields,

this afterwards entails a great deal of labour, frequently

inundation, most weeds die, especially

as

of

the rivers subside.

the endeavour to prevent

little result, in

when

state

si.ifficienfc

the rains cease and, as far as regards the small strips of low land

midway between

with

their paddy, to

pumping

save their nurseries,

to

deducted from the time available

is

fields.

The extent

of land

which can be cultivated by one person work, and in

disposable for the agricultural

particular

limited by the time

is

by the time

available for

reaping, which is the most laborious operation in rice growing.

The labouring

of the fields

the latter due partly to the fields

and the reaping

being planted and sown gradually and partly

paddy planted requiring

means

the cultivators strive to arrange matters

always be enough

can be managed by the hands available. often

the riversj

fall of

at once

(

or to

fail

tiiat

of their crop

whole period

the

ready for the reaping, as

But untimely cessation

calculations

these

that during

this

of the rains

and cause the crop

and

ripen

all

amount

of

to

).

The extent land

spoil

so,

By

time for ripening.

different periods of

to the

of harvesting there shall

of the crop proceed gradually,

of the

farms therefore as a rule

is

limited by the

can be harvested by the hands available within the harvest period.

The hands

available consist in general of

which are sometimes added one or two servants hired

The time

when

of reaping begins

and

farmer

the

for the season.

ripening kind

the fastest

lasts until after the ceasing of rainfall or flooding,

mature and

family, to

his

of

paddy

is

when paddy can no

longer ripen. In

many

cases, as

may be mentioned

period of reaping by beginning to cut

paddy, both of which tend greatly In the small strips of land

have

ceased,

frequently

flooding

witiidrawn

still

from

still

here again, people try

between the main

rivers,

continues for some weeks

work

prolong the

unripe and ending by cuttng over-ripe

to spoil the quality of the

harvest

to

for

and

scooping,

whole

where

crop.

after the rains

the hands are not so the

reaping period

is

;

considerably

when water

is least'

flooded' for a short

only

than in the higher lands,; that are

longer

period during the heavy rains, at

'

44-]

[

required, or even are not. flooded

all.

In general the extent of

between the main rivers appears

strips

Prom numerous

inquiries

I

small

be much greater than elsewhere.

to

made

in these

family

land worked by a single

into this

matter,

I

infer that an average

farmers family consists of husband, wife, 2 or 3 half grown ap and a couple of young children

(

adult

children are scarcely ever seen in Siamese farmers families, they

are either serving their term as soldiers or are in the priesthood or already married

and established themselves), and that rivers,

more

in the lowest

such families as a rule work no less then 80

rais of

paddy

appear

whilst in the higher regions,

;

or flooding ceases nearly together with rainfall, very

work more than 30

to

100 rais and sometimes 200 and

without servants or labourers

fields,

where no flooding occurs families

to

strips^ofTandbetween the main

to

40 rais and 60 rais seemed to

few

be the

very maximum. Specially in the last mentioned

why

but always, when asked

tracts, uncultivated

land

people did not cultivate more land and

an extent as in the lowest reaches along the klongs, they replied not work such an extent, because

much

over-abundant

is

they

work

that they could

had more trouble with the weeds and a

shorter space of time for reaping their crop. In the lower parts of the Klong Rangsit region, where

retaining-locks, the flooding lasts longer than

anywhere else

by the

than in the most favourable pans

Prom these

facts

which the time available

may be

will be

much

easier

still

greater

of the other klongs.

inferred that an

for cultivation will

a half for the bulk of the fields,

effect of the

Lower Siam, the

in

extent of land generally worked by a single family often appears to be

weeds

as large

adequate irrigation

be at least prolonged by two months and

by which working the

because

the

system, by

soil

always

fields

can

be

and coping with the thoroughly

soaked

before being worked, and by which the fields can be inundated at will, would enable the

cultivators to

in the

work

more elevated

at least double the extent of land that they can

work now

tracts.

For a country like Lower Siara, where uncultivated land result of .'irrigation gives an

enormous advantage, which

in.

is

abundant, this

densely populated- and

entirely cultivated regions is of no effect.

A

considerable extension of the area, under

cultivation

therefore

can be

expected, as a consequence of carrying out an adequate irrigation and drainage system,

which moreover

will render

more accessible a ggod, deal

of,

waste land.

'

46

\

By

the

way

I

cannot neglect

observe that the ability the Siamese farmers

to

.show in cultivating, though the method extent of land

(

at least

some

the case in Java and India

The

),

much more

Silt

on the

^ that

by means

any that

is

principal"

advantage

of the current in the silt

comes

quite certain that the

running klongs, which draw

will

out

that

under

present

The

their water

fact

of the plants

was extremely

rivers,

the fact that round

luxuriant,

more compared with neighbouring

still

was

Menam and

from the

will

be

and the sub-

condition, also

scarcely

referred

Meklong

the

saw the water from the

I

svstem

the fields.

to

to

rivers is

rivers or from the

spreading over the paddy the spot where the water

entered into the field and therefore the greatest part of the

and

for

cultivation requires

the distributaries

be carried

the great

silt of

was most obvious, from

canals,

the fields.

to

Wherever

of great fertilizing power.

growth

usually

is

would be a serious matter, even

adequate irrigation

of -an

main

has already been pointed

fields, this

than for instance

Western Europe, where however

of the silt of the rivers it

greater

such a considerable

quite remarkable.

distributaries a great quantity of

It

times

primitive,

labour than rice growing in Siam.

The fourth

4.

rather

is

cultivation of such extents of field

the hai-d toiling farmers of

fields.

5 to 10 is

]

silt

compared with the

fields at a greater

deposited,

is

the

rest of the field,

distance

from

the

river.

The water the

same

of the

Brantas

river,

one

effect to about a similar degree

canals fed by that river, have shown that

manure

and

and phosphoric

of available nitrogen, potassium

of stable

of the principal rivers of Java,

its

shows

experiments on the quantity

scientific

acid contained in the

manuring value

is

silt of

irrigation

half as great as that

of cattle.

The manuring value

bouw

of the silt deposited on one

(

7096 M.^) of paddy

land irrigated from the mentioned river in one rainy season can be estimated, only

with regard

to the

available nitrogen

in the iirigated plains of

per

rai.

)

the nutritious matter

generally in

on about 16 guilders per bouw

i. e.

minimum

about 5

ticals

*

One is

Java

(

of the principles of adequate irrigation

never stagnant but always flowing,

being the

irrigation or rainfall, drained off in drains

The aim as possible,

is

to

of this

system

of continual

is,

superfluous water supplied

and canals destined supply and flow

prevent stagnation of the water on the

* See next page.

that the water on the fields

for the purpose.

off, to

fields,

by

as great a quantity

which

is

considered to

—

— 46

.[

be very disadvantageous

much

increase as it

]

prosperous growth of plants, and at the samfe time to

to the

as .possible the quantity of

carried to the fields

silt

and

to distribute

as proportionately as possible.

As

the water of the great

quantity of fine

silt

other available rivers contains a great

can be easily carried on by any current, and as the

that

fertilizing value of this

Menam and

could be improved greatly by carrying this fertilizing

crops

and quantity

indisputable, therefore the quality

silt is

silt

of the

the fields by

to

irrigation.

In

probability, a proper supply

all

and distribution

this fertilizing silt to

of

the fields will form the most effective and least expensive method of compensating for the

damage,

inflicted on the soil

by the continued export

of agiicultural

pi'oduce

on a large scale. This function of the system

is of

course closely connected with and greatly

depends on adequate drainage works.

-'addy

na muang.

Besides the

5.

with

above,

another reason,

still

an increase of

may

of the quality of the crop

Some

except the klong

The

at the

Java

)

are as follows

places

made by the

(A. & B.

from the Brantas

)

taken

delta canals

average the

silt

contained

Samples

water supply of

commanded by

main

the

same

rivers are

main

situated parts are

rivers,

and

level as the rivers

Agricultural Station at Passoeroean

during a period of 65 days, at two

daily,

(irrigated area 33.000 silt,

A.

H.

Potassium.

0.66%

0-60%

0-27

B.

0-35 „

0-43 „

0-25

bouw and

per sec, as

per

held on an

Available Nitrogen.

A.

1.5 L.

),

dried at a temperature of 125° C.

:

Phosporic acid.

A

an

join them.

average 408 m. G. (samples A.) and 422 m. G. (samples B.)

On an

well

:

•Two series of samples different

quantity as

Rangsit, in open communication with the

* The results of the investigations (

especially

existing canals, which run through these

where the klongs

locality

connected

be anticipated.

so tend to raise the floodlevel on the lowest fields to

have

the

parts of the low tracts of land lying between

comparatively very low. all,

is

from which

adequate drainage,

improvement

there

these canals, amounts in a period of 120 days to

is

7 ,°

usual for the

paddy

fields

15,552 M.» and carries to the

according to the least favourable series of samples B., a quantity of 6,563 K. G. dry silt 22-97 K. G. Phosphorie acid, 28-22 K. G. Potassium and 16-41 K. G. available Nitrogen the value of the available Nitrogen, when applied to the field, being on an averac^e fields,

containing ;

about 16 guilders as mentioned above. Investigation of the quantity and quality of the canals in other regions have Prof.

for stable

G-54%

shown

Adolf Mayer, in

manure

of cattle

:

silt

held by the water of some irrigation

similar results.

his

Handhuch der AgricuUurchemie,

Phosphoric acid 0.27%

states as average fio-ures Potassium 0.67%, and available ISlitroc'en

47

[

The water

]

in the rivers in ordinary years rises to about the

the banks, and as the klongs generally run about transverse the

the

rivers,

consequence

dykes

flooding in the lowest parts naturally

of the slope of the

of excavated

earth

ground

alongs

main

klongs

level of

direction of

must become very deep

the direction of the klongs.

in

the

to the

ground

add no small part

in

Moreover the to the natural

obstructions against drainage and so at the time the water in the rivers and in the

klongs

is

parts

growing

highest level and rainfall

to the

become flooded

often

conditions only na

some time

for

muang paddy can be

The na muang

or

and imported fields

and has adapted

its

and

more.

In

these

character

most

cultivated.

pnddy or

its

its

surroundings, so that

field-rioe, is a variety of rice,

Cochin China, which

grows

way

character in a most remarkable

in general are not parcelled out

2 M.

lowest

*'

After a very superficial labouring of the

t

which

floatin.s

heavy, the very

paddy has assimilated

floating

into Cambodjn, and

still

as deep as

wonderfully to the hydrographical conditions of

kao Na Muang,

is

soil,

this rice

especially on

even the

peculiar to Siam,

deep

inundated

to the conditions of the locality.

sown broadcast on the

is

by smaU imbankments, as usually

fields,

the case with paddy

is

fields.

Sometimes, planted in small

if

there

holes

much water on

already too

is

made by pointed

the fields for sowing, the grains

and afterward

sticks,

filled

up by the feet

of

are

the

planter.

The paddy then sprouts and grows growth

of

even 5

c.

m. a day

is

quickly

often stated.

If

during the period of vigorous growth a

;

now

the water does not rise quicker than the

paddy can grow, then the plant may bear any inundation

even to

of

.3

or 4 M., the stalks growing

so long that the top of the plants and the leaves are always above the water.

The

stalks,

become very

slanting,

When

exception.

common

under the influence of wind, current and their own weight, take a slanting

When

the top being bent up again however.

position,

then the plants can grow to an

the water

does

not rise

the flood

very deep and the stalks

enormous length,

the plants

high,

is

grow

6 to 8

a

like

M. being no

vigorous kind of

paddy.

Another peculiarity sprout from the nodes.

that

of the plants is

new systems

of roots

and

also

new

stalks

These roots however do not reach the ground but feed upon the water

only.

With one become

particular kind, growing in very deep

very slightly developped, but are preserved

the plant

is

the original stalk

water,

and roots

merely as a kind of cable and anchor by which

retained on the spot, whilst the nutrition-functions almost entirely depend upon

the

root systems that sprout from the nodes and feed upon the water only.

These of the

facts, it

may be observed by

water with reijard to paddy growing

the way, are of great importance as to the function

and.

confirm the opinion that paddy for

its

nutrition

and orowth does not depend in such a degree as other cerials, upon the soil and its contents of and humus, as an intermediary, but can utilize directly the substances nutritious substances contained in the water.

They

fields year after vear can yield a

The paddv na muang the crop

is ripe,

how

also contribute to explain

is

it

is

good paddy crop without showing generally weeded, and

also harvested in boats.

In the

last

if

possible that well watered visible signs of deterioration.

the water has not yet subsided

when

case fishes often consume a good deal of

the crop.

There are quickly and slowly ripening kinds

The crop often

fails

crop,

quality than that of

paddy na muang and

rice.

and

have formed their ears and are able to ripen.

even under favourable circumstances,

common

also glutinous kinds.

partly or totally, in consequence of the water rising too fast,

submero-ing the plants, or falling before the plants

The

of

is

considerable smaller and of poorer

;

[48]

highest flood will

when

liot

injure

high floods

provided only that the

it,

come

the plants are too young or that the water does not rise too fast.

One

of these things however, or both of them, are

many

in

tracts they estimated one crop lost to

to occur

likely

frequently and cause a good deal of the na rauang crop to

me

not

do

be

People told

lost.

two successful crops.

In order to diminish the chance of failure of crop, therefore the

muang

must be sown as

fields

early as possible

rather

and

paddy na

in as short as possible a

space

of time.

Withering and dying the na

muang

of

new sown paddy

then,

however occurs very often in

tracts.

Some times even

not possible to sow the paddy on the lowest tracts,

it is

because the time between the

being soaked by rainfall and

soil

being already inundated by drainage water from higher tracts

any

for labouring

fit

is

too short to allow

cultivation.

On grown

to

when

the other hand,

gone down the crop must have

the water has

a sufficient state of ripeness to be able to become mature

about the subsiding of the water therefore enforces people early ripening kinds of

Owing

depending upon the

two causes the extent

muang

is

the uncertainty

take to comparatively

of

land that can be cultivated by one

limited, so as not to be

much

larger than for fields

rainfall only.

Moreover any irregularity spoiling the plants will soon

and quantity

to

;

paddy na muang.

to these

person with paddy na

of the rise or fall or the water,

while not quite

impede the prosperous growth and damage the quality

of the crop.

At the best the paddy na muang, compared with paddy na suan, rice

and

)

gives a light crop of an inferior sort of

According

to the

information

na suan may be taken as a

fair

I

(

common

rice.

obtained, a crop of

2/3

average and the price of na

of the quantity of

muang

paddy

about ^A of

rice is

the price of good na suan rice in similar conditions.

By an adequate system

of irrigation

lowest parts would be obviated conditions of the present na

muang

and

all

fields

and drainage the high flooding

superfluous water drained

off,

of

the

so that the

would become the same as the future

condition of the present na suan fields, and this will, for the localities concerned, cause

the

same advantages, but

to

a higher degree, as already mentioned, viz

i.

Protection against loss of crops, by timely supply of water

2.

Increase of quantity and improvement of quality of crop,

:

by planting better

[

49

]

yielding and more valuable kinds of paddy, in conpequence of the increase of the

time available

for cultivation

;

Bstention of the lots that can be cultivated by one person, in consequence of

3

lengtbening of the time available for reaping and the

labouring

of

and

soil

4

Fertilization of the

Villages,

6.

Another advantage

Gardens and

^i-^g

Orchards.

of facilitating the

by systemetically carrying

soil,

adequate irrigation, depending also principally upon

of

drainage system connected herewith,

,

„

,

the fields.

silt to

^

the mundation of their villages

that people will be enabled to prevent

is

and gardens, by di'aining them

into the drainage

canals.

When be able

soil

around their houses

to plant fruit trees

circumstances the

the

is

is

not subjected to inundation, people will

and cultivate other garden produce, which

in the

present

impossible or hardly possible in a great part of the country, because

young plants cannot withstand

inundation,- even for a period of

some days.

a particular feature of Lower Siam, that trees, and specially fruit trees,

It is

are very scarce, except in the highest tracts along the rivers, and fruits are rare and

high in price, which

some

In

is

the above circumstances.

does not

grow^

vicinity of Pakprio, even

The high banks

of

the

any important number are found

Clumps .of

bamboo,

tiiat

and the

rivers

excavated earth along the klongs, at present are the only

of

trees in

to

parts, for instance in the

stands flooding better,

dykes

due

localities

where

in the lower provinces of Siam.

fruit trees in the villages all

over the country

would not only

considered contribute greatly to the profit and the enjoyment of the people, but are

and

also to be of favourable influence on climate

The conditions manure,

will

of

for

cattle

tendency

of

keeping

also.

purposes, and for exports

;

cattle

being a considerable

trade (about $ V2 million a year), which shows however a

of

proper fodder and of good drinking water in the dry

dry ground in many

conditions

for

to decrease.

Want want

and

great importance for Siam, both with regard to the use

is of

agricultural

of the export

heading

of cattle breeding, with regard to treatment

become much more favourable

Cattle breeding

rainfall.

are the principal

Lower Siam, and

localities in the

impediments

in particular of

season and

height of the floodseason, under present

of

improvement

the

extension of

of the breeds,

cattle

breeding in

which are not

of a high

requirements and would not stand the period Better breeds have higher the and bad water, to which annually even a good many of of scarcity of fodder standard.

native cattle succumb.

By proper

would become quite changed and drainage, the aspect of the villages

would gain greatly in domestic accomodation. embellished and the inland people

The

[50

many

habit prevailing in to the river

banks

would certainly disappear

habitable character the villages

soon would

from the

in the dry season

removing

localities of

or to boats,

]

in

consequence of the more

the more

assume,

fields

because perennial

whole area concerned the whole year over

irrigation canals also will provide tbe

with fresh drinking water.

Drinking and flushing toater.

The

7.

mentioned circumstance constitutes a further advantage connected

last

with an adequate irrigation system, by which a great

Lower Siam would be greatly

Under the present regions of the Lower

pai't

population

pt the

oi

benefitted.

when

conditions,

the rivers subside, the klongs in the higher

Men am Valley gradually grow dry and

the water of the lower parts of the rivers and of nearly

all

in the lower provinces

the klongs grows salt or'

brackish and quite undrinkable and remains so for a period of about 3 to 6 months.' In the klongs

which are not quite dry

water gradually becomes oft into

or brackish in the dry season, the stagnant

sour as people say, by the ground water draining

bitter, or

The ground water contains a good

the canals.

derived from the marine sub-soil, and

deal of

magnesia and alum

very hard and quite undrinkable.

is

Wells

therefore have generally also only bitter or sour water in the dry season.

The consequence people use try

to

circumstances

that a

is,

men

In

as well as for cattle

live stock in the

probability

all

this

still

at hand,

causes

enteiic diseases being very

;

part of the year

a

and so

good deal

a.re

common with men

quite dry or the water they contain

bitter or sour, people are obliged to fetch drinking

by boats or bullock

often takes a journey of

carts,

some days.

from

The

the

is

too brackish,

water for themselves and their

higher

price those,

parts of

who

the

rivers,

which

are not in the position to

fetch water themselves, have to pay for fresh water, varies fi'om 1 to lo ticals a

To fetch

drinking wa.ter during

great deal of trouble and work to profitable

way,

if

of

dry season.

At the time the klongs

cattle,

great

kinds of bad and dirty water which they have

get on as long as possible.

disease for

and

all

of these

fresh and

thi'ee to six

men and

cattle,

comparatively

the country throughout the whole year, by

means

months every year causes a

which could be spent

pure

AI.^.

water was

distributed

in a

more

all

over

of perennial ii-rigation canals.

This certainly would constitute the greatest and most general improvement ever achievable, of the sanitaiy condition of the whole population and live stock of

the lower provinces of

Siam, where at present enteiic diseases both of

cattle are frequent, whilst

up country they are

rare.

men and

[

It

may be

51

set forth hei'e that this

]

advantage

of perennial supply,

though not

the most important from a financial and economical point of view, certainly would

form the most urgent

of all

improvements

be brought about by an irrigation and

to

drainage system. It

may be

especially pointed out that

would be also a great advantage prevent epidemic disease

continuous supply of

a

Banglcok and

to

to a great

suburbs, and would probably

its

though

extent,

fresh water

it

would not by any means

render superfluous an aqueduct system for purified potable water.

The

and the working expenses

cost

waterworks

of

would be much reduced, as the water could be taken from the thus the source of supply would be brought near

to

that sense, however

in

irrigation canals

*

hand.

Further, water could, as a matter of course, be di'awn from

scour into the river the dirt out of the drains of irrigati(m will

demand

may

town

be worth while

all

more numerous

in

much worse

)

canals to

The requirements the

of

purpose

the year tiirough.

to set forth that,

however great

may

providing drinking and flushing water for iiangkok 10 times

capital.

the

a wateiievel in the canals quite sufficient for

of flushing the drains of the It

tlie

and

the importance of

be, the whole,

(probably

population of the entire lower provinces find themselves

conditions than the

Bangkok

the dry season and certainly suffer

people, with regard to drinking water in

more and have a greater

loss of life

and property

on that account.

Dry season

Another very important advantage

8.

.rops. .^ ^^^^ ^^^^

season a considerable

quantity

of a perennial irrigation

always be

water will

of

system

is

that

available for

agricultural purposes.

except for For a second crop of rice this quantity would not be sufficient,

under irrigation. a small part of the total area

A second

most

rice crop

however would not

likely tend to fatigue the soil,

* In

all

probabity, under

with regard

at all

be advisable, because

to rice

present conditions, the to derive

it

and

only

so

damage

way

from the great

Department the

co^st

M^ per day

would

greatly the crop

practically available

Menam,

at

water is provide Banskok with potable brackish. becomes never where the river estimate of the Chief Engineer of the Local Aecordincr to a provisional capacity of 20,000 of waterworks with a

it

(

to

a locality

Sanitary

or 230 L. p. sec.

)

and

mill, ticals, of which amount K. M. above Bangkok, would be about 5^ fFtake at Chiencrrak, 30 station, which could be pumping of 30 KM. and °i million on Tcccunt of the pipe conduct current near Bangkok. be taken from a canal with a steady omitted if the water could will be tapped of perhaps 9/10 of its Menam the is carried out, If the irri.^ation scheme pumping station then for its A further upstream than at present. ter and nis suitable that the chief of the lioyal Irrigation title

no less importance

the other officials (see p.

titles of

12-2

)

are conform to those

commonly

use for technical services, as for instance in the Railway Department.

The number regards

to

of officials required is

dependent upon the speed required with

the surveys and plans and upon the

placed at the disposal of the Department for

sums

of

money, that annually can be

construction of wprlcs, and

when

the

supply commences, upon the extent of the lands already commanded.

To begin

The

I

works

with, the

for

division

Department should be divided

maintenance and management

improvement,

in the lowest parts of the

Menam

II.

The

intending

in

of existing

1

Assistant

Overseer, 5

etc.

division to start the initial

Engineer

:

Valley, with a Superintending Engineer, in

charge, 2 Executive or Assistant Engineers, 2 Overseers,

Surveyors, and Draftsmen, Clerks

into 3 divisions viz

work

for the

supply system, with one Super-

charge, 2 Executive or Assistant Engineers, 1 Overseer, 1

Clerks etc. Assistant Overseer, 10 Surveyors, and Draftsmen,

HI

The general

planning,

gauges,

etc.,

with

discharge

and Draftsmen,

1

division under the Director General, for the observations, the

Assistant Engineer, of

rivers,

Clerks, etc.

rainfall,

1

Overseer,

(

specially for the records of tide

navigation etc.),

1

Accountant-translator,

:

I

To begin

with, the staff of

thus will consist of

offiiiials

Director General.

1

2 Superintending Engineers. 5

Executive or Assistant Engineers.

4 Overseers. 2 Assista,nt Overseers.

15 Surveyors. 1

Accountant-translator.

6

Draftsmen.

8 Clerks.

Within the space be

according

available

to the

(seep. 125), the number

To

assist

the

some

of

by

3,

of tlie

division,

bank

left

two main canals

for

supply;

for the,

When

upstream parts

the

number

of Executive

each of the

will

be

divided

Menam main

according

and

in full

to

Assistant

number of Overseers

when works are

staff of officials,

5

of

(of the

downstream parts

will include the

going on

is

successively be increased to about ]0,aiid the

1

which

the division mentioned (11.)

the construction of woi'ks

1

be extended

canals

Supan works.

explained before, then

The

will

be divided into a right bank

will

division,

into 3 other divisions, one for the

and one

be required.

mentioned (I.)

and a

at full capacity

planning the principal works, a Chief

in

and Supeiintending Engineers

of divisions

viz: tlie division

Menam)

will

executing them

for

will

must be increased considerably.

General

Dii-ector

Engineer or Assistant Director

The number

requirements

of officials

aud money

as woi'ks are going on

years,

swing,

to

may

wliat

has been

Engineers

must

about 20 and so on. be estimated at

:

Director General.

Chief Engineer or Assistant Director.

Superintending Engineers.

10 Executive or Assistant Engineers.

20 Overseers. 10 .Assistant Overseers.

30 Surveyors. 1

Secretary-Chief Accountant.

6

Accountants for the

16 Draftsmen.

20 Clerks.

( 1

head

for

each

office).

division

and one accountant-translator

U;-5

[

The Director General, intending Engineers

works

irrigation

;

all

]

the Assistant Director or Chief Engineer and the Super-

are to be fully qualified

Engineers,

Civil

the Executive and Assistant Engineers

qualified practical Engineers of long experience

Engineers, the latter forming the material for

may

and partly

experienced in

be partly not fully

fully

new Superintending

young

qualified

Engineers.

The Overseers, Assistant Overseers and Surveyors may be men

minor

of

technical qualifications and will have to be trained up for the purpose.

When

construction

commences, a part

and supply

nearing completion

is

of the technical staff

may be employed

in the

balance can be put on the drainage improvements of the Lower

becoming general,

is

management, and the

Menam

Valley and on

new schemes. The pay surveying (see

of the staff is stated in the estimate p.

Traininq of the staff.

sluice-,

on

131.

p.

^^

commencement

foreio-ners, as there are

Even

and controlling purposes a

and canal-guards

^^^^

to

on staff and

12-2).

For management lock-,

of expenditure

further be

will

required,

a great part of the staff

as

will,

the

guards and

of

estimate shows

have

of course,

to

be

no Siamese trained and experienced in irrigation matters.

the lower ranks of the

fill

staff of chief

staff

chiefly with Siamese, will require

previous training.

To have the lower ranks to

make

offices,

it

sufficiently trained

by

chiefly filled up

Siamese and

charged with the higher technical possible in the future for Siamese to be

and experience, which require more technical training

most desirable

to establish

it

would,

I

presume, be

School a technical school, (of which the present Survey

an existing basis) where young Siamese, who know perhaps may be considered as can be trained in mathematics and physics and how to read and write English, with regard the elements of engineering,

to

the different branches of technical science

house-, bridge-,, and road-building, practised in Siam, as

most

surveying, railways and,

likely iri-igation woi'ks.

The most

(When

they

show

intelligent

and industrious

ability for the

class of trai.ung to

make them

work), fit

of the

promising ones be selected the most

to

some

after

for higher

be sent

to

to

occupy leading

Europe

who

out,

be given

practise,

requirements

fully qualified Engineers, training and to becon.e

able and experience, may be

young men turned

a

could,

higher

and from these could have high

to

technical

after some, years of practice

positions.

'

1^4

[

The Engineers

]

Departments, as far as attached

of the- different technical

the head offices, would in

all

probabity be able

them from

technical matters at such a school, which would relieve

training their

Appointment

posal

of,

teaching

for

the

trouble of

alone.

All the officials of the Irrigation Department are

4. '

men

some time

spare

to

to

on the pro-

he appointed

to

or in agreement with the Director General, or by this functionary himself, as

far as their monthly pay does not exceed 300

The Director General assigns

ticals.

and trans-

the place of residence to the officials

fers them.

The

of the

officials

Department may not

be

owners

of,

any

in

or interested

ivay in landed property within their official region.

a point of the highest importance to be sure, as

It is

have only qualified and able men joining the Department

as

far

possible

for technical

;

to

faults

of

loss

or

the Engineers can cause the Government and the cultivators the greatest lack of profits.

As

made

the Director General is to be

responsible

whole Department, he must be in the position his assistants

and

reject the

men

to

he deems not

judge himself for

fit

sincere and cordial cooperation of the Staff_ with the

the

the

capacity

the

work.

Moreover

General

Director

of

is

in

of

a the

on behalf of the progress of the work and of the most useful

employment

men and moneys

of the

will not

To secure the

available.

be required

of his staff being chiefly in the

hands

to explain the necessity of the I'ecruitino-

of the Director General.

impai'tiality of the

Department

in its plans

of so important a factor in the national welfare as irrigation,

that the officials are not intsrested in

inrb«?

woi'k

first place. required

More reasons

Contracts

the

for

labour

may

5.

All contracts or agreements

properties

about supplies or to

be

Director General and payments thereupon are only

'

the

quite necessary

region

where their

be of great influence on tha value and production of lands.

Boyal Irrigation Departement are

of the

within

it is

and management

The Director Generar ought

to

ivories

made through to be

belonging- to the

sphere

the intermediary

of the

given on evidence signed by him.

be consulted in

all

material matters of

his

administration, accounts included, as well as in the personal matters of his Department.

145

[

This

beyond

is

question required

all

in

]

any well organised and propertly conducted

service.

^'

''

^^''''^'"' ^'""'''^ '^''^''''

articles

regardmg

As

is

'''''^'''^ '" *^' ^^'^^^

Department and accounts for

his

similar footing as

*"*'"'

"^ *^'

mil^stJation'

the

^""^^'^ ^v ^^'

expenditure and receipts on a

usual in the Royal Railway Department:

a fixed

far as possible

annual sum

is to be set

apart for the works of the

Department.

A cf

his

regular account of the expenditure on, and the revenue derived from

Department,

be Icept hj

is to

th£

Director

General and stated in

the- ivories

an annual

report.

Tlie Riillwiiy Depiirtnient

seems

to liave

is

here chosen as an example, because experience

proved that the present arrangements

table jind because that Department

in

is

many

for that

Department are

points similar to the

sui-

new department

to he established.

As a great number landowners and the value a

and

influential

men

of property is largely

dependent

upon

of considerable

independence of action and administration

cei'taiu

the impartiality of the Department

To designate, Department the

will

economy

as

in

also

is

to

be kept

on irrigation and drainnge and nventioned

Leqal requla-

^^^^

the

results

of

tiie

working

^'^^^^ regulations are to be

7-

/Hons

of

works,

contribute

to

in

for the

works

of the

progress of the work and

regular

staff of officials

tiie

and of

the works to be constructed.

to

witli

regard

to

an annual

absolute condition on the part of

expliiined, this being an

judge

tlie

great advantage

That a regular account

to

sum

far as possible, a fixed annual