General Chemistry: Atoms First 9781337612296, 1671681711, 3213213233, 1337612294

Table of contents :
Title page......Page 2
Copyright page......Page 3
Contents......Page 4
Acknowledgments......Page 17
About the Authors......Page 20
To the Student......Page 22
Chapter 1: Chemistry: Matter on the Atomic Scale......Page 24
1.1a The Scale of Chemistry......Page 25
1.1b Measuring Matter......Page 26
1.2a Classifying Matter on the Atomic Scale......Page 27
1.2b Classifying Pure Substances on the Macroscopic Scale......Page 29
1.2c Classifying Mixtures on the Macroscopic Scale......Page 31
1.3a Scientific Units and Scientific Notation......Page 33
1.3b SI Base Units......Page 35
1.3c Derived Units......Page 37
1.3d Significant Figures, Precision, and Accuracy......Page 39
1.4a Dimensional Analysis......Page 43
1.4b Multistep Problem Solving......Page 45
Unit Recap......Page 48
Chapter 2: Atoms and Elements......Page 52
2.1a Early Models and the Advent of Scientific Experimentation......Page 53
2.1b Dalton’s Atomic Theory......Page 55
2.2a Electrons and Protons......Page 56
2.2b The Nuclear Model of the Atom......Page 60
2.3a Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbols......Page 63
2.3b Isotopes and Atomic Weight......Page 65
2.3c Nuclear Stability......Page 67
2.4a Introduction to the Periodic Table......Page 70
2.5a Avogadro’s Number and the Mole......Page 76
2.5b Molar Mass of Elements......Page 77
Unit Recap......Page 79
Chapter 3: Electromagnetic Radiation and the Electronic Structure of the Atom......Page 82
3.1a Wavelength and Frequency......Page 83
3.1b The Electromagnetic Spectrum......Page 84
3.2a The Photoelectric Effect......Page 85
3.3a Atomic Line Spectra......Page 87
3.3b The Bohr Model......Page 88
3.4a Wave Properties of Matter......Page 91
3.4b The Schrödinger Equation and Wave Functions......Page 93
3.5a Quantum Numbers......Page 94
3.5b Orbital Shapes......Page 95
3.5c Nodes......Page 97
3.5d Orbital Energy Diagrams and Changes in Electronic State......Page 98
Unit Recap......Page 99
Chapter 4: Electron Configurations and the Properties of Atoms......Page 102
4.1b Types of Magnetic Materials......Page 103
4.2a Orbital Energies in Single- and Multielectron Species......Page 104
4.3a The Pauli Exclusion Principle......Page 105
4.3b Electron Configurations for Elements in Periods 1–3......Page 106
4.3c Electron Configurations for Elements in Periods 4–7......Page 110
4.3d Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table......Page 114
4.4a Trends in Orbital Energies......Page 116
4.4b Atomic Size......Page 118
4.4c Ionization Energy......Page 120
4.4d Electron Affinity......Page 121
Unit Recap......Page 123
Chapter 5: Ionic and Covalent Compounds......Page 126
5.1a Coulomb’s Law......Page 127
5.1b Cations......Page 128
5.1c Anions......Page 132
5.1d Lewis Symbols......Page 135
5.1e Ion Size......Page 136
5.2a Polyatomic Ions......Page 138
5.2b Representing Ionic Compounds with Formulas......Page 139
5.2c Naming Ionic Compounds......Page 140
5.3a Introduction to Covalent Compounds......Page 141
5.3b Representing Covalent Compounds with Empirical Formulas......Page 142
5.3d Naming Covalent Compounds (Binary Nonmetals Hydrocarbons)......Page 145
5.3e Naming Covalent Compounds (Inorganic Acids)......Page 147
5.3f Identifying Covalent and Ionic Compounds......Page 150
Unit Recap......Page 151
Chapter 6: Covalent Bonding......Page 154
6.1a Fundamentals of Covalent Bonding......Page 155
6.1b Lewis Structures......Page 156
6.1c Drawing Lewis Structures......Page 157
6.1d Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 160
6.2a Bond Order, Bond Length, and Bond Energy......Page 162
6.2b Bond Polarity......Page 166
6.2c Formal Charge......Page 169
6.3a Resonance Structures......Page 171
6.3b Resonance Structures, Bond Order, Bond Length, and Bond Energy......Page 173
6.3c Resonance Structures, Formal Charge, and Electronegativity......Page 174
Unit Recap......Page 177
Chapter 7: Molecular Shape and Bonding Theories......Page 180
7.1a VSEPR and Electron-Pair Geometry......Page 181
7.1b Shape (Molecular Geometry)......Page 184
7.1c Molecular Polarity......Page 187
7.2a Two Theories of Bonding......Page 190
7.2b sp3 Hybrid Orbitals......Page 191
7.2c sp2 Hybrid Orbitals......Page 194
7.2d sp Hybrid Orbitals......Page 195
7.2e Hybrid Orbitals and Expanded Valence......Page 198
7.3a Formation of Pi Bonds......Page 200
7.3b Pi Bonding in Ethene, C2H4; Acetylene, C2H2; and Allene, CH2CCH2......Page 202
7.3c Pi Bonding in Benzene, C6H6......Page 204
7.3d Conformations and Isomers......Page 205
7.4a Sigma Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals......Page 208
7.4c Molecular Orbital Diagrams (H2 and He2)......Page 209
7.4d Molecular Orbital Diagrams......Page 210
7.4e Molecular Orbital Diagrams (Heteronuclear Diatomics)......Page 213
7.4f Molecular Orbital Diagrams (More Complex Molecules)......Page 214
Unit Recap......Page 215
Chapter 8: Stoichiometry......Page 218
8.1a Molar Mass of Compounds and Element Composition......Page 219
8.1b Percent Composition......Page 222
8.1c Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition......Page 223
8.1d Determining Molecular Formulas......Page 225
8.1e Hydrated Compounds......Page 227
8.2a Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations......Page 229
8.2b Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 231
8.2c Reaction Stoichiometry......Page 234
8.3a Limiting Reactants......Page 239
8.3b Percent Yield......Page 242
8.4a Determining a Chemical Formula......Page 244
8.4b Analysis of a Mixture......Page 249
Unit Recap......Page 250
Chapter 9: Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry......Page 252
9.1a Combination and Decomposition Reactions......Page 253
9.1b Displacement Reactions......Page 254
9.2a Compounds in Aqueous Solution......Page 256
9.2b Solubility of Ionic Compounds......Page 258
9.3a Precipitation Reactions and Net Ionic Equations......Page 260
9.3b Acid–Base Reactions......Page 263
9.3c Gas-Forming Reactions......Page 267
9.4a Oxidation and Reduction......Page 269
9.4b Oxidation Numbers and Oxidation States......Page 270
9.4c Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 272
9.5a Solution Concentration and Molarity......Page 274
9.5b Preparing Solutions of Known Concentration......Page 277
9.5c Solution Stoichiometry......Page 281
9.5d Titrations (Part 1)......Page 283
9.5e Titrations (Part 2)......Page 287
Unit Recap......Page 289
Chapter 10: Thermochemistry......Page 294
10.1a Energy and Energy Units......Page 295
10.1b Principles of Thermodynamics......Page 296
10.2a Enthalpy......Page 298
10.2b Representing Energy Change......Page 300
10.3a Heat Transfer and Temperature Changes: Specific Heat Capacity......Page 301
10.3b Heat Transfer between Substances: Thermal Equilibrium and Temperature Changes......Page 304
10.3c Energy, Changes of State, and Heating Curves......Page 306
10.4a Enthalpy Change for a Reaction......Page 310
10.4b Enthalpy Change and Chemical Equations......Page 311
10.4c Bond Energy and Enthalpy of Reaction......Page 313
10.4d Constant-Pressure Calorimetry......Page 314
10.4e Constant-Volume Calorimetry......Page 316
10.5a Hess’s Law......Page 318
10.6a Standard Heat of Formation......Page 320
10.6b Using Standard Heats of Formation......Page 324
Unit Recap......Page 327
Chapter 11: Gases......Page 330
11.1a Overview of Properties of Gases......Page 331
11.1b Pressure......Page 332
11.2a Boyle’s Law: P x V = kB......Page 334
11.2b Charles’s Law: V = kC x T......Page 335
11.2c Avogadro’s Law: V = kA x n......Page 337
11.3a The Combined Gas Law......Page 339
11.3b The Ideal Gas Law......Page 340
11.3c The Ideal Gas Law, Molar Mass, and Density......Page 341
11.4a Introduction to Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures......Page 344
11.4b Partial Pressure and Mole Fractions of Gases......Page 346
11.4c Gas Laws and Stoichiometry......Page 347
11.5a Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Gas Laws......Page 349
11.5b Molecular Speed, Mass, and Temperature......Page 351
11.5c Gas Diffusion and Effusion......Page 354
11.5d Nonideal Gases......Page 356
Unit Recap......Page 359
Chapter 12: Intermolecular Forces and the Liquid State......Page 362
12.1a Condensed Phases and Intermolecular Forces......Page 363
12.1b Phase Changes......Page 365
12.1c Enthalpy of Vaporization......Page 366
12.2a Dynamic Equilibrium and Vapor Pressure......Page 367
12.2b Effect of Temperature and Intermolecular Forces on Vapor Pressure......Page 369
12.2c Boiling Point......Page 372
12.2d Mathematical Relationship between Vapor Pressure and Temperature......Page 375
12.3a Surface Tension......Page 377
12.3c Capillary Action......Page 379
12.4a Dipole–Dipole Intermolecular Forces......Page 380
12.4b Dipole–Induced Dipole Forces......Page 382
12.4c Induced Dipole–Induced Dipole Forces......Page 383
12.5a Effect of Polarizability on Physical Properties......Page 384
12.5b Effect of Hydrogen Bonding on Physical Properties......Page 385
12.5c Quantitative Comparison of Intermolecular Forces......Page 387
Unit Recap......Page 390
Chapter 13: The Solid State......Page 394
13.1a Types of Solids......Page 395
13.1b The Unit Cell......Page 396
13.2a Simple Cubic Unit Cell......Page 399
13.2b Body-Centered Cubic Structure......Page 400
13.2c Closest-Packed Structure......Page 401
13.2d X-ray Diffraction......Page 405
13.3a Holes in Cubic Unit Cells......Page 407
13.3b Cesium Chloride and Sodium Chloride Structures......Page 411
13.3c Zinc Blende (ZnS) Structure......Page 414
13.3d Complex Solids......Page 415
13.4a Band Theory......Page 417
13.4b Lattice Energy and Born–Haber Cycles......Page 419
13.5a Phase Changes Involving Solids......Page 422
13.5b Phase Diagrams......Page 423
Unit Recap......Page 429
Chapter 14: Chemical Mixtures: Solutions and Other Mixtures......Page 434
14.1a Review of Solubility......Page 435
14.1b Concentration Units......Page 436
14.2a Entropy and Thermodynamic Control of Chemical Processes......Page 440
14.2b Gas–Gas Mixtures......Page 442
14.2c Liquid–Liquid Mixtures......Page 444
14.2d Solid–Liquid Mixtures......Page 446
14.3a Pressure Effects: Solubility of Gases in Liquids......Page 449
14.3b Effect of Temperature on Solubility......Page 451
14.4a Osmotic Pressure......Page 453
14.4b Vapor Pressure Lowering......Page 458
14.4c Boiling Point Elevation......Page 460
14.4d Freezing Point Depression......Page 462
14.5a Alloys......Page 464
14.5b Colloids......Page 465
Unit Recap......Page 468
Chapter 15: Chemical Kinetics......Page 472
15.1a Factors That Influence Reactivity......Page 473
15.1b Collision Theory......Page 474
15.2a Average Rate and Reaction Stoichiometry......Page 476
15.3a Concentration and Reaction Rate......Page 479
15.3b Determining Rate Law Using the Method of Initial Rates......Page 482
15.4a Integrated Rate Laws......Page 485
15.4b Graphical Determination of Reaction Order......Page 489
15.4c Reaction Half-Life......Page 492
15.4d Radioactive Decay......Page 494
15.5a Reaction Coordinate Diagrams......Page 495
15.5b The Arrhenius Equation......Page 500
15.5c Graphical Determination of Ea......Page 502
15.6a The Components of a Reaction Mechanism......Page 503
15.6b Multistep Mechanisms......Page 506
15.6c Reaction Mechanisms and the Rate Law......Page 509
15.6d More Complex Mechanisms......Page 511
15.6e Catalysis......Page 514
Unit Recap......Page 516
Chapter 16: Chemical Equilibrium......Page 520
16.1a Principle of Microscopic Reversibility......Page 521
16.1b The Equilibrium State......Page 522
16.2a Equilibrium Constants......Page 524
16.2b Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions......Page 526
16.2c Manipulating Equilibrium Constant Expressions......Page 529
16.3a Determining an Equilibrium Constant Using Experimental Data......Page 532
16.3b Determining Whether a System Is at Equilibrium......Page 534
16.3c Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 536
16.4a Addition or Removal of a Reactant or Product......Page 538
16.4b Change in the Volume of the System......Page 541
16.4c Change in Temperature......Page 543
Unit Recap......Page 546
Chapter 17: Acids and Bases......Page 550
17.1a Acid and Base Definitions......Page 551
17.1b Simple Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases......Page 552
17.1c More Complex Acids......Page 554
17.2a Autoionization......Page 555
17.2b pH and pOH Calculations......Page 559
17.3a Acid and Base Hydrolysis Equilibria, Ka, and Kb......Page 561
17.3b Ka and Kb Values and the Relationship between Ka and Kb......Page 564
17.3c Determining Ka and Kb Values in the Laboratory......Page 568
17.4a Strong Acid and Strong Base Solutions......Page 569
17.4b Solutions Containing Weak Acids......Page 570
17.4c Solutions Containing Weak Bases......Page 575
17.5a Acid–Base Properties of Salts: Hydrolysis......Page 579
17.5b Determining pH of a Salt Solution......Page 581
17.6a Molecular Structure and Control of Acid–Base Strength......Page 583
Unit Recap......Page 586
Chapter 18: Advanced Acid–Base Equilibria......Page 590
18.1a Strong Acid/Strong Base Reactions......Page 591
18.1b Strong Acid/Weak Base and Strong Base/Weak Acid Reactions......Page 592
18.1c Weak Acid/Weak Base Reactions......Page 594
18.2a Identifying Buffers......Page 595
18.2b Buffer pH......Page 597
18.2c Making Buffer Solutions......Page 603
18.3a Strong Acid/Strong Base Titrations......Page 608
18.3b Weak Acid/Strong Base and Weak Base/Strong Acid Titrations......Page 610
18.3c pH Titration Plots as an Indicator of Acid or Base Strength......Page 617
18.3d pH Indicators......Page 619
18.3e Polyprotic Acid Titrations......Page 621
18.4a The Carbonate System: H2CO3/HCO3 -/CO3 2-......Page 624
18.4b Amino Acids......Page 625
Unit Recap......Page 626
Chapter 19: Precipitation and Lewis Acid–Base Equilibria......Page 630
19.1a Solubility Units......Page 631
19.1b The Solubility Product Constant......Page 632
19.1c Determining Ksp Values......Page 633
19.2a Estimating Solubility......Page 635
19.2b Predicting Whether a Solid Will Precipitate or Dissolve......Page 638
19.2c The Common Ion Effect......Page 640
19.3a Lewis Acids and Bases......Page 642
19.3b Complex Ion Equilibria......Page 644
19.4a Solubility and pH......Page 646
19.4b Solubility and Complex Ions......Page 647
19.4c Solubility, Ion Separation, and Qualitative Analysis......Page 648
Unit Recap......Page 651
Chapter 20: Thermodynamics: Entropy and Free Energy......Page 654
20.1a The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics......Page 655
20.1b Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 656
20.1c Entropy and Microstates......Page 657
20.1d Trends in Entropy......Page 659
20.1e Spontaneous Processes......Page 661
20.1f The Third Law of Thermodynamics and Standard Entropies......Page 663
20.2a Standard Entropy Change for a Phase Change......Page 665
20.2b Standard Entropy Change for a Chemical Reaction......Page 667
20.2c Entropy Change in the Surroundings......Page 668
20.3a Gibbs Free Energy and Spontaneity......Page 670
20.3b Standard Gibbs Free Energy......Page 672
20.3c Free Energy, Standard Free Energy, and the Reaction Quotient......Page 674
20.3d Standard Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 676
20.3e Gibbs Free Energy and Temperature......Page 679
Unit Recap......Page 683
Chapter 21: Electrochemistry......Page 688
21.1a Overview of Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 689
21.1b Balancing Redox Reactions: Half-Reactions......Page 691
21.1c Balancing Redox Reactions in Acidic and Basic Solutions......Page 694
21.1d Construction and Components of Electrochemical Cells......Page 697
21.1e Electrochemical Cell Notation......Page 700
21.2a Cell Potentials and Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 701
21.2b Cell Potential and Free Energy......Page 708
21.2c Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 709
21.2d Cell Potentials Under Nonstandard Conditions......Page 711
21.2e Concentration Cells......Page 714
21.3a Electrolytic Cells and Coulometry......Page 715
21.3b Electrolysis of Molten Salts......Page 718
21.3c Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions......Page 721
21.4a Primary Batteries......Page 723
21.4b Secondary Batteries......Page 724
21.4c Fuel Cells......Page 726
21.4d Corrosion......Page 727
Unit Recap......Page 729
Chapter 22: Organic Chemistry......Page 732
22.1a Classes of Hydrocarbons......Page 733
22.1b Alkanes and Cycloalkanes......Page 735
22.1c Unsaturated Hydrocarbons......Page 738
22.1d Hydrocarbon Reactivity......Page 742
22.2a Constitutional Isomerism......Page 745
22.2b Stereoisomerism......Page 746
22.3a Identifying Functional Groups......Page 748
22.3b Alcohols......Page 749
22.4a Addition Polymerization......Page 753
22.4b Condensation Polymerization......Page 754
22.4c Control of Polymer Properties......Page 757
22.5a Carbohydrates......Page 758
22.5b Amino Acids......Page 762
22.5c Proteins......Page 763
22.5d Nucleic Acids......Page 765
Unit Recap......Page 768
Chapter 23: Applying Chemical Principles to the Main-Group Elements......Page 772
23.1a The Periodic Table......Page 773
23.1b Metals......Page 774
23.1c Nonmetals......Page 776
23.2a Nonmetal Oxides......Page 779
23.2b Nonmetal Halides......Page 781
23.3a Boron Compounds......Page 782
23.3b Elemental Carbon......Page 783
23.3c Cave Chemistry......Page 784
23.3d Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming......Page 785
23.4a Silicon Semiconductors......Page 787
23.4b Silicates......Page 788
23.4c Silicones......Page 789
23.5a Atmospheric Ozone......Page 791
23.5b Sulfur and Acid Rain......Page 793
Unit Recap......Page 794
Chapter 24: The Transition Metals......Page 796
24.1b Atomic Size and Electronegativity......Page 797
24.1c Ionization Energy and Oxidation States......Page 799
24.2b Extraction of Metals from Ores......Page 801
24.3a Composition of Coordination Compounds......Page 804
24.3b Naming Coordination Compounds......Page 807
24.3c Stability and the Chelate Effect......Page 810
24.3d Isomerism......Page 811
24.4a Crystal Field Theory......Page 814
24.4b Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 818
24.4c Spectroscopy......Page 821
Unit Recap......Page 823
Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry......Page 826
25.1a Nuclear vs. Chemical Reactions......Page 827
25.1b Natural Radioactive Decay......Page 828
25.1c Radioactive Decay and Balancing Nuclear Reactions......Page 829
25.2a Band of Stability......Page 833
25.2b Binding Energy......Page 836
25.2c Relative Binding Energy......Page 838
25.3a Rate of Decay......Page 839
25.3b Radioactive Dating......Page 841
25.4a Types of Fission Reactions......Page 843
25.4b Nuclear Fuel......Page 845
25.4c Nuclear Power......Page 847
25.5a Stellar Synthesis of Elements......Page 849
25.5b Induced Synthesis of Elements......Page 852
25.5c Nuclear Medicine......Page 854
25.5d Radioactivity in the Home......Page 855
Unit Recap......Page 857
Reference Tables......Page 860
Glossary......Page 874
Index......Page 887