Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1: Time, Space and Culture 3031154886, 9783031154881

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Game of Thrones – A View from the Humanities Vol. 1 Time, Space and Culture

Edited by Alfonso Álvarez-Ossorio Fernando Lozano Rosario Moreno Soldevila Cristina Rosillo-López

Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1

Alfonso Álvarez-Ossorio Fernando Lozano Rosario Moreno Soldevila Cristina Rosillo-López Editors

Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1 Time, Space and Culture

Editors Alfonso Álvarez-Ossorio Departamento de Historia Antigua Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla, Spain

Fernando Lozano Departamento de Historia Antigua Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla, Spain

Rosario Moreno Soldevila Departamento de Filología y Traducción Universidad Pablo de Olavide Sevilla, Spain

Cristina Rosillo-López Departamento de Geografía, Historia y Filosofía Universidad Pablo de Olavide Sevilla, Spain

ISBN 978-3-031-15488-1    ISBN 978-3-031-15489-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licenced by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: Zefrog / Alamy Stock Photo This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

About this Book

The chapters in this book focus on G. R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire and the TV series Game of Thrones. To avoid confusion Game of Thrones in Roman type refers to the universe, Game of Thrones in italics alludes to the TV series, whereas A Game of Thrones, usually abbreviated as GoT, is reserved for the homonymous first novel of Martin’s saga. Titles in A Song of Ice and Fire (ASOIAF) are cited as follows: A Game of Thrones. New York: Bantam, 1996 = GoT A Clash of Kings. New York: Bantam, 1999 = CoK A Storm of Swords. New York: Bantam, 2000 = SoS A Feast for Crows. New York: Bantam, 2005 = FfC A Dance with Dragons. New York: Bantam, 2011 = DwD References to the novels are presented as follows: title of the novel + chapter number + the name of the character from whose point of view the chapter is written + the number of the chapter from that character’s point of view. Example: SoS 23 Arya 4. Game of Thrones, the television series, is shortened as Thrones. References to specific passages are presented as follows: Thrones  +  season number + episode number + episode title. Example: Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Winter is Coming”.

Contents

1 Reflections  on Time, Space and Culture in Game of Thrones  1 Alfonso Álvarez-Ossorio, Fernando Lozano, Rosario Moreno Soldevila, and Cristina Rosillo-López Part I “Winter is Coming”: Landscape, Climate Change and Natural History in Game of Thrones  19 2 Ludus Thronis: De novem orbis miraculis—The Wonders of the Ancient World in George R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire 21 Ainhoa De Miguel Irureta and Juan Ramón Carbó García 3 “There  had been a Great Strength in those Stones”: Materiality and Archaeological Perspectives of Westerosi Fortifications 53 Jorge Rouco Collazo 4 From  Python to Viserion: Dragon’s Natural History 93 Alberto Marina Castillo

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CONTENTS

5 A Song of Ice and Fire as a Narrative of Environmental Crisis and Climate Change129 Katsiaryna Nahornava Part II “You Win or You Die”: Aesthetic and Cultural Approaches to Game of Thrones 165 6 Game  of Thrones and the Sublime167 Ayelet Haimson Lushkov 7 “When  You Play the Game of Thrones, You Win or You Die”: Game of Thrones between Mainstream Culture and Counterculture191 Carlo Daffonchio 8 The  Symbology of Popular Culture in Game of Thrones: Carnivalization and Tyrion’s Wedding Party211 Ana Carolina Pais Part III “One Voice May Speak you False, but in Many there is Always Truth to be Found”: Linguistic and Temporal Bridges 241 9 A  Reception Study of the Game of Thrones Audiovisual Translations into Spanish: Translation Problems vs. Translation Errors243 Elisa Calvo and Marián Morón 10 Study  of the Translation of the Fictional World of Game of Thrones277 Robert Szymyślik

 CONTENTS 

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11 The  Portrayal of Interpreters in Audiovisual Texts, Illustrated by the Character of Missandei in the TV Series Game of Thrones301 Christiane Limbach and Alice Stender 12 Westeros  Versus the West: A Ludic Bridge for Teaching History321 Víctor Sánchez Domínguez Index

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Notes on Contributors

Alfonso  Álvarez-Ossorio is Professor of Ancient History at the University of Seville, Spain. Both his PhD thesis and most of his research have been devoted to the socioeconomic and cultural study of piracy during the late Roman Republic and the early Empire. He has coedited The Present of Antiquity: Reception, Recovery, Reinvention of the Ancient World in Current Popular Culture (2019). Elisa  Calvo studied Translation and Interpreting in Granada (Spain) where she also earned her PhD (2009). She has worked as a professional translator for over ten years. Today, Elisa works as a translator and interpreting trainer at Pablo de Olavide University, Seville. Her fields of interest are intercultural communication processes, translation teaching and learning, field-specific translation and liaison interpreting. Juan Ramón Carbó García  is Senior Lecturer in Roman History at the Catholic University of Murcia. His main interests go from the study of religions of the Roman Empire and the province of Dacia to the research about ancient and mainly classical reception in modern times and present popular culture. Carlo  Daffonchio  is a PhD candidate in Early Modern History at the Universities of Trieste and Udine. His research focuses on the interactions between trade, information and foreign policy and the rise of diplomatic expertise during the eighteenth century. His interests include the use and representation of history in pop culture.

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Ainhoa De Miguel Irureta  has obtained her PhD in History of Art and is a researcher at the Catholic University of Murcia, Spain. Her main interest lies in the study of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, their cultural transmission, reception and artistic influences. Ayelet  Haimson  Lushkov is Associate Professor of Classics at the University of Texas at Austin. She specializes in Latin historiography, with a focus on Livy, political narratives, and the reception of the classics in the modern world. You Win or You Die: The Ancient World of Game of Thrones came out with I. B. Tauris in 2017. Christiane Limbach  is a Lecturer in the Department of Philology and Translation at Pablo de Olavide University in Seville (Spain) and holds a PhD in Translation and Interpreting from the University of Granada (Spain). Her research focuses on audiovisual translation, accessible translation as well as interpreting and interculturality. Fernando  Lozano  is Professor of Ancient History at the University of Seville, Spain. His research focuses on the study of Roman religion during the Empire and, specifically, on the imperial cult, as well as Reception Studies. He has authored and edited several monographs on these topics. Alberto  Marina  Castillo  lectures at Pablo de Olavide University. He received his PhD in 2015 with a thesis about infimae personae in Martial and has written A Prosopography to Martial’s Epigrams (De Gruyter), in collaboration with Juan Fernández Valverde and Rosario Moreno Soldevila, with whom he has translated the Epigrams (Akal). Rosario Moreno Soldevila  is Professor of Latin Philology at Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain. Her main lines of research include the Epigrams of Martial, the oeuvre of Pliny the Younger and amatory motifs in classical and late Latin literature. She has authored or co-authored ten monographs, including A Prosopography to Martial’s Epigrams (2019). Marián  Morón is a translation graduate and holds a PhD from the University of Granada, Spain. She has professional experience in translation-­ related professions, including international trade. In 2006, she started working as a Translation Lecturer at Pablo de Olavide University in Seville and her fields of research are related to specialised translation, translators’ and interpreters’ employability, intercultural training and processes, and translator training.

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Katsiaryna Nahornava  is a PhD candidate at the University of Granada working on her thesis “An Ecocritical Reading of George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire”. She has participated in multiple conferences devoted to Ecocriticism and American Literature and has written her first article “On (Dis-)Ability and Nature in A Song of Ice and Fire” in The Studies of the Humanities journal by Indiana University in Pennsylvania, the USA. Ana  Carolina  Pais is a PhD student in Philology and Portuguese Language at Universidade de São Paulo, Master in Languages and member of the Diálogo Research Group (USP/CNPq). Based on Bakhtinian theory, her research focuses on the TV series Game of Thrones and the popular culture symbolisms present in it. Cristina  Rosillo-López is Professor of Ancient History at Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain. Her lines of research include the political history and political culture of the late Roman Republic. She has authored and edited several monographs, including Political Conversations in Late Republican Rome (2022). Jorge Rouco Collazo  has a PhD in Archaeology from the Universities of Granada (Spain) and Padova (Italy), and is a medievalist, archaeologist and historian. A postdoctoral researcher at the Universities of Granada and Siena (Italy), his research focuses on the study of medieval fortifications and settlements, applying new technologies to documentation and analysis. Víctor  Sánchez  Domínguez (PhD) is Assistant Professor of Ancient History at the University of Seville. His research focuses on political changes in the central Mediterranean during the fourth century BCE and on the didactics of history through gamification. Alice Stender  holds a PhD in Modern Languages and Translation. She works as an assistant lecturer at Pablo de Olavide University in Seville, where she teaches subjects such as Bilateral Interpreting and Specialised Translation. Her main research interests are German and Spanish economic language, corpus linguistics and specialised languages. Robert Szymyślik  holds Degrees in Humanistic Studies and Translation and Interpreting and a PhD Degree in Translation Studies. His main field of research is the analysis of the construction of fictional worlds and their transmission across cultures. He is a lecturer at Pablo de Olavide University (Seville, Spain).

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.2

Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.4

Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2 Fig. 3.3 Fig. 3.4 Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9

The Titan of Braavos. Thrones S5: Ep.2, “The House of Black and White”, 0:02:45 On the left, Maarten van Heemskerck: Colossus Solis (1570–1572) (Public domain—Wikimedia Commons). On the right, André Thevet: Cosmographie de Levant (1554) (Public domain—Wikimedia Commons) Meereen. Thrones S4: Ep.3, “Breaker of Chains”, 0:46:29 On the left, the Lighthouse of Oldtown. Thrones S6: Ep.10, “The Winds of Winter”, 0:27:04. On the right, Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach: Entwurf einer historischen Architektur. The Lighthouse of Alexandria (1721) (Public domain—Wikimedia Commons) Type of battles in the War of the Five Kings Physical map of Westeros Surface area (sq. km) of the Seven Kingdoms Map of the Westerlands (left) and the Vale (right) Centroids of the nine regions of the Seven Kingdoms Kernel density analysis of the War of the Five Kings (left) and the war in the Riverlands (right) Thiessen polygons of the Seven Kingdoms Thiessen polygons of the North Evolution and building phases of Winterfell. Base image by Riusma CC BY-SA 2.0 (Retrieved from https://www. lagardedenuit.com/wiki/index.php?title=Fichier:Winterfellmap. png [accessed 8 February 2022])

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46 65 72 73 74 75 76 78 80

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List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8 Fig. 7.1

Fig. 9.1 Fig. 9.2 Fig. 9.3 Fig. 9.4 Fig. 12.1 Fig. 12.2 Fig. 12.3

Albrecht Altdorfer, Drachenkampf des hl. Georg (1510). Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Alte Pinakothek München. License: CC BY-SA 4.0 96 St. George in the fountain next to the Stiftskirche in Tübingen. (Photographed by the author) 98 Conan Doyle as prof. Challenger and their expeditionary friends. Taken from The Lost World, Hodder and Stoughton, London-New York-Toronto, 1912. Public domain 106 Vittore Carpaccio, St. George and the Dragon (1502–1507). Scuola di San Giorgio degli Schiavoni, Venice. Public domain 108 Leonard Beck, Der hl. Georg kämpft mit dem Drachen (ca. 1513–1514, detail). Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Gemäldegalerie. Public domain 109 © Camille Renversade, extrait de Métamorphoses Deyrolle, édition Plume de carotte. Reproduced with permission 110 A dragon by eight-year-old Bruno Marina 113 Paolo Uccello, Saint George and the Dragon (ca. 1470), National Gallery, London. Public domain 120 The geographical distribution of Game of Thrones’ viewership in the United States (map elaboration by the author, based on the data in The New York Times. ‘Duck Dynasty’ vs. ‘Modern Family’: 50 Maps of the U.S. Cultural Divide, 27 December 2016)207 The “Hodor” scene in Thrones, S6: Ep.5, “The Door” (HBO 2016)256 Example 2. TE: “Sicansíos” in Thrones S8: Ep.3, “The Long Night” (HBO 2019) 260 Group 1 and 2: Visualisation formats 267 Group 1 and 2 perception on meaning transfer of “Hodor” dubbed scene 268 House ranking table, system of group evaluation. Graphic design by M. L. Rodríguez Jiménez 338 Tables 2 and 3: Individual ranking tables. Graphic design by M. L. Rodríguez Jiménez 340 Tables 4 and 5: Individual ranking tables. Graphic design by M. L. Rodríguez Jiménez 341

List of Tables

Table 3.1 Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 8.3 Table 8.4 Table 8.5 Table 8.6 Table 8.7 Table 8.8 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 9.4 Table 9.5 Table 11.1

Building phases of the Red Keep 85 Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons” 220 Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons” 221 Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons” 223 Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons” 225 Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons” 230 Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons” 232 Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons” 234 Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons” 236 Survey design and operativisation 265 Survey items related to respondents’ translation background 266 Group 2 positive comments on the “Hodor” case and its dubbing269 Group 1 negative comments on the “Hodor” case and its dubbing (selected from a total of 42 opinions) 270 Group 2 negative comments on the “Hodor” case and its dubbing (all opinions) 270 Authors’ table to analyse Missandei’s interpreting performance309 xix

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List of Tables

Table 11.2 Table 11.3 Table 11.4 Table 11.5 Table 11.6 Table 11.7 Table 11.8

Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S3: Ep.1, “Valar Dohaeris” 310 Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S3: Ep.3, “Walk of Punishment”311 Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S3: Ep.4, “And Now his Watch is Ended” 312 Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S3: Ep.10, “Mhysa”313 Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S4: Ep.3, “Breaker of chains”314 Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S4: Ep.6, “The Laws of Gods and Men” 314 Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S4: Ep.10, “The Children” 315

CHAPTER 1

Reflections on Time, Space and Culture in Game of Thrones Alfonso Álvarez-Ossorio, Fernando Lozano, Rosario Moreno Soldevila, and Cristina Rosillo-López

We read fantasy to find the colors again, I think. To taste strong spices and hear the song the sirens sang. There is something old and true in fantasy that speaks to something deep within us, to the child who dreamt that one day he would hunt the forests of the night, and feast beneath the hollow hills, and find a love to last forever, somewhere south of Oz and north of Shangri-La. They can keep their heaven. When I die, I’d sooner go to Middle Earth. G. Martin, The Faces of Fantasy (1996)

Game of Thrones has already become a contemporary classic. This transmedia product has carved out a niche for itself among the cultural benchmarks of our world while overcoming the linguistic barriers and national

A. Álvarez-Ossorio • F. Lozano (*) Departamento de Historia Antigua, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_1

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borders that tend to fence in the classics. Needless to say that the A Song of Ice and Fire (hereinafter ASOIAF) saga has revolutionised the fantasy world, but the impact of George R. R. Martin’s work and its TV adaptation has done much more than surpass the models of a literary subgenre. In a globalised world in which the European classics—that common Graeco-Roman baggage—are not always close to other cultures or states of other regions of the world, there are new cultural elements that contribute to a crucial sense of togetherness. The world of ASOIAF is undoubtedly one of them, for it allows for communication and rapprochement between people the world over. Indeed, since the publication of the first novel in 1996, Martin’s literary saga, ASOIAF, adapted for television as Game of Thrones, has become an authentic global phenomenon. So as to gauge correctly its impact and the manner in which it has been included in diverse cultures from all over the world, it is necessary to offer a brief summary of the magnitude of the saga’s success. Furthermore, as the fans of this literary phenomenon might not have seen the HBO series and as many of the viewers of the series have not in all likelihood read the novels, there is a need to summarise the figures separately, but in a complementary fashion. As to ASOIAF, it should be noted that it has already become the third bestselling literary fantasy saga. The more than 90 million copies1 sold of the five novels published to date are only surpassed by the sales figures of Tolkien’s The  Lord of the Rings, with 150  million, and the unreachable Harry Potter saga, with 600  million, albeit including the seven novels published to date and aimed more at a young audience than at an adult one. While the literary saga’s fans eagerly awaited new books, each of the series’ episodes broke records of audience and HBO subscriber numbers,  https://lossietereinos.com/cancion-hielo-fuego-llega-90-millones-libros-vendidos-yala-tercera-saga-fantasia-mas-vendida-la-historia/ (accessed 1 October 2022). 1

R. Moreno Soldevila Departamento de Filología y Traducción, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain e-mail: [email protected] C. Rosillo-López Departamento de Geografía, Historia y Filosofía, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain e-mail: [email protected]

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as well as making it on to the front pages of the press. Moreover, the episodes of the final season were the most downloaded in the history of the Internet. Only in the United States, 44 million people watched the series during the two months that the broadcasting of the last season lasted, with 19 million connections in the hours immediately after the last episode was released to the public.2 And these figures are only for the United Stated during those two months. For during the previous seven seasons, up until 2017, 135 million people had seen an episode of the series at some time or other. The fact that it still ranks high in the HBO Max catalogue implies that, even now, the series’ spectacular audience figures continue to increase. Moreover, it is also the TV series that has won the greatest number of awards in history, with 59 Emmys, an absolute record for a production of this type. In parallel to this shower of awards, the professional careers of some of actors playing the saga’s main characters, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, Emilia Clarke and Kit Harington, to name just a few, have also taken off. When the last episode of the HBO series was broadcast in May 2019, perhaps we might have been forgiven for thinking that the Game of Thrones phenomenon was now in decline or passé. On the contrary, the publication of the last two instalments of the ASOIAF saga is still pending, with The Winds of Winter being in all likelihood the most anticipated book in history, with millions of potential readers around the world waiting on tenterhooks for Martin to finish and publish it. In addition, in August 2022, HBO released House of the Dragon, a spin-off of the Game of Thrones universe which is sure to have impressive audience ratings. On the other hand, the saga’s global impact has surpassed the sphere of literary and TV entertainment to affect the tourism and economic exploitation of the places that were used as locations for filming the different episodes of the series, with a greater number of film and TV productions being made in them and tourists visiting them. For example, mention should go to the Reales Alcázares and other tourist attractions and monuments in the city of Seville and its surrounding, for the number of tourists visiting them every year has increased considerably, between 10 and 100 per cent, after being used as locations for filming the series. But perhaps the best example of this type of tourism product is the opening of the first theme and amusement park based on the series in Belfast, in whose studios it was filmed.  El País, 21 May 2019. https://elpais.com/cultura/2019/05/21/television/15584 33195_240292.html (accessed 1 October 2022). 2

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This cultural impact can be seen just as clearly in the daily use of expressions like “winter is coming…” and “you win or you die…”, among others. The vast majority of people are acquainted with the Wall, the Dothraki and so forth. The phenomenon has also permeated daily life in aspects like first names. According to the Spanish National Institute of Statistics, there are now 942 Aryas, with an average age of 2.6, and 169 Daenerys, with an average age of 2.8. And something similar has occurred with the name Aria/Arya in the United Kingdom and the United States, where it currently occupies 26th place in the ranking of girls’ names, after having become increasingly more popular since 2012, precisely the year after the broadcasting of the first season of the TV series.3 Global society’s fascination with the series has also influenced the academic community. As will be seen below, the scientific studies that have been performed on the Game of Thrones phenomenon are plentiful, interesting and thought-provoking. In this reflection on the time, space and culture of the Game of Thrones universe, it warrants noting that one of the aspects to which the saga owes most of its success and impact is precisely the author’s own creative process, namely, the way in which he has designed, structured, developed and made plausible his fantasy world. As will be seen in the following pages, with Game of Thrones Martin has created a complex, eclectic and pulp-­ type universe—and, in this sense, it has a lot to do with the way in which other sagas, in this case, those belonging to the science fiction genre, such as Star Wars, have been crafted—which borrows from many historical periods, geographical areas and characters so as to build a credible world. Indeed, Martin is a highly skilled creator of plausible, but at the same time fantasy, worlds. To this end, he has resorted, perhaps more than many writers before him, to elements of other previous real-historical or fictional worlds—such as dragons and the living dead. The key to its success is that readers consider it to be possible. It is perhaps for this reason—owing to the author’s ability to create relevant cultures and nations, albeit in fantasy worlds—that the saga is so appealing and has had such a strong impact on

3  As regards the statistics for Spain, https://www.ine.es/widgets/nombApell/index.shtml (accessed 30 March 2022), the United Kingdom, https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/livebirths/bulletins/babynamesenglandand wales/2020#toc) (accessed 3 March 2022) and the United States, https://www.ssa.gov/ OACT/babynames/ (accessed 3 March 2022).

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people from many different cultural backgrounds. In a seminal interview, Martin himself pondered on this aspect of his world-building: I’m proud of my work, but I don’t know if I’d ever claim it’s enormously original. You look at Shakespeare, who borrowed all of his plots. In A Song of Ice and Fire, I take stuff from the Wars of the Roses and other fantasy things, and all these things work around in my head and somehow they jell into what I hope is uniquely my own. (Interview in Rolling Stone, 8 May 2014)

For this reason, studies performed on the Game of Thrones phenomenon from only one discipline, however valuable they may often be, do not allow for contemplating it in its eclectic, complex but coherent diversity. This is the reason why the object of study has not been approached in this book from a single scientific or historical perspective but has been addressed in a multidisciplinary fashion by theme. As will be highlighted further on, by performing studies based on themes and not on traditional academic disciplines, the aim has been to offer readers a more appealing book that underscores the richness of both the novels and the TV series. Martin’s courageous and fecund eclecticism, that prolific mosaic of references, can be appreciated in the creation of both the settings and powerful and extremely engaging characters. The author’s and the TV series’ ability to create new, different, modern heroes, who go beyond the traditional archetype—masterfully systemised by Campbell in his The Hero with the Thousand Faces (1949)—is certainly one of the main reasons behind the success and conversion of the saga into a contemporary classic. The narrative of each chapter from the point of view of a different character, which is one of the highly original aspects of Martin’s novels, manages to strengthen the personality of each one of them while increasing their prominence and their particular characterisation. In other words, the very way in which the events are recounted makes the characters more appealing to readers. This second aspect, that of heroes, is of such crucial importance that we decided to devote part of second volume to this matter. The sources of inspiration from which Martin consciously drew include, of course, the European Middle Ages in general—in point of fact, one of the most evident sources, which he himself has singled out as a major forerunner of his work, is to be found in Maurice Druon’s heptalogy The Accursed Kings (1955–1977), as well as the Wars of the Roses in England. But there are also references to Renaissance Italy, Rome at the end of the

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Republic and at the beginning of the Empire, the Vikings and even the Far West—in fact, Martin has acknowledged that HBO’s Deadwood (three seasons from 2004 to 2006) is one of his favourite series of all time. An example of this form of conceivable accumulation through which Martin strings together references to past ages and cultures into which he breathes their own personality is the Dothraki, who, in his words, are modelled on a “number of steppe and plains cultures including Mongols and Huns, certainly, but also Alans, Sioux, Cheyenne, and various other Amerindian tribes … seasoned with a dash of pure fantasy”.4 All in all, the wealth of arguments and evocations in the world of Game of Thrones are not only historical but have also been borrowed from other fiction genres, such as horror and ghost stories, vampires—on which Martin has already written in Fevre Dream (1982)—and the living dead. The author has also resorted to one of the central genres, namely, epic or high fantasy, clearly reflected in the appearance of one of the saga’s principal claims, dragons, its most bestial protagonists. Martin has also commented on the process that led him to make this choice in one of the most revealing quotes on the construction of time, space and culture in the saga: “I did consider at a very early stage—going all the way back to 1991—whether to include overt fantasy elements, and at one point thought of writing a Wars of the Roses novel” (interview in Rolling Stone, 8 May 2014). Nowadays, it is possible to claim that, fortunately for all, the author did not write a historical novel, first and foremost because the unexpected twists and the originality of the plot continued to evolve. As Martin himself observed in the same interview, historical novels tend to be predictable: “The problem with straight historical fiction is you know what’s going to happen. If you know anything about the Wars of the Roses, you know that the princes in the tower aren’t going to escape”. But, more importantly, it is fortunate that he ultimately decided to include fantasy elements, because thanks to them there are many twists and turns and, above all, we got the dragons! (interview in Rolling Stone, 8 May 2014). In any reflection on the construction of time, space and culture in the Game of Thrones universe, in which the thought-provoking and courageous eclecticism of Martin’s inspirations has already been underscored, it is also essential to note that this profusion of references has been 4  Martin’s reply in Not a Blog, 5 February 2012: https://grrm.livejournal.com/263800. html?thread=15365240#t15365240 (accessed 28 March 2022).

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masterfully linked and framed in the same spatiotemporal and geographical context. This is doubtless another of the cornerstones of the creation of a realistic fantasy universe. In effect, in the saga there coexist very different societies from a political and economic viewpoint, which purely belong to highly diverse historical moments—the medieval world, the Renaissance, the Greek poleis, the hunter-gatherers, the nomadic herders of the steppes and so forth. However, in Martin’s alternative fantasy, but realistic, world, they all appear together at the same time. And this diversity of societies, whose historical references and inspirations range from prehistory to the Modern Age, is also geographically close, so that readers can almost travel in time on relatively short journeys on a geographical scale. These two constrictions give rise to a diverse, colourful, complex and highly appealing puzzle, whose pieces have an evident historical inspiration and which, to a great extent, are robust and credible. That such an alien fantasy universe is presented as a plausible and even realistic reality is thought-provoking, surprising and also very appealing to readers. As already observed, this undoubtedly has to do with the way in which Martin and the showrunners of the TV series have managed to weave familiar realities into a new tapestry of fascinating images and echoes. We also believe that two other fundamental aspects serve the same purpose. On the one hand, the construction of a realistic universe, much more credible and familiar than any other created in fantasy literature, is based on the fact that it does not attempt to idealise or extol the life of its inhabitants. Both the leading characters and all the others appearing in the saga are described in depth and, as with all humans, are far from being perfect; their lives are hard and tragic; they are condemned to die and, on many occasions, struggle to survive in deplorable conditions. On the other, the lie of the land is both rugged and inhospitable and welcoming and pleasant. In short, these lands are disturbingly realistic—even hyper-­ realistic—which ultimately brings them close to the hodiernal life of all and sundry. It should be stressed that it was a voluntary choice of Martin, which intentionally distanced him from another of the most renowned fantasy writers, Tolkien, for whom the author feels genuine admiration. In a quote that it would be unforgivable to abridge, he clearly explains this facet of his creativity which has affected in such a tangible way the Game of Thrones universe: Ruling is hard. This was maybe my answer to Tolkien, whom, as much as I admire him, I do quibble with. Lord of the Rings had a very medieval phi-

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losophy: that if the king was a good man, the land would prosper. We look at real history and it’s not that simple. Tolkien can say that Aragorn became king and reigned for a hundred years, and he was wise and good. But Tolkien doesn’t ask the question: What was Aragorn’s tax policy? Did he maintain a standing army? What did he do in times of flood and famine? And what about all these orcs? By the end of the war, Sauron is gone but all of the orcs aren’t gone—they’re in the mountains. Did Aragorn pursue a policy of systematic genocide and kill them? Even the little baby orcs, in their little orc cradles? (interview in Rolling Stone, 8 May 2014)

Employing these keys, while masterfully leveraging the writer’s craft as a narrator of stories, Martin has succeeded in creating an exotic, farremoved fantasy world, which is also familiar and realistic—a world in which, despite the dragons and other changes, readers, perhaps regrettably one might say, feel more at home than in Tolkien’s bucolic and romantic universe. In light of the foregoing, when conceiving these two volumes, as already noted, we have preferred to divide the different sections into major conceptual blocks, thus avoiding a more traditional layout. In effect, the elements binding together the different sections have nothing to do with chronology or disciplines or the separation between studies that have addressed the literary saga and the TV series. On the contrary, we have opted for an eclectic and transversal approach when organising the contributions, which revolve around thematic or conceptual themes, thus allowing readers to appreciate the richness of both creations through their analytical variety, while even establishing new links and connections. Accordingly, this work distances itself from other previous studies which, all considered, will be summarised below because of their intrinsic value and the fact that they have served as inspiration for us and are also an additional testimony of the saga’s impact which, as already observed, has not been limited to the public at large but has also had a notable effect on academic research. The following list is not meant to be exhaustive but is indeed intended to offer a brief overview of the studies that have been performed at universities and research centres the world over, with special attention being paid to those works published in English, but without overlooking the contributions in Spanish, French and other languages. Since the publication of the first novel in 1996 and especially since the international release of HBO’s series in 2011, Martin’s oeuvre has become a global phenomenon that has attracted a great deal of scholarly attention.

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Indeed, several authors have published very interesting works analysing the saga from diverse perspectives, such as the connection between Game of Thrones and medieval history made by Carolyne Larrington in Winter is Coming: The Medieval World of Game of Thrones (2015) and in the much more recent All Men Must Die: Power and Passion in Game of Thrones (2021). As to the saga’s connections with medieval history, there are the works of Błaszkiewicz, George R. R. Martin’s “A Song of Ice and Fire” and the Medieval Literary Tradition (2014); Mondschein, Game of Thrones and the Medieval Art of War (2017); Jamison, “Reading Westeros: George R.  R. Martin’s Multi-Layered Medievalisms” (2017); and Carroll, Medievalism in A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones (2018), plus the book edited by Porrinas González, Poniente Medieval. La Edad Media en la fantasía épica de Juego de Tronos (2019). Special mention should also go to You Win or You Die. The Ancient World of Game of Thrones (2017a), the study performed by Haimson Lushkov on Game of Thrones and the ancient world. Other studies focusing on elements of the past and classical culture which can be found in Martin’s fantasy saga and its TV adaptation include Attali’s “Rome à Westeros: Éléments d’historiographie des religions romaines dans A Song of Ice and Fire de George R. R. Martin” (2014) and Rolet’s “L’Antiquité dans Game of Thrones (HBO, 2011–): une présence polysémique” (2018), both appearing in collective works on the impact of Antiquity on contemporary popular culture, in addition to the monograph by López Güeto, De Poniente a Roma: La huella clásica en Juego de Tronos (2020). Another interesting aspect is the analysis of the historical influences appearing in these works, performed, from a more general perspective, in the book edited by Pavlac, Game of Thrones Versus History: Written in Blood (2017), and that of Ripoll, Juego de Tronos: Secretos del Trono de Hierro (2012). Rolet’s aforementioned study not only enquires into those historical influences but also into others relating to classical philology and ASOIAF, a field to which Weiner, “Classical Epic and the Poetics of Modern Fantasy”, in Rogers and Stevens (eds.), Classical Traditions in Modern Fantasy (2017), and Haimson Lushkov (2017b), “Genre, Mimesis, and Intertext in Vergil and G.R.R. Martin”, in the same book, have also made a contribution. In the same vein, the study performed by Prince, “The Dux Femina Ends Westeros’ Golden Age: Cersei Lannister as Agrippina the Younger in HBO’s Game of Thrones (2011–)”, in Safran (ed.), Screening the Golden Ages of the Classical Tradition (2019), is also highly enlightening.

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These last two studies have been cited because of their specific object of study, namely, that of the influence of female characters appearing in ancient history and the classical literature, which brings to mind another facet of the humanities on which Martin’s work has evidently had an impact: gender studies. Of the numerous studies in this field, mention should go to Frankel’s Women in Game of Thrones: Power, Conformity and Resistance (2014); the book edited by Gjelsvik and Schubart, Women of Ice and Fire: Gender, Game of Thrones, and Multiple Media Engagements (2016); and the collective work coordinated by Rohr and Benz, Queenship and the Women of Westeros: Female Agency and Advice in Game of Thrones and A Song of Ice and Fire (2020). Other purely philological works include the Special Issue: Game of Thrones of the prestigious journal Critical Quarterly (Vol. 57, No. 1, 2015), as well as the book by Wilson, Shakespeare and Game of Thrones (2021). As to philosophy and political science, Game of Thrones and Philosophy. Logic Cuts Deeper than Swords (2012), a book devoted to philosophy in ASOIAF by Henry Jacoby and William Irwin, stands out. Equally interesting are the contributions of Emig, “Fantasy as Politics: George R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire”, in G. Sedlmayr and N.  Waller (eds.), Politics in Fantasy Media: Essays on Ideologies and Gender in Fiction, Television, and Games (2014); Battis and Jonston (eds.), Mastering The Game of Thrones: Essays on George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire (2015); and Brady and Mantoan (eds.), Vying for the Iron Throne: Essays on Power, Gender, Death and Performance in HBO’s Game of Thrones (2018). Even Pablo Iglesias, a well-known, former Spanish politician, has been seduced by the academic allure of the saga, editing Ganar o morir: lecciones políticas en Juego de Tronos (2014). As could not be otherwise, the field of law has also fallen under the saga’s influence, as evidenced by Alenza García, Derecho y justicia en Juego de Tronos (2020). The impact of a TV series like Game of Thrones has also necessarily been felt in the field of communication studies, as borne out by the book edited by Lozano Delmar et al., Reyes, Espadas, Cuervos y Dragones. Estudio del fenómeno televisivo Juego de Tronos (2013); the interesting transversal study performed by Evans and Potter, “Sacrificial Shadows: Tragic Greek Heroines Reinvented for Television in Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Game of Thrones”, in Apostol and Bakogianni (eds.), Locating Classical Receptions on Screen: Masks, Echoes, Shadows (2018); and the recent book edited by López Rodríguez et  al., Winter is over: (Re)analizando el Fenómeno Televisivo “Juego de Tronos” (2020). As to the literary saga, the collective monograph edited by Lowder, Beyond the Wall. Exploring George

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R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire (2012), is especially relevant for the second volume of this book. This brief overview of previous research conducted on the Game of Thrones universe goes all the way to show, as already noted, that the saga has and is still receiving an enviable amount of academic attention. By the same token, from this state of affairs can be deduced that most of the studies performed to date have analysed the phenomenon from a single scientific or historical perspective. For this reason, there was certainly room, to our mind, for a multidisciplinary study such as this one which, through the prism of the humanities, followed an approach ultimately aimed at highlighting the complexity, eclecticism and diversity characterising the saga. The original project has been finally divided into two complementary volumes, which nonetheless can be read separately. In any case, both form part of a coherent whole that pursues the aforementioned objectives. This first volume is divided into three thematic sections dealing with the creation and reception of the Game of Thrones universe from different perspectives. The first, whose title is the motto of House Stark, “Winter is coming”, focuses on space, the—urban and natural—physical environment, marvels and the interaction between human beings and their surroundings. As in the introduction to the TV series, in which the different places where the plot is set, with their iconic features, appear on screen, the chapter by Ainhoa de Miguel Irureta and Juan Ramón Carbó García describes the Nine Wonders of the Game of Thrones universe, analysed in relation to the extant accounts of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and their reception throughout history. On the one hand, an enquiry is made into this literary tradition and its reflection in Martin’s universe, to wit, in the achievements of Lomas Longstrider, including the Wall, the Titan of Braavos, the Long Bridge of Volantis, the Walls of Qarth, the Palace with a Thousand Rooms in Sarnath of the Tall Towers, the Valyrian Road and the Three Bells of Norvos, among others. On the other, the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World are related to those appearing in the literary saga and the TV series. In his chapter, Jorge Rouco Collazo also follows a novel approach to the physical space and material culture of Game of Thrones, focusing on the fortifications of Westeros from an archaeological point of view. Firstly, the castles and their functions, framed in the feudal society reflected in the saga and in the TV series, are analysed. Then, modern geographical information system (GIS) technology is applied to the location and political

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geography of the different fortifications. Lastly, the different construction stages of some of them are reviewed. For his part, Alberto Marina Castillo takes an approach to paradoxography—describing marvels of the natural or human world—although not applied to human creations, as in the second chapter, but to the natural history of dragons and its reflection in the TV series. In a captivating fashion, the author analyses different texts—basically but not exclusively belonging to Antiquity—and other cultural expressions in order to contextualise these monstrous beings and their long tradition. The relationship between human beings and nature is the topic of the last chapter in this section, which studies Martin’s saga as a narrative of environmental crisis and climate change from an eco-critical perspective. Its authoress, Katsiaryna Nahornava, examines the different attitudes adopted by humans towards environmental disasters. Versus the political plot focusing on the struggle for power, there is another more important battle for the inhabitants of the fiction world of ice and fire—as for human beings in the twenty-first century—namely, that for their own survival in balance with nature. Under the title of “You win or you die”, the second section follows different and complementary approaches to the issue at hand from an aesthetic and cultural perspective. Ayelet Haimson Lushkov explores how the concept of the sublime is crucial for understanding not only the aesthetics of Game of Thrones (both the literary saga and the TV series) but also its plot structure, world-building and emotional tenor. An interpretation made through the prism of the aesthetics of the sublime, as expressed in epic poetry, poses a number of questions about our concept of heroism, masculinity and femininity, the aesthetics of combat and even about the practice of reading itself. This chapter also rounds off the previous section by taking a new approach to issues already broached there (the Wall, dragons and environmental issues) while offering a novel interpretation of the saga’s female characters, including Brienne of Tarth and Daenerys Targaryen, on the basis of the classics. Jumping from the Graeco-Roman classics to contemporary culture, Carlo Daffonchio approaches Martin’s fantasy saga and its TV adaptation from the duality between mainstream culture and counterculture. For this author, they cannot be understood without the background of counterculture, particularly in relation to fantasy and science fiction authors writing in the 1950s and 1960s and to the political rock culture of the 1960s and 1970s, decisive for Martin’s universe in terms of both content and

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narrative structure. Secondly, the author poses some questions about the series’ success in the United States, analysing what this has meant for the cultural history of our time and how it has blurred the sharp duality between mainstream culture and counterculture. Following these complementary studies of aesthetics and culture, Ana Carolina Pais offers a close-up or analysis of a specific sequence of an episode, that of the wedding between Tyrion Lannister and Sansa Stark. In her “verbivocovisual” analysis, there is evidence of the importance of Bakhtinian carnivalesque and grotesque realism, thus supplementing the vision of how the series has drawn from medieval and Renaissance culture. The last section of this volume, “One voice may speak you false, but in many there is always truth to be found”, addresses the linguistic and translation implications of the Game of Thrones universe, as well as its didactic uses. The first three chapters basically focus on the TV series from the perspective of translation studies. Elisa Calvo and Marián Morón perform a qualitative analysis on the reception of the Spanish translation of the Game of Thrones TV series, focusing on two very specific incidents that had an overwhelming and unprecedented response from Spanish viewers. These two examples serve to illustrate the “translation problems” and “translation errors” categories, as well as highlighting both audience perceptions of the work of audio-visual translators and their precarious working conditions. Robert Szymyślik also approaches the TV series from the perspective of translation studies, but performing a broader analysis on the linguistic and conceptual implications of the creation of imaginary worlds and how these are transferred from the original to the target language, in this case Spanish, through translation. For their part, Alice Stender and Christiane Limbach enquire into the character of Missandei in her facet as an interpreter, analysing how the reality of the interpreter’s job is represented in Game of Thrones and in other audio-visual productions. As in different chapters of the previous sections, the application of a contemporary methodology (in this case, the assessment of the quality of the interpretation) sheds new light on the object of study and allows for analysing not only the work but also how this reflects our cultural assumptions. Bringing this section and the volume to a close, Víctor Sánchez proposes bridging the didactic gap between Westeros and the West for the purpose of teaching history. In this case, the object of study is the Game of Thrones universe as a transmedia reality which encompasses not only

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the literary saga and its TV adaptation but also other derivatives including role games. After analysing this transmedia universe and its potential, the author puts forwards a specific and detailed gamification proposal for teaching history at university.

   Acknowledgements and a Bit of History As with many other good ideas, the germ of this book emerged in a lively discussion in the cafeteria of the Faculty of Geography and History of the University of Seville (hereinafter US). We, the editors, who are also friends, had met to talk about several pending matters. Rosario Moreno Soldevila and Cristina Rosillo-López were organising a new edition of the Permanent Seminar for the Exchange of Ideas of Pablo de Olavide University (hereinafter UPO) which they wanted to devote to the study of the Game of Thrones universe. That day, Alfonso Álvarez-Ossorio and Fernando Lozano received an invitation from them to participate in the seminar. All the editors had published and organised courses and activities in the field of Reception Studies. The most recent of these works was in the process of being published, ultimately seeing the light of day under the title of The Present of Antiquity.5 The Game of Thrones seminar, held at the UPO in 2017, was a public and academic success, for it served to establish a fruitful dialogue between researchers and fans. For us, the main result, however, was the fact that it prompted us to take further steps in this direction. Shortly afterwards, we began to organise an international congress on the Game of Thrones universe. Our objective was to focus on the keys of this transmedia product from the perspective of the humanities, an approach that, at least to our knowledge, had not been taken before. Until then, a number of good studies had attempted to establish the relationship between some or other specific academic discipline and the literary saga. The call for papers obtained surprising results. We received many requests to participate from all over the world. Finally, we could only accept some of them, but such a positive reaction encouraged us to forge ahead with renewed energy. Our intention was that the results of the congress, which was held at the UPO and the US on the days before the broadcasting of the series’ last episode in May 2019, should be published in an original, appealing book, both up to a high intellectual standard and 5

 Lozano et al. (2019).

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with a broader approach of a profoundly transversal nature. In short, a publication that did justice to the thematic complexity and literary quality of the saga under study, as well as to the enthusiasm of its millions of fans and to the unquestionable impact that it has had on contemporary society. We sincerely hope that readers will find as much pleasure in reading the resulting two-volume book, which they now have in their hands—or on their electronic devices—as we have found in editing and coordinating it. That pleasure partly derives from the fact that we, the editors, are fans of the saga and, therefore, form part of the huge number of admirers of the novels and the TV series. They are not only important because of their number but because they form a sort of “fellowship” which opened many doors for us during the process of organising and holding the congress. The sympathy and comradeship that we have experienced during the long process of publishing this two-volume book began during the organisation of the congress, for which reason we would like to thank those people and institutions that made everything possible. At the US, our thanks go to the Department of Ancient History and Javier Navarro Luna, the dean of the Faculty of Geography and History, for their support. We would also like to express our special gratitude to Fernando Llano and Alfonso Castro, the vice-dean and dean, respectively, of the Faculty of Law of the US, who closely followed the congress and provided us with a venue at which to hold it. In particular, we would like to stress the kindness and savoir faire of Fernando Llano who made everything much easier. At the UPO, we would like to highlight the involvement and efforts or José Manuel Feria Domínguez, the then vice chancellor of Strategy, Employability and Entrepreneurship, who offered us his support throughout the process and who shared our enthusiasm for this project. Our gratitude also goes to the Faculty of Humanities and the Departments of Philology and Translation and Geography, History and Philosophy. Beyond the university setting, we are indebted to other people and institutions for their participation and help, without which it would have been impossible to bring this project to a successful conclusion—many of whom also form part of that “fellowship” of Game of Thrones fans. Special mention should go to the following: Carlos Rosado Cobián, president of the Spain and Andalusia Film Commissions; Cristina Macía (the Spanish translator of Martin’s fantasy saga); Alberto García Granda from the Editorial Gigamesh, responsible for publishing the novels in Spain; Enrique Muñoz de Luna Arroyo (Movistar+); Jesús Cansino, leader of the

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Proyecto Osuna, Tierra de Dragones, funded by Osuna Town Council; and Antonio Villar, “Littlefinger” in the Spanish version of the series and also the director of the Spanish dubbing of Game of Thrones. Our heartfelt gratitude goes to you all for your involvement in the project and for the cordiality with which you have collaborated with us. We would also like to thank Prodetur, Seville Provincial Council and the mayoresses of Santiponce and Osuna. Javier Marcos, the heart and soul of Los Siete Reinos (The Seven Kingdoms) website, deserves our special acknowledgement for his enthusiastic participation in the congress’ activities, the roundtables and the fruitful exchange of ideas deriving from them. During the congress devoted to the study of Game of Thrones, we had two exceptional guests, Elio M.  García Jr. and Linda Antonsson, to whom it was a pleasure to welcome in Seville and to whom we would again like to extend our thanks. This project has been possible thanks to the financial support of Pablo de Olavide University (“Plan Propio de Investigación de la Universidad Pablo de Olavide”). We are also very grateful to Lina Aboujieb, our editor at Palgrave Macmillan, who has offered us her continuous help and who has known how to improve our book with her sound advice.

Bibliography Alenza García, J. F. 2020: Derecho y justicia en Juego de Tronos, Pamplona. Attali, M. 2014: “Rome à Westeros: Éléments d’historiographie des religions romaines dans A Song of Ice and Fire de George R. R. Martin”, in M. Bost-­ Fievet and S.  Provini (eds.), L’Antiquité dans l’imaginaire contemporain. Fantasy, science-fiction, fantastique, Paris, 299–319. Battis, J., and Jonston, S. (eds.) 2015: Mastering The Game of Thrones: Essays on George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Jefferson. Błaszkiewicz, B. 2014: George R.  R. Martin’s “A Song of Ice and Fire” and the Medieval Literary Tradition, Warsaw. Brady, S., and Mantoan, L. (eds.) 2018: Vying for the Iron Throne: Essays on Power, Gender, Death and Performance in HBO’s Game of Thrones, Jefferson. Carroll, S. 2018: Medievalism in A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones, Cambridge. Critical Quarterly, Vol. 57, No. 1, 2015 – Special Issue: Game of Thrones. Emig, R. 2014: “Fantasy as Politics: George R.  R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire”, in G. Sedlmayr and N. Waller (eds.), Politics in Fantasy Media: Essays on Ideologies and Gender in Fiction, Television, and Games, Jefferson, 85–96.

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Evans T., and Potter, A. 2018: “Sacrificial Shadows: Tragic Greek Heroines Reinvented for Television in Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Game of Thrones”, in R. Apostol and A. Bakogianni (eds.), Locating Classical Receptions on Screen: Masks, Echoes, Shadows, Cham, 43–65. Frankel, V. E. 2014: Women in Game of Thrones: Power, Conformity and Resistance, Jefferson. Gjelsvik, A., and Schubart, R. (eds.) 2016: Women of Ice and Fire: Gender, Game of Thrones, and Multiple Media Engagements, New York and London. Haimson Lushkov, A. 2017a: You Win or You Die: The Ancient World of Game of Thrones, London. Haimson Lushkov, A. 2017b. “Genre, Mimesis, and Intertext in Vergil and G.R.R. Martin”, in B. Rogers and B. E. Stevens (eds.), Classical Traditions in Modern Fantasy, Oxford, 308–324. Iglesias Turrión, P. 2014: Ganar o morir: lecciones políticas en Juego de Tronos, Madrid. Jacoby, H., and Irwin, W. 2012: Game of Thrones and Philosophy: Logic Cuts Deeper than Swords, London. Jamison, C. 2017: “Reading Westeros: George R.  R. Martin’s Multi-Layered Medievalisms”, Studies in Medievalism 26, 131–142. Larrington, C. 2015: Winter is Coming: The Medieval World of Game of Thrones, London. Larrington, C. 2021: All Men Must Die: Power and Passion in Game of Thrones, London. López Güeto, A. 2020: De Poniente a Roma: La huella clásica en Juego de Tronos, Sevilla. López Rodríguez, F.  J. et  al. (eds.) 2020: Winter is over: (Re)analizando el Fenómeno Televisivo “Juego de Tronos”, Madrid. Lowder, J. (ed.) 2012: Beyond the Wall. Exploring George R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Dallas. Lozano, F., Álvarez-Ossorio Rivas, A. and Alarcón Hernández, C. (eds.) 2019: The Present of Antiquity. Reception, Recovery, Reinvention of the Ancient World in Current Popular Culture, Besançon. Lozano Delmar, J. et al. (eds). 2013: Reyes, Espadas, Cuervos y Dragones. Estudio del fenómeno televisivo Juego de Tronos, Madrid. Mondschein, K. 2017: Game of Thrones and the Medieval Art of War, Jefferson. Pavlac, B. A. (ed.) 2017: Game of Thrones versus History. Written in Blood, Malden. Porrinas González, D. (ed.). 2019: Poniente Medieval. La Edad Media en la fantasía épica de Juego de Tronos, Madrid. Prince, M.  E. 2019: “The Dux Femina Ends Westeros’ Golden Age: Cersei Lannister as Agrippina the Younger in HBO’s Game of Thrones (2011–)”, in M.  E. Safran (ed.), Screening the Golden Ages of the Classical Tradition, Edinburgh, 207–224.

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Ripoll, C. 2012: Juego de Tronos: secretos del Trono de Hierro, Palma de Mallorca. Rohr, Z. E., and Benz, L. (eds.) 2020: Queenship and the Women of Westeros. Female Agency and Advice in Game of Thrones and A Song of Ice and Fire, Cham. Rolet, S. 2018: “L’Antiquité dans Game of Thrones (HBO, 2011–): une présence polysémique”, in F.  Bièvre-Perrin and É. Pampanay (eds.), Antiquipop. La référence à l’Antiquité dans la culture populaire contemporaine, Lyon. Weiner, J. 2017: “Classical Epic and the Poetics of Modern Fantasy”, in B. M. Rogers and B. E. Stevens (eds.), Classical Traditions in Modern Fantasy, New York, 25–46. Wilson, J. R. 2021: Shakespeare and Game of Thrones, Abingdon and New York.

PART I

“Winter is Coming”: Landscape, Climate Change and Natural History in Game of Thrones

CHAPTER 2

Ludus Thronis: De novem orbis miraculis— The Wonders of the Ancient World in George R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire Ainhoa De Miguel Irureta and Juan Ramón Carbó García

1   Introduction The first time the audience had the opportunity to hear the already memorable soundtrack of the opening sequence of Game of Thrones was in 2011. Contemplating its distinctive and original intro, they were visualizing a true statement of what the plot of the television series was to be, being adapted from the novels of George R. R. Martin. The action would take place in different geographical locations of that fantastic world devised in his saga of novels, A Song of Ice and Fire. And these places—sometimes being representative of different cultures or civilizations—were defined by their most emblematic buildings or monuments. They were their Wonders, the Wonders of Game of Thrones.

A. De Miguel Irureta • J. R. Carbó García (*) Universidad Católica de Murcia, Murcia, Spain e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_2

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In the novels, we learn about these great human wonders, most of which we have been able to see later on the screen, thanks to the TV series. We find even the figure of a traveling scholar, named Lomas Longstrider, who wrote two books on the Wonders of the World: Wonders, where seven wonders of nature are collected, and Wonders Made by Man, where he makes a list of the nine human constructions that he considers most prominent. The one who gives us the best information about him is Tyrion Lannister, who claims having learned by heart many passages when he was younger. He quotes Longstrider like this: “The gods made seven wonders and mortal man made nine”.1 So the world of Game of Thrones connects us not only with the existence of great human constructions regarded as wonders but also with the same historical practice of making lists of wonders, written by different scholars over the centuries. In this chapter we intend to carry out, first of all, a general analysis of the phenomenon of lists of wonders in Classical Antiquity to explain its role in Martin’s world. Secondly, we will review the monumental wonders quoted by Longstrider in his writings and will study the possible influence of wonders or other prominent historical monuments in their conception. Finally, we will examine the reflection of the Seven Wonders of Antiquity in different wonders and monuments of the literary and television saga, taking into account their distinctive features. This chapter aims to demonstrate one more case of the influence of the humanities in the fantastic conceptions of the world of A Song of Ice and Fire and its visualization in Game of Thrones. We will see that the historical facts transcend fiction: the Wonders of Antiquity feed the imagination, while their figurative expression serves as a connection—even an unconscious one—to the cultural background of our civilization.

2  The Phenomenon of the Lists of Wonders and its Connection with Game of Thrones The context of the emergence of these lists is linked with the scholars at the Great Library of Alexandria, such as Antipater of Sidon or Philo of Byzantium. Similarly, in the world of Game of Thrones, the character of Lomas Longstrider is mentioned as a writer and traveler. The idea that he was a maester is not unfounded, although he is never identified as such. 1

 DwD 9 Tyrion 3.

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The empire created by Alexander the Great extended the Greek thought and way of life. Greek education, understood as paideia from Isocrates already,2 is translated into the Roman world as humanitas by Varro or Cicero.3 The idea of culture as a transmitter of a legacy of great masterpieces which generated a scale of values leads to the creation of a canon. This will comprise not only philosophers or writers but also artists. It is a constant reference to the past that allows a justification of the present.4 This entails a historical interest in works of art and monuments that encompasses the idea of wonders. In this way, these are understood as man-made astonishing accomplishments, which become eternal archetypes and symbols. They are a compendium of the great human works of art that will be incorporated into the world of utopia;5 and utopia, as a fantastic recomposition, anticipates and stimulates reality. Similarly, it is also in Hellenistic times that the experience of autopsía— the “seeing with one’s eyes”—becomes generalized. Texts describing spaces, buildings and statues in the most important sanctuaries and cities are popularized, with the precedent of Herodotus’ Histories or Xenophon’s writings. We can consider these texts as the first travel guides, a periegetic literature that is closely linked to the traveling practice of the Greeks, as a people accustomed to maritime trade. The first periplous, originally navigation treaties, will be transformed into travel literature, thanks to the liking of Greek readers for the exotic and the unknown. These descriptions may reflect a real journey, but most of them are the result of geographical speculation or pure fantasy.6 Thus the sense of wonder and the extraordinary things make their appearance, and they will lead to the emergence of the paradoxographic account. However, these catalogues of wonders differ from the works of paradoxographers: these great pieces of art are man-made, exceling in their size and magnificence or their artistic beauty. On the contrary, paradoxa writings collect surprising data, but these are always more closely linked to the natural world. They are usually compilation studies from other written sources, in which literary erudition predominates, rather than the autopsía that we have already discussed.7  Isocrates, Panegyric.  Quoted both in Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 13.17. 4  Verdugo Santos (2007: 198). 5  Ramírez Domínguez (1983: 29). 6  García Moreno and Gómez Espelosín (1996: 7). 7  Pajón Leyra (2011: 30). 2 3

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Precisely, in this sense, we can say that the book on the natural wonders of Lomas Longstrider would be more related to this paradoxographic side. But when it comes to making his compendium of man-made wonders, he follows that autopsía experience that we have talked about, given that Lomas is a traveler who contemplates in person those wonders.8 Lists of wonders take from the paradoxography genre the desire to compile and extract the amazing things in list form, but they add other criteria to that selection. For example, aesthetic or economic value is taken into account. From this perspective we can understand the influence of Herodotus’ Histories. There we see his choice of motifs worthy of being mentioned, following a certain logic. Later we get to Callimachus, who has been considered the first paradoxographer, being also linked to the origin of the lists of wonders. It is, however, with the work attributed to Philo of Byzantium that we find a concern to analyse the aspects that justify the inclusion of each of the described works of art in the realm of wonder, either by visual delight, their magnificence, grandiosity, boldness, technique, materials or economic value. This relation between the phenomenon of lists of wonders and the paradoxographic genre is also attested in the fact that we know Philo’s work through the codex Palatinus Graecus 398,9 where the main examples of paradoxographic literature are evident.10 As we have noted above, the Greeks were a traveling people. Visiting all Seven Wonders and having the opportunity to see them in person was not feasible. But the habit of making pilgrimages to famous temples and shrines was widespread, especially for those able to pay for such a journey. Admittedly, some wonders arose in places that from more ancient times attracted many visitors, such as Olympia or Ephesus. These cases suggest that the tourist experience appeared in ancient Greece associated with religion in most cases, as will happen again with pilgrimages in the Middle Ages, both to the Holy Land and to Rome. And in Roman imperial times,  DwD 68 The Kingbreaker.  A manuscript preserved in the Library of the University of Heidelberg, dated in the ninth century, which is a part of the set known as “philosophical collection”, originating in Constantinople and probably being a copy of a copy in the Library of Alexandria, around the fifth-sixth centuries. See Stramaglia (2011). 10  Pajón Leyra (2011: 183). Before the paradoxographic genre, Greek archaic poetry and popular songs already reflect the idea of choosing, of selecting the most beautiful thing—tò kálliston—or the best one. This in turn demonstrates that enumeration, in the form of a catalogue or list, was a common process for expression and transmission of ideas. De Nazaré Ferreira (2012: 74). 8 9

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it was quite common—for those wealthy enough—to visit Egypt, which was a country that always fascinated the Greeks. The experience of the trip or periégesis aroused a great interest and special admiration in the most prominent buildings and works of art, namely, spectacula, in Latin. The idea of wonder appeared in the collective imaginary, and many authors valued it when describing places or buildings worthy of being preserved and admired. Thus, in A Song of Ice and Fire, Lomas Longstrider’s travel experience is part of this ancient idea of periégesis, with its corresponding requirements to translate those experiences into writing and to describe the wonders that are visited. The geographically scattered arrangement of the Wonders of Antiquity forced anyone who wanted to see them in person to undertake a great effort and sacrifice: Everyone has heard of each of the Seven Wonders of the World, but few have seen all of them for themselves […] Only if you travel the world and get worn out by the effort of the journey will the desire to see all the Wonders of the World be satisfied, and by that time you will be old and practically dead.11

Therefore, Philo of Byzantium already advises the journey through education, since the sensory experience is imperfect and fleeting, and it depends on memory. Hence the need for works about wonders, which offer the possibility of imagining beauty and leaving it etched on one’s mind: Thus, learning is a quality which is truly to be admired and to be treasured as a great gift because, at the same time as it gives their minds insight, it may show men, freed from the burden of travelling, the most remarkable of sights which are to be seen at home, and it designates the sight that is worthy of admiration. For the traveller who reaches these places sees them once, and as soon as he leaves, he forgets, because he has not firmly grasped the delicate beauty of the works he has gazed upon, and the individual details escape his memory. Whereas he, who by selective reading has become acquainted with a worthy sight knows the details of its form and has thus set eyes upon a complete work of art, and, because these sights have been seen

11  Philo of Byzantium, The Seven Wonders of the World, Praefatio, transl. by Hugh Johnstone, in Romer and Romer (1995: 230).

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in his mind’s eye they remain, imprinted on his mind, each single image, never to be destroyed.12

Longstrider’s writings respond perfectly to this idea of education as a way to know the world and its wonders without the need to travel. His journey can be interpreted as a true adventure that takes him to new, more unknown worlds, such as the farthest reaches of Essos. His own name, Longstrider, refers to his status as a traveler, as happened with Dionysius Periegetes—Dionysius of Alexandria—whose work, Periégesis, enjoyed a great reputation in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. This is demonstrated by its constant presence in the manuscript tradition of Byzantine scholars in the city of Constantinople. The poem was used there as a Geography manual and as a companion that facilitated the understanding of geographical and ethnographic concepts present in other classical texts. Many of those works became authentic treatises on Geography. In fact, the relation between Wonders and studies on Geography can be found in Pausanias, Pomponius Mela and previously in Strabo, and it was intimately linked to the experience of the trip or periégesis. Longstrider’s journey along the continent of Essos recalls how the Greek world opened eastwards with Alexander the Great. Thus, the two most impressive great monuments since the time of Herodotus—the Egyptian pyramids and the city of Babylon—continued to dominate ancient architecture and to lay the foundations for the lists of wonders. The classical Greek world brought its creations: the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia and the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. The last two monuments to be included in the canon of the Seven Wonders—the Colossus of Rhodes and the Lighthouse of Alexandria—respond more to the moment the lists are drawn up. The “definitive” or canonical list will not crystallize until the Renaissance.13 We can draw a parallel with the Great Pyramid of Ghis and the pyramids of Meereen as clear allusions to the Egyptian pyramids and the city of Qarth with its walls and gardens as a new Babylon. Although these correspondences will be discussed later, they now serve to explain that the Wonder, in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, while in the context of the world of Game of Thrones too, is a marker of the identity of a given

 Ibid.  Clayton and Price (1988: 9–10).

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country and its culture.14 It follows that the lists of wonders of the world create a connection with a particular people. Thus, they stand in an authentic vernacular heritage, as an element that constitutes the mental image of a city or a civilization. What all the lists of wonders have in common, especially when it comes to justifying the inclusion of some things and not others, is the importance given to the size, majesty and beauty, the search for the feeling of awe, of amazement, and even of reverential fear.15 Such could be the case of the Zeus of Olympia, on the one hand, and the Ice Wall or the Titan of Braavos, on the other. These attributes will constitute the epitome of the wonderful thing, and their recurring use in the different lists of wonders will characterize these texts, which will often become true panegyrics. Another important factor in the appearance of this early mirabilia literature is the compilation of books around the great libraries, especially that of Alexandria, as we have already pointed out. It does not seem a fortuitous thing that Callimachus was in charge of the Great Library of Alexandria in the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus16 nor that he is one of the first sources referring to wonders. We can find a true ekphrasis in the description of a piece of art—the Zeus of Olympia—in his iambics.17 The importance of Alexandria as a nerve centre of knowledge, with its Great Library as the guiding beacon, is undeniable. An Alexandrian papyrus from the second century BCE, known as Laterculi Alexandrini, attests to the first known news about a list of wonders, even if it has survived only in a highly fragmentary form.18 Likewise it appears in the work at hand, with the Citadel of Oldtown, a city in Westeros which is a clear copy of Egyptian Alexandria, both for its library and for its lighthouse. We can also link Longstrider’s writings to Herodotus’ work, being as it is the first example of the historical genre: the interest in curious events— typical of paradoxographers—is very similar to his keen interest in the particularities of the territories he visits in his travels. His work is, in part, the story of a traveler. He uses oral sources and his way of preparing to carry out his work was through travel. In other words: a true autopsía that 14  On the value of patriotic interest in creating different lists of wonders, see Sassi (1993: 449–468). 15  Clayton and Price (1988: 7). 16  Pajón Leyra (2011: 25). 17  Callimachus, Hymns and Epigrams, Iambi VI, Fr. 196 Pf. 18  Laterculi Alexandrini, Papyrus Berolinensis 13044v, col.8.22 ss.

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includes first-person visual research when he has the opportunity, witness questioning, copying of inscriptions and collecting oral traditions. From the first lines of his work, Herodotus expresses his intention of not letting the ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά fall into oblivion. He understands the term ἔργα as any human action worthy of being remembered, from warrior exploits to findings or inventions, and of course, the architectural and engineering works that are worth mentioning. Θωμαστά corresponds especially to natural wonders, but for Herodotus, the man-­made objects of astonishment are superior to them. A gradation is established in amazement, in which natural wonders are trumped by human achievements. This idea also can be inferred from the quote attributed to Longstrider: “The gods made seven wonders and mortal man made nine”; thus, mortals have surpassed the gods, at least in the number of built wonders. With his words, Herodotus himself demonstrates that he is a clear and direct precedent of what will later be the different lists of wonders: This is the display of the inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, so that things done by man not be forgotten in time, and that great and marvelous deeds, some displayed by the Hellenes, some by the barbarians, not lose their glory, including among others what was the cause of their waging war on each other.19

In the environment of the Great Library of Alexandria emerged the two lists of wonders that can be considered the core of this phenomenon. The first is due to Antipater of Sidon: an epigram from the late second century BCE is attributed to him, being one of the oldest testimonies of a list of seven wonders and the first one that is entirely preserved: I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheius, and the hanging gardens, and the colossus of the Sun, and the huge labour of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, “Io, apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on anything so grand”.20  Herodotus, Histories 1.1 (transl. Goodley 1920).  Antipater of Sidon, Palatine Anthology 9.58 (transl. Paton 1925).

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With the same items of Antipater’s list, Philo of Byzantium sought to save his readers the grueling effort to travel to know the Wonders of the World, as we have already discussed. He made his work a kind of an itinerary around the known world, with visits to every place that housed a wonder. It is a profile similar to that of the ancient periplous or propemptica. Philo was a Greek engineer, living around 200 BCE, in Alexandria. From the preserved fragments of his treatises, it can be inferred that they were objective and technical works, containing much precise data. However, the work known as De Septem Orbis Miraculis—Περὶ τῶν ἑπτὰ θεαμάτων, in the original Greek21—combines such technical descriptions with much more flowery language.22 For this reason, the idea that this work is a booklet belonging to a late-ancient writer is more plausible: Philo of Byzantium, “the Paradoxographer”, around the fourth century, who takes as a starting point the work of the first Philo and collects information of different sorts. It is also likely that Philo based his list on a previous compilation shortly after the founding of Alexandria. Therefore the Lighthouse would not appear in these first lists of wonders, as is equally the case in Antipater, and Babylon is given special relevance. But it is also true that Philo lived and worked in Alexandria, seeing the Lighthouse daily, as something close and of everyday environment. And he saw it as something functional too, further away from the idea of wonder as amazement before the extraordinary thing. Similarly, in Longstrider’s work, the Oldtown lighthouse does not appear as one of the wonders, perhaps for the same reason that we have just argued: that Longstrider maybe was a maester of Oldtown, who saw the lighthouse every day and did not consider it as something extraordinary. In the first century BCE, Marcus Terentius Varro had already developed the concept of antiquitates as the desire to justify and enhance the present through the analysis of the past and tradition. In this way, the Romans did possess a clear concept of inherited culture, and references to past buildings or works of art were made with the apparent intention to legitimize the present. In the world of A Song of Ice and Fire, the allusion to the wonders referred by Longstrider is almost always in past tense. 21  Parchment Codex from Heidelberg University Library: Codex Palatinus Graecus 398, fol.56v. 22  Kroll (1941: 54–55).

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Their display in the television series seems to highlight the ancient history of a world of medieval setting. The appropriation of elements of Antiquity to provide a greater scope for a discourse, whether written or visual, gives plausibility and a familiar scenario to new worlds and stories.23 The Seven Wonders as a symbol of the extraordinary appear in the collective idea as something perfectly assimilated. And this happens even before their images are settled as archetypes in the common imagination.24 In the first century CE, its use as a metaphor can already be attested.25 From here, it will appear on a recurring basis in allegories, comparisons and parables as an emblem of the amazing thing. Myths, legends and epic poems are part of the “remembered history” within the collective memory. They subsist to the extent that they adapt to the incorporation of variations that, however, do not modify the core of “historical truth” that acts as a nexus of union between past and present.26 In this way, the idea of the Seven Wonders, as material past or present that functions as cultural asset, as an allegory of the outstanding thing, is part of the general heritage and tradition of the Mediterranean world, which over time will extend to global level. From the fifth century and the start of the sixth century CE, material culture became a symbolic realization of new social and political identities. Over the centuries, the appropriation of elements of that culture for legitimizing purposes will be a recurring thing.27 The sustained interest in the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World led many artists to try to reconstruct them on paper, performing an exercise in speculation. This resulted in different series of engravings, often depicted in later paintings, which reflected not only the historical interest but the aesthetic value too. In this sense, the words of Maria Luisa Madonna are very illuminating: their interest as a historical stage in the 23  In Martin’s words: “I like to use history to flavor my fantasy, to add texture and verisimilitude, but simply rewriting history with the names changed has no appeal for me. I prefer to re-imagine it all, and take it in new and unexpected directions”. Quoted by Álvarez-­ Ossorio Rivas (2019: 141). 24  Martial, Liber Spectaculorum, ed. Coleman 2006: 4; in her edition, Coleman talks about it “as a cliché of contemporary popular culture”. 25  A graffiti from Pompeii’s amphitheatre, which was written by a vehement follower of a gladiator: “In all the battles you have won. One of the seven wonders of the world!”: Omnia munera vicisti; ton hepta theamaton esti (Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum IV, 1111). The text on the wall of Pompeii’s amphitheatre, destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE, has the particularity that its second sentence is written in Greek, but with Latin characters. 26  Lewis (1975: 11–12). 27  Carbó García (2015: 26).

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evolution of the world, their value as historical documents, their consideration as hieroglyphics or moral emblems, their recovery as historical facts, their importance as examples of technical efficiency and as models of the architectural Renaissance, their use as a pretext for fantastic reconstructions, their consideration as a memory horizon for mythological scenes and even their acceptance as ironic or comical elements.28 In this regard, one of the pioneers in considering the Wonders from an aesthetic point of view was Maarten van Heemskerck (1498–1574). And this happened thanks mainly to his stay in Rome and his discovery and assessing of the ruins and ancient monuments.29 For his sketches and designs, Heemskerck has been described as a “Romanist painter”. Thanks to them, his repertoire was expanded with forms inspired by Antiquity, depicted in mythological, religious and allegorical scenes.30 With this background, the artist created imaginary and fantastic landscapes where ancient vestiges had not only an iconographic value but also a symbolic one. This is evident with the use of ruins, which accompanies the scene as a stage, and advances what will be one of the most recurrent themes in Romanticism, albeit with another intention. This symbolism alludes to the inevitable passage of time and relates the representation of ancient forms to the theme of vanitas, which will know a greater boom in the Baroque. The artist had a great capacity for synthesis, linking the assimilation of the visual language of Antiquity with the invention of new antiquities. The Octo Mundi Miracula series reflects what we today have for the “canonical list” of the Seven Wonders. But it is true that in his depiction of Babylon—under the title Babylonis Muri—the Hanging Gardens and the Walls appear, and Van Heemskerck adds as an eighth wonder the Colosseum of Rome. It is a fact that he set not only the list of works, after confronting various ancient, medieval and early modern proposals, but also the iconography of these monuments. This would remain engraved in the collective imagination, with a great influence on various later artistic depictions of the Seven Wonders.31  Madonna (1976: 26–29).  Di Furia (2012). 30  Veldman (1977: 12). 31  For example, the various series about the Seven Wonders made in the early modern period by Franciscus van Aeslt, Maartin de Vos, Antonio Tempesta, Louis de Caullery, Willen van Ehrenberg, Athanasius Kirscher or Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. 28 29

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Undoubtedly, the influence of artistic representations of the Wonders of Antiquity is present in the visual conception of the Wonders of the World of Game of Thrones. In fact, we might consider that there is another parallel in the same step from the written to visuals: if van Heemskerck’s series of engravings led to the leap from word to image, the television series, by doing the same with Martin’s novels, also gave the ultimate figurative character to Longstrider’s literary descriptions, barely outlined in the books. The display of some of these wonders for the audience has allowed them to connect with the archetypes of the Wonders of Antiquity existing in the collective imagination, in a much more effective way than with reading. Certainly, if cameras or video cameras had existed in the time of the first lists, those images would have been able to accurately convey the appearance of historical wonders. But in the case of some of these wonders, we do not have any kind of contemporary representation or archaeological remains. The following two sections will focus on the connection between the Wonders of Antiquity and the Wonders of Game of Thrones, beginning with the study of the influence of great historical buildings and masterpieces of art on the conception and visualization of Longstrider’s Wonders.

3   Lomas Longstrider’s Wonders Made by Man In his book about the Wonders Made by Man, Longstrider identifies seven as such, although there are nine that he gathered in his compilation. The number seven was always associated with the different lists of historical wonders, for its symbolic, sacred, exoteric or mystical character, although there are examples of later lists with different numbers. In our case, from the complete Longstrider’s list, only seven wonders mentioned as such appear in the novels. We will first refer to those seven and then try to figure out what the other two might have been, among the most suitable candidates. The Wall As a first wonder, and the only one located in Westeros among the seven we know for certain, would be the Wall, which separates the North from the even more northern wildernesses.32 Its legendary origin goes back to  Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Winter is Coming”, 0:01:06.

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the First Men and the Children of the Forest, and even to the Giants. Various maesters of the Citadel of Oldtown offer different versions of its construction and the materials used: some claim that stone blocks were used in the earliest foundations and others that the ice was extracted from nearby lakes, cut into large blocks that were transported by sleigh to be placed one at a time at their final location.33 Even some legends tell that the Children of the Forest used their magic to construct and strengthen the Wall; Maester Childer’s Winter’s Kings, or the Legends and Lineages of the Starks of Winterfell, refers to how Brandon the Builder sought their collaboration for the construction of the Wall.34 With its approximately 100 leagues in length (about 340 miles) and 700  feet high (more than 200 m) at its highest point, its huge mass of ice could be seen from another 100 leagues away.35 It is thus the largest and oldest wonder. Quite a few features of the Wall remind us of the first of the Wonders of the Ancient World, the Great Pyramid of Giza, built by Pharaoh Khufu-­ Cheops, which was also the largest and oldest. In fact, it is the only one that still stands today. It also continues to raise questions about how it was built, how limestone blocks were removed from the quarry, how they were transported, how they were hoisted to their site and how they were placed so accurately. At the same time, a large amount of legends, fantasies and extraordinary theories about its origin and functionality keep emerging around this great construction. Because of its shape and functionality, we can relate the Wall directly to Hadrian’s Wall, in the north of the British Isles, built by the Roman emperor Hadrian in the third decade of the second century CE. With its 24 leagues (73 miles), it is the longest wall in Europe. If the Wall was used to defend and geographically separate the Kingdoms of Westeros from the northernmost lands, the Wildlings and other worse threats, Hadrian’s Wall was built to defend the conquered lands from the northern peoples not submitted to Rome. The presence of Hadrian’s Wall since its construction has set up the geography of the territory, serving in the past as a

 Martin et al. (2014: 145) (“The Wall and Beyond. The Night’s Watch”).  Martin et al. (2014: 5–6) (“Ancient History. The Dawn Age”). 35  Martin et al. (2014: 145) (“The Wall and Beyond. The Night’s Watch”). 33 34

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boundary between England and Scotland.36 Similarly, it could even relate to one of the seven unofficial wonders of today’s world, the Great Wall of China. The Titan of Braavos The Titan of Braavos, in the free city of the same name, protects the narrow access from the sea and appears, almost omnipresent, as a symbol of the city. This is inspired by the plan and concept of the republic of Venice at the end of the Middle Ages, also as a commercial and financial nerve centre—underlined by the Iron Bank of Braavos. It is a fortress of stone and bronze in the shape of a warrior (see Fig. 2.1), at which Lomas Longstrider marveled. It is almost 400 feet high (approximately 122  m), and it has one leg on each side of the main entrance to Braavos. It is sculpted from a natural black granite rock arch, on which the rest of the statue was melted in bronze. Its hair was green-­ dyed hemp, and its eyes were large beacon lanterns. Internally it contained different rooms and openings to be able to attack ships that tried to force their entrance.37 It is probably the clearest example of inspiration from one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, namely, the Colossus of Rhodes, or rather from the iconic image of this one which was fixed from the Renaissance with the engraving of the Flemish painter Maarten van Heemskerck, already mentioned. He represented it with its legs open over the mouth of the harbour, the ships could pass under it, and it held a torch in its hand, which served as a beacon for ships. In any case, the image of open legs on the mouth of the port seems to have its origin in the testimony of an 36  As George R. R. Martin himself acknowledges in a Rolling Stone interview dating from 2014: “The Wall predates anything else. I can trace back the inspiration for that to 1981. I was in England visiting a friend, and as we approached the border of England and Scotland, we stopped to see Hadrian’s Wall. I stood up there and I tried to imagine what it was like to be a Roman legionary, standing on this wall, looking at these distant hills. It was a very profound feeling. For the Romans at that time, this was the end of civilization; it was the end of the world. We know that there were Scots beyond the hills, but they didn’t know that. It could have been any kind of monster. It was the sense of this barrier against dark forces–it planted something in me. But when you write fantasy, everything is bigger and more colorful, so I took the Wall and made it three times as long and 700 feet high, and made it out of ice”. Retrieved from http://www.rollingstone.com/tv/news/george-r-r-martin-therolling-stone-­interview-­20140423 (accessed 15 February 2022). 37  Martin et al. (2014: 273) (“Beyond the Sunset Kingdom. The Free Cities: Braavos”).

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Fig. 2.1  The Titan of Braavos. Thrones S5: Ep.2, “The House of Black and White”, 0:02:45

Italian pilgrim who, on his trip to Jerusalem, made a stop in Rhodes around 1394–1395.38 This Nicolas de Martoni recounts: At the end of the pier there is a church named St. Nicholas, and I have been told and confirmed that in ancient times there was a great wonder, a great idol, so admirably formed that it is said to have one foot at the tip of that pier where st. Nicholas Church is, and the other at the tip of the other pier, where the mills are.39

In a few comments to the Satires of Juvenal, there are allusions to the image of the Colossus letting the boats pass under his legs with their sails

 Le Grand (1984: 585).  Manuscript at the National Library of France, Paris, n. 6521 Latin Stocks, fols. 67–103: In capite moli, est quaedam ecclesia vocabuli Sancti Nicolai et dictum ac certificatum fuit michi quoddam magnum mirabile quod, antiquo tempore, fuit quidam magnus ydolus, sic mirabiliter formatus quod unum pedem tenebat in capite dicti moli ubi est ecclesia Sancti Nicolai et alium pedem tenebat in capite alterius moli ubi sunt molendina quae mola distant unum ab alio per medium mileare super quibus stabat squaratus et rectus. 38 39

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deployed.40 And another pilgrim, Felix Faber or Felix Fabri, refers to the same story of ships passing between its legs.41 This idea is the one that Heemskerck depicted in his work, Panorama with the abduction of Helen amidst of the Wonders of the Ancient World. For the figure of the Colossus, he was inspired by the Capitoline Hercules. And it is the same idea that André Thevet will pick up in 1554 in his Cosmographie de Levant, where he describes the Colossus “with its legs in the two arches of the port, […] so high, that the ships entering the harbor pass between them. He had a sword in his right hand, and a pike on the left, and a mirror burning in his chest” (see Fig. 2.2).42 Despite the undoubted visual appeal and magnificence of such a design, which is also reproduced on the Titan, it is practically impossible that the Colossus had taken this position, taking into account the testimonies of the sources and our knowledge of the construction techniques of the Greeks. The image of the Colossus answers, on the one hand, to the lack of information on the part of the ancient sources on its appearance and its location and, on the other hand, to the dissemination of a very suggestive model with great visual impact that arises from misinterpretations of some texts. First, ancient sources, such as Strabo or Pliny the Elder, indicate its height, 70 cubits, about 32 m; the name of its creator, Chares of Lindos; and that it was destroyed by an earthquake. They neither describe its posture nor its exact location. They do inform us about the construction

40  Hic in Rhodiorum portu erectus erat, ita divaricatis cruribus, ut inter ea transirent naves extensis velis. Note of Iohannes Britannicus: Junius Juvenalis, opus quidem divinum, antea impressorum vitio tetrum, mancum et inutile, nunc autem a viro bene docto recognitum […], Venice, 1512, fol. 78 v (about Juvenal: Satires 8.230: et de marmoreo citharam suspende colosso). 41  Hassler (1849: 252): Dicunt enim, quod Colossus ille in mari stabat et portum rhodianum observabat, distentis enim ab invicem cruribus stabat in introitu portus ita in altum erectus quod naves quantumcumque altae et magnae per crurium medium sub ventre ejus intrabant. 42  André Thevet: Cosmographie de Levant, Lyon, 1554, 106: “ayant les iambes sur les deus arches du port, […] si haut esleué, que les nauires entrans au port passoient entre ses deus iambes. Il tenoit en la main dextre une espee, & en la senestre une pique, & avoit deuant la poitrine un miroër ardant”.

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Fig. 2.2  On the left, Maarten van Heemskerck: Colossus Solis (1570–1572) (Public domain—Wikimedia Commons). On the right, André Thevet: Cosmographie de Levant (1554) (Public domain—Wikimedia Commons)

material, bronze, and that it was hollow inside.43 For his part, Philo of Byzantium adds more or less accurate information about its construction, but he does not clarify its appearance or its location. However, he offers 43  Strabo, Geography 24.2.5. Pliny the Elder, Natural History 34.17–18: “But that which is by far the most worthy of our admiration, is the colossal statue of the Sun, which stood formerly at Rhodes, and was the work of Chares the Lindian, a pupil of the above-named Lysippus; no less than seventy cubits in height. This statue fifty-six years after it was erected, was thrown down by an earthquake; but even as it lies, it excites our wonder and admiration. Few men can clasp the thumb in their arms, and its fingers are larger than most statues. Where the limbs are broken asunder, vast caverns are seen yawning in the interior. Within it, too, are to be seen large masses of rock, by the weight of which the artist steadied it while erecting it” (transl. Bostock and Riley 1855). It is interesting to compare Pliny’s description with that made by Martin in his novels. FfC 7 Arya 1: “But dead ahead the sea had broken through, and there above the open water the Titan towered, with his eyes blazing and his long green hair blowing in the wind. His legs bestrode the gap, one foot planted on each mountain, his shoulder looming tall above the jagged crests. His legs were carved of solid stone, the same black granite as the sea mounts on which he stood, though around his hips he wore an armoured skirt of greenish bronze. His breast plate was bronze as well, and his head in his crested halfhelm. His blowing hair was made of hempen ropes dyed green, and huge fires burned in the caves that were his eyes. One hand rested atop the ridge to his left, bronze fingers coiled about a knob of stone; the other thrust up into the air, clasping the hilt of a broken sword”.

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details that can give some clues about it, such as that a white marble base was built on which the feet of the statue were placed; a base is mentioned, so it is understood that it did not present an open-legged posture, for which two bases would have been necessary, which means that its feet stood together.44 The conception of the Titan of Braavos as a fortress is similarly inspired by the Colossus of Rhodes, but through the cinematic representation of the latter in the 1961 film, The Colossus of Rhodes, directed by Sergio Leone. In the film, the great statue is precisely a fortress-prison that guards the harbour entrance.45 In addition, in the 1963 film Jason and the Argonauts, directed by Don Chaffey, a giant bronze statue with armour, wheel and sword appears, much like the Titan. He is Talos, the guardian of the island, who comes to life and who at one point appears with one foot on either side of the entrance to the bay, grabbing and lifting the ship that tries to pass underneath.46 And it is virtually impossible not to think of the sequence of the 2001 film The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, directed by Peter Jackson. It features the two huge statues of the Argonaths, arranged on the Anduin River. The literal translation is “stones of kings”, although the most accurate name is Pillars of the Kings; these are two colossal statues depicting Isildur and Anárion, the first kings of the men of the West, marking the entrance to the kingdom of Gondor.47 In this case, we find an inspiration from the Colossus of Rhodes for the visualization of colossal statues in the fantasy world created by Tolkien. At the same time, they have become iconic images of modern fantasy that have also inspired Martin’s work. The Long Bridge of Volantis This is the longest bridge in the known world, located in another of the free cities of Essos. It joins the two halves of the city on the wide channel of the Rhoyne river mouth. Apart from its length, it also stands out for containing a large number of buildings of various kinds on its structure. It includes buildings of several floors high, with shops, houses, temples,  Philo of Byzantium, The Seven Wonders of the World 4.3.  The Colossus of Rhodes, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1961. 46  Jason and the Argonauts, Columbia Pictures, 1963. 47  The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, New Line Cinema, 2001. 44 45

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taverns and brothels. It was built by Vhalaso the Munificent, a triarch, due to the strong and changing currents of the river mouth, and it took 40 years to build. It was said that it could bear the weight of 1000 elephants and, as seen in the series, the bridge’s roadway was wide enough that two waggons could cross without problems—the sort of fact that we often find in some descriptions of ancient wonders.48 No bridge is mentioned in the various lists of Wonders of Antiquity. The Drobeta Roman bridge over the Danube, in the second century CE, was the longest in the ancient world, if we exclude the bridge of barges ordered by Xerxes over the Dardanelles to cross into Europe with his grand army. And we have the mention of Quintus Curtius Rufus about the bridge over the Euphrates in the city of Babylon, which he cites as one of the wonders of the East.49 In Game of Thrones, the bridge is clearly the Roman bridge of Cordoba, in Spain. The idea of the built suprastructure on it immediately recalls, albeit in an exaggerated way, Florence’s Ponte Vecchio. And in the background, you can even observe the Cathedral of Salamanca, again in Spain, dominating the urban skyline of Volantis and representing the Temple of the Lord of Light, R’hllor.50 The Walls of Qarth The triple Walls of Qarth are another wonder listed by Longstrider.51 Qarth is a city located in the Jade Gates Strait, at the eastern end of the Summer Sea: Three thick walls encircled Qarth, elaborately carved. The outer was red sandstone, thirty feet high and decorated with animals: snakes slithering, kites flying, fish swimming, intermingled with wolves of the red waste and striped zorses and monstrous elephants. The middle wall, forty feet high, 48  Martin et al. (2014: 268) (“Beyond the Sunset Kingdom. The Free Cities: Volantis”). In relation to such mentions, we can refer, for example, to the testimony of Quintus Curtius Rufus, when he describes the Walls of Babylon and refers that two quadrigas could cross without touching each other: History of Alexander 5.1.24: quadrigae inter se occurrentes sine periculo commeare dicuntur. 49  Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander 5.1.29: Pons lapideus flumini inpositus iungit urbem. Hic quoque inter mirabilia Orientis opera numeratus est. 50  Thrones S5: Ep.3, “High Sparrow”, 0:49:08. 51  Thrones S2: Ep.4, “Garden of Bones”, 0:30:44.

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was grey granite alive with scenes of war: the clash of sword and shield and spear, arrows in flight, heroes at battle and babes being butchered, pyres of the dead. The innermost wall was fifty feet of black marble, with carvings […] of men and women giving pleasure to one another.52

This wonder seems to be inspired directly by the Walls of Babylon,53 which also appeared as one of the seven wonders in some of the various lists made of different authors, such as Antipater of Sidon and Philo of Byzantium. Let us remember that, unlike the canonical list that has been fixed since the Renaissance, these ancient lists did not include the Lighthouse of Alexandria. The enormity of the Babylonian Walls, both in height and in their extraordinary length for a city wall—approximately 10  miles—present a more than considerable similarity to the Walls of Qarth. Their arrangement with successive stretches and their distinctive adornment with the sacred animals of the Babylonian gods support the argument. In fact, Maarten van Heemskerck’s engraving of the city of Babylon depicted the wall with three defensive stretches. When, in the television series, the doors of the Walls of Qarth open and a panoramic view of the city is offered, the feeling of contemplating an imitation of Babylon is even greater, with palaces, hanging gardens or terraces, and even the Euphrates River in the background.54 The whole city is conceived as a wonder in itself, highlighting all its antiquity and splendour, an idea historically present with Babylon and underlined here.55 The Palace with a Thousand Rooms, in Sarnath of the Tall Towers This wonder is not mentioned in the novels, and it does not appear in Game of Thrones because, in the time that the story is set, the palace no longer existed. It had been destroyed in a Dothraki attack, when Khal

 CoK 28 Daenerys 2.  DwD 58 Tyrion 11: “The city walls are one of the wonders of the world”. 54  Thrones S2: Ep.4, “Garden of Bones”, 0:35:48. 55  Philo of Byzantium, The Seven Wonders of the World 5.1–3, transl. by Hugh Johnstone, in Romer and Romer (1995): “The height of the wall certainly exceeds eighty feet, and truly the width of the course is such that four quadrigas can drive along them at the same time. There are numerous multi-storeyed towers stretching in an unbroken link of sufficient size to house within them a large army. For this reason, the city-state is a fortress for the Persians. From the outside you can’t believe it contains a city inside”. 52 53

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Loso set the city on fire. However, it was known in Westeros, and Longstrider included it among his Nine Wonders.56 Some depictions of the Palace have been made.57 An influence of Hindu palatial architecture and Arab religious architecture is portrayed in some of them, reminiscent of the Basilica of Hagia Sophia, in Istanbul, which was included in lists of wonders by some medieval authors.58 In fact, the very name of the city of Sarnath, near the Dothraki Sea, is taken from a city in India, namely, one of the four holy cities of Buddhism. The Valyrian Roads The Valyrian Roads were built by the Valyrian Freehold to link the economic centres of the free cities. They were made with rocks melted with dragon fire, following straight lines. They were raised half a peak on the ground to prevent the accumulation of water or snow, and they were so wide that three waggons could pass at once. Four centuries after the fall of Valyria, many of them are still in use, with no apparent erosion even in the absence of maintenance.59 The allusion to the Roman roads is so evident that there is no need to add more. It is known: “All roads lead to Valyria”. The Three Bells of Norvos This is the seventh and final one of the identified wonders in Lomas Longstrider’s work. Norvos, one of the free cities, was a theocracy ruled by bearded clergymen, who were governed by the commands directed to them by their god. Through the Three Bells, they controlled all aspects of city life: when to get up, when to sleep, when to work, when to rest, when to take up arms, when to pray and even when to have sex. These bells have three sounds: Noom, which is a deep sound; Narrah, which is a loud sound; and Nyhel, which is a soft sound.60

56  Martin et al. (2014: 291) (“Beyond the Sunset Kingdom. Beyond the Free Cities. The Grasslands”). 57  Retrieved from https://thegreatgame.fandom.com/wiki/Sarnath?file=Sarnath.jpeg (accessed 1 July 2020). 58  For example, in the eighth century, Cosmas of Jerusalem points it out as the most admirable of all wonders: Cosmas of Jerusalem, Patrologia Graeca 38, 545. 59  DwD 6 Tyrion 2. 60  FfC 3 The Captain of Guards.

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It is probably the wonder whose inclusion in the list is more controversial, maybe responding more to a feeling of Longstrider in relation to its use than to the bells as objects in themselves. Some of the lists of historical wonders also include questionable elements, the inclusion of which responds more to curiosity or extravagance. This is the case with some of the wonders selected by the Venerable Bede: in the eighth century CE, this monk from Jarrow, in the north of England, chooses the Capitol of Rome as the first wonder, and he sustains this choice in statues with bells that ring if any enemy attacks Rome: The first of the seven wonders of the world, made by the hand of man, is the Capitol at Rome, the very salvation of the inhabitants, and greater than a whole city. In it were statues of the nations subdued by the Romans, or images of their gods, and on the breast of the statues were inscribed the names of the nations which had been conquered, with bells hanging from their necks. Priests or watchmen attended on these by turns, day and night, and showed much care in watching them. If either of them should move, the bell made a noise, and so they knew what nation was rebelling against the Romans.61

Likewise, he includes the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which would have nothing extraordinary if he had not described it as supported by four crystal crabs; or the iron statue of Bellerophon in Smyrna, supported in the air thanks to the action of large magnetic stones; or the Baths of Apollonius of Tyana, which were heated by the action of a single candle. Anyway, a whole series of wonders that can only exist in the world of imagination or fantasy, being influenced by the writings of Gregory of Tours, who in the sixth century also classified as a wonder Noah’s Ark.62 About the Other Possible Wonders in Longstrider’s List So far we have collected the wonders that appear mentioned as such, but considering that there were nine in Longstrider’s book, there are still two to identify. Among the options we have are the cities of Yi Ti, in the northeastern part of the Jade Sea, to the east of Qarth and the Bone Mountains and to 61  Venerable Bede, De septem mundi miraculis, Patrologia Latina 90, 961 (transl. Giles 1843: 11). 62  Gregory of Tours, De cursu stellarum ratio 1ff.

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the northwest of Asshai, in the easternmost part of Essos. Yi Ti’s Golden Empire was, according to legend, preceded by the Great Empire of the Dawn.63 It is characterized by its legendary wealth, which allows its princes to live in solid gold houses and have sweets made with pearl and jade powder. Lomas Longstrider, awestruck by its marvels, called Yi Ti “the land of a thousand gods and a hundred princes, ruled by one god-emperor”. According to Lomas Longstrider, none of the cities of the west can compare to those of Yi Ti in size and splendour: “Even their ruins put ours to shame”. In his Jade Compendium, Colloquo Votar—the best source available in Westeros on the lands of the Jade Sea—wrote that “beneath every YiTish city, three older cities lie buried”.64 Yi Ti is represented as a forested region of which four cities are known, Yin, Jinqi, Asabhad and further north, Tiqui. Descriptions of the landscapes and the presence of emperors, as well as their names, recall the medieval and early modern Cipango. It is considered an almost mythical region, because almost all the knowledge that is available comes from sailors. One of its greatest export resources is saffron, and it is famous in Qarth for its poetry.65 The Five Forts are another option. They are fortified citadels of great antiquity, also in the far east of Essos, but inland from the Golden Empire of Yi Ti, between the Mountains of the Morn and the Bleeding Sea.66 As described by Martin, García and Antonsson, they are very ancient fortified citadels dating back to the Golden Empire itself. According to them, some scholars argue that they were built by the Pearl Emperor to keep the Lion of Night and his demons away from the kingdoms of men. Others argue that the Valyrians were involved in their construction, based on the surrounding walls, which are constructed of a single block of molten black rock. However, it is believed that this is unlikely, the Five Forts preceding the rise of the Valyrian Freehold.67 Both options, which are included in the Yi Ti region, respond to the desire to expand the world of wonders to the east, as already happened with historical wonders, which were confined to the known world to the 63  Martin et al. (2014: 301–302) (“Beyond the Sunset Kingdom. The Bones and Beyond. Yi Ti”). 64  Ibid. 303. 65  CoK 41 Daenerys 3. 66  Martin et  al. (2014: 303) (“Beyond the Sunset Kingdom. The Bones and Beyond. Yi Ti”). 67  Ibid.

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Greeks and went no further. The Far East was an unknown place, given over entirely to fables and fantasies. Thus, geography and the myths of the various regions of the new world conquered by Alexander contributed to an expanding civilization that finds its common identity in the wonders and human achievements. These become an element of affirmation of the vast territories conquered and an ideal image of the Empire, delimiting its borders.68 From Alexander onwards, the Greek world would be linked to that of the East, and a more universal vision of human achievement was evident. Likewise, the journey of Lomas Longstrider connects Westeros and Essos, including some of its easternmost regions if we accept the options that we have just discussed for his two unnamed wonders. But above all, it seems that two other wonders are better suited to be included in Longstrider’s list, based on what we are looking at in relation to the ancient historical lists and the wonders contained in them, some of which have directly inspired those of A Song of Ice and Fire. The Great Pyramid of Ghis, on the coast of the Summer Sea, near the Slaver’s Bay, was in ruins at the time when the novels and the TV series are set. But the Great Pyramid of Meereen, in the city of the same name located in the final turn of that bay, had been built imitating that of the old Ghis, whose ruins were visited by Lomas Longstrider.69 It has 33 levels, like its predecessor, a number intentionally chosen as a sacred number for the Ghiscari.70 Among those in Meereen, the Great Pyramid stands out above the rest. They are pyramids located inside the city,71 some of them more similar to the Egyptian pyramids and others, to the Mayan pyramids, depending on how they have been depicted in the television series (see Fig. 2.3). The function of the immense building, however, is different, as it is a palace-prison. It is not necessary to remember that the pyramids of Giza, like the rest of the Egyptian pyramids, being tombs, were in the necropolises and therefore outside the cities. However, the scene of the pyramids of Meereen reminds us of the imaginative reconstruction of the Egyptian capital of Thebes depicted by Antonio Basoli in the Romantic period. In it we can see a large pyramid in the centre of the city, with smaller ones around it. Its great pyramid, with monumental entrances, windows and  Laury-Nuria (2013: 185).  Martin et al. (2014: 13–14) (“Ancient History. The Rise of Valyria”). 70  DwD 64 Victarion 1. 71  SoS 72 Daenerys 6. 68 69

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Fig. 2.3  Meereen. Thrones S4: Ep.3, “Breaker of Chains”, 0:46:29

upper balconies, only lacks the harpy on its top to look even more like Meereen’s.72 In any case, the source of inspiration in the Egyptian pyramids and especially in the Great Pyramid of Giza is more than evident. The Great Pyramid of Khufu/Cheops is the oldest historical wonder. It is the one wonder that appears in virtually every list, from Antipater of Sidon and Philo of Byzantium. And being the only one still standing, it is also considered today the dean of the New Seven Wonders of the World, placed above them.73 And, of course, another possible wonder could be the Lighthouse of Oldtown, the oldest city in Westeros, southwest of the Reach. It is a huge tower-shaped fortress, with a multi-phase construction design and a permanent fire on its top. In the same city is the Citadel, the place where the maesters are trained and which contains an immense library. It is said that  SoS 58 Daenerys 5; DwD 12 Daenerys 2; DwD 37 Daenerys 6.  Machu Picchu, Peru; Chichen Itza, in Mexico; the Colosseum, in Rome, Italy; the Christ the Redeemer statue in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the Great Wall of China; Petra, in Jordan; Taj Mahal, in Agra, India. This list was voted on 7 July 2007 in a public and international competition held on the initiative of Swiss entrepreneur Bernard Weber, founder of New Open World Corporation. More than 100  million votes, via the Internet and SMS, resulted in this new classification. 72 73

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King Uthor of the High Tower had a new tower built on the same location, the fifth that had been made, but this time entirely made of stone.74 The new tower rose 200  feet above the harbour. Legend has it that he commissioned Brandon Stark the Builder or his son, also named Brandon, to build it. Thanks to the construction of this fortress, the House Hightower was established as a noble house and the descendants of Uthor ruled Oldtown and the lands of the Honeywine River as kings.75 It is not difficult to see in Oldtown an imitation of the city of Alexandria, in Egypt, with its two most characteristic attributes: the Pharos and the Great Library. The Pharos, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, built in the time of the first two Ptolemies, was the third tallest building in the ancient world and the first wonder with a clear pragmatic purpose (see Fig. 2.4). As we have already mentioned, it was not definitively fixed in the canonical list of the Seven Wonders until the Renaissance, and neither Antipater of Sidon nor Philo of Byzantium included it in their list. We could accept that none of them included it in their respective lists because,

Fig. 2.4  On the left, the Lighthouse of Oldtown. Thrones S6: Ep.10, “The Winds of Winter”, 0:27:04. On the right, Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach: Entwurf einer historischen Architektur. The Lighthouse of Alexandria (1721) (Public domain—Wikimedia Commons) 74  We see in this data a new parallel with the history of another of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus: this great temple was built five times, on the same site, and each of them was greater and more perfected than the previous one. The fifth construction (Phase E) was the great wonder, the first Greek temple built entirely of marble. 75  Martin et al. (2014: 213) (“The Seven Kingdoms. The Reach. Oldtown”).

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when they saw it daily in Alexandria, it was something close and not extraordinary. And then we could find ourselves in the same situation with Lomas Longstrider, that is, if we consider it that he must have been a maester. This might make us think that the Lighthouse was not among his nine wonders. On the contrary, we might consider that it was there, although not openly quoted, since, as with the Colossus of Rhodes and the Titan of Braavos, the influence of the Lighthouse of Alexandria on the Lighthouse of Oldtown is equally evident, the clearest manifestations of all the phenomenon we are looking at.

4  The Presence of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World in Game of Thrones We dedicate the following section to a brief review of the reflection of the Seven Wonders of Antiquity in the world devised by Martin. To begin with, we have already talked about some of them, as their correlation is unambiguous. If the first of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World was the Great Pyramid of Giza, we just saw that its equivalent would have been the Great Pyramid of old Ghis (note the proximity between the two toponyms: Giza-Ghis; and also the name as Great Pyramid) or, failing that, the Great Pyramid of Meereen, which is the one that appears in the plot of the novels and is visually reflected in the television series. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were the second historical wonder by their age, if we stick to the canonical list. However, they have often been linked to another wonder that appeared numerous times on different lists, the Walls of Babylon, thus giving rise to the very conception of the city of Babylon as a wonder as a whole. In this way, as we have also mentioned above, we would understand the city of Qarth, where we can observe both elements, especially in its display in the television series. On the other hand, we could also detect the influence of the Hanging Gardens on the conception of the Dorne Water Gardens, in the vicinity of Sunspear. We are told in the novels that they were built by Prince Maron Martell as a gift to his wife, Princess Daenerys Targaryen, who was a daughter of Jaehaerys I the Conciliator. Thus they celebrate Dorne’s union with the rest of the Seven Kingdoms.76 In this tale we can see an evocation of the stories about the origin of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, which state that they had been a gift from the king to his Median  FfC 14 The soiled knight.

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wife.77 In addition, the scenes of the Water Gardens in the TV series were filmed in the gardens of the Royal Alcazar of Seville, in which the Arab architectural influence on the conception of palaces with gardens is felt.78 Arabs had first met that conception in the East, with a tradition present in Mesopotamia and Persia, a descendant of the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian palatial gardens. There is no clear equivalence in Game of Thrones for the chryselephantine Statue of Zeus made by Phidias in Olympia.79 However, if we stick to its size and majesty, and its typology as a cult statue inside a great temple, we could draw an analogy with the equally huge statues of the Seven in the Great Sept of Baelor, in King’s Landing. By changing one by seven, for obvious reasons, the idea of power and majesty of the deities remains, underlined by their size and the twilight and mystery that surrounds their faces.80 We have already analysed the very obvious equivalences between the Colossus of Rhodes and the Titan of Braavos, on the one hand, and between the Lighthouse of Alexandria and the Lighthouse of Oldtown, on the other. And we also noted that they are the clearest correlations between ancient wonders and those of Game of Thrones, not only for their visual conception but also for their location or functionality. On the contrary, we find no clear equivalents for two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, namely, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus and the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. True, some great temples appear in the TV show, such as the Great Sept of Baelor or, above all, the Temple of the Lord of Light, R’hllor, in Volantis, considered the greatest in the world.81 But none of them resemble the great classical temple. As for the 77  Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander 5.1.35: Syriae regem Babylone regnantem hoc opus esse molitum memoriae proditum est, amore coniugis victum, quae desiderio nemorum silvarumque in campestribus locis virum conpulit amoenitatem naturae genere huius operis imitari. “There is a tradition that a king of Syria, who ruled in Babylon, undertook this mighty task, induced by the love for his wife, who for longing for the woods and groves, prevailed upon her husband to imitate in the level country the charm of Nature by a work of this kind” (transl. Rolfe 1946). 78  Thrones S5: Ep.2, “The House of Black and White”, 0:19:29. 79  Burton (2015). 80  Thrones S5: Ep.1, “The Wars to come”, 0:06:56. As a comparison, we can see the reconstruction of Phidias’ Zeus in Olympia by F. Adler, in Barringuer (2015: 21). 81  Martin et al. (2014: 268) (“Beyond the Sunset Kingdom. The Free Cities: Volantis”): “in Remnants of the Dragonlords, Archmaester Gramyon claims that it is fully three times larger than the Great Sept of Baelor”.

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Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, it seems that there is no such construction, either by architectural-sculptural design or by functionality, that is, a monumental tomb designed to preserve the memory of the person or people buried in it. Beyond the Seven Wonders of the canonical list, Maarten van Heemskerck included the Colosseum, in Rome, as one more wonder, in recognition of the most emblematic building of the Roman Empire. The Colosseum had already been regarded as a wonder by ancient authors, such as the Roman poet Martial.82 He cited it as the most important wonder of all, since when the first lists were drawn up by the Greeks, Rome had not yet made its great monumental constructions. And yet, in his time, the Roman Empire dominated all that world known to the Greeks in which the Seven Wonders had been. Since then, it has been almost unanimously regarded as the eighth Wonder of the Ancient World and today is one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.83 In the world of Game of Thrones, it is depicted in the Great Arena of Meereen, Daznak’s Pit, practically with all its features.84 We can see the social division in the tiers of seats, a royal box, vomitoria, velarium and gladiator fights in the arena.85

5  Conclusions The idea of the Seven Wonders as a cultural treasure, as an allegory of the outstanding things, is part of the general heritage and tradition of the Mediterranean world. Over time, this idea extended to all the world. In this chapter we have seen how this idea has transcended the very reality of that cultural and artistic heritage to get to the plane of fantastic fiction. It is found in our cultural background and even unconsciously 82  Martial, Liber Spectaculorum 1: “Barbara pyramidum sileat miracula Memphis, / Assyrius iactet nec Babylona labor; / nec Triuiae templo molles laudentur Iones, / dissimulet Delon cornibus ara frequens / aere nec uacuo pendentia Mausolea / laudibus inmodicis Cares in astra ferant. / Omnis Caesareo cedit labor Amphitheatro, / unum pro cunctis fama loquetur opus; “Let barbarous Memphis stop talking about the miracle of the pyramids; Assyrian toil is not to vaunt Babylon and the soft Ionians are not to garner praise for Trivia’s temple; let the altar of many horns say nothing about Delos, and do not let the Carians lavish extravagant praise on the Mausoleum suspended in empty air and exalt it to the stars. All labour yields to Caesar’s amphitheatre: Fame will tell of one work instead of them all” (transl. Coleman 2006: 1). 83  See note 73. 84  Thrones S5: Ep.9, “The Dance of Dragons”, 0:33:07. 85  Martin et al. (2014: 297) (“Beyond the Sunset Kingdom. Beyond the Free Cities: Ib”).

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manifests itself in any kind of representation—being real or imaginary—of great human constructions as symbols of various civilizations. The figurative expression of this idea, that is, its visualization, has greatly contributed to the connection with this cultural background. Thus, the conversion of lists of wonders into series of engravings and paintings has historically played the same role as, in the case of Martin’s world, the passage from the written text of novels to television image. That conversion from words to image in relation with the wonders can be clearly understood when A Song of Ice and Fire—the novels—became Game of Thrones, the television series. Whereas in the former there are lists, where wonders are kept, in the latter there are maps, from where wonders emerge. We have seen that also present is the phenomenon of the elaboration of lists of great human constructions, as well as that of the scholarly compilers who dedicated themselves to it. The ideas of wonder, autopsía or periégesis, the criteria to be able to consider something a wonder, the possibility of the same scholarly origin of the lists in a great centre of knowledge, even cultural openness to the East, all of this is present in the same way in our history and in the work that is the subject of this chapter. Likewise, we have seen the influence of wonders or other great historical constructions, or some of their features, on the creation of Longstrider’s Nine Wonders. And in turn, we have also seen how most of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World have also had their reflection in various wonders or great human constructions of Martin’s world. It would be difficult to try to imagine the different locations of that imaginary world without the constructions that have become distinctive symbols of those regions. No one could imagine the separation with the northernmost areas of Westeros or think of the dangers lurking beyond without the Wall. No one would differentiate the city of Oldtown from the other cities of Westeros, especially as characterized by their castles, were it not for its Lighthouse and by the Citadel of the Maesters and the appeal to Alexandria. Meereen, a city of slavers, would not be seen equal without its pyramids and fighting pits, which link it to the two greatest slave societies of our ancient past, Egypt and the Roman Empire. Qarth would not be seen as the wonder of the East if it were not assimilated to Babylon through its walls and gardens. Braavos, a free city founded on trade and maritime power, as Rhodes and Venice were, would not be so easy to understand without its Colossus, the Titan, its canals and the Iron Bank.

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In other words: the world of Game of Thrones would be incomplete without its wonders.

Bibliography Álvarez-Ossorio Rivas, A. 2019: “Sword and Sorcery, and something else… The Ancient World and the Classics in Fantasy Novels”, in F. Lozano, A. Álvarez-Ossorio and C. Alarcón (eds.), The Present of Antiquity. Reception, Recovery, Reinvention of the Ancient World in Current Popular Culture, Besançon, 141–165. Barringuer, J. M. 2015: “The Changing Image of Zeus in Olympia”, Archäologischer Anzeiger 1, 19–37. Bostock, J., Riley, B. T. 1855: Pliny the Elder: Natural History, London. Britannicus, I. 1512: Junius Juvenalis, opus quidem divinum, antea impressorum vitio tetrum, mancum et inutile, nunc autem a viro bene docto recognitum, Venice. Burton, D. 2015: “The Iconography of Pheidias’ Zeus”, Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 130, 75–115. Carbó García, J. R. 2015: Apropiaciones de la Antigüedad. De getas, godos, Reyes Católicos, yugos y flechas (Anejos de la Revista de Historiografía 3), Madrid. Clayton, P., Price, M. J. 1988: The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, London and New York. Coleman, K. M. 2006: Martial: Liber Spectaculorum, Oxford. De Nazaré Ferreira, L. 2012: “Turismo e Património na Antiguidade Clássica: o texto atribuído a Fílon de Bizâncio sobre as Sete Maravilhas”, in F. de Oliveira, C. Teixeira and P. Barata Dias (eds.), Espaços e paisagens: Antiguidade Clássica e heranças contemporâneas: vol. I: línguas e literaturas: Grécia e Roma, Coimbra, 73–78. Di Furia, A. 2012: “The Eternal Eye: Memory, Vision and Topography in Maarten van Heemskerck’s Roman Ruin ‘Vedute’”, in T. Bartsch and P. Seiler (eds.), Rom zeichnen: Maarten van Heemskerck 1532–1536/37, Berlin, 157–170. García Moreno, L. A., Gómez Espelosín, J. 1996: Relatos de viajes en la literatura griega antigua, Madrid. Giles, J. A. 1843: The Complete Works of Venerable Bede. Vol. IV: Historical Tracts, London. Goodley, A. D. 1920: Herodotus: Histories, Cambridge (MA). Hassler, C. D. 1849: Fratris Felicis Fabri evagatorium in Terrae Sanctae, Arabiae et Aegypti peregrinationem III, Stuttgart. Kroll, W. 1941: “Philon 49”, Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaften, XX, 1, Stuttgart, 54–55. Laury-Nuria, A. 2013: “Regard et representation du paysage dans l’epopée grecque d’époque impériale: le cas des mirabilia”, Pallas 92, 183–202.

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Le Grand, L. 1984: “Relation du pèlerinage de Nicolás de Martoni (1394–1395)”, Revue de l’Orient Latin 3, 566–669. Lewis, B. 1975: History Remembered, Recovered, Invented, Princeton. Madonna, M. L. 1976: “Septem mundi miracula come templi della virtù. Pirro Ligorio e l’interpretazione cinquecentesca delle meraviglie del mondo”, Psicon 7, 25–63. Martin, G. R. R., García, E. M. Jr., Antonsson, L. 2014: The World of Ice & Fire: The Untold History of Westeros and the Game of Thrones, New York. Pajón Leyra, I. 2011: Entre ciencia y maravilla. El género literario de la paradoxografía griega (Monografías de Filología Griega 21), Zaragoza. Paton, W. R. 1925: Palatine Anthology, vol. IX, Cambridge (MA) and London. Ramírez Domínguez, J. A. 1983: Construcciones ilusorias. Arquitecturas descritas, arquitecturas pintadas, Madrid. Rolfe, J. C. 1946: Quintus Curtius. History of Alexander, Cambridge (MA). Romer, J., Romer, E. 1995: The Seven Wonders of the World: A History of the Modern Imagination, London. Sassi, M. M. 1993: “Mirabilia”, in G. Cambiano, L. Canfora and D. Lanza (eds.), Lo spazio letterario della Grecia Antica, Vol I: La produzione e la circolazione del testo, tomo II: L’Ellenismo, Rome, 449–468. Stramaglia, A. 2011: Phlegon Trallianus: Opuscula De Rebus Mirabilibus et De Longaevis, Berlin. Thevet, A. 1554: Cosmographie de Levant, Lyon. Veldman, I. 1977: “Maarten van Heemskerck’s Life, his Work and his Critics”, in I. Veldman, Maarten van Heemskerck and Dutch Humanism in the Sixteenth Century, Amsterdam. Verdugo Santos, J. 2007: “El interés por el pasado en la Antigüedad”, Revista Onoba 5, 195–218.

CHAPTER 3

“There had been a Great Strength in those Stones”: Materiality and Archaeological Perspectives of Westerosi Fortifications Jorge Rouco Collazo

1   “What do you think a knight is for, girl?”1 George R. R. Martin’s diligence when creating a realistic universe—besides dragons, the Others and magic—has resulted in a literary work replete with details of the society, culture, politics, economy and history of Westeros and Essos. This has allowed for analysing his work from many different perspectives, ranging from outreach literature on its historical inspiration2 and its potential as a teaching tool3 to the Game of Thrones universe as a transmedia phenomenon, through literary and thematic

 CoK 53 Sansa 4.  Larrington (2016); Pavlac (2017a); Porrinas González (2019a), among others. 3  Perea Rodríguez (2018). 1 2

J. Rouco Collazo (*) Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_3

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studies.4 The intention here is to analyse the role played by fortifications in the society of the Seven Kingdoms, to compare them with those of feudal Europe and to employ methodological tools inherent to archaeology and history in order to gain further insights into their material culture. The feudal society of the Seven Kingdoms is certainly medieval. The real Middle Ages and their historical developments were one of Martin’s main sources of inspiration for the plot and setting of A Song of Ice and Fire, a fact that the author himself has confirmed on several occasions.5 In particular, Martin has stated that Westeros is based on an allegedly realistic Middle Ages, thus differing from the romantic version more common in classic medievalism and neo-medievalism stemming from nineteenth-­ century Romanticism. This last variety has also left its mark on modern fantasy literature thanks to the work of J. R. R. Tolkien, another major source of inspiration for the US author. In the saga there is a conscious rejection of what Martin calls the ‘Disney Middle Ages’, for the intention has been to create a ‘realistic’ medieval world. For him, this is tantamount to a violent world in which knights employ fear and force of arms to impose their will on the commoners who are under their lords’ yoke.6 In other words, it is a rigidly hierarchical society with a ruling class led by the monarch, formed by the Great Houses, lords, petty lords and landed and hedge knights. The broad social base comprises commoners, mostly the bourgeoisie (merchants, bankers, entrepreneurs, etc.), and the peasantry. This hierarchy is based on the classic feudal model existing in Western Europe during the Late Middle Ages. Specifically, the social pyramid has several levels of loyalty and vassalage, with many ranks of nobility paying allegiance to the Great House of each region (Stark, Greyjoy, Tully, Arryn, Lannister, Baratheon, Tyrell and Martell). This feudal state is underpinned by the serfdom of most of the peasantry. In this political structure, the king acts as a primus inter pares, the arbiter of the system. Justice is exclusively handed down by him, while the nobles administer it in his name. Being the supreme judge, he has to maintain the status quo in his kingdom between several powers so as to remain on the throne. For, as with all feudal rulers, most of the soldiers in his 4  Błaszkiewicz (2014); Carroll (2018); Emig (2014); Frankel (2014); Horton (2014); Jamison (2017); Lowder (2012); Lozano et  al. (2013); Rohr and Benz (2020); Young (2012, 2014), among others. 5  Martin: “How do you research your novels?” [webpage]. Retrieved from http://www. georgerrmartin.com/for-fans/faq/ (accessed 4 July 2022). 6  On Martin’s sources of inspiration and neo-medievalism, see Carroll (2018: 1–23).

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army are supplied by his vassals, the number of troops that he himself is able to enlist from his private possessions, namely, the Crownlands, being very limited. Once they had lost their dragons, the Targaryen kings were also obliged to come to a similar compromise to guarantee their military superiority. It is for this reason that in Robert’s Rebellion the alliance of half of the Great Houses of the Seven Kingdoms was sufficient to overthrow the ruling dynasty.7 The king was thenceforth just another feudal lord with his own territory,8 who had to curry the favour of the others by awarding offices, settling disputes and making concessions: Each lord had his own demands; this castle and that village, tracts of lands, a small river, a forest, the wardship of certain minors left fatherless by the battle. Fortunately, these fruits were plentiful, and there were orphans and castles for all. Varys had lists. Forty-seven lesser lordlings and six hundred nineteen knights had lost their lives beneath the fiery heart of Stannis and his Lord of Light, along with several thousand common men-at-arms. Traitors all, their heirs were disinherited, their lands and castles granted to those who had proved more loyal. (CoK 20 Tyrion 3)

In the Westerosi mind-set, the king is always wise, magnanimous and righteous.9 For this reason, all justice, even that administered by the lords in their own jurisdictions, is delivered in his name. And after Jaehaerys’ creation of a unified code of law for the Seven Kingdoms,10 all the lords should apply the same laws, albeit with some resistance to change in several regions. Without a shadow doubt, Eddard Stark is the character who upholds this custom most zealously, acting as both the Hand of the 7  Paradoxically, even with the dismemberment of the Seven Kingdoms in the War of the Five Kings just after his death, Robert I Baratheon was the king with the greatest direct territorial—and military, following the demise of the Targaryen dragons—power since Aegon’s Conquest. This is so because, at the time, House Baratheon ruled over the Crownlands, including Dragonstone, and the Stormlands. 8  The king’s possessions in the Seven Kingdoms seem to be restricted basically to the Crownlands. The only ones outside them appearing in the novels are Summer Hall in the Stormlands and Pennytree in the Riverlands. Martin et al. (2014: 87–88) (“The Targaryen Kings. Daeron II”); DwD 49 Jaime 1. 9  The Brotherhood without Banners, which seeks to keep the King’s Peace, would epitomise this belief, calling themselves ‘men of the King’. This monarch would be the idealised late King Robert, because none of the warring parties in the War of the Five Kings are considered to be legitimate because of their evil deeds. SoS 18 Arya 3. 10  Martin (2018: 231–273) (Fire and Blood, “Jaehaerys and Alysanne: Their Triumphs and Tragedies”).

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King—“All justice emanates from the King”11—and as the ruler of the North: In the name of Robert of the House Baratheon, the First of his Name, King of the Andals and the Rhoynar and the First Men, Lord of the Seven Kingdoms and Protector of the Realm, by the word of Eddard of the House Stark, Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North, I do sentence you to die. (GoT 2 Bran 1)

Delivering justice also implies keeping the King’s Peace. Anyone breaking it since the time of Aegon the Conqueror would have to face the power of the king in his role of supreme military commander.12 As another of the king’s main roles is that of the warrior, as the epitome of knighthood,13 he is obliged to resort to force of arms to protect the borders of the realm and to keep his peace, whenever necessary. For instance, Robert I Baratheon personally suppressed Balon Greyjoy’s revolt, while the Targaryen crushed the five Blackfyre rebellions in succession. For their part, the noblemen are bound by oath to muster their vassals and troops at the king’s calling. Furthermore, since the times of Aegon I, the monarchy has created several military ranks, with a view to protecting the borders, awarded to the Great Houses on an all but hereditary basis. For example, members of the Stark family have been Wardens of the North for generations; the Arryns, Wardens of the East; the Tyrells, those of the South; and the Lannisters, those of the West. In all four cases, each wardenship coincides with the political region of the Seven Kingdoms controlled by the Great House in question. For this reason, the rank is more of a symbolic nature than a truly military or administrative one,14 these liege lords already being obliged by oath to protect their territory and their vassals who have sworn allegiance to them.15 There are also other minor wardens under the authority of the Great Houses who are tasked with protecting a number of strategic points. As is  GoT 21 Eddard 4.  Martin (2018: 40–50) (Fire and Blood, “Three Heads Had the Dragon: Governance under King Aegon I”). 13  Pavlac (2017b). 14  In several cases, as with the Wardens of the South, this rank has become even more honorific over time, since it was originally created to protect the border with Dorne, before this principate joined the Seven Kingdoms. 15  GoT 5 Eddard 1. 11 12

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the case of the passes of Dorne—Fowler and Yronwood are the Wardens of the Prince Pass and the Boneway, respectively—and even rivers—the Manderly Wardens of the White Knife—as routes leading to the heartland of the North. Nevertheless, these designations were also granted by the Crown as a mark of respect and favour, as in the case of the naming of Littlefinger as Lord Paramount of the Trident16 and the removal of Robert Arryn as the Warden of the East for the benefit of Jaime Lannister, taken by all the Vale Houses as a great offence.17 For all these reasons, the king must be on good terms with the nobility, supress rebellions, deliver justice and seek the prosperity of the realm. To this end, he rules with the help of the Hand of the King and the small council, formed mostly by lords and the Great Maester. Traditionally, the seats on the small council are occupied by the Hand of the King, the Lord Commander of the Kingsguard, the Master of Coin, the Master of Laws, the Master of Ships, the Master of Whisperers and the Great Maester. However, apart from the Hand of the King, who acts as regent in the absence of the king, the rest of the offices do not have any kind of fixed powers, insofar as these vary from king to king. Political administration in the Seven Kingdoms is still in its infancy, despite the efforts of Jaehaerys I to create the first unified code of law and to improve administrative practices in the realm,18 without being as sophisticated as that of the late medieval European monarchies.19 Paradoxically, the existence of a permanent court in the Seven Kingdoms clashes with that of itinerant royal courts throughout most of the Middle Ages. Below the monarchy and underpinning its power are the Great Houses,20 the authentic principal actors in the Game of Thrones universe,  CoK 66 Sansa 8.  These houses continue to call Robert Arryn “True Warden of the East”: GoT 35 Catelyn 6. 18  Martin (2018: 231–273) (Fire and Blood, “Jaehaerys and Alysanne: Their Triumphs and Tragedies”). 19  Pavlac (2017b: 59–61). 20  Apart from the civil war, noblemen had a say in the crowning of a new king, in event of a dispute over succession, by voting in a great council. The council, which was attended by all the lords of the realm, was only called on three occasions, twice to choose the successor to the throne and once to elect a regency council (101, 136 and 233 AC). All the dates in this chapter are AC, to wit, After the Conquest (of Aegon I) and BC for Before the Conquest. Martin et al. (2014: 60–65) (“The Targaryen Kings. Jaehaerys I”), 82–86 (Aegon III) and 106 (Maekar I); Martin (2018: 339–390) (Fire and Blood, “The Heirs of the Dragon: A Question of Succession”). 16 17

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governed by strict rules and moral codes based on personal and house honour.21 These conceptions are reflected in Westerosi folklore and courtly literature and music, with tales of noble knights and virtuous ladies, and even in the Great Houses’ mottos like “As High as Honor” of House Arryn and “Family. Duty. Honor” of House Tully.22 The identity of the Great Houses is fundamental, an aspect that crops up frequently in the literary saga, since all their family and household members adopt their respective coat of arms and colours. The heraldic system is fully developed in Westeros, being central to social hierarchy and comparable to the development of heraldry in Europe since the twelfth century.23 Therefore, a coat of arms is a prerequisite for noblemen and noblewomen and even for hedge knights, namely, the lowest noble rank, for it is the only thing that differentiates them from mounted mercenaries. This is the reason why Ser Duncan the Tall had his blazon drawn on his shield to take part in the tournament.24 In all Westeros, the right of primogeniture prevails, with men having priority over women, except in Dorne. The firstborn inherits the family possessions, and the younger brothers, as Eddard Stark hopes for Brandon and Rickon,25 are employed as keepers of the house’s minor castles or search for fortune as knights sworn to other Great Houses, in the Night’s Watch, like Ser Waymar Royce, as maesters or septons. Successful second sons can even found their own minor houses, as with House Greystark and House Karstark in the North, both lesser branches of House Stark.26 Noblewomen are expected to marry into another noble house or to become septas or silent sisters. Succession is cognatic, but the house name is transmitted only through the male line. In the North, at least, it is possible to adopt someone as a family member, giving him or her the house name to avoid its extinction.27 21  Nevertheless, there is a clear contradiction between the codes of conduct that noblemen, noblewomen and knights are expected to follow and everyday practice. This contradiction is one of the main themes in Martin’s work and glaringly evident in Sansa’s plot. In this respect, see Carroll (2018: 23–54). This duality between theory and practice was also the case in feudal Europe: Porrinas (2019b). 22  GoT appendix. 23  Gwynn-Jones (1998); Jones (2010). 24  Martin (2015: 50) (“The Hedge Knight”). 25  GoT 2 Bran 1. 26  SoS 21 Catelyn 3. 27  This is one of the proposals that have been put forward to resolve the problem of the inheritance of the widowed Lady Hornwood: CoK 17 Bran 2.

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Albeit restricted, social mobility exists among the nobility, with Petyr Baelish (Littlefinger) being perhaps the best example of this, since his grandfather started life as a hedge knight, while he himself was named Lord Paramount of the Trident and Lord of Harrenhall.28 Commoners can also become nobles, as can be observed in the ceremony of thanksgiving after the victory in the Battle of the Blackwater. Some of the rank and file who had stood out in combat were rewarded by having their sons elevated to the status of squires, thus climbing the first rung of the ladder towards becoming knights and, therefore, noblemen.29 The fall from grace of nobles is much more commonplace than vice versa, with even entire houses being stripped of their privileges on occasion. This is evidenced by the large number of exiled lords and knights living as mercenaries in Essos, such as Jorah Mormont and the Golden Company.

2  A Seat for Every House Besides hedge knights, every noble family has a castle as a seat.30 In A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones, there are several types, classified according to their building characteristics, location and functions, which serve as the power centres of the Great Houses. Specifically, Westerosi fortresses range from small forts made of wood, brick or drystone like the Aegonfort to great castles built of ashlar blocks crafted by stonemasons, including the huge walls of Winterfell and the ominous fortress of Dragonstone, made of stone reshaped with dragonflame. Even ice is used as building material in the North. The type of material and the quality of the building techniques provide remarkable information on the capacity of the Great Houses to mobilise material and human resources, on the availability of these and even on regional customs. The building materials of a castle are never chosen at random and may even have to do with aesthetic preferences, as in the case of the walls of Qarth in Essos. Considered as one of the Nine Wonders made by man, according to Lomas Longstrider,31

 SoS 69 Sansa 6; CoK 18 Tyrion 4.  CoK 66 Sansa 8. 30  In actual fact, one of the main rewards given to the victorious knights after the Battle of the Blackwater, and the compensation offered to Ser Barristan Selmy, were land and resources to build tower houses, thus becoming landed knights: CoK 66 Sansa 8; GoT 58 Sansa 5. 31  DwD 58 Tyrion 11. On the Wonders of Game of Thrones, see De Miguel and Carbó in this volume. 28 29

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these triple walls are made of intricately carved sandstone, granite and black marble, respectively, more for ostentation than for defence: Three thick walls encircled Qarth, elaborately carved. The outer was red sandstone, thirty feet high and decorated with animals: snakes slithering, kites flying, fish swimming, intermingled with wolves of the red waste and striped zorses and monstrous elephants. The middle wall, forty feet high, was grey granite alive with scenes of war: the clash of sword and shield and spear, arrows in flight, heroes at battle and babes being butchered, pyres of the dead. The innermost wall was fifty feet of black marble, with carvings that made Dany blush until she told herself that she was being a fool. (CoK 28 Daenerys 2)

As with their medieval European counterparts, Westerosi castles are to be found in many different locations. In the Seven Kingdoms, there are castles located on plains, at the centre of a house’s territory and farmland, such as Winterfell of House Stark and Highgarden of House Tyrell, parallels to which can be found in Windsor Castle (England) and Mota del Rey (Spain). Coastal locations are also commonplace, examples including Sunspear of House Martell and Storm’s End of House Baratheon, both of which call to mind Bamburgh Castle, in Northumberland (England). Even the castles on islands like Pyke, the seat of the Greyjoy, have been inspired by Trakai Castle (Lithuania) or Kizkalesi Castle (Turkey). Using water as a defence, there are also castles whose wide moats can be flooded in the event of a siege, such as Riverrun of House Tully, plausibly modelled on Bodiam Castle (England). In the Seven Kingdoms, there are also several inaccessible hill or mountain strongholds, such as Casterly Rock of House Lannister and the Eyrie of House Arryn, both of which are said to be impregnable. There are many late medieval castles falling into this category, including Zafra Castle (Spain) and Eltz Castle (Germany). In the Seven Kingdoms, there are also mottes, namely, artificial mounds forming the site of a castle or camp, usually taking the shape of keeps surrounded by a wooden palisade, as in the case of Deepwood Motte, seat of House Glover in the North. Mottes were very commonplace in England and France, and to a lesser degree in the rest of Europe, during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. There are even more unusual types of fortifications in the Seven Kingdoms, as is the case of fortified bridges, such as Valentré Bridge in France and Tournai Bridge in Belgium. The Twins, the castle of House Frey, is in fact a

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fortified bridge that has made the family rich, for it is the only crossing on the Green Fork for several leagues. The bridge is so significant for the House’s identity and existence that it is depicted on its banner and its lord is known as Lord of the Crossing.32 Besides castles, there are also defence systems for monitoring and protecting the territory, as was sometimes the case in feudal Europe. However, feudal defence systems were always small and simple in comparison to those of centralised societies, such as the Roman and Chinese Empires, due to the fact that they were less capable of mobilising resources. The defence system developed by Richard Lionheart around Château Gaillard and the small fortresses for protecting Norman Vexin in Northern France are perhaps some of the most outstanding examples in feudal Europe.33 The most important defence system in the Seven Kingdoms is without doubt that of the Night’s Watch, with a total of 19 castles along the entire length of the Wall, only 3 of which were in use. The Wall, however, was not built by a noble house but by an autonomous military order very similar to its Christian counterparts in its conception, but without any religious purpose. It is House Arryn that has a more elaborate defence system in the Vale to protect the Eyrie. A castellan guards the Bloody Gates in the name of the Arryn family, a fortification that protects the High Road.34 The Gates of the Moon, a huge castle protecting the approach to the main fortress and which also serves as a winter residence for the Arryns, is located beneath the Eyrie itself. Being the castellan of this fortress is a great honour reserved for members of the noble houses of the Vale.35 Between the Gates of the Moon and the Eyrie, there are three other small fortifications—Stone, Snow and Sky—protecting the only approach. In other words, the complete defence system of the Eyrie is thus formed by five successive fortifications.36

 GoT, Appendix.  Contamine (2003: 219–224); Galbán Malagón (2019: 69–72); Gillingham (1991). 34  Thrones S4: Ep.5, “First of His Name”. 35  FfC 42 Alayne 2. 36  Despite the very few references in this regard in the novels, it can be inferred that it was not that odd for lords to use more than one castle or palace as a residence during the year, like, for example, the Arryns with the Gates of the Moon and the Martells with the Water Gardens. This roaming between fortresses, palaces and even hunting lodges is also confirmed by historical and archaeological sources for feudal royalty and nobility: Reeve and Thurlby (2005). 32 33

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Other great families also organised their territory along similar lines. This is the case of the Starks who, over the centuries, granted several minor houses the possession of Wolf’s Den Castle, at the mouth of the White Knife, to protect this access route to the North.37 The awarding of this castle to the Manderlys was the seed of White Harbor’s foundation. Also in the North, there are references to forts and watchtowers all along the kingsroad north to Winterfell, in the direction of the Wall.38 Although there is no mention of to whom they belong, judging by their location on a public road and their surveillance function, the logical conclusion is that they also fall under the jurisdiction of House Stark. The other major group of fortifications, besides lordly castles, is made up of walled cities and towns. Albeit scarce in Westeros, they have large populations in opposition to their European feudal counterparts.39 This is so because, in spite of having a bourgeoisie, with merchants and artisans grouped into guilds, they do not seem to play any role in the politics of their cities or the realm. All the major cities in Westeros are ruled by a noble house, this being the king in the case of King’s Landing, which is in charge of organising their defence, maintaining the walls, collecting tributes, keeping the peace and administering justice. The literary saga offers the greatest amount of information on the daily functioning of King’s Landing. Here, the members of the City Watch (aka the Gold Cloaks), who owe allegiance only to the king, are in charge of keeping the peace and maintaining the walls, while the guilds for their part neither participate in the defence of the city in popular militias nor have any kind of political representation or role in the realm. This is the big difference with the real Middle Ages, when over the centuries cities and the bourgeoisie gradually gained more power as political actors because of their wealth and capacity to mobilise troops in different conflicts.40

 DwD 30 Davos 4; Martin et al. (2014: 137–138) (“The North. The Kings of Winter”).  SoS 10 Bran 1, GoT 9 Tyrion 2. From the references to watchtowers and surveillance points, it can be deduced that they were commonplace throughout the Seven Kingdoms. For example: SoS 11 Davos 2. 39  Reche Ontillera (2019). 40  The unique role played by the guilds of King’s Landing in the Battle of the Blackwater was to produce weaponry and supplies (wildfire, arms, armour, shields, the chain closing the river, etc.). Neither did they ever participate actively in the battle nor did it cross anyone’s mind to oblige the citizenry of King’s Landing to help the City Watch in the defence of their city. 37 38

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For these reasons, the cities of the Seven Kingdoms should also be considered as strongholds, controlled by a house, for defending the territory, as in feudal Europe, where all towns and cities were fortified in some way. Usually, these fortifications include the walls and the lord’s fortress as the ultimate bastion, as in the case of White Harbor, Sunspear and King’s Landing. The latter is an extreme example in which, besides the Red Keep, all the city gates, reinforced to resist internal attacks in times of Aegon III’s regency, when Ser Tyland Lannister was the Hand of the King, can be considered as fortresses.41 All these feudal fortifications, irrespective of their building materials and type, had several functions. Traditionally, castles mainly played a military role, their physical structures and internal organisation revolving around this aspect. For this reason, most studies of traditional castles have focused on their poliorcetic elements, offering an overview of their evolution, in parallel to the development of siege techniques. Thus, traditional paradigms usually emphasise the transformation of passive castle defences into active ones, a trend originating in the Holy Land. The ultimate decline of medieval castles coincided with the introduction of gunpowder and the evolution of warfare towards decisive pitched battles, instead of sieges, after which they evolved into palaces, with luxury and comfort prevailing over defence. Over the past decades, however, other schools of thought have stressed the multi-functionality of feudal castles, which were complex structures that served as stages for a large number of interactions within feudal society. On the one hand, since the 1970s scholars have gone to great lengths to highlight the ability of fortresses to dominate peasant settlement networks, commanding them or at least exerting an influence on them.42 On the other, they have also enquired into the roles of castles as noble residences and administrative and economic centres, with an impact on their surroundings.43 Their symbolic role has also been studied as an expression of the power of liege lords over their vassals and serfs.44 In conclusion, the accent has been placed on the complexity of feudal castles, which had several functions, beyond their military role, each of which varied depending

 Martin (2018: 591–618) (Fire and Blood, “Under the Regents”).  Toubert (1973); Augento and Galetti (2018). 43  Creighton (2005, 2009a, 2009b); Liddiard (2016). 44  Coulson (1979); Johnson (2006); Liddiard (2005). 41 42

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on the context. These new proposals gave rise to a heated debate in academia during the 1990s.45 Owing to the fact that theirs was a feudal society as in medieval Europe, this multi-functionality can also be observed in the castles of the Seven Kingdoms, where even the seats of minor houses were fortresses, ranging from the high walls of Winterfell to the nameless tower house of the Baelish family, through Standfast, the little keep of the Osgreys who Ser Duncan the Tall momentarily served.46 In the period in which A Song of Ice and Fire is set, when the realm is being torn apart by civil war, Westerosi castles basically play a military role. In feudal warfare, the nobility is a warrior class swelling the ranks of the heavy cavalry, while all the resources required to wage war—such as provisions, money, men and equipment—are very hard to gather in feudal systems. For this reason, the main strategy of medieval warfare was to seek refuge in fortifications.47 Accordingly, warring parties usually limited their offensive actions to chevauchées (i.e. lightening raids carried out by horsemen with the aim of ravaging and plundering enemy territory, like the Black Prince’s famous chevauchée in 1355), before swiftly returning to the protection of their own fortresses, laying siege to which was usually far too expensive in terms of human and material resources. In other words, the defender always had the advantage. As to Martin’s fantasy universe, this tactic is also employed by several generals in the War of the Five Kings. In fact, this conflict is triggered by a small party of Lannister men-at-arms, under the command of Ser Gregor Clegane, who put hamlets and fields in the Riverlands to the torch so as to weaken the river lords and to oblige them to divide their forces.48 In feudal wars, capturing cities and castles was essential for seizing control of enemy territory and destroying its power bases. Thus, in the War of the Five Kings, laying siege to castles and ultimately storming them, plus battles to raise sieges, way outnumber pitched battles on open plains (Fig. 3.1), for they inevitably imply risking the lives of many men at one 45  This scholarly debate is known as the “Battle for Bodiam”. See Coulson (1991, 1992, 1996); Creighton and Liddiard (2008); Platt (2007); Stocker (1992); Taylor (2000); Turner (1986). 46  Martin (2015: 134–135) (“The Sworn Sword”). 47  A term coined by Gaier (1968). In military literature, also known as the Gillingham Paradigm: Gillingham (1992, 2003). For the priority given to sieges over battles in the Middle Ages, see Contamine (2003); Bachrach (1994). 48  GoT 44 Eddard 11.

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Fig. 3.1  Type of battles in the War of the Five Kings

throw. These sieges were usually very lengthy and expensive, as in the case of the well-known siege of Storm’s End that Stannis suffered for nearly a year.49 The War of the Five Kings also demonstrates that even the humblest fortress can be a decisive defensive factor,50 because any thick wall between the defenders and their enemies is better than nothing. As Tywin Lannister remarks, “One man on a wall was worth ten beneath it”.51 Therefore, the military role of castles is always omnipresent,52 even though it is not their main function or they are under-garrisoned, for not in vain does Maester Cressen state: “A castle must have towers wherever two walls meet at an angle, for defence”.53

 CoK 43 Davos 2.  But these fortresses do not apparently offer refuge to all the people living in the vicinity. Catelyn Stark clearly reflects the view held by the Westerosi nobility that commoners are a burden in such an eventuality: “Only my sweet brother would crowd all these useless mouths into a castle that might soon be under siege” (CoK 40 Catelyn 5). 51  CoK 50 Tyrion 11. 52  This role also includes surveillance and raising the alarm, as in the case of Seagard, whose famous bronze bell is rung to give warning of ironborn raids: CoK 12 Theon 1. 53  CoK 1 Prologue. 49 50

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In Westeros, the second most recurrent function of castles is as residences for the noble houses. For which reason, they always have an area that is more luxurious than the rest set aside for the lords and their families, plus others for visitors. Larger fortifications even have towers to this end, as in Winterfell and the Eyrie, as was also the case in the largest European castles.54 That lords reside for most part in one castle is closely linked to its other roles. In sum, castles are the physical embodiment of the political centre of the territory, with a court in which decisions under the jurisdiction of the house are made. It is for this reason that the Red Keep is one of the main settings in the TV series and that its destruction by Daenerys marks the end of the war for the Iron Throne.55 Moreover, as administering justice is one of the main functions and prerogatives of the nobility, castles are where people go to seek or beg for it,56 on the one hand, and where trials are held, even those by combat, on the other. The two in which Tyrion Lannister was involved were held inside the walls of two fortresses, first in the Eyrie and then in the Red Keep.57 Castles are therefore not only places of justice but also of injustice and oppression, embodied by the black cells under the Red Keep and the sky cells in the Eyrie. The Martell family even has a fortress, Ghaston Grey, that is exclusively a prison.58 Castle walls are also used to display the severed heads and other limbs of traitors and criminals as a warning to the rest of the population, as occurred with the bodily remains of Eddard Stark and his household in the Red Keep59 and the alleged head and hands of Davos Seaworth exhibited in White Harbor.60 This propaganda based on fear is again summarised in the motto of Tywin Lannister: “Spikes. Heads. Walls”.61 Apart from the high politics of the realm and delivering justice, liege lords have to manage their possessions, receive the requests of their vassals and settle their disputes on a daily basis. As before, they carry out these  Dixon and Lott (1993).  Thrones S8: Ep.5, “The Bells”. 56  An excellent example of this is when a number of peasants from the Riverlands enter the Great Hall of the Red Keep to beg for the King’s Justice: Thrones S1: Ep.6. “A Golden Crown”, GoT 44 Eddard 11. 57  Thrones S1: Ep.6, “A Golden Crown” and S4: Ep.6, “The Laws of God and Men”. 58  FfC 41 Princess in the Tower. 59  Thrones S1: Ep.10, “Fire and Blood”. 60  DwD 30 Davos 4. 61  GoT 70 Tyrion 11. 54 55

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duties in their castles in places specifically set aside for this purpose. With the counsel of maesters, stewards, castellans and other servants, lords have to decide on how to manage their assets, to collect taxes, to organise their soldiers and, at least in the North, to administer the grain stock for the long winters. A good example of this manorial management are the meetings between Brandon and several Stark vassals in Winterfell on the occasion of the harvest feast, when different political and administrative matters are discussed.62 In that castle, different chambers or halls are employed, depending on the degree of publicity or privacy required, for weddings,63 feasts, formal receptions and more delicate matters. Accordingly, most of the great castles, including Winterfell and Riverrun, have one throne room or reception hall, plus chambers for private meetings, such as the small council room of the Red Keep.64 It seems only natural to assume that this arrangement was also duplicated on a smaller scale in more unassuming fortresses. Just as medieval castles were central places on noble estates where taxes were collected, so too were they economic hubs attracting artisans of all sorts, although they did not always live within their walls. In the novels there is an inkling that this is also the case in the Seven Kingdoms, with goods made within the walls of castles being known for their quality. This is borne out by several references to “castle-forged steel” as a synonym of quality swords.65 The presence of maesters in the castles of Westeros is also linked to their role as lordly residences. This, together with the fact that the nobility forms part of a literate minority in the Seven Kingdoms, implies that, by and large, they are also intellectual centres. In point of fact, the oldest castles have built up great libraries over the centuries. For example, during his stay at Winterfell, Tyrion Lannister visits its Library Tower, where he discovers very valuable books of which there are only a few copies in the known world.66 Another fortress renowned for the quality and quantity of

 CoK, 17 Bran 2, 22 Bran 3.  The Red Wedding demonstrates that castles can also become cursed places due to the events that took place within their walls: SoS 52 Catelyn 7, Thrones S3: Ep.9, “The Rains of Castamere”. 64  Among others, GoT 6 Jon 1; CoK 17 Bran 2 for Winterfell, GoT 72 Catelyn 11, SoS 15 Catelyn 2. 65  Among others, SoS 32 Jon 4, CoK 2 Arya 1, GoT 1 Prologue. 66  GoT 10 Tyrion 1. 62 63

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its books is Ten Towers, in this case thanks to the passion of Lord Harlaw, nicknamed ‘Rodrik the Reader’.67 The last function of Westerosi castles as places of power, recorded throughout the Seven Kingdoms, is that of encastellation,68 in which the peasantry gradually settles under their walls or in the vicinity, which was also the case in feudal Europe. The Aegonfort gave rise to King’s Landing, Shadow City developed under the shadow of the towers of Sunspear, White Harbor came into being by decision of House Manderly and even Wintertown exists thanks to Winterfell, although mostly in the winter years. Even small fortresses have the ability to attract the peasantry, as is the case of the farms on the kingsroad to the north of Winterfell.69 The purpose of the aforementioned functions of castles is, to a greater or lesser degree, to display the power of their owners. Just the fact of having sufficient resources to build even a small tower marks the difference between commissioners and their neighbours. Harren the Black’s construction of Harrenhall, the largest and tallest castle in all Westeros, which required a huge workforce and vast quantities of money and natural resources, was the ultimate display of his power as King of the Islands and the Riverlands. Its destruction by Balerion’s fire was also a clear display of Aegon’s might, establishing the supremacy of the new rule by fire and blood over the old order of stone and steel prevailing hitherto in the Seven Kingdoms. Lord Corlys Velaryon did something similar to Harren when he started to build the lavish castle of High Tide, the house’s new seat at the expense of Driftmark. In this case, it was proof of the wealth amassed by the Sea Snake on his voyages.70 In addition to the great expense of building a castle, since the rule of Jaehaerys I, whoever wanted to do so or to reconstruct one had to pay a tax to the king for this privilege, which meant that this was only within the reach of a few privileged individuals.71 But the owners of these castles not only flaunt their power and wealth by building castles but also by their opulence. For which reason, the building materials  FfC 12 The Kraken’s Daughter.  Toubert (1973). 69  GoT 9 Tyrion 2. 70  Martin (2018: 339–390) (Fire and Blood, “Heirs of the Dragon: A Question of Succession”). 71  Martin (2018: 178–179) (Fire and Blood, “Time of Testing: The Realm Remade”). Taxation on castle building or reconstruction was not uncommon in feudal Europe: Coulson (1994). 67 68

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and furnishing are always of the highest quality, while castles are also the setting for sumptuous feasts and tournaments, such as the one celebrated under the outer walls of Harrenhall in time of King Aerys II.72 This show of extravagance sometimes has nothing to do with building materials or furnishing but with scarce resources, as evidenced by the Water Gardens with pools and fountains in the desert land of Dorne.73 The last function of Westerosi castles that should be highlighted, and one that is evident throughout the literary saga and TV series, has to do with the symbolism and identity of the realm’s noble houses. Castles, mainly the most ancient ones, are treated as if they were members of the houses to which they belong. This is a crucial point because they underpin the past, present and future of their families. In effect, they are the embodiment of their house in stone. This is the reason why there must always be a Stark in Winterfell and why its sacking is so dramatic for all the North, because over the centuries Winterfell and the Starks have come to represent peace in the kingdom: When there was a Stark in Winterfell, a maiden girl could walk the kingsroad in her name-day gown and still go unmolested, and travelers could find fire, bread, and salt at many an inn and holdfast. (SoS 25 Bran 2)

The symbolic role of Winterfell endures even as a ruin, since it is where Lord Bolton decides to celebrate the wedding of Ramsay with the alleged Arya—or Sansa—Stark, with a view to cementing his new power in the North.74 Each and every castle is replete with elements that recall the house to which it belongs or used to belong, with its blazon carved on its walls and its banner flapping atop its towers. The link between a house and a castle is so strong that in battle warriors are just as likely to shout ‘Winterfell’ or ‘Casterly Rock’ as ‘Stark’ or ‘Lannister’. This is so deeply engrained in the mentality of the people of the Seven Kingdoms that even Arya shouts it during the battle between Night’s Watch recruits and Lannister men-at-arms.75 A castle is the guardian of a house’s memory and legacy, for which reason in many families it is customary to be buried under it. Moreover, it can even express the religious faith of its owners.  Martin et al. (2014: 124–126) (“The Fall of the Dragons. The Year of the False Spring”).  Thrones S5: Ep.2, “The House of Black and White”. 74  Thrones S5: Ep.6, “Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken”, DwD 38 The Prince of Winterfell. 75  CoK 15 Arya 4. 72 73

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For example, the heart tree in the castle of Raventree, the seat of House Blackwood, is one of the main identity traits of the family as worshipers of the Old Gods in a region that prays mostly to the Seven.76 Along with their complex functions, as these castles have a materiality in space and an evolution in time, they can be objects of archaeological and historical analysis, interpreting the material record according to the social and cultural codes of the Seven Kingdoms, as already noted above. Thanks to the books, TV series and other materials, there is currently a huge quantity of cartographic, iconographic and written sources that allow for approaching the material culture of Westeros. The archaeological analysis of the materiality of ‘non-physical’ worlds is a field that has begun to be explored, mainly in videogames.77 Here, it is applied practically to the universe created by Martin, employing a methodology already well established in archaeology so as to gain further insights into Westerosi society.

3   “Rearing up against the sky”:78 Castles and Space To analyse the spatial distribution of castles in the Seven Kingdoms, it is necessary to map Westeros and locate them. Accordingly, a geographical information system (hereinafter GIS) was built to process this geographical data, a tool with a long track record in archaeology for performing spatial analyses and mapping in a georeferenced environment.79 But for this to work, there is a major obstacle that must be overcome: the distance between at least two points that can be accurately transposed to official maps. Although Westeros’ size has been frequently discussed, chiefly during the broadcasting of the TV series, there is little information in this respect in the literary saga. The only measure given is the length of the Wall, mentioned by Lord Commander Jeor Mormont in a conversation with Tyrion Lannister: The Night’s Watch is dying. Our strength is less than a thousand now. Six hundred here, two hundred in the Shadow Tower, even fewer at Eastwatch, and a scant third of those fighting men. The Wall is a hundred leagues long.

 DwD 49 Jaime 1.  Dennis (2016); Reinhard (2017, 2018). 78  CoK 32 Catelyn 3. 79  Conolly and Lake (2006); Murrieta-Flores and Martins (2019). 76 77

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Think on that. Should an attack come, I have three men to defend each mile of wall. (GoT 22 Tyrion 3)

As the Lord Commander claims that he has only three men to defend each mile of the Wall and as this ice structure does not appear as a straight line on official maps, it has been considered here that those 100 leagues also include changes in direction. In other words, Mormont is talking about the real distance that a sworn brother should cover on top of the Wall. Taking this measure as a yardstick and considering that the world in which the Seven Kingdoms are located is also spherical like the Earth, the physical map of the realm was plotted (Fig. 3.2). Following this, all the places (castles, cities, towns, inns, ruins, etc.) appearing in the canonical sources—the A Song of Ice and Fire novels with their maps, The World of Ice and Fire maps, plus those of Lands of Ice and Fire and those included in the official A World of Ice and Fire Android app—were added to the map. In the GIS, the source was specified for every place added to the map. This allowed for mapping the 5,719,095 km2 of the Seven Kingdoms in the greatest detail possible, a considerable size for a continent, which helps to gain a better understanding of the distances between different points that can be easy measured with the GIS. It is also possible to confirm that the difference in size between the realms making up the Seven Kingdoms are considerable, with the North accounting for over a third of the continent as a whole, despite being the least populated region (Fig.  3.3). Covering more than 142,000  km2, 10,000  km2 larger than Greece, for example, the Gift, the territory under the rule of the Night’s Watch, is also vast. After plotting the physical maps, it was the turn of the continent’s political and economic mapping so as to shed further light on the different kingdoms (Fig. 3.4). This provided sufficient data to perform several analyses, which were nonetheless limited by the fact that there was no height data for the terrain, which is very useful. Some of the results are discussed below.80 Firstly, the centroid—namely, the most central point—of each region of the Seven Kingdoms was calculated. When comparing their locations to those of the main cities and political capitals of each region, several aspects can be observed (Fig. 3.5). There are two clearly different patterns in the 80  All the maps plotted are available in the supplementary materials at http://hdl.handle. net/10481/58562.

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Fig. 3.2  Physical map of Westeros

Seven Kingdoms. On the one hand, there are political centres placed very close to the centroid of their region: Winterfell in the North, the Eyrie in the Vale, Riverrun in the Riverlands and Highgarden in the Reach. On the other, there is another group located on the coast: Casterly Rock in the

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Fig. 3.3  Surface area (sq. km) of the Seven Kingdoms

Westerlands, Sunspear in Dorne, Storm’s End in the Stormlands, Pyke on the Iron Islands and King’s Landing and Dragonstone in the Crownlands. As to the latter, their location is logical, for sea transport is the cheapest and fastest communication method, for which reason they are regionally better connected. Lastly, all the major cities in the Seven Kingdoms are also harbours. In view of this, the political centres located deep inland can also be explained. A central point within a region disputed by other petty kings, as occurred in the Age of the Hundred Kingdoms, ends up benefiting the house that holds it, thus facilitating the management of its territory. It is therefore conceivable that their central position helped the Starks to impose bit by bit their rule over the other northern houses and the Gardener of Highgarden in the Reach. A different case is that of the Tully family, a minor house until Aegon’s Conquest, despite Riverrun being

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Fig. 3.4  Map of the Westerlands (left) and the Vale (right)

well located in the Riverlands.81 But Harrenhall is also located very near to the centroid of the Riverlands, so Harren’s decision to build his castle and the kingdom’s capital there was clearly well thought out. Curiously, his and his father’s former residence was in Fairmarket,82 coinciding exactly with the centroid of the Seven Kingdoms as a whole: an excellent location for a market town. The GIS is also useful for gaining further insights into the spatial dimension of the War of the Five Kings.83 With this aim, the fighting was classified in three categories—battles, sieges and skirmishes (with no more than 100 combatants)—before being added to the map. The battles that  Martin et al. (2014: 156–160) (“The Riverlands. House Tully”).  Martin et al. (2014: 183–186) (“The Iron Islands. The Black Blood”). 83  Taking into account only the armed actions described in the novels, while excluding those between Targaryen and Lannister shown in the TV series during the last seasons, because they deserve their own analysis. Although not strictly related to the dispute over the Iron Throne, fighting on the Wall is included because Stannis was involved in it. 81 82

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Fig. 3.5  Centroids of the nine regions of the Seven Kingdoms

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took place at a distance from any known fortress or feature have a more approximate location. For example, although the place where the Battle of the Green Fork was fought has not been accurately established, it is known that the battlefield was one day’s march to the north of the Crossroads Inn, between the kingsroad and the Green Fork,84 on the left side of this river. After locating the battles, sieges and skirmishes, a density analysis, in particular, a kernel density analysis,85 was performed so as to determine where most of the fighting took place. The results underscore that most of the military clashes during the war occurred in the Riverlands, especially around Riverrun, with three battles and two sieges (Fig. 3.6). Since other castles of the Trident, including Darry and Harrenhall, were also stormed

Fig. 3.6  Kernel density analysis of the War of the Five Kings (left) and the war in the Riverlands (right)

 GoT 63 Tyrion 8, and 70 Tyrion 9.  Also applied in archaeology for multiple purposes. In this regard, see Baxter et al. (1997).

84 85

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several times, it should come as no surprise that Jaime Lannister sought to resolve the situation in the region without any further bloodshed.86 The next kingdom that suffered most was the North, especially Winterfell, which changed hands twice and maybe even thrice.87 Another key political centre, Storm’s End, was the target of two attacks, one by Stannis and the other by Jon Connington and the Golden Company.88 In conclusion, only the Iron Islands and the Vale, if the skirmishes between Catelyn Stark’s escort and the mountain clans are excluded, emerged unscathed from the war.89 The results of the kernel density analysis stress the fact that the primary objective of Westerosi military strategists were castles, as already observed. Finally, Thiessen polygons (or Voronoi cells) were also applied to the territory of the Seven Kingdoms. This arithmetic method calculates polygons from several points on an Euclidian plane, in which each polygon limit is equidistant to the adjacent points. As this allows for computing the theoretical areas of influence of several points, based on distance, it is a methodology that has been extensively employed as a spatial analysis tool in archaeological research.90 It warrants noting, however, that the result is an approximation since these polygons are only based on Euclidian distances, excluding surfaces, geographical features and other factors. But since this kind of data is not available for Westeros, Thiessen polygons are a valid way of analysing how the territory is structured. This method draws from the premise that all the castles shown on the maps belong to the main houses mentioned in the literary saga, of which the rest of the noble families with untraceable seats are considered to be their vassals. In other words, these houses represent the upper echelons of the nobility, just below the Great House of every kingdom. So as to apply Thiessen polygons, each one of the castles, towns and cities functioning as central places were converted into the points needed to generate them (Fig. 3.7). After completing this task, it was also necessary to consider the data from other sources in order to make a reliable interpretation of the results.

 FfC 31 Jaime 4, 34 Jaime 5, and 39 Jaime 6; DwD 49 Jaime 1.  CoK 47 Bran 6, and 70 Bran 7; DwD 63 The Sacrifice. 88  CoK 45 Tyrion 10; DwD 62 The Griffin Reborns. 89  GoT 35 Catelyn 6. 90  Hodder and Orton (1979: 187–195); Herzog and Schröer (2019). 86 87

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Fig. 3.7  Thiessen polygons of the Seven Kingdoms

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Taking the North as an example,91 it is important to explain a few points regarding the criteria employed to apply this methodology. First of all, the Gift, belonging to the Night’s Watch, is not included in the analysis nor is Skagos because, despite being nominally a vassal of the Starks, they never had effective power over this island.92 Winterfell forms part of the analysis aimed at identifying the territory under the direct control of the Starks, who were the overlords of the entire region. To the north of this castle, a point has been placed in the middle of the mountains stretching all the way to the Wall. Although the exact location of their villages is unknown, this is home to a large number of mountain clans, like the Liddles, the Norreys and the Wulls,93 who, despite being inaccurate, have been considered here as a single territorial power. In the Neck, the ruins of Moat Cailin have been included for their fundamental strategic value. Nevertheless, we do not know to which family this territory belongs. By proximity, it should fall under the jurisdiction of the Reeds of Greywater Watch, the Manderlys of White Harbor or the Dustins of Barrowton. Notwithstanding this, it is Ser Helman Tallhart and Galbart Glover, whose seats are further to the north, who Eddard Stark orders to muster troops to garrison it.94 Maybe they are obliged to send men for being masterly houses, the northern equivalent to the landed knights and in theory a rank below the noble houses, so perhaps they have greater obligations to the Stark family. Yet, since both families own important castles and are capable of mustering quite a few men-at-arms, for the Thiessen analysis, both were considered to be on par with the lordly houses (Fig. 3.8). The time has now come to discuss the results. Although the noble families of the North are, territorially speaking, fairly balanced, some of them stand out.95 The area under the direct control of the Starks is the same size or smaller than those of most of their vassals. This explains why, as in the case of the king, they would be in quite a difficult situation in the event of a general revolt against them. The Manderlys are the most powerful of the houses paying allegiance to Winterfell. And this is so not only because they 91  Thiessen polygons for the rest of the regions are available in the supplementary materials at http://hdl.handle.net/10481/58562. 92  Martin et al. (2014: 139) (“The North. The Stoneborn of Skagos”). 93  Martin et al. (2014: 139) (“The North. The Mountain Clans”). 94  GoT 21 Eddard 4. 95  The noble houses of the North have much more territory than their southern peers, because in smaller regions like the Reach and Dorne, there are many more documented houses. However, the northern lands are much less densely populated.

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Fig. 3.8  Thiessen polygons of the North

rule over White Harbor, the only city in the North, but also because they have three other fortresses under their control: Newcastle in White Harbor, Wolf’s Den on the other side of the White Knife and Ramsgate to the east of the city. Small wonder then that Lord Manderly states that Lord Locke will do what is required of him, because the land of Oldcastle is completely surrounded by the Manderlys’ domains. The same goes for the Flint of Widow’s Watch, confined on a small peninsula. In all his territory there are, in words of Lord Manderly, “a dozen petty lords and a hundred landed knights”.96 In this case, Thiessen polygons are well suited to the limits of their territory set out by Lord Merman, being in reality perhaps slightly smaller to the west of the White Knife than shown by the polygon: I can deliver King Stannis the allegiance of all the lands east of the White Knife, from Widow’s Watch and Ramsgate to the Sheepshead Hills and the headwaters of the Broken Branch. (DwD 30 Davos 4)  DwD 30 Davos 4.

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Lastly, that House Hornwood’s territory is sandwiched between the lands of House Manderly and House Bolton goes all the way to explain the clash between both over the inheritance of the Hornwood, when Lady Hornwood is left an heirless widow.97 Since the White Knife and the swamps of the Neck are located to the west of the territory of House Manderly, the lands of House Hornwood to the north would be its natural area of expansion. The proximity of House Bolton to House Karstark and House Umber also explains why these last two were among the first to join the Lords of Dreadfort in their uprising against the Starks. The other house in the North that has a vassal fortress, like House Manderly, is House Dustin of Barrowton. Goldgrass, the modest keep of House Stout, is very close to the Dustins’ own seat.98 Barrowton, along with Wintertown, is the only other large settlement in the North, after White Harbor. In conclusion, although most of the polygons generated logically seem to match the territories of the houses, distance is not always the most decisive factor for deciding on which of them rules an area. For example, the Ryswells, one of the main noble houses of the North, are scarcely mentioned in the novels or the TV series. Although Stony Shore, to the north of their seat, is within their area of influence, when this part of the coast is attacked by the ironborn, it is the men of House Tallhart and not those of House Ryswell who come to defend it.99 Therefore, maybe Stony Shore forms part of the territory of the former, rather than being under the rule of the Ryswells, despite the fact that the latter are closer, albeit with a river between them.

4   “This seems an old place”:100 Fortresses and Time Besides being located in a specific place in space, time is another aspect that has to be factored in when performing an archaeological and historical analysis on these fortresses. According to the maesters and folklore, Westeros has a long history with a succession of ages that can be considered as historical periods. Thus, the Dawn Age with the Children of the Forest would correspond to a hunter-gatherer society, the Age of Heroes  CoK 36 Bran 5.  DwD 33 Reek 2. 99  CoK 36 Bran 5, and 38 Theon 3. 100  SoS 57 Bran 4. 97 98

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with the First Men and their bronze weapons would be similar to the European Bronze Age and the coming of the Andals would mark the beginning of a sort of Iron Age.101 There is a debate among the maesters as to when these historical ages, which lasted thousands of years, actually began and ended. For instance, the Long Night is supposed to have occurred some 8000 or 6000 years ago, while it is conjectured that the Andals arrived 6000, 4000 or 2000 years ago.102 However that may be, the truth is that with the passing of time and the succession of human societies, material culture, fortresses included, has undergone far-reaching changes. Consequently, there are several fortifications that are now in ruins, including the castles of the Night’s Watch, Queenscrown103 and Moat Cailin, despite occasionally being reoccupied. The ruins of other fortifications, such as Summer Hall104 and the Tower of Joy, are far more recent. This is also the case of Castamere castle of House Reyne and Tarbeck Hall of House Tarbeck, destroyed by Lord Tywin Lannister, and which to this day remain as a warning to passers-by.105 Building techniques have also evolved to adapt to new social contexts, from the ringforts of the First Men, such as the Fist,106 to the current castles of the Andals. Round towers, for example, were introduced in the Seven Kingdoms by the latter.107 Likewise, the Westerosi castles that are still in use, many of them with hundreds or thousands of years of history, have evolved and changed over time owing to repair and restoration work after having been damaged or when the needs and preferences of their owners have changed.108 Building archaeology is a field whose aim is to study, employing all types of sources, the material transformations in built heritage.109 The application of this academic discipline to the castles of the Seven Kingdoms so as to understand them better is possible thanks to the graphic and textual information  Carroll (2017).  GoT 41 Catelyn 7, DwD 49 Jaime 1; Martin et al. (2014: 7–20) (“Ancient History. The Arrival of the Andals”). About the passing of time and chronology in Westeros: Whitehead (2012). 103  SoS 42 Bran 3. 104  Martin et al. (2014: 29–31) (“The Reign of the Dragons”). 105  SoS 20 Tyrion 3. 106  CoK 35 Jon 4; SoS 19 Samwell 1. 107  Martin et al. (2014: 142–144) (“The North. Winterfell”). 108  García Curieses (2017). 109  Azkárate Garai-Olaun (2010); Brogiolo (1988); Mannoni (1990); Parenti (1995). 101 102

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Fig. 3.9  Evolution and building phases of Winterfell. Base image by Riusma CC BY-SA 2.0 (Retrieved from https://www.lagardedenuit.com/wiki/index. php?title=Fichier:Winterfellmap.png [accessed 8 February 2022])

appearing in the novels.110 Let us take Winterfell and the Red Keep as examples. Winterfell is one of the oldest castles in the Seven Kingdoms, dating back to the time of the First Men (Fig. 3.9). According to legend, its first 110  The fortifications appearing in the TV series merit their own analysis because their settings combine real heritage sites, with their own building history, with additions for the filming of the different episodes. For further information on the heritage sites appearing in Game of Thrones, see the project www.heritageofwesteros.com (accessed 29 December 2019).

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building phase got underway during the reign of Brandon the Builder, who lived from 8000 to 6000 years before the time in which the literary saga is set.111 However, the maesters believe that Winterfell is the result of a series of ringforts,112 built in the area to make the most of the thermal waters, which then finally merged into one complex. The only extant parts of this oldest phase probably include the godswood, for the most part unchanged due to its sacred nature, plus the deepest levels of the crypts, since the foundations of buildings usually remain buried under subsequent layers. In this period there is evidence that Winterfell was sacked by the Boltons at least twice, for which reason the castle walls should show signs of damage and subsequent repair work.113 The second known phase corresponds to the construction of the First Keep which, because it is in ruins, could be regarded as part of the oldest phase. Nevertheless, taking into account the information provided by Maester Kennet, round towers were introduced by the Andals, for the First Men had built square ones.114 So, the terminus post quem of this keep would be between 4000 and 2000 years before the current age, according to the date chosen for the arrival of the Andals. The third building phase corresponds to the construction of the inner walls, which are still standing, dated by the maesters to 2000 BP.  The ditch belongs to the fourth phase, but cannot be dated with precision. The defences of Winterfell were completed in the fifth phase, under King Edrick Snowbeard who ordered the building of the outer walls, which is when the castle began to take its current shape.115 In the sixth phase—the next that can be identified—the highest watchtower was destroyed by lighting, approximately in the year 150 after the Conquest and 100 years before the birth of Eddard Stark,116 and was never rebuilt. The next phase coincides with the building of the sept of the Seven in the inner yard, after the wedding of Eddard Stark and Catelyn Tully in 283 AC.117 This phase reveals a change in spirituality in the castle, with the building of a temple for new divinities, before which the only  Martin et al. (2014: 142–144) (“The North. Winterfell”).  Martin et al. (2014: 142–144) (“The North. Winterfell”). 113  Martin et al. (2014: 142–144) (“The North. Winterfell”). 114  Martin et al. (2014: 142–144) (“The North. Winterfell”). In the Winterfell of the TV series, although different to the one described in the novels, it is also possible to observe the existence of square and round towers, alike, so they presumably date from different periods. Thrones S8: Ep.1, “Winterfell” and Ep.3, “The Long Night”. 115  Martin et al. (2014: 142–144) (“The North. Winterfell”). 116  GoT 9 Bran 2. 117  GoT 3 Catelyn 1. 111 112

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Table 3.1 Building phases of the Red Keep

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Phase Description

Date

0 1 2 3 3bis 4 5

Unknown From 0 AC 0–35 AC 35–37 AC 37–43 AC 43–45 AC 299 AC

Ruins before Aegon Wooden fort (Aegonfort) First reform Reconstruction in stone Aenys continues with the works Construction with Maegor Hand’s Tower demolition

sacred place had been the godswood of the Old Gods. But it is also material evidence of a change in the family retinue, because a sept needs a septon in charge of it, who would have required his own chambers in some part of the castle. The last phase of Winterfell is the destruction caused by the sack of Ramsay Bolton’s troops in 299 AC. Apart from the general damage, we know that the glass garden, a useful source of food in winter years, the Great Hall, part of the First Keep, the maester’s turret and the bridge that linked it to the rookery were all severely damaged.118 This phase also includes the repairs carried by the Boltons to celebrate Ramsay’s wedding. In conclusion, it is possible to identify several building phases in Winterfell, implemented over the centuries, reflecting successive changes in its functions and its owners’ tastes. Bearing in mind that it is a castle that has been in use for at least six millennia, there were obviously countless other transformations in its materiality that are impossible to determine without a proper field analysis. But not only buildings with such a long history have several building phases, the Red Keep, with three centuries of use, being a good example of this (Table 3.1). In this case, the current location of the fortress, now named Aegon’s High Hill, had a previous historical phase (Phase 0), represented by the ruins of several fortresses and towers made of stone, wood and mud, built by petty lords who had unsuccessfully attempted to settle in the mouth of the Blackwater. Following Aegon’s arrival on mainland Westeros, the first building phase of the castle got underway in 0 AC. It was a modest structure, called Aegonfort at the time,119 made mostly of wood, mud and brick, encircled by a wooden palisade. In a second phase, this fortress would develop in an anarchic fashion, with the building of additional wooden

118 119

 CoK 70 Bran 7, and 67 Theon 6.  Martin (2018: 3–26) (Fire and Blood, “Aegon’s Conquest”).

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towers and the broadening of the palisade. This phase overlapped with the construction of the walls of King’s Landing between 20 and 25 AC.120 During the third phase, dating back to the final years of the reign of the first Targaryen monarch (35–37 AC), the Aegonfort was demolished and the stone Red Keep was built.121 Aegon did not live long enough to see the castle finished, since its construction proper began during the short reign of his son Aenys I from 37 to 43 AC,122 namely, Phase 3bis. Nor did Aenys manage to complete the work before his death. The fourth phase got underway during the reign of his successor, his brother Maegor the Cruel, who adopted the drastic measure of demolishing all the completed work and starting anew with his own plan in mind. As a result, the Red Keep, which currently watches over King’s Landing from Aegon’s High Hill, was built from 43 to 45 AC.123 The king ordered that all the builders and masons taking part in the Red Keep’s construction be executed so as to prevent them from revealing the location of the many secret passages under Maegor’s Holdfast, a castle-within-a-castle. This Red Keep, which was the royal seat, underwent very few modifications in the following 200  years of Targaryen rule. The fifth and last archaeological phase documented in the Red Keep was also one of destruction, as in the case of Winterfell, specifically the demolition of the Tower of the Hand, ordered by Queen Cersei Lannister in 299 AC.124 While in the TV series, there is yet another virtually total destruction phase in the Red Keep during the assault of Daenerys Targaryen. Notwithstanding the fact that the Red Keep has only 300 years of history, it has also undergone 7 building phases, nearly the same number as Winterfell in 6000 years. This analysis of the evolution of Westerosi castles could also be applied to other fortresses in the Seven Kingdoms, even though there is less information on them because they do not appear so often in the plot. What we do know, though, is that many parts of Castle Black no longer in use are silent witnesses to the decadence of the Night’s Watch. We also know that sections of the outer walls of Pyke castle were

120  Martin (2018: 40–50) (Fire and Blood, “Three Heads Had the Dragon: Governance under Aegon I”). 121  Martin (2018: 51–70) (Fire and Blood, “The Sons of the Dragon”). 122  Martin (2018: 70–79) (Fire and Blood, “The Sons of the Dragon”). 123  Martin (2018: 80–106) (Fire and Blood, “The Sons of the Dragon”). 124  FfC 13 Cersei 3.

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rebuilt, after being breached by the artillery of Robert I in Balon Greyjoy’s Rebellion.125

5   “Lands, castle, some office?”126 The castles of the Seven Kingdoms are the main settings in the plot of A Song of Ice and Fire, in view of the fact that they are the chief power bases for the ruling class of Westerosi feudal society, the story’s main characters. Throughout the literary saga, it can be observed how those castles play a central role and have many interrelated functions for their owners, since they do not merely serve as refuges. They are also luxurious residences, manorial centres, courts of justice, prisons, barns, administrative centres, knowledge keepers, bases for controlling the surrounding territory and symbols of their noble houses. There can be no lord without a castle. Some of those castles are virtually additional characters in the literary universe created by Martin, with their own personality. This is the case of the ancient and serene Winterfell, symbol of peace and security for the North, or the young Red Keep, the emblem of the realm and the guardian of the Iron Throne, whose walls have witnessed intrigues, betrayals and bloodshed. The lore created by Martin is so rich and complex that his fantasy universe can be analysed from multiple perspectives. Westeros’ size and varied topography, together with its thousands of years of history, flesh out a vast world in which time and space allow for the diachronic evolution and spatial interaction of all its constituent elements. Feudal society in the Seven Kingdoms has been created in such a rich fashion that it is possible to perform historical and archaeological analyses on its fortifications, obtaining coherent results that can be interpreted according to Westerosi social and cultural codes. All of which allows for studying the role and functionality of the castles in Westeros’ feudal society and their deployment in the landscape from a diachronic perspective, thanks to the application of research techniques employed in the real world, as has been shown above.127 In conclusion, A Song of Ice and Fire is a transmedia creation, broadened with The World of Ice and Fire, Fire and Blood and The Tales of Dunk and Egg, which are of great interest in the field of humanities for different reasons, beyond purely literary analyses, reception studies and its impact  CoK 12 Theon 1.  SoS 20 Tyrion 3. 127  Rouco (2021). 125 126

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on pop culture. It also has a great potential in the field of education, as its plot and settings could be used to explain different historical and social objects of study.128 A number of methodological tools, like those described above, can also be applied to this universe, as a sort of case study, so as to gain a better understanding of their functioning. Lastly, this complex universe can even be leveraged to study a particular society with its own cultural rules giving rise to a specific material culture. Acknowledgements  The author would like to thank Carlos J. Galbán Malagón and Mikel Herrán Subiñas for their valuable comments and advice.

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CHAPTER 4

From Python to Viserion: Dragon’s Natural History Alberto Marina Castillo

“Our eyes have seen great wonders and our souls are chastened by what we have endured”. A. Conan Doyle, The Lost World, p. 293.

In these pages, I propose to lead us on a brief tour in the footprints of the dragon and hazard that there is a parallel between the cinematographic beasts of Game of Thrones and their literary antecedents. I will turn to several passages from the series that, without doubt, will please readers in hunt of dragons, that is to say, those who “sometimes see a cloud that’s dragonish”.1 In a minor work “for use of those who still believe in the cultural edition”—today out of print and near impossible to find, as suits these recent 1

 Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra, act 4, scene 14.

A. Marina Castillo (*) Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_4

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works that a terrible bookish establishment makes paradoxically remote in an instant—Mario Muchnik took up the distinction established by the great Einaudi between “yes” publishers and “no” publishers: while some— that we could identify as being “like us”—published what is seen as indispensable, others surrender in a twisted and more or less declared manner to the dictatorship of the current and immediately sellable.2 If there is another attempt or earthquake, in very few days, they have already cooked up the corresponding volume, as hasty as incidental, that is to be talked about around the water cooler. For that reason, I fear that this article will merely add to the ranks of sensationalist “no” publications, given that it effectively obeys the mood swings of chance only a few days before being pronounced as a lecture one afternoon in May 2019. In my defence, I will put forward why that change in direction is necessary: a dragon—the last of them?—led by Daenerys, lady of the beasts, had lain waste, from the morning to the night, to the previously believed-to-be impregnable King’s Landing (the date was, if I remember correctly, the 12th of May and the episode “The Bells”). The origin of this text has to be traced, effectively, to the ashes of the city and the people, as remains of the sacrifice. But, to call a spade a spade, the thesis and observation on which I based myself— that the series took new impetus with the progressive restitution of the Dragon to the privileged position that, in my opinion, belongs to it—did not require reformulations: rather, the surge of terror, the devastation and the ferocious empire of the animal—that had also been growing in the heart of the tragic heroine—only served to confirm this thesis and yearning. We applaud it.

1   Hic sunt dracones We had seen the dragons being born from the embers, as a new Daenerys revealed herself to the mortals—and also to television viewers—risen from the flames; we saw the eggs that she had until then jealously guarded; we saw them grow into those little beasts, the first deadly flashes of fire at the voice of “drakarys”, the hunger that decimated the flocks of sheep, the fall of Rhaegal, the green dragon, wounded by a monstrous dart (Thrones S8: Ep.4), and that of Viserion, resuscitated by the Night King and made part of his dismal army. But until the last season, and although their power was gradually making itself known, the dragons seemed to be acclimated, almost domesticated, to the service of the Targaryen princess. And it is in 2

 Muchnik (2002).

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the third and fifth episodes (“The Long Night” and “The Bells”, not to speak of that unexpected and promising zombie dragon whose rebirth coincides with the end of the penultimate season) that they have free rein, even when led by their respective owners, and reveal their power. But, where had the dragon been? And I do not only refer to the pseudo-­ medieval world that Game of Thrones shows on the screen, but to Western tradition, like others plagued with these melancholy hybrid creatures. How do we recover, not the idea and the image of the dragon, but the shock and fear that they knew how to inspire? Is this monster that represented evil and terror, but also offered itself as the guardian of purity and virtue against all that stalked them, still capable of terrifying us? The fear of the monster in Martin’s and HBO’s saga has perhaps been confined or eclipsed by the fear that the plot is revealed, that the suspense is ruined, in other words, spoilerphobia3? The following declaration by Borges is celebrated: “Time has notably worn away the Dragon’s prestige. We believe in the lion as reality and symbol; we believe in the Minotaur as symbol but no longer as reality. The Dragon is perhaps the best known but also the least fortunate of fantastic animals. It seems childish to us and usually spoils the stories in which it appears. It is worth remembering, however, that we are dealing with a modern prejudice, due perhaps to a surfeit of Dragons in fairy tales”.4 For García Gual, the Greek dragons are “some monsters reduced to less”.5 That is the position they were left in by Greek adventure stories: a tireless creature, although in appearance exhausted, and perhaps unobtainable. Hic sunt dracones is the motto that threatens uncharted frontier territories. The Hunt-Lenox Globe, kept in the New York Public Library, has the following inscription on its southern hemisphere: HC SVNT DRACONES.  Can the adverb (here) encapsulate the unknown, virgin lands, and adventure both promised and feared in equal parts? At the same time that this cartographic treasure dates from (about 1510), there is an enigmatic painting by the artist Albrecht Altdorfer, Drachenkampf des hl. Georg (Alte Pinakothek München, [Fig. 4.1]).   Which is nothing but the obsessive quest for spoilers” (Laugier 2018: 151).  Borges and Guerrero (1969: 240). “In the Revelations, St. John speaks twice of the Dragon, ‘that old serpent, called the Devil and Satan…’ In the same spirit, St. Augustine writes that the Devil ‘is lion and dragon; lion for its rage, dragon for its cunning’. Jung observes that in the Dragon are the reptile and the bird—the elements of earth and of air’” (ibid.). 5  García Gual (1997: 133). 3“ 4

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Fig. 4.1  Albrecht Altdorfer, Drachenkampf des hl. Georg (1510). Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Alte Pinakothek München. License: CC BY-SA 4.0

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In a few lines, Gombrich summarises the revolution that took place in the Danube School: The painter Albrecht Altdorfer, of Ratisbon (1480?–1538), went out into the woods and mountains to study the shape of weather-beaten pines and rocks. Many of his water-colours and etchings, and at least one of his oil-­ painting, tell no story and contain no human being. This is quite a momentous change.6

Although it is right that “the Nordic dragons seem to be the most sinister and the best”,7 Altdorfer’s has been reduced to its least expression, it is lost, despite the varied colour of its crests and next to the knight’s armour, among the fronds of the ancient oaks and lindens of the central-European forest. It could be said that it surrenders to nature itself or rather that our anxiety has shifted to the background, the landscape that stood as a new entity in the work of Altdorfer and that of his school. Perhaps a genuine encounter with a dragon should occur now, paradoxically, where the beast is no longer to be found, in that place where it remains invisible but its horrifying presence can be felt, such as in The Horla by Maupassant, or end up as indistinguishable from the truly gigantesque. And when it sticks out its scaly snout, it is only to show the ridiculous appearance of the verminous pest that appears at the feet of so many statues of St. George throughout the Western world (Fig. 4.2).8 In Antiquity, it is sometimes described as so immeasurably large that it gives names to various rivers (among them, the Achelous, which fights with attributes of bull and serpent; Ladon, which is a river in Arcadia and dragon of the Hesperides; or the monstrous Tiamat, Phorcys and Ceto, linked to water currents and the ocean9) and, to the greater glory of the species, to a whole constellation: “Between them, as it were the branch of  Gombrich (1951: 261).  García Gual (1997: 135). 8  Let it be enough to cite one example among a thousand, the pitiful St. George of the fountain next to the Stiftkirche in Tübingen: not even does the elevation of the column free him from assault by students, who offer him a cigarette and empty glass or a handkerchief which still hangs from the patient martyr the following morning. And George seems to be finishing off the dragon as if he were squeezing out a mop (Fig. 4.2). “At best, the Western Dragon spreads terror; at worst, it is a figure of fun. The lung of Chines myth, however, is divine and is like the angel that is also a lion” (Borges and Guerrero 1969: 64). 9  Cf. Fontenrose (1959: 142–145) (“Dragon as Sea and Death”). 6 7

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Fig. 4.2  St. George in the fountain next to the Stiftskirche in Tübingen. (Photographed by the author)

a river, circles in wondrous way the Dragon, winding infinite around and about”.10 In the footsteps of Aratus, the Georgics tell us:   Maximus hic flexu sinuoso elabitur Anguis   circum perque duas in morem fluminis Arctos.11

The astronomer indicates: “Upon the map of the heavens, without doubt, the most monstrous design is the constellation of Draco, the Dragon, as if its shape wanted to pay honour to its name. It is clear that, as normally occurs, the organisation of this wide group of circumpolar 10  Aratus 45–47: τὰς δὲ δι᾽ ἀμφοτέρας οἵη ποταμοῖο ἀπορρὼξ / εἰλεῖται μέγα θαῦμα, δράκων, περί τ᾽ ἀμφί τ᾽ ἐαγώς / μυρίος (transl. Mair 1921). 11  “Here, with his tortuous coils, the mighty Snake glides forth, river-like, about and between the two Bears” (Vergil, Georgics 1.244–145, transl. Fairclough 1916). Cf. Seneca, Medea 690–705, and esp. 694–695: huc ille vasti more torrentis iacens / descendat anguis (“Hither let that serpent descend which lies like a vast rushing stream”, transl. Miller 1917).

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stars in no way resembles a dragon; some observers, noticing its twisted forms, have compared it to a sea snake in shape”.12 “Draco—indicate Barton and Barton 1928: 49—is this dragon [Ladon], which, since it does not set, may be considered as ever on the alert”. Heroes bring death to gigantic monsters. The general Marcus Atilius Regulus came face to face with a famous serpent during the First Punic War: … ballistis tormentisque, ut oppidum aliquod, expugnata serpens cxx pedum longitudinis; pellis eius maxillaeque usque ad bellum numantinum duravere Romae in templo.13 The monster was equivalent to a fortified city. A tablet from Nineveh remembers the struggle of the hero Tishpak against the dragon Labbu, which devastated the whole planet: Who has given birth to this enormous thing that writhes? Tiamat has given birth to this enormous thing that writhes! (…) Who will go to kill Labbu, to save the broad earth…?14

Cadmus and Harmony will end up transformed into an amorous pair of serpents, but before the founding hero comes face to face, with his still intact human figure, with the terrible creature that is daughter of the god Mars: Ille volubilibus squamosos nexibus orbes torquet et inmensos saltu sinuatur in arcus, ac media plus parte leves erectus in auras 12  Comellas (1979: 225). “El Dragón es por cierto una de las más extensas de todo el firmamento, con sus 1.083 grados cuadrados y sus 150 estrellas visibles a simple vista, aunque ninguna de ellas sea particularmente brillante. (…) Y, efectivamente, el Alfa del Dragón estaba situada muy cerca del polo Norte celeste hace 4.000 años, es decir, que cumplió su papel de Polar en tiempos de los navegantes fenicios” (ibid.). “It is certainly one of the most ancient of all, and is believed by many to be the crooked serpent of Job xxvi.13. (…) Alpha Draconis was the original Pole Star of the heavens when the constellations were mapped out, a pre-eminence it must have held for over 2.000 years” (Maunder 1904: 34–35). The most brilliant star of this constellation, Gamma Draconis, also made it possible for James Bradley to stengthen Copernicus’s Heliocentric theory by observing its movement across the heavens by 1725 (cf. Zigel 1968: 89–90). 13  “The case of the snake 120 ft. long that was killed (…) using ordnance and catapults just as if storming a town; its skin and jaw-bones remained in a temple at Rome down to the Numantine War” (Pliny, Natural History 8.37, transl. Rackham 1940). 14  Lara Peinado (1984: 517).

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despicit omne nemus, tantoque est corpore, quanto si totum spectes, geminas qui separat arctos.15

On occasion, these monsters, with their spiny backs and their coils like river meanders, despite being effective for measuring the worth of the hero in his feats, awake our nostalgia for those most subtle landscapes that literature and cinema have gifted us while hiding more than boasting.16 Without going further, take in one of the climactic moments—from the point of view of the plot and even the aesthetic—of our TV series: the confrontation between Jon Snow and Dany on the backs of their respective dragons and the Night King whose Viserion is confused with the storm (Thrones S8: Ep.3, “The Long Night”). The army of the living dead has been feeding its ranks with corpses, and their presence, which almost completely coincides with the night, is more horrific the less you see it; but you know that it advances like that forest of Birnam.17 Like the gods of certain iconoclastic peoples, the monster that escapes from sight is more terrifying: tantum terroribus addit, / quos timeant non nosse deos.18 In a memorable paragraph, which also precisely defines our committed position—as we would say, heroes of lamp and sofa—towards travel and adventure, Tolkien tells us about the place where the dragons live: In whatever world he [the dragon] had his being it was an Other-world. Fantasy, the making or glimpsing of Other-worlds, was the heart of the desire of Faërie. I desired dragons with a profound desire. Of course, I in my timid body did not wish to have them in the neighborhood, intruding into my relatively safe world, in which it was, for instance, possible to read stories

15  Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.41–45: “The serpent twines his scaly coils in rolling knots and with a spring curves himself into a huge bow; and, lifted high by more than half his length into the unsubstantial air, he looks down upon the whole wood, as huge, could you see him all, as is that serpent in the sky that lies outstretched between the twin bears” (transl. Miller 1951). 16  It is enough to quote, as an example, all those metres of film in which the shark in Jaws (Spielberg, 1975) escapes from view, or the shadows in Cat People (Tourneur, 1942), or the scene in The Bad and the Beautiful (Minnelli, 1952) in which the scriptwriter resolves the precariousness of the setting—impossible those panther-man disguises!—by switching off the light. 17  Suffice it to remember the approach of the Army of the Night to the Wall—before Viserion opportunely intervenes—or the fall of the Dothraki horsemen, whose flaming scimitars (or arakh) gradually go out. 18  Lucan, Pharsalia 3.416–417.

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in peace of mind, free from fear. But the world that contained even the imagination of Fáfnir was richer and more beautiful, at whatever cost of peril.19

2   It Was a Place of Dragons It can be seen as if the very yearning for dragons, for wonders, motivated the pioneers of palaeontology.20 “It was a place of dragons”,21 is the happy assertion of William Broderip (1789–1859). The geologist Charles Gould (1834–1893), son of the great British ornithologist John Gould, who studiously illustrated and studied the birds collected by Darwin during his voyage on the Beagle, still believed at the end of the nineteenth century in finding the creature that inspired the figure of the monster: No one has endeavoured to collate the vast bulk of materials shrouded in the stories of all lands. If this were perfectly effected, a diagnosis of the real nature of the dragon might perhaps be made, and the chapter of its characteristics, alliances, and habits completed like that of any other well-­ established species.22

It was perhaps the moment to gather those materials together, given the advances being experienced by the natural sciences. Established in Tasmania, the pioneer Gould indicated a possible relationship with the singular native reptile:

19  Tolkien (1966: 64). Words that are quoted a thousand times and that we link with those of his contemporary Bertrand Russell, referring to the peace during the reign of Augustus: “But although the world was happy, some savour had gone out of life, since safety had been preferred to adventure” (Russell 1946: 296). 20  “Have dinosaurs ever been considered the first great romantic hypothesis to trump the positive anti-wonderful common sense of modern science?” (Savater 2008: 264). 21  Broderip (1849: 326). “Dragons? Yes, dragons: not such as the small, living winged reptiles, that skim from place to place in search of their insect food, relying on their natural parachutes (…) and rejoicing in the generic name of Draco; but downright enormous dragons with bellies as big as tuns and bigger; creatures that would have cared little for Bevis’s sword ‘Morglaye,’ nor that of the Rhodian Draconicide, nor St. George’s ‘Askalon,’ no, nor the ‘nothing at-all’ of More of More Hall, even if those worthies could have existed in the pestiferous region in which the said dragons revelled” (ibid. 326–327). 22  Gould (1886: 164). About these possible identifications or the influence of the findings in the representation of the dragon, cf. Simpson (1980: 14–18), and the chapter “Schlangen, Ophidia” by the still indispensable Keller (1913: 284–305).

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The point which strikes me as most interesting in this passage is the reference to the legendary theory of the mode of the dragon’s progress, which curiously calls to mind the semi-erect attitude of the existing small Australian frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus). This attitude is also ascribed to some of the extinct American Dinosaurs, such as the Stegosaurus.23

In contrast, the former inhabitants of Epirus, in that historic time, considered the serpents that lived in the sacred grove of Apollo to be descendants of the Python of Delphi.24 The plot of Game of Thrones correctly situates the empire of the dragons in a more or less remote past. But, also, the episode “Eastwatch” (Thrones S7: Ep.5) offers us a priceless scene: after having survived the fire of Daenerys’s dragon, Bronn and Jaime Lannister secretly meet with Tyrion in the basement of the Red Fort at King’s Landing. The brothers see each other again for the first time since Tyrion killed his father and that charges the drama of the scene, but our eyes are captivated by what surrounds them: a veritable museum of palaeontology, enormous dragon skulls like relics from the past, to which Bronn and Jaime pay less attention than they would if they were two adolescents beside the abandoned toys of their childhood. It does not appear incidental that these enormous skulls lie in the foundations of the palace.25 Pliny reminds us that the head of the draco, when buried under the threshold of a house, brought good luck to its denizens.26 Also, the bones of the heroic antecedents would be bigger and harder, to judge by the discovery of the skull of Egil Skallagrimsson:

 Gould (1886: 163).  Cf. Aelianus, On the Characteristics of Animals 11.2: λέγονται δὲ ἄρα ὑπὸ τῶν Ἠπειρωτῶν ἔκγονοι τοῦ ἐν Δελφοῖς Πυθῶνος εἶναι. 25  It reminds me of what was written by Eliade (who cites Margaret Sinclair Stevenson, The Rites of the Twice-Born): “In India, before a single stone is laid, ‘The astrologer shows what spot in the foundation is exactly above the head of the snake that supports the world. The mason fashions a little wooden peg from the wood of the Khadira tree, and with a coconut drives the peg into the ground at this particular spot, in such a way as to peg the head of the snake securely down… If this snake should ever shake its head really violently, it would shake the world to pieces’” (Eliade 1959: 19). And wow, if it should shake into a thousand pieces! 26  Natural History 29.67: caput eius limini ianuarum subditum propitiatis adoratione diis fortunatam domum facere promittitur (“Its head, buried under the threshold of doors after the gods have been propitiated by worship, brings, we are assured, good luck to a home”, transl. Jones 1963). 23 24

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Under the altar some human bones were found, much bigger than ordinary human bones, and people are confident that these were Egil’s because of the stories told by old men.27

There is dedicated naivety in the conclusion that the naturalist Ernest Ingersoll (1852–1946) provides in his magnificent Dragons and Dragon Lore: unlike the cases of the phoenix, the roc or the hydra, which are identifiable with one or various juxtaposed species, the dragon seems to be the pure product of invention. “There is no dragon—there never was a dragon; but wherever in the West there appeared to be one there was always a St. George”.28 These refutations seem like the haud scio an fabulose with which Pliny begins his description of the phoenix (Natural History 10.3)29 or like the way in which Aristotle explains the reasons that have made some think of the otherworldly nature of the vulture30 or like 27  Sturluson (1976: 238). “Skapti Thorarinsson the Priest, a man of great intelligence, was there at the time. He picked up Egil’s skull and placed it on the fence of the churchyard. The skull was an exceptionally large one and its weight was even more remarkable. It was ridged all over like a scallop shell, and Skapti wanted to find out just how thick it was, so he picked up a heavy axe, swung it in one hand and struck as hard as he was able with the reverse side of the axe, trying to break the skull. But the skull neither broke nor dented on impact, it simply turned white, and from that anybody could guess that the skull wouldn’t be easily cracked by small fry while it still had skin and flesh on it” (ibid.). According to Herodotus (3.12), the skulls of Egyptian people, being exposed to the sun from the very first years, are harder than others. 28  Ingersoll (1928: 196). 29  “Though perhaps it is fabulous” (Pliny, Natural History 10.3, transl. Rackham 1940). Cf. however, Steiner (1955), as well as the evaluation of Grimal (1987: 245), according to which the encylopedian considers that “à l’intérieur même de la natura, de la création, tout n’est pas déterminé, que l’irrationnel, le merveilleux, trouvent leur place. Le spectacle du monde, que nous découvrons dans l’Histoire Naturelle, illustre admirablement cette conception.(…) Ce que l’on appelle trop souvent la ‘crédulité’ de Pline n’est que son humilité devant la nature”. 30  History of Animals 615a: Γυπὸς δὲ λέγεται ὑπό τινων ὡς οὐδεὶς ἑώρακεν οὔτε νεοττὸν οὔτε νεοττιάν· ἀλλὰ διὰ τοῦτο ἔφη Ἡρόδωρος ὁ Βρύσωνος τοῦ σοφιστοῦ πατὴρ ἀπό τινος αὐτὸν ἑτέρας εἶναι μετεώρου γῆς, τεκμήριον τοῦτο λέγων καὶ τὸ φαίνεσθαι ταχὺ πολλούς, ὅθεν δέ, μηδενὶ εἶναι δῆλον. Τούτου δ᾽ αἴτιον ὅτι τίκτει ἐν πέτραις ἀπροσβάτοις (“Of the vulture, it is said that no one has ever seen either its young or its nest; on this account and on the ground that all of a sudden great numbers of them will appear without any one being able to tell from whence they come, Herodorus, the father of Bryson the sophist, says that it belongs to some distant and elevated land. The reason is that the bird has its nest on inaccessible crags”, transl. Thompson 1910). And add this to that what the divine character of the eagle is understood to be: Ὑψοῦ δὲ πέτεται, ὅπως ἐπὶ πλεῖστον τόπον καθορᾷ· διόπερ θεῖον οἱ ἄνθρωποί φασιν εἶναι μόνον τῶν ὀρνέων (History of Animals 619b; “it flies high in the air to have the more extensive view; from its high flight it is said to be the only bird that resembles the gods”, transl. Thompson 1910).

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the words of Georges-Louis Leclerc, Count of Buffon (1707–1788), who, in a chapter dedicated to crows, dismisses the role of birds as internuntiae or messengers of the gods: toute sa science de l’avenir se borne cependant, ainsi que celle des autres habitans de l’air, à connoître mieux que nous l’élément qu’il habite, à être plus susceptible de ses moindres impressions, à pressentir ses moindres changemens, et à nous les annoncer par certains cris et certaines actions qui sont en lui l’effet naturel de ces changemens.31

Evidence of enlightened reasoning that denounces a world that still believes, but who is going to believe that the frogs of the pond can predict what is to come, asks Quintus in reference to some verses of Aratus in which the oxen, frogs and carrion crows predict and imminent storm.32 Aelianus brings us news about the griffin:33 “for what they see, it is gifted with wings…”, and then, immediately, he gives us details about the colour of its feathers, as if Dürer was giving the last brushstrokes to his European roller’s wing. And when he refers to the belief that the medulla of a dead man—but only if the aforementioned had been a bad character—becomes a serpent, he doubts whether to consider it mere fraud or not (and in that quandary: ἢ… ἤ… lie dragons and griffins).34 Although it is right that the works of Gould, Ingersoll and Smith do not subscribe to paradoxography or wave the flag for an avant la lettre cryptozoology, the reader can still detect in their palaeographic enthusiasm (they are times of splendour and controversy, in 1859 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection was published) a delight that connects them to those pseudoscientific heresies.  Buffon (1800: 19).  Cicero, On Divination 1.15: Quis est, qui ranunculos hoc uidere suspicari possit? 33  On the Characteristics of Animals 4.27: κατάπτερον δὲ εἶναι, καὶ τῶν μὲν νωτιαίων πτερῶν τὴν χρόαν μέλαιναν ᾄδουσι, τὰ δὲ πρόσθια ἐρυθρά φασι, τάς γε μὴν πτέρυγας αὐτὰς οὐκέτι τοιαύτας, ἀλλὰ λευκάς. τὴν δέρην δὲ αὐτῶν κυανοῖς διηνθίσθαι τοῖς πτεροῖς Κτησίας ἱστορεῖ… (“Men commonly report that it is winged and that the feathers along its back are black, and those on its front are red, while the actual wings are neither but are white. And Ctesias records that its neck is variegated with feathers of a dark blue”, transl. Scholfield 1958). 34  On the Characteristics of Animals 1.51: ἢ τοίνυν τὸ πᾶν μῦθός ἐστιν, ἤ, εἰ ταῦτ᾽ ἀψευδῶς πεπίστευται, πονηροῦ νεκρός, ὡς κρίνειν ἐμέ, ὄφεως γενέσθαι πατὴρ τοῦ τρόπου μισθὸν ἠνέγκατο (“The fact is, the whole story is either a fable, or if it is to be relied upon as true, then the corpse of a wicked man receives [so I think] the reward of his ways in becoming the progenitor of a snake”, transl. Scholfield 1958). 31 32

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If the shape of a boat provided Lucian of Samosata with the possibility of inventing a spaceship with which to travel to the moon (which Verne’s characters will be able to do and in something similar to a projectile) and if synthetic elastic fibres could be adjusted to the bodies of superheroes and supervillains in The Phantom in the third decade of the last century,35 what marvels might have been inspired by those antediluvian remains: femurs the size of a cart, mandibles lined with teeth like machetes or the profile of a membranous wing in limestone were fertile food for the poetic imagination, for the scientific imagination and also for the trickster. The application and even smartness of those who dedicated no little energy to devising these frauds is impressive—not to mention the risks taken with their honour: let us consider, as an example of elaborate fraud that was not revealed until decades after its successful execution, the famous case of Homo piltdownensis (or Eoanthropus dawsoni, reflecting the name of the principal perpetrator, Charles Dawson), which was praised by, among others, Schoetensack, Teilhard de Chardin and Grafton Elliot Smith (an Egyptologist of great prestige who was also interested in the origin of dragons36). Today, a century later, important scholars are working to discover what was true in that fraud.37 In such a controversial case, some have maintained that the authorship was not only, or even principally, Dawson’s but of other men of science and intellectuals, even including Arthur Conan Doyle. Curiously, the same year in which Dawson announced his supposed discovery (the same year of 1912 in which the west discovered the Komodo dragon38), Conan Doyle published The Lost World, the first

35  The antiheroic counterpart would be The Man in the White Suit (1951) starring a superb Alec Guinness in the role of the inventor of a practically unbrekable material, eternal… against which rises up, as is clear, the company for which he works and the whole textile industry. 36  The Evolution of the Dragon, which mainly takes us to Egypt, but also to Pre-Columbian cultures and the myths and religions of the Middle East and Greece, and written “in rare moments of leisure snatched from a variety of arduoud war-time occupations” (Smith 1919: v). 37  Cf. De Groote et al. published in 2016 by Royal Society Open Science. 38  Cf. Hoke (1972: ix).

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Fig. 4.3  Conan Doyle as prof. Challenger and their expeditionary friends. Taken from The Lost World, Hodder and Stoughton, London-New York-Toronto, 1912. Public domain

episode in the adventures of Professor Challenger,39 and with irresistible flair gives the book the appearance of a genuine report, which, in its first edition, included a photo of the supposed explorers: with Sir Arthur representing an ape-like Professor Challenger! (see Fig. 4.3). On their return to London, the professor and his team, in the presence of the sceptical gaze of the press, produce a rare specimen from a box: 39  And it would not be the only chronological coincidence later exploited by not always disinterested researchers: like the murders of his contemporary Jack the Ripper, the adventures of Sherlock Holmes began to take shape in 1888 (although A Study in Scarlet had appeared anonymously in the Beeton’s Christmas Annual of 1887, it was published as a book a few months later, in 1888, by Ward, Lock & Co.). During his lifetime, Conan Doyle was also involved in other famous and controversial intellectual and esoteric debates, such as the one related to spirit photography (cf. Conan Doyle 2021).

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An instant later, with a scratching, rattling sound, a most horrible and loathsome creature appeared from below and perched itself upon the side of the case. Even the unexpected fall of the Duke of Durham into the orchestra, which occurred at this moment, could not distract the petrified attention of the vast audience. The face of the creature was like the wildest gargoyle that the imagination of a mad mediaeval builder could have conceived. It was malicious, horrible, with two small red eyes as bright as points of burning coal. Its long, savage mouth, which was held half-open, was full of a double row of sharp-like teeth. Its shoulders were humped, and round them were draped what appeared to be a faded grey shawl. It was the devil of our childhood in person.40

Soon, this “devil of our infancy”, scared by the shouting, escapes through the window to get lost forever in the storm clouds of the English sky. The only consolation for Challenger lies in investing his part of the money obtained from Lord John Roxton’s diamonds in the foundation of a museum.41

3   Wunderkammer Gould specified that in some places, dragons still appeared “not as a myth, or doubtfully existent supernatural monster, but as a tangible reality, an exact terrible creature”.42 And almost half a century later, Henry Fairfield Osborn, then president of the American Museum of Natural History, in his introduction to Dragons and Dragon Lore, uses these words to refer to Ingersoll and his team’s expedition through Central Asia: one night in a far distant telegraph station in the heart of the desert of Gobi, I overheard two men pointing out Leader Andrews and myself as “men of the Dragon bones”. On inquiry, I learned that our great Central Asiatic Expedition was universally regarded by the natives as engaged in the quest of remains of extinct Dragons, and that this superstition is connected with the still universal belief among the natives that fossil bones, and especially fossil teeth have a high medicinal value.43

 Conan Doyle (1912: 309–310).  “If you really persist in your generous view”, said the Professor, “I should found a private museum, which has long been one of my dreams” (ibid. 319). 42  Gould (1886: 160). 43  Ingersoll (1928: v). 40 41

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Natural History has walked hand in hand with the Fine Arts. From the anonymous painter of the geese of Meidum (ca. 2600 BCE) and the lost books of augurs and auspices or the manuals used by mosaicists to the works of Jacopo Ligozzi (1547–1627) for Aldrovandi and the seminal illustrations of hunter-ornithologist Audubon (1785–1851), the artist has proceeded with precision, whether to illustrate important scientific discoveries (such as Darwin’s aforementioned finches, which were analysed through the vision of the illustrator and ornithologist Gould), to represent Horus or Zeus, to adorn a frieze or the floor of a Roman domus or to conjure up astonishing wonders. The artist is not always but “nur ein bescheidener Diener, den die Kunst an die Wissenschaft abgetreten hat”, according to Franz Murr.44 In their hands, no less than in words, the wonders of nature depended to acquire legitimacy: Aelianus informs us of the appearance of the griffin “as artists paint and model it”.45 Under the hooves of the horses of Saint George and Saint Michael are arranged those pieces that would be such delicacies for the collector: human and animal bones, vermin, rare stones and shells, and the terrible remains of the feast around the dragon lanced in the work of Carpaccio (Fig. 4.4) and anatomical details of the young and the adult in Beck (Fig. 4.5). These objects

Fig. 4.4  Vittore Carpaccio, St. George and the Dragon (1502–1507). Scuola di San Giorgio degli Schiavoni, Venice. Public domain

 Cit. by Nissen (1953: 11).  On the Characteristics of Animals 4.27 στόμα δὲ ἔχειν ἀετῶδες καὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν ὁποίαν οἱ χειρουργοῦντες γράφουσί τε καὶ πλάττουσι. 44 45

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Fig. 4.5  Leonard Beck, Der hl. Georg kämpft mit dem Drachen (ca. 1513–1514, detail). Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Gemäldegalerie. Public domain

from the zoological cabinet prolong the terror that the legends of yesteryear awoke. Today, we know the work of formidable artists like Joan Fontcuberta and Camille Renversade. In the 1980s, Joan Fontcuberta (in collaboration with Pere Formiguera) followed in the footsteps of the apocryphal professor Peter Ameisenhaufen in search of examples of impossible fauna.46 They have gifted us with a kind of dragon, the Solenoglypha polipodia, photographed in the countryside (these fabulous animals have been created ad hoc by the taxidermist and then photographed, with the scene of the discover set as if they were pioneering war reporters who had correctly placed the bodies47) and even exposed to the power of X-rays. Albums illustrated by chimérologe Camille Renversade like Dragons et chimères: Carnets d’expédition (2008) and Créatures fantastiques Deyrolle (2014) explore the zoological supernatural and cryptozoology in unhackneyed—but also  Fontcuberta and Formiguera (1989).  On the topic cf. Cisneros Perales 2014’s character Leonardo Smith Turios, photographer working on the battlefields during the American Civil War. 46 47

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Fig. 4.6  © Camille Renversade, extrait de Métamorphoses Deyrolle, édition Plume de carotte. Reproduced with permission

new—proof of what the alliance between science and poetry can offer to those of us who enjoy cross-contamination between different disciplines. In Fig.  4.6, we can contemplate the water spirit Melusine, to who Renversade has taken a scalpel to discover in her stomach the half-digested remains of an “imprudent lover”. Inadvertently, Jean d’Arras, chronicler of the fifteenth century Mélusine ou La Noble Histoire de Lusignan, presents us with a paleontological treasure: a footstep on the parapet of the castle of Lusignan that belonged to Melusine, now become dragon, as one

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of those footprints planted by antediluvian creatures and still visible in rocks today: Puis a dit a Remond: “Adieu, mon amy. N’oubliéz pas a faire de vostre filz Horrible ce que je vous ay dit, mais penséz de noz deux filz, Remonnet et Thierry”. Et lors fist un moult doulereux plaint et un moult grief souspir, puis sault en l’air et laisse la fenestre et trespasse le vergier, et lors se mue en une serpente grant et grosse et longue de la longueur de .xv. piéz. Et sachiéz que la pierre sur quoy elle passa a la fenestre y est encores, et y est la fourme du pié toute escripte.48

Among the pieces worthy of featuring in our Wunderkammer, which are also related to the monster, is the dragonites (δρακοντίας), to which, paraphrasing Pliny, Covarrubias (1674) refers: (…) se saca de la cabeça de los Dragones una piedra de mucho valor y estima llamada Dracontias en Latín. Si bien no se halla, si no se quita de los vivos: porque si el Dragón se muere primero, aquella duricia a modo de piedra se resuelve y desaparece juntamente con el alma. Sotaco autor grave dice que vio esta piedra y cómo la sacan: los hombres, dice, más atrevidos van a espiar las cuevas donde se recogen, y a la entrada echan ciertas yerbas medicinadas para darles sueño y cortándoles assí adormidos las cabeças, les sacan la piedra con gran presteza. Mas tal vez acontece que despiertan y en un instante tragan al codicioso y por despojo lleva el pago de su atrevimiento.49

Also, cinnabaris, the only pigment capable of faithfully recreating blood, as they say it arises from the blood of the dragon that died by being  Arras (2003: 704).  Cf. Pliny, Natural History 37.158: draconitis sive dracontias e cerebro fit draconum, sed nisi viventibus absciso capite non gemmescit invidia animalis mori se sentientis. Igitur dormientibus amputant. Sotacus, qui visam eam gemmam sibi apud regem scripsit, bigis vehi quaerentes tradit et viso dracone spargere somni medicamenta atque ita sopiti praecidere. Esse candore tralucido, nec postea poliri aut artem admittere. (“The ‘draconitis’, otherwise known as ‘dracontias’, the ‘snake stone’, is obtained from the brains of snakes, but unless the head is cut off from a live snake, the substance fails to turn into a gem, owing to the spite of the creature as it perceives that it is doomed. Consequently, the beast’s head is lopped off while it is asleep. Sotacus, who writes that he saw such a gem in the possession of a king, states that those who go in search of it ride in two-horsed chariots, and that when they see the snake they scatter sleeping-drugs and so put it to sleep before they cut off its head. According to him, the stone is colourless and transparent, and cannot subsequently be polished or submitted to any other skilful process”, transl. Eichholz 1971). 48 49

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squashed to death by an elephant it killed in turn.50 Pliny notes the reigning confusion, as similar pigments, of mineral, plant and animal origin, are designated under various names—cinnabaris, minium, δρακόντιον and dragon’s blood.51 “Sangre de Drago: un gomoso licor de cierto árbol muy encendido, de que usan los pintores. Viene de África a Italia, y en cantidad tan pequeña, que por venderse muy caro no usan dél, sino para cosas muy delicadas” (Covarrubias 1674). That is not even to talk of serpent’s and dragon’s eggs. Pliny assures us that he saw with his own eyes examples of urinum, a type of egg that is “very famous in Gaul” which the druids use for various purposes and which has on its shell a type of sucker similar to an octopus’s.52 And Savater proposes this analogy: “in a way, dinosaurs are the creepy hatchlings sprouting from the eggs laid in imaginations by mythical dragons”.53

4   Quid nisi monstra legis? Our admired Ferrer Lerín traces the evolution of this eminently multiform creature: El ocaso del medioevo puede rastrearse también en el cambio del plano de sustentación de diablos y dragones. Hasta mediados del siglo XIII ambas especies disponen de mullidas alas de pájaro (alas de ángel) para sus desplazamientos aéreos. (…) Pero es a partir de algunas miniaturas de 1210— Salterio de Canterbury—cuando se produce la mutación; las membranas quirópteras—al principio con algunas imperfecciones e incluso conviviendo

50  Natural History 33.116: Sic enim appellant illi saniem draconis elisi elephantorum morientium pondere permixto utriusque animalis sanguine, ut diximus, neque est alius colos, qui in pictura proprie sanguinem reddat (“that is the name the Greeks give to the gore of a snake crushed by the weight of dying elephants when the blood of each animal gets mixed together, as we have said; and there is no other colour that properly represents blood in a picture”, transl. Rackham 1961). 51  Cf. Trinquier (2013). 52  Natural History 29.53: vidi equidem id ovum mali orbiculati modici magnitudine, crusta cartilagineis velut acetabulis bracchiorum polypi crebris insigne. 53  Savater (2008: 264).

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Fig. 4.7  A dragon by eight-year-old Bruno Marina con unas ya inoperantes alas plumadas—son adoptadas para representar, como exigen las convenciones religiosas y físicas, la figura del diablo.54

Its characteristics are volatile, and the best examples are hard to pin down, but the figure of the dragon is, above all, recognisable. When projected upon the drawing board of an eight-year-old child, no one can be mistaken in making the correct identification (Fig. 4.7).55

54  Ferrer Lerín (2007: 103). “La Edad Media termina y ‘las alas de murciélago acosan a los hombres, se agitan silenciosamente alrededor de un moribundo y difunden por todas partes la oscuridad.’ Los dragones registran la misma evolución: en el románico son serpientes ápteras o pájaros con cola de lagarto; en el gótico lucen alas membranosas y, a veces, una cresta, de similar tejido, soportada por espinas que hacen las veces de mástiles” (ibid. 104). Cf. Lippincott 1981. 55  The older son of the author, Bruno Marina, drew a dragon ad hoc, without any more instructions, and it had all the corresponding elements: a long tail that whipped back and forth, wings that were varied in colour, an immensely long body that filled the entire sky (like the Dragon of Aratus) and, why not, a flash escaping from between his jaws (see Fig. 4.7).

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It is to be supposed that its habitat will condition its attributes: there are marine dragons that prowl the springs and cave-dwelling dragons that are confused with clouds. The relationship with the aquatic element persists through times and cultures.56 Pliny denied his dragon the typical crests: draconum enim cristas qui viderit, non reperitur.57 But from long before, dragons with wings had been known: Euripides’ Medea fled to Athens in a cart pulled by these creatures (ἐπὶ ἅρματος δρακόντων πτερωτῶν) and Aelianus, citing Megasthenes, tells of the winged serpents of India (where a winged scorpion could also sting you).58 The excessive Typhon did not content himself with a pair of wings, as Gaia, inflamed after the defeat of the Titans, conceived her most terrifying offspring: his body was covered in wings and his head “often touched the stars”.59 Herodotus reports how in Arabia, in order to collect incense, they must chase with smoke the winged snakes out of the trees they use to protect.60 As in his aspect, which explodes in an enormous iconography, the dragon is many-faceted in his functions and his character, to the point that “nevertheless, the dragon—like all other symbols of the instincts in the non-moral religions of antiquity—sometimes appears enthroned and all but deified”.61 He is accustomed to being the guardian of treasures of all type: riches with a cash price, but also figurative ones, virtues (Alciato depicts him with the chaste Athena) and incredible fruit that perhaps confer immortality, which he guards on their tree without ever closing his eyes. In Thrones S8: Ep.3, we see the dragons around the weirwood tree, which is in the centre, like the tree of life and knowledge.62 Like the asp in the Biblical story, the dragon appears here and beyond linked to the tree: Then Just-as-high said: “The ash [Yggdrasil] is the best and greatest of all trees; its branches spread out over the whole world and reach up over  “‘Water, says Lao-tzû, is the weakest and softest of things, yet overcomes the strongest and hardest.’ It penetrates everywhere subtly, without noise, without effort. So it became typical of the spirit which is able to pass out into all other existences of the world and resume its own form in man; and, associated with the power of fluidity, the Dragon become the symbol of infinite” (Binyon 1911: 33–34). 57  Natural History 11.122. 58  On the Characteristics of Animals 16.41. 59  Cf. Apollodorus 1.6.3 ἡ δὲ κεφαλὴ πολλάκις καὶ τῶν ἄστρων ἔψαυε. 60  Herodotus 3.107. 61  Cirlot (2001: 86). 62  Cf. Eliade (1959: 17–18). 56

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heaven. The tree is held in position by three roots that spread far out; (…) the third extends over Niflheim, and under that root is the well Hvergelmir; but Nidhögg [the dragon, whose name means ‘striker-that-destroys’] gnaws at the root from below. Under the root that turns in the direction of the frost ogres lies the spring of Mímir, in which is hidden wisdom and understanding”.63

Marcus Valerius Martialis (the poet Martial), so able in “the game of making verses”, often sings about what he has proposed not to sing about, which is the affair and figures of the epic, a genre opposed to the epigram, the genre in which the Hispanic writer shone above all others. In the verses of Homer or Apollonius of Rhodes or Vergil, we can find rivers that fight, the hand of the wounded goddess, the cyclops and the dragon. Martial, who has lived for years under the dominion of a worse beast,64 uses the monster as a cipher and can assault the reader of fantastic epic poetry: quid nisi monstra legis?.65 To criticise the avaricious Paternus, for example, he compares him with the famous dragon that guarded the Golden Fleece in Colchis and which other poets (though it is him, isn’t it?) invoke in their verses: …incubasque gazae, ut magnos draco, quem canunt poetae custodem Scythici fuisse luci.66

A dragon, half woman, half serpent, called Delphyne, hangs onto Zeus’s tendons, pulled out by Typhon and wrapped in a bearskin.67 Python guards the oracle of his mother Gaia, which the archer Apollo will

 Sturluson (1966: 42–43).  Domitian, the immanissima belua of Pliny the Younger (cf. Moreno Soldevila 2010: xlv). 65  10.4.2: “what do you read but monstrosities?” (transl. Shackleton Bailey 1993). 66  “[You] brood over your treasure like the great dragon that once, as poets sing, was guardian of the Scythian grove” (Mart. 12.53.3–5, transl. Shackleton Bailey 1993); cf. Otto (1890) s.v. incubare. 67  Cf. Apollodorus 1.6.3. 63 64

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conquer. Ladon guards the golden apples in the garden of the Hesperides,68 and in the story by Apollonius of Rhodes, the Argonauts, who thirstily search for a fountain in Libya, find the dying body of the beast: but they came to the sacred plain where Ladon, the serpent of the land, till yesterday kept watch over the golden apples in the garden of Atlas; and all around the nymphs, the Hesperides, were busied, chanting their lovely song. But at that time, stricken by Heracles, he lay fallen by the trunk of the apple-tree; only the tip of his tail was still writhing; but from his head down his dark spine he lay lifeless; and where the arrows had left in his blood the bitter gall of the Lernaean hydra, flies withered and died over the festering wounds.69

Fafnir, greedy dragon of the Völsunga, kept his gold for himself—he killed his father and betrayed his brother to that end—until he was defeated by Sigurd. Beowulf’s body lies besides the dragon and the gold: 68  Cf. Graves (1960: 150–151): “One view was that the apples had really been beautiful sheep (melon means both ‘sheep’ and ‘apple’), or sheep with a peculiar red fleece resembling gold, which were guarded by a shepherd named Dragon to whom Hesperus’s daughters, the Hesperides, used to bring food. Heracles carried off the sheep (…) and killed (…) or abducted, the shepherd. (…) The true explanation of this Labour is, however, to be found in ritual, rather than allegory. (…) the candidate for the kingship had to overcome a serpent and take his gold; and this Heracles did both here and in his battle with the Hydra. But the gold which he took should not properly have been in the form of golden apples—those were given him at the close of his reign by the Triple-goddess, as his passport to Paradise. And, in this funerary context, the Serpent was not his enemy, but the form that his own oracular ghost would assume after he had been sacrificed. Ladon was hundred-headed and spoke with diverse tongues because many oracular heroes could call themselves ‘Heracles’: that is to say, they had been representatives of Zeus, and dedicated to the service of Hera”. Cf. Apollodorus 2.5.11: ταῦτα δὲ ἦν, οὐχ ὥς τινες εἶπον ἐν Λιβύῃ, ἀλλʼ ἐπὶ τοῦ Ἄτλαντος ἐν Ὑπερβορέοις: ἃ Διὶ Γῆ γήμαντι Ἥραν ἐδωρήσατο. ἐφύλασσε δὲ αὐτὰ δράκων ἀθάνατος, Τυφῶνος καὶ Ἐχίδνης, κεφαλὰς ἔχων ἑκατόν: ἐχρῆτο δὲ φωναῖς παντοίαις καὶ ποικίλαις. μετὰ τούτου δὲ Ἑσπερίδες ἐφύλαττον, Αἴγλη Ἐρύθεια Ἑσπερία Ἀρέθουσα (“These apples were not, as some have said, in Libya, but on Atlas among the Hyperboreans. They were presented by Earth to Zeus after his marriage with Hera, and guarded by an immortal dragon with a hundred heads, offspring of Typhon and Echidna, which spoke with many and divers sorts of voices. With it the Hesperides also were on guard, to wit, Aegle, Erythia, Hesperia, and Arethusa”, transl. Frazer 1921). 69  Apollonius of Rhodes 4.1396–1405 (transl. Seaton 1912): ἷξον δʼ ἱερὸν πέδον, ᾧ ἔνι Λάδων / εἰσέτι που χθιζὸν παγχρύσεα ῥύετο μῆλα / χώρῳ ἐν Ἄτλαντος, χθόνιος ὄφις: ἀμφὶ δὲ νύμφαι / Ἑσπερίδες ποίπνυον, ἐφίμερον ἀείδουσαι. / δὴ τότε δʼ ἤδη τῆμος ὑφ᾽ Ἡρακλῆι δαϊχθεὶς / μήλειον βέβλητο ποτὶ στύπος: οἰόθι δʼ ἄκρῃ / οὐρῇ ἔτι σκαίρεσκεν: ἀπὸ κρατὸς δὲ κελαινὴν / ἄχρις ἐπʼ ἄκνηστιν κεῖτ᾽ ἄπνοος: ἐκ δὲ λιπόντων / ὕδρης Λερναίης χόλον αἵματι πικρὸν ὀιστῶν / μυῖαι πυθομένοισιν ἐφ᾽ ἕλκεσι τερσαίνοντο.

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       His killer lay near him, The dreadful cave-dragon deprived of breath, Cornered and destroyed. The crooked reptile Could rule no longer over rings and riches, For him the sharpness of swords had seized…70

5   Drakarys A characteristic of the dragon not unnoticed by the poets of half the world is the sparkle of their eyes. The crested serpents that launch themselves upon Laocoön and his sons have “blazing eyes suffused with blood and fire”.71 The serpent of Mars that hides in the cave and which Cadmus is going to kill only lets its golden crest and “eyes that shine like fire” be seen.72 In their description of the dragon, Borges and Guerrero state: “Their legs and tail are shaggy, their forehead juts over their flaming eyes”.73 As Aelianus relates, Ctesias states that the eyes of the griffin also shoot fire: φλογώδεις δὲ τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς φησιν αὐτοῦ.74 Pliny knows a paradoxical remedy for nightmares: an ointment that contains dragon’s eye. 75 Such examples could fill more pages than we have available.  Beowulf 2824–2828 (Morgan 1967: 77).  Vergil, Aeneid 2.210: ardentisque oculos suffecti sanguine et igni. Transl. Fairclough (1918). 72  Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.33: igne micant oculi. 73  Borges and Guerrero (1969: 83). In the magnificent Spanish translation of Il Milione of Marco Polo by Mauro Armiño (1983), appears this detail: the enormous serpents of the province of Caragian “tienen dos patas cortas delante, cerca de la cabeza (…). Tienen la cabeza enorme, y los ojos más grandes que una hogaza de cuatro dinares, y todo relucientes” (second book, chap. CXX, p. 259). But in the original we do not find them (nor do we find them, for example, in the English version by Latham 1958: 178): “Egli hanno due cambe dinanzi presso al capo, e gli loro piedi sono d’una unghia fatta come di lione; e il celfo è molto grande, e lo viso è maggiore ch’un gran pane” (Polo 2005: 134). I do not know if Armiño translates it in this way because he finds the “ojos relucientes” in the French version by Louis Hambis (La description du monde, Klincksieck, Paris, 1955) on which he bases his translation. But it is not surprising, no matter what, that this shine reappears in the eyes of the monster. On the other hand, if Marco Polo compares them to a loaf of bread, in Aelianus the sacred serpent which Alexander’s men come up against in India has eyes the size of a Macedonian shield: καὶ οἵ γε ὀφθαλμοὶ ᾄδονται αὐτοῦ τὸ μέγεθος ἔχειν Μακεδονικῆς ἀσπίδος (On the Characteristics of Animals 15.21). 74  “Its eyes, he says, are like fire” (On the Characteristics of Animals 4.27, transl. Scholfield 1958). 75  Natural History 29.67: oculis eius inveteratis et cum melle tritis inunctos non expavescere ad nocturnas imagines etiam pavidos. 70 71

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In the series, there is a curious relationship between Thrones S7: Ep.5 and 6. In the first, we see the first serious approach by Jon Snow to the dragon, next to the cliff. Snow carefully strokes the beast. In a fantastic shot, we can distinguish the colour of honey and fire in the eyes of the beast. This connects with the last sequence of the following episode: the zombie army pulls the body of Viserion out of the water with chains, and the dragon, brought back to life by the touch of the Night King, opens his eyes, which have turned clear, pale blue. And this brings us to the question of etymology. I think that it is in Thrones S2: Ep.10 where the voice of control first pronounces: drakarys. Daenerys finds herself bound in the centre of the Laberynth (the House of the Undying in Qarth), like an outwitted Ariadne. But, who is the monster? She is about to wake up: her tender creatures hear her calls and “the fire of the dragon” finishes off the Undying. Here, the etymological fact interests me that refer, as we will see, to the eyes of the dragon. As is known, the Greek δράκων defines both dragon and serpent (to varieties of their species) indistinguishably.76 It can be equivalent to using “bug” for an insect (or the spanish “bicha” instead of “serpiente”), with the superstitious avoidance of naming the diabolical creature.77 And δράκων very probably derives from δρακεῖν (infinitive of δέρκομαι): “to look, to see acutely”,78 or as Covarrubias (1674) better puts it: “visteza, y acumen de la vista” (something like “super vision and sharpness of sight”). A second sense is also recognised; “II. of light, flash, gleam, like the eye”.79 In his meticulous description of the terrifying Typhon, Apollodorus writes that his eyes “emit fire” (πῦρ δὲ ἐδέρκετο τοῖς ὄμμασι), using the preterite imperfect of this verb.80 Drakarys, which is one of the few words of High Valyrian that is still used (which he invents) by Martin in his novels (the rest have been developed by the conlanger David J. Peterson, of The Language Creation Society), would go back, therefore, to another language of cultural standing (as High Valyrian is), to know, the Greek or the Indo-European root, and help us to profile the sense and origin of the term ‘dragon’, linked to the blazing eyes of the beast.  Cf. Leitner (1972), s.v. draco: 111–112.  Chantraine (1977: 266): “δράκων (…): on admet depuis l’antiquité que le terme (…) se rapporte au regard fixe et paralysant du serpent (rapprocher Il. 22.93 et 95); l’emploi du mot s’explique en partie par un tabou linguistique”. 78  Cf. Liddell et al. (1996), s.v. δράκων and δέρκομαι. 79  Liddell et al. (1996: 379), who add the homeric πῦρ δʼ ὀφθαλμοῖσι δεδορκώς flashing fire from his eyes (Homer, Odyssey 19.446). 80  Apollodorus 1.6.3. 76 77

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6  Under the Sign of Melusine: The Monster Against the Audience Finally, I will refer to two more moments from the TV series, which are especially significant for our text (although the second of them is made up, in reality, of two tumultuous battles). First, Jaime Lannister’s attack against the kahleesi and her dragon in Thrones S7: Ep.4. “Only a great hero deserves a good dragon”, states García Gual.81 And it is in this moment of the series when the rise of Lannister, his suffered penitence, reaches its peaks. He is the δρακοντολέτης, dragon slayer, although he does not successfully escape the onslaught: his friend Bronn rescues him from the flames, and together they are reborn in the waters in Thrones S7: Ep.5 as ready for a new life with a correct and heroic direction. We desire for a moment the death of Jaime Lannister, who charges like Saint George. It could be said that he also desires it, maybe more than anyone, but it is worth seeing him rise again like the shipwreck reborn from the waves. Among the most famous heroes to have faced a dragon, we have to remember Thor, who fell victim to a serpent’s poison, or Beowulf, who shared a similar fate.82 Soma and Indra brought death to the Serpent.83 The Persian Gushtap, Gilgamesh, Apollo or Saint Michael are some of the many knights whose vital purpose has joined with—like Ahab’s harpoon— the destiny of the monster.  García Gual (1997: 135). “The dragon (…) stands for ‘things animal’ par excellence, and here we have a first glimpse of its symbolic meaning, related to the Sumerian concept of the animal as the ‘adversary’, a concept which later came to be attached to the devil” (Cirlot 2001: 86). 82  “Thór will slay away the Midgard Serpent but stagger back only nine paces before he falls down dead, on account of the poison blown on him by the serpent” (Sturluson 1966: 88). “La segunda ocurre cincuenta años después. Beowulf es rey de los geatas; en su historia entra un dragón que merodea en las noches oscuras. Hace tres siglos que el dragón es guardián de un tesoro; un esclavo fugitivo se esconde en su caverna y se lleva un jarro de oro. El dragón se despierta, nota el robo y resuelve matar al ladrón; a ratos, baja a la caverna y la revisa bien. [Curiosa invención del poeta atribuir al azorado dragón esa inseguridad tan humana.] El dragón empieza a desolar el reino. El viejo rey va a su caverna. Ambos combaten duramente. Beowulf mata al dragón y muere envenenado por una mordedura del monstruo. Lo entierran; doce guerreros cabalgan alrededor del túmulo ‘y deploran su muerte, lloran al rey, repiten su elegía y celebran su nombre’” (Borges and Vázquez 1982: 18). 83  “The serpent symbolizes chaos, the formless and nonmanifested. Indra comes upon Vṛtra (IV,19,3) undivided (aparvan), unawakened (abudhyam), sleeping (abudhyamānam), sunk in deepest sleep (suṣupaṇam), outstretched (aśayānam). The hurling of the lightning and the decapitation are equivalent to the act of Creation, with passage from the nonmanifested to the manifested, from the formless to the formed” (Eliade 1959: 19). And cf. DuBois (1957) against the excesses of symbolic interpretation. 81

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Fig. 4.8  Paolo Uccello, Saint George and the Dragon (ca. 1470), National Gallery, London. Public domain

To refer to the last scenes of interest to us in Thrones—and which are related to, as the reader might imagine, Her and the Monster—let us remember the painting by Uccello that hangs in the National Gallery in London (Fig. 4.8): Saint George in full action, a swirl of clouds what seem to predict divine favour, and the Princess, who seems anything but nervous and who keeps the beast under control by its collar.84 There is no time left to talk about the munificent serpents that live in the temple of Asclepius,85 of the metamorphosis into ophidians or dragons of the monarchs Cadmus and Harmony, of the old man of Apuleius’ The Golden Ass (8.19–21), of the fairy Melusine in the novel of Jean d’Arras and in the novel of Mujica Lainez, of Medea and her cart pulled by  Cf. Davies (1959).  About gentle snakes and unexpected relationships with human beings, cf. Pliny, Natural History 10.207–208, Aelianus, On the Characteristics of Animals 6.17, 6.63, 10.48, Plutarch, Moralia 972E-F; about snakes sacred to Asclepius (ἱεροὶ μὲν τοῦ Ἀσκληπιοῦ) cf. Pausanias 2.28 or Aelianus, On the Characteristics of Animals 8.12. 84 85

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dragons, of the Beauty and Beast, of Lamia and of Lilith. This is not the place to enter into more or less erudite digressions about how the figure of the tragic heroine has grown, about the identification consummated with the monster. Daenerys deserves, at this point of the story, the words of Jason to Medea: Tigress, not woman, beast of wilder breath than Skylla shrieking o’er the Tuscan sea.86

But the moment of battle arrives. Let us put ourselves, for a moment, on the side of the people that wait (Thrones S8: Ep.5) behind the well-­ adorned walls of King’s Landing for the ferocious attack, the due labour of vengeance, or on the side of the armies who meet before the walls of Winterfell to fight the White Walkers (Thrones S8: Ep.3). I identify the same terror in the Ragnarök described by Sturluson: Then Gangleri said: “What is there to relate about Ragnarök? I have never heard tell of this before.” High One said: “There are many and great tidings to tell about it. First will come the winter called Fimbulvetr. Snow will drive from all quarters (…). Brothers will kill each other for the sake of gain, and no one will spare father or son sin manslaughter or in incest. (…) Then will occur what will seem a great piece of news, the wolf will swallow the sun and that will seem a great disaster to men. Then another wolf will seize the moon and that one too will do great harm. (…) The wolf Fenrir will get loose then. The sea will lash against the land because the Midgard Serpent is writhing in giant fury trying to come ashore. At that time, too, the ship known as Naglfar will become free. It is made of dead men’s nails, so it is worth warning you that, if anyone dies with his nails uncut, he will greatly increase the material for that ship which both gods and men devoutly hope will take a long time building. (…) The wolf Fenrir will advance with wide open mouth, his upper jaw against the sky, his lower on the earth (he would gape more widely still if there were room) and his eyes and nostrils will blaze with fire. The Midgard Serpent will blow so much poison that the whole sky and sea will be spattered with it; he is most terrible and will be on the other side of the wolf. 86  Euripides, Medea 1342–1243: λέαιναν, οὐ γυναῖκα, τῆς Τυρσηνίδος / Σκύλλης ἔχουσαν ἀγριωτέραν φύσιν (transl. Murray 1907: 74–75).

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The ash Yggdrasil will tremble and nothing in heaven or earth will be free from fear.87

I quote extensively because it seems to me revelatory—and perhaps not at all by chance—how in this crepuscular scene these two stages or decisive battles are merged in the series’ storyline: what takes place against the Night King’s armed guard which brings with it Winter and the destruction of King’s Landing. The Wolf and the Serpent turn to Sturluson to encapsulate the destruction. Even the sacred tree is there, the ash tree Yggdrasill: like that weirwood tree where Bran waits for her feared encounter, an authentic omphalos that reminds us of the elm of dreams of Virgilian hell. And what comes next? A democratic pyrrhic victory—that of the audience?—and the triumphant defeat of the dragon. I think that the dénouement of Game of Thrones does justice to this king of the monsters perhaps diminished over the course of the centuries (and let us not forget that “Every century has its dragons”88). Although this assertion seems completely unjust: ignore the monsters of Burne-Jones, of Altdorfer, Carpaccio and Raphaello, the offspring of studios and most especially Uccello and the tamed beast—which inspire such heterogenous productions as the scenography for Die Zauberflöte by David Hockney, the parody of the great George Adamson or that final scene in Jaws in which the police officer aims his rifle into the abyss-like mouth of the shark. A twist in the plot has occurred, to be argued over and—so they say— rejected by many of the saga’s ardent followers. A twist that has probably determined future HBO productions and also affects the rhythms and strategies—and why not say it: the appetite—of the writer Martin, who now displeases the avid masses with the novels’ dénouement (which, you will remember, was overtaken by the relentless rhythm of the television series), delaying publication of the promised volumes 6 and 7, inserting into the series the recently published Fire and Blood, about the Targaryen’s past in a world populated by dragons. A twist, let us recognise it as such, which I have enjoyed more than any other moment in the television series and which perhaps has managed (or not) to relieve it of the burden of audience participation—of a certain fan audience that expresses itself enthusiastically online—which Sergio del Molino has accurately diagnosed as  Sturluson (1966: 86–87).  Lippincott (1981: 23).

87 88

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“Misery Syndrome”.89 To some extent, we will always be that treacherous audience who, against the agreed, watch through the keyhole as Melusine takes her bath and discovers her dragon’s tail splashing on the water.90 Viserion—to paraphrase the dedication by Fontenrose in his essential study of the Python—got his due, while Drogon, taking the place of George R. R. Martin himself, is responsible for bringing to an end Snow’s tyrannicide. He will be the surviving dragon who melts the Iron Threat with his lethal breath and take the beautiful tyrant gently in his claws.91 And, with all that, it is hard to imagine him being happy even with his victory, which is never truly effective because he does not change his divided nature, in conflict, or mend an impossible love. This frustration is expressed, with the words of Borges’s Asterion (“Al atardecer, / me pesa un poco la cabeza de toro”, it is, “As the sun sets, the bull’s head weighs on me a little”) and with no more vocabulary than his round physique and ferocity, by King Kong, that favourite monster, always sad, who is sacrificed on that altar of modernity, the Empire State Building. Is it necessary to imagine the princess, the maiden, the πότνια θηρῶν sorrowful for the death of the dragon? Or Beauty yearning for that sunset when she drank from the hands of the Beast in Cocteau’s film? Or the blonde Ann Darrow dreaming in the hand of a giant gorilla? On the other hand, how can we presume to have reached some certainty about the monster, about the hybrid creature that is evasive, twisting and sybilline by nature? With no less uncertainty, we bid farewell to the princess, the only human capable of controlling the beast; as like Medea, she “will always in the end elude her interpreters”.92 I particularly like the  Cf. El País, 3 May 2019.  Arras (2003: 661): “Il vit Mélusine dans le bassin: jus-qu’au nombril elle avait l’apparence d’une femme et elle peignait ses cheveux, mais toute la partie inférieure de son corps, sous le nombril, avait la forme d’une queue de serpent, grosse comme une caque de harengs et d’une extraordinaire longueur, avec laquelle elle fouettait si violemment l’eau du bassin qu’elle éclaboussait la voûte de la salle. En la voyant ainsi, Raymond fut bouleversé d’émotion: ‘Ah! mon amour, trompé par le conseil malveillant de mon frère, je viens de vous trahir et de violer le serment que je vous avais juré!’”. 91  In China, “on announcing an emperor’s death, it was said that he had ascended to heaven on the back of a Dragon” (Borges and Guerrero 1969: 65). 92  Hinds (1993: 46): “And her story is from the beginning a story of fragmentation: the innocent girl who is also the all-powerful witch; the defender of the integrity of the family who is also the killer of her own brother and children. Fragmented by her story, fragmented by her constant reinscription in new texts, in new genres, in new eras, Medea will always in the end elude her interpreters”. 89 90

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word of Mujica Lainez about Melusine from the English version by Fitton: “I think I should relate it straightaway, so that the reader may learn, with amazement, who and what I am”;93 I suppose that is because those who and what encode the hybrid condition of the dragon spirit and of the monster in general much better that any delayed erudition. If the dragon looked at itself in the mirror that we have polished for it, if it were to contemplate this reflection, it would perhaps scare itself, like the Devil imagined by Defoe, because of the image with which we have bestowed it over the centuries.94 In conclusion, I applaud the tragic dénouement that has been given— or which has somehow appeared—to Game of Thrones and the moments with the dragon as protagonist, in any of its forms, as the best of the series. This afternoon, I will go to my favourite bookshop and buy a copy of the recently published Fire and Blood, which promises a world of dragons (for I have to confess, at this late stage, that I have only been a viewer of Game of Thrones, never a reader). And, finally, as a round off, I can only wish that the tyrannicide Jon Snow had borrowed those words of Remondin to Melusine, daughter of Presina and Elinas: Las, ma tresdoulce amie, je sui le faulx crueux aspis et vous estes licorne precieuse, je vous ay par mon faulx venin trahie.95

Bibliography Armiño, M. 1983: Marco Polo. Libro de las maravillas, Madrid. Arras, J. de. 1999: Melusina o la Noble Historia de Lusignan, transl. C. Alvar, Madrid. Arras, J. de. 2003: Mélusine ou La Noble Histoire de Lusignan, ed. J.-J. Vincensini, Paris.

93  Mujica Lainez (1983b: 2). The spanish original reads: “Pienso que debo narrarlo enseguida, para que el lector aprecie con exactitud la jerarquía excepcional de quien escribe para él” (Mujica Lainez 1983a: 12). 94  “Children and old women have told themselves so many frightful things of the Devil, and have form’d ideas of him in their minds, in so many horrible and monstrous shapes, that really it were enough to fright the Devil himself, to meet himself in the dark, dress’d up in the several figures which imagination has form’d for him in the minds of men; and as for themselves, I cannot think by any means that the Devil would terrify them half so much, if they were to converse face to face with him” (Defoe 1726: 1–2). 95  Arras (2003: 664).

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Barton, S.  G., Barton W.  H. 1928: A Guide to the Constellations, New  York and London. Binyon, L. 1911: The Flight of the Dragon. An Essay on the Theory and Practice of Art in China and Japan, based on Original Sources, London. Borges, J. L. and Guerrero, M. 1969: The Book of Imaginary Beings, transl. N.T. di Giovanni in collaboration with the author, New York. Borges, J. L. and Vázquez, M. E. 1982: Literaturas germánicas medievales, Madrid. Broderip, W. J. 1849: Zoological Recreations, London. Buffon, G.-L. Leclerc de. 1800: Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière, XLIV: des oiseaux, Paris. Chantraine, P. 1977: Dictionaire étymologique de la langue grecque. Histoire des mots, Paris. Cirlot, J. E. 2001: A Dictionary of Symbols, transl. J. Sage, London. Cisneros Perales, M. 2014: No habrá más sol tras la lluvia, Seville. Comellas, J. L. 1979: Guía del firmamento, Madrid. Conan Doyle, A. 1912: The Lost World, London, New York and Toronto. Conan Doyle, A. 2021: El caso de la fotografía de espíritus, transl. M. Cisneros, Terrades (Gerona). Covarrubias, S. de 1674: Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española, Madrid. Davies, M. 1959: “Uccello’s ‘St. George’ in London”, The Burlington Magazine 101, 308–315. De Groote, I. et al. 2016: “New genetic and morphological evidence suggests a single hoaxer created ‘Piltdown man’”, Royal Society Open Science 3. Defoe, D. 1726: The Political History of the Devil, as well Ancient as Modern, London. DuBois, A. E. 1957: “The Dragon in Beowulf”, PMLA 72, 819–822. Eichholz, D.  H. 1971: Pliny. Natural History XXXVI–XXXVII, London and Cambridge (MA). Eliade, M. 1959: Cosmos and History. The Myth of the Eternal Return, New York. Fairclough, H.  R. 1916: Virgil, Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid I–VI, London and New York. Fairclough, H. R. 1918: Virgil, Aeneid VII–XII, London and New York. Ferrer Lerín, F. 2007: El Bestiario de Ferrer Lerín, Barcelona. Fontcuberta, J., Formiguera, P. 1989: Fauna, Seville. Fontenrose, J. E. 1959: Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and its Origins, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London. Frazer, J. G. 1921: Apollodorus, The Library, London and New York. García Gual, C. 1997: Diccionario de mitología, Barcelona. Gombrich, E. 1951: The Story of Art, New York. Gould, C. 1886: Mythical Monsters, London. Graves, R. 1960: The Greek Myths, vol. 2, Harmondsworth and New York. Grimal, P. 1987: “Pline et les philosophes”, in J. Pigeaud and J. Oroz (eds.), Pline l’Ancien. Témoin de son temps. Conventus Pliniani Internationalis, Nantes,

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22–26 oct. 1985 (Bibliotheca Salmanticensis, Estudios 87), Salamanca and Nantes, 239–249. Hinds, S. 1993: “Medea in Ovid: Scenes from the Life of an Intertextual Heroine”, Materiali e Discussioni per l’Analisi dei Testi Classici 30, 9–47. Hoke, H. 1972: Dragons, Dragons, Dragons, New York. Ingersoll, E. 1928: Dragons and Dragon Lore, New York. Jones, W.  H. S. 1963: Pliny. Natural History XXVIII–XXXII, London and Cambridge (MA). Keller, O. 1913: Die antike Tierwelt, vol. II: Vögel, Reptilien, Fische, Insekten, Spinnentiere, etc., Leipzig. Lara Peinado, F. 1984: Mitos sumerios y acadios, Madrid. Latham, R. 1958: The Travels of Marco Polo, Harmondsworth and New York. Laugier, S. 2018: “Spoilers, Twists, and Dragons: Popular Narrative after Game of Thrones”, in I.  Christie and A. van den Oever (eds.), Stories, Amsterdam, 143–152. Leitner, H. 1972: Zoologische Terminologie beim Älteren Plinius, Hildesheim. Liddell, H. G., Scott, R., Jones, H. S. 1996: A Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford. Lippincott, L.  W. 1981: “The Unnatural History of Dragons”, Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin 77, 2–24. Mair, G. R. 1921: Aratus, Phaenomena (Callimachus; Lycophron; Aratus), London and New York. Maunder, E. W. 1904: Astronomy without a Telescope, London. Miller, F. J. 1917: Seneca’s Tragedies I, London and New York. Miller, F. J. 1951: Ovid, Metamorphoses, vol. 1, London and Cambridge (MA). Moreno Soldevila, R. 2010: Plinio el Joven: Panegírico de Trajano, Madrid. Morgan, E. 1967: Beowulf, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Muchnik, M. 2002: Léxico editorial: para uso de quienes todavía creen en la edición cultural, Madrid. Mujica Lainez, M. 1983a: El unicornio, Barcelona. Mujica Lainez, M. 1983b: The Wandering Unicorn, transl. M. Fitton, New York. Murray, G. 1907: The Medea of Euripides, New York. Nissen, C. 1953: Die illustrierten Vogelbücher: ihre Geschichte und Bibliographie, Stuttgart. Otto, A. 1890: Die Sprichwörter und Sprichwörtlichen Redensarter der Römer, Leipzig. Polo, M. 2005 (19541): Il Milione, Torino. Rackham, H. 1940: Pliny. Natural History VIII–XI, London and Cambridge (MA). Rackham, H. 1961: Pliny. Natural History XXXIII–XXXV, London and Cambridge (MA). Russell, B. 1946: History of Western Philosophy, London. Savater, F. 2008: Misterio, emoción y riesgo. Sobre libros y películas de aventuras, Barcelona.

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Scholfield, A.  F. 1958: Aelian, On the Characteristics of Animals, London and Cambridge (MA). Seaton, R. C. 1912: Apollonius Rhodius, The Argonautica, London and New York. Shackleton Bailey, D. R. 1993: Martial, Epigrams, London and Cambridge (MA). Simpson, J. 1980: British Dragons, London. Smith, G. E. 1919: The Evolution of the Dragon, London and New York. Steiner, G. 1955: “The Skepticism of the Elder Pliny”, The Classical Weekly 48, 137–143. Sturluson, S. 1966: The Prose Edda. Tales from Norse Mythology, transl. J. I. Young, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Sturluson, S. 1976: Egil’s Saga, transl. H. Pálsson and P. Edwards, Harmondsworth and New York. Tolkien, J. R. R. 1966: The Tolkien Reader, intr. P. S. Beagle, New York. Thompson, D. W. 1910: Aristotle, Historia Animalium, Oxford. Trinquier, J. 2013: “Cinnabaris et ʻsang-dragonʼ: Le ʻcinabreʼ des anciens entre minéral, végétal et animal”, Revue Archéologique 2, 305–346. Zigel, F. 1968: Wonders of the Night Sky, Moscow.

CHAPTER 5

A Song of Ice and Fire as a Narrative of Environmental Crisis and Climate Change Katsiaryna Nahornava

1   Introduction I must confess that I have always preferred the dark psychological reality found in the works by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, for example, to magical worlds set in pseudo-medieval times, full of supernatural creatures and sorcery, which—I thought—detached us from reality and did not allow us to relate to the characters or the environment of a world which—again, as I thought—was populated only by heroes and villains. I had never felt attracted by fantasy until the day the HBO TV series Game of Thrones came into my life and made me want to read the books by George R. R. Martin on which the series is based. A Song of Ice and Fire introduced me to a complex world, often more real than fantastic, where characters are not either black or white and where magic is more an exception than a rule. The topics dealt with in the saga, such as political intrigues, discrimination, human rights, sexuality, violence and morality, are, in fact,

K. Nahornava (*) Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_5

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those we face in our world; the characters confront the same trials and tribulations as those I have always been so fond of. Probably, because of it being so realistic and up-to-date, this saga has become extremely popular even among non-fantasy readers, like me. Despite its extraordinary popularity, or maybe because of it, the success of A Song of Ice and Fire has still only timidly been met with academic interest. Yet, some collections of essays on Martin’s saga have been recently released, indicating an increasing attention towards it within the academic world. The most frequent fields of analysis dwell on issues such as politics (Iglesias Turrión 2014; McCaffrey and Dorobat 2015; Szűcs 2017), female figures (Gjelsvik and Schubart 2016; Gresham 2015; Jones 2012; Rohr and Benz 2019; Spector 2012), history (Larrington 2015; Walker 2015; Whitehead 2012; Zontos 2015), medievalism (Carroll 2018; Larrington 2015; Mondschein 2017) and narrative style (Busch 2011; Cowlishaw 2015; Napolitano 2015). Nevertheless, one issue that I find particularly interesting has not been addressed yet: the way the saga presents the role of humanity on the planet as part of a bigger and more powerful system—the ecosystem. Although ecological problems may seem not to be explicitly addressed in the books, the main environmental threats— the coming natural catastrophe represented by the ice creatures called the Others and Daenerys’s dragons, fire made flesh—shape the events in A Song of Ice and Fire. These cataclysms remain in the background and are usually ignored or even denied by the characters (and probably by readers as well), which is reminiscent of the anthropogenic climate change denial and neglect that can be found nowadays in our contemporary society. Nonetheless, as this chapter will reveal, the relationship between the human characters and other-than-human nature plays a very important role in the saga, which, in my opinion, deserves our attention. It will also be shown that not only does A Song of Ice and Fire present humanity as cynical, hopeless and cursed, as Leederman claims,1 but it also draws a ray of light towards salvation from such impenetrable darkness, pointing at a possible bright future which can be accomplished by means of building a sustainable holistic life community, whose members’ main purpose is the maintenance of the ecosystem.2 Therefore, in order to study the way Martin’s book saga deals with human-nature relationship and portrays both the forthcoming and 1 2

 Leederman (2015: 189).  Nahornava (2019: 69).

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preceding environmental threats, this chapter will analyse A Song of Ice and Fire from an ecocritical perspective. According to Glotfelty,3 “ecocriticism is the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment, [which means that] ecocriticism takes an earth-centred approach to literary studies”. Accordingly, this approach is concerned with the artistic representations of “the relationship of the human and the more-than-­human throughout human cultural history” and “seek[s] [to establish] a synthesis of environmental and social concerns”,4 highlighting the need to develop “the ethics of place and belonging”.5 Hence, in this chapter, I aim at showing that Martin’s saga can be analysed as an example of cli-fi (climate change fiction), a relatively new “genre” or subgenre of fiction, which, albeit “borrowing from and often embracing elements of different existing genres, [… is] defined by its thematic focus on climate change and the political, social, psychological and ethical issues associated with it”.6 Goodbody and Johns-Putra (2019), in their Cli-fi: A Companion, distinguish between two types of climate change narratives: cli-fi and proto-­climate-­change fiction. While the former “engages with anthropogenic climate change, exploring the phenomenon […] with regard to psychological and social issues, combining fictional plots with meteorological facts, speculation on the future and reflection on the human-nature relationship”; the latter may not blame humanity for environmental changes straightaway but still “predates awareness of the effects of greenhouse gases, and either attribute climatic change to natural causes, use it to reflect on the limitations of human control over the natural environment, or invest it with other meaning as a metaphor for political developments”.7 Even though up to this point in the narrative it is neither clear if in the world of Ice and Fire the coming environmental catastrophe is anthropogenic or in any way to blame on human activity nor if it will eventually be revealed in the remaining two books still to be published, The Winds of Winter and A Dream of Spring, it has indeed become evident that the way this environmental crisis is treated or, better still, ignored by humans and the way humanity positions themselves on top of the hierarchy neglecting and abusing of the more-than-human world is a big handicap in the  Glotfelty (1996: xix).  Garrard (2011: 4–5). 5  DeLoughrey and Handley (2011: 4). 6  Goodbody and Johns-Putra (2019: 1–2). 7  Goodbody and Johns-Putra (2019: 2–3). 3 4

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finding of a possible solution to the coming ecological catastrophe. It is important to highlight here that in an interview given to The New York Times, George R. R. Martin admitted that A Song of Ice and Fire somehow parallels our own environmental crisis and the way humans face it: The people in Westeros are fighting their individual battles over power and status and wealth. And those are so distracting them that they’re ignoring the threat of “winter is coming,” which has the potential to destroy all of them and to destroy their world. And there is a great parallel there to, I think, what I see this planet doing here, where we’re fighting our own battles. We’re fighting over issues, important issues, mind you—foreign policy, domestic policy, civil rights, social responsibility, social justice. All of these things are important. But while we’re tearing ourselves apart over this and expending so much energy, there exists this threat of climate change, which, to my mind, is conclusively proved by most of the data and 99.9 percent of the scientific community. And it really has the potential to destroy our world. And we’re ignoring that while we worry about the next election and issues that people are concerned about, like jobs. Jobs are a very important issue, of course. All of these things are important issues. But none of them are important if, like, we’re dead and our cities are under the ocean. So really, climate change should be the number one priority for any politician who is capable of looking past the next election. But unfortunately, there are only a handful of those.8

Therefore, in order to show that Martin’s saga can be read as an example of climate change fiction, this chapter will be divided into four sections. The first part, “‘Winter is coming’: A game of natural forces” will be devoted to the depiction of the current environmental situation in Westeros and Essos, paying special attention to the coming ecological catastrophe and its effects on humanity and more-than-human nature. The second section, “Preceding ecological cataclysms”, will deal with the environmental catastrophes previous to the moment of narration, such as the Long Night, the Great Floods and the Doom of Valyria. “The evolution of human-nature relationship: Climate change scepticism and denial” will look into the way A Song of Ice and Fire recreates the different stages of the relationship that humans have held with the more-than-human world and the gradual shift towards a more anthropocentric positioning and its consequent mastery of and detachment from nature. It will also 8

 Martin (2018).

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focus on the notion of ecophobia and how this has led to climate change scepticism and even denial. Finally, the concluding section “A dream of spring?” aims at showing that Martin’s saga points at a possible way out of the environmental crisis the world of Ice and Fire is facing, by means of abandoning the position of a master and becoming more eco-conscious, thus establishing a closer bond with the more-than-human world. All this, I hope, will help me show that A Song of Ice and Fire is a good example of a narrative of climate change and environmental crisis and can be used with didactic purposes in order to teach environmental ethical issues as well as to put the spotlight on our role, as individuals as well as society, in the causes and solutions of our own environmental crisis.

2   “Winter is coming”: A Game of Natural Forces A Song of Ice and Fire immerses its readers into an imaginary pseudo-­ medieval world divided into families and clans competing for power, where medieval chivalric values are sunken in the hubris, selfishness and corruption reminiscent of our contemporary society. The battle for the Iron Throne, which seems to be the central theme in the saga and which gives its name to the first book as well as the TV series, is, as Ned Stark would call it, nothing but “the summer game of a child”.9 The characters, along with the readers, are misled by the relentless search for revenge, glory and wealth and are bound to neglect the coming environmental disaster. Among other issues, as this chapter intends to demonstrate, A Song of Ice and Fire is about an unavoidable ecological and human catastrophe which is chiefly overlooked or denied. Nonetheless, the Starks’ words keep on reminding us that “winter is coming” to Westeros, and with it, ice and cold personified in the Others, an ancient race of dangerous ice creatures, who unexpectedly reappeared with their army of the dead ready to invade Westeros and destroy life. The land of Essos, on the other hand, is threatened by the uncontrollable fire of the dragons, awakened by Daenerys Targaryen out of ancient dragon eggs, which she received as a souvenir on her wedding day. Such unforeseen biological atavism undoubtedly points at the important climatic changes that the continents of Westeros and Essos are experiencing and which render humanity powerless in this game of natural forces.

9

 GoT 23 Arya 2.

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Importantly enough, the very beginning of the saga, the “Prologue” of A Game of Thrones, already points at an unexpected and unbelievable ecological anomaly—the reappearance of the creatures called the Others. The actual depiction of these creatures suggests that they are first and foremost cold and ice made flesh. Even though they might resemble a human being,10 every aspect of their existence brings them closer to a kind of environmental phenomenon. Their physical appearance allows them to come across unseen, unheard and unnoticed. The first time the reader witnesses an Other, it emerges in the form of “a white shadow in the darkness”, as something extremely “cold and implacable”, as wind, which “made the trees rustle like living things”.11 Tall, it was, and gaunt and hard as old bones, with flesh pale as milk. Its armor seemed to change color as it moved; here it was white as new-fallen snow, there black as shadow, everywhere dappled with the deep grey-green of the trees. The patterns ran like moonlight on water with every step it took.12

Its eyes were “bluer than any human eyes, a blue that burned like ice”.13 Sam Tarly later discovers that some weather conditions and the Others are mutually reliant, since “the Others come when it is cold, […] Or else it gets cold when they come. Sometimes they appear during snowstorms and melt away when the skies clear. They hide from the light of the sun and emerge by night… or else night falls when they emerge”.14 Tormund Giantsbane goes even further stating that these creatures are actually mist, “shadows with teeth … air so cold it hurts to breathe, like a knife inside your chest [, …] cold”, which cannot be killed by a sword.15 Therefore, this portrayal of the Others, their perfect camouflage that flawlessly blends them into the environment, along with their “nature” language, which was “like a cracking of ice on a winter lake” and “their voices and laughter 10  In fact, Archmaester Fomas claimed in his book Lies of the Ancients that the Others “were nothing more than a tribe of the First Men, ancestors of the wildlings, that had established itself in the far north” and that the legend of these unnatural creatures was spread with a view to giving a more heroic image to the Starks and the Night’s Watch, who defeated them (Martin et al. 2014: 12. “Ancient History. The Long Night”). 11  GoT 1 Prologue. 12  GoT 1 Prologue. 13  GoT 1 Prologue. 14  FfC 6 Samwell 1. 15  DwD 59 Jon 12.

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sharp as icicles”, picture them as an inseparable part of the natural surroundings, as a kind of extreme meteorological phenomenon.16 Yet, even though the saga opens warning about such a danger, the characters pay little or no attention whatsoever to this occurrence, downplaying the incident with the Others in the Prologue and eventually even forgetting about it. Ned Stark, for example, is convinced that Will was just a deserter from the Night’s Watch, and when his wife Cat reminds him that there are more dangerous things beyond the Wall than wildlings, he convincingly claims that “the Others are as dead as the children of the forest, gone eight thousand years. Maester Luwin will [even say] they never lived at all, [since] no living man has ever seen one”.17 Tyrion Lannister had a similar reaction of disbelief and even mockery when the Master-at-­ Arms at Castle Black Ser Alliser Thorne came to King’s Landing with a hand of a wight in order to ask for men for the Wall to defend it against the coming threat brought by the living dead. Tyrion just gave him spades suggesting that “if [they] bury [their] dead, [those] won’t come walking. […] Spades will end [their] troubles”.18 Nonetheless, not only is there the threat of the Others beyond the Wall, but this reappearance also seems to be the first out of many climatic anomalies occurring both in Westeros and Essos, again, chiefly disregarded. One of the oddities the reader first catches sight of is the presence of direwolves, which are thought to be extinct or close to extinction, far from their natural habitat beyond the Wall. As Theon Greyjoy notices “[t]here’s not been a direwolf sighted south of the Wall in two hundred years”, which also makes the Starks’ master of horse uneasy, since for him “direwolves loose in the realm after so many years” is a very bad omen.19 This reappearance obviously points at a kind of danger beyond the Wall, probably the Others, which made the she-direwolf the Starks found in the woods flee, pushing her so close to civilisation. Besides, a number of other anomalies have been taking place in Westeros, such as “a kraken […] seen off the Fingers […] Not a Greyjoy, […] a true kraken”.20 The reader eventually learns that the Children of the Forest, the giants and mammoths are not extinct either, as it is commonly claimed by maesters.  GoT 1 Prologue.  GoT 3 Catelyn 1. 18  CoK 26 Tyrion 6. 19  GoT 2 Bran 1, emphasis added. 20  SoS 20 Tyrion 3. 16 17

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These anomalies are not just a simple curiosity or magic, but they seriously affect humans. I believe it is safe to state that the unexpected extreme winter seems to be the cause of massive climate migration, about which the reader gets to know soon enough in the first book, when Bran comes across a group of wildlings while trying out his tailor-made saddle, and which becomes much more evident in the following books. Wildlings are pushed to abandon their lands, as Osha tells Bran: The cold winds are rising, and men go out from their fires and never come back … or if they do, they’re not men no more, but only wights, with blue eyes and cold black hands. Why do you think I run south with Stiv and Hali and the rest of them fools? Mance thinks he’ll fight, the brave sweet stubborn man, like the white walkers were no more than rangers, but what does he know?21

It is generally believed that the Night’s Watch is meant to protect the realm from the dangers beyond the Wall, which are currently thought to be wildlings, since the Others are claimed by many to be non-existent. Thus, the Wall can be seen as a tangible barrier that divides Westeros into a “safe” human-dominated territory, South of the Wall, and the Wilderness, North of the Wall, “the trackless dark beyond”, a haunted forest full of terrors.22 The Wall is perceived by the inhabitants of the Seven Kingdoms as the border between civilization and wilderness—“the end of the world”, delimiting the land where human laws rule.23 Consequently, the inhabitants of the lands beyond the Wall are usually portrayed as a radically separated class, “the savage folk who drank blood from human skulls”,24 and as “inferior and ‘barbarian’ others who are closer to nature [than culture], an earlier and more primitive stage of [human] rational civilisation”.25 This centric system of thought (the one that favours the centre: men, the white, the rich, the citizens of the “first” world, etc.) “typically differentiates very strongly between a privileged, hegemonic group awarded full agency status who are placed at the centre and excluded peripheral groups who are denied agency and whose contribution is discounted, neglected,

 GoT 54 Bran 6.  CoK 26 Tyrion 6. 23  CoK 7 Jon 1. 24  CoK 24 Jon 3. 25  Plumwood (2002: 21). 21 22

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denied, or rendered invisible”.26 Which is why rational Westerosi see wildlings as “raiders, rapers, more beast than man”, who have to be controlled and kept isolated from the human civilisation—well beyond the Wall, since they are the major threat to its preservation.27 Yet, through the multiple perspectives of different POV characters, the reader comes to know that while for the “civilised” Westerosi wilderness means the source of terror and chaos, for wildlings themselves, their land is closer to a paradise. They call themselves the free folk, where men and women are treated equally and where they have a say in the choice of a ruler or a guide they want to follow; conversely, the “civilised” inhabitants of the Seven Kingdoms are seen as kneelers and are usually blamed for the disadvantageous position that the free folk is left in, as Ygritte tells Jon Snow: “You’re the ones who steal. You took the whole world, and built the Wall t’ keep the free folk out”. “Did we?” Sometimes Jon forgot how wild she was, and then she would remind him. “How did that happen?” “The gods made the earth for all men t’ share. Only when the kings come with their crowns and steel swords, they claimed it was all theirs. My trees, they said, you can’t eat them apples. My stream, you can’t fish here. My wood, you’re not t’ hunt. My earth, my water, my castle, my daughter, keep your hands away or I’ll chop ’em off, but maybe if you kneel t’ me I’ll let you have a sniff. You call us thieves, but at least a thief has t’ be brave and clever and quick. A kneeler only has t’ kneel.”28

Undeniably, there is a strong rivalry between the wildlings and the Westerosi; however, neither can it be negated that the coming environmental catastrophe—the long winter brought by the Others, with its consequent food shortage—will first and foremost impact the free folk, since environmental catastrophes or cataclysms do not affect everyone equally, because they “may mean [just] discomfort for someone higher up the social scale, [while at the same time they] may mean death to someone more marginal”,29 which is precisely the case of the free folk, climate migrants, who are pushed to march south in order to escape their eventual demise and are met by a violent defence at the Wall. At first, Jon, along  Plumwood (2002: 28–29).  DwD 40 Jon 7. 28  SoS 42 Jon 5. 29  Plumwood (2002: 84). 26 27

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with the Night’s Watch, is reluctant to let them cross the border, since once the gates are open and wildlings are allowed to pass, he imagines “Giants camping in the ruins of Winterfell[,] Cannibals in the wolfswood, chariots sweeping across the barrowlands, free folk stealing the daughters of shipwrights and silversmiths from White Harbor and fishwives off the Stony Shore”, which undoubtedly renders his countrymen in danger.30 This unenviable situation points at the fact that “there are clear relations between climate change, on the one hand, and war, migration, and terror, on the other”.31 Nevertheless, a sort of environmental justice movement is being born and promoted by Lord Commander Mormont, Stannis Baratheon with the help of Melisandre and Jon Snow. Discussing the seriousness of the situation regarding the Others, Mormont blames the Night’s Watch for the circumstances they have got involved in due to their blindness and neglect: The Night’s Watch has forgotten its true purpose, Tarly. You don’t build a wall seven hundred feet high to keep savages in skins from stealing women. The Wall was made to guard the realms of men… and not against other men, which is all the wildlings are when you come right down to it. Too many years, Tarly, too many hundreds and thousands of years. We lost sight of the true enemy. And now he’s here, but we don’t know how to fight him.32

The Red Priestess Melisandre comes to the same realisation, pointing at the stupidity of human quarrels and fights, when a major catastrophe is threatening every life on earth: These little wars are no more than a scuffle of children before what is to come. The one whose name may not be spoken is marshaling his power, […] a power fell and evil and strong beyond measure. Soon comes the cold, and the night that never ends. […] man’s hour on earth is almost done. We must act boldly, or all hope is lost. Westeros must unite.33

Even though it is true that Lord Commander Mormont never mentioned allying with wildlings, by the same token Stannis only insisted on  SoS 74 Jon 10.  Estok (2018: 37). 32  SoS 34 Samwell 2, original’s italics. 33  SoS 37 Davos 4. 30 31

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letting wildlings cross the Wall in pursuit of self-interest, still they are likely to have had an influence on Jon Snow’s decision to shelter the free folk on the southern side of the Wall. After having spent some time among the free folk, Jon Snow discovers that wildlings are not actually the way his compatriots describe them; he eventually agrees that “free folk and kneelers are more alike than not. […] Men are men and women women, no matter which side of the Wall [they] were born on. Good men and bad, heroes and villains, men of honor, liars, cravens, brutes … [the free folk] have plenty, as do [the Westerosi]”.34 Even though his loyalty to the Night’s Watch reminds him that they are “the shield that guards the realms of men”, still, when he looks at wildlings, “all he saw was men”, who needed protection from the coming threat or would overwise become part of the army of the dead.35 However, this environmental justice gesture eventually leads to his own death, as migration is still perceived as something evil and frowned upon. Being on the “safe” side of the Wall allows for “environmental classism”—“a high level of remoteness from the consequences of their decisions, since [they] themselves may be able to use their privilege[d location] to ensure they can escape many of the effects of ecological damage”, which definitely prevents the brothers of the Night’s Watch from feeling empathy towards wildlings and Jon, who saved them.36 However, walling themselves from the threats coming from the wild does not only provide a false sense of safety, more importantly, it makes humans “lose certain abilities to situate [them]selves as part of [nature]”, rendering them ignorant of the battle still to come and consequently powerless in it.37 Not only is Westeros facing an important environmental and human crisis, but, in a way, so is Essos, where Daenerys Targaryen manages to make three ancient dragon eggs hatch and bring these creatures, extinct for many years, back to life. Although dragons may seem appealing and magical, Xaro Xhaos Daxos is right when he tells Daenerys that “when [her] dragons were small they were a wonder. Grown, they are death and devastation, a flaming sword above the world”.38 This was proved when Drogon killed the four-year-old girl Hazzea, and Daenerys Targaryen was  DwD 22 Jon 5.  DwD 36 Jon 7, original’s italics. 36  Plumwood (2002: 71, 85). 37  Plumwood (2002: 98). 38  DwD 17 Daenerys 3. 34 35

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forced to lock her children (except Drogo, who managed to escape) in the pits of Meereen in order to avoid greater tragedy. This episode made her question herself, her “weapons” and her way to govern: Mother of dragons, Daenerys thought. Mother of monsters. What have I unleashed upon the world? A queen I am, but my throne is made of burned bones, and it rests on quicksand. Without dragons, how could she hope to hold Meereen, much less win back Westeros? I am the blood of the dragon, she thought. If they are monsters, so am I.39

The journey that Tyrion sets forth on along the river Rhoyne passing through the cities, or to be more exact, what is left of them after “the dragons of Valyria had reduced [them] to a smoldering desolation”, points at the threat for humanity as well as the environment that dragons pose:40 Ghoyan Drohe had never been large, Tyrion recalled from his histories, but it had been a fair place, green and flowering, a city of canals and fountains. Until the war. Until the dragons came. A thousand years later, the canals were choked with reeds and mud, and pools of stagnant water gave birth to swarms of flies. The broken stones of temples and palaces were sinking back into the earth, and gnarled old willows grew thick along the riverbanks.41

The same fate was faced by other Rhoynar cities, like Ny Sar, left with only “crooked walls and fallen towers, broken domes and rows of rotted wooden pillars, streets choked by mud and overgrown with purple moss”;42 Chroyane and the Palace of Love, where “there were gardens bright with flowers and fountains sparkling golden in the sun. These steps once rang to the sound of lovers’ footsteps, and beneath that broken dome marriages beyond count were sealed with a kiss”, but now everything is “ruined, […] desolate, […] fallen”.43 All this suggests that Daenerys’s dragons are not simple pets to play with but dangerous creatures, fire made flesh, and combined with human egocentric search of power and wealth, dragons may trigger the destruction of cities, civilisations as well as ecosystems. The wrecked area of the  DwD 12 Daenerys 2, original’s italics.  DwD 6 Tyrion 2. 41  DwD 9 Tyrion 3, original’s italics. 42  DwD 15 Tyrion 4. 43  DwD 19 Tyrion 5, original’s italics. 39 40

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river Rhoyne is now used as a sort of human waste landfill, where those infected by greyscale are disposed of. Thus, it can be seen as a toxic, “radioactive”, highly infectious place: No[t] common fog, […since] it stinks of sorcery […]. Many a voyager has been lost here, poleboats and pirates and great river galleys too. They wander forlorn through the mists, searching for a sun they cannot find until madness or hunger claim their lives. There are restless spirits in the air here and tormented souls below the water.44

Another climatological curiosity is the seasons in the Known World, since these are irregular and unpredictable. Last summer, for example, lasted for “ten years, two turns, and sixteen days, the longest summer in living memory”.45 The Long Night, for instance, lasted for “a generation in which children were born, grew into adulthood, and in many cases died without ever seeing the spring, […or even] the light of day”.46 The World of Ice and Fire mentions that “the Citadel has long sought to learn the manner by which it may predict the length and change of seasons, [however] all efforts have been confounded”, or these phenomena were just attributed to magic, “rather than trustworthy knowledge”.47 Nonetheless, interestingly enough, there is also a reference to the research by Maester Nicol “based […] on the movement of stars in the firmament”, who argues [albeit] unconvincingly [according to Maester Yandel] that the seasons might once have been of a regular length, determined solely by the way in which the globe faces the sun in its heavenly course. The notion behind it seems true enough—that the lengthening and shortening of days, if more regular, would have led to more regular seasons—but he could find no evidence that such was ever the case, beyond the most ancient of tales.48

It is curious that all these environmental anomalies—the resurrection of the Others; the dragons; the existence of the Children, giants and other supposedly mythological creatures; as well as the inconsistency of seasons—cannot be explained or even believed by the wisest people of  DwD 19 Tyrion 4.  CoK 1 Prologue. 46  Martin et al. (2014: 11) (“Ancient History. The Long Night”). 47  Martin et al. (2014: 11) (“Ancient History. The Long Night”). 48  Martin et al. (2014: 11) (“Ancient History. The Long Night”). 44 45

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Westeros, the maesters, which is why, perhaps, these events are usually associated with magic, which again, oddly enough, is hardly believed in:49 Perhaps magic was once a mighty force in the world, but no longer. What little remains is no more than the wisp of smoke that lingers in the air after a great fire has burned out, and even that is fading. Valyria was the last ember, and Valyria is gone. The dragons are no more, the giants are dead, the children of the forest forgotten with all their lore.50

Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that A Song of Ice and Fire portrays humanity as “risk society” on the edge of an ecological and human crisis, since it is surrounded by the accumulation of different risks, such as military, financial and, most importantly, ecological—the coming “ice” and “fire”.51

3   Preceding Ecological Cataclysms The current environmental anomalies and the coming ecological disaster are by no means unprecedented in the world of Ice and Fire. In fact, it seems like history is repeating itself. The world created by Martin is so rich that it allows the reader to travel in time with the characters and discover what the Known World was like hundreds and thousands of years previous to the narration. It is important to mention that as Samwell Tarly notices, the history of the Known World was “written after the Andals came to Westeros, [because] the First Men only left us runes on rocks, so everything we think we know about the Age of Heroes and the Dawn Age and the Long Night comes from accounts set down by septons thousands of years later, [which is why] there are archmaesters at the Citadel who question all of it”.52 Therefore, this section cannot provide conclusive analysis but will instead look into the natural cataclysms that have previously shaken both Westeros and Essos and into the likely role that humans might have played in their emergence and development. Three major environmental catastrophes have gone down in history and shaped the map of the Known World: the Great Floods, the Long Night and the Doom of Valyria. The little information available about  On magic in Game of Thrones, see Attali in vol. 2.  CoK 29 Bran 4. 51  Beck (2009: 291). 52  FfC 6 Samwell 1. 49 50

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these phenomena points at the fact that they were most likely natural events. According to Archmaester Cassander, the Great Floods, which separated Westeros from Essos, were “a slow rising of the waters that took place over centuries, not in a single day, and was caused by a series of long, hot summers and short, warm winters that melted the ice in the frozen lands beyond the Shivering Sea, causing the oceans to rise”.53 The Doom of Valyria, which put an end to the dragons’ Freehold, is likewise seen by many maesters as “a natural cataclysm—a catastrophic explosion caused by the eruption of all Fourteen Flames [the Volcanic Mountains] together”.54 Notwithstanding, curiously enough, many other sources attribute these phenomena to sorcery, magic or even divine curse, to a certain degree blaming humans for them. The Great Floods occurred during the confrontation between the Children and the First Men, and legends point at dark magic of greenseers, who, attempting to protect their lands and customs, were forced to take hostile action: And so they did, gathering in their hundreds (some say on the Isle of Faces), and calling on their old gods with song and prayer and grisly sacrifice (a thousand captive men were fed to the weirwood, one version of the tale goes, whilst another claims the children used the blood of their own young). And the old gods stirred, and giants awoke in the earth, and all of Westeros shook and trembled. Great cracks appeared in the earth, and hills and mountains collapsed and were swallowed up. And then the seas came rushing in, and the Arm of Dorne was broken and shattered by the force of the water, until only a few bare rocky islands remained above the waves. The Summer Sea joined the narrow sea, and the bridge between Essos and Westeros vanished for all time.55

This legend is highly doubted, though, since even if the Old Gods were involved in this occurrence, it came too late for the Children; they had to fade regardless, “whilst the race of men spread and multiplied and claimed the fields and forests for their own, raising villages and forts and kingdoms”.56 Nonetheless, it is quite significant that humans might have provoked the Children to cause such ecological disaster. Likewise, the  Martin et al. (2014: 237) (“The Seven Kingdoms. Dorne. The Breaking”).  Martin et al. (2014: 26) (“Ancient History. The Doom of Valyria”). 55  Martin et al. (2014: 237) (“The Seven Kingdoms. Dorne. The Breaking”). 56  Martin et al. (2014: 237) (“The Seven Kingdoms. Dorne. The Breaking”). 53 54

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origins of the Doom, since which Valyria has been a toxic uninhabitable place, are full of legends and myths, but, again, there is a shade of a possible anthropogenic influence. Valyrians were known for their greed and hunger for the ore the Fourteen Flames were rich with “copper and tin for the bronze of their weapons and monuments; later iron for the steel of their legendary blades; and always gold and silver to pay for it all”.57 Additionally, all this hard work was done by slaves “who toiled in the deep mines beneath the Fourteen Flames that lit the Freehold’s nights of old”, as the kindly man tells Arya:58 Burnt and blackened corpses were oft found in shafts where the rocks were cracked or full of holes. Yet still the mines drove deeper. Slaves perished by the score, but their masters did not care. Red gold and yellow gold and silver were reckoned to be more precious than the lives of slaves, for slaves were cheap in the old Freehold. During war, the Valyrians took them by the thousands. In times of peace they bred them, though only the worst were sent down to die in the red darkness.59

Hence, Tyrion’s thought that “the Valyrians reaped the seed they had sown”; awakening “god’s own wrath” seems rather logical.60 The kindly man in Braavos even suggests that the Doom was caused by the very first faceless man, who “would bring the gift [of death] to [the Valyrian masters]”.61 All this clearly hints at the fact that both the Floods and the Doom could have been anthropogenic catastrophes, due to the (in)direct human role (their mastery and exploitation of nature). While the Floods and the Doom were local cataclysms, the Long Night seems to have been a global meteorological phenomenon, since it is believed to have affected both Westeros and Essos. Westeros was invaded by the Others, who “came from the frozen Land of Always Winter, bringing the cold and darkness with them as they sought to extinguish all light and warmth”.62 A similar “darkness […] made the Rhoyne dwindle and

 Martin et al. (2014: 15) (“Ancient History. Valyria’s Children”).  FfC 23 Arya 2. 59  FfC 23 Arya 2. 60  DwD 35 Tyrion 8, original’s italics. 61  FfC 23 Arya 2. 62  Martin et al. (2014: 11) (“Ancient History. The Long Night”). 57

58

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disappear, her waters frozen as far south as the joining of the Selhoru”.63 As well as that, legends mention analogous anomaly in Asshai, where a hero fought against it with a red sword,64 and in Yi Ti, where “the sun hid its face from the earth for a lifetime, ashamed at something none could discover”.65 However, unlike the series, which points at the Children as the creators of the Others, the books do not reveal the origin of this darkness nor of the ice creatures. However, they do indicate the importance of the union between human and other-than-human forces, thanks to which the Long Night came to an end: In the North, they tell of a last hero who sought out the intercession of the children of the forest, his companions abandoning him or dying one by one as they faced ravenous giants, cold servants, and the Others themselves. Alone he finally reached the children, despite the efforts of the white walkers, and all the tales agree this was a turning point. Thanks to the children, the first men of the Night’s Watch banded together and were able to fight— and win—the Battle for the Dawn: the last battle that broke the endless winter and sent the Others fleeing to the icy north.66

4  The Evolution of Human-Nature Relationship: Climate Change Scepticism and Denial As mentioned above, up to this point in the narrative, the saga does not make it clear if the environmental changes that the Known World is facing are in any degree to blame on human activity, yet it eventually becomes evident that human attitude of superiority towards the other-than-human world is an undeniable hindrance in the battle against climate change and the coming environmental catastrophe. Therefore, this section will focus on the evolution of human-nature relationship as portrayed in Martin’s saga, from a more biocentric positioning of the first inhabitants of Westeros to the contemporary anthropocentric society, confined into civilisation

 Martin et al. (2014: 11) (“Ancient History. The Long Night”).  Martin et al. (2014: 11) (“Ancient History. The Long Night”). 65  Martin et al. (2014: 11) (“Ancient History. The Long Night”). 66  Martin et al. (2014: 12) (“Ancient History. The Long Night”). 63 64

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and completely isolated from other-than-human nature.67 As well as that, it aims at demonstrating that the emergence of civilisation and its consequent ecophobia and detachment from nature leads to climate change scepticism, even denial, which undoubtedly prevents humans from perceiving or understanding the environmental catastrophe and, consequently, from doing anything to stop it. Through the multiple stories, books and legends the characters read or tell in the saga, the reader gets to know about the first inhabitants of the continent known as Westeros: the Giants and the Children of the Forest. While the Giants seem to be completely forgotten, the Children of the Forest occupy a special place in the history of the continent, since they had an important impact on the First Men who came to inhabit Westeros later, as well as helped them to bring the Long Night to an end. Many believe that the Children were mythological creatures that did not exist; others considered that they had existed but became extinct long before the events narrated in the saga. That is why the depiction of the Children comes across as a bit romanticised, reminiscent of the myth of the noble savage, given that the legends and history books of Westeros present them in an idealised manner, as pure, innocent, primitive people living in an impossibly perfect harmonious world governed by biocentrism, untouched by civilization, with no castles, no holdfasts, no cities or towns, no markets and no men. Yet, the reader, through the eyes of Bran Stark, discovers that the Children are not mythological creatures but a fact and they still live and will probably be crucial in future development of the events in the books.

67  Anthropocentrism is a philosophical worldview centred on the human (from Greek ἄνθρωπος, ánthrōpos, “human being”; and κέντρον, kéntron, “centre”), according to which the natural environment—including nonhuman animals—exists only for the sake of humans. J.  Baird Callicott (1984: 299, 1989: 265, 1999: 14–15) defines anthropocentrism as the view according to which nature lacks intrinsic value, and the only value that it can gain depends on human experience; that is, its value is instrumental. Biocentrism (from Greek βίος, bios, “life”, and κέντρον, kéntron, “centre”) is a worldview that emerged in opposition to anthropocentrism. It supports the idea of holistic nature where every organism has intrinsic value (Gusev 2014: 33). From a biocentric point of view, humans are not the end of evolution but only one of the living beings that form part of the biosphere. This positioning, therefore, rejects human-nature dualism, because it sees humans as biologically and genetically rooted in nature and thus impossible to be separated from it. Hence, the protection of the bios and preservation of natural equilibrium are indispensable for human civilization to exist (Gusev 2014: 33).

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Due to the fact that the Children are humanoids, they are clearly contrasted with humans, not only in terms or their physical appearance, customs and so on, but above all, their otherness is rooted in the special bond they keep with nature. The Children’s life philosophy is a clear example of biophilia—“the innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes”— on the grounds that they lived, and still live, governed by the rule of non-­ imposition upon nature, seeking “to affiliate with other forms of life”.68 Such biocentric worldview is reflected in every aspect of their existence— from physical appearance, clothing, dwelling or hunting habits to religion, speech and source of wisdom, which noticeably opposes the relationship that humans hold with more-than-human nature. The Children inhabit the land in a very sustainable eco-friendly manner, creating the so-called secret tree “towns” made of leaves and withes in different locations, such as deep woods, crannogs, caves, bogs, marshes and hollow hills, which shows that their lifestyle has much in common with primitive tribes from our world.69 Their natural clothing allows them “to melt into the wood”:70 their nut-brown skin, “dappled like a deer’s with paler spots”,71 was a kind of natural camouflage, and the leaves they wore, along with the bark on their legs and flowers interwoven with vines in their hair, made them look like plants. Therefore, their clothing tradition allowed their blending with nature, thus making their bond with it both spiritual and physical. Apart from taking the best camouflage qualities from plants, they took the best perceptive skills from animals; their ears were large enough to “hear things that no man could hear” and their eyes were big golden cat’s eyes “that could see down passages where a [human]’s eyes saw only blackness”.72 Consequently, the relationship that the Children have nurtured with nature is one of equality, in which, in order to survive, they do not need to rely on violence or control over nature, unlike humans, but rather to integrate themselves into it and learn from it to become wiser and stronger. Curiously enough, not only does the idea of non-intervention in nature affect their way of dressing and dwelling, but more importantly, it is reflected in their language, the True Tongue, which was inspired by the  Wilson (1986: 1; 85).  Martin et al. (2014: 8) (“Ancient History. The Coming of the First Men”). 70  GoT 67 Bran 7. 71  DwD 35 Bran 3. 72  DwD 35 Bran 3. 68 69

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sounds perceived from nature. Not in vain did they call themselves “those who sing the song of earth”,73 since in the books their language was described “as rain upon the water, song of stones in a brook or wind through the leaves”74 and their voices “as pure as winter air”.75 In contrast with human arbitrary language, which is determined by their impulse to name things one way or another, the True Tongue is instead inspired by natural sounds. Since words do not only reflect one’s attitude towards the world, but also condition it, it is very interesting to learn that the Children’s language is presented as purely natural, learnt from the surrounding environment, which demonstrates, once again, the high degree of connection they keep with nature. The True Tongue, which “no human man could speak”,76 was not only the medium of communication among the Children themselves but essentially between the Children and nature. The Children may be considered to be the first ones who communicated with and through ravens, but not with paper tied to them, as it later became customary, but directly through the language of nature: It was the singers who taught the First Men to send messages by raven … but in those days, the birds would speak the words. […] now they write the messages on parchment and tie them round the feet of birds who have never shared their skin.77

This passage points at how a more human-centred worldview gradually superseded the egalitarian biocentrism of the Children. While the Children treated ravens as equals; they trusted them, talked to them and, as a reward, were answered back, the humans, on the other hand, treated ravens as an instrument, a means of communication only among humans. Furthermore, religion also connected the Children with nature, for they worshipped the gods of “the forest, stream, and stone, the old gods whose names are secret”,78 thus assigning intrinsic value to all these natural elements. The Old Gods are reminiscent of pagan animism, seen by Chidester “as a ‘relational epistemology’ through which indigenous people gain knowledge by entering into humanizing relations with the natural  DwD 14 Bran 2.  Martin et al. (2014: 6) (“Ancient History. The Dawn Age”). 75  DwD 35 Bran 3. 76  DwD 35 Bran 3. 77  DwD 35 Bran 3. 78  GoT 67 Bran 7. 73 74

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world”.79 I would say that the Children’s relationship with nature is more connected with the idea of constant learning and gaining knowledge, than a mere personification of natural elements. Though it is true that their tree gods were “humanised” somehow, because, as it is believed by the maesters, the Children carved faces in the trees in order to allow their gods to see the world and protect them. However, these faces are more likely to be necessary not for Gods themselves but for the greenseers—the wise among the Children, who could communicate with the gods and see only through the eyes on the heart trees. This special ability allowed the greenseers to glimpse at the past and present. It was not a simple magic trick but as Maester Luwin thinks “only a different sort of knowledge”, a natural one:80 [Y]ou may look where you will and see what the trees have seen, be it yesterday or last year or a thousand ages past. Men live their lives trapped in an eternal present, between the mists of memory and the sea of shadow that is all we know of the days to come. […] A weirwood will live forever if left undisturbed. To them seasons pass in the flutter of a moth’s wing, and past, present, and future are one.81

Apart from that, some Children, as well as some humans after them, have managed to establish a deeper transcendental bond with other-than-­ human animals. In fact, some of them are a kind of humanimal, both a human-like creature and a nonhuman animal, who are known as skinchangers, “the greatest of [whom] could wear the skins of any beast that flies or swims or crawls, and could look through the eyes of the weirwoods as well, and see the truth that lies beneath the world”.82 It should be noted that this communication was not one of dominion, because skinchangers could not physically inhabit animals’ bodies, but more the one of sharing the animal in question’s capacities, such as seeing, smelling, running and flying.83 Unlike the relationship that humans in Westeros have developed with more-than-human nature, which will be addressed further below, the Children’s treatment of the natural environment as their home, deity and kin allows them to form an extended natural familial system, where every  Chidester (2005: 80).  CoK 29 Bran 4. 81  DwD 35 Bran 3. 82  SoS 10 Bran 1. 83  Martin et al. (2014: 6) (“Ancient History. The Dawn Age”). 79 80

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living and inert being has its right to live and, when such is the case, to reproduce, thus creating a holistic biocentric community. The Children did not consider themselves the centre of life but only one kind among many, and, as Leaf highlights, their presence is in balance with nature, since the gods gave them “long lives but not great numbers, lest [they will] overrun the world as deer will overrun a wood where there are no wolves to hunt them”.84 Their long lives and scarce population made it possible to maintain the dynamic and sustainable cycle of life, which has been threatened by the development of human civilisation. The Children, unlike humans, realised that overpopulation was not beneficial either for nature or for themselves; had they been more numerous, they would have exhausted natural resources very quickly, which not only goes against the biocentric lifestyle they led, but it would have also entailed their own eventual demise. Significantly, this philosophy of life had a great impact on the way the First Men, as well as their descendants like Starks and the wildlings, for instance, perceived nature. The fact that the First Men even accepted and preserved “the old […], the nameless, faceless gods of the greenwood” made their descendants establish a much stronger bond with the land than other inhabitants of the Seven Kingdoms.85 Besides, the Stark kids and some wildlings still have the special skinchanging ability with other-than-­ human animals, which again points at the Children’s heritage and at their more biocentric attitude towards nature. Yet, the turning point in the history of Westeros was the arrival of the Andals, who are considered to be the originators of the current Seven Kingdoms. Different historical sources (septons, maesters and books such as True History) attribute to the Andals the emergence of civilization in Westeros, since they introduced such advances as literacy and writing, steel and iron, a monotheistic religion, new building techniques or notions of chivalry and knighthood. However, as I will show below, all these traditions detached society from more-than-human nature and led to the establishment of the hierarchical anthropocentric perception of life and the emergence of the idea of human exceptionalism. The Andal invasion was most likely a religious one, considering that it was inspired by the Faith of the Seven. According to the Andals’ sacred book The Seven-Pointed Star, their God had promised them great  DwD 35 Bran 3.  GoT 3 Catelyn 1.

84 85

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kingdoms and wealth in foreign lands. Thus, after years of wandering around Essos, they finally came to Westeros to fulfil the prophecy and to spread the words of their God.86 Interestingly, many characteristics of the Faith, worshipped by the great majority of the Westerosi, parallel the medieval Catholic Church.87 The central belief of both religions is the existence of one God with different aspects, which, in the case of the Faith, are Father, Warrior, Smith, Mother, Maiden, Crone and Stranger.88 As is the case in the Catholic Church, the Faith is governed by an authoritarian papal figure known as the High Septon, who holds the power over different religious organizations, called septries, reminiscent of Christian nunneries and monasteries. Furthermore, the way the Faith came to Westeros resembles the Christian crusades to combat paganism and heresy, since the Andals are said to have come “indomitable by their faith”,89 with “the seven-pointed star of the new god on their chests”,90 accompanied by the military forces of The Poor Fellow and the Noble and Puissant Order of the Warrior’s Sons, who marked the conquered territory by carving seven-pointed stars on stones. To the eyes of the conquerors, the only true religion was the Faith, which is why they cut down the heart trees, with their scary and strange faces, so different from their own anthropomorphic god. By the same token, the Andals “burnt out the weirwood groves, hacked down the faces, slaughtered the Children where they found them, and everywhere proclaimed the triumph of the Seven over the old gods”.91 However, the Faith not only resembles Christianity in terms of its organisation and the way it spread over the continent; most importantly for this paper, it does so in terms of its teaching of human uniqueness and moral standing. As White claims, “the victory of Christianity over paganism was the greatest psychic revolution in the history of our culture”,92 as it caused anthropocentric thought, which not only ascribes centrality to humans but also promotes human control over nature, which is partly to blame for the current ecological crisis.93 Thus, the Faith, likewise the  Martin et al. (2014: 17) (“Ancient History. The Arrival of the Andals”).  Wittingslow (2015: 114). 88  GoT 3 Catelyn 1. 89  Martin et al. (2014: 17) (“Ancient History. Valyria’s Children”). 90  GoT 67 Bran 7. 91  GoT 67 Bran 7. 92  White (1967: 1205). 93  De Jonge (2011: 308). 86 87

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Christian tradition, portrays humans as having a special central status attributed by their respective Gods. Similarly to Genesis, which states that God created men in his own image, the Faith also assigns a special place for humans, because as Catelyn Stark points out “their faces were as familiar as the faces of her parents”.94 “The Crone [was portrayed] with her pearl eyes and the Father with his gilded beard”.95 “The Mother smiled, loving and protective. The Warrior had his sword sketched in beneath his face, the Smith his hammer. The Maid was beautiful, the Crone wizened and wise”.96 In contrast with the silent wild Old Gods, The Seven aspects of God are anthropomorphic; they resemble social classes or roles in Westeros, thus allowing identification with the aspect of the God that is more similar to people, because, in a way, the Seven are “projections of their worshippers”.97 As a consequence, such human-centred worldview, in which humans, being physically and morally reflected in the aspects of God, are seen closer to the divine than any other living or inert being, leads to a hierarchical understanding of the world, where humans rule supreme. This reasoning, unlike the egalitarian biocentric philosophy of the original inhabitants of Westeros, promotes the perception of the world in dualistic terms—an artificial division into humans and nonhumans, civilisation and wilderness, men and women and so on—which clearly prevents contemporary society under the influence of the Faith from developing environmentally ethical attitudes towards the other-than-human world, as the Children and, to a certain degree, the First Men did. In a very subtle way, the Faith itself also reflects the dualism that separates the human from the more-than-human world, privileging the former. It can be seen through the figure of the Stranger, who is “neither male nor female, yet both, ever the outcast, the wanderer from far places, less and more than human, unknown and unknowable”.98 He is “more animal than human” and thus categorically different from men.99 The fact that the Stranger seems not to fit in the binary world accepted by the Westerosi, being both male and female, does not allow people to identify with him/her/it, which is why this aspect of God is not considered the  GoT 3 Catelyn 1.  CoK 11 Davos 1. 96  CoK 34 Catelyn 4. 97  Wittingslow (2015: 117). 98  CoK 34 Catelyn 4. 99  CoK 11 Davos 1. 94 95

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source of good and is very rarely prayed to.100 Despite being part of the divine, the figure of the Stranger is misunderstood and rejected by the worshippers, and the fact that he is presented as an unknowable animal-­ like creature shows that more-than-human nature receives the same treatment by the followers of the Faith, because its strangeness prevents identification. Hence, other-than-human animals and nature in general are not perceived as good or valuable but as outcasts and disposable, just like the Stranger. Apart from creating nature-human dualism and hierarchical understanding of the world, the Faith justifies human exploitation of natural resources, because such is God’s will. The holy book Seven-Pointed Star says that the Andals’ ability to work iron and steel was taught by the Smith himself who lived among the people.101 Accordingly, nature was created by God for the sake of humans, who are allowed to dominate and exploit it simply because of their supposed superiority. The Faith favoured the emergence of such an anthropocentric thought and did not see wrongness in treating nature as an instrument. Therefore, the shift towards such instrumental perception of nature and human superiority went hand in hand with the spread of the Faith. The Andals managed to dominate almost the entire continent of Westeros, except for the North, which maintained them at bay thanks to the “impenetrable swamps of the Neck and the ancient keep of Moat Cailin”,102 which became home and shelter for the First Men and the Children. Having escaped the Andal invasion and the conversion into the Faith, the North still leads a more biocentric and environmentally friendly lifestyle inherited from the First Men, while the rest of the continent dominated by the Andals moved to a progressively more anthropocentric worldview. This difference becomes clear in the depiction of the land and human settlements in the North and the South of Westeros. The North is portrayed as a “vast emptiness”, with only “bogs and forests and fields, and scarcely a decent inn north of the Neck”.103 Even though urbanisation affected those lands, the castles and villages are scarce and integrated into nature in a respectful manner. Nature is presented as untouched by humans, who form part of it. A good example of this is the greatest castle  Wittingslow (2015: 116).  Martin et al. (2014: 17) (“Ancient History. The Arrival of the Andals”). 102  Martin et al. (2014: 20) (“Ancient History. The Arrival of the Andals”). 103  GoT 5 Eddard 1. 100 101

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in the North, Winterfell, which “had been built over natural hot springs, and the scalding waters rushed through its walls and chambers like blood through a man’s body, driving the chill from the stone halls, filling the glass gardens with a moist warmth, keeping the earth from freezing”.104 The personification of natural elements, such as water, stone and earth, points at the deep respect that the Northerners have for their land, presenting it as vital for their survival. The Northerners’ biocentric heritage allowed them to make the best out of the available natural resources without causing much damage, following the Children’s tradition of sustainable intervention in nature. The South, on the other hand, is a place where “three hundred years ago […] the heights had been covered with forest, […] swift river flowed into the sea”, while “now the city covered the shore […]; manses and arbors and granaries, brick storehouses and timbered inns and merchant’s stalls, taverns and graveyards and brothels, all piled one on another”.105 The depiction of the South points at the fact that here human interests are clearly superimposed. Due to the subjugation of nature, the spread of urbanisation led to deforestation and the extinction of some rare animal species. Interestingly enough, however, even though the Faith was imposed in Westeros, some godswoods in the South were left, as a sign of reconciliation between the First Men and the Andals. Nonetheless, while in the North, “this was a place of deep silence and brooding shadows”,106 “where even the moonlight could not penetrate the ancient tangle of root and thorn and grasping limb;”107 in the South, the godswoods are human artefacts, “a place to walk or read or lie in the sun […] a garden, bright and airy”.108 When Jaime Lannister visits House Blackwood in A Dance with Dragons, he notices the enormous impact that the development of civilisation has had on nature: A vale it was, beyond a doubt, but no wood had grown here for several thousand years, be it black or brown or green. Once, yes, but axes had long since cleared the trees away. Homes and mills and holdfasts had risen where

 GoT 7 Catelyn 2.  GoT 19 Catelyn 4. 106  GoT 2 Catelyn 1. 107  GoT 22 Tyrion 3. 108  GoT 2 Catelyn 1. 104 105

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once the oaks stood tall. The ground was bare and muddy, and dotted here and there with drifts of melting snow.109

Accordingly, the Southrons do not truly respect nature but rather see it as raw material from which to make something more appealing for humans, regardless of the consequences. They clearly suffer from ecophobia, or “gaeaphobia” as Van Tine calls it, an attitude “characterised by extreme destructive behaviour towards the natural environment and a pathological denial of the effects of that destructive behaviour”.110 Looking into this human tendency to detach themselves from the other-than-human world, as well as to mistreat and disrespect nature, Estok claims that “ecophobia is the cause of the environmental despoliation”; likewise homophobia, for instance, is the cause of sexual discrimination and hatred.111 He defines ecophobia as both “fear of the agency of the natural environment”112 and its consequent “yearning for control combined with either a general indifference or an outright contempt for the natural world and its inhabitants”.113 As emphasised above, the continent of Westeros is presented as separated by the Wall into the civilised south and the savage north. Even though the Wall was raised in order to put an end to the Long Night, at this point in the narrative, it can be seen as a symbol of human isolation from the more-­ than-­human nature, which was definitely promoted by ecophobia, the fear of untamed nature, since it is perceived as the source of evil and destruction.114 Although the saga does not point at explicit anthropogenic climate degradation, it does show that humanity has influenced the more-than-­ human world and is responsible for the biodiversity loss, extermination of various more-than-human creatures, not only by hunting but probably by the (un)intentional destruction of their habitats and resources. Leaf, one of the Children of the Forest, tells Bran that her people are: Gone down into the earth […] Into the stones, into the trees. Before the First Men came all this land that you call Westeros was home to us, yet even in those days we were few. […] That was in the dawn of days, when our sun was rising. Now it sinks, and this is our long dwindling. The giants are  DwD 49 Jaime 1.  Van Tine (1999). 111  Estok (2018: 11). 112  Estok (2009: 207). 113  Estok (2018: 11). 114  Nahornava (2019: 70). 109 110

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almost gone as well, they who were our bane and our brothers. The great lions of the western hills have been slain, the unicorns are all but gone, the mammoths down to a few hundred. The direwolves will outlast us all, but their time will come as well. In the world that men have made, there is no room for them, or us.115

Hence, anthropocentrism and ecophobia have pushed humans to physically isolate themselves from the more-than-human world and exploit it without control. However sometimes, in the world of Ice and Fire, human hubris goes even further the genuine mastery of nature; the maesters of the Citadel—a scientific centre of Westeros—see themselves as creators, who are in control of even natural events, such as the change of the season. Curiously, it is not officially autumn or winter until the Citadel says so. Archmaester Marwyn tells Sam that “the world the Citadel is building has no place in it for sorcery or prophecy or glass candles, much less for dragons”.116 Nonetheless, such anthropocentric attitude to life instead of protecting humans from the coming threat, in fact, renders them ignorant and weak in the coming fight, since this positioning “create[s] blindspots, general lack of awareness in the dominant culture of ecological embeddedness, nature’s agency and limits, and human dependency on the non-­ human sphere”.117 Therefore, ecophobia along with its consequent isolation form the more-than-human world inevitably leads to climate change scepticism and denial, thus preventing humans from taking action.118

5   A Dream of Spring? Undeniably, Martin’s saga draws the reader’s attention to the seriousness of environmental problems and pictures a kind of apocalyptic scenario, where both human and more-than-human worlds are on the edge of a global disaster prompted by ice on the one hand and fire on the other. Yet, does the saga suggest any solution or way to avoid the catastrophe or minimise its consequences? Heise states that literary texts portraying apocalyptic situations tend to show that destruction may be forestalled by means of restoring to more holistic and environmentally friendly  DwD 35 Bran 3, emphasis added.  FfC 46 Samwell 5, emphasis added. 117  Plumwood (2002: 45). 118  Deyo (2015). 115 116

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societies.119 This may also be the case in A Song of Ice and Fire, since there is a tendency to cast shadow on and even ridicule the dominant anthropocentric way of life and to favour instead the worldview that respects and relies more on the more-than-human nature. The deeper the reader is immersed into the history of Westeros, the clearer it becomes that the past, a more biocentric environmentally friendly way of life, is the gate towards the promising future. As Quaithe told Daenerys once, “to go forward you must go back”.120 Throughout the pages, natural and human-centred values, such as religion (for instance, the Old Gods vs. the Faith of the Seven), knowledge (greenseers, skinchangers vs. maesters of the Citadel) and power (magic vs. politics), are constantly juxtaposed, eventually indicating a clear shift towards anthropocentrism and egocentrism. However, such positioning renders humans powerless in the cycle of life, ultimately putting them at the mercy of nature and at the mercy of the Others and the dragons along with the destruction they entail. Nonetheless, not only do all the human-­ centred sources of power, such as the Faith, the maesters, law and weapons, fail to defend them from the coming winter, but most importantly, they leave them blind to even admitting that there is such a problem.121 The maesters of Westeros are portrayed as the most knowledgeable people, on the grounds that in the Citadel, they are professionally trained in different disciplines, like accounts, healing, warcraft and so on. For each of the kinds of knowledge that a maester acquires, he receives a metal link for his chain. The more the maester knows, the heavier the chain is. Maester Pycelle’s chain, for example, “was no simple metal choker […], but two dozen heavy chains wound together into a ponderous metal necklace that covered him from throat to breast”.122 Due to their knowledge, maesters advise kings and lords, as well as provide them with prestige, because, as Lady Dustin tells Theon, “every great lord has his maester, every lesser lord aspires to one […]. If you do not have a maester, it takes to mean that you are of little consequence”.123 However, the maesters’ knowledge is clearly ridiculed since they cannot apply it to the real world;124 in fact, they know nothing and, therefore,  Heise (2008: 13).  CoK 41 Daenerys 3. 121  Nahornava (2019: 71). 122  GoT 21 Eddard 4. 123  DwD 38 The Prince of Winterfell. 124  Cowlishaw (2015: 61). 119 120

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constantly fail to predict or solve problems. Although they write and teach History, they seem not to learn from it, and they are too sceptical to admit the existence of magic, the Others, dragons and the Children. According to Maester Cressen, for example, “the dragons cannot come to life;”125 Maester Luwin is convinced that “the dragons are no more, the giants are dead, the children of the forest forgotten”.126 Even Archmaester Marwyn denies any prospect for magic, sorcery and dragons to exist.127 Hence, they cannot foresee the impending ecological cataclysm related to those phenomena, much less do anything to act, if possible, upon it. Osha was right when she told Bran that “a man who won’t listen can’t hear”, by the same token, the one who does not look, cannot see.128 The reader, on the contrary, has a vantage viewpoint thanks to the multiple perspectives that Martin’s narrative style provides and, thus, knows that all these things do actually persist. Therefore, the maesters’ knowledge is presented as blind, heavy and “chained”, pulling them to the ground and preventing them from envisioning any reality other than the tangible one. Westerosi society is clearly not prepared to face the impending environmental disaster, against which even their steel and iron weapons are powerless. The only characters who seem to be able to find a solution are those who embrace a more biocentric worldview, such as the Children, Bran Stark or Jon Snow, among a few others. Contrary to the type of knowledge provided by the Citadel—limited, blind and hanging like dead weight—the people who are able to understand nature can “fly”129 and are awarded with “a thousand eyes, a hundred skins, wisdom deep as the roots of ancient trees”.130 They may “see what the trees have seen, be it yesterday, last year or a thousand ages past”.131 While the Citadel leads towards human-nature dualism, ecophobia and misunderstanding or neglect of the ecological catastrophe, the wisdom nature gives access to not only shows the need for union between humans and nature but also suggests possible solutions to the coming disaster. Through the eyes of Bran Stark, among a few others, nature eventually ceases to be the source of destruction and  CoK 1 Prologue.  CoK 29 Bran 4. 127  FfC 46 Samwell 5. 128  GoT 54 Bran 6. 129  GoT 18 Bran 3. 130  DwD 35 Bran 3. 131  DwD 35 Bran 3. 125 126

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fear and turns into the one of deep knowledge. Nonetheless, such natural wisdom can only be achieved by those who get rid of the artificially built wall isolating humans from the more-than-human world and instead commit themselves to harmonious sustainable coexistence with nature. Jojen Reed tells Bran about a third eye, which is hidden inside him and requires uncovering: You have three [eyes]. The crow gave you the third, but you will not open it [with your finger, since it must be sought with your heart]. […] With two eyes you see my face. With three you could see my heart. With two you can see that oak tree there. With three you could see the acorn the oak grew from and the stump that it will one day become. With two you see no farther than your walls. With three you would gaze south to the Summer Sea and north beyond the Wall.132

This third eye can be interpreted as awakening of environmental consciousness, which can only be achieved by abandoning the idea of human supremacy and the anthropocentric notion of dualism, which locates humans out of nature. Instead, there is the need to open our eyes to more-­ than-­human nature and accept that humans are part of it, equal to other biotic and nonbiotic beings comprising the world. It is time to stop perceiving nature as silent, dead and lacking intrinsic value. The discourse of human exceptionalism has to be left behind, since in the moments like the ones of environmental crisis and apocalyptic scenarios, human life is no more valuable than any other animals’ life, or as Estok puts it, “we are as expendable as carrier pigeons”.133 History shows that only the alliance between the Children and the First Men succeeded in putting an end to the Long Night.134 Only “fire [and obsidian] will dismay” the Others—the two weapons used by the Children and the Valyrians, forged in the depth of volcanoes, almost extinct and well forgotten by men.135 This clearly shows the urge of humanity to look for natural powers and to forge another alliance with all the living organisms on earth, opening the gate towards the natural wisdom and weapons in order to save the Known World from the ice and fire. Hence, anthropocentric individualistic values should be put aside in favour of a holistic  CoK 29 Bran 4.  Estok (2018: 46). 134  Martin et al. (2014: 12) (“Ancient History. The Long Night”). 135  DwD 8 Jon 2. 132 133

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biocommunity, where every living and inert being plays an important role not only in the battle against the coming threats but, most importantly, in the cycle of life itself. Even though A Song of Ice and Fire is an incomplete work, and this final conclusion can be rebutted after the saga is finished, the tendency to favour and empower biocentrism that is observed in the books allows me to presume that the creation of a holistic biocentric society, the union of the human and more-than-human forces, can be seen as the only possible way to overcome the coming winter. Looking into Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire from an ecocritical perspective reveals that the saga portrays humanity, which is clearly engaged in an unsustainable relationship with more-than-human nature, as risk society on the edge of an environmental crisis—which could indeed be taken as parallel of our own, not only because the Known World is facing an inevitable environmental disaster, clearly hinted at in the title of the saga, but also because of the way this crisis is dealt with. A Song of Ice and Fire, therefore, can be used with didactic purposes as a climate change narrative, which, on the one hand, points at a possible apocalypse, “play[ing] on fears and convey[ing] a sense of the extreme urgency of radical action” and, on the other, “conjures up images of harmonious living and cultivates a nostalgic feeling of loss and potential restoration”.136 Even though the coming environmental catastrophe is perceived as threat and evil, the saga manages to present the more-than-human world mainly as a source of belonging and wisdom. It eventually casts doubt on human supremacy and monological relationship with nature and, instead, highlights the need to awake environmental sensitivity and “to recognize that man is a species of animal whose welfare depends upon successful integration with plants, animals, and land that make up his environment”.137

Bibliography Beck, U. 2009: “World Risk Society and Manufactured Uncertainties”, Iris 1, 291–299. Busch, M. 2011: Knowing Thy Enemy–Multifocalisation: Its Application and Effects in George R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire series (diss. Humboldt Universität zu Berlin), Berlin.

 Goodbody and Johns-Putra (2019: 11).  Meeker (1996: 163).

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Callicott, J.  B. 1984: “Non-anthropocentric Value Theory and Environmental Ethics”, American Philosophical Quarterly 21, 299–309. Callicott, J. B. 1989: In Defense of the Land Ethic, Albany. Callicott, J.  B. 1999: Beyond the Land Ethic: More Essays in Environmental Philosophy, Albany. Carroll, S. 2018: Medievalism in A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones, Cambrigde. Chidester, D. 2005: “Animism”, in B. Taylor (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature, London and New York, 78–81. Cowlishaw, B. 2015: “What Maesters Knew: Narrating Knowing”, in J. Battis and S. Jonston (eds.), Mastering the Game of Thrones: Essays on George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Jefferson, 57–69. De Jonge, E. 2011: “An Alternative to Anthropocentrism: Deep Ecology and The Metaphysical Turn”, in R.  Boddice (ed.), Human-Animal Studies: Anthropocentrism: Humans, Animals, Environments, Leiden, 307–320. DeLoughrey, E., Handley, G. B. 2011: “Introduction: Toward and Aesthetics of the Earth”, in E. DeLoughrey and G. B. Handley (eds.), Postcolonial Ecologies: Literatures of the Environment, New York, 3–42. Deyo, B. 2015: “Ecophobia, Climate Change, and the Denial of Death”, The Eleventh Biennial Conference of the Association for the Study of Literature and the Environment, University of Idaho. Estok, S. C. 2009: “Theorizing in a Space of Ambivalent Openness: Ecocriticism and Ecophobia”, ISLE: Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment, 16:2, 203–225. Estok, S. C. 2018: The Ecophobia Hypothesis, New York and London. Garrard, G. 2011: Ecocriticism, London and New York. Gjelsvik, A., Schubart, R. (eds.) 2016: Women of Ice and Fire: Gender, Game of Thrones, and Multiple Media Engagements, London. Glotfelty, C. 1996: “Introduction: Literary Studies in an Age of Environmental Crisis”, in C. Glotfelty and H. Fromm (eds.), The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology, Athens and London, xv–xxxvii. Goodbody, A., Johns-Putra, A. 2019: Cli-Fi: A Companion, Oxford, Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, New York and Wien. Gresham, K. 2015: “Cursed Womb, Bulging Thighs and Bald Scalp: George R.R. Martin’s Grotesque Queen”, in J. Battis and S. Jonston (eds.), Mastering the Game of Thrones: Essays on George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Jefferson, 151–169. Gusev M. V. 2014: “Biocentrism”, in A. N. Chumakon, I. I. Mazour and W. C. Gay (eds.), Global Studies Encyclopedic Entries, Amsterdam, 33–34. Heise, U.  K. 2008: Sense of Place and Sense of Planet: The Environmental Imagination of the Global, New York.

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Jones, R. 2012: “A Game of Genders: Comparing Depictions of Empowered Women between A Game of Thrones Novel and Television Series”, Journal of Student Research 1.3, 14–21. Iglesias Turrión, P. 2014: Ganar o morir: lecciones políticas en Juego de Tronos, Madrid. Larrington, C. 2015: Winter is Coming: The Medieval World of Game of Thrones, London and New York. Leederman, T. A. 2015: “A Thousand Westerosi Plateaus: Wargs, Wolves and Ways of Being”, in J. Battis and S. Jonston (eds.), Mastering the Game of Thrones: Essays on George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Jefferson, 189–203. Martin, G. R. R. 2018: George R.R. Martin Answers Times Staffers’ Burning Questions [interview]. The New York Times Style Magazine, 16 October, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/16/t-magazine/george-rr-martinqanda-game-of-thrones.html (accessed 1 July, 2022). Martin, G. R. R., García E. M. Jr., Antonsson, L. 2014: The World of Ice & Fire: The Untold History of Westeros and the Game of Thrones, London. McCaffrey, M., Dorobat, C. E. 2015: “‘We Do Not Sow’: The Economics and Politics of A Song of Ice and Fire”, in E.  Younkins (ed.), Capitalism and Commerce in Imaginative Literature, Lanham, 385–398. Meeker J. W. 1996: “The Comic Mode”, in C. Glotfelty and H. Fromm (eds.), The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology, Athens and London, 155–169. Mondschein, K. 2017: Game of Thrones and the Medieval Art of War, Jefferson. Nahornava, K. 2019: “‘Winter is Coming’: A Call for a More Eco-Conscious Society in A Song of Ice and Fire”, in J. Albelda, C. Sgaramella and J. M. Pareño (eds.), Imaginar la transición hacia sociedades sostenibles, Valencia, 67–73. Napolitano, M. 2015: “‘Sing for your little life’: Story, Discourse and Character”, in J. Battis and S. Jonston (eds.), Mastering the Game of Thrones: Essays on George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Jefferson, 35–56. Plumwood, V. 2002: Environmental Culture: The Ecological Crisis of Reason, London and New York. Rohr, Z., Benz, L. (eds.) 2019: Queenship and the Women of Westeros: Female Agency and Advice in Game of Thrones and A Song of Ice and Fire, Cham. Spector, C. 2012: “Power and Feminism in Westeros”, in J. Lowder (ed.), Beyond the Wall: Exploring George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Dallas, 169–188. Szűcs, Z. G. 2017: “Realism and Utopianism Reconsidered: A Political Theoretical Reading of A Song of Ice and Fire”, in Zsolt Czigányik (ed.), Utopian Horizons: Ideology, Politics, Literature, Budapest, 219–237. Van Tine, R. 1999: “Gaeaphobia: Ecophobia, Ecomania and ‘Otherness’ in the Late 20th Century”, in D. Hook, K. Smith, B. Bowman and M. Terre Blanche (eds.), From Method to Madness: Five Years of Qualitative Enquiry, History of the Present Press, Johannesburg.

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Walker, J. 2015: “‘Just songs in the end’: Historical Discourses in Shakespeare and Martin”, in J. Battis and S. Jonston (eds.), Mastering the Game of Thrones: Essays on George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Jefferson, 71–91. White, L.  Jr. 1967: “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis”, Science 10 March, 1203–1207. Whitehead, A. 2012: “An Unreliable World: History and Timekeeping in Westeros”, in J. Lowder (ed.), Beyond the Wall: Exploring George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Dallas, 763–893. Wilson E. O. 1986: Biophilia, Cambridge (MA) and London. Wittingslow, R. M. 2015: “‘All Men Must Serve’: Religion and Free Will from the Seven to the Faceless Men”, in J. Battis and S. Jonston (eds.), Mastering the Game of Thrones: Essays on George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Jefferson, 113–130. Zontos, M. 2015: “Dividing Lines: Frederick Jackson Turner’s Western Frontier and George R.R. Martin’s Northern Wall”, in J. Battis and S. Jonston (eds.), Mastering the Game of Thrones: Essays on George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Jefferson, 92–112.

PART II

“You Win or You Die”: Aesthetic and Cultural Approaches to Game of Thrones

CHAPTER 6

Game of Thrones and the Sublime Ayelet Haimson Lushkov

The sublime is a slippery concept, one that is easier to recognize in action than it is to define. It is also a concept with a long history of interpretation, so that the sublime has gathered its own galaxy of related ideas: grandeur, excess, elevation and shock—all in the attempt to put words to the feeling one gets when in the presence of something that makes you feel suspended on the edge of what is possible to feel.1 The sublime, in other words, is that missed breath just beyond one’s powers of description and as such deals in the more paradoxical moments of human expression,

1  For the purposes of this paper, I have not taken in the entire tradition of philosophical sublime but have focused on the sublime in ancient literary criticism: Hardie (2009), Costelloe (2012), Day (2013), Doran (2015), and especially Porter (2016).

A. Haimson Lushkov (*) University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_6

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at once both too much and not enough to account for our engagement with the world.2 Over its long interpretative history, the sublime, or more precisely sublimity, has been ascribed to a whole variety of objects: gods, whether pagan or Christians; storms; heroes in full flight; language; poetry; and in some cases even so small an object as the Greek particle ti—but not, so far as I know, to the cultural object that brings the papers in this volume together, namely, Game of Thrones, either in its HBO manifestation or as the written A Song of Ice and Fire saga.3 And yet Game of Thrones is precisely the kind of work—in both the books and the television shows—that deals in some of the same paradoxes that the sublime brings to the fore. Game of Thrones, after all, is very much concerned with size, with excess and with actions both improbable and beyond comprehension, whether for their banality or for their staggering ambition. Above all, Game of Thrones is obsessed by the slow process of destruction and disintegration—environmental, political, physical and moral—and the various human responses to them.4 This paper is therefore concerned with the following question: what has Game of Thrones to do with the sublime? This is not an entirely straightforward question, not least because sublimity often connotes to us a certain aesthetic quality, and there is a long-­ standing and widespread debate over whether Game of Thrones is “good” as work of art: despite the show’s overwhelming success, flaws have been noted in its character development, plot construction, writing style and so forth.5 These obstacles can be got around, if one were so inclined, by pointing out that sublimity is a quality that typically pertains to moments 2  So Day (2013: 30): “the sublime may be said to name any experience in which we encounter an object that exceeds our everyday categories of comprehension”. Cf. Porter (2016: 5) (quoting Žižek 1989: 71: “the sublime can be found wherever ‘a positive, material object [is] elevated to the status of [an] impossible thing’”). And Most and Conte (2012): “that quality of genius in great literary works which irresistibly delights, inspires, and overwhelms the reader”. 3  Day (2013: 33), Porter (2016: 51–54). 4  For the sublime as “shattering and dislocating excess”: Porter (2016: 5). Longinus (1.4) notes that “sublimity, when executed at the right moment, tears everything apart like a thunderbolt” (ὕψος δέ που καιρίως ἐξενεχθὲν τά τε πράγματα δίκην σκηπτοῦ πάντα διεφόρησεν); transl. Porter (2016: 61). Day (2013: 178) argues that Lucan “locat[es] sublimity in the realm of military conquest” particularly of the Caesarian kind. Pertinently, the sublime has become an important piece of thinking about climate change and post-humanism, for example, Day (2013: 136–143), Palmer (2013), Trifonova (2018). 5  For a taste of the discussion: McNutt (2011).

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rather than to whole works: although Homer supplies critics with many paradigmatic examples of the sublime, even he proverbially nodded, and while some parts of Game of Thrones may be cringe-worthy, others are not.6 More fundamentally, refusing to apply certain aesthetic categories to popular works buys into unthinking assumptions about the practice of criticism, namely, that the mere fact of popularity places constraints on what is appropriate to think of a work.7 Further, the supposed aesthetic unevenness of Game of Thrones may make it a particularly effective case study in the sublime, since the corollary of the sublime is the ridiculous or the bathetic, and it is in part through the juxtaposition of these qualities that each is thrown into relief and emerges as a more recognizable concept. For the purposes of this paper, however, I want to take as my entrée into the sublime not so much a specific definition of the aesthetic, which is notoriously and perhaps necessarily slippery, but rather the sublime’s association with a particular genre, namely, epic. As already noted, Homeric epic exemplified the sublime for certain ancient critics, such as Longinus, and recent classical scholarship, in particular by Philip Hardie, has focused on Vergil’s Aeneid and Lucretius’ philosophical epic as illustrative of various core aspects of the sublime.8 Game of Thrones, I suggest, fulfills many of the same functions as epic poetry had across different periods and cultures. Indeed, the description I gave earlier of Game of Thrones’ interests—a paroxysm of violence and human responses to it—is characteristic precisely of ancient epic poetry. Like epic, Game of Thrones narrates the story of a foundational war, it unifies a large community of viewers who would otherwise have little to do with each other, and it provides popular entertainment that resonates with some of the bigger issues society grapples with.9 One of the questions Game of Thrones poses for classicists is how intentional the resemblance to epic is and, by extension, what bearing this 6  Porter (2016: 141–142), on Longinus’ redaction of Plato’s Timaeus into a “cento of his own making” (141): “Each of these moments in which Longinus puts on display another aspect of the sublime is self-standing” (142). 7  Russell (1964: xxxvii): [the sublime is] “a special effect, not a special style” (though heed Porter’s 2016: 9 caution that this idea does not derive from Longinus himself, as often supposed). 8  Hardie (2009), Day (2013: 42–48), Porter (2016: 454–457). 9  On Game of Thrones as the last popular show: Bereznak (2019). On epic as unifying and as entertainment: Beissinger et al. (1999), and more specifically in the case of Latin poetry: Syed (2005), Milnor (2014).

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resemblance might have on interpretation: how can we find the classics in Westeros, and having found them, can we ever be sure that we were not the ones to put them there in the first place?10 This is a tricky question to answer, but one for which the sublime is a useful start. One of the crucial points made by Jim Porter in his seminal book The Sublime in Antiquity—a book as long as a volume of Game of Thrones and with longer footnotes—is that the sublime, at least for Longinus, its most famous ancient expounder, was a literary and constructed effect. It was a deliberate result of reading certain texts in a certain way and was therefore as much a product of interpretation, or of the reader’s engagement with the text, than some fixed or inherent quality of the text or the object described. This point is important because it means, in part, that the sublime is one of the ideas that help us define and describe the pleasure or interest that we take in any work of art, the unknown quantity that makes us re-open the book or turn our screens on week after week. In other words, it is a concept that celebrates interpretation and which thrills at finding in the work of art resonances and encounters with whole galaxies of other texts, works and authors similarly construed as sublime.11 In what follows, therefore, I want to offer some instances of literary interpretation, suggesting that Game of Thrones, in either book or show format, or indeed as a composite of both forms, can profitably be read as a prose epic or at least as sharing or remixing some ideas, plotlines or reading experiences that belong properly in ancient epic and that thinking about sublimity—about the moment beyond expression—can help us make sense of some of the frustrations and exultations that go along with this kind of reading. Further, if, as I suggest, Game of Thrones shares some of its aesthetic sensibility with ancient epic, then this convergence invites us to think in an epic, indeed, sublime mode, which interrogates some of our fundamental assumptions about heroism, masculinity and femininity, the aesthetics of battle and indeed our practices of reading themselves.

10  Cf. Haimson Lushkov (2017b). Here I converge somewhat with Hardwick’s idea of ‘fuzzy connections’ (2011: 42): “Indeed, it may be the writer or reader who is the connector, bringing the classical text into a relationship with others on the basis of the connector’s own sensibilities or horizons, perhaps derived from accidents of juxtaposition or encounter”. 11  Porter (2016: 89): “sublimity in literature is not the ecstasy of nature. It is the ecstasy of culture, which can be enjoyed knowingly… or else with one’s eye shut…”; Hardie (2009: 107) points out that intertextuality and novelty are “aspects of the sublime in tension with one another”.

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1   Sublime Ecologies The sublime is often an exercise in transgressing boundaries, and there is perhaps no more pronounced boundary in all of Westeros than the Wall, which separates the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros from the wilderness to its north and eventually from the armies of the dead. It is also a monument ripe for sublimity. So vast that it forces anyone who sees it to stop and marvel, the Wall stands as a physical embodiment of the vertiginous feeling of looking beyond. Here it is again worth restating the point (made extensively by Porter) that the sublime inheres in the interpretation as much as the object: the Wall is an artificial boundary, not a natural one, and its sublimity lies in our surprised gasp of appreciation as much as in how it invites us to think about its size and its function.12 It is, then, perhaps not surprising that Season 7 ended on what Longinus would almost certainly have recognized as a sublime moment of transgressed boundaries: a dragon, itself a species brought back from extinction, risen from the dead to break through a literal barrier built to stand between the dead and the living, giving flesh to the elemental battle between fire and ice that defines the entire work. The Wall, of course, is also a particularly classical moment in a more straightforward way, since it is one of the few (if not the only) structures in Westeros that are explicitly marked by G. R. R. Martin as inspired by the classical world: The Wall predates anything else. I can trace back the inspiration for that to 1981. I was in England visiting a friend, and as we approached the border of England and Scotland, we stopped to see Hadrian’s Wall. I stood up there and I tried to imagine what it was like to be a Roman legionary, standing on this wall, looking at these distant hills. It was a very profound feeling. For the Romans at that time, this was the end of civilization; it was the end of the world. We know that there were Scots beyond the hills, but they didn’t know that. It could have been any kind of monster. It was the sense of this barrier against dark forces—it planted something in me. But when you write

12  Tyrion makes it explicit when he wants to piss from its height (Thrones S1: Ep.3, “Lord Snow”); what other response can there be to a monument so sublime than through bathos? On bathos and the sublime: Porter (2016: 173–175, 207–208, 531), and now Bolt (2019: 121–176). Compare the cultural iconicity of the Hoover dam and its “ubiquitous sublime”: Arrigo (2014).

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fantasy, everything is bigger and more colorful, so I took the Wall and made it three times as long and 700 feet high, and made it out of ice.13

For a number of reasons, I am not especially interested in analysing the classical credentials of Martin himself nor the flaws in his imagination of the historical ancient Rome; to note just one in passing, the Romans knew who lived beyond the wall, and traffic regularly went across it.14 Reception, however, is a process of adaptation, and what interests me more is his description of his own historical imagination as a “profound feeling” and of the Roman soldiers standing on the wall and looking far beyond it.15 In both cases, the vocabulary precisely invokes sublimity, in its evocation of distance and mystery. For both author and imaginary legionaries, the response is the same: a feeling of profundity brought on by an encounter with what lies beyond, in either space or time, and further, beyond the limits of the self: a feeling we get when we try to imagine another person’s feeling. I noted already that there is no more pronounced boundary in Westeros than the Wall, but there are in fact a number of different boundaries intersecting already in Martin’s description of it. He says that nothing “predates” the Wall, but of course, something must, since the Wall was built by someone (as it happens, the aptly named Brandon the Builder) and for a purpose.16 The Wall is also one of the few buildings in Westeros for which we have a date—it is 8000 years old.17 What Martin means, I think, is that the Wall marks both an external metapoetic horizon (that is one of his points of origin in creating the world of Westeros) and an internal mythological horizon, much as the Trojan War does for the Greeks and Romans:

 Gilmore (2014).  On the operation and legacies of Hadrian’s Wall: Breeze (2003), Tolia-Kelly (2011), Collins (2012). 15  Haimson Lushkov (2017a). On profundity: Porter (2016: 530–533). 16  Note, however, Martin on Brandon the Builder: “No one can even say for certain if Brandon the Builder ever lived. He is as remote from the time of the novels as Noah and Gilgamesh are from our own time”. Quoted in: The Citadel, 9 September 2000, https:// www.westeros.org/Citadel/SSM/Entry/The_Wall (accessed 1 July 2022). 17  DwD 54 Jon 11. 13 14

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before the Wall there is only legend, while after the Wall there is history, politics, the deeds of men and women and the recording of them.18 The Wall is also a place of learning and a repository of knowledge: it has both a library and a maester and, more famously, serves as the base for the units of rangers, who expand our knowledge of the world beyond the Wall through autopsy. The tensions between learning from books and learning by autopsy are constitutive of ancient historical thought, where historians regularly establish their credentials by stating that they were either themselves eyewitness to event; that they consulted those who were eyewitnesses; or that they visited the places where events occurred and thus verified the truth of earlier accounts.19 Like epic, its poetic counterpart, ancient historiography strives to achieve a totality of description: the particular story encompasses the whole world, in more or less literal ways.20 Totality is easier to imagine than to achieve, however, especially in a kingdom as fractured as Westeros, and evidence is necessarily patchy: however much the rangers range, they cannot accomplish a fully fleshed out picture of what lies beyond the Wall, not even when Jon Snow lives amongst the Wildlings. There are always holes in the description, and these holes emphasize the self-awareness of Westeros as a fictive creation. Some descriptive lacunae exist to be filled out at some suitable point in the narrative, to create pace and tension and motivate action. But some exist simply because the author had not filled them out. Is what we do not know an inanity or an emptiness? Both, as it happens, are characteristic of the experience of the sublime, and both are crucial building blocks of engaged curiosity: the only way to find out is through.21 Sublimity is therefore supported by the architecture of fiction. Our picture of Westeros is incomplete because Westeros is a fictional place, and Martin’s descriptions of it, however detailed or comprehensive, are also necessarily only partial. But even as those descriptions produce emptiness 18  On the spatium mythicum/historicum: Feeney (2008: 68–107), esp. 82 “… in the historiographical and chronological traditions as well there is a tendency to locate a strong marker here [at the fall of Troy], fixing the Trojan War as pivotal or transitional, with myth lying on the other side of it”. 19  Fehling (1989), Marincola (2000: 63–127). 20  On the consanguinity of epic and history, see, for example, Leigh (2007). 21  Porter (2016: 503) (discussion Manilius’ Astronomica): “It is the hell within the heavens…which… is the inanity of the mundus itself, the very fact that the heavens contain empty spaces (inania), and, more challengingly, the idea that they contain a certain profundity within their heights”.

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in the cold north, the world of Westeros grows and expands as the plot unfolds, whether by teleporting the reader beyond the Narrow Sea or by focusing more deeply on the lives of peasants, soldiers, and sparrows. The holes in our initial vision of Westeros collapse into an infinity of detail, which is limited only by the shared imaginations of author and audience: we can no more exhaust Westeros than we can find everything there is to know about it.22

2   The Intertextual Sublime Besides shared content and aesthetics, Game of Thrones’ resemblance to epic also rests on intertextual or allusive features, extending from within the text of the book series to more explicit ones in the HBO television universe.23 In particular, Game of Thrones finds a close cinematic cousin in the myth of Troy, which occupies much of the ancient epic tradition, through David Benioff, who both showruns Game of Thrones and wrote the screenplay for Wolfgang Petersen’s 2004 movie Troy. This coincidence has both more and less direct consequences. In the fifth season of the show, Stannis Baratheon, one of the contenders for the Iron Throne, and not generally a feeling man, orders the burning alive of his daughter Shireen (S5: Ep.9, “The Dance of Dragons”). The scene is generally considered one of the most horrific and gut-wrenching of an already horror-soaked show, not only because it depicts the senseless sacrifice of a little girl by her own parents, which is bad enough, but because the scene is not in “book-­ canon” and therefore not really necessary to film (at least, not from a strictly originalist principle). The scene, however, was originally written for Troy and was inspired by Euripides’ Iphigeneia in Aulis, a play whose action occurs when the Greek army is assembling at Aulis in preparation for crossing the sea for the Trojan War. The details line up: two armies 22  Fans have responded to this inability to exhaust an already vast fictional universe both by consuming ‘official’ expansions of that universe, such as  Martin’s series of prequels, merchandise and cross-media extensions (e.g. through comic books, board and computer games, etc.), and through ‘unofficial’ fan-driven venues as fanfiction, fan sites and fan wikis, which catalogue available information on the Westeros universe and Martin’s or HBO’s plans for it. For Game of Thrones fans’ multi-level engagement, see, for example, Spano (2016), Mudan Finn (2017). 23  I made the case for Game of Thrones’ relationship to classical epic in Haimson Lushkov (2017a, 2017b).

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stranded by the weather, two generals fretting over their military campaigns and two daughters burned in sacrifice to appease the weather and allow a war to proceed. In fact, the burning of both daughters is contested in written canon: just as Shireen does not burn in A Song of Ice and Fire as we have it, so too does Iphigeneia not burn in other versions of the myth, including Euripides’ own Iphigeneia in Tauris, in which she is replaced at the stake by a stag and rescued by the goddess Artemis. Indeed, to confirm our suspicions, when Shireen is led out to her death, she is clutching a stag figurine: a symbol of her house, but also, perhaps, a reference to the Tauris and to the alternative reality of her own salvation.24 The tendency towards demarcating alternative versions of reality is typical of classical allusion and of its particular instantiation in the Game of Thrones universe. This procedure plays a part in the literary dynamics of the sublime, an erudite version of the viewer’s active imagination when looking out beyond the Wall. They also engage a self-reflective streak, meditating not only on aspirational profundity but also on the many disappointments that make up the War of the Five Kings. Here too, Troy offers a useful paradigm of the aesthetic sensibilities at play. Towards the end of the film, as Troy’s fate is all but sealed, Orlando Bloom’s Paris hands over the hallowed “Sword of Troy” to a young man carrying his aged father on his back. This young man, of course, is Aeneas, the legendary founder of Rome, and the moment is poignant as the precise instance when the Romans insert themselves into a pan-Mediterranean history.25 As often with Benioff, however, the moment balances the sublime and the bathetic: even as the dialogue tends towards Hollywood schlock, it looks forward not only towards political and literary glory, but also towards the collapse of those same ideas. For Paris, and indeed any pre-Vergilian readers of Homer, Aeneas’ escape from Troy merely fulfills the Iliad’s statement that he will be the only one to escape the flames.26 After Vergil, and indeed after the Aeneas story begins to circulate in Italy long before the Augustan age, both the form and the content of the scene change to 24  Marcotte (2015); on the reception history of Iphigeneia in Tauris: Hall (2013) and Gurd (2005). 25  Feeney (2008). 26  Iliad 20.302–305: μόριμον δέ οἵ ἐστ᾽ ἀλέασθαι, / ὄφρα μὴ ἄσπερμος γενεὴ καὶ ἄφαντος ὄληται / Δαρδάνου, ὃν Κρονίδης περὶ πάντων φίλατο παίδων / οἳ ἕθεν ἐξεγένοντο γυναικῶν τε θνητάων; “…for it is destined for him to escape, so that the house of Dardanus not perish without seed or visibility, whom the son of Cronos loved most of all his children, whether born to him of mortal women or of goddesses”.

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what we recognize now: young man plus father escaping Troy can only be Aeneas, and this Aeneas is one who is ready to save his people and safeguard the future. This Aeneas, unlike the original one, already knows that his destiny is to live through the Aeneid, an epic that specialized in the minor key and the pluperfect tense.27 It is therefore ironic that Benioff omits the one person who symbolizes the future of Aeneas’ people: his son Iulus, who escapes with his father from Troy and becomes the legendary progenitor of the Julian family. Without Iulus, the Aeneid loses much of its raison d’être and Aeneas his primary motivation to persevere: this is an epic, after all, which very much thinks of the children.28 Game of Thrones is also a fairly self-reflective work and one that takes the growing up of children very seriously. The title of the book series, A Song of Ice and Fire, already hints at the importance of song culture, especially for the transmission of cultural capital, and much of the early plot of Game of Thrones is driven by the inability of young people to separate song from reality—or, perhaps better to say, the failure of reality to follow the template laid out by heroic song.29 Longinus himself notes that communion with the true sublime fills the soul with exultation “as if we ourselves produced the very thing we heard”, but he cautions too against following unexamined exempla, which might turn out to be “mere vanity”.30 Thus, for instance, Sansa is unable to wrap her head around the 27  Adema (2017: 180–201). On the plupast more broadly: Grethlein and Krebs (2012: 1–16). 28  On Iulus and the politics of the Aeneid: Rogerson (2017), Cowan (2009), and Eidinow (2003). 29  On sublimity and mise-en-abîme: Porter (2016: 427): “A third consequence of intercontainment is that it duplicates the larger structure of the cosmos an infinite number of times over… in a literal mise-en-abîme… And in so doing he [Anaxagoras] is making the world’s matter sublime”. 30  Long. 7.1–2 τῇδέ που καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν διῃρμένων ἐν ποιήμασι καὶ λόγοις ἐπισκεπτέον, μή τινα μεγέθους φαντασίαν ἔχοι τοιαύτην, ᾗ πολὺ πρόσκειται τὸ εἰκῆ προσαναπλαττόμενον, ἀναπτυττόμενα δὲ ἄλλως εὑρίσκοιτο χαῦνα, ὧν τοῦ θαυμάζειν τὸ περιφρονεῖν εὐγενέστερον. φύσει γάρ πως ὑπὸ τἀληθοῦς ὕψους ἐπαίρεταί τε ἡμῶν ἡ ψυχὴ καὶ γαῦρόν τι ἀνάστημα λαμβάνουσα πληροῦται χαρᾶς καὶ μεγαλαυχίας, ὡς αὐτὴ γεννήσασα ὅπερ ἤκουσεν; “We must consider whether some of these passages have merely some such outward show of grandeur with a rich moulding of casual accretions, and whether, if all this is peeled off, they may not turn out to be empty bombast which it is more noble to despise than to admire? For the true sublime, by some virtue of its nature, elevates us: uplifted with a sense of proud possession, we are filled with joyful pride, as if we had ourselves produced the very thing we heard” (transl. Fyfe 1995). Cf. Whitmarsh (2001: 66) on “sublime writing as … a form of communion with the greats”.

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fact that Joffrey and the Lannisters might be out to destroy her family, simply because Joffrey is beautiful and a prince and the songs she has been reared on taught her that beauty is good and good is beauty—itself a Greek principle, kalos kagathos, that celebrated the elite by establishing the congruence of beautiful form and good morals.31 And Sansa is not the only one: Loras Tyrell, Renly Baratheon and Brienne of Tarth all start out as bright-eyed youths seeking to find glory on earth by following the template of song: “they are the knights of summer, and winter is coming” says Catelyn Stark, and Brienne, one of the few to survive long enough to see the devastation of Westeros in the wake of the war of the Five Kings, replies: “Winter will never come for the likes of us. Should we die in battle, they will surely sing of us, and it’s always summer in the songs”.32 For Brienne, as well as for the young heroes fighting for the throne, the world is one of fiction and song, and they will have been remembered, indeed are in the process of being iconized, by virtue of being characters in a drama too large for any one of them to encapsulate alone. Metafiction, the idea that characters are often aware of their own fictiveness, is a fairly standard point in literary criticism.33 The specific expression—“should we die in battle, they will surely sing of us”—is Homeric in colour and tone, harkening back to Helen of Troy, who sees immortalization in song almost as the purpose of the whole war: ἀλλ᾽ ἄγε νῦν εἴσελθε καὶ ἕζεο τῷδ᾽ ἐπὶ δίφρῳ ᾶερ, ἐπεί σε μάλιστα πόνος φρένας ἀμφιβέβηκεν εἵνεκ᾽ ἐμεῖο κυνὸς καὶ Ἀλεξάνδρου ἕνεκ᾽ ἄτης, οἷσιν ἐπὶ Ζεὺς θῆκε κακὸν μόρον, ὡς καὶ ὀπίσσω ἀνθρώποισι πελώμεθʼ ἀοίδιμοι ἐσσομένοισι. (Iliad 6.354–358) But come now, enter in, and sit on this chair, my brother, since above all others has trouble encompassed your mind because of shameless me, and the folly of Alexander; on us Zeus has brought an evil doom, so that even in days to come we may be a song for men that are yet to be. (transl. Murray 1924) 31  On beauty in Greek culture: Konstan (2014); for a reception perspective, Goldhill (2004: 11–28). The most exhaustive study of kalos kagathos is Bourriot (1995a, 1995b). 32  CoK 23 Catelyn 2. 33  On metafiction in contemporary anglophone literature: Waugh (2002); on metafiction in classical literature, see, for example, Rosenmeyer (2002) and Thumiger (2009); in Homer in particular, Clayton (2004), Martin (2011).

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The brother in law she addresses, Hector, has his own moment of heroic self-awareness later on in the poem, as he challenges the Achaeans to produce a champion to fight him (Iliad 7.50–91), though it is worth noting that, unlike Helen, he thinks not of songs but of physical monuments to his specific prowess. καί ποτέ τις εἴπῃσι καὶ ὀψιγόνων ἀνθρώπων νηῒ πολυκλήϊδι πλέων ἐπὶ οἴνοπα πόντον: ἀνδρὸς μὲν τόδε σῆμα πάλαι κατατεθνηῶτος, ὅν ποτ᾽ ἀριστεύοντα κατέκτανε φαίδιμος Ἕκτωρ. ὥς ποτέ τις ἐρέει: τὸ δʼ ἐμὸν κλέος οὔ ποτ᾽ ὀλεῖται. (Iliad 7.87–91) And someone of men who are yet to be will one day say as he sails in his many-benched ship over the wine-dark sea: “This is the mound of a man who died long ago, whom once in his prowess glorious Hector slew.” So will someone say, and my glory will never die. (transl. Murray 1924)

Here too, the dynamics of allusion and interpretation are intertwined with an aesthetics of paradox, which combine the grandeur of an epic sentiment with a fundamental naivete about the world. As Homeric characters, Helen and Hector are both unflinchingly aware of the inevitability of their situation and determined on some level to make the best of it, with fame everlasting the reward for their suffering. Helen laments the “evil destiny” (κακὸν μόρον) placed upon her by Zeus and by Paris’ infatuation with her, while Hector recognizes Zeus’ “ill intent” (Iliad 7.69–70 ὅρκια…κακὰ) against both the Trojans and the Greeks just before he makes his challenge to the Achaeans. Brienne, too, is highly aware of the flimsy nature of the fantasy she and those around her have woven around themselves (“winter will never come for the likes of us”, spoken unironically to a woman from a family whose motto is “Winter is Coming”), but just as in Homer, the fantasy of renown is comforting (“it’s always summer in the songs”). This fascination with renown as reward for courage implicitly points to the inevitable lessons to be learned by a generation coming of age only to discover the falsity of the code on which they have been raised. In flying against that future, however, Brienne’s utterance stakes a claim to agency, exceptionalism and a defiance of human limitation. Sansa’s and Brienne’s concept of song as an educative template and its active application to their world enables the reader to hear a different set of notes that sound in counterpoint to the constant background noise of suffering and

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destruction. In response to Catelyn’s worldly realism and Brienne’s romanticism, the readers, situated at the inflection point between two wildly different consciousnesses, experience the end of the world as the young know it, as the onset of the sublimely cynical disappointment of old age and an experience that will shortly become their own.

3   The Heroic Sublime34 Heroism and the heroic story template, as explored in the previous section, is one of the themes Game of Thrones persistently explores, indeed one of the things it excels at. Westeros is populated with many heroic types, and the various plot lines are very much concerned with generational transitions, as the generation of Ned Stark and Jaime Lannister gives way to younger characters, up to and including the ultimate chosen king.35 Still, Game of Thrones as a rule is far more interested in subverting, often explicitly, the traditional paradigms of masculine heroism. Tyrion Lannister is one such example: unwarlike, bookish and physically disabled, he nevertheless insists on claiming his rightful place as son and heir to the Lannister holdings and employs means both political and military towards those aims. Game of Thrones, however, stands out for its female characters, and it is they, and especially the story of Daenerys Targaryen, that this section focuses on. The representation of women is a fraught issue in this series that delights in displays of gratuitous nudity, violence and rape. In this sense, at least, approaching it approximates many of the problems feminist criticism has raised in regard to the canonical texts of Greco-Roman antiquity, which likewise show an extremely casual attitude to women’s suffering. Still, Game of Thrones remains one of the few cultural phenomena that not only explores but in fact centres strong female characters and places these women in a number of different scenarios.36 Especially as the story progresses, we see women move from the traditional damsel in distress to more traditionally masculine roles: they are ruler-queens and warriors who, for all that they struggle with ubiquitous misogyny, nevertheless  The following is partially adapted from Haimson Lushkov (2017a: 113–164).  This is itself an ancient literary commonplace that is as old as Homer: Chaudhuri (2014: 29–36). 36  On the generic emplotment of those scenarios, see Haimson Lushkov (2019); on the politics of Game of Thrones: Nussbaum (2016). 34 35

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exercise considerable authority in their own right. These are not, needless to say, the traditional roles of women in ancient epic or indeed ancient literature: with the notable exception of the amazons, on whom Brienne of Tarth or Arya are partially modeled, and of the grand dames of Greek drama and Roman history, whose powers, by and large, are severely restricted to the domestic scene, ancient literary women tend to exist in the background or as objects around which men can organize their pursuit of fame. Helen of Troy is a good example: famed for her beauty (and in some cases her witchlike ability with poisons), she is nevertheless reducible to the wife of a wronged husband, the excuse for the cataclysm that was the Trojan War and, according to Herodotus, an item in an exchange of mutual rapes that structures the antagonism between East and West. Lyanna Stark plays much the same role for Game of Thrones: a faceless beauty whose main role is to launch the war and enable the domestic drama of the Starks. This too, we might note, is an element of the sublime: a beauty whose greatest value is in both being seen and in being invisible—seen to be admired as a bit of capital, unseen so as to preserve countless lives. Cersei Lannister, too, starts out in a similar role: she is the most beautiful woman in the land, a prize for the new king to celebrate his victory and console him for the loss of his true love. As a royal woman, Cersei’s world is as competitive as that of the men of court: where they compete in jousting and drinking, the women of the court compete in the parlaying of beauty and pedigree into social capital. Cersei knows her beauty is an important asset and is constantly worried about the ravages of age, especially against the advent of younger and more beautiful women like Sansa Stark or Margaery Tyrell, the latter of whom Cersei sees as direct competition.37 But as power shifts in King’s Landing and Cersei struggles out from under the power of her husband, father, uncle and brothers, she begins increasingly to abuse her power, until she reproduces (whether deliberately or not) the tyrannical conduct of her son Joffrey. This is essentially a masculine—or more precisely, masculinizing—plot: Cersei’s development requires she behave in increasingly masculine ways, and in the course of doing so, she is also responsible for some of the greatest atrocities in Game of Thrones. The explosion of the Great Sept (S6: Ep.10 “The Winds of Winter”) remained, until the show’s penultimate episode, the deadliest event in the series, exceeding in body  Haimson Lushkov (2017a: 142–143).

37

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count any of the big battle pieces.38 It further embroiled Cersei in the kind of cataclysmic filicide that exceeds even Medea or, closer to home, in the remorseless violence of the cold-blooded Tywin Lannister. As appropriate for a twin always jealous of the privileges afforded Jaime, Cersei’s development pushes her to exceed her menfolk in the casual abuse of violence and state power, and this process is marked throughout by moments whose aesthetics—especially that of fire—reprise the most horrific aspects of sublimity: the disbelief that there exists yet another boundary to transgress.39 Now, while I think most people would agree that Cersei is an important protagonist in the story of Game of Thrones, she is not heroic, either in the colloquial modern sense of the word (by which I mean that she is not a morally upstanding person, nor especially brave, nor prone to self-­ sacrifice or inclined towards the common good) nor in a sense applicable to ancient epic, in that she is neither a martial protagonist nor divinized figure—her story is more properly that of drama, with its focus on the claustrophobic confines of royal court-scheming.40 By contrast, Daenerys Targaryen hews more closely to an epic type, despite the fact that she and Cersei have much in common: they are both women in a man’s world; they are both willing to act drastically and without remorse; and their stories (like those of most women in this saga) are those of rewriting masculine roles and acquiring powers more usually reserved for men. In particular, the Targaryen plotline is in many important aspects also the story of Vergil’s Aeneid and of Rome more broadly. If the Wall is the place we can find antiquity most alive in present day Westeros, Old Valyria is the place we find it buried in the mists of time. Not much is known about Old Valyria, but what we know resembles very much the Roman Republic: an empire presided over by a city-state, which in turn was ruled by competing aristocratic families.41 Nor are the Targaryens the only thing that survives 38  “An Illustrated Guide to all 6687 deaths in Game of Thrones”, Washington Post, originally published 6 April 2015 and updated continuously thereafter. 39  Porter (2016) chapter 4 passim, and especially 508–517 on the Aetna, whose mythological connection with the Giants underscores the transgressive qualities of fire. On fire in Aeneid 2, another book where destruction and transformation keep in tandem, see Knox (1950). 40  For epic heroism: Nagy (1979, 2006); for a modern perspective: Jayawickreme and Di Stefano (2012). On Cersei and heroism, see Haimson Lushkov (2017a: 135–152, 2019). 41  For all Old Valyria, as for all things Game of Thrones, A Wiki of Ice and Fire remains an invaluable first port of call: cf. https://awoiaf.westeros.org/index.php/Valyria (accessed 1 July 2022).

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the Doom. The physical remains of the Valyrian empire are scattered all over Essos and resemble very much the physical remains of the Roman empire: roads, gladiatorial arenas, and the language of High Valyrian, which, much like Latin, remained as a language of culture. Further, when Dany reaches Slaver’s Bay, she unknowingly also visits an important piece of her own ancestral history. The Ghiscari, a slave-trader nation that very much resembles Rome’s ancient enemy Carthage, are said to have suffered a unique punishment by their long-standing rivals,42 the Valyrians: their land was plowed with salt. An apocryphal tradition tells us that this is exactly what the Romans did to Carthage (though there is no evidence to support this), so that Dany’s actions in Slaver’s Bay twist history back on itself twice over: the Ghiscari outlast their own Romans, only to be conquered in the end by a remnant of the long-buried past.43 Slaver’s Bay is therefore a natural place for Dany finally to reinvent herself as something of a living paradox: both as a remorseless wielder of her dragons and as the benevolent liberator of slaves (Thrones S3: Ep.10, “Mhysa”). It is appropriate too that here was the first glimpse of the mad dragon queen in something of a nascent sublime: she unleashed fire and blood on her enemies, but her violence can still be excused, and her power is still embedded in her plot of self-discovery. If Old Valyria resembles Rome, it resembles also Rome’s literary counterpart, Troy, and the story of the Targaryen revival is also the story of the departures from Troy, specifically that of Aeneas, the mythical founder of the Roman people, who crossed the Mediterranean in search of a new homeland for his people. The phrase “new homeland” is of course a paradox, but a necessary one to make the story of Aeneas one of a return rather than one of colonialism and conquest. This tension animates the Aeneid, and it animates, too, the story of the Targaryens right from its inception. Aegon the Dragon, the founder of the dynasty, crosses the water from a doomed burning city to find a new home for his people—at considerable cost to the local people of Westeros.44 His descendant Daenerys lives her own Aeneas story in trying to do exactly the same thing: find a new home in a mythical land she knows is her birthright, but  See Moreno-Marín in vol. 2.  For Rome “salting” Carthage, the lack of ancient evidence and the growth of the modern myth: Ridley (1986). The dynamic, however, is explored in detail in Lucan, Pharsalia 9.964–999, where Caesar visits the ruins of Troy and (re)-imposes his own story onto them: Rossi (2001). 44  On “pessimistic” readings of the Aeneid: Pandey (2017), with further bibliography. 42 43

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which she cannot really know or understand. Along the way, Aeneas and Daenerys show any number of similarities: they both have a tendency to blunder, a casual attitude to the opposite sex, a father figure that keeps sending them in the wrong direction and children (or, rather, “children”) who behave in problematic ways and land everyone in trouble. But Daenerys reverses the story of the Aeneid in a number of interesting ways, not only in being female in counterpoint to the Aeneid’s masculinity but in using her femininity in a much more agentive way. In the first episode of the final season (Thrones S8: Ep.1, “Winterfell”), she arrives in Westeros at the head of a thousand ships, a number that must invoke Helen of Troy, the woman who proverbially launched a fleet of the same size.45 Unlike Helen, though, the ships Daenerys launches sail at her command, and she is the driving force rather than the retrieved object. But I want to focus here on one important point of similarity, and that is the potential for madness, which has taken critics of both the Aeneid and of Game of Thrones by surprise.46 Like Aeneas, who brings his father, son and household gods from the ruins of Troy, Daenerys too has to bring a token of survival over from the old country to the new. That token is her dragons, the traditional emblem of her house and the means by which she has secured her survival all along. Rather than just superior airpower, the dragons, like the penates, represent something fundamental about the old, now lost, world and about the people who used to live in it and their relationship to the new nation. They are, in a sense, a living embodiment of the self-destructive potential of Targaryen madness, just as Aeneas’ household gods are a physical embodiment of his famous piety. But even Aeneas’ piety has a limit or, perhaps better to say, can only be pushed so far before it, too, becomes terrible in revenge: his final act in the epic that bears his name, which is also the very end of the poem as we have it, is to kill his enemy Turnus, who has just offered him unconditional surrender: ille, oculis postquam saevi monimenta doloris exuviasque hausit, furiis accensus et ira terribilis: ‘tune hinc spoliis indute meorum 45  The phrase itself originates in Marlowe, Dr. Faustus 13.88–89: “Was this the face that launched a thousand ships / and burnt the topless towers of Ilium?” The figure of 1000 coalesced, though imprecisely, already in antiquity. The Homeric Catalogue of Ships (Iliad 2) counts 1186 ships, and Apollodorus’s Library 3.11 has 1013 ships. 46  On Aeneas’ anger Galinsky 1988 remains useful; on Daenerys’, Van Arendonk (2019) is a good summary of fans’ and critics’ responses.

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eripiare mihi? Pallas te hoc vulnere, Pallas immolat et poenam scelerato ex sanguine sumit.’ hoc dicens ferrum adverso sub pectore condit fervidus; ast illi solvuntur frigore membra vitaque cum gemitu fugit indignata sub umbras. (Verg. Aen. 12.945–952) Aeneas, after he saw the trophies, a memorial of savage grief, was swept up in madness and terrible in his wrath: “Will you be snatched from me, you, decked out in the spoils of my own people? Pallas deals you this wound, Pallas strikes you, and exacts vengeance from your guilty blood”. While speaking, frenzied, he buried his sword deep in Turnus’ chest. Turnus’ limbs were loosened with chill, and his life, indignant, fled to the shades with a moan.

What triggers Aeneas’ madness (furiis, ira) is the spoils Turnus has stripped off Aeneas’ comrade Pallas earlier in the epic, now worn on Turnus’ shoulder (Aen. 12. 942–944: balteus et notis fulserunt cingula bullis / Pallantis pueri, victum quem vulnere Turnus/ straverat atque umeris inimicum insigne gerebat; “Young Pallas’ baldric and strap glinted with their familiar marks, whom, defeated, Turnus laid low and now wore the hateful spoils on his shoulder”). Daenerys’ madness too comes at the intersection of loss and triumph: she has just witnessed the execution of her own comrade Missandei, and she decides to raze King’s Landing to the ground even as the city’s bells are ringing out to signal its surrender. The end of the Aeneid has long troubled scholars (though not the ancient commentator Servius, who has nothing to say on Aeneas’ emotions here), driven perhaps by disappointment that Aeneas reverts to a violent stereotype rather than learning from his experiences.47 Many social media and commentary sites have reacted with a similar frustration and disappointment at this development of Daenerys’ character, which runs in counterpoint to her previous story arc, but not to her determination to fulfill her destiny by claiming her dynastic birthright. To be Targaryen is to court the madness of lethal over-reaction; so too, the Aeneid suggests, to be Roman. Madness, especially momentary madness, is a condition with great potential for sublimity.48 Madness requires a stepping out beyond the normal confines of experience, and descriptions of it are frequently both  For example, Galinsky (1994), Burnell (1987), Putnam (2011), Ceccarelli (2012).  Johnson (1987), Day (2013: 55–63, 68–69); the great master of such momentary madness is the Younger Seneca: Gunderson (2015). 47 48

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deeply embodied and have an out-of-body quality to them: a slow-motion description, a heightened focus on detail and a revving up of emotional affect and disbelief.49 But there is another aspect to the sublimity of the moment, and that is also something that Game of Thrones shares with the epic, which is an invitation to revisit our fundamental assumptions about what is good and what is bad, what is moral and what is expedient and, above all, what we expected to happen all along. We are frustrated, either with the end of the Aeneid or with the end(s) of Game of Thrones, because in both cases the work continually frustrates our expectations: good people suffer, redemption is nullified by events, and, at least in the show, one gets the feeling that the special effects overshadow the development of the story and the characters. But what attracts me as a classicist to these moments is precisely the disorienting effect they produce, through which one can see the continued relevance of the classics and of literature on the way we consume stories. The sublime, therefore, offers a way to structure some of the encounters of Game of Thrones and the classics, encounters which are characterized both by the disorienting effect of discovering a perhaps unexpected similarity and also by having an important local effect within the fabric of Game of Thrones itself. Moments of sublimity—and the catalogue I have offered is far from complete—both give shape to the physical landmass of Westeros, help structure its historical time and punctuate some of the most atrocious moments of the war. Acknowledgements  I am grateful to Cristina Rosillo-López and the organizers for inviting and accommodating me and especially for their patience as I struggled to complete this paper in the difficult conditions of the COVID-19 pandemic.

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49  In this madness in the sense of anger is similar to ancient descriptions of love, as Longinus (10.2) himself implies in discussing Sappho fr. 31 Voigt (φαίνεταί μοι), which likewise describes the experience in atomizing, medicalized language.

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Gunderson, E. 2015: The Sublime Seneca: Ethics, Literature, Metaphysics, Cambridge. Gurd, S. 2005: Iphigenias at Aulis: Textual Multiplicity, Radical Philology, Ithaca. Feeney, D. 2008: Caesar’s Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History, Berkeley. Fyfe 1995: Aristotle: Poetics; Longinus: On the Sublime; Demetrius: On Style. Translated by Stephen Halliwell, W. Hamilton Fyfe, Doreen C. Innes, W. Rhys Roberts. Revised by Donald A. Russell, Cambridge (MA). Fehling, D. 1989: Herodotus and His “Sources”: Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated from the German by J. G. Howie, Leeds. Hall, E. 2013: Adventures with Iphigenia in Tauris: A Cultural History of Euripides’ Black Sea Tragedy, Oxford. Haimson Lushkov, A. 2019: “Why did Game of Thrones Cast Aside its Objectified Women?”, Independent, 20 May 2019. https://www.independent.co.uk/ voices/game-­thrones-­final-­episode-­season-­eight-­6-­daenerys-­cersei-­arya-­bran-­ broken-­a8922836.html (accessed 1 July 2022). Haimson Lushkov, A. 2017a: You Win or You Die: The Ancient World of Game of Thrones, London. Haimson Lushkov, A. 2017b: “Genre, Mimesis, and Intertext in Vergil and G.R.R. Martin”, in B. Rogers and B. E. Stevens (eds.), Classical Traditions in Modern Fantasy, Oxford, 308–324. Hardie, P. 2009: Lucretian Receptions, Cambridge. Hardwick, L. 2011: “Fuzzy Connections: Classical Texts and Modern Poetry in English”, in J. Parker and T. Mathews (eds.), Tradition, Translation, Trauma: The Classic and the Modern, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 39–60. Jayawickreme, E., Di Stefano, P. 2012: “How Can We Study Heroism? Integrating Persons, Situations and Communities”, Political Psychology 33.1, 165–178. Johnson, W. R. 1987: Momentary Monsters: Lucan and His Heroes, Ithaca. Konstan, D. 2014: Beauty: The Fortunes of an Ancient Greek Idea, Oxford. Knox, B. 1950: “The Serpent and the Flame: The Imagery of the Second Book of the Aeneid”, The American Journal of Philology 71.4, 379–400. Leigh, M. 2007: “Epic and Historiography at Rome”, in J.  Marincola (ed.), A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography, Oxford, 459–470. Marcotte, A. 2015: “Don’t Be So Shocked by the Deaths on Game of Thrones: The Show Is a Classical Tragedy”, Slate, 9 June 2015. https://slate.com/culture/2015/06/game-­of-­thrones-­is-­a-­classical-­tragedy-­don-­t-­be-­so-­shocked-­ by-­the-­deaths.html (accessed 1 July 2022). Marincola, J. 2000: Authority and Tradition in Ancient Historiography, Cambridge. Martin, R. 2011: “Self Referentiality”, in M.  Finkelberg (ed.), The Homer Encyclopedia, Chichester and Malden.

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McNutt, M. 2011: “Questions of Taste: Dissecting the Dissection of Early Reviews of HBO’s Game of Thrones”, Cultural Learnings, 9 April 2011. https://cultural-learnings.com/2011/04/09/questions-of-taste-dissecting-the-dissection-of-early-reviewsof-hbos-game-of-thrones/ (accessed 1 July 2022). Milnor, K. 2014: Graffiti and the Literary Landscape in Roman Pompeii, Oxford. Most, G., Conte, G. B. 2012: “Sublime”, in S. Hornblower et al. (eds.), Oxford Classical Dictionary, 4th edition, Oxford, 1407–1408. Mudan Finn, K. 2017: Fan Phenomena: Game of Thrones, Bristol. Murray, A. T. 1924: Homer. The Iliad, Cambridge (MA). Nagy, G. 1979: The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry, Baltimore. Nagy, G. 2006: “The Epic Hero,” 2nd ed. (on-line version), Washington, DC. Nussbaum, E. 2016: “The Westeros Wing: The Politics of Game of Thrones”, The New  Yorker, 27 June 2016. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/07/04/the-­political-­resonance-­of-­game-­of-­thrones (accessed 1 July 2022). Palmer, D. 2013: “Photography, Technology, and Ecological Criticism: Beyond the Sublime Image of Disaster”, in L.  Lester and B.  Hutchens (eds.), Environmental Conflict and the Media, New York, 75–90. Pandey, N. 2017: “Sowing the Seeds of War: The Aeneid’s Pre-History of Interpretive Contestation and Appropriation”, Classical World 111.1, 7–25. Porter, J. 2016: The Sublime in Antiquity, Cambridge. Putnam, M.  C. J. 2011: The Humanness of Heroes: Studies in the Conclusion of Virgil’s Aeneid, Amsterdam. Ridley, R. 1986: “To be Taken with a Pinch of Salt: The Destruction of Carthage”, Classical Philology 81.2, 140–146. Rogerson, A. 2017: Virgil’s Ascanius: Imagining the Future in the Aeneid, Cambridge. Rosenmeyer, T. 2002: “‘Metatheater’: An Essay on Overload”, Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics 10.2, 87–119. Rossi, A. 2001: “Remapping the Past: Caesar’s Tale of Troy (Lucan “BC” 9.964-99)”, Phoenix 55.3/4, 313–326. Russell, D. A. 1964: Longinus. On the sublime. Edited with introduction and commentary, Oxford. Spano, C. 2016: “Audience Engagement with Multi-level Fictional Universes: The Case of Game of Thrones and its Italian Fans”, Participations 13.1, 625–655. Syed, Y. 2005: Vergil’s Aeneid and the Roman Self: Subject and Nation in Literary Discourse, Ann Arbor. Thumiger, C. 2009: “On Ancient and Modern (Meta)theatres: Definitions and Practices”, Materiali e Discussioni per l’Analisi dei Testi Classici 63, 9–58.

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Tolia-Kelly, Divya P. 2011: “Narrating the Postcolonial Landscape: Archaeologies of Race at Hadrian’s Wall”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 36.1, 71–88. Trifonova, T. 2018: Contemporary Visual Culture and the Sublime, London. Van Arendonk, K. 2019: “Game of Thrones Finally Got its Mad Queen”, Vulture, 13 May 2019. https://www.vulture.com/2019/05/game-­of-­thrones-­ daenerys-­mad-­queen-­trope.html (accessed 1 July 2022). Waugh, P. 2002: Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction, London and New York. Whitmarsh, T. 2001: Greek Literature and the Roman Empire: The Politics of Imitation, Oxford. Žižek, S. 1989: The Sublime Object of Ideology, London and New York.

CHAPTER 7

“When You Play the Game of Thrones, You Win or You Die”: Game of Thrones between Mainstream Culture and Counterculture Carlo Daffonchio

1   Introduction On 19 May 2019 the last episode of American fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones came out. Adapted from George R.  R. Martin’s fantasy novels (A Song of Ice and Fire) and produced by HBO, Game of Thrones premiered in 17 April 2011, and it quickly became a worldwide phenomenon, breaking all records and leaving a permanent mark in the history of television. Game of Thrones’ records are impressive: most Emmy Awards for a Drama Series (59), probably the most expensive TV series

C. Daffonchio (*) Università degli Studi di Trieste, Trieste, Italy Università degli Studi di Udine, Udine, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_7

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episode ever made,1 the longest battle sequence in cinema history2 and most pirated TV series ever. These are just a few of the outstanding records of Game of Thrones. Martin’s novels were just as successful, due both to the popularity of the TV show and to the innovative style of the books themselves. In fantasy literature, A Song of Ice and Fire3 marked a point of no return, and it became the alternative model to the Tolkien’s one, which was the dominant prototype for fantasy writers until Martin’s breakthrough. However, a deeper reflection on ASOIAF and its cinematic adaptation Game of Thrones is necessary in order to understand what pop culture trend it belongs to, what narrations it proposes and what it reveals about the cultural history of our time. In order to achieve these objectives, I want to analyse George R. R. Martin’s fantasy saga and the related popular TV series in the light of the theoretical framework developed by the cultural historian Alberto Mario Banti in his latest book, Wonderland. La cultura di massa da Walt Disney ai Pink Floyd.4 Banti identifies and discusses main trends in pop culture, mainstream culture and counterculture, and their different narrative structures. Defined by Banti as “sistema narrativo dominante”5 (dominant narrative system), the mainstream culture is marked by the Manichean contraposition between positive values and negative ones.6 This strongly dualistic structure is reflected in a predictable plot structure that always ends with “happy ending”.7 Furthermore, mainstream culture clearly distinguishes literary and film genres.8 Mainstream heroes usually come from the White middle class and are always successful and virtuous; class, gender and race differences are not called into question, and in many cases, the mainstream narrative encourages the preservation of the existing social order, for example, confirming the traditional strict hierarchy of genders.9 Counterculture is the complete opposite of mainstream culture. First  Thrones S8: Ep.3, “The Long Night”.  Thrones S8: Ep.3, “The Long Night”. The running time of “the battle of Winterfell” surpasses that of Helm’s Deep battle (around 40 minutes) in The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers. 3  From this point on, I use the abbreviation ASOIAF, instead A Song of Ice and Fire, to quote the book series, for the sake of convenience. 4  Banti (2017). 5  Banti (2017: VIII). 6  Banti (2017: 12). 7  Banti (2017: 14). 8  Banti (2017: 15). 9  Banti (2017: 60–61). 1 2

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s­uccessful between the mid-1950s and the mid-1970s, the narratives of this trend in pop cultures are defined by characters’ ambiguous and grey morality and by the rejection of the “happy ending”. Furthermore, counterculture authors tend to challenge the conventions of genres and to hybridize literary and film genres. Counterculture breaks class, gender and race boundaries, and in counterculture works, the characters come from the margins of society; they are outcasts, people who belong to discriminated and weak groups. On the basis of these two categories, the purpose of this paper is threefold. Its first aim is to investigate the background of Game of Thrones. Through a survey of the cultural production both of George R. R. Martin and of HBO, I particularly highlight ASOIAF’s counterculture background and its connection with sci-fi and fantasy authors of the 1950s and 1960s and with the political rock culture of the 1960s and 1970s. Secondly, I show how this background influenced ASOIAF and Game of Thrones’ contents and its peculiar narrative structures, for example, the “Point of View” technique. My third and last purpose is to consider Game of Thrones’ immense success, in comparison with data about the TV show’s audience. With regard to this last theme, there are three fundamental questions: which kind of success it is, what does it tell us about the cultural history of our time, and how does it call into question Banti’s distinction between mainstream culture and counterculture?

2  The Countercultural Background of Game of Thrones George R. R. Martin Martin’s life is rooted in counterculture, because the period of his eclectic formation were the years between 1960 and 1970. This was the great season of counterculture, when the dominant mainstream culture in the United States was powerfully challenged.10 The combination of this deconstructive and revolutionary culture and the suggestions of literary genres and authors far from hegemonic culture constitutes the nucleus, the most authentic matrix of the great future success of ASOIAF and its cinematic adaptation. This is already evident from Martin’s biography. George R. R. Martin was born in 1948, in New Jersey, in a working class  Banti (2017: IX).

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family that lived in a council house. This background is very far from the American WASP middle class that was the main audience of mainstream mass culture. The readings of Martin were far from the mainstream too. He loved science fiction, fantasy and short stories. In the field of science fiction, his reference authors were Alfred Bester, Roger Zelazny and Robert A.  Heinlein.11 Heinlein was an influential writer of the Golden Age of Science Fiction and he used his science fiction as a way to explore provocative social and political ideas. He dedicated particular attention to libertarianism, free love and sexuality, especially since the 1960s, in conjunction with the rise of the sci-fi New Wave that was firmly part of the countercultural trend of the 1960s and 1970s.12 Bester and Zelazny were a forerunner and an exponent of the innovative sci-fi New Wave, respectively. However, Martin’s main and constant reference was Tolkien, as he himself has stated several times. In the United States, the popularity of The Lord of the Rings grew exponentially during the 1960s, especially in colleges. In particular, it was a great success among hippies and those who opposed the Vietnam War. They believed, in a personal interpretation of The Lord of the Rings, that the book condemned the invasion of Vietnam (represented by the Free People of Middle-Earth) by the United States (represented by Mordor). For Martin Tolkien is the founder of modern fantasy. J. R. R. Tolkien was his model, the creator of a fantastic world and immense theatre of stories with an epic atmosphere. In addition, Martin consciously places himself in continuity with Tolkien, because, through ASOIAF, he wants to narrate the Fourth Era, the Era of Men. The author of The Lord of the Rings began to outline it in The New Shadow, written in dark tones that he almost immediately decided to abandon.13 However, for Martin Tolkien was also the spiritual father from whom he needed to free himself: I think every contemporary fantasy writer writes under the shadow of Tolkien, but there was no way I could capture his voice, which is singular and unique. He was a very different man than me, a man from a different time with very different attitudes, and even though we were both writing about a medieval-type society I had a very different take on it, on basic attitudes about the war and sexuality, so I was just telling my story. (Flood 2018)  Mustich (2011).  Davies Mancus (2019: 338–352). 13  Arduini (2011). 11 12

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In particular, Martin wanted to go beyond all those epigones that had overzealously imitated Tolkien and had, according to him, simplified and trivialized him. Martin wanted to recover the elements of Tolkien’s works he thought more valuable: for example, characters like Boromir and Saruman, in which the battle between good and evil becomes internal.14 To complete this background, another important source was the work of H. P. Lovecraft. He influenced Martin since his first important work, A Song for Lya (1974), winner of the Hugo Prize. This science fiction novella is very close to Lovercraft’s imaginary. The story is about a cult on an alien planet that brings its adepts to suicide. Lovecraft’s narrative universe based on irrationality and negative anthropology influenced heavily Martin’s writing. According to Lovecraft, the human civilization has no positive moral connotation, and it is extremely ephemeral in front of the chaos, which is the true driving force of the universe. Martin incorporates this vision in his works. In the novel The Armageddon Rag (1983), the author takes up this issue of forces above human “civilization” and to which the civilisation is blind; he writes: “On armageddon day,” Sandy said, “both armies will think they fight for good. And both of them will be wrong”. (The Armageddon Rag, chapter 24)

This idea returns in ASOIAF as well as in Game of Thrones. Here he stages the contrast between the precarious situation of the Seven Kingdoms, ideally the land of men and civilization, and the unknown and destructive force of the Others, or White Walkers, who move inexorably against the “civil” lands of men. In addition to this reading, in the university days, Martin came in deep contact with the rock counterculture of the 1960s/1970s. Martin’s rock background is militant, as was proved by his position as conscientious objector during the Vietnam War, in the years 1972–1974,15 and by one of his works of the early 1980s, The Armageddon Rag (1983). This novel represents a fundamental key to understanding the subsequent writing of ASOIAF. The Armageddon Rag can be considered a summa of Martin’s narrative, and it is the best evidence of how strong the influence of the counterculture of the 1970s is in his writings. Written in 1983, The Armageddon Rag is the on-the-road story of a writer and journalist, clearly  Arduini (2011).  Martin (2019).

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identifiable with Martin himself, who lives a militant life during the 1960s and the 1970s. The novel contains subdued and hidden fantasy elements and is structured in the form of a murder mystery; it is also a meditation on the rock music era of the 1960s (and its associated culture) and what became of both by the mid-1980s. The novel contains a detailed account of the history and repertoire of its imaginary rock band, including concert setlists and album track timings. Each of the novel’s chapter headings opens with quotations from famous rock lyrics, whose meanings resonate throughout that chapter. In the novel, Martin shows the end of the rock era and its revolutionary ideals. In his journey throughout the United States, the main character/author relived all his memories of the countercultural season of the 1960s–1970s. With this dimension of journey, of memory and of the end of idealism, Martin interweaves thriller and science fiction, hybridizing and putting the accent on themes, problems and narrative structures borrowed from the culture of the 1970s (e.g. the problem of the moral horizon). All these themes and atmospheres will return in Game of Thrones. In this sense, a dialogue between the protagonist of the novel and another character is particularly significant: “Armageddon,” Sandy said. “The final battle. The ultimate confrontation between good and evil. That’s what armageddon is supposed to be. Right?” Hobbins lifted a pale white eyebrow, said nothing. “Which side are we?” Sandy demanded. “Which side are we?” “That’s one you got to work out yourself, friend. This ain’t like in Tolkien, is it?” (The Armageddon Rag, chapter 24)

Three years before The Armageddon Rag, Martin started to work for television and he moved to Hollywood. Since 1986 he has worked as a screenwriter and TV series producer, absolutely out of the mainstream canon. He writes for The Borders of Reality and for Beauty and the Beast (1987–1990). This latter series, which mixes various genres like romantic story, adventure and thriller, focuses on the investigations of a young New York female Assistant District Attorney helped by a monstrous but good male creature, who lives with a community of social outcasts (“the World Below”) in the underground of New York. Shortly afterwards, in 1991, Martin began to write the first book of his fantasy saga, in which he would eventually bring together all these experiences of counterculture.

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HBO With this strong countercultural connotation, a cultural product like ASOIAF needed an appropriate producer to be effectively transposed onto the screen, a producer capable of maintaining and enhancing all the innovative and original drive of Martin’s work. The challenge was met with great success by HBO, which further extended Game of Thrones’ distances from mainstream culture. This production company not only gave an explicit, raw and realistic visual appearance to Martin’s novel, but it also took considerable risk on its own, at the time when the series and book began to move on different tracks. This is the case of Sansa Stark’s rape scene by Ramsay Bolton,16 which is not present in the book and represents a choice coherent with the countercultural style of the work, which rejects any edulcorating. HBO is perfectly at ease in managing bold and innovative productions. Founded in 1971 in the United States, it is the oldest American pay TV, which has produced its own programmes since 1980. Above all, HBO targets an adult, mature audience. As a pay TV, completely free from censorship, it enjoys great freedom and independence in experimenting and in proposing programmes with a high level of technical realization. HBO is considered the network that has expanded the range of acceptable contents in television and transformed conventional genres.17 If we examine the series produced by HBO from 1980 to 2011, the year in which Game of Thrones was released, the countercultural focus of HBO and its distance from mainstream narratives is absolutely clear. The first series produced by HBO is The Hitchhiker (1983–1987) that was described on the official HBO website: The Hitchhiker is a half-hour dramatic anthology series presenting modern morality tales with contemporary players. In 85 chilling stories, men and women struggle with the best and worst in themselves, battling with—and all too often succumbing to—their deepest lusts, obsessions and fears. (The Hitchhiker 1999)

Similar is the subsequent series, Tales from the Crypt (1989–1996), another series with an anthological structure and characterized by realistic violence, promiscuous language, sexuality and nudity. From 1997 to 2003, the Oz series stages the dynamics of a maximum security  Thrones S5: Ep.6 “Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken”.  DeFino (2014).

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penitentiary with a very real and raw slant. In Oz the protagonists are the prisoners, figures removed from the classic mainstream hero. The HBO then produced one of its greatest successes, The Sopranos (1999–2007), which tells the story of Tony Soprano, the Italian-American boss of the New York underworld, and stages absolutely unconventional contents and narrative techniques, marking in some ways a point of no return in the deconstruction of mainstream narratives. For example, the series ends with an open ending, very distant from the happy ending typical of mainstream productions. The productions until Game of Thrones did not abandon this line but rather reinforced it further: Six Feet Under (2001–2005), which sees a family of gravediggers as protagonists and focuses on the theme of death; The Wire (2002–2008) instead investigates the relationship between American society and drug trafficking, presenting traffickers and corrupt policemen among its protagonists; in Deadwood (2004–2006), the story revolves around a Far West city that has yet to be born, so in which there is absolutely no established order and in which the only valid law is the survival of the fittest; Rome (2005–2007) reconstructs the period of Roman civil wars in two dense seasons of violence and explicit sex; finally Big Love (2006–2011) brings to the screen the difficult and controversial theme of polygamy. The decision to adapt Game of Thrones for television is consistent with HBO’s traditional line of disruptive productions. Therefore, the series is the result of an encounter of a countercultural literary product, created by an author with a strong countercultural background and a production company that has made counterculture its distinctive sign, thus coagulating paths far away from the mainstream narrative universe. However, how do these cultural sources actually come together in Game of Thrones’ countercultural narrative? In order to shed light on this question, three central aspects of the work will be examined here, namely, the ethical horizon, the narrative technique and the heroes. A radical opposition towards traditional mainstream narrative characterizes their representation.

3  Three Countercultural Elements Ethical Horizon and Codes of Behaviour In ASOIAF and Game of Thrones, the authors do not want to offer the viewer/reader a single ethical and moral vision, nor do they wish to say which is the fairest behaviour among those represented. Unlike

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mainstream culture, there is no juxtaposition of positive values on the one hand and negative values on the other. There is not a single, dominant code of behaviour, which allows success in a positive sense always and everywhere. The appropriate code of conduct changes from place to place, from family to family and from character to character. An example of this is given by the strong contrast between the North and the South of Westeros. The North is indeed a place dominated by the values of honour and loyalty, while in the southern part of the Seven Kingdoms, the most appreciated qualities are cunning, duplicity and selfishness. Consequently, whoever moves between the realms must adopt the behaviour appropriate to each place, in one sense or another.18 When Eddard Stark, named Hand of the King, moves from Winterfell to King’s Landing, he does not adapt his behavioural code to the Machiavellian code of the capital, and this leads him to defeat and then to death. On the other hand, the Bolton family, which gained power in the North by betraying its Stark lords and adopting a violent and ruthless political conduct, finds it difficult to maintain power in a place where deception and the violation of loyalty bonds are strongly disapproved. Each situation has its own code of appropriate behaviour; there is not a single right behaviour. The moral, ethical horizon is grey and empty. In theory, there is in Westeros a dominant theoretical norm; it has no practical efficacy. The world of Martin is regulated according to the leal-ty system,19 the system of loyalties, in which respect for the rule is guaranteed not by a superior coercive force but by the individual or a group. There is a theoretical code of behaviour (feudal/chivalrous ideal), but it is not formally regulated, so it can be respected or violated at the character’s discretion. Its breaching, as well as the compliance to its rules, often remain without moral consequences; there is no punishment for those who break the rules, but not even a reward for those who abide by them. The consequences of action are unrelated to moral judgement. The authors have no interest in presenting the breaching as bad or the compliance as good but simply offer the representation of possible ways to act. Thus there are characters like Eddard Stark who respect this code and others who do not, like Petyr “Littlefinger” Baelish. Littlefinger should be one of the most negative characters if judged from the perspective of mainstream culture, because he betrays, manipulates and has a cynical attitude towards reality and personal relationships. Varys said about him: “He  Stanton (2015: 58–59).  MacNeil (2015: 37–38).

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would burn the realm just to be the king of ashes”.20 In another episode, Littlefinger replies to Varys, who talks about chaos as a pit ready to swallow all the people: “Chaos is not a chasm. Chaos is a ladder. […] Only the ladder is real. Climbing that ladder is the only thing that matters”.21 For a large portion of the narrative, Littlefinger is able (and he is one of the few) to always fall on his feet through these absolutely amoral convictions. In particular, in the books, Littlefinger has not suffered any setback through the actions of other characters or by the hand of fate but rather dominates both thanks to his ruthless ability to adopt the right behaviour for each situation, outlasting characters that are more positive. The Technique of “Point of View” However, how can the reader/viewer accept this absence of an ethical and moral horizon? How does one propose this suspension of judgement to the reader/viewer? The stylistic device employed by the authors to stage this grey moral horizon is the narrative device of adopting, in each chapter of the books and each sequence of the series’ episodes, the point of view of a different character. In the book and, differently, also in the series, each chapter and each segment of narration is entrusted to the point of view of a character, to the observation of events by a specific character and not by an omniscient and judgemental narrator. This technique is very similar to the one adopted by some products of the countercultural narrative of the 1960s and 1970s: a reference in this sense may be the song “Walk on the Wild Side” by Lou Reed (1972), a singer well known to Martin.22 Each verse of the song represents the story and the point of view of a marginalised individual, but without a judgement regarding the different stories. The story is neutral; it shows many different perspectives, but of absolutely equal value and all valid. Due to the relativistic perspective of this narrative technique in staging particularly strong contents, Game of Thrones is criticized by conservative culture. In a blog, “The Scholar’s Stage”, by an unidentifiable international political expert, T. Greer, there are harsh attacks against the narrative technique of the point of view. In his article “Which is Worse: Game of Thrones or the Culture that Watches

 Thrones S3: Ep.4, “And now his Watch is Ended”.  Thrones S3: Ep.6, “The Climb”. 22  Martin quoted Lou Reed several times in The Armageddon Rag and in Wild Cards series. 20 21

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It”, the author quotes negative reviews on Game of Thrones, which, he argues, has created an “adulatory sub-culture”, and writes: Game of Thrones allows the viewer to revel in depravity from afar. Game of Thrones is not as gratuitous as Saw and the other Gorno flicks, but its perversion cuts deeper because the viewer has a stronger emotional connection with the characters. This emotional manipulation is (from Martin’s perspective) a brilliant device to keep readers turning pages and one of the undeniable draws of his series. (The Scholar’s Stage 2015)

Leaving these accusatory and harsh tones aside, it must be recognized that in Game of Thrones we are faced with a technique that destabilizes the reader/viewer and slows down his judgement, because the reasons for most of the actions are explained. Character’s thoughts and beliefs are available to the reader/viewer. The characters appear to be extremely human and complex, real and vivid. The reader/viewer empathizes with most of them and understands their reasons, even and especially the apparently negative ones. An exemplary case is that of Cersei Lannister. Cersei is a character that appears hateful and cruel since the beginning of the saga; she is presented in the points of view of the other protagonists as an absolutely negative figure. But as the story progresses, her version of the facts, her point of view, is also presented (in the book, Cersei’s point of view represents one of the highest achievements in Martin’s writing), and the reader/viewer is faced with a complex and articulate character. The queen of the Lannisters performs many evil actions (she manipulates Sansa, plots to kill Robert, causes the fall of Eddard Stark, kills Robert’s bastards) that may seem objectionable from the point of view of traditional morals (using her body and her sexuality as a tool of power and manipulation), but the motivation that drives her action is the protection of her children and she herself is the victim of a hard and violent world. In Cersei’s case, the gender issue is particularly strong: the Lannister queen is treated as an object by her father Tywin, who considers her only as human capital to achieve political alliances, and on many occasions, just because she is a woman, she cannot act independently and freely. Gradually, in the series and in particular, in the book, all the drama of Cersei’s struggle against her weak condition emerges. Consequently, the moment in which Cersei’s fortune is overturned and she is placed in a state of weakness—the imprisonment in the

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Sept of Baelor and the famous Walk of Shame23—does not satisfy the reader/viewer. The reader/viewer feels no satisfaction in the face of this “punishment” of Cersei but instead finds himself or herself feeling pity and compassion for the queen. The empathy aroused by this scene was so powerful that some people, including Cersei’s actress herself, Lena Headey, questioned the harshness of the punishment.24 The viewer’s perception is completely overturned, and there is even an almost disturbing satisfaction in the face of Cersei’s spectacular and brutal revenge, when she destroyed the temple where all her main enemies were.25 Marginal Heroes We have seen how ASOIAF and Game of Thrones ethical horizon and narrative technique are strongly influenced by countercultural characteristics, far from mainstream narrative. Thus, also its protagonists are endowed with a strong countercultural charge. Hartinger points out that half of the points of view belong to those characters whose distinctive traits are defined  by sexual, physical, behavioural and social elements that make them marginal.26 They are characters very removed from the classic hero, usually male, physically handsome, intelligent and socially integrated. This marginality allows them to critically observe the chivalrous and courtly code, which tends to exalt the canonical model of the hero, which represents the dominant and mainstream morality of the world of Westeros. These characters, excluded from this value system because they are imperfect, can see the hypocrisy of it. The case of Tyrion is emblematic. Tyrion is a countercultural character both compared to the internal mainstream canons of the work itself and compared to the mainstream external canons. It is absolutely brilliant for a fantasy narrative to portray Tyrion’s dwarfism as a medical condition, rather than as the distinctive sign of the fantastic race of dwarves. He is therefore characterized by what is normally seen as a strong physical disability, but he has a central role in the saga. This is the very opposite of mainstream culture, which would usually like its heroes characterized by perfect physical aspect, in accordance with the old equation “good = beautiful”. Moreover, Tyrion is represented as a  Thrones S5: Ep.10, “Mother’s Mercy”.  Maerz (2015). 25  Thrones S6: Ep.10, “The Winds of Winter”. 26  Hartinger (2012: 154); Lambert (2015). 23 24

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well-rounded character, not flattened on his physical defect, he has sexual urges (contrary to the canonical dwarfs) and desires, he is not a sketch. Indeed, he turns the canon “good/bad = beautiful/ugly” upside down, because he is a character that moves outside the mainstream ethics of his world, based on gender inequality and self-control and dissimulation. On the contrary, Tyrion cultivates a counter-current ethic, based on compassion and on the ability to be generous in a gratuitous way. Tyrion rereads the informal motto of the Lannisters, “A Lannister always pays his debts”, in an absolutely personal key. For Tyrion, paying back one’s debt is not a matter of honour or revenge, or a paternalistic reward for one’s followers, but it becomes doing what is right, giving each person what that person deserves and needs.27 This tendency to highlight the hypocrisy of dominant morality, to show cracks and defects in the surface of mainstream culture, pervades all of Martin’s work set in Westeros. In this sense a particular point of view is offered by the series of fantasy novellas, Tales of Dunk and Egg, in which Martin tells the adventures of a humble errant knight, ser Duncan the Tall, and his young esquire, Egg (the future king Aegon V Targaryen), in their peregrinations in the Seven Kingdoms, a century before the events told in ASOIAF and Game of Thrones. Duncan is a lowborn man and Egg a child. Their point of view allows the reader to deepen the deconstruction of the dominant codes and to confront these codes more openly with the harsh reality they hide.

4  The Success of a Fantasy Saga Factors of Success These countercultural characters, which involve the reader/viewer and deconstruct their certainties, are the elements that contribute to ASOIAF and Game of Thrones’ success. These are supported by other elements that it is necessary to consider in order to understand the genealogy of this success, both as a literary work and as a TV production. They can be divided between factors within the work itself and external factors. Among the internal features, there is the massive presence of suspense, of the cliff-­ hanger. Thanks to the countercultural elements previously described, in ASOIAF and Game of Thrones, everything is unpredictable, not only with regard to the question of a character’s survival (or lack thereof) but also  Hovey (2015: 98).

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because the characters, and our judgement on them, are susceptible to profound changes.28 This captivates the reader/viewer. Then there is the nature of the fictional world in which the story is set: it is an open, large, extremely complex world, which Martin has created, taking as a model the complexity of the world of his constant reference, Tolkien. This grants those who approach it a deep and immersive interaction, which leads them to dig deeper and deeper, helped in this by an increasingly articulated intermediate and transmedia narrative that integrates more and more details. With regard to the extrinsic factor of success, there are three elements I wish to point out. The first factor is certainly the “Fantasy Renaissance” of the early 2000s, which successfully brings a traditionally niche genre such as fantasy to the attention of a mass audience. To cite the major titles, these are the years in which The Lord of the Rings trilogy directed by Peter Jackson came out (The Fellowship of the Ring in 2001, The Two Towers in 2002, The Return of the King in 2003); between 2001 and 2007, the Harry Potter saga was published and Warner Bros released the first five films; finally in 2005 the film adaptation of the book by C. S. Lewis The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. They were all very successful productions in terms of audience popularity and critical acclaim. A wider audience was therefore starting to take an interest in the genre; there was an increase in the number of publications and fantasy readings that also affected Martin’s books, preparing a solid basis for the reception of the future TV series. The good success achieved in the early 2000s by Martin’s saga (in particular from the book published in 2005, A Feast for Crows29) is almost certainly connected with the new climate of general public opening towards the fantastic genre. This is the basis of the other important external element of the great success of ASOIAF: the transposition from the literary medium to the television, which, combined with the Internet’s influence, allowed to reach a wider audience. The media transfer had a surprising impact in simply quantitative terms: in the 2011/2012 year, the first season’s release, nine million copies were sold,30 against the five/six million sold starting from the first issue of the book until the release of the TV series.

  Lanchester (2013: 22).  The New York Times (2005). 30  The New York Times (2011). 28 29

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It is also worth pointing out that the Internet has not contributed to Game of Thrones’ success by simply making a showcase of media coverage for ASOIAF and its cinematic adaptation but has given the possibility, through streaming and pirated downloads, to see the series even to those who are not subscribers to HBO, further broadening the audience pool. The third and last important external factor is the historical context. John Lanchester emphasizes how ASOIAF and Game of Thrones, with their strong instability and unpredictability, speak to today’s historical moment.31 In the drifting world of Westeros, the reader/viewer finds analogies with the historical period that Western man is experiencing today. Like the characters of ASOIAF and Game of Thrones, we are living in a world in which a previous age of apparent expansion and prosperity is brutally called into question. The economic crisis, political instability, terrorism, population movements and climate change are, in Martinian terms, the winter that has arrived and which has erased all the illusions of the long summer. Violence and chaos and the absence of certain moral horizons and of order that are staged in the world of ASOIAF and Game of Thrones are, in the fictional framework, situations that readers/viewers find daily in their reality and with which they are therefore naturally led to identify. The Audience of Game of Thrones This link between the series’ success and its historical context, however, confronts us with the need to reflect on who is the viewer of Game of Thrones, in order to define Game of Thrones’  breakthrough not only in merely quantitative but also in qualitative terms. The average Game of Thrones viewer is male, aged between 18 and 29,32 and tends to engage with media overall, social networks, entertainment and information technology, like streaming service.33 They are the members of the so-called Generation Y or Millennials, the social group that feels most deeply the instability, uncertainty and disorientation of the times and that at the same time has the closest relationship with technology. The Millennials grew up in an age of overcoming the old, strong ideological dualism of capitalism-­ communism. Furthermore, during their education, they received the optimistic mainstream narratives of the 1980s/1990s, tending to emphasize   Lanchester (2013: 22).  Selcke (2017). 33  Diel (2018). 31 32

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the exceptionalism and the possibility of success of each individual modelled on the canon of the mainstream hero, but soon they brutally experienced that this narrative did not correspond to the reality of the contemporary world. By combining this with technological familiarity, it is clear that a highly countercultural product like Game of Thrones can find a large share of its public in this social group. The disillusionment towards optimistic but unfulfilled promises seems to create a strong parallelism between this “Generation Y” and the 1940–1960 generation (also known as Baby Boomers), protagonists of the great countercultural wave in the 1960s and 1970s. The analysis of the reception of Game of Thrones in the United States offers further data. An article in The New York Times entitled “Modern Family vs Duck Dynasty” illustrates the geographic distribution of viewership for some television programmes in the United States, and the maps thus illustrated are then compared with each other, attempting to provide a demographic analysis of the community of US viewers.34 Among the programmes considered, there is also Game of Thrones, which is widespread especially in cities, in urban areas, while it is watched in rural areas and above all it is totally absent from the American territory inhabited mainly by the African American population, the Black Belt (Fig. 7.1). Browsing through the article and studying the maps of the diffusion of the other programmes, the picture of three large distinct public communities emerges: the urban areas, the rural areas and the extended Black Belt. Each of these macro-communities has its successful shows, which, in almost all cases, are not watched in the other two areas. The strong impression is that the three communities are each constructing and selecting their own narratives, their own exclusive mainstream. If we examine the most widespread programmes in the urban area, we find articulated and complex productions. Far from being limited to the drama genre represented by Game of Thrones and another particularly innovative series, Orange is the New Black, this trend is also found at the level of comic programmes in productions with the ironic and sophisticated comedy of The Daily Show, The Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon or Modern Family or animated productions suitable for an adult audience as well like Adventure Time. It is a programming that goes beyond a traditional mainstream and that meets the new tastes of urban audience. It would seem difficult now to present in the urban areas a traditionally mainstream product because  Katz (2016).

34

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Fig. 7.1  The geographical distribution of Game of Thrones’ viewership in the United States (map elaboration by the author, based on the data in The New York Times. ‘Duck Dynasty’ vs. ‘Modern Family’: 50 Maps of the U.S. Cultural Divide, 27 December 2016)

the narratives that this kind of audience want move in the wake of a counterculture, which has become the new mainstream of urban areas. A similar argument could be made for the other two areas, which in turn build their own exclusive narratives. The rural area is certainly the one where the mainstream is closest to the traditional mainstream. The most viewed series in this area tend to be characterized by a mainstream structure, which is based on a Manichean contrast between good and evil, such as Supernatural and Criminal Minds, or on the solicitation of easy emotions, such as Grey’s Anatomy. This gap is further exacerbated by the increasingly high capacity of selection and circumscription of knowledge and media products by the public through the Internet. We can therefore suppose that this narrative fracture will progressively continue to widen, reaching the definitive transformation of the hegemonic culture of the classical mainstream into one of the many mainstream cultures, each of which,

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however, evaluates the others as antithetical and countercultural with respect to itself. However, looking at the most recent events, this radicalization process does not seem to concern only the cultural sphere but also involves the political, social and economic sphere. A strong question remains for the future, for a long-term analysis: on what basis will the dialogue between the various audience macro-communities be restructured and constructed since the dominant trend is the elaboration of exclusive narratives, which the others, the different, do not understand. Further data and more in-depth research are necessary to understand if this transformation of the mainstream is really taking place and, in the case of an affirmative answer, whether it is radical to the point of deeply questioning the hegemonic culture even more than the mass counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s did. A difficult question to answer, for which the analysis of Game of Thrones is just the tip of the iceberg. Acknowledgements  This work would not have been possible without the support of some colleagues and friends, and I would like to thank them: the organising committee of the International Conference “Game of Thrones: Views from the Humanities” for giving me the opportunity to discuss my research; Davide Burgio for his proofreading and his valuable comments; Margherita Protti who read the first draft of this work; and Gregorio De Alessandri and Lapo Moscon, unreplaceable teammates in watching Game of Thrones, from the first to the last season of the show.

Bibliography Arduini, R. 2011: Associazione Italiana Studi Tolkieniani. George R. R. Martin parla di J.  R. R.  Tolkien. 11 November 2011. https://www.jrrtolkien. it/2011/11/11/george-­r-­r-­martin-­parla-­di-­j-­r-­r-­tolkien/ (accessed 14 November 2019). Banti, A. M. 2017: Wonderland. La cultura di massa da Walt Disney ai Pink Floyd, Bari and Rome. Davies Mancus, S. 2019: “New Wave Science Fiction and the Counterculture”, in G. Canavan and E. C. Link (eds.), The Cambridge History of Science Fiction, Cambridge, 338–352. DeFino, D. J. 2014: The HBO Effect, London and New York. Diel, E. 2018: Civil Science. 2018 Emmys Watch: A Profile of TV Show Fans in the Peak TV Era. 22 August 2018. https://civicscience.com/2018-­emmys-­watch-­ a-­profile-­of-­tv-­show-­fans-­in-­the-­peak-­tv-­era/ (accessed 14 November 2019).

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Flood, A. 2018: The Guardian. George R. R. Martin: “When I began A Game of Thrones I tought it might be a short story”. 10 November 2018. https://www. theguardian.com/books/2018/nov/10/books-­interview-­george-­r r-­martin (accessed 14 November 2019). Hartinger, B. 2012: “A Different Kind of Other. The Role of Freaks and Outcasts in A Song of Ice and Fire”, in J.  Lowder (ed.), Beyond the Wall. Exploring George R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire, Dallas, 153–168. Hovey, J. 2015: “Tyrion’s Gallantry”, Critical Quarterly 57.1  – Special Issue: Game of Thrones, 86–98. Katz, J. 2016: The Upshot  – The New  York Times. ‘Duck Dynasty’ vs. ‘Modern Family’: 50 Maps of the U.S.  Cultural Divide. 27 December 2016. https:// www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/12/26/upshot/duck-­d ynasty-­v s-­ modern-­family-­television-­maps.html (accessed 14 November 2019). Lambert, C. 2015: “A Tender Spot in my Heart Disability in A Song of Ice and Fire”, Critical Quarterly 57.1– Special Issue: Game of Thrones, 20–33. Lanchester, J. 2013: “When did you Get Hooked?”, London Review of Books 35.7, April 11, 20–22. MacNeil, W.  P. 2015: “Machiavellian Fantasy and the Game of Laws”, Critical Quarterly 57.1 – Special Issue: Game of Thrones, 34–48. Maerz, M. 2015: Entertainment Weekly. Cersei’s walk of shame: Too much on Game of Thrones? 15 June 2015. https://ew.com/article/2015/06/15/cersei-­ game-­of-­thrones/ (accessed 14 November 2019). Martin, G. R. R. 1983: The Armageddon Rag, New York. Martin, G. R. R. 2019: About George: Life and Times. http://www.georgerrmartin.com/about-­george/life-­and-­times/ (accessed 14 November 2019). Stanton, R. 2015: “Excessive and Appropriate Gifts: Hospitality and Violence in A Song of Ice and Fire”, Critical Quarterly 57.1  – Special Issue: Game of Thrones, 49–60. Mustich, J. 2011: The Barnes & Noble Review: George R.  R. Martin. The wildly popular fantasist on three science fiction mainstays. 5 July 2011. From https://www.barnesandnoble.com/review/george-­r-­r-­martin (accessed 14 November 2019). Selcke, D. 2017: Winter is coming. What are Game of Thrones fans like? Check out the results of this demographic survey. https://winteriscoming.net/2017/01/16/ results-­song-­of-­ice-­and-­fire-­game-­of-­thrones-­demographic-­survey/ (accessed 14 November 2019). The Hitchhiker 1999: The Hitchhiker Series–An Overview. https://thehitchhiker. com/series/index.html (accessed 14 November 2019). The New York Times 2005: BEST SELLERS. 27 November 2005. https://www. nytimes.com/2005/11/27/books/arts/best-­s ellers-­n ovember-­2 7-­2 005. html (accessed 14 November 2019).

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The New  York Times 2011: Best Seller Weekly Graphic: Fantastical Sales. 22 July 2011. www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/07/31/books/review/ bestsellers-­weekly-­graphic.html (accessed 14 November 2019). The Scholar’s Stage 2015: Which is Worse: Game of Thrones or the Culture that Watches It?. 13 June 2015. https://scholars-­stage.org/which-­is-­worse-­game-­ of-­thrones-­or-­the-­culture-­that-­watches-­it/ (accessed 14 November 2019).

CHAPTER 8

The Symbology of Popular Culture in Game of Thrones: Carnivalization and Tyrion’s Wedding Party Ana Carolina Pais

1   Introduction1 Game of Thrones is a TV series that can appeal to the imagination and fantasy in each viewer’s mind, as well as touch upon the human reflections on political, historical, cultural and social aspects, experienced in both the past and the present in different societies. Its strong dramatic burden, which involves conflict and dispute, and the serious aspect of the plot that builds the series’ architectonic also give way for comical moments. In such moments arise, even if incidentally, the popular culture symbolisms from

 This study derives from parts of my master’s thesis, entitled “A Carnavalização em Game of Thrones: um estudo verbivocovisual”. 1

A. C. Pais (*) Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_8

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the Middle Ages and the Renaissance studied by the Russian researcher Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin.2 The plot of Game of Thrones merges the serious and the comic, in addition to the fight for power and the desire to satisfy the pleasures of the flesh. Tyrion Lannister is one of the characters that stands out as liminar and emblematic, representing the typical figure of the medieval buffoon. People who usually lied at the social margins, representing the least-­ favoured and inferior citizens, buffoons lived between social structures. In the series, Tyrion is a dwarf, born in one of the richest families of the land. This allowed him to enjoy a regal life and walk the streets as a commoner. The character is able to transform every prejudice and exclusion that he suffers into laughter and scorn. However, Tyrion is not the buffoon or the court jester that plays a theatre role and dresses like one. He is a buffoon “in every circumstance of life” (Bakhtin 1987: 7) and a loyal representative of the carnivalesque freedom in the series. Thus, this article3 aims to amplify the reflections about how the popular cultural symbologies of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance are carried into contemporary media productions. It is intended, from this, to comprehend how elements such as carnival, carnivalization and grotesque realism, as studied by Bakhtin, help build meaning on the GOT4 serial television narrative. In particular, through the “buffoonic” figure of Tyrion Lannister, we aim to identify the occurrence and significance of those elements in this North American series. To achieve such objectives, we selected the scene we named “Tyrion Lannister’s wedding party” in episode eight of the third season.5 Methodologically, the following aspects of the narrative language were

2  We can cite William Shakespeare’s Hamlet as an example of a work that also incisively brings the paradigms of the human condition (the dilemmas of a society in transformation due to the Renaissance) and the disputes for power. In this work, to some extent, we also have Hamlet and Claudius acting like buffoons. Mikhail Bakhtin, by the way, also studied briefly Shakespeare’s works. 3  We should point out that this study refers exclusively to the television series called Game of Thrones and will not refer at any moment to the book series A Song of Ice and Fire, by the author George R. R. Martin, which originated it. 4  Abbreviation for Game of Thrones. 5  “Second Sons”, written by D. Benioff and D. B. Weiss, and directed by Michelle MacLaren.

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observed as categories of analysis:6 “the frames of the film” that are composed by the junction of the angles and filming plans; “the background sound”, understood as each and every sound that accompanies and potentializes the narrative, be it a song or a noise; and, finally, “the conversations” that are the interactions between the characters, in which were analysed the metaphors, the metonymies and the symbolisms of the popular and familiar language present on the speeches, through the English subtitles (the original language of the series). This is to say that the scene was analysed in its three-dimensionality7 (verbal, visual and audio languages). Therefore, the present study will first explain how Mikhail Bakhtin interprets the concepts that surround the popular symbology of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Then we will move on to the verbivocovisual analysis of the selected scene, remarking the aspects of the carnivalization and the grotesque realism that support the compositional construction of this scene and the meaning effects that they bring about. A conclusion of our exploratory-descriptive reflections will be presented at the end of the article.

2  The Popular Bases: Beyond the Vulgar In human history and epistemological reflections, popular culture and its constitutive elements went through moments of appreciation but also disregard and oblivion. In the latter, academia played an important role in discrediting the need for popular culture to be studied, turning it into an inferior and vulgar subject. Notably, the grotesque and the carnival popular elements were the focus of various researches and served as a literary tool for many authors. In literature, for example, French writer François Rabelais used, on a huge scale, the popular aspects in his famous work Gargantua and Pantagruel. In turn, in the academic realm, Bakhtin has built on Rabelais’s writings to analyse these popular aspects deeper—especially Rabelais and His World (henceforth RHW), written in the 1930s/1940s and published in the 1960s. 6  Those aspects are presented in the analytical section, through tables, in the order they are cited here. First, we show the frames of the film, then our perception about their angles and plans (according to film theory), the background sound and, finally, the conversations in the English language. In this way, we can understand how the verbivocovisuality was built on the series. 7  What is called in our work “verbivocovisual language”.

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Rabelais’ book was deeply misunderstood, throughout history, by literary critics and researchers from other fields that perceived his work through the lenses of modernity. His work was deemed vulgar and inappropriate because of the strong presence of popular elements. Through his analysis, Bakhtin (1984, 1987[1965]) sought to dissolve such misleading assessments. Bakhtin (1984, 1987[1965]) considers that to comprehend Rabelais’ work, one needs to read it through the lens of the medieval and Renaissance periods that greatly impacted his writing. Only in this way, states Bakhtin (1984, 1987[1965]), it is possible to perceive how popular culture and its symbolisms (carnivalization and the grotesque forms, for example) are magnificent cultural manifestations. The Russian theorist develops his work in order to rescue the popular symbols present in the work of the French writer, and also in other authors, such as Shakespeare and Cervantes, going through the notions of laughter, the vocabulary of the public square, the popular festivals, the banquet, the grotesque image of the body and the low material and bodily spheres. In the book Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics, Bakhtin also carries out a theoretical rescue about this theme, especially in the chapter “Characteristics of Genre and Plot Composition in Dostoevsky’s Works”, which presents the carnival and the carnivalization significances. The first term is specified “in the sense of the total sum of all diverse festivities, rituals, and forms of a carnival type” (Bakhtin 1999[1963]: 122), classified, then, as a ritual spectacle that varies depending on the period, people and particular festivities in which it arises and not as a literary phenomenon. The second term is characterized as “the determining influence of carnival on literature and more precisely on the literary genre” (Bakhtin 1999[1963]: 122); it is the transposition of the carnival to the literary language.8 In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, people, divided by hierarchies (social or religious), found in the periods of carnival festivities the possibility of “reversing the world”, breaking the bonds imposed by superiors, eliminating fears and banishing reverences, devotion and etiquette. Distances were transformed during carnival in a specific type of collective proximity. It was the moment in which free familiar contact, free gesticulation and outspoken discourse were possible. In short, the carnival was the genesis of a

8  In our work, we also seek the possibility of the carnival transposition into various languages, not only literary, such as the narrative of television series.

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new and ideal world, in which life was turned backward, where time was destroyed and everything was renewed (Bakhtin 2015[1963]: 142). The carnivalesque worldview acquires specific categories, like eccentricity, which reveals the occult nature of men; that one of the free familiar relationship; the mésalliances, in which all the opposites combine, such as the sacred and the profane, the high and the low and the wise and the fool, among other blends unacceptable outside the festive moments, and, finally, the category of the profane, in which the sacrileges, the improprieties and the parodies of the sacred texts occurred. These categories were experienced and represented the lives of the European popular mass for a long time (Bakhtin 1999, 2015[1963]). As explained by Bakhtin studies, dialects, slang and foul language used during carnival formed the public square (the main place where this festivity happened). Men and women changed their roles as if questioning playfully, through laughter and irony, every regulation of the official discourse imposed by the Church and the Feudal State (Fiorin 2017). Bakhtin (1999, 2015[1963]) emphasizes the importance of laughter (the carnival’s essence) and the grotesque (with monsters, banquets, orgies, buffoons, deformities, etc.) for the popular comic culture. All the characteristics of popular culture, mentioned until this moment, are crossed by the material bodily principle. This aesthetic phenomenon downgraded everything to the material and bodily (physical) plane, which Bakhtin (1984, 1987[1965]) calls grotesque realism. The downgrade act does not have a degrading and damaging tone of humiliation or power loss but rather renovation. The degradation buries and gives place to a new birth, destructive and regenerator of value at the same time. By degrading, one comes into contact with “the lower stratum of the body, the life of the belly and the reproductive organs; it, therefore, relates to acts of defecation and copulation, conception, pregnancy, and birth” (Bakhtin 1984[1965]: 21), and in this transformation, there is always a cosmic aspect, represented by the high (sky) and by the low (earth), and the bodily aspect, in which the high is the face (head) and the low is the belly, rear and genital organs; the beginning is always the bottom. Other elements, like the “paunch”, the nourished and the expelled, are central to the material and bodily sphere, as well as defecation and copulation. Both copulation and defecation are compared and seen as similar acts. Their similarity can be illustrated as follows: in the reproductive act, the genital organs enter the female body to fertilize the egg, and in the defecation act, the excrements leave the human body to fecundate the

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earth’s body, fertilizing it. This downgrade of the high brought the inversions, the animality, the connections with the lower parts of the body and everything else that dethroned the canonical, just as the “pleasure disharmony”9 (Sodré and Paiva 2014) motivates sensations like laughter, horror or repulsion. In Bakhtin’s work, the grotesque receives the name of grotesque realism, becoming the antithesis of the classic image of the body seen as finished, closed and perfect. In its emphasis on the parts in which the body is opened to the outside, grotesque realism represents the figures of birth and death in satisfaction with natural necessities, such as defecation, urination and copulation. Then, the low body becomes an important and positive principle, the source of life and health (Tihanov 2012). The grotesque body is not seen as separate from the rest of the world, not even isolated, finished or perfect. It surpasses itself. Its openings help the body to overcome itself since they are the passages that communicate with the outside world. There is a tendency to express two bodies in one; the first generates a new body. Bakhtin chooses to visualize the body through its connections with the universe and nature. He refuses the humanistic notion of the closed human and prefers to permeate through the “organic life to stop at the basic functions of the body, which make him indiscernible among other bodies”10 (Tihanov 2012: 172). The body, therefore, is no longer a symbolic mark of individuality. It represents an ancestral collectivity that, when celebrated through carnival, comes into communion with the lower part of the body, the lower material and bodily, with its regenerative function. From this, Bakhtin (1984, 1987[1965]) conceptualizes the grotesque body, a body that highlights its openings to be penetrated by the world and commune with it through its holes. This corporeal symbolism of grotesque realism is directed against the canons of Classical Antiquity, and Bakhtin (1984, 1987[1965]) starts referring to them as the new canons. But, what is the origin of the term “grotesque” used by several authors and with different meanings? At the end of the fifteenth century, the expression grotesque emerged, used by researchers who found an ornamental painting which they called grotesca—derived from the Italian noun grotta (cave, basement). The name is related to where excavators found  Free translation from “desarmonia do gosto” (Sodré and Paiva 2014).  Free translation from “(…) vida orgânica para parar nas funções básicas do corpo, as quais o tornam indiscernível entre os outros corpos” (Tihanov 2012: 172). 9

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this painting: in Rome, during excavations in the basement of the Domus Aurea (the Roman palace of Nero, located in front of the Colosseum), and then in the undergrounds of Titus’ Baths and several other locations in Italy. These ornaments brought allegories of vegetal, animal and human forms that were transformed and mixed with elements of lightness, freedom and “almost laughing, libertinage”. According to Bakhtin, the term grotesque “is metamorphosed into the internal movement of its own existence and is expressed in the transmutation of certain forms into others, in the eternal unfinished existence”11 (Bakhtin 1987[1965]: 28). From this discovery, the grotesque is widespread and influences Western European art in the sixteenth century. However, texts produced in Antiquity and at the beginning of the Christian Era condemn this mixture of human figures with animals and plants. The texts of Vitruvius, for example, brought a public rejection of the grotesque and transformed it into something monstrous. From a noun, restricted to the aesthetic judgement of artistic works, it also becomes an adjective, used at the end of the sixteenth century, to qualify a generalized preference of discourse, clothing and behaviour (Sodré and Paiva 2014). It is only in the second half of the eighteenth century that, according to Bakhtin (1984, 1987[1965]), the term is better understood and gains new meanings, as in Justus Möser (1761), who, influenced by the Commedia dell’arte, defends the comic grotesque in his study of the harlequin. The term gained the status of an aesthetic category only in the nineteenth century, a period in which Victor Hugo (1827) attributed to the concept the function of the exaltation of the sublime (Bakhtin 1984, 1987[1965]). The word grotesque goes through phases of numbness, being resumed, after the Second World War, in the writings of Bakhtin (1965) and in the German Wolfgang Kayser (1957), The Grotesque in Art and Literature, with different meanings in each author. From the theoretical rescue that we have just carried out, it was possible to understand the importance of carnival, carnivalization and grotesque realism, for Bakhtin, as popular culture symbolisms in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It is worth highlighting the Bakhtinian view of valuing the collective versus the individual, as well as the emphasis on an openness to come in contact with the outside and with nature. By doing this, 11  Free translation from “(…) metamorfoseia-se em movimento interno da própria existência e exprime-se na transmutação de certas formas em outras, no eterno inacabamento da existência” (Bakhtin 1987[1965]: 28).

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he does not vulgarize basic functions of human life such as defecating and copulating, among others, that are considered too inferior to figure in various forms of expression, whether plastic or literary, in many modern societies. The next section will carry out a more detailed study of how these elements appear in Game of Thrones’ narrative plot. That will allow us to contextualize their meaning better.

3  The Wedding Party: A Carnivalesque Moment The third season of GOT, which premiered in 2013, is composed of ten episodes. We chose to analyse the eighth episode, which is 56  minutes long. With the help of the ELAN12 and BandiCam13 software, we selected and captured from this episode the scene snippet we refer to in this article as “Tyrion Lannister’s wedding party”—Tyrion Lannister and Sansa Stark’s wedding celebration. This episode’s delineation14 was made from 00:32:19 to 00:38:47 seconds. From the very first frames of the scene (from 01 to 04), the party’s setting is presented: an ample saloon in King’s Landing, where all the guests are accommodated. The food and the beverages are served plentifully, and the dialogues happen freely. Tyrion appears as a character of exaggerations. In frame 02, for example, he is portrayed with glazed eyes filling the wine glass until it spills. After that, in frame 03, he looks at his wife and once again at his glass with a joyful look and extreme satisfaction because of the drink that he is about to taste. A key part of these first frames was filmed in medium shot. Visually, that creates a sense of balance between the characters and the setting and, consequently, contributes to placing the scene in a party atmosphere, where the food, the drinks, the tables and the people are placed in order to complement each other. Regarding frames 02 and 03, in which the medium close-up was used, the viewer’s gaze is more attracted by Tyrion’s character than by the setting around him. His actions and reactions gain 12  Software developed by The Language Archiving Technology (LAT), owned by the Max Planck Institute of Psycholinguistics, based in the Netherlands, as a “professional tool for the creation of complex annotations on video and audio resources”: available at https://tla.mpi. nl/tools/tla-tools/elan/ (accessed 22 May 2019). 13  This software produces files in formats suitable for “running” on ELAN. 14  For this study, we did not analyse the whole scene to avoid fatigating the reader. We chose to focus on presenting the frames with greater relevance and emphasis on Tyrion Lannister’s character.

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attention in these frames because it is possible to notice his joy towards the wine, filling the glass until it overflows and eagerly drinking it. There is a greater drama at this moment, and the character’s jubilation is highlighted and affirmed by his facial expressions (frame 03). In contrast, frames with the wide shot (e.g. frame 01) emphasize the actions that unify the people framed in the scene, that is, the partying, the feasting with abundant food, plenty of drinks and the loose laughter throughout the hall, also reaffirmed by the background sound. Initially, this fills the scene with a partying and feasting sense, bringing the laughter sounds, the glasses, plates, cutlery sounds, the noise of the bottle stopper being removed, the conversations and the ambient music with festive rhythm. In the first four frames are the settings (frames 01 and 04), the expressions of the character Tyrion (frames 02 and 03) and the background sound that have the function of contextualizing the scene and presenting the banquet theme in the figures of beverage and food. Through these first four frames, it is inferred that the sensations and images of the wedding banquet are the scene’s focus. See Table 8.1. A wedding party symbolizes the celebration of the union of two people who love each other and have chosen to live together. A situation that becomes contradictory in Tyrion and Sansa’s story: both were united not by love but by political agreements so that Tywin, Tyrion’s father, could have the North (Sansa’s birthplace) under his control. In frames 04, 06, 07, 08 and 09, it is possible to visualize that Sansa and Tyrion do not love each other and are just facing a wedding and a party imposed on them. This becomes visible in their facial expressions and gestures enlarged by the medium shot and the normal and frontal angles, for example, as well as by the 3/4 angle in the frames. Through those, we understand that Sansa is wiry and indifferent to the situation and her husband’s actions. Tyrion, in turn, seeks the best of the party; to rebel against this situation, he gets drunk. See Table 8.2. During the party, Tyrion acts contrary to etiquette rules and good manners stipulated by the court. He resignifies the objects in front of him: the tray becomes a mirror in his hands in order to clean his teeth (frames 05, 06 and 07), and the tablecloth gains the new function of drying his body after having spilled wine on his clothes (frames 08 and 09). Tywin, Tyron’s father, is one of the characters who is disturbed by Tyrion’s behaviour and addresses it, exercising all the power his authority figure has to maintain the norms and order, as well as to remind his son of the duties he has after the wedding party (conceive a descendant as soon

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Table 8.1  Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons”

01  •  Wide shot / normal; 3/4  • Upward festive ambient music / glass sounds / laughter and shouting  •  No speeches

02  •  Mediun close-up / normal; 3/4  • Festive background music / noise of a glass being filled with wine / noise of trays banging / conversations  •  No speeches

03  •  Mediun close-up / normal; frontal  • Noise of opening bottle stoppers / glass tapping on the table / laughter / guffaw / festive music  •  No speeches

04  •  Medium shot / normal; frontal  • Noise of opening bottle stoppers / glass tapping on the table / laughter / guffaw / festive music  •  No speeches

as possible). Visually, Tywin’s posture (erect, with a serious and constantly observant facial expression) refers to the order, as he positions himself above his son and laterally as if dominating the scene. He dresses like an imposing man: dark clothes and long black boots.15 Verbally, Tywin has a severe intonation. Using short sentences and an imperative tone, he gives orders, like a general. For example: “This isn’t about your wedding. Renly Baratheon had a wedding”; “Your wife needs a child, a Lannister child, as 15  In other moments of the scene, of which the frames were not selected to illustrate this analysis, Tywin appears in full body, thus showing his entire outfit.

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Table 8.2  Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons”

05  •  Extreme close-up / normal; 3/4  • Upward festive ambient music / people talking loudly, laughing / noise of plates and cutlery  •  No speeches

06  •  Medium shot / normal; frontal  • Upward festive ambient music / people talking loudly, laughing / noise of plates and cutlery  •  No speeches

07  •  Medium shot / normal; frontal  • Upward festive ambient music / people talking loudly and laughing / noise of plates and cutlery  •  No speeches

08  •  Medium shot / normal; 3/4  • Festive background music / laughter / conversations / pounding of plates and glasses / noise of Tyrion “drooling” wine  •  No speeches

09  •  Medium shot / normal; 3/4  • Festive background music / people walking, laughing and talking / noise of plates and cutlery Sansa: “Will you pardon me, my lord?”

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soon as possible”; “If you’re going to give her one, you need to perform” and “(…), but you will do your duty”. Tyrion is characterized as a buffoon who uses madness, irony, satire and scorn to feel free. Tywin’s speech portrays an image of his son as a drunk (“You seem rather drunk”). This is confirmed by Tyrion’s line, in which he admits his desire to be even drunker. As a true symbol of mockery and carnival, Tyrion, in frame 12, satirizes his father by asking with a facial expression well marked by laughter: “Isn’t it a man’s duty to be drunk at his own wedding?”, which contrasts with the change in the background music, previously a very festive and agitated one and now tenuous and calmer. See Table 8.3. The theme that marks this selection of frames (from 10 to 17) is fertility, the obligation to generate children (for political reasons), as well as drunkenness. Tyrion was never taken seriously by his father, always regarded as the bullied son, underestimated and humiliated. For his father, Tyrion shamed the family name, and his “drinking” represented an impasse for him to fulfill his social and political obligations. However, for Tyrion, wine was something much more relevant and liberating at that moment. He renews the humiliations he suffered from the family in the possibility of breaking down family and social barriers. Furthermore, Tyrion represents a kind of revolt against the madness that his society denoted, especially the court. His own father was a symbol of greed and someone who demonstrated the capacity of committing atrocities in order to obtain more power. In frame 13, Tywin highlights, by means of inference, the fact that Renly Baratheon (also desirous of the throne) had homoaffective relations during his marriage and that, for this reason, he never materialized his union through a child and, thus, he was unable to maintain his family lineage. Tywin is practical and a  strategist. Tyrion is smart, but also a swashbuckler. For Tywin, life is order, and the goal is gaining power and profits. On the other hand, Tyrion is the buffoon who visualizes the injustices and immoralities of his world and finds in drinking, sex and laughter a way to create a new and more joyful and carnivalized world. In this section of the scene (frames 18 to 27) are highlighted, verbivocovisually, the image of beverage (drink) through wine, the low material and bodily, the drunkenness, the irony and the mocking laughter. Regarding the representation of drunkenness, Bakhtin points out that “The images of wine and drunkenness are almost entirely deprived of an

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Table 8.3  Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons”

10  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4  •  Applauses / laughter / conversations Tywin: “You seem rather drunk.”

11  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4  •  Applauses / laughter / conversations Tyrion: “Rather less than I plan to be.”

12

13

 •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4  • Calmer ambient music begins/ conversations / noises of plates / laughters Tyrion: “Isn’t it a man’s duty to be drunk at his own wedding?”

 •  Wide shot / normal; side view  • Calmer ambient music / conversations / noises of plates / laughters Tywin: “This isn’t about your wedding. Renly Baratheon had a wedding.”

14 15  •  Medium close-up / contra-plongée;  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4 3/4  • Calm ambient music / conversations  • Calm ambient music / conversations / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, glasses and drinking glasses glasses and drinking glasses Tywin: “Your wife needs a child, a Lannister Tywin: “Your wife needs a child, a Lannister child, as soon as possible.” child, as soon as possible.” (continued)

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Table 8.3 (continued)

16  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4  • Calm ambient music / conversations / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, glasses and drinking glasses Tyrion: “And?” Tywin: “If you’re going to give her one,”

17  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4  • Calm ambient music / conversations / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, glasses and drinking glasses Tywin: “you need to perform.”

ambivalent character”16 (Bakhtin 1987 [1965]: 258). The excess of drinking and eating indicates that the material and bodily life images become “inferior life”, but not in the negative and degrading sense. They renew themselves, break social etiquette barriers and place the ideal on the material and corporal plane. Getting drunk is the symbolism of dying and then being reborn. See Table 8.4. Symbolically it is as if Tyrion’s character lived before the party, a life limited by customs, regulations and rules of respect for the king, and, at the party, with the abundance of the banquet and the drinks, he can commune with himself through drunkenness, going to the lowest and deepest of himself, experiencing his true self. We can infer that, during the party, Tyrion is the only character who finds himself “with himself”, and that makes it possible to destroy the existing world “to be reborn and renew himself afterward”17 (Bakhtin 1987 [1965]: 42) through the grotesque and the inferior contact of the material and bodily principle. He is the one who experiences the carnival party fully. In the first chapter of RHW, “Rabelais in the history of laughter”, Bakhtin comments that the German Fischart, a Grobianist who translated 16  Free translation from: “[A]as imagens do vinho e da embriaguez são quase inteiramente privadas de caráter ambivalente” (Bakhtin 1987[1965]: 258). 17   Free translation from: “(…) para renascer e renovar-se em seguida” (Bakhtin 1987[1965]: 42).

Table 8.4  Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons”

18  •  Mediun close-up / normal; 3/4  • Calm ambient music / conversations / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, glasses and drinking glasses Tyrion: “What did you once call me?”

19  •  Mediun close-up / normal; 3/4  • Calm ambient music / conversations / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, glasses and drinking glasses Tyrion: “A drunken little lust-filled beast.”

20  •  Mediun close-up / normal; 3/4  • Calm ambient music / conversations / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, glasses and drinking glasses Tywin: “More than once.” Tyrion: “There you have it.”

21  •  Close-up / normal; 3/4  • Calm ambient music / conversations / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, glasses and drinking glasses Tyrion: “Nothing to worry about.”

22  •  Mediun close-up / normal; 3/4

23  • Mediun close-up (Tyrion) and medium wide shot (Tywin) / normal; 3/4  • Calm ambient music / conversations / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, glasses and drinking glasses Tyrion: “I am the god of tits and wine.”

 • Calm ambient music / conversations / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, glasses and drinking glasses Tyrion: “Drinking and lust, no man can match me in these things.”

(continued)

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Table 8.4 (continued)

24  • Mediun close-up (Tyrion) and medium wide shot (Tywin) / normal; 3/4  • Calm ambient music / conversations / laughter / noise of plates, cutlery, glasses and drinking glasses Tyrion: “I shall build a shrine to myself at the next brothel I visit.”

25  • Medium shot (Tywin) and medium close-up (Tyrion) / normal; frontal (Tywin) and side view (Tyrion)  • Calmer ambient music / sound of drinking the wine / sound of hitting the glass on the table Tywin: “You can drink, you can joke,”

26  • Medium shot (Tywin) and medium close-up (Tyrion) / normal; frontal (Tywin) and side view (Tyrion)  • Calmer ambient music / Tyrion sighing and spitting noise / conversations Tywin: “you can engage in juvenile attempts to make your father uncomfortable.”

27  •  Medium shot / normal; 3/4

 • Calmer ambient music / Tyrion sighing noise / conversations Tywin: “but you will do your duty.”

the literary text Gargantua, had distorted this work giving it a more moralizing view to the grotesque themes with which Rabelais has worked. At its sources German grobianism was related to Rabelais. The representatives of this school inherited the images of the material bodily life from grotesque realism. They were under the direct influence of folk festival and

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carnival forms, hence a pronounced hyperbolism of bodily images, especially those of eating and drinking. Exaggeration characterized both grotesque realism and folk festival forms: for instance, gigantic sausages were carried by dozens of men during the Nuremberg carnivals of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. But the moral and political ideas of the grobianists (Dedekind, Scheidt, Fischart) lent these images a negative connotation of indecency. In the introduction to his Grobianus Dedekinds refers to the Lacedemonians who showed their drunken slaves to their children in order to inspire them with an aversion for drunkenness. This goal of inspiring disgust or fear was also pursued by Fischart in his images of Saint Grobianus and the grobianists. The positive nature of the image was thus submitted to the negative purpose of satiric mockery and moral condemnation. (Bakhtin 1984[1965]: 63)

Bakhtin exemplifies, then, the difference between the conception of the grotesque as something not to be followed versus the grotesque that points to the duality naturally existing in men. This moralizing view concerning the universe of the popular, mainly because it generates a misinterpretation of Rabelais’ work, is what Bakhtin fights with his work. In turn, we can infer from GOT’s characteristics of grotesque realism and carnivalization surfacing naturally, as in the case of Tyrion’s drunkenness, that there is a popular root in the elements present in this scene. In frame 23, for example, there is an opposition, a duality between the divine and the profane. From Tyrion’s speech, “I am the god of tits and wine”, we are led to associate him to the image of Dionysus, the god of the party, wine, madness and ecstasy for ritualistic drunkenness; Tyrion is Dionysus’s faithful representative. Tyrion, who is a central character in the scene, makes jokes and uses sarcasm around the theme of the low material and bodily, making constant reference to the genital organs (as we will see later) and bodily functions, such as drinking and having sexual intercourse. From the point of view of the carnivalization of life, the character’s actions are not only destructive and degrading but also regenerative and reconstructive of the world and life. With regard to laughter, we emphasize that in the Renaissance this element had “a profound value of conceiving the world”, that is, the truth about the world, about history and about men were expressed through it. It is not seen as something inferior to the serious realm, because “Certain essential aspects of the world are accessible only to laughter” (Bakhtin 1984[1965]: 66).

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However, over time, this laughter essence gradually gets lost. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, for example, what was essential to life could not be expressed through laughter and through the comic aspect. Laughter becomes, from then on, “a light amusement or a form of salutary social punishment of corrupt and low persons” (Bakhtin 1984[1965]: 67). Thus, it becomes another element of the carnival worldview to be judged as vulgar and inferior. In this excerpt, besides the laughter and guffaw that fill the background sound and that bring greater verisimilitude to the whole meaning of the event, it is through laughter that Tyrion places himself as the faithful representative of the comic. He laughs and satirizes his luck, the impositions coming from society, political and religious power, mainly, from the power that his father exercises over him, within the family and as a figure of the State—Hand of the King (frames 10 to 27). Tyrion does this by mocking his father’s demands around conceiving a child, his drunkenness being an impediment to that. Tyrion mocked his father’s demands by saying: “What did you once call me? A drunken little lust-filled beast (…) Drinking and lust, no man can match me in these things. I am the god of tits and wine. I shall build a shrine to myself at the next brothel I visit”. In other words, he satirizes the whole situation of authoritativeness and duty. Although he is responsible for quickly generating a child to ensure Lannister dominion over the North Westeros region (Winterfell), Tyrion conveys the image of a libertine, a swashbuckler who has no trouble mixing drinking, drunkenness and sex. On the contrary, he is competent in this task. Tyrion’s speech, verbivocovisually, is mixed with the sounds of the guests’ laughter and of eating and drinking noises, as well as with his sarcasm physiognomy and the wine image (both framed in medium closeup). The drinking glass that the character holds accompanies him ­ throughout his speech as if saluting his virility and his drunkenness (frames 21 to 24), to the point that this object is taken out of his hands by the authority figure, Tywin Lannister. The glass is the instrument that represents the breaking of worlds and barriers for Tyrion and becomes an object of defiance for Tywin.

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Another fact to be highlighted is the possible connection between “the bedding ceremony” and “the bridal punching”,18 one of the carnival rituals analysed by Bakhtin in his writing on Rabelais. As part of this rite, there was the custom of punching the bride and groom, associating them “with fertility, virility, time”19 (Bakhtin 1987[1965]: 174). Although Tyrion did not allow the ceremony20 to take place (as we see in frames 29 and 34 in Table 8.5), which for the king represents disrespect for the tradition and an insult, we can infer the carnival tones of that ceremony. The king himself orders: “Come, everyone. Pick her up and carry her to her wedding bed. Get rid of her gown. She won’t be needing it any longer. Ladies, attend to my uncle. He’s not heavy”, which makes reference to the idea of familiarity between the couple and the guests; there is no individual, but a collectivity. Bakhtin adds that this “rite attributes the right to enjoy a certain freedom, to employ a certain familiarity, the right to violate the usual rules of life in society”21 (Bakhtin 1987 [1965]: 174). This allows the characters certain freedom to participate in the wedding night as if it was no longer a party for the couple but for all those present at the ceremony. We are, then, directed to what Bakhtin calls grotesque realism, the popular comic culture image system, in which the material and corporal principles are positive, universal and popular. As the spokesperson for the people, the body element becomes a positive and affirmative exaggeration. Another striking feature of grotesque realism that appears strongly highlighted in the scene is the symbolic downgrade of the classic image of the wedding night, that is, “the transfer to the material and bodily plane, that one of the earth and the body in its indissoluble unity, of everything that

18  Bakhtin also refers to this old tradition in French language: nopces à mitaines (Bakhtin 1984[1965]). 19   Free translation from: “(…) à fecundidade, à virilidade, ao tempo” (Bakhtin 1987[1965]: 174). 20  This ceremony is also represented, in part, in the famous episode nine, “The Red Wedding” (The Rains of Castamere), from the third season, in which the bride and groom are carried by the guests and taken out of the ballroom. 21  Free translation from: “(…) rito atribui o direito de gozar de certa liberdade, de empregar certa familiaridade, o direito de violar regras habituais da vida em sociedade” (Bakhtin 1987[1965]: 174).

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Table 8.5  Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons”

28  • Wide shot / low-angle; frontal and nape  • Conversations / clapping / laughs / shouting for joy Joffrey: “Time for the bedding ceremony.”

29  •  Wide shot / normal; frontal  • Conversations / clapping / laughs / shouting for joy Tyrion: “There will be no bedding ceremony.”

30  •  Medium wide shot / normal; frontal  • Steps / chair drag / laughs / conversations / exclamations of joy Joffrey: “Where’s your respect for tradition, Uncle?”

31  •  Wide shot / high angle; 3/4  • Steps / chair drag / laughs / conversations / exclamations of joy Joffrey: “Come, everyone. Pick her up and carry her to her wedding bed.”

32  •  Medium wide shot / normal; 3/4

33  • Medium shot / normal; nape and frontal  • Steps / chair drag / laughs / conversations / exclamations of joy Joffrey: “Ladies, attend to my uncle. He’s not heavy.”

 • Steps / chair drag / laughs / conversations / exclamations of joy Joffrey: “Get rid of her gown. She won’t be needing it any longer.”

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is elevated, spiritual, ideal and abstract”22 (Bakhtin 1987[1965]: 17); a moment considered elevated and intimate becomes ordinary and collective. Still on the notion of a downgrade, when Tyrion, through the language of insult, mockery and a free and familiar tone, threatens King Joffrey, saying: “Then you’ll be fucking your own bride with a wooden cock” and then he complements: “A bad joke, Your Grace. Made out of envy of your own royal manhood”23 (frames 38, 44, and 45  in Table  8.6), there is a lowering of what is high, in this case, the manly figure of a king, who could never be attacked or threatened. After threatening to castrate the king, Tyrion escapes from severe punishment by justifying his actions through drunkenness, as his own father explains to the king: “Your uncle is clearly quite drunk, Your Grace”. Thus, once again, drunkenness is an instrument of liberation and concession for laughter, irony and joke, which renews the ancient world for Tyrion. Tyrion overcomes fear and breaks down barriers that prevent him from being whom he is and expressing himself freely. No one would be granted the freedom to say what they think of the king, especially in front of him, without being punished, even though this person was the king’s uncle. At this moment, the character ridicules the king and himself making a joke on the theme of virility and sexuality. Tyrion uses a carnivalesque language and a popular vocabulary filled with expressions banned from the court’s daily life, by the rules of good conduct, such as “fuck up”, “cock”, “dick” and “fuck”. In these frames (Table  8.7), the subject revolves around conception, the sexual act and the phallus figure. When Tyrion downgrades himself, saying that “Mine is so small. My poor wife won’t even know I’m there” or “My tiny drunk cock and I have a job to do”, there is an act of degrading which is figurative. This not only assumes a destructive and negative value but also a positive one, since laughter and carnivalesque irony allow the degrading to be regenerative, as we rescued in Bakhtin: To degrade also means to concern oneself with the lower stratum of the body, the life of the belly and the reproductive organs; it therefore relates to 22  Free translation from: “(…) a transferência ao plano material e corporal, o da terra e do corpo na sua indissolúvel unidade, de tudo que é elevado, espiritual, ideal e abstrato” (Bakhtin 1987[1965]: 17). 23  Emphasis added.

Table 8.6  Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons”

34  •  Medium wide shot / normal; 3/4  • Footsteps / sound of chair drag / laughs / conversations / exclamations of joy Tyrion: “There will be no bedding ceremony.”

35  •  Medium wide shot / normal; 3/4  • Footsteps / sound of chair drag / laughs / conversations / exclamations of joy Joffrey: “There will be if I command it.”

37 36  •  Extreme close-up / normal; side view  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4  • Noise of hitting the knife on the table  • Noise of hitting the knife on the / dragging a chair / noise of whisper table / dragging a chair / noise of among people whisper among people  •  Pause  •  Pause

39 38  •  Medium close-up / normal; frontal  •  Wide shot / high angle; 3/4  • Noise of hitting the knife on the table  • Noise of whispers among people / / dragging a chair / noise of whispers sound of the knife trembling in the among people table / sound of the king’s shortness breath Tyrion: “Then you’ll be fucking your own Joffrey: “What did you say?” bride with a wooden cock.” (continued)

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Table 8.6 (continued)

40  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4  • Noise of whispers among people / sound of the knife trembling in the table / sound of the king’s shortness of breath Joffrey: “What did you say?”

41  •  Medium shot / normal; frontal  • Noise of whispers among people / sound of the knife trembling in the table / sound of the king’s shortness of breath Tywin: “I believe we can dispense with the bedding, Your Grace.”

42  • Medium shot / normal; side view and 3/4  • Noise of whispers among people / sound of the knife trembling in the table / sound of the king’s shortness of breath. Tywin: “I’m sure Tyrion did not mean to threaten the King.”

acts of defecation and copulation, conception, pregnancy, and birth. Degradation digs a bodily grave for a new birth; it has not only a destructive, negative aspect, but also a regenerating one. To degrade an object does not imply merely hurling it into the void of nonexistence, into absolute destruction, but to hurl it down to the reproductive lower stratum, the zone in which conception and a new birth take place. Grotesque realism knows no other lower level; it is the fruitful earth and the womb. It is always conceiving. (Bakhtin 1984[1965]: 21)

Table 8.7  Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons”

43  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4

44  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4

 • Tyrion laughs / some people’s laughs / whispers  •  Tyrion laughs

 • Tyrion laughs / some people’s laughs / whispers Tyrion: “A bad joke, Your Grace.”

45  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4

46  • Medium shot / normal; frontal and nape  • Tyrion laughs / some people’s laughs / whispers Tyrion: “Mine is so small.”

 • Tyrion laughs / some people’s laughs / whispers Tyrion: “Made out of envy of your own royal manhood.”

47  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4

48  •  Medium close-up / normal; 3/4

 • Tyrion laughs / some people’s laughs / whispers

 • Sound of dragging a chair / sound of Tyrion drinking wine / noise of hitting the table / laughter in the background Tywin: “Your uncle is clearly quite drunk, Your Grace.”

Tyrion: “My poor wife won’t even know I’m there.”

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Tyrion, in frame 43, laughs at himself and at the situation he faces with mockery, which is expressed on his face. His sarcasm reaffirms that everything is a joke (“A bad joke, Your Grace”) and that everything is just envy of the “royal manhood”. In the scene, Tyrion uses metaphors several times when addressing the king. The meaning of this “masculinity” is revealed verbivocovisually in frame 46. When Tyrion states that “Mine is so small”, such masculinity is unveiled as the character looks towards his lower body (genitals region) and the guests’ reaction (recognizable in the background sound) is immediate laughter. In other words, Tyrion downgrades himself by saying that his genital organ is small and, consequently, his masculinity and virility are inferior. He also implies that the king’s genital organ and masculinity would be bigger and superior. However, by downgrading himself through irony, Tyrion renews himself and degrades the king, as one of the meanings of his speech would be that the king is not virile enough (Table 8.7). Tyrion personifies his genital organ by characterizing it as a drunk who acknowledges a duty to be performed—referring to the sexual act (frame 51). Beyond the phallus figure and the theme of coitus being present in these final frames (Table 8.8), again Tyrion’s drunkenness appears through his body expression (which appears visually when he hits the table, almost falls and walks staggering), as well as his intonation and “slurred speech”, when addressing Sansa, his wife, which are characteristic of a drunk person. The background sound reaffirms Tyrion as a drunkard and a buffoon, as it presents the sound of the guests’ laughter and whispers at every action, word or movement he performs. The reference to the act of vomiting on someone, as the character quotes (frame 54), even on a small scale, brings what Bakhtin calls downgrade through the excrements. Tyrion degrades the sexual act and, especially, the wedding night, which Sansa has been romanticizing and fantasizing about since her childhood. This, again, does not bring a great deal of humiliation to the character but a sense of renewal through the barrier-free vocabulary that only the popular symbolism of carnival allows. This is also one of the moments Sansa begins to perceive the false and limiting world she lives in.

Table 8.8  Frames photomontage. Source: Adapted from Thrones S3: Ep.8, “Second Sons”

49  •  Medium close-up / normal; frontal  • Sound of dragging a chair / sound of Tyrion drinking wine / noise of hitting the table / laughter in the background Tyrion: “I am. Guilty.”

50  •  Medium shot / normal; 3/4  • Sound of dragging a chair / sound of Tyrion drinking wine / noise of hitting the table / laughter in the background Tyrion: “But…But it is my wedding night.”

51  •  Medium shot / normal; nape  • Sound of dragging a chair / sound of Tyrion drinking wine / noise of hitting the table / laughter in the background Tyrion: “My tiny drunk cock and I have a job to do.”

52  •  Medium wide shot / normal; frontal  • Sound of Tyrion crashing against the table / laughs

53  •  Medium shot / normal; frontal  • Noise of footsteps / laughs / conversations (whispers) Tyrion: “Come, wife.”

54  •  Wide shot / normal; frontal  • Noise of footsteps / laughs / conversations (whispers) Tyrion: “I vomited on a girl once in the middle of the act.”

 • 

Pause

(continued)

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Table 8.8 (continued)

55  •  Wide shot / normal; 3/4  • Noise of footsteps / laughs / conversations (whispers) Tyrion: “Not proud of it.”

56  •  Wide shot / normal; frontal and 3/4  • Noise of footsteps / laughs / conversations (whispers) Tyrion: “But I think honesty is important between a man and a wife, don’t you agree?”

57  •  Wide shot / normal; nape  •  Noise of footsteps / laughs / conversations (whispers) Tyrion: “Come, I’ll tell you all about it. Put you in the mood.”

4  Concluding: “It’s not easy being drunk all the time (…)”, as Said by the Wise Tyrion In this study, it was possible to carry out a theoretical revision and understand how Bakhtin, through his investigative look at Rabelaisian work, redefined the symbolism of popular comic culture. It was through his work that Bakhtin sought to remove misinterpretations from concepts such as carnival, Carnavalization and grotesque realism that classified Rabelais as the author of vulgarities.

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By looking at these concepts from their foundations in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Bakhtin explained the regenerative, ambivalent and constructive power of the citizens of these periods through the collectivity and the importance of degrading and downgrading everything that is elevated to the contact with the earth. In many instances of his work, we can feel the social roots and the clash with any forms of authoritarianism and domination that these symbolisms naturally acquire. Carnival is the feast of the people, of the collective and of the forbidden that loses space and becomes, in the Public Square, utopian freedom to create a new world without barriers or impositions. Grotesque realism allows humanity to externalize what is in our nature and which, due to etiquette limitations, does not dare to show or speak, something humanistic and natural to the body, either when eating, drinking, excreting, urinating, copulating and giving birth or in acts of loose, ironic and free vocabulary. In this sense, Game of Thrones is a media production that presents us with the carnivalization studied by Bakhtin in a tenuous but profound way. These symbolisms rescued from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance appear in the series and, specifically, in the scene we analysed in this article. Tyrion takes on the important role of the buffoon, the one who can mock, dethrone kings and avoid punishment through laughter, drinking and the act of degrading himself. Game of Thrones has a plot based on disputes for the conquest of the Iron Throne, which is a symbol of power, and each character has a peculiar authority, guaranteed by positions or lack thereof, bringing rules, limits, barriers and impositions by social, political or religious power. Although Tyrion accepted the union with Sansa because he did not have another choice, he turned his world upside down through laughter and drunkness. He also turned his wedding party into a symbol of the Middle Age’s Public Square, where the collective was free to say what they thought and laugh at the king or even in front of the king, dethroning him. The image of Tyrion as a buffoon plays an important role in the series by questioning, carnivalizing, mocking and reflecting upon every form of power, greed and authority that comes from his own father, his king or anyone else. His grotesque and carnival form allows him to turn the world of Westeros upside down and charge for freedom, justice and collective equality. The drinking, the laugh of scorn, the jokes, the constant taste for sex and all things low are the tools that make it possible to carnivalize; it is not degrading in the humiliating sense but regenerating.

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We saw that the verbal, visual and hearing aspects together help to give a more genuine and relevant significance to the popular symbolism. In some frames, if we focus only on the verbal elements and constructions, we are not able to identify any carnivalization, for example. But by observing the three dimensions together as one, verbivocovisually, we see that the background sound gives dialogues a more grotesque or carnivalesque sense. Lastly, we conclude that popular symbolisms are embedded into the scene through the verbivocovisual language. These symbols have as their main goal to create a distance, a break from the real world within the narrative. At the same time, the plot reminds us a great deal of the real world, both anchored in the fight for power. We also aim to highlight the importance of the popular foundations of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance that modern productions can “drink” from, be inspired and use its symbolism as a tool of critical construction in its architectonic, with traces of comedy or not. We close our study knowing that it is not limited to these words and conclusions; there is much more to be observed. The popular culture symbolisms are important for GOT’s architectonic, and they should be appreciated beyond the axis of the vulgar and be recognized for their greatness. Acknowledgements  This research was developed at the Philology and Portuguese Language Department, at the Universidade de São Paulo, with the supervision of Mrs. Prof. Doctor. Sheila Vieira de Camargo Grillo, and was supported by a CAPES scholarship.

Bibliography Bakhtin, M. M. 1984[1965]: Rabelais and his World, Indiana. Bakhtin, M. M. 1987[1965]: A cultura popular na Idade Média e no Renascimento: o contexto de François Rabelais, São Paulo. Bakhtin, M. M. 1999[1963]: Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics, Minneapolis. Bakhtin, M. M. 2015[1963]: Problemas da poética de Dostoiévski, Rio de Janeiro. Fiorin, J. L. 2017: Introdução ao pensamento de Bakhtin, São Paulo. Sodré, M., Paiva. R. 2014: O império do grotesco, Rio de Janeiro. Tihanov, G. 2012: “A importância do grotesco”, Revista Bakhtiniana 7.2, 166–180.

PART III

“One Voice May Speak you False, but in Many there is Always Truth to be Found”: Linguistic and Temporal Bridges

CHAPTER 9

A Reception Study of the Game of Thrones Audiovisual Translations into Spanish: Translation Problems vs. Translation Errors Elisa Calvo and Marián Morón

1   Understanding Audiences from a Translator’s Point of View As Di Giovanni and Gambier explain in their recently edited volume Reception Studies and Audiovisual Translation (2018), Audiovisual Translation (AVT) Studies “have brought about a much-needed surge of studies focusing on the audience, their comprehension, appreciation or rejection of what reaches them through the medium of translation” (Di Giovanni and Gambier 2018: vii). The application of Reception Studies—as developed within Media and Audience Studies (Iser 1978; Jauss 2012; Holub 1992; Abercrombie and Longhurst 1998; Eagleton 1983/1996/2008, among others)—to Translation Studies (TS) is far from new. As Gambier explains (2018: 43),

E. Calvo (*) • M. Morón Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_9

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TS have dealt with the reception of translated texts (mostly of a literary nature) initially devoting “relatively scant, uneven attention” to this approach. However, Reception-based TS are progressively reinforcing their methods and gaining momentum within our discipline. Reception Studies, as put forward in Media and Literary Studies, provides a means of understanding (written or media) texts by analysing how these texts are read or received by different audiences. Reception theorists are interested in the audience experience and how meaning is construed through that experience. When audiovisual content is presented in a translated version (subtitled, dubbed, audio described, etc.), audiences receive media products in a way that either facilitates how spectators create meaning in the expected way or rather interferes with this cognitive process. In this regard, Di Giovanni and Gambier stress that: audiovisual translation research has increasingly aimed to explore the before and after of audiovisual texts, i.e., the linguistic, sociocultural and cognitive processes involved in the creation of these texts, as well as the forms and modes of consumption. (2018: xi)

Media broadcasters and distributors opt for translated versions according to country-bound market demands and consumer habits so that general audiences are able to gain access to international products originally created in languages other than their own. While audiences in some countries naturally prefer subtitled audiovisual content, in other countries dubbed versions prevail, a trend that has much to do with the general command of foreign languages in each country and also with some other well-studied historical reasons (Díaz-Cintas 2012; Chaume 2012). Spanish audiences traditionally are well habituated to dubbed audiovisual versions (Agost 1996; Mayoral 2012; Chaume 2012), mostly due to the fact that during the Franco era, dubbing was the linguistic choice imposed by the regime (a law was passed to defend and protect the Spanish language as a symbol of national identity while strategically enabling the government to censor and control the content of foreign films). At the same time, historically, the level of English proficiency in Spain, let alone other languages, was clearly ripe for improvement (Zafra 2019). Films in Spain were usually shown in their dubbed versions, and the original language versions with or without subtitles were relatively difficult to access (selected cinemas at

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first, multilingual DVDs and Blu-ray later, etc.) until the streaming revolution (Netflix, Amazon Prime, HBO, etc.) eventually arrived to radically change the way we watch audiovisual content, allowing audiences to easily access multilingual versions from the comfort of their living room: dubbed, subtitled and original language versions, as well as other linguistic modalities for the blind or the hard of hearing. Even in countries where dubbing predominates, subtitling is not unknown. In these countries there was always a demand for original version (subtitled) films from elite audiences. Now well-educated younger people are also expressing a preference for subtitled original versions over dubbed ones, citing aesthetic and artistic reasons. In European dubbing countries, for instance, the practice of subtitling certain films is growing in popularity. (Chaume 2012: 117)

Meanwhile, this online streaming culture has drastically changed the ways viewers understand and interact with media products, and this new, on-­ demand technology has reshaped traditional audience habits: binge-­ watching and marathon viewings, plus a certain impulsive impatience that makes it almost unbearable for spectators to wait for days or weeks to watch the next episode like most people did before (Steiner and Xu 2018; Orrego-Carmona 2018). Given that translated versions take longer to become available to audiences, particularly dubbing—a multiphase, complex process consisting of translation, lip-syncing and voice recording by actors in a studio—more spectators than ever now opt for subtitled versions (usually available within hours after the global release of the original version, as this paper will further describe) in markets where dubbing was usually the norm, such as Spain. These new consumption habits also have an impact in the way dubbing processes are managed. Translation processes have been drastically shortened to meet deadline demands, while quality standards are also higher as audiences get used to translated products and understand when a translation is done properly or not. At the same time, translation processes have become increasingly confidential to avoid content leaks and piracy of products in high demand, with this issue having a direct impact on the ever tighter deadlines (as translations cannot be prepared in advance because content is kept confidential as long as possible) and also on the suboptimal way translators are allowed to access the content they need to translate (with partly censored excerpts, i.e. screen

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partially blackened, pixeled, etc. to avoid illicit distribution prior to premieres).1 Successfully translated versions of popular media products usually receive little or no attention from general audiences and media, and one could sustain that general audiences tend to consider translation “invisibility” or rather “imperceptibility” as a sign of “good” quality in audiovisual translation, as explained or argued in Mounin (1994) (translations as a pane of glass, so transparent we believe there is no glass at all), Venuti and his comments on Saphiro’s notion of translator’s invisibility (1995), House (1997) (covert vs. overt translations) or Nord (instrumental vs. documentary translations; 1991), among other TS authors. With the enormous popularity of the Game of Thrones phenomenon, we observed with surprise how there was a massive public reaction to two apparently wrong translations during the premiere of two different episodes of the series in Spain. These alleged translation errors in the Spanish dubbed versions had a huge impact in general media (newspapers, television) as well as in social media (Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, etc.). Given that such a massive reaction to a translated product is clearly a singularity within our field, we decided to conduct a reception-based research study on these two popular cases in order to achieve a deeper understanding of these phenomena, which relate to important questions within TS such as the role of the translator’s invisibility in audiovisual translation, the perception of a specific translation “event” as an error or a quality deficit or how the profession is perceived by the general public.

2  Multimodal Adaptations of G. R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire and its Translations: Game of Thrones as a Game Changer in the Media Panorama The ongoing fictional world created for his novel series by the American novelist George R. R. Martin, A Song of Ice and Fire, presently consists of five volumes: GoT, CoK, SoS, FfC and DwD, all published by Ediciones

1  This is the censored format in which original content was presented to Spanish audiovisual adapters of the dubbed version of the eighth and final season of Game of Thrones in Spain, as explained by dubbing director Antonio Villar during a roundtable at the Conference “Game of Thrones: Views from the Humanities” held in Seville in May 2019.

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Gigamesh in Spain and translated by renowned and charismatic translator Cristina Macía (Bustos 2019; Ruiz 2019). A Song of Ice and Fire takes place in two fictional continents: Westeros and Essos. With a plethora of memorable and popular characters of medievalist inspiration, three main plot lines intertwine: a war among several dynasties or families to control the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros; the threat of the Others, the undead creatures coming from beyond the Wall in northernmost Westeros; and the story of the ambitious queen Daenerys Targaryen, who seeks to win the Iron Throne, which represents absolute power in Westeros. The unfinished saga has been adapted into numerous formats and cultural products, hence representing a great example or transmodality which requires very different approaches from a translation or transcreation point of view: A well-known example of a transmedia franchise is the one surrounding George R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire epic fantasy novels. The commercial success of Martin’s work is undeniable. Apart from the wellreceived SIF [A Song of Ice and Fire] novels and their prequels (such as The Tales of Dunk and Egg series), there are the popular TV series Game of Thrones, comics, smartphone apps, fan fiction, board and role-playing games, and even cookbooks (both ‘official’ and ‘nonofficial’) that collect recipes mentioned in or inspired by Martin’s fantasy world. (Schelstraete 2016: 12–13)

Martin’s novels sold over 90 million copies and have been translated into more than 45 languages (Barnett 2019), while the Game of Thrones TV series was aired simultaneously in over 170 countries and earned a record 32 Emmy nominations in 2019. As an unrivalled cultural phenomenon, Game of Thrones had the quality to mix several narrative elements which made it an iconic product in a relatively short space of time (2011–2019). Beyond the creative quality of Martin’s novel, the TV series was accompanied by a creative, multifaceted marketing campaign which helped improve audience results, such as the show’s social media efforts, with consistent use of effective  hashtags and promotional content on social networks. Since the publication of the first book of A Song of Ice and Fire (GoT) in 1996, and even more so with the launch of the HBO series, these two products have aroused the interest of both general audiences and

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researchers. More than 19 million US viewers watched the series finale of television’s Game of Thrones—a record audience for HBO (Reuters 2019). The HBO audience record for TV series in original version with subtitles in the streaming era in Spain was also beaten (Europapress 2019, Scarpellini 2019). The series are available on two different content providers in Spain, namely, Movistar and HBO. At the same time, a quick search on Google Scholar currently shows over 2500 research entries on Martin’s work from a wide range of disciplines, from philosophy to politics, media and translation studies, history, narratology, social sciences and so on. The present volume is another example of how inspiring and prolific as a research topic these works have become. New media technologies provide a novel insight on the social component of the audience experience which allows us to visualise the public discourse about works of fiction (Napoli 2013; Scharl et al. 2016), and every episode screening has been consistently scrutinised in social media by a number of researchers and the press in order to understand audience reception towards the show. As stated above, this paper focuses on the reception of the dubbing into Spanish of the Game of Thrones HBO series created by David Benioff and Daniel Brett Weiss and based on Martin’s literary saga. More specifically, two excerpts which presented some type of translation “anomaly” and received unprecedented media attention have been studied from two different perspectives. Firstly, their original impact on social media in Spain was registered and documented. Later, the “Hodor” case was included for analysis and presented to a wide sample of viewers with two different backgrounds (both from the general public and among members of the translation community) in order to analyse how they received this translation event through dubbing and whether their perceptions changed vis-à-vis their understanding and insight of the audiovisual translation process. However, before presenting the reception study as such, it is important to fully understand the specific requirements and conditions that surround and constrain audiovisual translation processes (focusing on dubbing in this case) and the additional creative challenges which the translation of fictional worlds pose for translators.

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3  Translating Serialised, Adapted Fictional Content for Audiovisual Translation: A Major Challenge for Translators As Szymyślik explains (2019), translators of fictional genres require a profound understanding of the evocative intentions behind the source texts to maintain the intended and indispensable willing suspension of disbelief (Coleridge 1817: 174, cf. Szymyślik 2019: 83) which allows for successful cognitive immersion into a given fictional narrative. Whenever translators fail to understand or render this complexity, the “spell” is broken (Tolkien 1947/1966) and the audience may feel confused, disappointed or even withdrawn from the experience. Serialised formats (TV series, literary sagas, comic series, etc.) entail their own translation conditions and restrictions, given that later translations must be based on the earlier ones. This creates an intratextual dependence which sometimes becomes an insurmountable problem for translators who strive for internal coherence and consistency. G.  R. R Martin’s work presents very good examples of apparently simple content elements which become really complicated to translate as they subsequently and unexpectedly take on new significance within the story (e.g. prophecies involving characters or their names, concepts and wordplays which may later change their apparent meaning). At the same time, there is an additional interdependence between the books and the audiovisual series which requires audiovisual translators to intertextually base their translation solutions on Cristina Macía’s high-quality Spanish translations of the books. An audiovisual rendering that does not match Macía’s translations, which are so beloved by fans, would otherwise raise criticism among Martin’s readers. As Macía explained in an interview (Trágora formación 2019) and at a conference in Seville (2016), the Spanish publisher of Martin’s saga (Gigamesh) usually works with a reviewer who also became responsible for coordinating the series’ audiovisual translation by audiovisual translators and adapters Paco Vara and Antonio Villar with Macía’s own version of the books. This matter-of-course intermodal process probably became challenging given the fact that S6 to S8 are not fully based on the books— books 6 and 7 had not been published when the final seasons were filmed, and Martin’s writing is still ongoing. Gigamesh’s revision process could only be partially effective based on those references and terms already present in the existing books. This causes a singular inversion of

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intertextuality: for once adaptation may imply that the audiovisual rules over the written translation, provided that Martin opts to reproduce the plot line of the series. This is something which should not be taken for granted, as Cristina Macía (translator), Elio García and Linda Antonsson (Martin’s co-authors) suggested at a recent Conference in Seville (2019), and a possibility the author does not entirely reject (Scholz 2020). Once the literary saga is completed, it would be possible to study whether the literary translator documents her work on any translation solution appearing in the TV series for the first time or rather differs from any pre-existing solution, with the potential result of a less convincing or consistent world-­ building proposal for Spanish readers and audiences. Another constraint affecting dubbing translation has to do with the fact that audiovisual translation always involves more than one communication channel. As Mayoral et  al. explained (1988), the process of translating becomes more complex whenever it comprises non-linguistic aspects of translation, as is the case with dubbing. More precisely, they describe “constraints imposed on the translator by the medium itself” (Titford 1982). To be precise, these are two specific constraints which remove the condition of “free” decision-making in audiovisual translation: (a) the existence of various communication systems (image and sound) and (b) the change of a channel (e.g. from the visual channel for the source text to the audio channel for the target text) (Mayoral et al. 1988: 363). In line with this, dubbing in particular requires adaptation to lip movements whenever there is a full-face close-up shot. Plus, dialogues also have to be strictly synchronised timewise with what is on-screen. Finally, working conditions in the streaming era may well have an undesired impact on translation decisions too. Extremely tight deadlines may explain some quality problems and quality control which is sometimes insufficient. For the cases studied below, the non-purely linguistic translation constraints affecting the dubbing translation process are the following: • Language function in world-building content (evocation) • Serialised content (intertextuality within the story) • Intertextuality between books and audiovisual translation • Dubbing constraints: time and lip sync • Working conditions: dubbing under extreme time pressure.

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4  Reception Studies in Audiovisual Translation As Di Giovanni explains (2016), audiovisual translation research has moved rather reluctantly from practice to fully fledged theorisation, for a number of reasons which include the difficulty of building homogeneous and comparable corpora, issues of copyright, the often extremely lengthy processes behind the collection, transcription and analysis of audiovisual translated dialogue and so on (Pérez-González 2014: 92–94; Di Giovanni 2016: 58). As Ruddock (2001) put it, audiences are hard to define, especially when they are media audiences: “media audiences are masses on the move; they are large, multifarious, dynamic groups, and whenever we attempt to draw up an image of them, their face has already changed” (Di Giovanni 2016: 60). This however should not discourage research and Media Studies from maintaining a long tradition of audience-focused research from a social and cultural perspective (Brooker and Jermyn 2003). In the field of Communication Studies, there is extensive literature on audience research methods, from the quantitative approaches (e.g. audience viewership share; audience measurements, targeting both how many people are watching a specific content and who the viewer is) but also from qualitative perspectives (reception theories as frequently applied to Literature, Translation or Communication Studies), not forgetting research studies of a mixed nature. Reception-based studies hence try to analyse audience reactions (from a qualitative, ethnographic or even experimental point of view), as in Iser (1978), Jauss (2012), Holub (1992) or Eagleton (1983/1996/2008), among others. Reception Theories within Translation Studies As Remael points out (2010: 16), TS researchers use research methods and concepts from various linguistic disciplines (such as pragmatics, linguistics and cognitive sciences), by frequently combining different linguistics-­related approaches with methods from literary studies (experimental, e.g. Orero et  al. 2018; Kruger 2019), psychology, film studies, statistics, reception studies, anthropology, history, didactics and so on. Remael emphasises that this comes as a result of the realisation that studying only the verbal component of audiovisual translations does not suffice, particularly because audiovisual media potentially have a strong social and ideological impact.

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From a translator trainers’ perspective, the scenes under study in this contribution constitute great examples where translation processes and professionals were put under the spotlight. As a result, greater professional visibility and a deeper understanding of the profession among the general public was achieved. Consequently, the authors decided to explore these translation-related events within the Game of Thrones show in order to (1) better define translation problems and errors from a theoretical point of view, (2) analyse the impact of audiovisual translation subordination and (3) raise awareness on the present working conditions of professionals in the field. Furthermore, in order to analyse whether different audiences understood the role and impact of translation in this type of content, the “Hodor” case was studied from a reception-oriented perspective. According to Gambier (2009: 22), audiovisual translation reception can be understood from a threefold outlook, namely, categorisation of response, reaction or repercussion-based studies. Response studies rely on receptors’ ability to follow and understand translated materials, while reaction and repercussion studies adopt a wider approach, analysing from the immediate visualisation context and viewers’ reactions to it (reaction studies) to the effects and further implications of visualising dubbed or subtitled materials in the viewer’s life and society in general (repercussion studies) (Tuominen 2018: 69). In terms of TS, audiences have been in the spotlight for decades, since functionalist theorists started to focus on professional translation processes and understood that translations needed to respond to the target audience’s needs. From a functionalist perspective, good quality, adequate, functional translations will respond to the communicative function(s) expected by the target audience (Nord 1991; Chesterman 2010; Calvo 2018). Therefore, quality is linked with target audience satisfaction (vis-à-­ vis concepts such as “willing suspension of disbelief” (Coleridge in Szymyślik 2019) or world-building consistency or more general criteria such as consumer entertainment or engagement). When it comes to audiovisual translations, reception theories are a paramount concept which are complementary to some principles of the functionalist theories in order to better understand whether a translated product has reached audiences the expected way, has raised interest or whether viewers have construed meaning in a satisfactory way.

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5  Translation Problems vs. Translation Errors Translation is an ever-expanding, evolving and open concept (Tymoczko 2005: 1082; Morón and Calvo 2018). There are as many different ways to understand translation as linguistic needs or translation demanders. Basic concepts in the discipline have encompassed a variety of dilemmas and remain abstract and speculative, with no conceptual consensus on a number of basic theoretical constructs. Two of the main conceptual problems usually faced in the translation classroom have to do with the difficulty to distinguish the nature of quality-related issues, such as what a translation error (TE) is or what elements in the source text can potentially be considered a translation problem (TP) and why. As De la Cova (2017) appropriately explains, both ambiguous concepts, problem and error, require further attention and understanding within this field of study. According to Nord (1988/2005: 166), a translation problem can be defined in the following terms: “an objective (or inter-subjective) transfer task which every translator (irrespective of their level of competence and of the technical working conditions) has to solve during a particular translation process” (1988/2005: 166). From an eminently functional, professional perspective, the concept of problem is closely related to the source context (i.e. textual, macrotextual and/or extratextual context) in which it occurs. De la Cova’s (2017) and Szymyślik’s studies (2019) identified that TPs, from an objective perspective (regardless of whether translators perceive a specific translation as difficult or not), are determined by the degree of complexity of a translation unit’s conditions of translatability in the source text analysis phase. Every translatable element that is not clearly a static, one-to-one equivalent of a possible target text element represents a translatability problem (De la Cova 2017). Whenever a textual element does not have a natural equivalent in the target culture system or whenever a textual element can be translated in more than one single way, translators encounter a TP.  Experienced translators will quickly identify and solve the problem, and the process will also be more or less automatic or swift depending on the resources available (translation memories, good project documentation, etc.). In this vein, TPs do not necessarily relate to the perception of difficulty by the individual translator, as there are many external and subjective factors at stake (personal experience and training, familiarity with a given project or client, available resources, etc.).

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Although TPs and TEs may relate in the sense that both share a conceptual, cultural, contextual or linguistic degree of complexity and may impact target version quality, they take place in different phases of the translation process. As explained above, translation quality depends on how far recipients of a specific translated content are satisfied with it. Hence, a TE occurs when translated content fails to meet the target audience expectations, which may be due to a variety of reasons. Human factors lie behind most TEs: lack of experience or training, failure to understand the implications of a specific translatable piece of source content, miscommunication between translators and clients in understanding what they actually need from a specific translation and so on. Together with the human translator errors, there are other contextual reasons which could lead to TEs such as the lack of reliable resources to document translations; reduced, tight deadlines and poor working conditions which force translators to work under pressure; and low-quality information provided by the commissioners of a given project (Calvo 2018). While observing the two most popular translation events which appear in the Movistar version dubbed into Spanish, we realised how helpful and illustrative those cases were in order to explain quality issues to would-be translators, depending on the stage in the translation process (TPs when analysing the source text; TEs when producing the translated version) and what elements play a significant role and interfere with the adequate translation process. The two cases are illustrated below. One is a paradigmatic TP (the Hodor case), subject to a series of constraints brought about by the requirements of audiovisual translation and also by the nature of the original content within a fictional, fantasy world and its repercussions. The other is a very clear TE (the Sicansíos case), helping our students understand professional audiovisual translation processes, quality control issues and the far from ideal working conditions in this sector of the market. The “Hodor” Case: A Paradigmatic Example of a Translation Problem The first translation event under study derived from the dubbed translation into Spanish of the name of one of the key characters of the series: Hodor (case 1) (Thrones S6: Ep.5, “The Door”) (Game of Thrones Fandom 2019). This case is a great example of a translation problem with all the unique, challenging and constrained conditions and limitations of audiovisual translation.

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Hodor is a servant to the Stark family, originally named Wylis. He is a tall and strong middle-aged man who, due to some initially unknown trauma in his past, suffers from mental impairment. Hodor constantly repeats only one word, with some pronunciation difficulties, specifically, what became his own name, “Hodor” (Game of Thrones Fandom 2019). At first, there is no apparent reason behind his personality and behaviour. The book was released and translated (as it was in every other available language) by Macía into Spanish, and she decided to leave the original name of Hodor unaltered, as is frequently the case with proper names in translation (Nord 2003). Later, following the usual translation workflow where the written translation informed the audiovisual translation, translators and adapters also left the name of Hodor untranslated for the HBO series. However, constraints and challenges multiplied throughout the audiovisual translation process. The author revealed some key elements of the books yet to be written to series producers Benioff and Weiss, so that the TV series could continue without the need to wait for the forthcoming volumes. As a result, audiovisual scripts for the last seasons were no longer based on the books but were still required to be translated into the different languages. One of the main revelations to the audience, and hence to translators, was the secret meaning behind the name “Hodor”, based on deformed phonemes, a mumbled abbreviation of the request “Hold the Door”. More precisely, in that last scene of Thrones S6: Ep.5, “The Door”, Bran Stark uses his Greenseer powers, which allow him to observe events in the past or have visions of the future. In that scene, while escaping the White Walkers, Bran needs to take over Hodor’s mind (then Wylis), but he does so while observing Hodor as a child in the past. Bran is watching the past and controlling Hodor’s body in the present at the same time. This creates a sort of psychic connection between Hodor the child and Hodor the adult. The scene shows young Hodor’s eyes going white as Bran seizes control. ‘Past Hodor’ has a vision of the future when he confronts the White Walkers and hears ‘present Meera Reed’ yelling “Hold the door!”, which he starts repeating in shock. He eventually shortens this to “Hodor”, and that becomes the only thing he can say for the rest of his life. This unpredictable prophetic event shapes Hodor as a character and changes the significance of his name. From a theoretical point of view, this TP represents a great challenge. Hodor is a reference with a hidden meaning and, from a translatology point of view, represents a very interesting example of the effects of

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intertextuality when translating serialised products, that is, the need to maintain coherence and consistency within the story, vis-à-vis the previously released original and translated materials. Due to the fact that the audiovisual product was reaching the market before the literary production was available, the “natural” workflow (from the written to the audiovisual format) was reversed. The meaning of the character Hodor constitutes a creative reference, which is only later revealed, becoming an essential plot line. Translators could never be aware of this in advance, when they first translated the novels in a serialised way. To date, translators still do not know whether Martin is to include this idea in his forthcoming books. The complex nature of this translation example calls for further research from the point of view of this time-altered or inverted intertextuality. Moreover, Hodor as a TP also became an important world-building element designed to evocate and enrich the complexity of Martin’s fictional work (Szymyślik 2019), which again challenges translators who are compelled to create the same evocative effect on target language audiences. In addition, the specific conditions on-screen were also an important source of translation constraints. In the scene, there is a close-up of Hodor as a child with his mouth on-screen (see Fig.  9.1) limiting the dubbed translation possibilities as it needs to be lip-synchronised:

Fig. 9.1  The “Hodor” scene in Thrones, S6: Ep.5, “The Door” (HBO 2016)

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The professional dubbing world prioritizes synchronization above all else, and the quality of a translation is judged in terms of whether or not “it matches the lips”, in other words, whether the translation corresponds both to the screen characters’ movements of the lips (lip synchrony), and particularly to the duration of the screen character’s utterance, from the instant his or her mouth opens to speak to the instant it shuts (isochrony). (Chaume 2004: 36)

The phonemes used in Hodor’s name included closed vowels (o) and voiceless glottal fricative as in /h/ or alveolar /d/ with no bilabial contact. All these elements allow us to conceptualise the “Hodor” case as a typical TP in which the following attributes can be identified: • Translatability complexity (De la Cova 2017): Given that Hodor is a fictional reference with no clear equivalent in Spanish, translators would need to choose from a series of potential translation techniques, aspiring to maintain or at least resemble the original creative meaning. • Context dependence (De la Cova, ibid.): The reference cannot be translated without understanding its weight within the plot, while it is also subject to extralinguistic constraints (lip sync and phonetics, time sync, etc.). While the phonetic difficulty is easier to solve in Germanic languages that share more phonetic characteristics with English (e.g. German translating “Hold the door” as “Halt das Tor” or Swedish, as Hall dörren (see log entry from u/paprikainfuseddrones at Reddit r/gameofthrones 2016), non-Germanic languages like Roman or Asian ones would require translators to adopt more active and creative strategies and decisions, given that a sheer linguistic translation, a translation by default (Mayoral and Muñoz 1997), would be hindered by these very complex and specific dubbing-­ related constraints. In terms of product reception, some factors need to be taken into consideration. Throne’s audience demographics are of a very mixed nature and audiovisual followers may or may not have had access to the original literary version and/or its translated version. However, a significant part of the audience consists of fans of the literary saga, who are considered empowered consumers (Bold 2011), emotionally invested in the content, who “have moved from the traditional role of consumers to an active role of

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prosumers, viewers who enact characteristics both of the consumption and production of the audiovisual content” (Tapscott and Williams 2006 in Orrego-Carmona 2018: 325). As Orrego-Carmona states, in the case of Thrones: “Fans use the time between episodes and seasons to create their own theories piecing together the clues that producers slip into the narrative (…)”. As a consequence, a significant share of the audience has tended to approach the audiovisual adaptation of the saga with the same level of analysis and criticism, with the capacity to devise and figure out the story beyond the actual adaptation in the series, deepening and enlarging “the fictional universes in which the audiovisual products unfold” (Jenkins 2006; Mittell 2009 in Orrego-Carmona 2018: 325). Eventually, the solution adopted by Spanish translators of the scene was “Aguanta el portón” (“Hold the gate”, if literally back-translated into English), a solution that almost met lip sync requirements, but that could only partially reproduce the intended original effect (evocation) and lacked naturality, as most Spanish speakers would not spontaneously choose the word “portón” to describe the door on-screen (“puerta” would be the most natural option, but then vowel sounds would not match lips on-screen). Despite its limitations, the solution provided does manage to explain the origin of Hodor’s name to a certain extent in Spanish while incorporating the initial translation decision which maintained the name “Hodor” untranslated. Spanish viewers of the Spanish dubbed version would likely accept that the character’s name was in line with Bran’s prophecy, although the solution is not ideal. Reactions to the dubbed Hodor scene into Spanish soon appeared on the Internet and social media. More than 75,000 tweets with the hashtag #Hodor were registered in the following seven days after this episode premiered; and the translation issue into Spanish (with hashtags #Hodor, #portonhodor and #aguantaelporton) became a trending topic on social networks in June 2016  in Spain (Twitter online). Thousands of memes and .gif images were created and shared, and many viewers engaged in heated debates regarding the suitability of the solution provided by Spanish audiovisual translators. Cristina Macía, the Spanish literary translator, claimed she had gained 500 Twitter followers the day after the broadcasting of the “Hodor” scene, many complaining about the solution provided in the series (one Macía was not responsible for, as this plot line has not appeared in the books yet) and many asking for her opinion and future translation decisions in the coming books.

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While collecting these initial data, the accumulated Twitter reports and visual examples of the impact this translation event had on social media seemed to support the hypothesis that viewers with a translation background valued this translation solution better than the non-translation-­ related viewers. In view of this, a survey-based reception study was designed in order to better understand these potential differences. The “Sicansíos” Case as an Example of a Paradigmatic Translation Error In a key scene of the “Long Night” episode (Thrones S8: Ep.3), during the long expected and feared Great War, Daenerys Targaryen and Jon Snow were riding their dragons to beat the Night King, when Ser Davos Seaworth appeared on the screen to make fire signals to Daenerys. The night was actually dark (and full of terrors) and Sir Davos was trying to guide Daenerys through this darkness. In the original version in English, Sir Davos screams in despair: “She can’t see us!” when he realises Daenerys would not be able to help them in the darkness. The subtitled version in Spanish effectively rendered the message on the screen. In contrast, in the dubbed premiere for Spanish content provider Movistar, the character uttered an intelligible sentence that sounded like a Spanish read-aloud version of the original sentence in English: “Sicansíos”. Confused Spanish viewers were unable to grasp the meaning of this unknown “term” in Spanish and some even thought Sir Davos was maybe saying some sort of spell in one of the saga’s fictional languages. The truth was simpler than that. Dubbing director Antonio Villar explained at a conference in Seville (2019) that the original sentence failed to be translated into the Spanish and was missing from the dubbing script. The extremely tight deadlines lead the dubbing team to improvise a solution for this part of the script which they received untranslated, with no indication as to what this could be. “Sicansíos” is indeed a sheer transliteration of the original sentence in English, pronounced the Spanish way. Some have even blamed the actor’s original Geordie accent as the reason behind this mistake (Jones 2019), but the truth was that the excerpt was missing from the Spanish script and maybe the dubbing actors rather than the translators decided how to solve this in the heat of the moment, while extreme time pressure prevented adapters from detecting the mistake in time (Fig. 9.2). Again, immediate massive reactions appeared on the web, and countless hilarious comments on social networks and many memes were published

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Fig. 9.2  Example 2. TE: “Sicansíos” in Thrones S8: Ep.3, “The Long Night” (HBO 2019)

around this nonsensical translation. More than 15,000 mentions of this translation gaffe were registered in a Google news search, reaching not only Spanish national media but also international press (e.g. Jones 2019 in The Guardian). Much attention was devoted to what journalists and commenters defined as a translation mistake, error, blunder, fault, gaffe or lapse on the part of the Spanish dubbing specialists. However, this human error did have one positive outcome for the translators’ guild. The popularity of this translation event shed light on the true work of dubbing experts, raising awareness of the strict confidentiality agreements they are subject to, in which they are forced to work unsighted, or at best with limited vision of the images on the screen, hence having no access to gestural movements and other crucial contextual information. It also highlights the extreme time-pressure conditions they must work under. Needless to say, financial issues were also at stake, as explained by Villar in Seville in 2019. Undoubtedly, this example cannot be considered a TP but does represent a TE that can partially be justified by the working conditions affecting audiovisual translation professionals under the new streaming paradigm: The greatest difficulty when dubbing this series is that we can only see the images in black and white, and partially covered with a thousand tricks and filters on screen to avoid piracy. Sometimes it is even difficult to see the mouth of the actor we are dubbing and we can only identify the character

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that has just been killed because of his clothing. (Dubbing director Antonio Villar, ATRAE 2016, our translation)

Movistar released the subtitled version of Game of Thrones only a couple of hours after their original release in the USA (Orrego-Carmona 2018: 325), while the dubbed version in Spanish was quickly released the following day (SensaCine 2019). In this sense, Villar explained in Seville at the previously mentioned roundtable (2019) that they recorded the dubbing of each episode in “marathon” sessions of 13 or 14 hours, while the filming of a single episode could take several weeks or even months. Streaming within such tight deadlines does not allow for appropriate quality controls and understandably explains TEs like this. Shortly after this error was broadcasted and detected by the public, Movistar proceeded to correct the dubbed episode available on demand.

6  Reception Study on the “Hodor” Translation Problem: Design and Administration As Orero et al. explain (2018), criteria such as participant variables and cognitive, linguistic and sociocultural factors make it difficult for Audiovisual Translation research to design pure experiments. The defining characteristic of a true experimental design is random allocation of participants to the two (or more) groups of the research design (Robson 2002: 122), always including a control group of participants. Depending on the idea under study, sometimes it may also be impossible to form control groups or they may not significantly contribute to the understanding of the given research reality. In those cases, empirical (mixed or qualitative) research proposals are the natural choice. Empirical non-experimental studies can lack internal validity and usually have limited or no generalisability and replicability. However, these empirical approaches can potentially inform about a given reality in early stages of a research line and can be useful in pilot testing to guide future research. In this case, an experimental design was ruled out from the start because the audience was too vast and open to meet random sampling criteria. Furthermore, there was a certain risk of recall bias, as it was nearly impossible to gather a sample of keen viewers who had seen the selected scene in the same format at the same time, under the same conditions, with the same degree of keenness for the show and, even less, with the same degree of exposure to other

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media reactions to the scene. Not only did we take this control issue into consideration but it became part of our focus, due to the fact that the survey was constructed as a retrospective assessment for most survey subjects who had watched the episode in the past at some point between the May 2016 premiere and March 2019 when the survey was launched. In view of this, the study acknowledges the possible impact of the news, memes, fan podcasts, interviews, Internet and word-of-mouth comments and other materials respondents may have been exposed to and tries to register such influence as part of the analysis. A mixture of Gambier’s three approaches (2009) is adopted from a methodological point of view: • From the perspective of reception-based response studies, the study aimed at exploring if viewers of the dubbed version, whether they had access to the original or not, were able to understand the “Hodor” scene and if they were provided with a truthful and suitable explanation of Hodor’s story in the dubbed Spanish version of the episode. Hence, a specific excerpt of an episode is selected as a research object for participants to view before answering the survey. • As a reaction study, viewers’ perceptions were collected both from a sample of the general public and a sample of expert trained translators to assess their reactions towards the solutions provided by audiovisual translators, considering the translation as a mere component of the programme context (Tuominen 2018: 70). • Finally, from the repercussion studies perspective, authors’ interests relying on subjects’ translation background and their perception of audiovisual translation decisions’ quality. The survey was designed in Spanish on Google Forms© and was distributed and kept active for seven days. It is worth noting that the study was not conceived as an experiment but as a sociological reception study relying on what subjects could recall and the opinion formed after watching this excerpt for the first time. Both the original and the translated scenes could be watched again on the survey (embedded videos), in case some of the respondents had not had access to any of them. The study is exploratory and descriptive in nature, and it was conceived as a first attempt to analyse not only viewers’ perceptions of translated (dubbed) content but their reactions and further repercussions in terms of understanding (audiovisual) translation process complexity.

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A systematic pilot test and an expert pilot pre-test were carried out in order to assess survey quality. The final online survey consisted of three main research dimensions: 1. Respondents’ sociodemographic profile: including question items regarding their command of the English language and classification questions on their translation background to define both study subpopulations (translators and non-translators). 2. Visualisation format of the Thrones saga (dubbing, subtitling, original) and access to further published materials linked to the excerpt under scrutiny to map possible bias. 3. Evaluation of the dubbed Spanish version of the selected excerpt (Hodor’s scene) focusing on the reception, interpretation and perception of the translation quality of the dubbed version. In order to better comprehend viewers’ perceptions and interpretations, open-ended questions were included for respondents to explain and provide any justification of them (Desilla 2014: 200–202). Respondents were contacted by means of different web-based instruments and tools (mainly via social networks), following a non-probabilistic method known as “snow-balling sampling method”, frequently used in sociological studies (Hernández Pina 1998: 30–31; Hernández Sampieri et  al. 2003). Different audience profiles were targeted, and the survey was administered in different parts of Spain to different age groups and to respondents with different educational backgrounds in order to collect a significant number of answers to qualitatively represent both interest groups (translators and non-translators). According to Oppenheim (1992: 43) snow-balling is a: “[…] [technique] where a few appropriate individuals are located and then asked for the names and addresses of others who might also fit the sampling requirements”, resulting in a sample of volunteers (Hernández Pina 1998: 31). The snow-balling technique seems to fit research projects, descriptive in nature, where purely probabilistic and statistical methods cannot be implemented due to the impossibility of clearly determining a specific study population. In this reception study, a descriptive, qualitative and exploratory approach is adopted. Regarding the study population, two separate groups were defined as explained above. First, we aimed at contacting non-translator viewers of the dubbed version of Game of Thrones in Spanish (Group 1: general

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public) and, subsequently, professional or trained translators who were encouraged to watch and assess the dubbed version of the scene (Group 2: translators). Our aim here was to analyse the way the general public considered TEs as compared to TPs and their translation quality assessment. Consequently, filter questions were introduced to profile our subsamples, in terms of subjects’ translation-related academic and/or professional background (items I6 and I7), and hence to gain an in-depth insight when analysing respondents’ reactions and interpretation of the dubbed scene dealt with in this study. Item I13 included two sets of open-­ ended questions in order to register respondents’ opinions, explanations and justifications for the responses provided in the close-ended questions. The table below illustrates survey dimensions and the questions included in the online questionnaire (Table 9.1). Quantitative data are complemented with open qualitative items of which the goal is to collect explicative answers on the concepts “translator visibility” and “quality perception” (e.g. item I13). Analysis of Results In total, 327 participants took part in the study with 67.9% of our sample subjects women (I2), who in 64.6% of cases were older than 30 (I1). Most subjects were Spanish (94.2%) (I3) having Spanish as their mother tongue (97.2%) (I4). Regarding their general academic profile, subjects followed university training in 83.5% of the cases, with less than 40% having followed translation studies at university (I6). No professional experience in translation at all was acknowledged by 61.5% of the total sample (Group 1, 201 subjects). Group 2 of the sample consisted of 29 translation trainees (whether it included training in audiovisual translation or not), plus 92 of respondents having some professional translation experience (36 of them reported having professional experience in audiovisual translation), making 121 subjects in total. The two subsamples were shaped in terms of translation-related qualifications and experience, and the translation-­ related sample (Group 2) was smaller than the non-translation-related Group 1 sample, as Table 9.2 shows. When asked about their command of the English language (original language of the audiovisual product under scrutiny) (I5), most respondents considered they had a high command of English, with 46.2% of the overall sample assessing their language level at C1–C2 on the European language framework level (CEFR), 21.1% at B2 and 23.9% at B1. Only

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Table 9.1  Survey design and operativisation Dimension 1. Sample profile I1. Age I2. Sex I3. Nationality I4. Native language I5. Command of the English language I6. Academic background

I7. Experience as translator

Dimension 2. Thrones I8. T  hrones’ visualisation format

I9. Reading of the books I10. Access to additional materials on the saga

Training in translation: undergraduate, Master’s level, translation specialised training courses, other language-­ related training As a translator, in general As an audiovisual translator As translation trainees Original version in English Original version in English with subtitles in English Original version in English with subtitles in Spanish Dubbed into Spanish Dubbed into other languages (Basque, Catalan, Galician) Books in English Books in Spanish Articles, news and press materials Official social networks (HBO, crew members) Fan social networks

Dimension 3. Hold the door reception study I11. Original visualisation of Original version in English the excerpt (format) Original version in English with subtitles in English Original version in English with subtitles in Spanish Dubbed into Spanish I12. Further access to Original version in English different versions of the Original version in English with subtitles in English excerpt Original version in English with subtitles in Spanish Dubbed into Spanish I13. Exposure to reactions to Media and web reactions to the dubbed scene the official dubbing Interpretations of the scene version

less than 8% of respondents admitted to having no competence at all in the English language (all belonging to sample Group 1). Around 70% of the sample had only accessed the audiovisual products of the series and had not previously read the original books, nor their translated versions into Spanish (I8). This proved interesting for researchers, taking into account the specific nature of the translation problem addressed.

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Table 9.2  Survey items related to respondents’ translation background No, I do not have any experience as a professional translator Yes, I do have some experience as a professional translator, including the practice of audiovisual translation (dubbing and/or subtitling) Yes, I do have some experience as a professional translator, but not as an audiovisual translator Yes, I do have some experience as a trainee translator, but with no training in audiovisual translation (dubbing and/or subtitling) Yes, I do have some experience as a trainee translator, including some training in audiovisual translation (dubbing and/or subtitling)

201 Group 1 36 Group 2 56 11 18

A total of 37.2% of the sample had originally watched the dubbed Spanish version of the chapter analysed and 29.2% had seen the original version subtitled into Spanish (I7). The following graphics illustrate Thrones visualisation formats as per sample group, where ES stands for the dubbed version into Spanish; OVS, the original version with Spanish subtitles; OVS (EN), original version with English subtitles; and OV (EN), the original English version. Figure 9.3 shows Group 1 (non-translation-related) preferred the dubbed version followed by the original version with Spanish subtitles, while only a small group of viewers chose the original version with English subtitles. A total of 144 subjects from Group 1 had not read the book saga before watching Thrones, while 6 respondents had read or were in the process of reading the books in English and 51 respondents had read or were reading the Spanish translation of the books (I9). In the non-­ translation-­related group (Group 1), some 13% of respondents admitted to having no command of English whatsoever, while a total of 62.7% self-­ assessed their level of English as intermediate or below the European B2 level. These results explain the choice to watch the Spanish dubbed or subtitled versions of the show within this group. However, out of the 121 respondents in Group 2, up to 31.4% of the subsample watched Thrones in English with subtitles in English, while 26.4% of this group watched it in the original version subtitled into Spanish and 23.1% of the subsample accessed the Spanish dubbed series. A total of 18.2% of the respondents in Group 2 watched Thrones in its original version in English. As one may expect, the command of the English language reported within this sample group was much higher than the one in Group 1. In fact, 11 respondents in Group 2 declared that they were English native speakers or had bilingual competence in the English language. In

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18.Thrones' visualization format 60

52.7%

50 40 30

23.1%

31.4%

29.8% 26.4%

20 10 0

18.2%

13.9% 3.5% ES

OVS (ES) GROUP 1

OVS (EN)

OV (EN)

GROUP 2

Fig. 9.3  Group 1 and 2: Visualisation formats

addition, more than 75% admitted to having a high level or equivalent to a European C1 level and 11.6% declared an intermediate or B2 level in English. Only five subjects (4.1%) in Group 2 assessed their level of English as basic, probably because they have other different working languages. In Group 2, over 65% of the respondents had not read the books before watching the show, while 21.5% read the Spanish translation and 13% read the original English version of the saga. Reactions and Perceptions of the Spanish Dubbed Version of the “Hodor” Scene Regarding item I13, respondents were directly questioned whether: • They believed the Spanish dubbing of the scene and its key role in the plot were successfully transferred (reactions). • They recalled any specific impressions when first accessing the dubbed version of the “Hodor” scene into Spanish. A total of 74% of the participants in Group 1 considered that dubbing in the Hodor scene was incomprehensible or only partially comprehensible, against 22.8% of the group who responded that the scene and its significance within the plot were rendered effectively (7.4%) or sufficiently effectively (15.4%).

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In contrast, participants in Group 2 see some shortcomings regarding transfer of meaning in the dubbed version, where a total of 42.1% said that the dubbed version did not manage to facilitate total understanding of the sequence. An additional 29% said the scene was partially comprehensible in the dubbed version. A further 24% of respondents in Group 2 considered the dubbed scene incomprehensible and only 4.1% of the translation-related group judged this scene as totally understandable. Figure 9.4 shows a comparison of perceptions both in Group 1 and Group 2 regarding the transfer of meaning in the scene, the episode and the plot. Both groups seem satisfied with the final choice the audiovisual translators made, although Group 2 gives a slightly more positive evaluation than Group 1. In fact, out of 20 clearly positive opinions on the dubbing quality into Spanish, 15 came from the translators’ group (Group 2). Table 9.3 reproduces the responses collected, highlighting the difficulty of finding a better solution given the complexity attached to the “Hodor” TP. Qualitative explanations among translators about the adequacy of the solution provided mostly recognised the complexity and the multiple constraints affecting the translation process, namely, the function or intended effect of the original hidden meaning (as a result of serialisation), together with the usual constraints in audiovisual translation (lip sync, time restrictions, etc.). The following is a selection of some of the most representative I13.Dubbed version into Spanish: meaning transfer 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

40.8% 42.1% 33.3%

29% 24% 15.4% 7.5%

Not comprehensible Comprehensible, but at all not entirely GROUP 1

Comprehensible enough

4.1%

Perfectly comprehensible

GROUP 2

Fig. 9.4  Group 1 and 2 perception on meaning transfer of “Hodor” dubbed scene

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Table 9.3  Group 2 positive comments on the “Hodor” case and its dubbing “It was a pretty decent solution for a translation problem which was almost impossible to solve without having all the required information in advance. Cases like this should be taken into consideration by the authors if they want their works translated into other languages. In spite of all, I found the translator’s work commendable”. “Although the Spanish version does not do the job as nicely as the original, it allows viewers to understand this reference sufficiently and manages to explain what’s going on with Hodor”. “I find it difficult to come up with a better translation solution”. “It was a good translation: it keeps phonetic consistency for the vowels (portón/door) with regard to the English original”. “I find this translation is absolutely right and is correctly localised into Spanish given the limitations on screen”.

positive comments within this group. Original comments were produced by survey subjects in Spanish, translated here into English by the authors. Out of a total of 47 negative qualitative opinions about the dubbed version, most came from the non-translation-related group (42), who mainly assess the solution as poor and deficient, deriving in some loss of meaning, as compared to the original version (Table 9.4). In contrast, only five negative opinions were expressed from Group 2 respondents with a translation background. However, a more in-depth and thoughtful approach is detected when evaluating the “Hodor” case, with subjects expressing some doubts as to the evocative value of the final dubbing decision (see Table 9.5). As a first general conclusion, it seems that translation-related respondents generally have a very positive opinion, sometimes even expressing admiration and sympathy towards the translators and recognising the apparent effort made by the adapters and translators of the show. Respondents in this group better understand the tremendous difficulty and the constraints shaping this translation problem. It is with good reason that the Spanish Association of Audiovisual Translators awarded their annual prize in 2016 in the Dubbing category to the team responsible for the dubbed version into Spanish, Paco Vara and Antonio Villar (ATRAE 2016), based on the associated members’ vote. The Spanish translators’ guild appreciates the difficulty of this case and the professional work behind it.

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Table 9.4  Group 1 negative comments on the “Hodor” case and its dubbing (selected from a total of 42 opinions) “The evolution from ‘Aguanta el portón’ to ‘Hodor’ is not natural”. “In English I understood that Hodor was born to live this moment, but in Spanish it does not make much sense, the result is almost hilarious”. “Dubbing in this scene could not be worse”. “The idea of holding the door is there but the explanation of Hodor’s name is lost, the meaning is totally lost”. “The Spanish version does not relate with the original at all, it’s a cheap attempt to match both ideas. It was poorly done”.

Table 9.5  Group 2 negative comments on the “Hodor” case and its dubbing (all opinions) “I do not see the logic behind “Aguanta el portón” and “Hodor”, and this was an essential plot line in this case. It seems to me the word “Hodor” is only the result of some sort of neurologic damage Hodor suffered after the trauma he had when he was a child but it does not relate with the door idea”. “The dubbed version into Spanish does not inform at all about the background of the name Hodor. The character dies and the viewers cannot know the origin of his name or the reason why he is the way he is, so the important information about this character and his importance in the plot is lost”. “The evolution from ‘aguanta el portón’ to Hodor is not convincing”. “I think the dubbed adaptation does not do justice to the character, Hodor”. “The name of the character is a kind of wordplay (Hold the door → Hodor) and this creative resource is lost in the dubbing”.

7  Conclusions and Further Research Prospects For the purposes of this qualitative reception study, two specific dubbed translation events which provoked a massive response on the part of the Spanish audience were in focus. From a twofold perspective, these events were considered excellent examples to illustrate and reflect on how translators and non-translators receive dubbed content in massively popular shows like Game of Thrones. Firstly, from a TS perspective, the study aimed to illustrate two theoretical constructs: TP and TE. Secondly, the implementation of the reception study was defined by the need to understand how the general public view the profession of translator while disclosing the precarious working conditions of translation professionals in the streaming business in Spain.

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A number of interesting conclusions can be drawn from these initial results, which may lead to further in-depth reception-based studies. The exploratory comparative study developed seems to point to the fact that viewers’ translation and language background and hence their understanding of translation process complexity influence respondents’ quality assessment on the translation decisions provided in the dubbed version analysed. This seems interesting given that nowadays more and more viewers are exposed to translated audiovisual and multimedia content, not only dubbed but also subtitled in various languages, as the visualisation format results of our study also illustrate. In fact, Orrego-Carmona (2016) states that new forms of consumption of audiovisual products and the current language-related practices associated with it, such as fansubbing, may contribute to raising awareness of the complexity of the translation process among the general audience. Here, TS are encouraged to assess if these changes are contributing or, on the contrary, hampering the public image of the translation profession (Orrego-Carmona ibid.). In a way, dubbing is still a modality which is beyond the scope of fan communities, so the impact of crucial events, as the one selected here, contributes to promote reflection on the complexity of translation practices and processes and the need to qualify the profession if quality products are to be attained. In fact, fan viewers, while pushing for ready-to-consume materials (in their own language), may be unwillingly fostering poor-quality. In this vein, we learnt from the dubbing director, Antonio Villar, that the “Sicansíos” case is a mere human error likely caused by the tight working conditions of many audiovisual translators in Spain. Whether audiovisual translation quality is valuable for a certain audience (and/or products) remains an open topic for further reception-based studies. Cases like the Hodor problem or the Sicansios error may, on the contrary, contribute to a number of fans or demanding viewers becoming more aware of translation processes and maybe even encourage translation activists, who could demand high-­ quality versions despite the immediate video streaming consumption habits in place. From a reception theory perspective, a number of interesting and understudied research lines and topics remain to be further explored: • Which formats are preferred by different audience groups • Effects of new media consumption habits in the streaming era in terms of translation processes and quality standards (Orrego-­ Carmona 2019)

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• Subtitles readability and reception • Dubbing reception • How translators and their work are seen by different audience groups • Mediatic impact of mass-product translations (vis-à-vis translator’s visibility) • Inverted intertextuality (e.g. Thrones) • A sounder theorisation on essential concepts such as error and problem, which allows for more explicative translation training strategies and activities, to name but a few. All in all, the results presented thanks to this exploratory study call for further reflection on the perception of translated materials, the current status and visibility of the (audiovisual) translation profession in Spain in the streaming era and present working conditions of professionals in the field.

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Chaume, F. 2004: “Synchronization in Dubbing. A Translational Approach”, in P. Orero (ed.), Topics in Audiovisual Translation, Amsterdam, 35–52. Chaume, F. 2012: “The Turn of Audiovisual Translation. New Audiences and New Technologies”, Translation Spaces 2, 107–125. Chesterman, A. 2010: “Skopos Theory: A Retrospective Assessment”, in W. Kallmeyer et al. (eds.), Perspektiven auf Kommunikation, Berlin, 209–225. Coleridge, S. T. 1817: Biographia literaria; Or, Biographical Sketches of my Literary Life and Opinions, London. De la Cova, E. 2017: La localización de la ayuda online: categorización de problemas para la traducción (Diss., University of Seville), Seville. Desilla, L. 2014: “Reading Between the Lines, Seeing Beyond the Images: An Empirical Study on the Comprehension of Implicit Film Dialogue Meaning across Cultures”, The Translator 20.2, 194–214. Díaz-Cintas, J. 2012: “Clearing the Smoke to See the Screen: Ideological Manipulation in Audiovisual Translation”, Meta: journal des traducteurs/Meta: Translators’ Journal 57.2, 279–293. Di Giovanni, E. 2016: “Reception Studies in Audiovisual Translation Research. The Case of Subtitling at Film Festivals”, Trans-kom 9.1, 58–78. Di Giovanni, E., Gambier, Y. 2018: Reception Studies and Audiovisual Translation, Amsterdam. Eagleton, T. 1983/1996/2008: Literary Theory: An Introduction, Oxford. Europapress 2019: “El final de ‘Juego de Tronos’ en HBO España logra casi un 80% más de audiencia que el último episodio de la temporada 7”. 25 May 2019. https://www.europapress.es/sociedad/noticia-­final-­juego-­tronos-­hbo-­espana-­ logra-­casi-­80-­mas-­audiencia-­ultimo-­episodio-­temporada-­20190521174635. html (accessed 2 July 2022). Gambier, Y. 2009: “Challenges in Research on Audiovisual Translation”, Translation Research Project 2. Intercultural Studies Group, Tarragona. Gambier, Y. 2018: “Translation Studies, Audiovisual Translation and Reception”, in E. Di Giovanni and Y. Gambier (eds.), Reception Studies and Audiovisual Translation, Amsterdam, 43–66. Game of Thrones Fandom 2019: Hodor. Retrieved from: https://gameofthrones. fandom.com/wiki/Hodor#Appearances (accessed 2 July 2022). HBO 2016: S6: Ep.5, “The Door”. HBO 2019: S8: Ep.3, “The Long Night”. Hernández Pina, F. 1998: “Conceptualización del proceso de la investigación educativa”, in E. Buendía L. Eisman, M. Pilar Colás Bravo and F. Hernández Pina, Métodos de investigación en Psicopedagogía. Madrid, 1–59. Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández, C., Baptista, P. 2003: Metodología de la investigación, México. Holub, R.  C. 1992: Crossing Borders: Reception Theory, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction, London.

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House, J. 1997: Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revisited, Narr. Iser, W. 1978: The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response, Baltimore. Jauss, H. R. 2012: Caminos de la comprensión, Madrid. Jenkins, H. 2006: Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide, New York. Jones, S. 2019: “‘Sicansíos!’: Geordie accent stumps Spanish Game of Thrones voice actors”, The Guardian, 10 May 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/ tv-­a nd-­r adio/2019/may/10/sicansios-­g ame-­o f-­t hrones-­a ccent-­s tumps-­ spanish-­voice-­actors (accessed 2 July 2022). Kruger, J. 2019: “Eye Tracking in Audiovisual Translation Research”, in L. Pérez-­ González (ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Audiovisual Translation, London, 350–366. Mayoral, R. 2012: “El estudio de la traducción audiovisual”, in J.  J. Martínez Sierra (ed.), Reflexiones sobre la traducción audiovisual: tres espectros, tres momentos, Valencia, 179–185. Mayoral, R., Kelly, D., Gallardo, N. 1988: “Concept of Constrained Translation. Non-Linguistic Perspectives on Translation”, Meta: journal des traducteurs/ Meta: Translators’ Journal 33.3, 356–367. Mayoral, R., Muñoz, R. 1997: “Estrategias comunicativas en la traducción intercultural”, in P. Fernández and J. M. Bravo (eds.), Aproximaciones a los estudios de traducción, Valladolid, 143–192. Morón, M., Calvo, E. 2018: “Introducing Transcreation Skills in Translator Training Contexts: A Situated Project-based Approach”, The Journal of Specialised Translation 29, 126–148. Mounin, G. 1994: Les belles infidèles, Paris. Napoli P. M. 2013: “Social TV Engagement Metrics: An Exploratory Comparative Analysis of Competing (Aspiring) Market Information Regimes”, in Proceedings of the 96th Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC-2013), Washington, DC. Nord, C. 1988/2005: Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-oriented Text Analysis (2nd ed.), Amsterdam. Nord, C. 1991: Text Analysis in Translation, Amsterdam. Nord, C. 2003: “Proper Names in Translations for Children: Alice in Wonderland as a Case in Point”, Meta: journal des traducteurs/Meta: Translators’ Journal 48.1–2, 182–196. Oppenheim, A.  N. 1992: Questionnaire Design, Interviewing, and Attitude Measurement, London. Orero, P. et  al. 2018: “Conducting Experimental Research in Audiovisual Translation (AVT): A Position Paper”, The Journal of Specialised Translation 30, 105–126.

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Orrego-Carmona, D. 2018: “New Audiences, International Distribution, and Translation”, in E. Di Giovanni and Y. Gambier (eds.), Reception Studies and Audiovisual Translation, Amsterdam, 321–342. Pérez-Gonzalez, L. 2014: Audiovisual Translation. Theories, Methods and Issues, London and New York. Remael, A. 2010: “Audiovisual Translation”, in Y. Gambier and L. Van Doorslaer (eds.), Handbook of Translation Studies, Amsterdam and Philadelphia, 12–17. Reuters 2019: “‘Game of Thrones’ series finale draws record 19.3 million U.S. viewers: HBO”. 20 May 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/television-­game-­ of-­thrones-­audience-­idINKCN1SQ23P (accessed 2 July 2022). Robson, C. 2002: Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner-Researchers (2nd ed.), Oxford. Ruddock, A. 2001: Understanding Audiences, London. Ruiz, P. 2019: “George R.R. Martin es un puñetero genio”, CTXT, Contexto y Acción, 25 July 2019. https://ctxt.es/es/20190724/Culturas/27516/Pilar-­ Ruiz-­Cristina-­Macia-­traduccion-­George-­RR-­Martin-­Juego-­de-­tronos.htm (accessed 2 July 2022). Scarpellini, P. 2019: “El final de Juego de Tronos bate el récord de audiencia de HBO”, El Mundo, 21 May 2019. https://www.elmundo.es/television/201 9/05/21/5ce32c19fdddff8b708b45e8.html (accessed 2 July 2022). Scholz, M. 2020: “Die Leute kennen ein Ende – nicht das Ende”, Welt, 20 January 2020. https://www.welt.de/kultur/literarischewelt/plus205141110/George-­ R-­R-­Martin-­Game-­Of-­Thrones-­haette-­im-­Kino-­enden-­sollen.html (accessed 2 July 2022). Sensacine 2019: “‘Juego de Tronos’: el ‘Sicansíos’ del doblaje en español del 8x03 que ha reventado internet”, Sensacine, 3 May 2019. http://www.sensacine. com/noticias/series/noticia-­18576804/ (accessed 2 July 2022). Scharl, A. et  al. 2016: “Analyzing the Public Discourse on Works of Fiction  – Detection and Visualization of Emotion in Online Coverage about HBO’s Game of Thrones”, Information Processing and Management, Jan 52.1, 129–138. Schelstraete, J. 2016: Boundless Storytelling: An Investigation of the Transmedial Expansion of George R.  R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire (Diss., Ghent University), Ghent. Steiner, E., Xu, K. 2018: “Binge-watching Motivates Change: Uses and Gratifications of Streaming Video Viewers Challenge Traditional TV Research”, Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies 26.1, 82–101. Szymysˊlik, R. 2019: Estudio de los problemas de traducción vinculados a mundos ficticios: Fahrenheit 451 de Ray Bradbury (Diss., Pablo de Olavide University), Seville.

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CHAPTER 10

Study of the Translation of the Fictional World of Game of Thrones Robert Szymys´lik

1   Introduction This paper, entitled “Study of the Translation of the Fictional World of Game of Thrones”, is aimed at the analysis of the translation of the main components of the imaginary cosmos built in the Game of Thrones TV series. In order to undertake this task, the notions of “fictional world” and “world-building” will be researched, and the hypothetical universe of Game of Thrones and the main creative tools employed by its author (George R. R. Martin) to develop it will be examined. Finally, a contrastive translation study will be carried out in order to dissect the rendering into Spanish of the foundations of this narrative context. Specifically, the objectives of this paper are the following: A. To explain the concepts of “fictional world” and “world-building” and the main resources that writers use to design new narrative realities. R. Szymyślik (*) Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_10

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B. To expose the mechanisms of the translation of fictional worlds, centering the attention of this paper upon the main tools which the creators of imaginary universes use to establish a notable distance between the real and the hypothetical realms. C. To describe the fictional world created in Game of Thrones and the main conceptual elements that cause the distance that it shows with the real universe. D. To analyse the most outstanding traits of the fictional world of Game of Thrones from a narrative, conceptual and translation perspective between the source language in which the script was written (English) and the target script, rendered into Spanish.

2   Fictional Worlds, Translation and Game of Thrones In order to understand how the Game of Thrones world was created and then translated, the definition of “world-building” and the characteristics of fictional worlds must be explained in the first place. A “fictional world”, according to Doležel,1 is a “small possible world shaped by specific global constraints and containing a finite number of individuals”. This definition describes a fictional world not only as a literary or narrative phenomenon but as a complete alternate reality that may exist alongside the world detected by the audience or the authors of creative works. Ronen2 agrees with this notion: a fictional world can be explained as a “system with a […] structure of its own […], analogous to the actual world in that it has its own set of facts and its own subworlds”. In the narrative and literary dimension, a fictional world forms the foundations for imaginary stories, where literary events can take place and where their characters can develop their actions. This means that any story, regardless of its genre, needs a context of this kind to exist.3 It does not matter if a narrative is based on realistic, fantastic or speculative tropes, the element that binds them all together is the necessity of a fictional world to locate their stories, events and characters. Ryan4 also defines these

 Doležel (1998: 20).  Ronen (1994: 29). 3  Ryan (1980: 403). 4  Ryan (1991: vii). 1 2

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environments as “textual universes”, that is, reality systems projected by a text, understanding them in a multidimensional way, as in audiovisual texts.5 In the creative sphere, the process of creating fictional universes is called “world-building” or “worldmaking” and can be defined as the “creation of an imaginary world and its geography, biology, cultures, etc., especially for use as setting in science fiction or fantasy stories […]”.6 According to Tolkien,7 the process to create fictional worlds is called Subcreation: the author becomes a Sub-creator and produces a Secondary World (the new speculative universe) which is linked to the Primary World, the dimension that the author and the recipients inhabit. The Secondary World possesses its own laws and rules, and the disbelief that the recipients might feel when they enter it is battled with the design of a consistent Secondary Belief that guarantees that everything that happens within the Secondary World is true, coherent and possible. From a narrative point of view, fictional worlds are based on novel concepts and propositions that widen the distance between the world that authors and recipients inhabit and the universe described in any kind of creative works.8 These innovative conceptual elements may initially constitute subtle differences between the reality perceived by narrators and recipients and the new context shown in a narrative story and can later form complex propositions. A key term in the distinction between concepts belonging to the internal or external dimension of the narrative is “diegesis”: in Literary Theory, it alludes to everything that a narrative contains (its world, its events and its characters, among others), and, according to Prince,9 it refers to “the (fictional) world in which the situations and events narrated occur”. Therefore, a “diegetic concept” is the one that belongs exclusively to the fictional sphere of an imaginary universe, and an “extradiegetic concept” is a notion that comes from the external dimension (the world of authors and recipients). Every fictional world shows both kinds of data, and the greater the amount of diegetic concepts, the strongest the imaginary nature of this world.  Zabalbeascoa (2001).  Prucher (2007: 270). 7  Tolkien (1978). 8  Szymyślik (2019: 75–80). 9  Prince (2003: 1964). 5 6

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According to Suvin,10 an innovative diegetic concept can be called novum, that is, a “new thing” located in a narrative that strengthens the differences between the real and the fictional context. Moreover, Roberts11 describes this notion with the term “point of difference”, the elements that show the distance between the actual and the hypothetical world and that help to develop any form of narratives, in spite of their different objectives or narrative mechanisms. The bonds between world-building and translation are very strong: Tarantini12 explains that “language is the tool that shapes the fictional world”. This means that the novel conceptual elements and propositions that form a new universe rely heavily on language to come into existence. Since narratives in any modality (literary, audiovisual, graphic narrative, interactive, etc.) employ language in different ways to tell a story, although with different resources, translation is also a tool to build fictional worlds, because it is used to reconfigure the components of a hypothetical universe in a new sociolinguistic context, which creates a new fictional world. The essential task during the translation of a fictional world is to maintain the impact of these new conceptual elements and propositions that progressively build the image of the universe in the minds of the recipients. This is how it is possible to guarantee that a recipient that accesses the translated version of a fictional world and one that enters the narrative that contains an imaginary universe in the original language will perceive every detail of the same hypothetical reality.13 The world of Game of Thrones is linked to the fantastic genre: it is a universe based on the existence of supernatural entities that are essential to understand these imaginary lands and its history and characteristics. As Attebery14 points out, fantastic universes form worlds whose purpose is “to leave doubt in the reader’s mind as to whether what they have read is fantastical or not”. This is why a fantastic cosmos has its own set of rules and traits and its own logic and must be solidly built to avoid the birth of disbelief.15 However (especially at the beginning of the series), the universe of Game of Thrones forms a fictional world strongly based on materialistic concepts to build each of its imaginary realities, which shows  Suvin (1979: 63–84).  Roberts (2006: 7–8). 12  Tarantini (2018: 85). 13  Szymyślik (2019). 14  Attebery (1992: 19). 15  Szymyślik (2019). 10 11

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similarities to historical fiction, for example. Martin’s universe is a reflection of different events, for example, the Wars of the Roses,16 but located in a fantastic context, in which (although subsidiarily at first) supernatural concepts exist too. There is an explanation for this narrative mechanics, based on mainly realistic tropes: in the fictional world of Game of Thrones, magic possesses a quasi-mythical existence, due to the fact that it has nearly disappeared from this imaginary land, since all supernatural creatures (such as dragons and the Children of the Forest17) are apparently extinct and magic is only real in fairy tales.18 Although initially the narrative relies on realistic motifs (mostly linked to the clashes among houses and families and political and military intrigues) and the development of the events described in it follows the logic of the extradiegetic reality, magic and supernatural tropes become progressively more important to the narrative as well as to the imaginary cosmos as a whole.19 The fictional world of Game of Thrones can be dissected to discover its narrative and conceptual foundations by means of the categorization of translation problems developed by Szymyślik.20 In this analytic system, “translation problems” are linked to notions such as the narrative techniques employed to build a story, the fictional concepts designed by authors to widen their worlds and the new words and syntagms created by the narrators to name their novel concepts. This is why this categorization serves several purposes, such as to detect and understand the main narrative, stylistic and conceptual resources that help to shape a fictional world, which can be later adapted to a translation-based study, as it will be done later in Section 3 (“Translation Analysis of the Fictional World of Game of Thrones”). The conceptual elements, creative resources and narrative devices (all of it understood as “translation problems”) and a comprehensive explanation of this categorization can be consulted in Szymyślik.21 In Martin’s work, after the implementation of this categorization, the main fields that are activated and that strongly contribute to the appearance of this fictional world from a conceptual and narrative perspective are the following:  Dougherty (2015)  Martin et al. (2014: 9) (“Ancient History. The Coming of the First Men”). 18  Cox (2012: 129). 19  On magic in Game of Thrones, see Attali in vol. 2. 20  Szymyślik (2019: 215). 21  Szymyślik (2019: 180–218). 16 17

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1. Diegetic conceptual elements, linked to the inner dimension of the work. As mentioned before, the term “diegesis” alludes to the narrative or the fictional world created within it.22 In this category, Martin uses profusely the following resources:

1.1. Concepts related to science and technology, such as “wildfire”23 or “Valyrian steel”.24 1.2. Concepts related to forms of communication, such as “ravens”,25 employed to transmit information. 1.3. Fictional proper nouns, such as “Daenerys”. 1.4. Concepts related to the cultural system, such as the “Maesters” or the “Citadel”.26 1.5. Concepts related to the economic system, such as the “Iron Bank”27 or “Gold Honour”.28 1.6. Concepts related to the natural system, manifested in fictional living beings, such as the “Children of the Forest”29 or the “shadowcats”.30 1.7. Concepts related to the political system, such as the division in “Seven Kingdoms”31 or the establishment of a political centre for them (“King’s Landing”32). 1.8. Concepts related to the social system, such as the terms “highborn”33 or “lowborn”.34



2. Novel lexical and semantic elements, a category centred on the artistic manipulation of language (mainly through the creation of new words or the design of new meanings for pre-existing words or syntagms), which has a great influence on augmenting the solidity of an imaginary universe:  Prince (2003: 1964).  Thrones S2: Ep.9, “Blackwater”. 24  Thrones S4: Ep.1, “Two Swords”. 25  Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Winter is Coming”. 26  Thrones S7: Ep.5, “Eastwatch”. 27  Thrones S7: Ep.3, “Queen’s Justice”. 28  Thrones S6: Ep.4, “Book of the Stranger”. 29  Thrones S7: Ep.5, “Eastwatch”. 30  Thrones S1: Ep.5, “The Wolf and the Lion”. 31  Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Winter is Coming”. 32  Ibid. 33  Thrones S5: Ep.4, “Sons of the Harpy”. 34  Thrones S2: Ep.7, “A Man without Honor”. 22 23

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2.1. Novel lexical element through neology: “neology” is the insertion of new words and lexical compounds in a language,35 and in Game of Thrones, we can find examples such as “dragonglass”36 or “Winterfell”.37 2.2. Novel semantic element through neosemy: “neosemy” is the addition of new meanings to words or syntagms that already exist in a language when a work is created,38 and in this narrative we can find examples such as “Hand of the King”39 or “the Wall”.40



All these elements are invaluable sources of conceptual data that can be used to build a solid fictional world. They provide an imaginary background to the main narrated events (in the form of a fictional historiography or lineage, e.g.). Since this study is based on the conceptual and linguistic information used in Game of Thrones and their transmission between languages and cultures, these particular elements will be analysed in the following sections, although more categories are activated in Martin’s work, such as metaphorical tropes and versification, the latter mainly in the form of songs.

3  Translation Analysis of the Fictional World of Game of Thrones In this section, various diegetic elements that contribute to conceive the fictional world present in the Game of Thrones TV series will be analysed from a linguistic, conceptual, narrative and rendering perspective. As explained before, the means used to observe the structure of the universe of Game of Thrones and the translation procedures that were put into effect to transfer this conceptual information to a new sociolinguistic context (in this case, the Spanish-speaking areas) were the categorization of translation problems linked to fictional worlds developed by Szymyślik.41  Miller (2004: 10).  Thrones S7: Ep.3, “Queen’s Justice”. 37  Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Winter is Coming”. 38  Munat (2015: 96–99). 39  Thrones S2: Ep.1, “The North Remembers”. 40  Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Winter is Coming”. 41  Szymyślik (2019: 180–218). 35 36

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In the following lines, a selection of the most relevant examples of translation problems will be shown. These examples were chosen both from the perspective of their importance to the narrative, their impact on the design of the complete fictional world and their rendering difficulty. The analysis is thus divided in the study of four different sections: “fictional lineage”, “fictional religion”, “fictional locations” and “fictional technology”, all of them novel dimensions that Martin created to augment the distance between the universe where his saga takes place and the world that both the author and the recipients inhabit. The methodology employed to carry out this study is based on theories pertaining to the field of Translation Studies. The dissection of target and source messages is done by means of a contrastive translation analysis, in which limited fragments of information should be observed from both versions of the same message to gather proper conclusions about translation procedures and the functionality of the chosen options, according to Toury42 and Valero.43 The notion of “translation shift”44 is applied to this study as well: it represents a modification of the data present in an original message that come altered to the target recipients. Used in the field of the translation of fictional worlds, translation shifts can cause changes in minor conceptual elements of a universe, or, if they become systemic, they can alter the whole structure of a hypothetical narrative, thus modifying the perception of the target recipients about the translated context. Thus, the following part of the paper represents a contrastive translation analysis. It carries out a comparison between excerpts of the original and of the translated work to evaluate the functionality of the rendering options chosen by the professionals that undertook this translation process. The degree in which a target recipient can detect the components of a fictional world is also monitored. In this case, the translation of the Game of Thrones TV series into Spanish will be studied. The translated version of the original scripts were made by SDI Media Iberia, based on the diegetic target terminology designed in the translated novels, made by Macía since 2002.45

 Toury (1980: 112–113).  Valero (2007: 129). 44  Van Leuven-Zwart (1989: 58–60). 45  Marcos (2015); UNESCO (2022). 42 43

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Munday46 explains that “there is no set model for the analysis of […] translations”. This is the reason why an original model was designed to complete this study of the translation of the fictional world shown in Game of Thrones. The excerpts from the original works (the script of the TV series and, in some cases, of the books of the saga of A Song of Ice and Fire) are written in English, and in this paper the original extracts will be compared with its rendered equivalents in Spanish. In each example, a specific area that helps to build the fictional world of Game of Thrones will be analysed, following the aforementioned categorization of translation problems. During the translation analysis, the traits of audiovisual translation were also examined. Game of Thrones is an audiovisual creation, and the translation of fictional worlds in this field shows different characteristics: in audiovisual works, information is provided through sound, image and verbal data,47 simultaneously detected by the recipients.48 This is why audiovisual works should be processed as interconnected and multidimensional content.49 The main formats of audiovisual translation include “dubbing” (a modality in which the original dialogues are replaced by the translated ones), “voice-over” (in which the source information is maintained in the final product alongside the translated dialogues) and “audio description” (in which a voice describes the actions and events for the visually impaired or blind), according to Chaume.50 In the case of Game of Thrones, the main modality (and the one studied in this analysis) used to transfer the content between the English-speaking and the Spanish-speaking contexts was dubbing, alongside subtitling as an auxiliary format. Inside the analysis, each fragment is located in independent paragraphs within the general analysis and includes a code that will enable its location and understanding in the TV series and the books: OFW (Original Fictional World) and TFW (Translated Fictional World), followed by the episodes, seasons, titles and time frames in which the fragments can be found in Game of Thrones.

 Munday (2016: 157).  Metz (1974: 58). 48  Agost and Chaume (2001: 15). 49  Bernal-Merino (2002: 43). 50  Chaume (2018: 1–2). 46 47

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Fictional Lineage The first section analysed in this paper is fictional lineage. The characters of this narrative that try to prove their noble origins must rely on certain notions to impose their dominion on other people, and lineage, just like in the real world, is a common argument to sustain such theses. The first example of these ideas, “First Men”, can be located in the excerpt that reads as follows: OFW/Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Winter is Coming”/00:12:47–00:13:04: “In the name of Robert of the House Baratheon, the first of his name… / Don’t look away. / King of the Andals and the First Men… / Father will know if you do. / Lord of the Seven Kingdoms and Protector of the Realm, I, Eddard of the House Stark, Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North, sentence you to die”. TFW/Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Se acerca el invierno”/00:12:47–00:13:04: En nombre de Robert de la Casa Baratheon, el Primero de su nombre… / No apartes la vista. / Rey de los Ándalos y de los Primeros Hombres… / Padre lo sabrá si lo haces. / Señor de los Siete Reinos y Protector del Reino, yo, Eddard de la Casa Stark, Señor de Invernalia y Guardián del Norte, te sentencio a morir.

In the fictional history and myths of Game of Thrones, the “First Men” are said to be tribes that came to the imaginary lands of the series from 8000 to 12,000 years before the main events of the story and to be the primitive dwellers of Westeros, the lands in which the story takes place. Their land of origin is unspecified, and they colonized most of the territory of the fictional continents of the TV series, although the reason why they left their home remains unclear. The kings and noblemen of Westeros (as seen in the example above) claim to descend from the First Men to legitimate their higher position in Westerosi society.51 According to Pavlac, the First Men show similarities to the Romans (before the First Men entered a process of barbarism), and the latter’s expansion through Europe recalls the dissemination of the cultural traits of the First Men through Westeros.52 These concepts indicate that a glorious past existed before the main events that the recipients discover through the narrative and serve as foundations to a wider fictional universe, which contributes to build a sense of antiquity in  Martin et al. (2014: 8) (“Ancient History. The Coming of the First Men”).  Pavlac (2017: 75).

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this imaginary cosmos and proves that these events are only episodes of a much greater story. This particular concept is essential to build the universe of Game of Thrones in its mythical and historical sphere. It alludes to past ages and provides the audience with background to understand the current state of affairs within the story. In this way, the recipients can understand where the characters come from and why they are important in the moment in which the narrative begins. In the translated fragment, the equivalent Primeros Hombres can be detected. This option transfers functionally the conceptual content of this neological structure and represents an innovative term that is suitable for an artistic context, such as the Game of Thrones TV series. Through it, the viewers can detect the importance of this diegetic element and its influence within the narrative. However, in his segment the equivalent sentencio can be found. The verb “sentence” represents a false friend when rendered into Spanish, because its meaning is expressed through the verb condenar and not sentenciar in the target language. This is why this option is not functional in the Spanish sociocultural context. The second term studied in this chapter, “Andals”, can be found in the following excerpt: OFW/Thrones S7: Ep.3, “Queen’s Justice”/00:07:53–00:08:11: “You stand in the presence of Daenerys Stormborn of House Targaryen, Rightful Heir to the Iron Throne, Rightful Queen of the Andals and the First Men, Protector of the Seven Kingdoms, the Mother of Dragons, the Khaleesi of the Great Grass Sea, the Unburnt, the Breaker of Chains”. TFW/Thrones S7: Ep.3, “La Justicia de la Reina”/00:07:53–00:08:11: Estáis en presencia de Daenerys de la Tormenta, de la Casa Targaryen, Legítima Heredera del Trono de Hierro, Legítima Reina de los Ándalos y los Primeros Hombres, Protectora de los Siete Reinos, Madre de Dragones, Khaleesi del Mar de Hierba, La Que no Arde y Rompedora de Cadenas.

In this passage, the term “Andals” can be detected, the denomination for another quasi-mythical people of the fictional universe of Game of Thrones. The Andals were a migratory people that came from the land of Andalos, located beyond the narrow sea, and settled down in a vast territory of the fictional continents of the TV series. Thanks to their military mastery, they overpowered the tribes that inhabited the lands before them, especially

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due to the use of iron weaponry.53 They came after the invasion by the First Men and defeated them thanks to their weapons, conquered Westeros and created the Seven Kingdoms, which can be seen as an analogy to the division of Great Britain in seven kingdoms by the Anglo-Saxons.54 Just like in the case of the “First Men”, the noblemen of Westeros quote their links to the Andals as a means of justifying their influence, as can be seen in the included example. Just like happened in the case of the “First Men”, the equivalent used for “Andals” has been correctly adapted to the orthographical rules of the Spanish language: due to the fact that the accent falls on the first syllable of this noun in the target language, the Spanish accentuation rules demand the use of graphical accents, which is why, in the subtitled version of the target script, the option ándalos can be seen. This target neologism has been functionally built in the new language and shows in a complete way the information related to this mythical and historical term to the Spanish-­ speaking audience. In this way, the translated version of this episode enables the viewers to conceive the mythical background of this narrative and the importance of this specific title of the character called Daenerys Targaryen. Fictional Religion The next section is aimed at the study of the fictional religion of Game of Thrones.55 The religious realm of any fictional world resembles the variety of faiths that exist in the dimension of authors and recipients and is basic to build solid foundations for any hypothetical society. The first example of this part, “Drowned God”, can be found in this fragment: OFW/Thrones S2: Ep.3, “What is Dead May Never Die”/00:34:35– 00:35:10: “Theon of the House Greyjoy, you would this day consecrate your faith to the Drowned God? / I would. / Kneel. Let Theon, your servant, be born again from the sea as you were. Bless him with salt. Bless him with stone. Bless him with steel. / What is dead may never die. / What is dead may never die. But rises again harder and stronger. Stand”.

 Martin et al. (2014: 17) (“Ancient History. The Arrival of the Andals”).  Pavlac (2017: 77). 55  For religion in ASOIAF, see Attali in vol. 2. 53 54

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TFW/Thrones S2: Ep.3, “Lo que está muerto no puede morir”/00:34:35–00:35:10: Theon de la Casa Greyjoy, ¿queréis en este día consagrar vuestra fe al Dios Ahogado? / Sí, quiero. / Arrodillaos. / Que Theon, tu siervo, renazca del mar como hiciste tú. Bendícelo con sal. Bendícelo con piedra. Bendícelo con acero. / Lo que está muerto no puede morir. / Lo que está muerto no puede morir. Pero se alza de nuevo, más duro y más fuerte. En pie.

In this extract, the fictional concept “Drowned God” can be located, the first example of the fictional religious dimension analysed in this paper. As explained in the series, this denomination alludes to a mythical entity worshipped on the Iron Islands. It is strongly linked to the sea, as is the culture of the Ironmen in the story of Game of Thrones, who have become sailors. The cult of the Drowned God relies on the ritual of drowning and subsequent resurrection of its believers,56 as can be deduced from the context included above. In the target context, the equivalent Dios Ahogado can be seen. This rendering option shows every component of this diegetic reality within a neological form (which has been correctly built by the translators) and enables the target recipients to understand completely the traits of this fictional deity and identify it in the narrative. In this way, the religious dimension of this fictional universe is adequately transferred into the new sociolinguistic context. The next religious term studied in this section is “Lord of Light”, found in the following episode of the series: OFW/Thrones S3: Ep.5, “Kissed by Fire”/00:01:48–00:06:43: “Lord, cast your light upon us. / Lord of Light, defend us! / Show us the truth. Strike this man down if he is guilty. Give strength to his sword if he is true. Lord of Light, give us wisdom. For the night is dark and full of terrors. / For the night is dark and full of terrors! / […]. / Lord, cast your light upon this man, your servant. Bring him back from death and darkness. His flame has been extinguished. Restore it. For the night is dark and full of terrors”. TFW/Thrones S3: Ep.5, “Besado por el fuego”/00:01:48–00:06:43: Señor, enciende tu llama entre nosotros. / ¡Señor de Luz, defiéndenos! / Muéstranos la verdad. Da muerte a este hombre si es culpable. Dale fuerza a su espada si es sincero. Señor de Luz, danos sabiduría. Pues la noche es oscura y alberga horrores. / ¡Pues la noche es oscura y alberga horrores! / […] / Señor, arroja tu luz  Buckland (2014: 167).

56

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sobre este, tu siervo. Recupéralo de la muerte y la oscuridad. Su llama se ha extinguido. Restablécela. Pues la noche es oscura y alberga horrores.

In this excerpt, references to the fictional deity “Lord of Light” are included, the second sample of fictional religious content studied in Game of Thrones. This extract represents the prayer that the faithful to the Lord of Light utter to obtain its blessing. The Lord of Light (also called “R’hllor”) is worshipped by the “Red Priests” and is linked to light and dawn.57 This concept has been translated into Spanish as Señor de Luz. In order to maintain the whole structure of the religious sphere of the fictional world of Game of Thrones, it was necessary to develop an equivalent that would provide the audience with a suggestive neological term (taking into account that this content is located in an artistic audiovisual work) that would transfer the complete information linked to this concept as well, showing also the needed grandiloquence of an idea of this kind. In this case, the equivalent used by the translators accomplishes both objectives functionally and contributes to show correctly an element of the religious dimension of this universe to the target audience. Fictional Locations The next section is centred on fictional locations, in which the various events narrated in the series take place, many of them possessing their own denominations, a fact that contributes to enhance the density of the universe of Game of Thrones in linguistic terms and represents a challenge for translators. The first one is “Winterfell”: OFW/Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Winter is Coming”/00:12:47–00:13:04: “In the name of Robert of the House Baratheon, the first of his name… / Don’t look away. / King of the Andals and the First Men… / Father will know if you do. / Lord of the Seven Kingdoms and Protector of the Realm, I, Eddard of the House Stark, Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North, sentence you to die”. TFW/Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Se acerca el invierno”/00:12:47–00:13:04: En nombre de Robert de la Casa Baratheon, el Primero de su nombre… / No apartes la vista. / Rey de los Ándalos y de los Primeros Hombres… / Padre lo  Buckland (2014: 166–167).

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sabrá si lo haces. / Señor de los Siete Reinos y Protector del Reino, yo, Eddard de la Casa Stark, Señor de Invernalia y Guardián del Norte, te sentencio a morir.

As in any story that relies on a solid fictional world to develop a narrative and the actions of its characters, Game of Thrones possesses its own geography and its own imaginary locations which the different characters inhabit and where the events of the story take place. The vast majority of these different places have their own denominations, commonly neologisms, whose study is interesting from a rendering point of view due to its significance for the overall fictional world and the often complex translation procedures that have to be put into effect to transmit this content between sociolinguistic contexts. Winterfell is home to the members of House Stark during the beginning events of Game of Thrones and is one of the most powerful strongholds of the north of Westeros: as Martin, García and Antonsson assert, Winterfell is the “greatest castle of the North” and the “seat of the Starks” and was built “after the generation-long winter known as the Long Night”.58 During the series, and after several betrayals, the Starks lost Winterfell and became outcasts.59 The castle is one of the main locations of the events of the series and shows a crucial relevance during the whole story, from its beginning and the presentation of Eddard Stark and his family60 to the Battle of Winterfell and the defeat of the White Walkers and the Night King.61 From a translation perspective, the term “Winterfell” is a neologism formed by the composition of a noun (“winter”) and a conjugated verb in the past tense (“fell”, past form of the verb “fall”). This innovative noun alludes probably to the “fall of the winter”, due to the function and the location of this castle in the north of Westeros, combined to create a sole neological compound instead of a complete syntagm. In the translated version of the series, the equivalent Invernalia is found. This noun represents a neologism in Spanish as well, which indicates that the translators desired to maintain Martin’s creative objectives when he constructed this denomination. This equivalent appeared

 Martin et al. (2014: 142) (“The Seven Kingdoms. The North. Winterfell”).  Buckland (2014: 502). 60  Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Winter is Coming”. 61  Thrones S8: Ep.3, “The Long Night”. 58 59

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originally in the translated books, published in 2002 and rendered by Macía,62 and can be found in the following excerpt from the target version of A Song of Ice and Fire: Game of Thrones (Canción de Fuego y Hielo: Juego de Tronos in Spanish): Robb y Jon permanecieron montados, muy quietos y erguidos, mientras Bran, a lomos de su poni, intentaba aparentar que tenía más de siete años y que no era la primera vez que veía algo así. Una brisa ligera sopló por la puerta del fortín. En lo alto ondeaba el estandarte de los Stark de Invernalia: un lobo huargo corriendo sobre un campo color blanco hielo. (Martin 2013: 23)

This rendered neologism was later used in the target version of the script, since the books were translated earlier, as can be checked in the Index Translationum,63 to maintain the terminological coherence within this multimodal narrative, that is, in its literary and audiovisual form. Directly analysed, the term “Winterfell” and the syntagm that it probably represents (“fall of the winter”) could be rendered as “la caída del invierno”. Instead of using this option, Macía designed an alternative equivalent, Invernalia, which derives from the Spanish common noun invierno (“winter”). This neologism centres its semantic foundations on the noun “winter” and forms a suggestive new term that is functional for the artistic goals of Martin’s works, taking into account the fact that any reference to the verb “fall” had to be eliminated. The target audience can understand the semantic nuances of the term “Winterfell” in its new manifestation in Spanish and perceive its importance to the narrative through this complex neologism. The second term studied in this section belongs to another notable fictional location of Game of Thrones, “King’s Landing”: OFW/Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Winter is Coming”/00:20:08–00:21:11: “I wonder if the old gods agree. / It’s your gods with all the rules. / I am so sorry, my love. / Tell me. / There was a raven from King’s Landing. Jon Arryn is dead. A fever took him. I know he was like a father to you. / Your sister, the boy? / They both have their health, gods be good. The raven brought more news. The King rides for Winterfell with the Queen and all the rest of them. If he’s coming this far north there’s only one thing he’s after”.  UNESCO (2022).  Ibid.

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TFW/Thrones S1: Ep.1, “Se acerca el invierno”/00:20:08–00:21:11: No sé si los antiguos dioses coincidirán. / Son tus dioses, según las normas. / Lo siento muchísimo, mi amor. / ¿El qué? / Ha llegado un cuervo de Desembarco del Rey. Jon Arryn ha muerto. Una fiebre se lo llevó. Sé que era como un padre para ti. / ¿Y tu hermana y el chico? / Ambos tienen buena salud, loados sean los dioses. El cuervo trajo más noticias. El Rey se dirige a Invernalia con la Reina y el resto de su corte. / Si viene tan al norte, solo puede venir a una cosa.

“King’s Landing” is elementary to the events narrated in Game of Thrones. It is the political centre of Westeros, its capital and the governmental core of the Seven Kingdoms. It was founded by Aegon I in the place where he landed on a dragon to begin the conquest of Westeros.64 It is where the Red Keep is located, the main fortress of the city, a castle for the Targaryen dynasty.65 There the Iron Throne was placed until the destruction of the city and the Red Keep and the massacre of its inhabitants by Daenerys Targaryen.66 Conceptually, “King’s Landing” is a diegetic reality that contributes to expand the geographic as well as the political dimension of the narrative and offers a vertex of power around which every kingdom orbits. Linguistically, it is a neologism formed through the use of a complete syntagm67 that comprises two nouns and a preposition. In the Spanish version of the script, the option Desembarco del Rey is detected. It represents a neological syntagm in the target language, and it shows the complete information contained in the original denomination to the new audience. In addition, it forms an elaborate term from an artistic point of view. However, taking into account that this construct is found in an audiovisual context, its use could cause problems due to the space and time restrictions inherent to this creative modality: the equivalent in Spanish has more syllables than the original one, something that could produce issues during the dubbing processes and have different negative effects on the final product. The probable reason why this equivalent (Desembarco del Rey) was used for this diegetic concept is that it was provided by the translator of A Song of Ice and Fire: Game of Thrones into Spanish (as with “Winterfell”) in the first edition of the work in this sociolinguistic context,  Buckland (2014: 146).  Martin et al. (2014: 49) (“The Targaryen Kings. Aegon I”). 66  Thrones S8: Ep.5, “The Bells”. 67  Centro Virtual Cervantes (2018). 64 65

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published in 2002,68 which proves that terminological coherence is ­maintained in the Spanish version of the series. It can be found in the following excerpt: Los lugares de los que le hablaba, Roca Casterly y el Nido de Águilas, Altojardín y el Valle de Arryn, Dorne y la Isla de los Rostros… no eran más que palabras para ella. Viserys tenía ocho años cuando salieron huyendo de Desembarco del Rey para escapar de los ejércitos del Usurpador, pero en aquellos días Daenerys no era más que un proyecto en el vientre de su madre. (Martin 2013: 38)

4   Fictional Technology The final part of the analysis is centred on the fictional technology used in the world of Game of Thrones. The chosen examples belong to the field of warfare, one of the most developed technological spheres and one of the most present throughout the whole series, which shows a great amount of battles, clashes and armed conflicts. In them, the characters use innovative weapons, concepts that contribute to broaden the boundaries of the hypothetical universe created by Martin and that provides the narrative with deep conceptual roots. The first one is “wildfire”: OFW/Thrones S2: Ep.9, “Blackwater”/00:23:45–00:30:21: “Steer clear! Steer clear! Matthos! Get down! / Prepare to land. Your Grace… / The dwarf has played his little trick. The wildfire. He can only play it once. / We’re too far from the gates. The fire, their archers… hundreds will die. / Thousands. Come with me and take this city! / Sansa, come here, little dove. / My queen. / What are you doing? / Praying. / You’re perfect, aren’t you? Praying. What are you praying for? / For the gods to have mercy on us all”. TFW/Thrones S2: Ep.9, “Aguasnegras”/00:23:45–00:30:21: ¡Hay que virar! ¡Hay que virar! ¡Matthos! ¡Al suelo! / Preparad el desembarco. / Majestad… / El enano ya ha hecho su truquito. / El fuego valyrio… / Solo puede hacerlo una vez. / Estamos muy lejos de las puertas. El fuego, sus arqueros… Cientos morirán / Miles. ¡Venid conmigo y tomad la ciudad! / Sansa, ven aquí, palomita. / Mi reina. / ¿Qué estás haciendo? / Rezar. / Eres perfecta, ¿verdad? Rezando. ¿Por qué rezas? / Por que los dioses tengan piedad de nosotros.  UNESCO (2022).

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The first extract from this episode contains one of the most important elements of warfare that exists in the fictional realm of Game of Thrones: “wildfire”. It represents a powerful weapon in this universe that enabled the Lannisters to defend Blackwater Bay during the attack on King’s Landing, shown in the aforementioned episode. In this world, the formula of “wildfire” is kept by the Guild of Alchemists and the pyromancers, and it was used by certain kings not only during war but also to execute criminals or traitors.69 In the external reality, there is a comparable weapon, and it has been lost during centuries: Greek fire, supposedly a terrible chemical weapon as well.70 This substance may also resemble the real-life napalm, due to its similarities, such as the fact that it exists in a liquid form.71 Thus, “wildfire” might represent a narrative reinterpretation of actual concepts in a fantastic environment and is an important part of the warfare technology that can be found in Game of Thrones. Linguistically, “wildfire” represents a neologism formed by the composition of two elements: the adjective “wild” and the noun “fire”. A possible option for this term could be fuego salvaje, the direct transport of both linguistic elements, which produces as a result a neologism formed by the creation of a syntagm. However, the target version of the episode contains the equivalent fuego valyrio, which fuses the origin of this weapon to the Valyrian civilization and that could be translated as “Valyrian fire”, probably trying to augment the mythical and terrible reputation of this substance in the target cosmos. It appears in the TV series due to the fact that this equivalent was used in the translated books: Tyrion inclinó el frasco para ver su contenido, y el fuego valyrio fluyó hasta el borde. Sabía que debía de ser de un color verde lóbrego, pero con tan poca luz era imposible confirmarlo. / —Está muy espeso —señaló. / —Es por el frío, mi señor —dijo Hallyne, un hombre demacrado, de manos blandas y húmedas, y modales obsequiosos. (Martin 2014: 150)

The next diegetic conceptual element analysed in this section, and the last one of this study, is deeply intertwined with the fictional history of Westeros, “Valyrian steel”:

 Martin et al. (2014: 120) (“The Targaryen Kings. Aerys II”).  Thompson (2019: 175–176). 71  Ibid. 185. 69 70

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OFW/Thrones S4: Ep.1, “Two Swords”/00:03:35–00:04:08: “Looks fresh-forged. / It is. / No one’s made a Valyrian steel sword since the Doom of Valyria. / There are three living smiths who know how to rework Valyrian steel. The finest of them was in Volantis. Came here to King’s Landing at my invitation. / Where did you get this much Valyrian steel? / From someone who no longer had need of it. / You’ve wanted one of these in the family for a long time”. TFW/Thrones S4: Ep.1, “Dos espadas”/00:03:35–00:04:08: Parece recién forjada. / Lo está. / No se hacen espadas de acero valyrio desde la Caída de Valyria. / Solo quedan tres herreros que saben trabajar el acero valyrio. El mejor de ellos estaba en Volantis. Vino a Desembarco del Rey por invitación mía. / ¿Y dónde conseguiste tanto acero valyrio? / De alguien que ya no lo necesitaba. / Querías una de estas en la familia desde hace tiempo.

In the second excerpt from this section, based on the study of the technological notions designed by Martin for his work, the term “Valyrian steel” is seen. It represents a special kind of metal that possesses an even mythical and supernatural aura in Game of Thrones, and that is believed to be one of the best materials to create powerful weapons, and it is fiercely sought by warriors in the narrative. Its origins can be traced back to the golden age of the Valyrian Empire: it required advanced forging abilities and magic to be created, and those arts are almost lost during the events of the series.72 As many concepts present in this narrative (which represent reinterpretations of actual extradiegetic notions), the Valyrian steel can be linked to an analogue in the external reality, that is, to the steel made in Damascus, both light and durable. Damascus steel was also seen as a valuable heritage in noble families, just like in Game of Thrones, as can be deduced from the aforementioned excerpt.73 The term is formed by the demonym of the Valyrian Empire (“Valyrian”) and a noun (in this case, “steel”) to make clear that this denomination is related to a type of metal in the narrative. In the rendered version of this episode, the equivalent acero valyrio is detected: it presents the fictional demonym and the equivalent of the noun “steel” (translated as acero), which means that the target audience is able to understand this concept completely through the new neological syntagm in Spanish. Due to this fact, this aspect of the technological sphere of Game of Thrones and the  Martin et al. (2014: 15) (“Ancient History. Valyria’s Children”).  Thompson (2019: 103).

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whole of this conceptual area remains unaltered in the target version of the series. In addition, demonyms are written in Spanish with a lowercase letter, and, in the subtitles for this episode, it can be seen that the translators have functionally adapted this neological term to the orthographic rules of the target language and, moreover, the demonym has been correctly written as valyrio.

5  Conclusions As can be seen in the analysis, the objectives of the translators of both the books and the TV series were to obtain a target fictional world that would maintain the greatest amount of original imaginary concepts and to provide the recipients with a translated product that would transport them to the lands of Game of Thrones just like the original creations would. The studied options (every novum or “point of difference”) were thoroughly analysed in its original form to understand its nature and traits and were later processed in ways that would produce outstanding equivalents in terms of artistic value and of data completeness. The target recipients can detect the mythic and epic magnificence of Martin’s concepts through the translated version of this work, and the fictional world described in Game of Thrones can be fully perceived in the Spanish-speaking sociolinguistic area in the different spheres studied above, such as the mythic ancestors of the main characters, the imaginary gods in which the Westerosi peoples believe, the different locations in which the narrative develops its events and the diegetic weapons used by the armies of Westeros. Game of Thrones has proven to be a valuable source to study the building of creative universes and the transmission of fictional worlds between different sociolinguistic contexts. Its solid mythology, the dense narrative and the complexity of its conceptual elements and propositions cause this imaginary reality to be an ideal example to see how a literary and audiovisual work can establish a notable distance between the real and the narrative dimensions and create a whole new universe within an artistic creation. This is why the conclusions of this kind of studies about Game of Thrones and many other works can produce valuable information for different academic fields, such as Literary Theory, world-building and Translation Studies, and researchers and professionals can benefit from them to improve their scientific as well as their translation tasks.

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Bibliography Agost, R., Chaume, F. 2001: La traducción en los medios audiovisuales, Castellón de la Plana. Attebery, B. 1992: Strategies of Fantasy, Indianapolis. Bernal-Merino, M. Á. 2002: La traducción audiovisual, Alicante. Buckland, D. 2014: Collection Editions: Game of Thrones, Morrisville. Centro Virtual Cervantes 2018: Martes neológico [Web page]. https://blogscvc. cervantes.es/martes-­neologico/glosario/ (accessed 11 February 2022). Chaume, F. 2018: “Is Audiovisual Translation Putting the Concept of Translation up against the Ropes?”, Journal of Specialised Translation 30, 84–104. Cox, E. 2012: “Magic, Science and Metaphysics in A Game of Thrones”, in H.  Jacobi (ed.), Game of Thrones and Philosophy: Logic Cuts Deeper than Swords, Hoboken, 129–141. Doležel, L. 1998: Heterocósmica: ficción y mundos posibles, Madrid. Dougherty, M. J. 2015: The Wars of the Roses: The Conflict that inspired Game of Thrones, London. Marcos, N. 2015: “Juego de Tronos: Así hablan castellano en Poniente”. El País, 26 May 2015. https://elpais.com/cultura/2015/05/25/television/ 1432570092_261068.html (accessed 11 January 2022). Martin, G. R. R. 2013: Juego de Tronos: Canción de hielo y fuego/1, Barcelona. Martin, G. R. R. 2014: Juego de Tronos: Choque de reyes, Barcelona. Martin, G. R. R., García Jr., E. M., Antonsson, L. 2014: The World of Ice & Fire: The Untold History of Westeros and the Game of Thrones, New York. Metz, C. 1974: Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema, Chicago. Miller, D. G. 2004: English Lexicogenesis, Oxford. Munat, J. 2015: “Lexical Creativity”, in R. H. Jones (ed.), Routledge Handbook of Language and Creativity, London, 96–99. Munday, J. 2016: Introducing Translation Studies, London and New York. Pavlac, B. A. 2017: Games of Thrones Versus History: Written in Blood, Hoboken. Prince, G. 2003: A Dictionary of Narratology, Nebraska. Prucher, J. (ed.) 2007: Brave New Words: The Oxford Dictionary of Science Fiction, Oxford. Roberts, A. 2006: Science Fiction, London and New York. Ronen, R. 1994: Possible Worlds in Literary Theory, Cambridge. Ryan, M.  L. 1980: “Fiction, Non-Factuals and the Principle of Minimal Departure”, Poetics 9.4, 403–422. Ryan, M.  L. 1991: Possible Worlds, Artificial Intelligence and Narrative Theory, Indianapolis. Suvin, D. 1979: Metamorphoses of Science Fiction: On the Poetics and History of a Literary Genre, New Haven.

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Szymyślik, R. P. 2019: Estudio de los problemas de traducción vinculados a mundos ficticios: Fahrenheit 451 de Ray Bradbury (Diss., Pablo de Olavide University), Seville. Tarantini, A. T. 2018: “Transcultural Conversations in Practice: Translating David Mence’s Plays into Italian”, in J. Woodsworth (ed.), The Fictions of Translation, Amsterdam, 83–96. Thompson, R.  C. 2019: Fire, Ice, and Physics: The Science of Game of Thrones, Cambridge and London. Tolkien, J. R. R. 1978: The Tolkien Reader, first published 1966, New York. Toury, G. 1980: In Search of a Theory of Translation, Tel Aviv. UNESCO 2022: Index Translationum [Web page]. http://www.unesco.org/ xtrans/ (accessed 11 January 2022). Valero Garcés, C. 2007: Modelo de evaluación de obras literarias traducidas, Berlin. Van Leuven-Zwart, K.  M. 1989: Translation and Original: Similarities and Dissimilarities, Amsterdam. Zabalbeascoa, P. 2001: “El texto audiovisual: factores semióticos y traducción”, in J. Sanderson (ed.), ¡Doble o nada! Actas de las I y II Jornadas de doblaje y subtitulación de la Universidad de Alicante, Alicante.

CHAPTER 11

The Portrayal of Interpreters in Audiovisual Texts, Illustrated by the Character of Missandei in the TV Series Game of Thrones Christiane Limbach and Alice Stender

1   Introduction The profession of language interpreter arouses much curiosity and intrigue. There are certain beliefs and an aura of mystery which surround the figure of the interpreter. Perhaps beliefs that professional interpreters must have a fascinating life, full of travel, and, as Albl-Mikasa (2012) rightly points out, by speaking several languages, are able to understand speakers, who, sometimes, even native speakers of that language, do not understand. This often makes an interpreter appear to be a superhero or, at least, to have some kind of superpower. These beliefs may be partly based on the way language interpreters are portrayed in films or TV series. Nonetheless, for those unfamiliar with the profession of interpreting, an interpreter is

C. Limbach (*) • A. Stender Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_11

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someone who enables the communication between people of different languages and cultures (see Sect. 4). Even if other professions appear more frequently on the small or big screen, for example, TV series about doctors, lawyers or the police, the profession of language interpreter also has its fair share of exposure in which they are shown in their professional day-to-day work. Our aim in this study is to analyse how interpreters are portrayed in audiovisual texts, from a professional point of view, focusing on the Game of Thrones character Missandei, a former slave and, eventually, an advisor to Queen Daenerys. For our analysis we will only take into consideration the TV series by David Benioff and D.  B. Weiss for HBO and not the novels A Song of Ice and Fire written by George R. R. Martin. In particular, we will examine Missandei’s performance, that is, the quality of her work and problem-solving capacity in situations, interpreting modes and the techniques she uses. We look at the time it takes her to prepare for an interpretation assignment, as well as the conditions she works under, with the aim of establishing to what extent Missandei’s work corresponds to the reality of interpreting today.

2   Interpreters in Audiovisual Texts Before analysing the character on whom we focus in this study, we would like to outline the panorama of films, or series, in which language interpreters are either in a leading or secondary role. We will categorise the films according to whether the character’s profession is that of interpreter, or those who actually have another occupation, but who, due to circumstances, facilitate communication between the characters in the film. Judgement at Nuremberg (Kramer 1961) is, without the shadow of a doubt, one of the first films that made history and provides a good insight into the outcome of the work of interpreters. In this film, simultaneous interpreting can be seen from a purely professional point of view. The interpreters and their voices are present during all the scenes of the trial, but we do not know their names. The final result of the work, the interpreting situation, is displayed, but there are no hints as to the preparation, which is a very important part of the job. Simultaneous interpreting was first used at those trials. Had they been conducted in consecutive interpreting, they would have taken far more than 11 months. There are other films with trained interpreters working for international organisations, like Regina Lampert played by Audrey Hepburn in Charade

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(Donen  1963) or Nicole Kidman in the role of Silvia Broome in The Interpreter (Pollack et al. 2005), where both play professional interpreters. In the second case, we are shown an insight into the different types of interpreting, since Kidman’s character interprets simultaneously and consecutively. In Charade, we see Hepburn working as a simultaneous interpreter, an activity which requires full attention. While in the booth interpreting, she is simultaneously able to listen to the character played by Cary Grant: it is what might be called “multi-tasking”. In Lost in Translation (Coppola et al. 2003), the professional standards of the interpreter do not meet expected quality standards. We can see the importance of this figure; even if the interpreter is shown only in a secondary role, they provide the film with its title as the interpreter is not enabling communication. The same occurs in Amistad (Spielberg  et  al.  1997), where the importance of the interpreter is demonstrated by the fact that the lives of 40 people depend on his correct interpretation of several legal testimonies. If it is a matter of communicating or, in this case, concealing a message, then there are also military personnel who, though not interpreters, by speaking an almost unknown language, can pass on secrets without the opposing side being able to decipher their messages as seen in Windtalkers (Woo et al. 2002). There are other films in which interpretation, or linguistic mediation, plays an important role. This is so much so that, for example, in Spanglish (Brooks and Sakai 2004), a housekeeper requires her daughter to help her understand the language and, more importantly, the cultural differences between two worlds. Another example of non-professional interpreting is Dances with Wolves (Costner et al. 1990). Kevin Costner’s character is able to communicate with the Sioux Indians, thanks to the interpretation of ‘Stands with a Fist’, a white woman adopted by a Sioux medicine man, who is able to mediate for him. In the film Blood Diamond (Zwick 2006), Danny Archer (played by Leonardo DiCaprio) is not only a gunrunner, he also shows an enviable ability to interpret native African languages and English. Still, we are not only talking about human language, since in filmography we can find interpreters of extra-terrestrial or extragalactic languages, such as C3-PO, the android capable of communicating with an almost infinite number of life forms in all of the Star Wars episodes as in Episode IV–A New Hope (Lukas et al. 1977). Then there is the character of Louise

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Banks, a linguist recruited for her capabilities to communicate with aliens in Arrival (Villeneuve 2016). At this stage, and after having briefly reviewed the filmography featuring interpreters and interpreting situations, we have established that it is not possible to generalise about how interpreters are portrayed. What we can say is that almost all of them are shown to share certain characteristics, among them a prodigious memory, they are problem-solvers, they do not seem to need any preparation beforehand and they appear as if to always be on top of things. After this brief review of films and series, in which interpreters and situations that require interpretation or mediation appear, we focus on a television figure who, although she begins with a secondary role, becomes one of the most outstanding protagonists of the series, Game of Thrones: Missandei.

3   Methodology In this chapter, we concentrate on the famous TV series, Game of Thrones, and on the interpreter, Missandei, in order to examine if her performance as a professional interpreter is portrayed realistically or not. We will not, however, take into consideration the novels by George R.  R. Martin as there are considerable differences between the novels and the TV series.1 Missandei is one of the women characters in the TV series who develops strongly and becomes more and more important throughout the storyline. She rises from being a simple slave of Kraznys’ to one of Queen Daenerys’s closest advisors. During the seasons, she step by step gains responsibilities and carries out many different tasks.2 However, for our purposes in this chapter, we will only focus on her interpreting performance. Firstly, we have selected all the scenes from the whole series of Game of Thrones in which we see the character Missandei, who is also a scribe and an adviser to Queen Daenerys, acting as an interpreter. After that, we will examine each of the scenes, taking into account not only Missandei’s performance but also other aspects which are most relevant for the

1  For an analysis of the differences between the novels and the TV series regarding women characters and especially Missandei, see Limbach (2020). 2  See Stender and Limbach (2022).

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interpreter’s profession and, moreover, may, in our opinion, influence her performance. We will consider the following parameters: • Interpreting setting • Interpreting mode • Preparation time • Working conditions • Interpreter’s performance, taking into account problem-solving strategies and quality. In the next section, we will present each of the parameters, the evaluation scheme and a table we developed in order to analyse Missandei’s performance.

4   Analysing Parameters and Evaluation Scheme Interpreting can be seen as a translational activity. The main difference it presents to other translational activities is its immediacy. As Pöchhacker (2004: 10) points out, “in principle, interpreting is performed ‘here and now’ for the benefit of people who want to engage in communication across barriers of language and culture”. It thus differs from other forms of translation as, for example, written translation. Two main aspects of interpreting are pointed out by Kade (1968 cited in Pöchhacker 2004: 10). Firstly, that “the source-language text is presented only once and thus cannot be reviewed or replayed” and, secondly, that “the target-text is produced under time pressure, with little chance for correction and revision” (ibid.). Pöchhacker (2004: 11) defines interpreting as “a form of Translation in which a first and final rendition in another language is produced on the basis of a one-time presentation of an utterance in a source language”. In interpreting, we can distinguish between settings and modes, although in literature these terms “tend to be used in a fairly inconsistent manner” (Grbić and Pöllabauer 2006: 247).3 On the one hand, interpreting can take place in distinct settings, for example, in public-sector institutions, in court, in the media and so on. Currently, we find terms such as public service interpreting, community interpreting, legal interpreting, medical interpreting, media interpreting, conference interpreting and so 3

 For a brief overview of the terms, see Grbić and Pöllabauer (2006).

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on. Basically, the term setting refers to where interpreting is carried out, for example, the place, which is how it is used in this chapter, for example, in a hospital, in court, at the police station and so on. The term interpreting mode is used to refer to how it is done or “the way in which it is carried out” as Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997: 84) use it, meaning, for example if it is carried out consecutively or simultaneously. The term conference interpreting can function as a hypernym for both modes (Viezzi 2013), consecutive and simultaneous. Conference interpreting takes place in multilateral communication settings, as in conferences (hence the denomination) attended by delegates and representatives of multiple nations and institutions (see Pöchhacker 2004). Here interpreting normally takes place in a simultaneous way where the interpreter sits in a soundproof interpreting booth, listening to the original discourse over headphones and speaking their interpreting into a microphone. The recipients also receive the interpreting over headphones. Simultaneous interpreting is normally carried out at official political meetings, for example, in the EU Parliament (think of Nicole Kidman in The Interpreter). A mode which is used less frequently is the consecutive interpreting (Driker 2015). Here, no interpreting booth or other equipment is needed and the interpreter stands (or sits) beside the speaker. The interpreter takes notes on a notepad while listening to the speaker, for up to 20 minutes, and repeats the message afterwards in a different language, using their memory and the notes taken. Sign language interpreting is increasingly present at conferences (ibid.), referring to this mode as the act of translating words into signs, simultaneously, for deaf and hard of hearing people. Another mode is the liaison interpreting, also called dialogue interpreting, where the interpreter assumes “the pivotal mediating role between two (monolingual) clients” (Pöchhacker 2004: 16). This form can either be carried out simultaneously or consecutively, whereas, according to Hale (2015), simultaneous dialogue interpreting may be preferred in some settings, for example, in courtrooms or mental health consultations. Other forms, such as whispered interpreting (Chouchotage), or remote interpreting, can also be highlighted here. Taking into consideration the context in which we plan to analyse Missandei’s performance (in the TV series Game of Thrones), we will work with the following interpreting modes: • Simultaneous interpreting • Consecutive interpreting

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• Dialogue or liaison interpreting (consecutively or simultaneously) • Whispered interpreting. In order to carry out high-quality interpreting, interpreters have to be prepared beforehand, as they have to understand the original text, which can be a highly specialised text in which complex terminology is used (normally in their B language, meaning their first foreign language). It is also very common for interpreters to work with a wide variety of different topics. The interpreter not only has to be able to understand the text but also to reproduce the text in their mother language, using an adequate style, terminology, register and so on. To be able to do so, interpreters must prepare by reading texts in their working languages, acquiring knowledge about the specific subject matter, producing glossaries and vocabulary lists and interiorising them, developing specific symbols on the subject for note taking, which go beyond their standard repertoire, and so on. The preparation of interpreters is considered one of the most important phases (cf. Gile 2009; Díaz-Galaz 2015), and the quality of the interpreting depends, to a large extent, on the interpreter’s preparation. Normally this phase is time-consuming, and interpreters have to anticipate how to best prepare for their assignment, although there is always uncertainty (Fantinuoli 2017). Depending on the degree of specialisation of the topic, and the complexity of the theme, interpreters may need a number of days beforehand to prepare themselves. This is one aspect which is relevant and crucial for our analysis of an interpreter’s performance and their capacity to deliver high-quality interpreting. The interpreter’s work “is always performed in a social context, and […] is therefore influenced by a wide range of physical and psycho-social conditions, as well as the mental demands of the working environment” (Grbić and Pöchhacker 2015: 441). These conditions can be divided into three categories which overlap and are not clear-cut. These categories are employment-related, assignment-related and task-related. Considering employment, interpreters can work on a freelance basis for a given assignment or can be hired permanently. Over time, working conditions have changed significantly; however, the majority of interpreters still work under not very favourable conditions, being underpaid and, working on a freelance basis, without stability and having temporary employment through agencies (Grbić and Pöchhacker 2015). Working conditions depend to a great extent on demand and on the setting. Interpreting working conditions within the community can be a lot worse from that of

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a conference interpreter hired by the EU, for example. For our analysis we will distinguish between three types of employment-related working conditions: on a freelance basis, permanent employment or in temporary employment through an agency. At the level of assignment, we distinguish between one-off assignments and repeated assignments, as these may occur with regular customers for interpreter’s working on a freelance basis or for permanently employed interpreters. This, in our opinion, means being familiar with the employment surroundings, and/or theme, which influence the interpreter’s performance. Task-related factors are considered part of the next and final parameter to be analysed, which is denominated performance and which is considered to be the interpreting act itself. The focus there is on quality issues and problem-solving. A quality assignment sheet, similar to the one developed by Kalina (2005), is not used here on interpreting assignments although it is still regarded as very adequate for real interpreting assignments. For the purposes of this paper, however, the evaluating scheme of Domínguez Araújo (2013) is considered to be best suited for consecutive interpreting, whereas for liaison interpreting, Limbach’s and Álvarez’s adaptation of the evaluating scheme of Dominguez Araújo (2013) has been used. This takes the following criteria into consideration when evaluating the quality of consecutive interpreting: presentation (which refers to tone, clarity, pronunciation, security when speaking, pauses and rhythm), expression (which refers to precision, idiomatic expressions and register), problem-solving and contents.4 Limbach and Álvarez (2019) included two other criteria for the case of dialogue interpreting, naming discourse management (use of first or third person, interpreter’s influence on the interaction between interlocutors, interlocutors’ ability to complete their discourse) and expression in a foreign language.5 The following table (Table  11.1) has been produced to analyse Missandei’s interpreting performance. Instead of using the points from 0 to 5, 0 being the worst evaluation and 5 the best, to simplify things the adjectives excellent (5 points), good (3 points), unsatisfactory (1.5 points) and very poor (0 points) are used.

4 5

 For a detailed explanation, see Domínguez Araújo (2013).  For a detailed explanation, see Limbach and Álvarez (2019).

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Table 11.1 Authors’ table to analyse Missandei’s interpreting performance

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Interpreting setting Interpreting mode Preparation time Working conditions Interpreter’s performance Presentation Expression Problem-solving Contents

5   Analysis Game of Thrones is a series in which, apart from the main character, Queen Daenerys, there are many strong female characters.6 One of them is the protagonist of this analysis, the interpreter, Missandei. Missandei begins as a slave to Kraznys, but soon becomes an indispensable ally to Daenerys Targaryen and her character in the series evolves, from a secondary role into a main character. Although, apart from interpreting, she performs a wide range of functions, including translator, advisor to Queen Daenerys, foreign trade adviser and public relations manager, here the focus is to explore her work as an interpreter.7 However, for this purpose, the scenes of the TV series where she actually interprets, in the strictest sense, are analysed. Scenes where she explains cultural issues are not taken into account, as in Season 3, when she clarifies the meaning of the names of the Unsullied, such as Grey Worm (Thrones S3: Ep.5, “Kill the Boy”), or in Season 7, the word “azor ahai” (Thrones S7: Ep.2, “Stormborn”). On this occasion, Missandei clarifies that it is not translated correctly as it does not only mean “prince” but also “princess”. Missandei’s interpreting performance will now be analysed using Table  11.1, with a brief presentation of the scenes in which Missandei interprets. Thrones S3: Ep.1, “Valar Dohaeris” The first time Missandei appears is in the third Season (Thrones S3: Ep.1, “Valar Dohaeris”). Daenerys Targaryen travels to Astapor in order to 6 7

 See Limbach (2020: 129–158).  For a detailed work on the jobs Missandei carries out, see Stender and Limbach (2022).

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purchase soldiers for her army and therefore begins negotiations with Kraznys mo Nakloz. He is a slave trader, owner of the army of the Unsullied and also of Missandei. Since the Queen of Dragons speaks the language of the Seven Kingdoms, also known as the Common Tongue, and Kraznys speaks High Valyrian, Missandei enters the scene as his slave and interpreter, in order to enable communication (see Table 11.2).8 Table 11.2  Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S3: Ep.1, “Valar Dohaeris” Interpreting setting Interpreting mode Preparation time

Working conditions Interpreter’s performance

Discourse management Expression in foreign language

Commercial Dialogue interpreting, consecutive (after each sentence) without note taking. Unknown, but it is assumed that Missandei knows not only the terminology but also has previous knowledge of the subject. (At one point Kraznys tells her to answer Daenerys’ questions on her own and not even to interpret). Slave, but as Missandei seems to act regularly as an interpreter for Kraznys, and on similar themes, she could be considered a permanent employed interpreter. Presentation: excellent. Expression: excellent. Problem-solving: excellent. At one point Missandei asks if her “client” wants her to transmit his insults and rudeness. After receiving his answer, she acts coherently on her own. Contents: The interpreting deviates from the standard form, as Kraznys not only asks Missandei to answer Daenerys questions on her own but also continuously insults his interlocutors and behaves very rudely. Nevertheless, he expects Missandei neither to interpret his insults nor his rudeness. Although a great number of omissions and changes in meaning can be detected, Missandei performs perfectly as she follows Kraznys’ instructions and always addresses Daenerys and the company in a very polite manner. Missandei uses the respectful third person form continuously, as she interprets for various people, in line with professional interpretation. Excellent.

8  For a deep analysis of Missandei’s interpreting performance during the negotiations and how it could be evaluated, see Limbach and Stender (2018).

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Table 11.3  Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S3: Ep.3, “Walk of Punishment” Interpreting setting Interpreting mode

Commercial

Preparation time Working conditions Interpreter’s performance

Discourse management Expression in foreign language

Dialogue interpreting, consecutive (after each sentence) at the beginning, then shifts to simultaneous dialogue interpreting, without note taking. Unknown, but it is assumed that Missandei knows not only the terminology but also has previous knowledge of the subject. Slave, but as she seems to act regularly as an interpreter for Kraznys, and on similar themes, she could be considered a permanent employed interpreter. Presentation: excellent. Expression: excellent. Problem-solving: excellent. Missandei raises the register without having to stop and think. Contents: Kraznys asks how Daenerys is going to pay for the army and insults her severely. Here too, though Missandei omits the insults and raises the register, she helps keep the negotiation going. Missandei uses the respectful third person form continuously, as she interprets for various people, in line with professional interpretation. Excellent.

Thrones S3: Ep.3, “Walk of Punishment” Queen Daenerys is in Astapor to continue negotiations with Kraznys, who attends with his slave Missandei, for the purchase of the Unsullied. Here they negotiate the details of their deal (see Table 11.3). Thrones S3: Ep.4, “And Now his Watch is Ended” In this episode, Queen Daenerys is still in Astapor and meets again with Kraznys for the agreed exchange: a dragon in exchange for the entire Unsullied army. When Queen Daenerys gives Kraznys the dragon and he gives her the Unsullied in return, she breaks the deal, declares that Valyrian is her mother tongue and orders the army, now under her command, to kill their former masters. Missandei acts as an interpreter for a third time, but this time for Daenerys, who had asked for Missandei as a gift to seal the deal. Therefore, Missandei now “works” for Daenerys and could be said to have “changed employers” (see Table 11.4).

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Table 11.4  Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S3: Ep.4, “And Now his Watch is Ended” Interpreting Commercial setting Interpreting mode At the beginning, simultaneous interpreting for Daenerys (Valyrian into Common Tongue), during the interchange of goods dialogue interpreting consecutively, without note taking. Preparation time Unknown, but it is assumed that Missandei knows not only the terminology but also has previous knowledge of the subject. Working Missandei is no longer a slave, she has joined Daenerys. Her conditions employment conditions are unknown, but it can be assumed that they are much improved. Interpreter’s Presentation: excellent. performance Expression: excellent. Problem-solving: excellent. Contents: Omission (“This bitch has her army”). It is assumed that Missandei does not want to insult Daenerys by transmitting what Kraznys says. Discourse Missandei uses the respectful third person form continuously. management Expression in Excellent. foreign language

Thrones S3: Ep.10, “Mhysa” Daenerys, her advisors and her entire army arrive at Yunkai, where the inhabitants, former slaves but now free men, join the Mother of Dragons and swear their allegiance to her. Missandei is by her side (see Table 11.5).

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Table 11.5  Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S3: Ep.10, “Mhysa” Interpreting setting Interpreting mode Preparation time Working conditions Interpreter’s performance

Political, although common lexicon is used (only one word: mhysa) Consecutive without note taking. None. Missandei is assumed to be permanently employed by Daenerys. Presentation: excellent. Expression: excellent. Problem-solving: excellent. Contents: After Daenerys asks Missandei what “Mhysa” means, Missandei tells her the meaning: “This is old Ghiscari, Khaleesi. It means mother”. Missandei explained which language it was and its meaning.

Thrones S4: Ep.3, “Breaker of Chains” In the fourth season, Daenerys wants to take over the City of Meereen and free the slaves. Missandei acts as an interpreter and translates the insults of the Sole Champion, who has been commanded by the city’s rulers to fight for the dominance of the city in a hand-to-hand combat against Daario Naharis, a man who now fights within the ranks of the Queen’s army (see Table 11.6).

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Table 11.6  Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S4: Ep.3, “Breaker of chains” Interpreting setting Interpreting mode

Preparation time Working conditions Interpreter’s performance

The situation is political, although no political terminology is used, only insults Consecutive interpreting for Daenerys and her advisors, without note taking. Missandei uses the respectful third person form as she distances herself from the insults and rude expressions used by the Sole Champion. As she only translates in one direction, this is considered consecutive and not dialogue interpreting. Unknown, but it is assumed that Missandei does this interpreting ad hoc without any preparation time. Missandei is permanently employed by Daenerys. Presentation: excellent. Expression: excellent. Problem-solving: excellent. Contents: Missandei appears to translate the meaning of the insult, literally.

Table 11.7  Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S4: Ep.6, “The Laws of Gods and Men” Interpreting Commercial/political setting Interpreting mode Dialogue interpreting, at the beginning, consecutive after each interaction, afterwards, simultaneously without note taking. Preparation time Unknown, it is assumed Missandei may have had time for preparation. Working Missandei is permanently employed by Daenerys. conditions Interpreter’s Presentation: excellent. performance Expression: excellent. Problem-solving: excellent. Contents: adequate, at the end an omission (grima, which could mean “thank you”), although it is considered that Daenerys understood the content of Missandei’s omission. Discourse Missandei uses the respectful third person form. management Expression in Excellent. foreign language

Thrones S4: Ep.6, “The Laws of Gods and Men” Missandei acts as interpreter between the Queen and a peasant who has lost a goat because of one of the dragons (see Table 11.7).

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Table 11.8  Analysis of interpreting in Thrones S4: Ep.10, “The Children” Interpreting setting Interpreting mode Preparation time Working conditions Interpreter’s performance

Discourse management Expression in foreign language

Commercial/political Dialogue interpreting, consecutive, after each sentence, without note taking. Unknown, but assumed that Missandei may have had time for preparation. Missandei is permanently employed, now working on a regular basis for Daenerys. Presentation: excellent. Expression: excellent. Problem-solving: excellent. Contents: Missandei interprets with certain delay “The Queen says you may approach” and after the peasant says two times “I do not understand, my Queen”, which Missandei does not interpret for Daenerys (two omissions). Missandei uses at first the respectful third person form and afterwards switches to the familiar first person form. Excellent.

Game of Thrones S4: Ep.10, “The Children” Daenerys receives a goatherd who claims that Drogon, the biggest dragon, has killed his daughter (see Table 11.8).

6  Discussion of Results In this analysis it is observed that Missandei dominates, with perfection, interpreting modes such  as consecutive interpreting and dialogue interpreting, consecutively and simultaneously. She is perfectly able to work in different settings, such as commercial and political settings, and she is never seen taking notes. She thus shows an extraordinary memory. Moreover she does not seem to need any adaptation time. In terms of working conditions, Missandei is first introduced working for Kraznys as a slave and as an interpreter. It can be seen that he does not treat her very well, and he insults her and demands, probably because of laziness, she address the Unsullied on her own. Kraznys does not want to address his army, and Missandei executes this task perfectly, showing that she has the knowledge to do so and does not need a source text. Moreover,

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she is perfectly capable of omitting his insults and rudeness and presents information in a very polite way, using adequate terminology and register. Missandei does this on more than one occasion, as shown in the second scene which has been examined (Thrones S3: Ep.3, “Walk of Punishment”). After Missandei interprets for a second time as Kraznys’ slave, she is obliged to “change employer”, as Daenerys wants her for herself. Missandei does not appear to need any time for transition and is observed adapting perfectly to the new situation. However, her working conditions have improved significantly under Daenerys, and she is now a free person, treated with respect and politeness. Missandei, from that point in time, works on a regular basis for Daenerys, similar to a permanent employee. As for the parameters regarding Missandei’s performance, such as presentation and expression in her mother and the foreign language, on every occasion, Missandei delivers excellent results. She has perfect dominance of her working languages, always uses an adequate register, tone and terminology, does not mispronounce anything and speaks clearly and securely with adequate rhythm and pauses. She also employs idiomatic expressions correctly and she is never seen to be struggling with problems. She shows that she is perfectly able to resolve any problems with which she is presented, without the audience perceiving it. Only once does she ask Kraznys if she should transmit his insults, and, when he says no, she is perfectly capable of acting accordingly, despite his continued insults towards his dialogue partners. In terms of discourse management, thanks to Missandei’s excellent performance, it can be observed that conversations are always fluent and interlocutors are not negatively influenced by the interpreter’s abilities. Moreover, as with professional interpreters, Missandei uses the formal third person form, when interpreting various persons, in order to clarify who she is interpreting for, to avoid confusion. She also uses the formal third person form in order to distance herself from what is said, as observed when she interpreted the insults from the Sole Champion (Thrones S4: Ep.3, “Breaker of Chains”). In addition, on various occasions, Missandei presents Daenerys, listing her titles, before beginning to interpret. On the one hand, this may be considered a special form of conversational automatism, in terms of Collados Aís et al. (2013), as this is information which does not change and can be seen as the opening of a conversation. However, on these occasions Missandei acts without a source text, and thus this listing of titles can be seen as conversational automatisms taken one step further, now even

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without a source text. On the other hand, the way Missandei acts can also be seen as an amplification of her role both as an interpreter and a member of Daenerys’s close confidents and a member of her council: she presents Daenerys to others.9 Another aspect which should be considered in this context and when taking the making of the series Game of Thrones into consideration is that Missandei’s way of acting can also be considered a strategy of the makers namely to give brief reviews of the characters and remind the audience of the plot of the series (Morató 2019).

7  Conclusion In this study the analysis investigates to what extent the specific image of an interpreter, shown in audiovisual texts, corresponds to reality. A brief overview provides details of the most important films featuring interpreters, both professional and amateur, demonstrating that it is a profession which arouses interest in audiovisual texts, although perhaps less than other professions. In these films, with the exception of one (Lost in Translation), interpreters are portrayed as people with prodigious memories, capable of doing several things at the same time and able to switch modes and use their proverbial knowledge of every word of the languages they speak; they certainly never seem to have to look up a word in a dictionary. In this study, the Game of Thrones’ character, Missandei, is analysed to examine whether she possesses these capacities. As shown in the analysis, Missandei acts in several of the series’ episodes, but not always as an interpreter, she also executes other tasks (e.g. as a language teacher). However, this is the major role in which she has been portrayed, from the first time she appears on screen; it is the role she is best known for. She performs her work irreproachably and to perfection. Although certain omissions and changes in meaning were detected (i.e. insults), these were perfectly justified, as previously discussed. Missandei understands this is a form of code of honour she must fulfil, as a slave of Kraznys. In subsequent episodes, later as Daenerys’ interpreter and advisor, she performs interpreting assignments to perfection, before public audiences (Thrones S4: Ep.6, “The Laws of God and Men” and Thrones S4: Ep.10, “The Children”) when she interprets between the people and the Queen and also when land or towns are conquered (Thrones S4: Ep.3, “Breaker of Chains”). 9

 Stender and Limbach (2022).

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These are unrealistic portrayals of the profession and do no favours to real interpreters. The vast majority of people may not be very familiar with the profession or the requirements for professional training, preparation time, good working conditions, note taking and so on, which are essential to the delivery of a professional result. It is rare that interpreters master all of their working languages equally, or at the same level as their mother tongue, or that they never commit errors. Further analysis must be carried out to determine how interpreters are portrayed in other audiovisual texts and whether there is a tendency to present them as superhuman, able to deliver perfect results at any time and without any preparation. The conclusions reached reveal that Missandei’s performance as an interpreter, in the series Game of Thrones, is not only excellent but it is perfect, to the extent that it cannot be seen as realistic. Missandei never commits an error, does not take notes, exhibits a perfect memory and needs no preparation. Missandei appears to have superhuman powers.

Bibliography Albl-Mikasa, M. 2012: “Raus aus dem Elfenbeinturm, rein in die globalisierte Welt: Dolmetschqualität unter veränderten Vorzeichen”, Bulletin der Schweizerischen Dolmetscher- und Übersetzervereinigung 24–27. https://doi. org/10.21256/zhaw-­4078. Brooks, J. L. (director), Sakai, R. (producer) 2004: Spanglish [Film], Los Angeles, CA: Columbia Pictures. Collados Aís, Á., Krüger, E., Pradas Macías, M. 2013: ABil alemán/español. Autoaprendizaje de interpretación bilateral. Libro y DVD interactivo, Granada. Coppola, S. (director), Coppola, S., Katz, R. (producers) 2003: Lost in Translation [Film], Los Angeles, CA: American Zoetrope, Elemental Films. Costner, K. (director), Wilson, J., Costner, K. (producers) 1990: Dances with Wolves [Film], Sherman Oaks, CA: Tig Productions. Díaz-Galaz, S. 2015: La influencia del conocimiento previo en la interpretación simultánea de discursos especializados: Un estudio empírico (Diss., Universidad de Granada), Granada. Domínguez Araújo, L. 2013: “Una propuesta de matriz formativa para evaluar la interpretación consecutiva”, in R. Barranco-Droege, E. M. Pradas Macías and O.  García Becerra (eds.), Quality Interpreting: Widening the scope, vol. 2, Granada, 201–222. Donen, S. (director, producer) 1963: Charade [Film], Los Angeles, CA: Universal Studios.

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Driker, E. 2015: “Conference Interpreting”, in F.  Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies, New York and London, 78–82. Fantinuoli, C. 2017: “Computer-assisted Preparation in Conference Interpreting”, Translation & Interpreting 9.2, 24–37. Gile, D. 2009: Basic Concepts and Models for Interpreter and Translator Training: Revised edition, Amsterdam. Grbić, N., Pöchhacker, F. 2015: “Working Conditions”, in F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. New York and London, 441–443. Grbić, N., Pöllabauer, S. 2006: “Community Interpreting: Signed or Spoken? Types, Modes, and Methods”, Linguistica Antwerpiensia 5, 247–261. Hale, S. B. 2015: “Community Interpreting”, in F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies, New York and London, 65–69. Kade, O. 1968: Zufall und Gesetzmässigkeit in der Übersetzung, Leipzig. Kalina, S. 2005: “Quality Assurance for Interpreting Processes”, Meta. Translators’ Journal 50.2, 768–784. Kramer, S. (director, producer) 1961: Judgement at Nuremberg [Film], Culver City: Roxlom Films. Limbach, C., Stender A. 2018: “Zur Bewertung des Gesprächsdolmetschens im Hochschulunterricht: Game of Thrones  – Wie professionell handelt Missandei?”, Glottodidactica 45.2, 215–228. https://doi.org/10.14746/ gl.2018.45.2.12. Limbach, C., Álvarez, C. 2019: “Fehleranalyse und didaktische Vorschläge für die Qualitätssteigerung beim bilateralen konsekutiven Dolmetschen“, in C. Carrasco, M.  Canarero Muñoz and C.  Díez Carbajo (eds.), Traducción y Sostenibilidad cultural: sustrato, fundamentos y aplicaciones, Salamanca, 241–252. Limbach, C. 2020: “Game of Thrones & Das Lied von Eis und Feuer. Untersuchung der Darstellung von Frauen am Beispiel von Missandei“, in E.  Parra-Membrives and M.  Almagro Jiménez (eds.), Modification or Misrepresentation of Female Characters in the Media / Veränderung oder Verfälschung weiblicher Figuren in den Medien, Tübingen, 129–158. Lukas, G. (director), Kurtz, G., Lukas, G. (producers) 1977: Episode IV-A New Hope [Film], San Francisco, CA: Lukasfilm. Morató Agrafojo, Y. 2019: “El uso del epíteto en ‘Juego de Tronos’. Consideraciones lingüístico-retóricas”, Presented at International Congress Juego de Tronos. Claves desde las Humanidades, Seville, Spain. Universidad Pablo de Olavide and Universidad de Sevilla, 15–18. May 2019. Pollack, S. (director), Bevan, T., Fellner, E., Misher, K. (producers) 2005: The Interpreter [Film], London and Los Angeles, CA: Working Title Films. Pöchhacker, F. 2004: Introducing Interpreting Studies, New York and London. Shuttleworth, M., Cowie, M. 1997: Dictionary of Translation Studies, Manchester. Spielberg, S. (director), Allen, D., Spielberg, S., Wilson, C. (producers) 1997: Amistad [Film], Los Angeles, CA: DreamWorks SKG.

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Stender, A., Limbach, C. (2022): “Career Opportunities in the Field of Translation and Interpreting, Illustrated by the Character of Missandei in the Series Game of Thrones”, Entreculturas. Revista de Traducción y comunicación intercultural 12, 57–68. Villeneuve, D. (director) 2016: Arrival [Film], Los Angeles, CA: Lava Bear Films, 21 Laps Entertainment, Filmnation Entertainment, Reliance Entertainment, Xenolinguistics. Viezzi, M. 2013: “Simultaneous and Consecutive Interpreting (Non-conference Settings)”, in C.  Millán and F.  Bartrina (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Translation Studies, New York and London, 377–388. Woo, J. (director), Chang, T., Graham-Rice, T., Rosenzweig, A., Woo, J. (producers) 2002: Windtalkers [Film], Los Angeles, CA: Metro Goldwyn Mayer. Zwick, E. (director, producer) 2006: Blood Diamond [Film], Burbank, CA: Warner Bros.

CHAPTER 12

Westeros Versus the West: A Ludic Bridge for Teaching History Víctor Sánchez Domínguez

1   Introduction The Game of Thrones TV series, which has achieved record audiences worldwide, has become not only a mass phenomenon transcending the realm of television but also a transmedia phenomenon revolving around a fantasy universe which encompasses books, series, multimedia material, video, roleplaying games and so forth. This medieval fantasy universe has even reached beyond the audience at which it was originally aimed to permeate all sections of society. All this has converted this transmedia reality into a potential learning tool, at very specific educational stages, insofar as it forges a link between the contemporary “Westeros” with which students are familiar and the distant medieval West that teachers try to explain to them in class. The Game of Thrones phenomenon could be understood as a bridge for achieving meaningful learning by linking content from the series, familiar to its audience, to that of ancient and medieval history from

V. Sánchez Domínguez (*) Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8_12

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which the author of the saga G. R. R. Martin and the scriptwriters of the TV series have drawn inspiration. This chapter addresses the concept of transmedia reality, including its definition and construction in relation to the Game of Thrones universe, as well as assessing its teaching potential by drawing parallels between this fantasy world and the curricular content of the modules of some undergraduate history degree programmes. Following this, a number of teaching solutions, grounded in gamification and learning principles deriving from games based on the transmedia material of this universe, are proposed for adapting them to lecture hall dynamics. Unquestionably, it is the TV series that has converted the highly acclaimed literary saga into a mass phenomenon. However, it should be stressed that even before the HBO network launched the highly popular series, the saga itself had begun to penetrate other market niches inherent to the fantasy genre. Some clear examples of this include the release of the “A Game of Thrones” board game in 2003 and that of the roleplaying game going by the same name in 2005, which was subsequently released in Spain in 2006.1 After the premiere of the TV series, many other by-products appeared, including the comic series, new card and board games and the roleplaying game “A Song of Ice and Fire Roleplaying” released by EDGE in 2009 and translated into Spanish in 2010.2 So, it can be seen how, in under a decade, Martin’s still unfinished saga has not only given rise to an alternative literary universe but has also been transformed into a constantly expanding transmedia phenomenon, currently encompassing video games, comics and a multitude of merchandising products, in addition to the many creations of fans who have embraced Westerosi culture. This new cultural reality, which has made its way into society by interacting with a much wider audience than other transmedia universes usually attract, such as that deriving from J.  R. R. Tolkien’s work and, most recently, from J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter saga, seemed to be aimed at adults, due to the explicitness of the series in aspects such as sex and violence. However, it has clearly filtered down to younger audiences, either owing to the fact that they have watched the series or have simply been caught up in the cultural maelstrom unleashed by different 1 2

 Lyons and McKinnons (2005, 2006).  Schwalb (2009, 2010).

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communication channels. So, neither was it odd to see young people wearing clothes and buying games or figurines relating to this universe nor to encounter, days before the premiere of the new seasons, sleepy students commenting on the binge-watching to which they had subjected themselves so as to recall previous seasons or to get hooked on the fashionable Game of Thrones phenomenon. From a teaching perspective, this should encourage us to reconsider the potential value of this universe which, while being somewhat adult, has also engaged young people completing their secondary education or who have just gone up to university. 

Transmedia Universes and their Impact: Why Are these Transmedia Realities so Important and Pervasive?

However, before continuing to address the expansion of Game of Thrones as a transmedia reality, it is essential to define these realities and why they are so important today. As Cantalapiedra recalls, the media universe has multiple ramifications and is no longer only made up of the traditional media and their digital counterparts but has also been invaded by content generated at the other end of the communication channel, by users themselves.3 For authors such as Gómez Aguilar, it is precisely the evolution of the Internet and software production that are behind this media revolution.4 In the words of Chavez-Ordóñez:5 The transformations which the Internet has brought about in the media, in relation to both content production and reception processes, are unprecedented. This medium, far from posing a threat to television, has served as a catalyst for the gestation of a different and, in many respects, better quality narrative.6

In addition, as these and other authors such as Galbe and Espada point out, there is plentiful literature on this transmedia creation phenomenon,7

 Cantalapiedra (2018: 9).  Gómez Aguilar (2018: 15–16). 5  All translations are mine, unless otherwise stated. 6  Chávez-Ordóñez (2014: 78). 7  On transmedia storytelling on Spanish television, see Galbe and Espadas (2016). 3 4

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including the studies performed by Jenkins and Scolari, who define and address transmedia reality and fandom.8 Specifically, in line with Jenkins’ definition of it, transmedia reality can be understood as a transmedia story [that] is developed through multiple media platforms, and each new text makes a specific and valuable contribution to the whole. In the ideal form of transmedia narration, each media does what it does best, so that a story can be presented in a movie and spread through television, novels and comics; your world can be explored in video games or experienced in an amusement park.9

It can be observed how these new realities feed into each other by considering themselves as independent but linked branches that have a tendency towards what the author calls “media convergence”. Although it may be questioned and may have a strange air of twenty-first-century neo-­ religiosity about it (altar of convergence), it is undeniable that this concept impregnates society with each one of the new realities which, transcending cinema, television and the Web, spawn new fan phenomena, foster fandom and, in particular for teaching, permeate universities and, if care is not taken, lecture halls themselves. This reality underpins the almost dogmatic statement that “we are connected”.10 The stances taken on the concept of media convergence and transmedia realities distanced themselves in this aspect from cultural development, especially at the end of the twentieth century, at time when the most sceptical predicted cultural collapse through a convergence promoted by major companies which would ultimately sweep away Western culture by eliminating the critical and creative capacity of individuals under the influence of the major information channels. However, the evolution of these major channels has left an opening allowing consumers to abandon their role and to interact actively with the media. There has been a return to a “do-it-­ yourself” age, but now in digital format, while a new concept has emerged: the prosumer. Jenkins’ studies on the fan phenomenon, its creations and the goldmine that companies see in this reality that feeds back into itself and grows, sometimes exponentially if it is popular with the public, show that media  Jenkins (2003); Scolari (2009).  Jenkins (2008: 102). 10  On the “culture of convergence”, see Jenkins (2008), with relevant bibliography. 8 9

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convergence is a force of action and interaction in which everybody can participate freely. It also demonstrates that, although its scope can lead to the alienation of individuals in favour of the interests of creative companies, those individuals can harness this current and not only consume content but also analyse it, select it and discern it, according to their ideas, culture and interests, and even modify and amplify it.11 Thus, ideas developed in a medium such as cinema, with the examples of The Matrix12 and Harry Potter film series, and video games like Pokémon13 are authentic powerhouses that exploit many different formats (novels, comics, films, games, etc.). They also produce a variety of parallel stories that become impossible to control when reaching the hands of prosumers who have created their own form of reinterpretation ranging from fan-art14 to authentic films and animation, through the creation of narratives.15 So, with an eye to defining not only a transmedia reality and its expansion, on his blog, Jenkins posted two entries entitled, “The revenge of the origami unicorn”, in which he described the characteristic elements making up these new product networks reflecting these novel realities. In brief, a transmedia reality should engage the public actively, should have continuity and multiplicity and should promote immersion in this reality and allow consumers to contribute to its development by striking up a dialogue between both.16 These characteristics of the design of transmedia realities enhance their ability to expand and search for a dialogue between creators and prosumers who generate their own universe. Both groups participate and immerse themselves modifying the perceptions of reality. In Spain, where transmedia realities are already being disseminated, a good example is television. In the words of Establés Heras, “The production and promotion of new TV series are governed increasing more by the logic of transmedia storytelling”.17 From Águila Roja to Isabel, through La Zona and La Peste, producers like A3 Media, RTVE and Movistar, learning from their major foreign counterparts, have designed materials in different formats so as to enhance the impact of their products. Meanwhile,  Jenkins (2008, 2014).  Jenkins (2003). 13  Scolari (2009). 14  Chavez-Ordóñez (2014). 15  Jenkins (2014). 16  Jenkins (2009). 17  Establés Heras (2016: 480). 11 12

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the fan phenomenon has spread throughout the country, with the appearance of communities focusing on these stories which, to the extent of their abilities, they modify, amplify or simply consume systematically and intensively.18 The Game of Thrones universe has far exceeded expectations for a transmedia reality by presenting multiple formats that have permeated popular culture, as evidenced by phenomena like the memes omnipresent on social networks and the curious series of videos featuring an elderly woman, Guadalupe, “the grandmother of dragons”, commenting on the episodes of the series, which during the last seasons went viral.19

2  The Use of Transmedia Realities in Teaching through Gamification: A Problem, a Solution 

The Teaching Problem

After identifying the current value of these transmedia realities, it should be noted how the concepts deriving from the idea of their expansion and that of active convergence are especially interesting, since it is understood here that they can merge with new teaching currents rooted in constructivism, active methodologies and empowering students as generators of new content. Nowadays, legislation in the field of education recommends that it be the students themselves who address programme content for an active assimilation in which teachers cease to be transmitters of knowledge to become facilitators of subject matter and guides who show them how to approach and work with it in order to get the most out of it. Bridging the gap, teachers resemble content generators, companies creating a product for the recreation of students/consumers who then go on to enjoy the experience of creating their own content. The idea is to encourage students to learn by themselves from the new content that they generate and to apply this new knowledge to their daily lives. This approach is already represented by the skills learning that in Spain is clearly reflected in the applications of the European Higher Education framework and in the  Establés Heras (2016: 476–479).  For an example of the fan phenomenon and the production of transmedia content, consult the YouTube channel of “Guadalupe”: https://www.youtube.com/channel/ UCEl0mQqf8vBemjDWIQWFTrg (accessed 24 April 2022). 18 19

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design of capabilities by ministries of education. This has led teachers to adapt their techniques to new forms of learning which must meet other new challenges and conform to a different student body and tools. However, students have a communication problem with their future content providers. They are now at the centre of the teaching-learning process, but one that is shifting further away from their teachers. The gap between generations is now shorter and more palpable. The shared cultural elements that used to give rise to interactions between teachers and students have diminished increasingly more, owing to the fact that the cultural icons that they acquire from the media now change in less than 10 years.20 The books, comic books and films that entertained the young and which were the major development in teaching in the twentieth century are different for students sometimes 10 or 15 years younger (at best). With luck, teachers can alter this trend by acquainting students with these as if they were relics of the past, whose captivating retro air arouses their curiosity. Developments such as Disney’s acquisition of Marvel Studios and Lucasfilm, among other film production companies, have revitalised the icons of Generation X for the new Generations Y and Z. Nevertheless, it is impossible to prevent, in words of Cuesta, students from detecting a gap between their expectations and curricular and classroom reality.21 The problem is not limited to the stages of secondary education but is exacerbated in higher education. The lack of training of lecturers and professors in teaching techniques and the concatenation of problems arising in previous stages means that they have to meet the new challenges posed by their students. In light of our teaching experience, we have been able to confirm, without a shadow of doubt, that in the module “Fundamentals of History” of the undergraduate primary education teacher training degree programme, to the aforementioned shortcomings should be added the difficulties in incorporating the subject matter of a related discipline in the syllabus.22 It is for this reason that we have considered regrouping the elements forming part of the complex learning system in a way similar to what we understand as “the culture of convergence” phenomenon, as analysed in 20  There are several works on the so-called “millennials”. In this respect, see Cuesta et al. (2008); Días et al. (2015); Cataldi and Dominighini (2015). As to teaching “digital native” or “Generation Z” students, see Fernández-Cruz and Fernández-Díaz (2016). 21  Cuesta et al. (2008: 201). 22  Sánchez Domínguez et al. (2019).

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media studies. Within it, convergent reality (in this case transmedia) receives different inputs and compensates the converging aspects with enriching results. This transmedia metaphor leverages the fact that learning is no longer unidirectional but multidirectional and reversible, thus allowing teachers, students and content to converge: the different elements enrich and benefit from the learning process. For that convergence and subsequent feedback to occur, however, transmission channels must be fluid. Communication between teachers and students in terms of subject matter, content development and their assimilation must be continuous. To this end, it is necessary to look for new methodologies for bridging gaps that make it possible to understand reality from the perspectives of teachers and students, alike. 

The Solution: Gamification as an Active Methodology

As already noted, from our experience in university lecturing, we have seen how, since the beginning of the new millennium, new active teaching methodologies focusing on competency-based learning have emerged.23 This philosophy has breathed new life into old practices, such as the use of games in learning,24 and has assimilated new methodologies for loyalty creation and motivation in other areas, including game design and marketing so as to adapt them to education, as Lee and Hamer did.25 This is the case of gamification, or the use of gaming elements in non-recreational settings, as defined by Deterding.26 Gamification seeks to modify learning dynamics by introducing gaming elements to motivate students, to speed up the learning process and to make this more appealing. Gamification is a teaching methodology that has been in vogue since it was applied by Lee and Hamer to education in 2011.27 The use of the different gaming elements, such as the model-driven architecture (hereinafter MDA) system,28 has been successful in improving the motivation and performance of students, as contended by, among others, Díaz and 23  On how the European Higher Education framework has changed university education in Spain and its repercussions on learning, see Benito and Cruz (2012); Prieto (2008). 24  On the role of games in human education, see Huizinga (2000). 25  Lee and Hammer (2011). 26  Deterding et al. (2011). 27  For a bibliographical study of gamification, see De Sousa Borges et al. (2014); Dicheva and Dichev (2015); Ardila-Muñoz (2019). 28  As to the MDA system, see Hunicke et al. (2004); Werbach and Hunter (2012).

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Troyano in their study performed at the University of Seville.29 Thus, to game design theories, such as those proposed by McGonigal and Zichermann and Cunningham,30 which have enhanced the application of gamification, theories about flow and engagement31 and about the personalities and archetypes of players32 have been added, along with a large number of practical teaching applications in different areas. In sum, gamification dynamics are approached from different levels according to the degree of involvement and the effects that we want to have on users.33 To implement gamification, whatever the level, different elements can be incorporated, which are illustrated in the pyramid designed by Werbach.34 The base of this pyramid represents the components, or more superficial elements, as well as the more striking ones. The behavioural nature of gamification, deriving from the concept of game rewards, means that there is a complete set of elements that serve to reward the performance of activities and to record and compare it with that of other participants in order to achieve social recognition (badges, points, rankings, etc.). In addition, there are other components such as the avatar or representation of the character embodied by a player in the game and the fact that this character can change and evolve (in terms of levels). These elements in themselves can enhance participation and motivation, albeit superficially. On the next level are the mechanics, understood as the system employed to play and enjoy the game. Making an analogy with games, it is the rules themselves that manage the acquisition, uses and purpose of the components and allow for giving coherence to game mechanics. Furthermore, the rules are set out in a language inherent to game development, which serves as a link between consumers and designers. The last level, which by our reckoning is the most important, is composed of what are called “dynamics”, understood as that which prompts people to play a game while at the same time giving it a semantic and symbolic coherence. These dynamics (not to be confused with the term’s application in the field of education, where it refers to activities and their development) are elements of a certain literary nature that flesh out the  Díaz and Troyano (2013).  Mcgonigal (2005, 2011); Zichermann and Cunningham (2011). 31  Csikszentmihalyi (2010); Hamari and Koivisto (2013). 32  Bartle (1996); Marczewski (2015). 33  Marczewski (2015); Teixes (2015). 34  Werbach and Hunter (2012). 29

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different elements of a game, such as history, interdependencies and relationships between participants, the sensation of making progress and not just reaching levels. It is these elements that create a sense of alienation from reality and of entering a gamified reality. It is necessary to know who or what the avatars are, whether or not there has been any previous relationship between them, where the badges come from or what they symbolise, why points should be obtained or not and what the purpose of progressing in the game is. Attempting to draw a parallel with the Game of Thrones universe, these dynamics are the plot of a novel or series. As already observed, this methodology is currently being touted as a highly relevant tool for teachers designing games for different educational levels. For which reason, it is now easy to find gamification applications in primary, secondary and university education in different areas and degrees. Examples include publications such as those coordinated by Torres-­ Toukoumidis and Espinosa,35 in addition to websites with a wide range of resources. Moreover, the theoretical proposal set out here already has several precedents in gamification applications that, in one way or another, have appropriated elements of the Westeros transmedia reality to enhance learning, for example: • “Juego de Carbonos”36 is a video game designed specifically to incorporate aspects of teaching organic chemistry and inclusive education. The authors pose a series of challenges to students in a virtual environment with avatars, scenarios and levels that resemble the characters and landscape of the Seven Kingdoms. With the virtual environment of a video game and the play on words “Juego de Carbonos”, it has managed to engage audiences, at first not very interested in organic chemistry, who are swiftly faced with challenges that test their knowledge on the subject, forcing them to study in order to progress in the virtual environment. • The “Game of Thrones web quest”37 addresses the study of physical laws through poliorcetics. The study of the siege weapons appearing in the Game of Thrones universe allows teachers to generate  Espinosa and Eguia (2016); Torres-Toukoumidis et al. (2018).  Moreno and Murillo (2018). 37  http://sites.google.com/site/gameofthroneswebquest/home  (accessed 1 October 2022). 35 36

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­ escriptive content in which the physical principles necessary for the d proper functioning and better effectiveness of these weapons are presented. The web quest and its design are already being employed as a teaching methodology that can be completed with gamification. As the challenges that students are expected to meet and the avatars that they can create all derive from the Game of Thrones universe, the web quest can be understood as an online game in which they learn through the wars of Westeros. • “Juego de tronos: el fecho del imperio”38 is a gamification application that is somewhat ambiguous, because it could be claimed that it is the one whose relationship with the transmedia reality under study here is the least evident. The title is, to a point, misleading for the users of the game which, through role-play, immerses them in the universe of the Castilian king Alfonso X’s struggle for the imperial crown. Mixing role-play with a resource management system, in this gamification application, different sides fight for the crown or play the role of kingmakers, meaning that it falls somewhat into the serious game category, thus allowing students to acquire knowledge through experience. To our mind, this system is closer to the principles of game-based learning (hereinafter GBL) than to gamification per se, as evidenced by contributions such as those of Isaacs,39 who advocates for decoupling games from gamification, this being in our opinion the case of role-play.40

3  Analysis of A Song of Ice and Fire After analysing the impact of transmedia culture, employing the Game of Thrones universe within this new framework as an example, together with others, of how different higher education professionals have leveraged transmedia realities, and specifically Game of Thrones, as a teaching tool, the time has now come to propose an alternative for teaching history. As already noted, the Game of Thrones universe is clearly inspired by history, especially that of ancient and medieval Europe and, moving away from Essos, that of Asia. Clear parallels have already been drawn between  Felix (2016).  Isaacs (2015). 40  For our views on the difference between GBL and gamification in roleplaying games, see Sánchez Domínguez (2018a). 38 39

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the Romans and the Valyrians, on the one hand, and the Carthaginians and the Ghiscari, on the other.41 The history of Westeros has also been linked to that of the British Isles, based on a pre-Celtic reality resembling the world of the First Men who undergo a first transformation at the hands of the Andals in a mythical struggle typical of The Book of Invasions. This analogy continues with the invasions of the Ironborn (Saxons) and a brilliant Targaryen invasion, almost as swift as the Norman invasion of William the Conqueror. Likewise, there are similarities between Essos and medieval Europe, with a bank in Braavos with an economic power similar to that of the bankers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; free cities, such as Volantis and Pentos, which are akin to Venice or other Italian city-­ states and so on and so forth. As the wealth of historical references contained in The Book of Invasions, among others, can also be extracted from Martin et al.’s The World of Ice and Fire, we recommend that those teachers who wish to elaborate on this theoretical proposal consult them. As already mentioned, however, to obtain a clear perception—almost like that of a textbook, one could say— it would be highly recommendable to peruse the aforementioned roleplaying games which, in order to create the right atmosphere for their users, include in an organised and summarised way all the information published up until the date of their release. This is the first value added of “A Game of Thrones” and “A Song of Ice and Fire Roleplaying”, insofar as they were released in 2005 and 2009, respectively, somewhat before the rather encyclopaedic “A World of Ice and Fire Roleplaying”. This allowed them to collect the entire lore of the Game of Thrones universe, one of the fundamental tasks before starting to design and develop a game, narrative or plot. In addition to their compilation format, it is important to stress the importance of roleplaying games as teaching tools, due to the players’ active participation in the evolution of the game and, consequently, in the story that it recounts. Carbó and Pérez’s42 approach to the reassessment of roleplaying games has become more relevant for current teaching trends in which learning is seen as a process revolving around students who must build their own knowledge. This approach is rooted in constructivism and, as already mentioned, chimes perfectly with the development of

 See Moreno-Marín in vol. 2.  Carbó and Pérez (2010).

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learning through roleplaying games.43 Accordingly, the games developed by DEVIR and EDGE could be used directly as gaming applications, with which students could experience life as Westerosi citizens, the joys and sorrows of a medieval world with a historical background replete with references to the curricular content in question. Another alternative, which we believe would be more useful, would be to use the content of these roleplaying games to generate a gamified experience for covering specific subject matter that for students is difficult to grasp. So, in our line of research on gamification as a methodology for teaching history and on the use of roleplaying games as elements susceptible to being gamified,44 we are of the mind that those developed by DEVIR and EDGE, one of by-products of the Game of Thrones universe, could be very useful when designing teaching tools and materials for gamifying ancient and medieval history curricular content. First, both games provide a complete history of the Game of Thrones universe. This means that both teachers and students have a complete reference text available to them, which may also serve as the basis of a new story, either as part of a roleplaying game or of the narrative of a gamification application. Another element that should be borne in mind, as in any roleplaying game, there are a number of character archetypes from which players can choose, thus allowing them to live different experiences. The design of the character archetypes in the DEVIR game focuses on professions, with a classic class system deriving from sword and sorcery games such as “Dungeons and Dragons” (D & D) which has served as a prototype for many other games. Specifically, in this system players can choose from eight archetypes, representing different classes including the artisan, the man of God, the man-at-arms, the bandit, the hunter, the nobleman and the maester. In contrast, the EDGE game has a much more open system in which there are no defined classes, since players can also assume the role of characters of different ages and socioeconomic statuses, among other things. Although its editors created archetypes, these are really character types owing to the fact that they focus on their knowledge, faith, leadership or physical abilities. The use of these resources offers players the opportunity to experience a medieval fantasy world that they explore from the perspective of their characters, thus permitting them to acquire a  Sánchez Domínguez (2018a).  Sánchez Domínguez (2018a, 2018b).

43 44

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unique, personal and highly significant knowledge of it. It is through this experience that they learn to play a game or use a gamification application in a more meaningful fashion. In addition, these archetypes make it possible to address two elements of game mechanics, namely, avatars and character types, for they can thus be chosen on the basis of the player types for gamification proposed by Bartle and Marczewski, among others.45 Both character systems also have a series of objectives that mark their evolution, clearly linked to social ascent in a medieval fantasy world, whose social aspects are very similar to those of medieval history per se. So, the way in which the characters evolve allows players to perceive and incorporate the functioning and social rules of a medieval society either through the game per se or through the gamification mechanics. Concepts such as feudalism, the coexistence of different economic systems (barter, currency and bills of exchange), the origin and importance of banks and the role of religion, among other aspects, can be seen from an almost emic perspective, thus facilitating learning. These elements of progression also foresee the possible inclusion of levels and rankings, both common elements in gamification and roleplaying games. In this regard, it should be stressed that both games provide comprehensive descriptions of objects, which can be used in the badge system, which involve the behavioural element of rewards and loyalty typical of gamification. All considered, we believe that “A Game of Thrones” and “A Song of Ice and Fire Roleplaying” allow for the effective learning of content inherent to ancient and medieval history, and to see this more clearly, we believe that the design of a teaching proposal focusing on them is necessary. Therefore, and based on our teaching experience in the undergraduate primary teacher training degree programme at the University of Seville, we have decided to elaborate a theoretical gamification proposal for the “Fundamentals of History: History of Spain” module, a subject clearly susceptible to being enhanced in this way. The module’s objective is “to learn about the main historical events of the history of Spain”, “to study and analyse the political, economic, social and cultural aspects that have shaped the historical heritage of Spain” and to develop the following: “the capacity for analysis, synthesis and criticism”; “an awareness of the diversity of the historical approach and knowledge of the diachronic structure

 Bartle (1996); Marczewski (2015).

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of the past”; and “the ability to manage different information sources and to understand historical processes”.

4   Proposal What follows is a theoretical proposal for gamifying the “Fundamentals of History: History of Spain” module. It is important to recall that this is a theoretical proposal whose implementation is contingent on the future planning and restructuring of the system of practices, based on transversal teaching unit design projects, which has been a great success since having been introduced in 2012.46 Firstly, it is essential to underscore that this proposal is understood as a methodology supplementing the one that has been traditionally followed when teaching this module, based on an explanatory method enhanced by textual and graphic material, with an eye to helping students to understand clearly subject matter and to assimilate it. In this system, the participation of students in an open dialogue is sought during the theoretical lectures in which they are expected to learn this subject matter. The main objective of this supplementary methodology is to approach the subject matter taught in the theoretical lectures from a different perspective, focusing on students as generators of their own content, which is subsequently contrasted with the theoretical subject matter. To this end, it is necessary to design a gamification application in which students perform a series of activities, both individually and in groups, which allow them to: 1. Identify the values of ancient and medieval societies. 2. Assimilate transversal concepts that are difficult to understand, such as acculturation, invasion, migration, border, coexistence, cohabitation, religious syncretism, henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, trust, opulence, symbolism, social order, social class, means of production, guild production and so forth. 3. Assimilate and appropriate specific vocabulary. 4. Isolate and identify the similarities between history and the Game of Thrones fictional universe.

46  On the challenges of teaching this subject, see Sánchez Domínguez et  al. (2017); Sánchez Domínguez et al. (2019).

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The subject matter of the gamification application is based on the theoretical module content taught in the lecture hall, although this is analysed more in depth in project work, the practical content deriving from commentaries on maps, images and documents linked to the project and experiential content learned through the gamification application, all of which should allow for a more direct approach to historical reality. Due to the module’s organisation and time constraints, the best way to incorporate gamification is in theoretical lectures at particular times, closely linked to the flipped classroom concept, on the one hand, and in practical classes, which entails modifying their evaluation system, on the other. The evaluation system is modified in order to enhance certain aspects of the way in which the module has been traditionally evaluated. Specifically, gamification would be directly reflected in marks and completing the project work: the project work and the design of the teaching units for traditional practical training (20% each), individual ranking (10%) and noble house ranking (10%) and an exam or the Hand’s tourney (40%) (the exam would touch on issues relating to the project and activities).  Elements of Gamification, Design and Application by Section  ynamic Elements: Narrative and Progression D The gamification application’s narrative is based on students’ experience of the everyday life in a minor noble house. In both the theoretical lectures and practical sessions, they maintain the same discursive line, thus serving as the guiding thread of the gamified module. Students are divided in groups, each of them representing a smaller house under the aegis of one of the great houses of the Game of Thrones universe, in which they play different roles, depending on the avatar— based on the DEVIR system—that they choose. At the beginning of the course (Session I of practical training), they perform the “Design your house” and “Avatars” activities. As the game progresses, students are expected to make their avatars evolve in the noble house that they serve through activities conducive to the development of lectures. The individual progression of students is ranked for their particular archetype/avatar, this allowing them to reach higher levels with different

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types of rewards, while group progression depends of the “tourney at Harrenhal” activity in which each house competes against the rest. The intention of all this is to make students feel that they belong to their group, obtaining from the outset benefits from collaborative learning and from an immersive experience that enhances their engagement in the subject. Gamification Mechanics The inner workings of the gamification application are based on three elements: individual competition within each class, with its own ranking system, group competition between the houses and the extracurricular projects that students should complete together. Individual ranking and project outcomes have a positive effect on the ranking of each house. As to individual competition within each class—the wise of Oldtown (for maesters and priests), the guild of artisans (for those who choose artisan or merchant avatars), aspirants to the royal guard (knights, warriors and hunters) and the most wanted in the flea nest (for schemers, swindlers and bandits)—ranking lists are posted in the lecture hall.47 As to these ranking lists, points are awarded for intervening in class and for carrying out activities included in the syllabus, using, for example, the game-based learning platform Kahoot!,48 or by fellow students in the projects. The rankings unlock four levels, and for each one unlocked 0.25 points are added to the total score of students’ individual rankings (see Figs. 12.2 and 12.3). Two points are added to the overall score of the houses of those students ranked first on each list, while 1 point is added to that of the houses of those unlocking the fourth level. As to the group rankings, 1 point is awarded to the groups for completing each project, which are then added to those awarded by their lecturer, based on his or her own evaluation and that of their peers, with the aim of promoting co-evaluation and a critical spirit. House rankings unlock four levels, the first being attained for the groups’ satisfactory participation in the three projects (more on this below). Only one house can obtain the 47  Due to the possibility that in a group there are no members of a certain class or that there are several ones belonging to the same class, one or more players are allowed to compete in this class in order to complete the different projects. 48  Already widely employed in history teaching (Álvarez Melero et al. 2017), Kahoot! is used in four activities, participation in which allows students receive the minimum points for unlocking the first level of the individual ranking.

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Fig. 12.1  House ranking table, system of group evaluation. Graphic design by M. L. Rodríguez Jiménez

maximum score in this section, because there are also individual points that only can be obtained as a group (see Fig. 12.1). The third element of the gamification application are the three projects, one for each archetype (men of God/maesters, artisans and knights), although those students with avatars belonging to the “flea nest” ranking can choose the project in which they would mainly like to participate. The projects, presented by the member or members49 of the groups corresponding to the different archetypes, are evaluated individually and collectively by the lecturer and the rest of the students. With a view to promoting a co-evaluation system, the lecturer awards up to 2 points for both group performance and that of the member presenting the project in question, as with the rest of the groups whose members also have to draft a one-paragraph-long report on each presentation, although in this second case, the points awarded are averaged out. One point is added to the individual scores and another to that of the house of the members of the group with the highest score in each of the three projects. Based on the 49  Owing to the fact that groups may have four members, two of them are allowed to make presentations, taking into account the theme of the videos and their link to the archetypes of the students making them.

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lecturer’s evaluation of each one of the three projects, students receive a badge (chain links for maesters, military equipment for knights and warriors, relics for clergymen, tools for artisans and thieves, etc.) which does not affect their individual rankings but is only meant to serve as a motivation. Components This gamification application has basically two components: the individual avatars or archetypes, which vary according to the level, and the group avatar or noble house. In addition, it is important to dwell briefly on those aspects that allow for modifying the levels of development of the aforementioned avatars/archetypes and the badges that should enhance the feeling of engagement of students. The choice of individual avatars is first determined by a questionnaire in which students have to choose the path that they want to take (religious, social or political), after which they can then select one of the avatars falling into the category in question (see Figs. 12.2 and 12.3). Conversely, the collective avatar is created by the students themselves in the “Design your house” activity. Nonetheless, there is also the possibility of including another questionnaire in which students are asked to choose a house from among the many in the network, so as to determine with which major house they are associated and to increase the level of immersion. Regarding badges, points and levels, these are shown in the tables (Figs. 12.2 and 12.3) appearing in the mechanics section, as well as being covered in the design of the following activities. Activities and Sequencing After describing the gamification elements, the activities making them up need to be sequenced and explained. Gamification Session 1 (2h of practical training) During the session the gamification narrative and mechanics are explained in the first hour, before students perform the “Design your house” and “Avatars” activities. “Design your house” In the “Design your house” activity, the lecturer explains several concepts, including coats of arms, heraldry and the basic elements of a small fief,

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Fig. 12.2  Tables 2 and 3: Individual ranking tables. Graphic design by M. L. Rodríguez Jiménez

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Fig. 12.3  Tables 4 and 5: Individual ranking tables. Graphic design by M. L. Rodríguez Jiménez

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thus offering an introduction to medieval history. Organised in groups of three to four members, students are tasked with designing a coat of arms, establishing the name of their house and offering a brief account of its history. To this end, a questionnaire can be prepared. “Avatars” Students perform the “Avatars” activity individually by completing the specially designed “The path of the Seven” questionnaire,50 which results in three types of players, depending on whether they pursue: • Wisdom. The Crone and the Stranger (explorers and socialisers), including teachers and priests. • Creation and discovery. The Smith and the Maiden (socialisers and winners), including merchants and artisans. • The order. The Mother, the Father and the Warrior (winners and killers), including warriors, men-at-arms and hunters. The avatars are then registered in the different rankings, and, as they make progress in the Kahoot! activities and intervene in class and in the projects, they obtain points. Gamification Sessions 2, 3 and 4: Project System Sessions 2, 3 and 4 address the project system, which has already been explained when presenting the subject and recalled in Session 1. The main objective of the three specially designed projects, which are group activities carried out by the members of each minor house in Sessions 2, 3 and 4, is to gain a deeper understanding of the economic, social and cultural aspects of the syllabus by linking the history of Spain and that of the rest of the world to the Game of Thrones universe. The methodology combines group research with the presentation and discussion of the selected topics in the lecture hall. The general development methodology is as follows: links to official HBO shorts, covering different aspects of the history of Westeros, are posted on the virtual platform. Each project has a common theme, reinforced by a selection of videos dealing with related themes, which students should research, before compiling a dossier for presenting one of them, its 50  Specially designed questionnaire: https://pregunta2.com/test/c882dcbc?fbclid=IwAR 0u3H7uBhP2WXrHQLrfOZvwNCW9_ef4-­Ozof7WhRXgBODH5Bn28wz0oBuM.

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representation in fiction and its links to reality. For eight groups, the 10-minute presentations should take up a lecture lasting 110 minutes. There are two systems for evaluating these activities. Firstly, the lecturer awards up to 2 points to the groups and to the student or students making the presentation (no more than two in this case and only when the theme of their video is that of their archetype). The aspects evaluated include critical spirit, analytical capacity and presentation skills. The second part of the evaluation is then performed by the rest of the groups, with the aim of promoting a co-evaluation system that involves students more. Students are expected to draw up a group report, which should be no more than two paragraphs long, in order to evaluate the presentations and those making them. The sum of both scores decides which group has performed best and which students have made the best presentations, points that are then added to the respective rankings, as already explained in the mechanics section. List of Projects Project 1: “The house of God” This project, which is intended for the teacher and priest archetypes, comes with three YouTube links where students can watch shorts relating to the different religions appearing in the Game of Thrones universe, which are as follows: • The god of many faces.51 In this short, primitive religions, their different aspects and those of their followers are addressed, as well as the issue of transcendence and its perception. These aspects are linked to Topics 1 and 2 of the syllabus, in which issues pertaining to religious customs, syncretism and the funerary world are explicitly broached. • The maesters and the Citadel.52 In this short, the role of knowledge is considered, as well as its transmission and the role of the maesters as counsellors and their needs. Although it has a more solid connection with curricular content due to its medieval background, it can be studied either from that perspective or by linking it to the transmission of historical knowledge.  Benioff and Weiss (2016a), “The Many-Faced God”.  Benioff and Weiss (2012a), “The Order of the Maesters”.

51 52

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• The old and the new gods.53 This short addresses the issue of primitive religion and the expansion of a new one that becomes the official state religion. The themes of expansion and coexistence between religions, as well as the functioning of the Faith of the Seven, may lead to aspects of the culture and religion of the Iberian Peninsula from pre-Roman times to the expansion of Christianity and Islam. This project is aimed at the sage or priest archetypes, for which reason students playing these roles are the most suitable of all for making the presentations. The badges that students can obtain include the following: • Those performing the activity correctly (i.e. the lecturer has awarded them 1 point) are given a link of the maester’s chain or a relic of their god/s (a seven-pointed star, a burning sword or the seed of the weirwood tree). • Those performing the activity remarkably well (i.e. the lecturer has awarded them 2 points) are given two links of the maester’s chain or a special relic (a copy of The Seven-Pointed Star, a brazier for looking into the future or the godswood). Project 2: The Chronicles—Historiography and Political History This project, aimed at the knight, warrior and hunter archetypes, has three YouTube links where students can watch shorts relating to the wars and political history of the Game of Thrones universe, which are as follows: • The First Men.54 This short broaches the issue of the clash between cultures and respect and coexistence, as well as touching on aspects already covered in primitive religions and the organisation of peoples and their evolution over time and in relation to changes in social structures. • The Free Folk and the Wall.55 This short addresses the issue of the border and separation between the barbarian and the civilised world. It can tie in with the topic of the conception of savages as free and

 Benioff and Weiss (2012a), “The Old Gods and the New”.  Benioff and Weiss (2016b), “Children of the Forest vs. the First Men”. 55  Benioff and Weiss (2012b), “The Free Folk”. 53 54

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untethered beings, as well as the theory of the noble savage and the transmission of that myth in different historical ages. • Robert’s Rebellion by Barristan Selmy.56 In this short, different topics are addressed, such as the importance of vassalage for gentlemen and feudal lords, the problem of legitimacy of the king in the eyes of his subjects, the right of conquest and the political changes arising from armed conflicts and the flexibility of the laws against them. The badges that can be obtained are as follows: • Those performing the activity correctly (i.e. the lecturer has awarded them 1 point) receive a cavalry spear, a warrior’s sword or a hunting spear. • Those performing the activity remarkably well (i.e. the lecturer has awarded them 2 points) receive spurs (with their horse), a warhorse or a pack of hunting dogs. Project 3: Traveling Between Guilds—Society and Economy This project, which is intended for the merchant and schemer archetype, comes with three YouTube links where students can view shorts relating to the society and economy of the Game of Thrones universe, these being as follows: • Volantis.57 This short summarises the history of one of the most important colonies in ancient Valyria. Its foundation as a military settlement, the rights system for belonging to a group such as the Valyrians, the slavery system and elements of urban development are covered. These themes can be linked to the history syllabus, the first dedicated to Romanisation and the second to medieval Christian history. • Justice of the Seven Kingdoms.58 With this short, the concept of feudal justice, the importance of the lord and social status in a static society are considered.

 Benioff and Weiss (2016a), “Robert’s Rebellion by Barristan Selmy”.  Benioff and Weiss (2016a), “Volantis”. 58  Benioff and Weiss (2016a), “Justice of the Seven Kingdoms”. 56 57

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• The Summer Sea.59 This short presents a number of interesting aspects. Firstly, it shows how broad the Game of Thrones universe is a new vision that can be linked to the rediscovery of Asia by the Italians in the thirteenth century and the desire to discover new routes to the East. Secondly, the issue of piracy and commerce is addressed, which can be linked to different elements of the syllabus. Finally, the existence of free ports, islands without government or law and pirate nests common in the ancient Mediterranean and in the colonial Caribbean is examined. The badges that can be obtained are as follows: • Those performing the activity correctly (i.e. the lecturer has awarded them 1 point) are awarded the title of officer in their guild or a set of lock picks for schemers. • Those performing the activity remarkably well (i.e. the lecturer has awarded them 2 points) are awarded the guild maester’s degree or a Valyrian steel dagger.

5  Conclusions and Future Approaches Although it is still in an initial stage of design, our proposal can be enhanced with a greater number of activities, depending on the acceptance and needs of each group. It is highly compatible with history teaching methodologies currently in use, for which reason we are now waiting for its approval in order to implement and evaluate it. After being fully developed, there are instruments designed to assess the level of student satisfaction, such as the GAMEX questionnaire and its Spanish application.60 Our ultimate objective is to implement this gamification application and to analyse the results of students at a quantitative level in relation to their marks and to their level of satisfaction, in order to consider its future uses. Moreover, it can be modified and adapted to different ancient and medieval history modules, as well as to the previous educational stages since there are different examples of transmedia realities that have been  Benioff and Weiss (2016b), “The Summer Sea”.  Parra-González and Segura-Robles (2019).

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highly successful as gamification vehicles, while not being as well known as the Game of Thrones universe. So, as we have seen, the impact and proactivity that this popular literary saga and TV series have generated can enhance the development of learning processes. Furthermore, our study has highlighted the clear benefits of gamification and has allowed for rediscovering tools such as roleplaying games and for adapting them to new methodologies that, in the event that this transmedia reality becomes passé, will make it possible to create a new, more dynamic and more motivating learning system in which students immerse themselves and make progress in an autonomous and self-taught way, thus giving rise to new highly significant knowledge.

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Index1

A Achaeans, 178 Adamson, George, 122 Adventure Time, 206 Aegle, 116n68 Aegon I Targaryen, 56, 57n20, 68, 85, 182, 293 Aegon III Targaryen, 57n20, 63 Aegon V Targaryen, 203, 247 Aegonfort, 59, 68, 85, 86 Aegon’s Conquest, 55n7, 73 Aegon’s High Hill, 85, 86 Aelianus, 104, 108, 114, 117, 117n73, 120n85 Aeneas, 175, 176, 182–184 Aenys I, 86 Aerys II, 69 Africa, 112 Age of the Hundred Kingdoms, 73 Águila Roja (TV series), 325 Ahab, 119 Alciato, 114

Aldrovandi, 108 Alexander, see Paris of Troy Alexander the Great, 23, 26, 44, 117n73 Alexandria, 22, 27–29, 40, 42, 46–48, 50 Alliser Thorne, 135 Altdorfer, Albrecht, 95–97, 122 Drachenkampf des hl. Georg, 95, 96 Ameisenhaufen, Peter, 109 Amistad (film), 303 Anárion, 38 Ancient historiography, 173 Andalos, 287 Andals, 56, 82, 84, 142, 150, 151, 153, 154, 286–288, 290, 332 Anduin River, 38 Angels, 97n8, 112 Anglo-Saxons, 288 Ann Darrow, 123 Anthropocentrism, 132, 145, 146n67, 150, 151, 153, 156, 157, 159

 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes.

1

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Álvarez-Ossorio et al. (eds.), Game of Thrones - A View from the Humanities Vol. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15489-8

351

352 

INDEX

Antipater of Sidon, 22, 28, 29, 40, 45, 46 Antiquitates, 29 Antiquity, 9, 12, 22, 25, 30–32, 39, 47, 97, 114, 179, 181, 183n45, 216, 217 Apollo, 102, 115, 119 Apollodorus, 118 Apollonius of Rhodes, 115, 116, 116n69 Apuleius, 120 The Golden Ass, 120 Arabia, 114 Aratus, 98, 98n10, 104, 113n55 Arcadia, 97 Architecture, 26, 41, 173 Archmaester Cassander, 143 Archmaester Fomas, 134n10 Lies of the Ancients, 134n10 Archmaester Marwyn, 156, 158 Archmaesters, 142 Arethusa, 116n68 Argonaths, 38 Argonauts, 116 Ariadne, 118 Aristotle, 103 Arrival (film), 304 Arryn (House), see House Arryn Arya Stark, 69, 144, 180 Asabhad, 43 Asclepius, 120 Asia, 331, 346 Asshai, 43, 145 Astapor, 309, 311 Athena, 114 Athens, 114 Audience, 2, 3, 13, 21, 32, 119–124, 174, 193, 194, 197, 204–208, 243–252, 254–258, 261, 263, 270–272, 278, 287, 288, 290, 292, 293, 296, 316, 317, 321, 322, 330

Audio description, 244, 285 Audiovisual translation (AVT), 243–272, 285 Audubon, 108 Augustus, 101n19 Autopsía, 23, 24, 27, 50 Autopsy, 173 Avatars, 329–331, 334, 336–339, 342 Azor ahai, 309 B Babylon, 26, 28, 29, 31, 39, 40, 47, 48, 48n77, 49n82, 50 The Bad and the Beautiful (film), 100n16 Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhailovich, 212–217, 212n2, 222, 224, 227–229, 229n18, 231, 235, 237, 238 Balerion, 68 Balon Greyjoy, 56, 87 Bamburgh Castle, 60 Banks, 332, 334 Baratheon (House), see House Baratheon Baroque, 31 Barrowton, 79, 81 Basilica of Hagia Sophia, 41 Basoli, Antonio, 44 Bathos, 169, 171n12, 175 Baths of Apollonius of Tyana, 42 Battle for the Dawn, 145 Battle of the Blackwater, 59, 59n30, 62n40 Beauty and the Beast (TV series), 196 Beck, Leonard, 108 Bedding ceremony, 229 Bede, 42 Bellerophon, 42 Benioff, David, 174–176, 212n5, 248, 255, 302

 INDEX 

Beowulf, 116, 119, 119n82 Big Love (TV series), 198 Biocentrism, 145, 146, 146n67, 148, 158, 160 Blackfyre, 56 Black Prince, 64 Blackwater, 85 Blackwater Bay, 295 Blackwood (House), see House Blackwood Bleeding Sea, 43 Blood Diamond (film), 303 Bloody Gates, 61 Bloom, Orlando, 175 Bodiam Castle, 60 Bolton (House), see House Bolton Bone Mountains, 42 Boneway, 57 The Book of Invasions, 332 The Borders of Reality (TV series), 196 Borges, Jorge Luis, 95, 117, 123 Bourgeoisie, 54, 62 Braavos, 27, 34–38, 47, 48, 50, 144, 332 Bradley, James, 99n12 Brandon Stark (Bran), 58, 67, 122, 136, 146, 155, 158, 159, 255, 258 Brandon Stark the Builder, 33, 46, 84, 172, 172n16 Broderip, William, 101, 101n21 Bronn, 102, 119 Bronze Age, 82 Buddhism, 41 Burne-Jones, Edward, 122 C C3-PO, 303 Cadmus, 99, 117, 120 Callimachus, 24, 27 Campbell, Joseph, 5 The Hero with the Thousand Faces, 5

353

Capitoline Hercules, 36 Capitol of Rome, 42 Caribbean, 346 Carnival, 212–217, 214n8, 222, 224, 227–229, 235, 237, 238 Carnivalization, 211–239 Carpaccio, Vittore, 108, 122 Carthage, 182, 182n43 Carthaginians, 332 Castamere, 82 Casterly Rock, 60, 69, 72 Castle Black, 86, 135 Cataclysms, 130, 132, 137, 142–145, 158, 180 Catelyn Stark, 65n50, 77, 84, 135, 152, 177, 179 Cathedral of Salamanca, 39 Catholic Church, 151 Cat People (film), 100n16 Cersei Lannister, 86, 180, 181, 201, 202 Cervantes, Miguel de, 214 Chaffey, Don, 38 Characterisation, 5 Charade (film), 302, 303 Chares of Lindos, 36 Château Gaillard, 61 Chevauchée, 64 Children of the Forest, 33, 81, 135, 142, 145, 146, 155, 158, 281, 282 China, 34, 45n73, 123n91 Chinese Empire, 61 Chouchotage, 306 Christianity, 151, 344 Christians, 61, 151, 152, 168, 345 Chroyane, 140 Church, 151, 215 Cicero, 23 Cipango, 43 Citadel of Oldtown, 27, 33, 45, 50, 141, 142, 156–158, 282, 343

354 

INDEX

City Watch, 62, 62n40 Clarke, Emilia, 3 Claudius (Roman emperor), 212n2 Climate change, 12, 129–160, 168n4, 205 Coats of arms, 339, 342 Cocteau, Jean, 123 Colchis, 115 Colloquo Votar, 43 Jade Compendium, 43 Colosseum, 31, 45n73, 49, 217 Colossus of Rhodes, 26, 34–36, 38, 47, 48 The Colossus of Rhodes (film), 38 Commedia dell’arte, 217 Common Tongue, 310 Computer games, 174n22 Conan Doyle, Arthur, 105, 106, 106n39 The Lost World, 105, 106 Constantinople, 24n9, 26 Copernicus, 99n12 Cordoba, 39 Corlys Velaryon, the Sea Snake, 68 Cosmas of Jerusalem, 41n58 Coster-Waldau, Nicolaj, 3 Counterculture, 12, 13, 191–208 Covarrubias, S., 111, 112, 118 Criminal Minds (TV series), 207 The Crone, 151, 152, 342 Crossroads Inn, 76 Crownlands, 55, 55n7, 55n8, 73 Crusades, 141 Ctesias, 104n33, 117 Cultural history, 13, 192, 193 D Daario Naharis, 313 Daenerys Targaryen, 4, 12, 66, 86, 94, 100, 102, 118, 121, 130, 133, 139, 140, 157, 179,

181–184, 183n46, 247, 259, 282, 287, 288, 293, 294, 302, 304, 309, 311–313, 315–317 The Daily Show, 206 Damascus steel, 296 Dances with Wolves (film), 303 Dardanelles, 39 D’Arras, Jean, 110, 120 Mélusine ou La Noble Histoire de Lusignan, 110 Darry, 76 Darwin, Charles, 101, 108 Davos Seaworth, see Ser Davos Seaworth Dawn Age, 81, 142 Dawson, Charles, 105 Daznak’s Pit, see Great Arena of Meereen (Daznak’s Pit) Deadwood (TV series), 6, 198 De Caullery, Louis, 31n31 De Chardin, Teilhard, 105 Deepwood Motte, 60 Defoe, Daniel, 124 Delphi, 102 Delphyne, 115 De Martoni, Nicolas, 35 Desert of Gobi, 107 Devil, 95n4, 107, 119n81, 124 DEVIR, 333, 336 De Vos, Maartin, 31n31 Diegesis, 279, 282 Dinklage, Peter, 3 Dinosaurs, 101n20, 112 Dionysius of Alexandria, see Dionysius Periegetes Dionysius Periegetes, 26 Periégesis, 26 Dionysus, 227 Direwolves, 135, 156 Disney, 327 Domitian (Roman emperor), 115n64 Domus Aurea, 217

 INDEX 

The Doom of Valyria, 132, 142–144, 182, 296 Dorne, 47, 56n14, 57, 58, 69, 73, 79n95, 294 Dorne Water Gardens, 47, 48, 61n36, 69 Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 129, 214 Dothraki, 4, 6, 40, 100n17 Dothraki Sea, 41 Dragon eggs, 94, 112, 133, 139 Dragonglass, 283 Dragons, 4, 6, 8, 12, 41, 53, 55, 55n7, 93–124, 114n56, 130, 133, 139–143, 156–158, 171, 182, 183, 259, 281, 293, 311, 314, 315, 326 Dragonstone, 55n7, 59, 73 Drakarys, 94, 117, 118 Dreadfort, 81 Driftmark, 68 Drobeta bridge, 39 Drogon, 123, 139, 315 Drowned God, 288, 289 Druon, Maurice, 5 The Accursed Kings, 5 Dubbing, 16, 244–246, 246n1, 248, 250, 252, 254, 256–272, 285, 293 Duck Dynasty (TV series), 206–207 Duncan the Tall, see Ser Duncan the Tall Dungeons and Dragons, 333 Dürer, Albrecht, 104 Dustin (House), see House Dustin Dwarfism, 202 E Echidna, 116n68 Ecophobia, 133, 146, 155, 156, 158 Eddard Stark, 55, 58, 66, 79, 84, 133, 135, 179, 199, 201, 291 EDGE, 322, 333

355

Edrick Snowbeard, 84 Egil Skallagrimson, 102, 103, 103n27 Egypt, 25, 46, 50, 105n36 Egyptian pyramids, 26, 44, 45 Elephants, 39, 60, 112, 112n50 Elinas, 124 Eltz Castle, 60 Empire State Building, 123 England, 5, 34, 34n36, 42, 60, 171 Ephesus, 24, 26, 46n74, 48 Epic, 6, 12, 30, 115, 169, 169n9, 170, 173, 173n20, 174, 174n23, 176, 178, 180, 181, 181n40, 183–185, 194, 297 Epirus, 102 Erythia, 116n68 Essos, 26, 38, 43, 44, 53, 59, 132, 133, 135, 139, 142–144, 151, 182, 247, 331, 332 Ethical horizon, 198–200, 202 Euphrates, 39, 40 Euripides, 114, 174, 175 Iphigeneia in Aulis, 174 Iphigeneia in Tauris, 175 Europe, 33, 39, 54, 58, 58n21, 60, 61, 63, 64, 68, 286, 331, 332 The Eyrie, 60, 61, 66, 72 F Fáfnir, 101, 116 Fairmarket, 74 The Faith, 150–154, 157, 344 Fandom, 324 Fanfiction, 174n22 Fan sites, 174n22 Fantasy, 2, 4–9, 12, 15, 23, 30n23, 33, 34n36, 38, 42, 44, 49, 54, 64, 87, 100, 129, 172, 178, 191–194, 196, 202–208, 211, 247, 254, 279, 280, 321, 322, 333, 334

356 

INDEX

Fan wikis, 174n22 Far West, 6, 198 The Father, 151, 152, 342 Felix Faber or Felix Fabri, 36 Femininity, 12, 170, 183 Feminist criticism, 179 Fenrir, 121 Feudalism, 11, 54, 55, 58n21, 61–64, 61n36, 68, 68n71, 87, 199, 215, 334, 345 Fictional world, 4, 204, 246, 248, 277–297 The Fingers, 135 First Keep, 84, 85 First Men, 33, 56, 82–84, 134n10, 142, 143, 145, 146, 148, 150, 152–155, 159, 286–288, 290, 332, 344 Fischer von Erlach, Johann Bernhard, 31n31, 46 The Fist, 82 Five Forts, 43 Flint, 80 Flipped classroom, 336 Florence, 39 Fontcuberta, Joan, 109 Formiguera, Pere, 109 Fourteen Flames, 143, 144 Fowler (House), see House Fowler France, 60, 61 Free Folk, 137–139, 344 The Freehold, 41, 43, 143, 144 Frey (House), see House Frey G Gaia, 114, 115 Galbart Glover, 79 Gamification, 14, 322, 326–331, 331n40, 333–347 Gangleri, 121 Gardener (House), see House Gardener

Gardens of Qarth, 26, 40, 50 Gates of the Moon, 61, 61n36 Gaul, 112 Gender studies, 10 Genesis, 152 Georges-Louis Leclerc, Count of Buffon, 104 Ghaston Grey, 66 Ghis, 44, 47 Ghiscari (the), 44, 182, 332 Ghoyan Drohe, 140 Giants, 33, 135, 138, 141–143, 145, 146, 155, 158, 181n39 The Gift, 71, 79 Gigamesh, 15, 247, 249 Gilgamesh, 119, 172n16 Giza, 33, 44, 45, 47 Gladiatorial fights, 49, 182 Glover (House), see House Glover Gods, 22, 28, 40–43, 70, 85, 99, 100, 102n26, 103n30, 104, 121, 137, 143, 144, 148–153, 157, 168, 183, 227, 228, 288–289, 292, 294, 297, 333, 338, 343, 344 See also Religion Gold Cloaks, 62 Golden Company, 59, 77 Goldgrass, 81 Gold Honour, 282 Gondor, 38 Gould, Charles, 101, 101n22, 104, 107, 108 Gould, John, 101 Great Arena of Meereen (Daznak’s Pit), 49 Great Britain, 288 The Great Floods, 132, 142, 143 Great Houses, 54–59, 77, 336 Great Maester, 57 Great Pyramid of Ghis, 26, 44, 47 Great Pyramid of Giza, 33, 45, 47 Great Pyramid of Khufu/Cheops, 33, 45

 INDEX 

Great Pyramid of Meereen, 44, 47 Great Sept of Baelor, 48, 48n81, 202 Great Wall of China, 34, 45n73 Great War, 259 Greece, 24, 71, 105n36 Green Fork, 61, 76 Greenseers, 143, 149, 157, 255 Gregor Clegane, 64 Gregory of Tours, 42 Greyjoy, Theon, 135, 157, 288 Greyjoy (House), see House Greyjoy Grey’s Anatomy (TV series), 207 Greyscale, 141 Greystark, 58 Greywater Watch, 79 Grey Worm, 309 Grotesque realism, 13, 212, 213, 215–217, 226, 227, 229, 233, 237, 238 Guild of Alchemists, 295 Guinness, Alec, 105n35 Gushtap, 119 H Hadrian, 33 Hadrian’s Wall, 33, 34n36, 171, 172n14 Hali, 136 Halicarnassus, 26, 28, 48, 49 Hand of the King, 55–57, 63, 86, 199, 228, 283 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 31, 40, 47 Happy ending, 192, 193, 198 Harington, Kit, 3 Harlequin, 217 Harmony, 99, 120 Harrenhall, 59, 68, 69, 74, 76, 337 Harren the Black, 68 Harry Potter, 2, 204, 322, 325 Hazzea, 139

357

HBO, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 95, 122, 129, 168, 174, 191, 193, 197–198, 205, 245, 247, 248, 255, 265, 302, 322, 342 Hector of Troy, 178 Heemskerck, Maarten van, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 40, 49 Colossus Solis, 37 Panorama with the abduction of Helen amidst of the Wonders of the Ancient World, 36 Helen of Troy, 177, 178, 180, 183 Helman Tallhart, 79 Hera, 116n68 Heracles, 116, 116n68 Heraldry, 58, 339 Herodotus, 23, 24, 26–28, 103n27, 114, 180 Histories, 23, 24 Heroes, 5, 40, 60, 99, 100, 116n68, 119, 129, 139, 145, 168, 177, 192, 198, 202–203, 206 Heroines, 94, 121 Heroism, 12, 170, 179, 181n40 Hesperia, 116n68 Hesperides, 97, 116, 116n68 High fantasy, 6 Highgarden, 60, 72, 73 High Road, 61 High Septon, 151 High Tide, 68 High Valyrian, 118, 182, 310 The Hitchhiker (TV series), 197 Hockney, David, 122 Die Zauberflöte, 122 Hodor, 248, 252, 254–259, 261–269, 271 Holy Land, 24, 63 Homer, 115, 169, 175, 177, 178, 179n35, 183n45 Iliad, 175 Honeywine River, 46

358 

INDEX

Hornwood (House), see House Hornwood Horus, 108 House Arryn, 54, 56, 58, 60, 61 House Baratheon, 54, 55n7, 56, 60, 286, 290 House Blackwood, 70, 154 House Bolton, 81, 84, 85, 199 House Dustin, 79, 81 House Fowler, 57 House Frey, 60 House Gardener, 73 House Glover, 60 House Greyjoy, 54, 60, 135, 288 House Hightower, 46 House Hornwood, 81 House Karstark, 58, 81 House Lannister, 54, 56, 60, 64, 69, 74n83, 119, 177, 179, 201, 203, 220, 228, 295 House Manderly, 57, 62, 68, 79, 81 House Martell, 54, 60, 61n36, 66 House of the Dragon, 3 House of the Undying, 118 House Osgrey, 64 House Reyne, 82 House Stark, 11, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 67, 69, 73, 79, 81, 133, 134n10, 135, 150, 180, 199, 255, 286, 290–292 House Stout, 81 House Tallhart, 81 House Tarbeck, 82 House Targaryen, 55, 55n7, 56, 74n83, 86, 122, 181–184, 203, 287, 293 House Tully, 54, 58, 60, 73 House Tyrell, 54, 56, 60, 177 House Umber, 81 House Yronwood, 57 Hugo, Victor, 217 Humanitas, 23 Hydra, 103, 116, 116n68

I Iberian Peninsula, 344 India, 41, 45n73, 102n25, 114, 117n73 Indra, 119, 119n83 Ingersoll, Ernest, 103, 104, 107 Insults, 229, 231, 310–313, 315–317 Internet, 3, 45n73, 204, 205, 207, 258, 262, 323 The Interpreter (film), 303, 306 Interpreters, 13, 301–318 Interpreting, 301–317, 310n8 Invernalia, 286, 291–293 Iron Age, 82 Iron Bank, 34, 50, 282 Iron Islands, 73, 77, 289 Ironmen, 289 Iron Throne, 66, 74n83, 87, 133, 174, 238, 247, 287, 293 Isabel (TV series), 325 Isildur, 38 Islam, 344 Isocrates, 23 Istanbul, 41 Italy, 5, 45n73, 175, 217 Iulus, 176, 176n28 J Jackson, Peter, 38, 204 Jack the Ripper, 106n39 Jade Sea, 42, 43 Jaehaerys I, 47, 55, 57, 68 Jaime Lannister, 57, 77, 102, 119, 154, 179, 181 Jarrow, 42 Jason, 121 Jason and the Argonauts (film), 38 Jaws (film), 100n16, 122 Jeor Mormont, see Lord Commander Mormont Jinqi, 43 Joffrey Baratheon, 177, 180, 230–233

 INDEX 

Jojen Reed, 159 Jon Connington, 77 Jon Snow, 100, 118, 124, 137–139, 158, 173, 259 Jorah Mormont, 59 Judgement at Nuremberg (film), 302 Juego de Carbonos (video game), 330 Jung, 95n4 Justice, 15, 54–57, 62, 66, 66n56, 87, 132, 138, 139, 238, 345 Juvenal, 35, 36n40 K Karstark (house), see House Karstark Khal Loso, 40–41 King Kong, 123 King’s Landing, 48, 62, 62n40, 63, 68, 73, 86, 94, 102, 121, 122, 135, 180, 184, 199, 218, 282, 292, 293, 295, 296 King Uthor of the High Tower, 46 Kirscher, Athanasius, 31n31 Kizkalesi Castle, 60 Knighthood, 56, 150 Kraken, 135 Kraznys mo Nakloz, 304, 309–311, 315–317 L Labbu, 99 Ladon, 97, 99, 116, 116n68 Lady Dustin, 157 Lamia, 121 Land of Always Winter, 144 Languages, 8, 13, 118, 134, 147, 148, 168, 182, 229n18, 244, 245, 247, 255–257, 259, 263–267, 269, 271, 278, 280, 283, 287, 288, 293, 297, 301–303, 305–308, 310, 316–318, 329

359

Lannister (House), see House Lannister La Peste (TV series), 325 Late Antiquity, 26 Laterculi Alexandrini, 27 Latin, 25, 30n25, 169n9, 182 Laughter, 134, 212, 214–216, 219–228, 231, 234–236, 238 La Zona (TV series), 325 Leaf, 150, 155 Leone, Sergio, 38 Lewis, C. S., 204 The Chronicles of Narnia: the Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe, 204 Libraries, 22, 24n9, 27, 28, 45, 46, 67, 95, 173 Library of Alexandria, 22, 24n9, 27, 28 Libya, 116, 116n68 Liddles, 79 Lighthouse of Alexandria, 26, 27, 29, 40, 42, 46–48 Lighthouse of Oldtown, 29, 45–48, 50 Ligozzi, Jacopo, 108 Lilith, 121 Lion of Night, 43 Lists of wonders, 22–32, 39–42, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50 Literary Theory, 279, 297 Lomas Longstrider, 11, 22, 24–29, 32–47, 50, 59 Wonders Made by Man, 22, 32–47 Long Bridge of Volantis, 11, 38–39 Longinus, 168n4, 169–171, 169n6, 169n7, 176, 185n49 Long Night, 82, 132, 141, 142, 144–146, 155, 159, 259, 291 Lord Commander Mormont, 70–71, 138 Lord Commander of the Kingsguard, 57

360 

INDEX

Lord Locke, 80 Lord of Light, see R’hllor The Lord of the Rings The Fellowship of the Ring (film), 38, 204 The Return of the King (film), 204 The Two Towers (film), 192n2, 204 Lost in Translation (film), 303, 317 Lucasfilm, 327 Lucian of Samosata, 105 Lucretius, 169 Lyanna Stark, 180 M Macía, Cristina (Martin’s translator), 15, 247, 249, 250, 255, 258, 284, 292 Madness, 141, 183, 184, 184n48, 185n49, 222, 227 Maegor’s Holdfast, 86 Maegor the Cruel (King), 86 Maester Childer, 33 Winter’s Kings, or the Legends and Lineages of the Starks of Winterfell, 33 Maester Cressen, 65, 158 Maester Kennet, 84 Maester Luwin, 135, 149, 158 Maester Nicol, 141 Maester Pycelle, 157 Maesters, 22, 29, 33, 45, 47, 50, 57, 58, 67, 81, 82, 84, 85, 135, 142, 143, 149, 150, 156–158, 173, 282, 333, 337–339, 343, 344, 346 Maester Yandel, 141 Magic, 33, 53, 129, 136, 139, 141–143, 149, 157, 158, 281, 296 The Maiden, 151, 342 Mainstream culture, 12, 13, 191–208

Mainstream narrative, 192, 197, 198, 202, 205 Mance Rayder, 136 Manderly (House), see House Manderly Marcus Atilius Regulus, 99 Margaery Tyrell, 180 Marginality, 202 Marlowe, 183n45 Dr. Faustus, 183n45 Mars, 99, 117 Martell (House), see House Martell Martial, 49, 115 Martin, G. R. R., 1–12, 15, 21–51, 53, 54, 54n6, 58n21, 64, 70, 87, 95, 118, 122, 123, 129–133, 142, 145, 156, 158, 160, 171–173, 172n16, 174n22, 191–197, 199–201, 200n22, 203, 204, 212n3, 246–250, 256, 277, 281–284, 291, 292, 294–297, 302, 304, 322, 332 The Armageddon Rag, 195, 196, 200n22 Fevre Dream, 6 Fire and Blood, 87, 122, 124 A Song for Lya, 195 A Song of Ice and Fire, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 21–51, 54, 59, 64, 71, 87, 129–160, 168, 175, 176, 191–193, 192n3, 195, 197, 198, 202–205, 212n3, 246–248, 285, 302 Tales of Dunk and Egg, 87, 203, 247 The Winds of Winter, 3, 131, 180 Marvel Studios, 327 Masculinity, 12, 170, 183, 235 Master of Coin, 57 Master of Laws, 57 Master of Ships, 57 Master of Whisperers, 57 Material culture, 11, 30, 54, 70, 82, 88

 INDEX 

The Matrix, 325 Maupassant, 97 The Horla, 97 Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, 26, 48, 49 Mayan Pyramids, 44 Medea, 114, 120, 121, 123, 123n92, 181 Media convergence, 324–325 Media Studies, 251, 328 Medieval history, 9, 321, 333, 334, 342, 346 Mediterranean, 30, 49, 182, 346 Meera Reed, 255 Meereen, 26, 44, 45, 47, 49, 50, 140, 313 Megasthenes, 114 Meidum, 108 Melisandre of Asshai, 138 Melusine, 110, 119–124 Memes, 258, 259, 262, 326 Mesopotamia, 48 Mhysa, 312–313 Middle Ages, 5, 24, 26, 34, 54, 57, 62, 64n47, 212–214, 217, 238, 239 Midgard Serpent, 119n82, 121 Minotaur, 95 Mirabilia, 27 Missandei, 13, 184, 301–318 Moat Cailin, 79, 82, 153 Modern Family (TV series), 206, 207 Möser, Justus, 217 Mota del Rey, 60 The Mother, 151, 152, 342 Motto, 11, 58, 66, 95, 178, 203 Mountains of the Morn, 43 N Narrah, 41 Narrative technique, 198, 200, 202, 281

361

Narrow Sea, 143, 174, 287 The Neck, 79, 81, 153 Nero (Roman emperor), 217 Newcastle, 80 New Seven Wonders of the World, 45, 49 The New York Times, 132, 206, 207 Night King, 94, 100, 118, 122, 259, 291 Night’s Watch, 58, 61, 69–71, 79, 82, 86, 134n10, 135, 136, 138, 139, 145 Noah’s Ark, 42 The Noble and Puissant Order of the Warrior’s Sons, 151 Noom, 41 Norman invasion, 332 Norman Vexin, 61 Norreys, 79 The North, 32, 56–60, 62, 67, 69, 71, 72, 77, 79–81, 79n95, 87, 145, 153, 154, 199, 219, 228, 286, 290, 291 Norvos, 41–42 Nudity, 179, 197 Ny Sar, 140 O Octo Mundi Miracula, 31 Old Gods, 70, 85, 143, 148, 151, 152, 157, 292 Oldtown, 27, 29, 33, 45–48, 50, 337 Old Valyria, see Valyria Olympia, 24, 26, 27, 48, 48n80 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 107 Osgrey (House), see House Osgrey Others, 53, 130, 133–138, 134n10, 141, 144, 145, 157–159, 195, 247 See also White Walkers

362 

INDEX

P Pagan animism, 148 Paideia, 23 The Palace of Love, 140 The Palace with a Thousand Rooms, 11, 40–41 Paradoxa, 23 Paradoxographers/paradoxography, 12, 23, 24, 27, 29, 104 Paris of Troy, 175, 177, 178 Paternus, 115 Pausanias, 26 Pearl Emperor, 43 Peasants, 54, 63, 66n56, 68, 174, 314 Penates, 183 Pennytree, 55n8 Pentos, 332 Periplous, 23, 29 Persia, 48 Peterson, David J., 118 Petersen, Wolfgang, 174 Petyr Baelish (Littlefinger), 16, 57, 59, 199, 200 Phallus, 231, 235 Pharaoh Khufu-Cheops, 33 Pharos, 46 See also Lighthouse of Alexandria Phidias, 48, 48n80 Philo of Byzantium, 22, 24, 25, 29, 37, 40, 45, 46 De Septem Orbis Miraculis –Περὶ τῶν ἑπτὰ θεαμάτων, 29 Piracy (robbery on the high seas), 141, 346 Piracy (unauthorise use infringing copyright), 192, 245, 260 Plato, 169n6 Timaeus, 169n6 Pliny the Elder, 36, 37n43, 102, 103, 111, 112, 114, 117 Natural History, 103 Pliny the Younger, 115n64

Poetry, 12, 24n10, 43, 110, 115, 168, 169, 169n9 Point of View technique (POV), 5, 137, 193, 200–202 Pokémon, 325 Poleis, 7 Polo, Marco, 117n73 Pompeii, 30n25 Pomponius Mela, 26 Ponte Vecchio, 39 The Poor Fellows, 151 Pop culture, 88, 192, 193 Popular culture, 9, 211–239, 326 Post-humanism, 168n4 Presina, 124 Prince Maron Martell, 47 Prince Pass, 57 Princess Daenerys Targaryen (daughter of Jaehaerys I the Conciliator), 47 Professor Challenger, 106 Propemptica, 29 Prosumers, 258, 324, 325 Ptolemy II Philadelphus, 27 Pyke, 60, 73, 86 Pyramids, 26, 33, 44–50 Q Qarth, 11, 26, 39, 40, 42, 43, 47, 50, 59, 60, 118 Quaithe, 157 Queenscrown, 82 Quintus Cicero, 104 Quintus Curtius Rufus, 39, 39n48 R Rabelais, François, 213, 214, 224, 226, 227, 229, 237 Gargantua and Pantagruel, 213, 226

 INDEX 

Ragnarök, 121 Ramsay Bolton, 69, 85, 197 Ramsgate, 80 Rape, 179, 180, 197 Raphaello, 122 Ravens, 148, 282, 292 Raventree, 70 The Reach, 45, 72, 73, 79n95 Reception Studies, 14, 87, 243–272 Red Keep, 63, 66, 66n56, 67, 83, 85–87, 293 Red Priests, 138, 290 Red Wedding, 67n63 Reed, Lou, 200, 200n22 Walk on the Wild Side, 200 Religion, 24, 105n36, 114, 147, 148, 150, 151, 157, 284, 288–290, 334, 343, 344 Remondin, 124 Renaissance, 5, 7, 13, 26, 31, 34, 40, 46, 212–214, 212n2, 217, 227, 238, 239 Renly Baratheon, 177, 220, 222 Renversade, Camille, 109, 110 Créatures fantastiques Deyrolle, 109 Dragons et chimères: Carnets d’expédition, 109 Reyne (House), see House Reyne Rhaegal (dragon), 94 R’hllor, 39, 48, 55, 289, 290 Rhodes, 26, 34, 35, 37n43, 38, 47, 48, 50 Rhoyne, 38, 140, 141, 144 Richard Lionheart, 61 Rickon Stark, 58 Riverlands, 55n8, 64, 66n56, 68, 72, 74, 76 Riverrun, 60, 67, 72, 73, 76 Robert Arryn, 57, 57n17 Robert Baratheon, 55, 55n7, 55n9, 56, 87, 201, 286, 290 Robert’s Rebellion, 55, 345

363

Rodrik the Reader, 68 Roleplaying games, 321, 322, 331n40, 332–334, 347 Roman bridge of Cordoba, 39 Roman Empire, 49, 50, 61, 182 Romanisation, 345 Roman Republic, 181 Roman roads, 41 Romans, 23, 24, 26, 29, 34n36, 42, 49, 61, 171, 172, 175, 180, 182, 184, 198, 286, 332 Romanticism, 31, 44, 54 Rome, 24, 31, 33, 42, 45n73, 49, 99n13, 172, 175, 181, 182, 182n43, 217 Rome (TV series), 198 Rowling, J. K., 322 Roxton, Lord John, 107 Royal Alcazar of Seville, 3, 48 Ruins, 31, 43, 44, 69, 71, 79, 82, 84, 85, 138, 182n43, 183 Russell, Bertrand, 101n19 Ryswell, 81 S Saint Augustine, 95n4 Saint George, 97, 97n8, 98, 101n21, 103, 108, 119, 120 Saint John, 95n4 Saint Michael, 108, 119 Salamanca, 39 Samwell Tarly, 134, 142, 156 Sansa Stark, 13, 58n21, 69, 176–178, 180, 197, 201, 218, 219, 235, 238, 294 Sarnath of the Tall Towers, 11, 40–41 Saxons, 332 Schoetensack, 105 Sci-fi, 4, 12, 193, 194 Selhoru, 145 Seneca, 184n48

364 

INDEX

Ser Barristan, 59n30, 345 Ser Davos Seaworth, 66, 259 Ser Duncan the Tall, 58, 64, 203 Servius, 184 The Seven, 48, 70, 84, 150–152, 157, 342, 344 Seven Kingdoms, 16, 47, 54–57, 55n7, 55n8, 56n14, 60, 61, 62n38, 63, 64, 67–75, 77, 78, 82, 83, 86, 87, 136, 137, 150, 171, 195, 199, 203, 247, 282, 286–288, 290, 293, 310, 330, 345 The Seven-Pointed Star, 150, 153, 344 Seven pointed stars, 151 Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, 11, 21–51, 46n74 Seville, 3, 14, 16, 48, 246n1, 249, 250, 259–261, 329, 334 Sex, 41, 129, 194, 197, 198, 201, 203, 215, 216, 222, 227, 228, 231, 233, 235, 238, 322 Shadowcats, 282 Shadow City, 68 Shakespeare, William, 5, 212n2, 214 Hamlet, 212n2 Sherlock Holmes, 106n39 Shireen Baratheon, 174, 175 Sigurd, 116 Six Feet Under (TV series), 198 Skagos, 79 Skapti Thorarinsson the Priest, 103n27 Skinchangers, 149, 150, 157 Sky (fortress), 61, 66 Skylla, 121 Slaver’s Bay, 44, 182 Slaves, 50, 144, 182, 302, 304, 309–313, 315–317, 345 Smith, Grafton Elliot, 104, 105 The Smith, 151–153, 342 Smyrna, 42 Snow (fortress), 61

Soldiers, 54, 67, 172, 174, 310 Sole Champion, 313, 314, 316 Soma, 119 The Sopranos (TV series), 198 Spanglish (film), 303 Sparrows, 174 Spectacula, 25 Standfast, 64 Stannis Baratheon, 65, 74n83, 77, 80, 138, 174 Stark, see House Stark Star Wars, 4, 303 Statue of Bellerophon in Smyrna, 42 Stiv, 136 Stone (fortress), 61 Stony Shore, 81, 138 Storm’s End, 60, 65, 73, 77 Stout (House), see House Stout Strabo, 26, 36, 37n43 The Stranger, 151–153, 342 Sturluson, S., 121, 122 Sublime (the), 12, 167–185, 217 Subtitling, 213, 244, 245, 248, 252, 259, 261, 263, 265–266, 271, 285, 288, 297 Summer Hall, 55n8, 82 Summer Sea, 39, 44, 143, 159, 346 Sunspear, 47, 60, 63, 68, 73 Supernatural (TV series), 207 T Tales from the Crypt (TV series), 197 Tallhart (House), see House Tallhart Talos, 38 Tarbeck Hall, 82 Tarbeck, see House Tarbeck Targaryen (House), see House Targaryen Targaryen invasion, 332 Tempesta, Antonio, 31n31 Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, 26, 46n74, 48

 INDEX 

Temple of the Lord of Light, 39, 48 Ten Towers, 68 Thebes, 44 Thevet, André, 36, 37 Cosmographie de Levant, 36, 37 Thor, 119, 119n82 Three Bells of Norvos, 11, 41–42 Tiqui, 43 Tishpak, 99 Titan of Braavos, 11, 27, 34–38, 47, 48 Tolkien, J. R. R., 2, 7, 8, 38, 54, 100, 101n19, 192, 194–196, 204, 249, 279, 322 The Lord of the Rings, 2, 7, 194 The New Shadow, 194 Tonight Show with Jimmy Fallon, 206 Tormund Giantsbane, 134 Tournai Bridge, 60 Tower of Joy, 82 Tower of the Hand, 86 Trakai Castle, 60 Translation, 13, 15, 117n73, 243–272, 277–297, 305, 306, 309 Translation errors, 13, 243–272 Translation problems, 13, 243–272, 281, 283–285 Translation Studies, 13, 243, 244, 246, 248, 251–252, 264, 270, 271, 284, 297 Transmedia, 1, 13, 14, 53, 87, 204, 247, 321–331, 346, 347 Trojan War, 172, 173n18, 174, 175, 178, 180 Troy, 162, 174–176, 182, 182n43, 183 Troy (film), 174, 175 True History, 150 True Tongue, 147, 148 Tully (House), see House Tully Turnus, 183, 184

365

Tyland Lannister, 63 Typhon, 114, 115, 116n68, 118 Tyrell (House), see House Tyrell Tyrion Lannister, 13, 22, 66, 67, 70–71, 102, 135, 140, 144, 171n12, 179, 202–203, 211–239, 295 Tywin Lannister, 65, 66, 82, 181, 201, 219, 220, 220n15, 222, 228 U Uccello, Paolo, 120, 122 Umber (House), see House Umber Unsullied, 309–311, 315 V The Vale, 57, 61, 72, 74, 77 Valentré Bridge, 60 Valyria, 41, 132, 140, 142–144, 181, 181n41, 182, 296, 345 Valyrian (language), 118, 182, 310–312 Valyrian Empire, 182, 296 Valyrian Freehold, 41, 43 Valyrian Roads, 11, 41 Valyrian steel, 282, 295, 296, 346 Valyrians (the), 43, 144, 159, 182, 295, 332, 345 Van Aeslt, Franciscus, 31n31 Van Ehrenberg, Willen, 31n31 Vanitas, 31 Varro, Marcus Terentius, 23, 29 Antiquitates, 29 Velarium, 49 Venice, 34, 50, 108, 332 Vergil, 9, 115, 169, 175, 181 Aeneid, 169, 176, 176n28, 181–185, 181n39, 182n44 Vhalaso the Munificent, 39

366 

INDEX

Video games, 70, 322, 324, 325, 330 Vietnam, 194 Vikings, 6 Villar, Antonio, 16, 246n1, 249, 259–261, 269, 271 Violence, 129, 147, 169, 179, 181, 182, 184, 197–199, 205, 322 Viserion (dragon), 94, 100, 100n17, 118, 123 Vitruvius, 217 Voice-over, 285 Volantis, 11, 38–39, 48, 296, 332, 345 Völsunga, 116 Vomitoria, 49 W The Wall, 4, 11, 12, 31–34, 34n36, 50, 61, 62, 70, 71, 74n83, 79, 100n17, 135–139, 155, 159, 171–173, 175, 181, 247, 283, 344 Walls of Babylon, 31, 39n48, 40, 47, 50 Walls of Qarth, 11, 26, 39–40, 59–60 War, 8, 28, 40, 57n20, 60, 64, 66, 76, 77, 99, 105n36, 109, 138, 140, 144, 169, 175, 177, 180, 185, 194, 198, 247, 259, 295, 331, 344 Warden, 56, 56n14, 57, 286, 290 Wardens of the East, 56, 57 Wardens of the North, 56 Wardens of the South, 56, 56n14 Wardens of the West, 56 Warfare, 63, 64, 294, 295 War of the Five Kings, 55n7, 55n9, 64, 65, 74, 76, 175, 177 War of the Roses, 5, 6, 281 The Warrior, 151, 152, 342

Water Gardens, see Dorne Water Gardens Waymar Royce (ser), 58 Wedding, 13, 67, 69, 84, 85, 133, 211–239 Weirwood, 114, 122, 143, 149, 151, 344 Weiss, Daniel Brett, 212n5, 248, 255, 302 Westeros, 11, 13, 27, 32, 33, 41, 43–45, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 62, 65n50, 66–68, 70, 72, 77, 81, 85–87, 132, 133, 135–140, 142–146, 149–158, 170–174, 174n22, 177, 179, 181–183, 185, 199, 202, 203, 205, 228, 238, 247, 286, 288, 291, 293, 295, 297, 321–341 White Harbor, 62, 63, 66, 68, 79–81, 138 White Knife, 57, 62, 80, 81 White middle class, 192 White Walkers, 121, 136, 145, 195, 255, 291 See also Others Widow’s Watch, 80 Wilderness, 32, 136, 137, 152, 171 Wildfire, 62n40, 282, 294, 295 Wildlings, 33, 134n10, 135–139, 150, 173 William the Conqueror, 332 Windsor Castle, 60 Windtalkers (film), 303 Wine, 218–223, 225–228, 234, 236 Winterfell, 59, 60, 62, 64, 66–69, 72, 77, 79, 83–87, 84n114, 121, 138, 154, 199, 228, 283, 290–293 Wintertown, 68, 81 The Wire (TV series), 198 Wolf’s Den, 62, 80

 INDEX 

Wonders, 11, 21–51, 80, 101, 108, 139 World-building, 5, 12, 250, 252, 256, 277–280, 297 The World of Ice and Fire, 71, 87, 141, 332 World War II, 217 Wulls, 79 Wunderkammer, 107–112 Wylis, see Hodor X Xaro Xhaos Daxos, 139 Xenophon, 23 Xerxes, 39

367

Y Ygritte, 137 Yin, 43 Yi Ti, 42, 43, 145 Yi Ti’s Golden Empire, 43 Yronwood (House), see House Yronwood Yunkai, 312 Z Zafra Castle, 60 Zeus, 26–28, 48, 48n80, 108, 115, 116n68, 177, 178 Zeus at Olympia, 26, 27, 48, 48n80