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ADVANCED COMBUSTION ENGINE TECHNOLOGIES
V EHI CL E TECHN OLO GIE S PRO G R A M Less dependence on foreign oil today, and transition to a petroleum-free, emissions-free vehicle tomorrow.
2 0 0 7 annual progress report
U.S. Department of Energy 1000 Independence Avenue, S.W. Washington, D.C. 205850121
FY 2007 PROGRESS REPORT FOR ADVANCED COMBUSTION ENGINE TECHNOLOGIES Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office of Vehicle Technologies
Approved by Gurpreet Singh Team Leader, Advanced Combustion Engine R&D Ofice of Vehicle Technologies
December 2007
Acknowledgement We would like to express our sincere appreciation to Alliance Technical Services, Inc. and Oak Ridge National Laboratory for their technical and artistic contributions in preparing and publishing this report. In addition, we would like to thank all the participants for their contributions to the programs and all the authors who prepared the project abstracts that comprise this report.
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 II.
Advanced Combustion and Emission Control Research for HighEficiency Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 II.A
Combustion and Related InCylinder Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 II.A.1 LightDuty Diesel Spray Research Using XRay Radiography (Argonne National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 II.A.2 LowTemperature Automotive Diesel Combustion (Sandia National Laboratories) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 II.A.3 HeavyDuty LowTemperature and Diesel Combustion Research and HeavyDuty Combustion Modeling (Sandia National Laboratories) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 II.A.4 LowTemperature Diesel Combustion CrossCut Research (Sandia National Laboratories) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 II.A.5 Achieving High Eficiency Clean Combustion (HECC) in Diesel Engines (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 II.A.6 Large Eddy Simulation Applied to LowTemperature and Hydrogen Engine Combustion Research (Sandia National Laboratories) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 II.A.7 Detailed Modeling of Low Temperature Combustion and MultiCylinder HCCI Engine Control (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 II.A.8 HCCI and StratiiedCharge CI Engine Combustion Research (Sandia National Laboratories) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 II.A.9 Automotive HCCI Combustion Research (Sandia National Laboratories) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 II.A.10 SparkAssisted HCCI Combustion (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 II.A.11 KIVA4 Development (Los Alamos National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 II.A.12 Chemical Kinetic Modeling of Combustion of Automotive Fuels (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88 II.A.13 Achieving and Demonstrating FreedomCAR Engine Eficiency Goals (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 II.A.14 Hydrogen Free Piston Engine (Sandia National Laboratories) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 II.A.15 Optimization of Direct Injection Hydrogen Combustion Engine Performance using an Endoscopic Technique (Argonne National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 II.A.16 Quantitative Measurements of Mixture Formation in a DirectInjection Hydrogen ICE (Sandia National Laboratories) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 II.A.17 Enabling High Eficiency Clean Combustion in Diesel Engines (Cummins Inc.) . . . . . . . . . 112 II.A.18 High Eficiency Clean Combustion (HECC) Advanced Combustion Report (Caterpillar, Inc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 II.A.19 LowTemperature Combustion Demonstrator for High Eficiency Clean Combustion (International Truck and Engine Corporation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 II.A.20 21st Century Locomotive Technology 2007 Annual Report: Advanced Fuel Injection (GE Global Research) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128 II.A.21 Stretch Eficiency in Combustion Engines with Implications of New Combustion Regimes (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 II.A.22 Advancements in Engine Combustion Systems to Enable HighEficiency Clean Combustion for HeavyDuty Engines (Detroit Diesel Corporation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 II.A.23 Development of High Eficiency Clean Combustion Engine Designs for SparkIgnition and CompressionIgnition Internal Combustion Engines (GM Powertrain Advanced Engineering) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
II.B
Energy Eficient Emission Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 II.B.1 Fundamental Studies of NOx Adsorber Materials (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
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Table of Contents II.
Advanced Combustion and Emission Control Research for HighEficiency Engines (Continued) II.B Energy Eficient Emission Controls (Continued) II.B.2 Mechanisms of Sulfur Poisoning of NOx Adsorber Materials (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154 II.B.3 Characterizing LeanNOx Trap Regeneration and Desulfation (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 II.B.4 Development of Chemical Kinetics Models for Lean NOx Traps (Sandia National Laboratories) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 II.B.5 Advanced Engine/Aftertreatment System Research and Development (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 II.B.6 Fundamental Sulfation/Desulfation Studies of Lean NOx Traps, DOE PreCompetitive Catalyst Research (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 II.B.7 NOx Control and Measurement Technology for HeavyDuty Diesel Engines (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 II.B.8 Eficient Emissions Control for MultiMode Lean DI Engines (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 II.B.9 CrossCut Lean Exhaust Emissions Reduction Simulation (CLEERS): Administrative Support (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 II.B.10 CrossCut Lean Exhaust Emissions Reduction Simulation (CLEERS): Joint Development of Benchmark Kinetics (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . .186 II.B.11 CrossCut Lean Exhaust Emissions Reduction Simulations (CLEERS) Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) Modeling (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory) . . . . . .190 II.B.12 Innovative Emission Control Renewal (General Motors Corporation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195 II.B.13 Discovery of New NOx Reduction Catalysts for CIDI Engines Using Combinatorial Techniques (General Motors Corporation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 II.C Critical Enabling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 II.C.1 Variable Valve Actuation for Advanced Mode Diesel Combustion (Delphi Corporation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 II.C.2 Variable Compression Ratio Engine (Envera LLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 II.C.3 Development of WideSpectrum Voltammetric Sensors for Engine Exhaust NOx Measurement (Streamline Automation, LLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 II.C4 Advanced Start of Combustion Sensor – Phase 1: Feasibility Demonstration (TIAX LLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 II.C.5 The Development of a Robust AccelerometerBased Start of Combustion Sensing System (Westport Power, Inc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 II.C.6 Electrically Coupled Exhaust Energy Recovery System Using a Series Power Turbine Approach (John Deere Product Engineering Center) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 II.C.7 Exhaust Energy Recovery (Cummins Inc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223 II.C.8 Very High Fuel Economy, Heavy Duty, Constant Speed, Truck Engine Optimized via Unique Energy Recovery Turbines and Facilitated by a High Eficiency Continuously Variable Drivetrain (Volvo Powertrain North America) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227 II.C.9 An Engine System Approach to Exhaust Waste Heat Recovery (Caterpillar Inc.) . . . . . . . . 231 II.C.10 Demonstration of AirPowerAssist (APA) Engine Technology for Clean Combustion and Direct Energy Recovery in HeavyDuty Application (Volvo Powertrain North America) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235 II.D Health Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 II.D.1 Health Effects from Advanced Combustion and Fuel Technologies (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 II.D.2 Collaborative Lubricating Oil Study on Emissions (CLOSE) Program (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245 II.D.3 Health Impacts: Respiratory Response (Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute) . . . . . . .248 II.D.4 The Advanced Collaborative Emissions Study (ACES) (Health Effects Institute) . . . . . . . .253
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Table of Contents III. Solid State Energy Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 III.1 III.2 III.3 IV.
University Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 IV.1 IV.2 IV.3 IV.4 IV.5 IV.6 IV.7
IV.8 V.
Consortium on LowTemperature Combustion for HighEficiency, UltraLow Emission Engines (University of Michigan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277 Optimization of LowTemperature Diesel Combustion (University of Wisconsin-Madison) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283 LowTemperature Combustion with ThermoChemical Recuperation to Maximize InUse Engine Eficiency (West Virginia University). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289 Kinetic and Performance Studies of the Regeneration Phase of Model Pt/Ba/Rh NOx Traps for Design and Optimization (University of Houston) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294 Investigation of Aging Mechanisms in Lean NOx Traps (University of Kentucky) . . . . . . . .298 Improved Engine Design Concepts Using the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Reducing Irreversibilities and Increasing Eficiencies (Texas A&M University) . . . . . . . . . .302 HighCompressionRatio AtkinsonCycle Engine Using LowPressure Direct Injection and PneumaticElectronic Valve Actuation Enabled by Ionization Current and ForwardBackward Mass Air Flow Sensor Feedback (Michigan State University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 OnBoard Engine Exhaust Particulate Matter Sensor for HCCI and Conventional Diesel Engines (The University of Texas at Austin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
New Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 V.1 V.2
VI.
Developing Thermoelectric Technology for Automotive Waste Heat Recovery (GM Research and Development Center) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259 HighEficiency Thermoelectric Waste Energy Recovery System for Passenger Vehicle Applications (BSST LLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264 Thermoelectric Conversion of Waste Heat to Electricity in an IC Engine Powered Vehicle (Michigan State University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
LightDuty Eficient Clean Combustion (Cummins Inc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Advanced Boost System Development for Diesel HCCI Application (Ford Motor Company) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
VII. Index of Primary Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
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I. INTRODUCTION
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I. Introduction DEVELOPING ADVANCED COMBUSTION ENGINE TECHNOLOGIES On behalf of the Department of Energy’s Ofice of Vehicle Technologies, we are pleased to introduce the Fiscal Year (FY) 2007 Annual Progress Report for the Advanced Combustion Engine R&D SubProgram. The mission of the Vehicle Technologies (VT) Program is to develop more energy eficient and environmentally friendly highway transportation technologies that enable the United States to use less petroleum. The Advanced Combustion Engine R&D SubProgram supports this mission and the President’s initiatives by removing the critical technical barriers to commercialization of advanced internal combustion engines for light, medium, and heavyduty highway vehicles that meet future Federal emissions regulations. The primary goal of the Advanced Combustion Engine R&D SubProgram is to improve the brake thermal eficiency of internal combustion engines: • •
for passenger vehicles, from 30% (2002 baseline) to 45% by 2010, and for commercial vehicles, from 40% (2002 baseline) to 55% by 2013,
while meeting cost, durability, and emissions constraints. R&D activities include work on combustion technologies that increase eficiency and minimize incylinder formation of emissions, aftertreatment technologies that further reduce exhaust emissions, as well as the impacts of these new technologies on human health. Research is also being conducted on approaches to produce useful work from waste engine heat through the development and application of thermoelectrics, electricity generation from exhaustdriven turbines, and incorporation of energyextracting bottoming cycles. Advanced internal combustion engines are a key element in the pathway to achieving the goals of the President’s FreedomCAR and Fuel Partnership for transportation. Advanced engine technologies being researched will allow the use of hydrogen as a fuel in highly eficient and lowemission internal combustion engines, providing an energyeficient interim hydrogenbased powertrain technology during the transition to hydrogen/fuelcellpowered transportation vehicles. Hydrogen engine technologies being developed have the potential to provide diesellike engine eficiencies with nearzero air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. This introduction serves to outline the nature, recent progress, and future directions of the Advanced Combustion Engine R&D SubProgram. The research activities of this SubProgram are planned in conjunction with the FreedomCAR and Fuel Partnership and the 21st Century Truck Partnership (CTP) and are carried out in collaboration with industry, national laboratories, and universities. Because of the importance of clean fuels in achieving high eficiency and low emissions, R&D activities are closely coordinated with the relevant activities of the Fuel Technologies Sub Program, also within the Ofice of Vehicle Technologies.
BACKGROUND Advanced combustion engines have great potential for achieving dramatic energy eficiency improvements in lightduty vehicle applications, where it is suited to both conventional and hybrid electric powertrain conigurations. Lightduty vehicles with advanced combustion engines can compete directly with gasoline engine hybrid vehicles in terms of fuel economy and consumerfriendly driving characteristics; also, they are projected to have energy eficiencies that are competitive with hydrogen fuel cell vehicles when used in hybrid applications. The primary hurdles that must be overcome to realize increased use of advanced combustion engines in lightduty vehicles are the higher cost of these engines compared to conventional engines and compliance with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) Tier 2 regulations which are phasing in from 20042009. The Tier 2 regulations require all lightduty vehicles to meet the same emissions standards, regardless of the powertrain. Compliance can be achieved with advanced combustion engines through the addition of catalytic emission control technologies, though these technologies are much less mature than gasoline engine catalysts and are severely affected by sulfur from the fuel and lubricant. Even the recent reduction
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I. Introduction of diesel fuel sulfur content to below 15 ppm does not assure that catalytic emission control devices will be durable and costeffective. The Advanced Combustion Engine R&D SubProgram focuses on developing technologies for light, medium, and heavyduty internal combustion (ICE) engines operating in advanced combustion regimes, including homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) and other modes of lowtemperature combustion (LTC), which will increase eficiency beyond current advanced diesel engines and reduce engineout emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) to nearzero levels. The heavyduty diesel engine is the primary engine for commercial vehicles because of its high eficiency and outstanding durability. However, the implementation of more stringent heavyduty engine emission standards, which were phased in starting 2007 (100% implementation in 2010), is anticipated to cause a reduction in fuel eficiency due to the exhaust emission control devices needed to meet emissions regulations for both NOx and PM. Heavyduty vehicles using diesel engines also have signiicant potential to employ advanced combustion regimes and a wide range of waste heat recovery technologies that will both improve engine eficiency and reduce fuel consumption. Advanced engine technologies being researched and developed by the Advanced Combustion Engine R&D SubProgram will also allow the use of hydrogen as a fuel in ICEs and will provide an energyeficient interim hydrogenbased powertrain technology during the transition to hydrogen/fuelcellpowered transportation vehicles. Given these challenges, the Advanced Combustion Engine Technologies SubProgram is working toward achieving the following objectives: •
• • • • •
Advance fundamental combustion understanding to enable design of engines with inherently lower emissions, and eventually advanced engines operating predominantly in lowtemperature or HCCI combustion regimes. The resulting technological advances will reduce the size and complexity of emission control devices and minimize any impact these devices have on vehicle fuel eficiency. A fuelneutral approach is being taken, with research addressing gasolinebased LTC engines as well as dieselbased advanced engines. Increase overall engine eficiency through fundamental improvements such as advanced combustion processes, reduction of parasitic losses, and recovery of waste heat. Improve the effectiveness, eficiency, and durability of engine emission control devices to enable these engines to achieve signiicant penetration in the lightduty market and maintain their application in heavyduty vehicles. Develop highly eficient hydrogen engine technologies with nearzero NOx, PM and greenhouse gas emissions. Identify that any potential health hazards associated with the use of new vehicle technologies being developed by VT will not have adverse impacts on human health through exposure to toxic particles, gases, and other compounds generated by these new technologies. Develop advanced thermoelectric technologies for recovering engine waste heat and converting it to useful energy that will signiicantly increase vehicle fuel economy.
Technology Status Recent advances in fuel injection systems have made the diesel engine very attractive for light duty vehicle use by reducing the combustion noise associated with diesel engines, and consumers are discovering that diesel engines offer outstanding driveability and fuel economy. The changeover to ultralowsulfur diesel fuel enables catalytic exhaust treatment devices that virtually eliminate the offensive odors associated with diesel engines and further improve their prospects for wider use in lightduty vehicles. MercedesBenz has started selling a diesel passenger car that is certiied to Tier 2 Bin 8 in the U.S. using a NOx adsorber and diesel particulate ilter (DPF) and has added diesel engine options for its SUVs. In early 2007, The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) inalized its guidance document for using selective catalytic reduction (SCR) employing urea for regeneration (ureaSCR) technology for NOx control in light and heavyduty diesel vehicles and engines. This opens the door for the
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I. Introduction introduction of SCR technology in Tier 2 lightduty vehicles, 2010 heavyduty engines, and in other future diesel engine applications in the United States. MercedesBenz is offering a limited number of ureaSCR 2007 diesel vehicles in California that meet the Tier 2 Bin 5 standard. In 2008, Mercedes Benz plans to expand availability of these vehicles to all 50 states. Volkswagen, Audi, and BMW also plan to incorporate ureaSCR technology into some of their diesel vehicles in 2008 with some Volkswagen models using NOx adsorber technology. In 2009, Honda plans to introduce a diesel passenger car to the U.S. that meets the Tier 2, Bin 5 standard using NOx adsorber technology and a particulate ilter. These products are the direct result of regulation to reduce fuel sulfur content and R&D to develop advanced emission control technologies. Current heavyduty diesel engines have eficiencies in the range of 4345%. These engines have signiicantly improved eficiency over engines produced just a few years ago. Improvements are being made in a wide variety of engine components such that engines a few years from now may have eficiencies between 47 and 48% without employing waste heat recovery. In 2007, heavyduty diesel engines for onhighway commercial trucks have been equipped with DPFs to meet particulate emissions standards. This will be the irst very broad application of aftertreatment devices in the trucking industry. In some cases, DPFs are paired with oxidation catalysts to facilitate passive or active regeneration. DPFs are typically capable of reducing PM emissions by 95% or more. For NOx control, aftertreatment devices are not likely to be needed in the heavyduty sector until 2010 emissions regulations take effect. Among the options for NOx aftertreatment for diesel engines, ureaSCR is the clear leader because of its performance and superior fuel sulfur tolerance. The U.S. EPA has put regulations in place to assure that users of ureaSCR vehicles don’t operate them without replenishing the urea. Using ureaSCR, lightduty manufacturers will be able to meet Tier 2, Bin 5 which is the “gold standard” at which diesel vehicle sales do not have to be offset by sales of lower emission vehicles. Heavyduty diesel vehicle manufacturers will be attracted to ureaSCR since it has a broader temperature range of effectiveness than competing means of NOx reduction and allows the engine/emission control system to achieve higher fuel eficiency. The other technology being considered for NOx control from diesel engines is leanNOx traps (LNTs), also known as NOx adsorbers. LNTs appear to be favored by lightduty manufacturers (as witnessed by the 2007 Dodge Ram lightduty trucks with the Cummins 6.7liter diesel engine using a LNT and DPF for emission control, and Volkswagen’s and Honda’s announcements of their intent to use LNTs with their diesel engines in 2008 and 2009, respectively) since overall fuel eficiency is less of a concern than for heavyduty manufacturers, and because urea replenishment represents a larger concern for lightduty customers than for heavyduty vehicle users. Other drawbacks to LNT use on heavyduty vehicles are that they are larger in relation to engine displacement (being over twice as large as those required for lightduty vehicles), the “nottoexceed” operating conditions generate higher exhaust temperatures which degrade durability, and the fuel used for regeneration adds to operating costs. Research on LNTs has decreased this fuel “penalty,” but it is still in the range of ive percent of total fuel low. This problem is exacerbated by the need to periodically drive off accumulated sulfur (even using ultralowsulfur fuel) by heating the adsorber to high temperatures, again by using fuel (desulfation). In addition, the high temperature of regeneration and desulfation has been shown to cause deterioration in catalyst effectiveness. LNTs additionally require substantial quantities of platinum group metals, and the cost of these materials has been rising at a concerning rate. An optimum solution to diesel engine emissions would be to alter the combustion process in ways that produce emissions at levels that don’t need ancillary devices for emissions control, or greatly reduce the requirements of these systems, yet maintain or increase engine eficiency. This is the concept behind advanced combustion regimes such as HCCI, premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) and other modes of LTC, which result in greatly reduced levels of NOx and PM emissions (emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide still exist and must also be controlled – the lower exhaust temperatures associated with these combustion modes can make hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide control dificult). Signiicant progress is being made in these types of combustion systems, and performance has been demonstrated over increasingly larger portions of the engine speed/load map. In recent years, DOE has adopted the term “higheficiency clean combustion” (HECC) to
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Advanced Combustion Engine Technologies
I. Introduction include these various combustion modes since the boundaries among them are dificult to deine. The major issues of this R&D include fuel mixing, control of air intake low and its temperature, control of combustion initiation, and application over a wider portion of the engine operating range. Control of valve opening independent of piston movement appears to be highly desirable for such engines. Most heavyduty engine manufacturers are employing some sort of HECC in engines designed to meet the 2010 emission standards. Ford has announced that it intends to release a lightduty diesel engine employing HECC before 2012 which may not include any NOx aftertreatment devices.1 General Motors has demonstrated two driveable concept vehicles, a 2007 Saturn Aura and Opel Vectra, with lightduty HCCI engines using gasoline.2 Complex and precise engine and emission controls will require sophisticated feedback systems employing new types of sensors. NOx, PM, and combustion sensors are in the early stages of development and require additional advances to be costeffective and reliable, but are essential to control systems for these advanced engine/aftertreatment systems. Much progress has been made, but durability and cost remain as the primary issues with these sensors. Startofcombustion sensors have been identiied as a need, and several development projects are underway. Advanced fuel formulations and fuel quality are also crucial to achieving higher energy eficiencies and meeting emissions targets. The EPA rule mandating that the sulfur content of highway diesel fuel be reduced to less than 15 ppm is a great beneit to the effectiveness, eficiency, and durability of emission control devices. Since October 15, 2006, diesel fuel being sold for highway use in most of the country has less than 15 ppm sulfur (complete phasein is anticipated by 2010 as small reiner exemptions are phased out). The addition of nonpetroleum components such as biodiesel can have beneicial effects on emissions while providing lubricity enhancement to ultralowsulfur diesel fuel. Recent tests have shown that biodiesel lowers the regeneration temperature of particulate traps and increases the rate of regeneration with the potential for avoiding or reducing the need for active regeneration and its associated fuel economy penalty. On the other hand, biodiesel use has resulted in some operational problems as well. Fuel ilter plugging has been reported under cold conditions for fuels with as little as 2% biodiesel because the biodiesel was not made to speciication for blending with diesel fuel. Biodiesel is certain to become more prevalent in diesel fuel due in part to the recent expansion of the Renewable Fuel Standard, which calls for 0.5 billion gallons in 2009 increasing to 1.0 billion gallons by 2012. Waste heat recovery is being implemented in heavyduty diesel vehicles. New engines being introduced by Daimler Trucks in late 2007 include turbo compounding technology that uses a turbine to extract waste energy and add to engine power output. The addition of turbo compounding and other engine changes result in a claimed 5% improvement in vehicle fuel economy. Testing has shown that waste heat recovery has the potential to improve vehicle fuel economy by 10% and heavyduty engine eficiency also by 10%.
Future Directions Internal combustion engines have a maximum theoretical fuel conversion eficiency that is similar to that of fuel cells; it approaches 100%. The primary limiting factors to approaching these theoretical limits of conversion eficiency start with the high irreversibility in traditional premixed or diffusion lames, but include heat losses during combustion/expansion, untapped exhaust energy, and mechanical friction. Multiple studies agree that combustion irreversibility losses consume more than 20% of the available fuel energy and are a direct result of lame front combustion. Analyses of how “advanced combustion regimes” might impact the irreversibility losses have indicated a few directions of moderate reduction of this loss mechanism, but converting the preserved availability to work will require compound cycles or similar measures of exhaust energy utilization. The engine hardware changes needed to execute these advanced combustion regimes include variable fuel injection geometries, turbo and super charging to produce very high manifold pressures, compound compression and expansion cycles, variable compression ratio, and improved sensors and control methods. Larger reductions in
1 2
“Ford, PSA Developing HCCI Diesel” by William Diem, WardsAuto.com, Oct. 11, 2006. “GM Demonstrates Gasoline HCCI On the Road” Green Car Congress, 24 August 2007.
Advanced Combustion Engine Technologies
6
FY 2007 Progress Report
I. Introduction combustion irreversibility will require a substantial departure from today’s processes but are being examined as a longrange strategy. The other areas where there is large potential for improvements in internal combustion engine eficiency are losses from the exhaust gases and heat transfer losses. Exhaust losses are being addressed by analysis and development of compound compression and expansion cycles achieved by valve timing, use of turbine expanders, regenerative heat recovery, and application of thermoelectric generators. Employing such cycles and devices has been shown to have the potential to increase heavyduty engine eficiency by 10% to as high as 55%, and lightduty vehicle fuel economy by 10%. Heat transfer losses may be reduced by HECC, and interest in inding effective thermal barriers remains valid. Fuels can also play an important role in reducing combustion irreversibility losses. Preliminary analyses show that combustion irreversibility losses per mole of fuel are considerably less for hydrogen than for hydrocarbon fuels. This inding is consistent with the understanding that combustion irreversibility losses are reduced when combustion is occurring nearer equilibrium (high temperature), since hydrogen has the highest adiabatic lame temperature of the fuels studied to date. This bodes well for the development of highly eficient hydrogenfueled internal combustion engines. Emission control devices for diesel engines to reduce PM and NOx will become widespread over the next few years. Much work still needs to be done to make these devices more durable and to lessen their impact on fuel consumption. Information about how best to employ these emission control devices also continues to evolve with new developments leading to more eficient operation. As engine combustion becomes cleaner, the requirements of the emission control devices will change as well. Thermoelectric devices that convert waste engine heat to electricity have great potential to improve both engine eficiency and vehicle fuel economy. The electricity generated can be used to drive engine accessories, operate emission control equipment, or used directly to propel the vehicle. The challenges facing implementation of thermoelectric devices include scaleup, manufacturing techniques, and durability to withstand extremes of heat and vibration typical of vehicle environments.
Goals and Challenges • •
The Advanced Combustion Engine R&D SubProgram has two activities: Combustion and Emission Control R&D Solid State Energy Conversion
Combustion and Emission Control R&D The Combustion and Emission Control R&D activity focuses on enabling technologies for energy eficient, clean vehicles powered by advanced combustion engines using clean hydrocarbonbased and nonpetroleumbased fuels and hydrogen. R&D has been focused on developing technologies for light, medium, and heavyduty engines and is being transitioned to developing technologies for advanced engines operating in combustion regimes that will further increase eficiency and reduce emissions to nearzero levels. Fuel eficiency improvement is the overarching focus of this activity, but resolving the interdependent emissions challenges is a critical integrated requirement. (Penetration of even current technology diesel engines into the lightduty truck market would reduce fuel use by 3040% per gasoline vehicle replaced.) The major challenges facing diesel emission control systems across all three platforms are similar: durability, cost, and fuel penalty (or in the case of ureaSCR, urea infrastructure development). Fulllife durability in fullscale systems suitable for 2010 regulations has yet to be demonstrated for either light or heavyduty systems, with the exception of very recent announcements by Cummins of a 2007 chassis certiied heavyduty diesel engine certiied to the 2010 emission regulations. This is indicative of the progress achieved in the last ten years. The VT technical targets for advanced combustion engines suitable for passenger vehicles (cars and light trucks), as well as to address technology barriers and R&D needs that are common between passenger and commercial (heavyduty) vehicle applications of advanced combustion engines include:
FY 2007 Progress Report
7
Advanced Combustion Engine Technologies
I. Introduction • •
By 2010, for passenger vehicles, develop the understanding of novel lowtemperature engine combustion regimes needed to simultaneously enable engine eficiency of 45 percent with a fuel eficiency penalty of less than 1 percent while meeting prevailing EPA emissions standards. By 2013, increase the thermal eficiency of heavy truck engines to 55 percent while meeting prevailing EPA emissions standards.
Presented in the following tables are the technical targets (consistent with the goals) for the Combustion and Emission Control R&D activity. The FreedomCAR and Fuel Partnership goals for both hydrocarbon and hydrogenfueled ICEs are shown in Table 1. These apply to passenger vehicles (cars and light trucks). The technical targets for heavy truck engines for commercial vehicles are shown in Table 2. TABLE 1. Technical Targets for Passenger Vehicle Engines Characteristics
Fiscal Year
a
Reference peak brake thermal eficiency , % b,c
Powertrain cost , $/kW
2007
2009
2010
32
34
35
35
30
30
FREEDOMCAR AND FUEL PARTNERSHIP GOALS ICE Powertrain Peak brake thermal eficiency, % (Diesel/H 2–ICE) (H 2–ICE)
45/45 45 (2015)
Cost, $/kW (Diesel/H2–ICE) (H 2–ICE)
30/45 30 (2015)
Target peak brake thermal eficiency/partload brake thermal eficiency (2 bar BMEP d @1500 rpm), % Emissionse, g/mil e
Durability , hrs Thermal eficiency penalty due to emission control devicesf, %
42/29
44/30
45/31
Tier 2, Bin 5
Tier 2, Bin 5
Tier 2, Bin 5
5,000
5,000
5,000