FUTURE FOREST TREES OR THE IMPORTANCE OF THE GERMAN EXPERIMENTS IN THE INTRODUCTION OF NORTH AMERICAN TREES
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FUTURE FOREST TREES OR
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE GERMAN EXPERIMENTS IN THE INTRODUCTION OF NORTH AMERICAN TREES
BY
A.
HAROLD UNWIN D. Oec. Publ. (Munich)
LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN PATERNOSTER SQUARE -MCMV
Ubc Scesbam
Iptess,
UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED,
WOKING AND LONDON.
PROFESSOR HEINRICH MAYR D. OEC. PUBL.
ET PH.D.,
FROM WHOM SO MUCH HELP IN
ITS
WRITING
WAS RECEIVED, THIS LITTLE BOOK IS
GRATEFULLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE The
German and
work
following
in
in
originally
in
the "Austrian Forestry Magazine,"
view of the increased interest taken
forestry in
England an English
perhaps be acceptable
The
appeared
writer's object
concise
manner the
ments,
chiefly
translation
in
may
in this country. is
to present in the
most
numerous experiGermany, with some American trees, most of which are known as ornamental specimens, but have not received A due attention in forest plantations here. results of
made
in
great deal of misapprehension exists as to their value,
and as Germany has done most of the
experimental forest-tree planting,
it is
instructive
to hear the consensus of opinion of that country. A.
HAROLD UNWIN,
Asst. Conservator of Forests, Southern Nigeria, late
of the Forestry Branch, Department of the
Interior, Canada.
Royal Colonial Institute, June
1905.
CONTENTS
ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. I.
NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF THE WEYMOUTH PINE
....
IN
THE ROYAL FOREST RANGE OF TRIPPSTADT, RHINE PALATINATE
H.
THIRTY-YEAR OAKS
Facing page
90
UNDERPLANTED WITH CHAM^E-
CYPARIS LAWSONIANA FIFTEEN YEARS AGO, IN THE
EXPERIMENTAL FOREST GARDENS, GRAFRATH
.
Facing page
III,
DOUGLAS
FIR,
95
TWENTY YEARS OLD, TWELVE METRES
HIGH, IN THE EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS, GRAFRATH
Facing page 100
INTRODUCTION The
extraordinarily successful results which agri-
culture
and horticulture attained through the
troduction of foreign plants in
in-
awakened the idea
Germany, more than a hundred years ago,
of introducing
foreign
ornament and increase
the
for
forest
trees,
both
for
commercial purposes, and to
value
of
forests
in
and
quality
quantity.
Attention
was
first
East
towards
directed
America, whence the story came of extraordinary timber wealth and of especially valuable
Under
the direction of Burgsdorff,
Bechstein, species
of
and
others,
about
were
finally
trees
end of the eighteenth century,
trees.
Wangenheim,
three
hundred
chosen, at
the
for experimental
planting in the woods.
Nevertheless attain
forestal
these or
did
not
importance
be-
introductions
economic
cause the experiments were carried out without plan or protection,
i.e.,
without a knowledge of
12
and requirements of the timber species, and most of them have disappeared from the forest. Damage due to the
sylvicultural
peculiarities
deer-browsing, which to-day chiefly causes the
weakening and disappearance of so many foreign
was no doubt then also the chief reason of the backwardness and killing of foreign trees, trees,
while
indigenous
touched at
From
trees
were scarcely or
not
all.
was done for about a century, but the few remnants which managed that time nothing
to hold their
own
in
parks protected from deer
have become important objects
for the study of
There
the American tree species in Germany. is
certain proof that the trees from the
part of East in
colder
America are capable of being grown
Germany,
that
they
from the
correspond,
forest point of view, to their
new requirements
as in the end they reach tree dimensions in not
German
longer periods than do native
The their
desire to
soil
species.
have timber species which
requirements were
in
more modest, or
which were more frost-hardy, than the indigenous species, as also the desire to cultivate
rare
something
and foreign which perhaps would
yield a
more valuable timber than the indigenous caused ments.
attention
And
portations of
to
trees,
be turned to new experi-
the steady, rapid
increase of im-
American timber, which came
into
home-grown
successful competition with
new experiments trees in Germany
led
timber,
in the cultivation of foreign
be
to
put
speedily
into
practice.
and
Austria
Switzerland have followed the
example of Germany
is
an
In England and Scot-
apparent holding back. land a great
France there
in
;
many experiments have been
tried,
but owing to lack of system not with the best results.
German experiments, after a twenty-year trial, can be summed up, the results are undoubtedly of great forestal value. The new So
far as
introductions
species
during this period have brought
Germany which
to
trees
the
in
modesty as
to
frost -hardiness,
and
partly equal the
German
in
duction, partly surpass
excel
requirements, in
soil
growth
rapid
will
of the next century,
as
which
;
species in timber pro-
them
promise that Germany
German
the
;
so that there
is
a
produce, in the course
much
of the splendid
American hickory, walnut, Douglasia, and white pine
wood
at
home
as she requires.
Of
the cultivation of other timber species, pitch pine, lands.
must be reserved
for
warmer
Should the above promise not be
course
such as foreign realised,
the blame must not be laid on the foreign trees,
nor on the climate,
German
but rather
soil,
nor on the
on German
German who
foresters
14
mishandle their exotics or leave them to the
mercy of the animals of the
German
have
foresters
forest.
not only by ex-
tried,
perimenting under the most different conditions, but also by studying and travelling in the
home
of the exotics, to find a natural scientific basis
and thus make the planta success and save time, money, and
as quickly as possible,
ing
trials
material.
In this respect the travels of Prof. D. Heinrich
Mayr
to
America and Asia were
results of these travels
decisive.
appeared
The "Wal-
the
in
dungen von Nord Amerika," 1890 ("Forests of North America," 1890).
These studies in America, as well as the results of European plantation experiments during the last twenty years, have brought so many scientific facts to light concerning a large number of American species that even American foresters may now improve their knowledge of the sylvicultural peculiarities of their
own
trees through
these studies.
The
object of the
following
show what timber from America
to
the
German market,
what
success
the
and, further, to
and
economic
work
little is
is
put on
show with
sylvicultural
question of the introduction of American trees 1$
being solved, particularly
My
in
warmest thanks are due
Germany. to
Mr. Wilson,
15
Deputy Consul of the United States in Munich to Mr. R. H. Campbell, Assistant Secretary and Treasurer of the tion
;
Upper
and
to
the
Canadian Forestry Associa-
Chamber
of
Commerce
for
Bavaria, for their ample help in the loan
of books, &c.
PART
I
The German Timber Imports from the United States and Canada.
TIMBER IMPORTS INTO HAMBURG.
A.
The
following statistics
annual
returns
Schiffahrt,"
conditions difficult
to
as
of
find
"
best reflect
timber market.
from
what
from
taken
Hamburg's
these
of the
are
trees
the
Handel the It
the
und
varying is
often
various
timbers are obtained. I.
ASH FROM FRAXINUS AMERICANA.
The quantities imported are small, cheaper price rather than superior quality being the only reason for the demand at all.
i; 2.
Two
RED CEDAR.
species of tree are included under this
name
as
from America, namely {a) PENCIL WOOD FROM JDNIPERUS VIRGINIANA. Year.
coming
i8 O
a
.
3 H
=° I
d 8,
gsss
5 3 a
g 3 =
SS
% g3S 3 3 iH
&i-gc88
19
CHERRY WOOD FROM PRUNUS Only very small quantities appear
Year.
in the
SEROTINA.
market reports.
20
HICKORY FROM CARYA ALBA. This very elastic wood is imported in increasing quantities as spokes and half-manufactured material rather than in the log, as in this
form
it
more
rapidly spoils.
21 7-
OAK.
obtained almost exclusively from the white oak, Quercus alba. Greater quantities are imported every year, as apparently the output of the home forests is not sufficient to cover the demand. Then, too, the American material is cheaper, and some say poor, but the manufacturers do not share this opinion. The coopers say the American wood is the best for staves. It is interesting to note, too, that a much larger quantity of ready-cut wood is imported than rough unsawn logs. About 10,000 cubic metres of parquet wood was also imported.
This
is
22
Much
the
same applies
to 9-
POPLAR, COTTONWOOD, FROM POPVLUS HONILIFEEA, although
it is
only in recent years that
it
has been imported at
all.
23
IS
o
o 1-1
o
'Z
1
24
25 B.
TIMBER IMPORTS INTO BREMEN.' I. CEDAR, CEDRELA ODORATA (?)
As the quantities are not differentiated, it is impossible from what tree the timber mentioned here is obtained.
to
know
26 C.
GEESTEMONDE.
PITCH PINE, PINUS AUSTRALIS. The
following quantities, which represent just a fifth of the timber imports into this port, are the only ones differentiated in the market reports. All other timbers are classed together. total
Year.
IMPORTS OF TIMBER AND TIMBER MANl 1896.
1897.
Goods.' Quantity.3
Building timber Stave
wood
Yellow wood
Value in Marks.
Quantity,
2,382
22,100
350
98,639
1,133,360
320,393
1,850
7,700
248
Cedar wood
m3
772.37
"5,370
m3
818.16
Mahogany
tn}
842.74
189,120
m?
11.24
Walnut
m3
20,594.96
3,751,290
m3
28,673.75
Lignum
vitae
67s
Other hard woods Cigar -box boards
Veneers
Wood pulp Wooden
nails
Cane baskets
Wood for
2,365,820
403,129
7,674
390,500
7,576
70
8,940
22
673
13,730
2,924
3,159
91,760
3.613
19
3,990
20
parquetry
22,229
Rough wooden ware Fine wooden ware
Waggons and waggon Cooperage
Wooden
248,988
parts
19,165
533,570
20,392
2,976
245,210
2,603
1,151
129,720
1,623
167,590
boats
In this general summary it is interesting to note that cedar and walnut are the mosl importance. The former is obtained from Juniperus virginiana and cedrela, and the timber, pine, and spruce from Firms sirobus or resinosa, and Picea alba or nigra.
htt
From Hamburg's " Handeln Kilogrammes unless othervfe
FACTURES FROM THE UNITED STATES. 1898.
27
a
J3.
(U
u Ci
a o a o o lU
a
28
EXPORTS FROM CANADA,
F. I.
TO GERMANY." 1900.
Lumber—
St.
Hd.=
Deal Pine Deal ends..
19 I
m.
Dollars. ...
.
650 39
ft.
Planks and boards...
109
,
6,920
Timber (Square) Tons. Birch
Wood
5
...
60
Manufactures
— —
Furniture...
Wood
pulp
...
813
...
5.312
64
...
55
•••
1.250 2,157
...
1,580
1901.
Lumber-
St.
Hd.
Basswood.. Deal (pine)
m.
ft.
Planks and boards...
Shocks
204
...
436
blocks...
6,606
Match
Timber— Sq.
Ash
Tons. ...
62
..
630
Wood Manufactures — Furniture..
Matches match
—
...
100
—
...
480
& ...
Splints
Wood pulp
-
— —
... ...
18,736
29 F.
EXPORTS FROM CANADA I.
{continued).
30
UNITED STATES.'
Q.
July
I,
1903—June
i,
1904.
EXPORTS OF TIMBER TO GERMANY.
Logs and
Timber and Unmanufactured. Sawed. Hewn. M. ft. Dollars. Cubic ft. 22,335
139.247
339.000
Dollars.
other. Dollars.
23.973
1,230,703
TIMBER. Boards, Deals, and Planks.
M.
Joist
M.
Dollars.
ft.
77,086
and Scantling. Box Shocks.
ft.
Dollars.
Dollars.
3.;85
413
250
1.785,832
LUMBER. Staves.
Value.
Heading.
No.
Dollars.
Dollars.
4.317.659
303,392
19.439
All other. Dollars. 113,872
MANUFACTURES OF Furniture. N.E.S.
Hogsheads and
Trimming,
Barrels Empty.
Moulding.
'
Ware.
Dollars.
Dollars.
Dollars.
7.514
6,794
75.533
159.497
Wood
Wooden
Pounds.
Dollars.
All other. Dollars.
2,991,161
58,688
364,871
Pulp.
From "The Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the Department of Commerce and Labour, Wash-
United States." ington, D.C.
PART General
Results
of
American Trees
Plantation
the in
II with
Experiments
Germany, Austria, Great Britain,
and Switzerland.
A. East American Broad-leaved Trees. 1,
Acer dasycarpum,
White Maple, Soft
Ehrh.,
Maple, Silver Maple. Introduced into Europe in 172
1,
this tree
not attained importance in the forest, but as
an ornamental
grown wood
is
tree
in
parks.
coarse-grained,
soft,
is
has
liked
Its rapidly-
and of small
value.
2.
Acer negundo, Linne, Boxelder, Ash-leaved Maple, Manitoba Maple.
The
forestal value of this
greater than the former.
A
tree species
is
no
variety of the tree
with one or two-year-old shoots, covered with
white bloom, Acer negundo violaceum, also called
Acer
californicum, has
been used for planting
32 experiments a good deal In
Germany
^
and also
For Austria,^ owing to its rapid growth. what purpose the soft, low-valued wood is to be used is unknown. The ornamental value of the tree is great, though it is very liable to be broken in
by wind and snow
in the late
autumn.
Acer sackarinumy Wanghm., Zuckerahorn, Hard Maple, Sugar Maple.
3.
According to Booth, 3 into
Germany
this tree
was introduced
in 1735.
This tree was brought into the planting experiments chiefly because of the quality of
wood,
was
which
exceedingly
through the imports
maple wood.
Dr.
and
value
Mayr4
first
its
exaggerated of
bird's-eye
mentioned im-
portant reasons for planting and the advantages of this tree species in comparison to the indigenous
great maple or sycamore contents
of
the
sap and
namely,
;
the
bearing capacity of the same
the sugar
greater
shade-
tree.
" Die Arbeitsplane
fiir Anbauversuche und fiir die Untersuchung des waldbaulichen Verhaltens auslandischer Hol•
Danckelmann und Mundt, " Jahrbuch der preuszischen und Jagdgesetzgebung," 14 Bd., 1882, pp. 13, 27.
zarten."
Forst-
^ The planting of this tree has been practically given up. Editor. 3 " Feststellung der Anbauwiirdigkeit auslandischer Waldbaume," Berlin, 1880.
*
"Die Waldungen von Nord-Amerika," Miinchen,
1890.
33
The experiments
Germany
in
very extended nature.
Schwappach.i
to
or 0*49
hectares,
not of a
Prussia had, according
year
the
in
are
only
planted with this
acres,
In Bavaria the planting
1901
trials
places with a few trees.
0*2 tree.
are limited to a few
It thrives
everywhere
where the indigenous great maple grows, similar methods of raising and testing being suitable. Its enemies are (i) mice (peeling of the cortex at the foot of the stem), (2) deer, (3) the fungus Nectria cinnabarina, (4) frost to a lesser extent.
Nowhere
in
Europe has the sugar maple pro-
duced the especially expected bird's-eye maple wood.
The
reason for the occurrence of this
valuable misgrowth, which the great and
maple also produce, this
is
still
unknown.
Norway Whether
abnormity can be made by the continual
pruning of the branches on the stem similar to pollarding, as practised in France,
must be seen
by experimenting.
Betula
4.
lenta,
L.,
Red
Birch,
Black Birch,
Cherry Birch.
With
according to Schwap-
this tree species,
pach,2 20'20 acres had been planted up to 1901 '
" Ergebnisse der Anbauversuche
Holzarten in Preuszen."
"Zeitschrift "
wesen,'' 1901.
C
L.c.,
mit fiir
;
fremdlandischen Forst-
und Jagd-
1901, p. 151.
34 Bavaria there are only a few single specimens.
in
Dr.
Fernow/
birch
is
of the United States, says that this
only a small tree which scarcely deserves
planting, whereas
Betula
5.
Michx., Yellow Birch,
lutea,
the tree which yields the valuable
is
have not been made Betula
6.
papyrifera.
in
this
Europe.
White Only
of the
Experiments with
yellow to reddish colour. in
wood
Marsh,
Canoe
Birch,
Birch.
Austria, according to Cieslar,^ have
experiments with
this birch
to prove the usefulness of
been made in order this species in
high
mountains.
Carya
7.
Nutt,
alba,
White Hickory, Shellbark
Hickory.
With
the most important of the Carya
this,
16770 acres had been planted, according Schwappachs {l.c.\ in 1884, and in 1901
species,
to
only ioi"67 acres
left;
an unsatisfactory
taking into account the
were
doubtless
'
" Zeitschrift
'
" Zentralblatt
3
made
new
plantations,
during
this
result,
which period.
und Jagdwesen," 1901, p. 616. das gesamte Forstwesen," 1901. Das holz der empf. exot. Laubholzarten, " Forstwissenfiir
Forst-
fiir
schaftliches Zentralblatt," 1884.
35
Raising and transplanting are very
much
hin-
dered by the very deep and very tender tap-
During the
root.
growth, and
ten years
first
genous species planted with
The wood
by other
Germany has
in
proved just as valuable
as
According to
H. Mayr/
specific
Prof
Dr.
that
in
America. it
has a
gravity of 75, and, from a note from
Nuremberg, excellent
qualities as
The
growing
trees at present
produced
seeds
waggon wood. Germany have
in
showed
which
germinative power at
8.
indi-
it.
grown
of trees
of slow
is
it
usually overgrown
is
poor
or
no
all.
Carya porcina, Nutt, Hickory, Pignut Hickory.
Of
tree species,
this
which
inferior to the
is
alba in the value of the wood, there were in
1890 acres
of
in Prussia I9"62 acres, left,
and
in
1890 only 7*54
hence also a considerable reduction
the
trial
species
was
plantation
planted
Whether
areas.
the
with
alba
this
under
natural conditions, namely, in groups about one-
tenth of an acre in extent,
is
not to be seen
from the monograph.
Wood '
Sargent,
from trees grown
in
Germany shows,
"Report on the Forests of North America,"
Washington, 1884.
36 according to
and so
83,
it
Mayr
a specific gravity of
(/.f.),
equal to any in America, which,
is
according to Sargent, has a specific gravity of
83 to 86. 9.
Of
this,
Carya amara, Nutt, which
is
less valuable in
than the former,
tion
Bitternut.
there
were
every direc-
1890
in
in
Prussia 45 acres, and in 1900 only 29*89 acres
Although easy to
left.
produced excludes
it
raise,
the valueless
from further
trial
wood
planta-
tions.
Carya
10.
Nutt,
tomentosa,
Hickory,
Mocker
Nut.
Of
this
Prussia
tree
still
Carya
In
there
were
19*35 acres planted up.
as successful as
11.
species
It
has been
Prussia,
Big Shellbark Hickory. 24 acres were planted,
and of these only 0*98 acres were Further planting was given up. 12.
1901 in
was expected.
sulcata, Nutt,
1890, in
in
left in
1901.
Castanea americana, Raf., American Chestnut.
Taking into account the smaller amount of warmth required, compared to the indigenous variety, this tree was tried recently in South
37
Germany
The plantashow very much at
Professor Mayr)."
(see
are
tions
young
too
to
present.
Catalpa speciosa, Warder, Western Catalpa,
13.
Hardy
The
planting
successful
really
in
situations
warm summers.
with long,
Fraxinus
14.
are of small extent, and
trials
have only been
Catalpa.
americana,
American White
L.,
Ash. Introduced in the middle of the eighteenth
extended
century,
grown trees of this the American ash the indigenous ash
(Dessau 2)
plantations
Also recently
species exist. is
often
in
planted instead of
Germany.
mentions a plantation area
of
in the
67*62 acres in the year 1901.
Schwappach aggregate of
With
the excep-
tion
of one unimportant advantage, that of a
little
greater frosthardiness (in the late spring),
ash does not possess either in the
this
in rate of
planting It
is '
etc. ^
wood
growth any quality that would
it
in preference to the
stated at
Dessau
"Ergebnisse
der
Holzarten."
"Fw.
3
mit
wood
of the
amerikanischen
Zentralbl.," 1898.
Danckelmann, "Fraxinus americana," "Z. 3 Schwappach, I.e., 1896,
1881, p. 118.
justify
indigenous ash.
that the
Anbauversuche
or
f.
F. u. J.,"
p. 337.
38 white ash attains a higher price than that of
home-grown
Juglans nigra,
15.
The
trees.
Black Walnut,
L.,
planting of this tree, according to the data
of Schwappach, has been reduced considerably in
Prussia from 84"03 acres in 1890 to 31 "85 acres in the trial
aggregate in 1900.
This reduction
planting areas seems in the
in the
place due to
first
unsuitable sowing, which caused a late germina-
A
tion of the seed.
limitation of the planting
areas of this tree to the climatic warmest situations in
Germany
is
not necessary, as
it
has been
planted with care (naturally not in the open) at
an elevation of 1,700 It
sufficient
is
it
numerous that
failures
it is difficult
are to
still
soil
thrives.
and warm
From
the
to raise the tree, or that
with timber
be made.
timber from trees grown in
same
Southern Germany.
has good
the conclusion must not be
unfavourable results
Germany
feet in
where the oak
situation
drawn
if
specific gravity,
On
produced
in
the contrary,
Germany has
the
according to Nordlinger
^
and Mayr,2 and the same beautifully coloured heartwood, as that in America. '
"Das Vorkommen
berg," =
"A.
Only the very
auslandischer Holzarten in Wiirttem-
F. u. J.," 1882, p. 174.
"Das Holz
der empfohlenen exot. Laubholzarten," "F.
Zentralblatt," 1884, p. 136.
39
—that Tennessee —
American timber
best
tucky,
and
1
6.
is
Juglans
of Indiana,
Ken-
superior.
cinerea, L., Butter Nut.
In consequence of the small value of the timber of
this
tree,
Germany. Only Austria as a plantable will still
has scarcely been planted in
it
grow
'
and Livonia 2 mention
this tree
and plantworthy one, as the climatic
in
situations
tree
where the
black walnut already gives out.
17.
Liriodendron tulipiferum, Tulip Tree,
Yellow Poplar.
Although
this species is to
tree all over
Germany
in the
and although the wood soft,
easily
Mayr
be found as a grown
is
warmer
well
situations,
known
as being
worked, and durable (according to
especially
suitable
for
water-pipes),
it
has not received any attention forestally there only in France
3
has the tree found a place in
sylvan plantations. '
Cieslar,
=
"Forstliche
I.e.,
" Naturwiss. u. 3
"
Le
;
Vonhausen4 had
in
1881,
and
Mayr,
pp. loi, 150, 196.
ausstellung
zu
Riga,
1899,"
Studien im nordw. Ruszland," 1900. " Revue des Eaux et Tulipier," by P. Mouillefert. forstl.
Forgts," 1897. t
" Einbiirgerung fremder Holzarten," " A. F. u. J. Z.,"
1881, p. 297.
40
and Cieslar
I
in the
year 1901, drawn attention
to this species as a forest tree.
The
clear-cutting system, for the
most part
at
present predominating, gives naturally no possibility for this tree,
and
many
also
other exotics,
of growing up.
Platanus
18.
occidentalis,
Western
L.,
Plane,
Buttonwood, Sycamore, Plane Tree.
Although
tree
this
is
very extensively used
Germany and Austria
both in purposes,
it
is
for
ornamental
not cultivated anywhere on
strict
forestal lines, notwithstanding the fact that
wood with
19.
the
possesses a pre-eminently beautiful structure
its
medullary rays.
Populus
canadensis,
monilifera,
Ait.,
Monch., syn.
Populus
Canadian Poplar Cotton-
wood, Canadian Poplar, and Populus samifera, L., Balsam Poplar,
Balm of
bal-
Gilead,
Balsam Poplar. In cultivating these various species of poplars the chief idea in
Germany seems
been the production of the quantity of wood.
The wood
greatest itself is
and of no use except as backing '
recently to have possible
very
for furniture
soft,
and
Cieslar, " Uber Anbauversuche mit fremdlandischer Hol-
zarten in Osterreich,"
1901, p. 208.
"Zentralblatt
f.
d.
gesamte Forstwesen,"
41 the manufacture of paper.
The young growing
trees are peculiarly liable to injury and, indeed,
by the
destruction It is
larvse of the Cossus ligniperda.
only in the Rhine Valley
^
more
avenues,
we
find a
The growth
large area of poplar coppice.
these poplars,
that
of
particularly isolated trees in
really astonishing and, according to
is
Kisling,2 nineteen trees of this species fifty-two
years
old
and raised
at Koslin,
averaged some
In the lowlands of the 3J f m.3 of timber each. Rhine and Main, Walther found the price to be
marks per fm., and I found one could get 30 marks per f m. at Forchheim. 22
20.
Prunus
serotina, Ehrh.,
Late-blossoming
Cherry, Black Cherry.
This
tree, also,
has been known a long time in
Europe, and has enjoyed great favour for decorative
purposes.
The wood produced from
it
shows the same red heart as that of the American Generally speaking,
cherry-tree.
any valuable timber planted
it
does not yield
no
in parks, so that
comparison can be made as to the respective usefulness of the '
Walther,
"Die kanadische Pappel
Ebene," "A. F. =
p.
"Anbau
German and American
1895, p. 67. der kanadischen Pappel,"
in
serotina
der Main-Rhein-
u. J."
"A.
F. u. J.," 1898,
251. 3
= 39-1 —a
cubic metre.
cubic foot,
literally
one festmetre, one
solid
42 wood.
It
growing
at
some twenty years
is it
since attempts
under forest conditions were com-
menced. According to Schwappach's calculations, only
1
7
hectares
following,
growth,
at
any as
for,
have been
'
rate,
Booth 2
planted.
proves says,
its
The
rapidity
in
attained in the
it
course of twenty- two years a height of 14 metres
with a diameter of 60 centimetres just above the
ground.
21.
Quercus
alba, L.,
White Oak.
This tree which, from the
botanical,
sylvi-
cultural, and timber-producing points of view,
is
a very near relation of both the indigenous oaks has, nevertheless, not
been planted anywhere on
a large forestal
although as an ornamental
tree for
scale,
autumn time
it
far excels
any other kind
of oak.
Quercus macrocarpa, Michx., Large Fruited
22.
Oak, Bur Oak, Overcup Oak.
Here
again, as regards this oak, which so far
has given no proof of superiority over the native
way of Germany
planting has
species, nothing in the
trial
been attempted
outside
hectare
=
in
the park
2.47 acres.
'
I
=
" Die weitere Behandlung der Versuche mit auslandischen
Holzarten," P- 339-
"Zeitschrift
fiir
Forst-
und Jagdwesen," 1892,
43 palings,
and
only in Austria
is
it
'
that
we hear
of such experiments.
23.
Quercus palustris, du Roi,
Bog Oak, Needle
Oak, Pin Oak. This
oak
rapid-growing
with
its
beautiful
trunk has been grown as a forest tree in certain small areas in the Rhine province, Wurttemberg,
and Hungary, and it is on record that the pin oak has attained, in 48 years a height of 21 "3 metres and 44 centimetres in diameter, compared the pedunculate oak with a height of 16 -9
to
metres and diameter of 36 centimetres.
The
trunk and contents of the pin oak was 1*04 fm.,
and of the pedunculate oak only 0*49
As
regards the technical qualities of the wood,
was found
it
f.m.
to
be
inferior to the pedunculate
oak, but the tanning properties of
quite equal to
bark are
it.
Quercus rubra,
24.
its
No American oak has
L.,
Red Oak.
acquired such importance
or been so widely distributed as the red oak both
park and
in
forest,
where
it is
planted both in high
and copse forest.^ In Prussia, in the year 1900, The rapid there were some 41 "56 hectares. '
Cieslar,
'^
Weise,
I.e.,
pp. loi, 150, 196.
"Das Vorkommen
Deutschland," "Z.
f.
fremdlandischer Holzarten in
F. u. Jw.," 1882, pp. 81, 145.
44
growth of reached
oak
this
Danckelmann
'
tell
really
is
us that
very astonishing
some full-grown
trees
course of 50 to 55 years quite, and occasionally more than, 24 metres in height in the
and 50 centimetres in diameter. Eberts^ tells us the same thing about the Government District of Aachen, and Lorey
Eichhorn
4
makes out
3
from Wiirttemberg.
that
up
Dr.
to its fiftieth year
the red oak produces a greater quantity of
wood
than the home oak but from that period decreases, and Hartig S gives us the same information about
The investigations made by Mayr^ show that wood grown in Germany possesses a specific gravity in the sapwood of 64, heart 67. German oak, given the trees
one hundred years
same breadth of or 70.
rings,
old.
has a specific gravity of 67
Nordlinger7 estimates a special gravity
of only 60 for timber having rings of one
metre '
The
in breadth.
" Anbauversuche
mit
milli-
contents of tannin in
auslandischen
Holzarten in den
preuszischen Staatsforsten," "Z. f. F. u. Jw.," 1884, p. 370. = " Verhalten einiger fremdlandischer Holzarten im Regier-
ungsbezirke Aachen," "Z. 3
f.
F. u. Jw.," 1892, p. 267.
Lorey, I.e. see previous pages. " Untersuchungen iiber das Holz der Roteiche," "Forstl.-
naturw. Z.," 1895. 5
"Ergebnisse der Anbauversuche
in
Bayern," "Forstl.-
naturw. Z.," 1892. ^
L.C.,
'
Literarischer Bericht iiber
1884, p. 129.
septentrionale en Belgique,"
"Les chines de I'Amerique "A. F. u. Jz.," 1888, p. 95.
45 the bark
As
only 1-07 per cent.
is
regards the
commercial value of the wood, American opinion unfavourable to the red, and favourable to the
is
white oak, and
who
to,
about
The same
staves.
25.
talks
we have
Macoun
only
Robinia pseudoacacia,
to refer
wood
using red-oak
reports
'
come from
for
Austria.
^
L., Acacia, Locust,
False Acacia, Robinia.
No
broad-leaved tree coming from America
has been so widely distributed as the one known as
The
Robinia.
plantations
extent of
not known.
is
these Robinia
all
Alsace
reports
3
more
than 30 hectares of copse forest (Niederwald),
Hungary 4 70,000
and copse
hectares of high
forest.
We find everywhere
that in
wood matures with wonderful to
is
'
climates the
rapidity.
If Illes
5
be believed, the quantity of 50 years' old
wood amounted,
^
warm
in
Hungary,
to
250
f.m. per
"Forest Wealth of Canada," 1900, p. 27. "Os. F. u. Jz.," 1899, p. 291. Die Anbauwiirdigkeit der
Roteiche von Oberforster Spanily. 3
t
p.
"A.
Waldbaume im
Waldungen Ungarns," "A. Das Forstliche auf der F. und Jw.," 1901, p. 68.
F. u. J.," 1889, Pariser Weltaus-
F. u. J.," 1896, p. 249.
Lorey, " Die
104 und
V.
Alten, "
"Z. f. Die Akazie in Ungarn, "6st.
stellung," 5
als
Halbbauer, Edelkastanie und Akazie
Oberelsass,
Fz.," 1891, p. 321.
46 joch (yoke),' which means an increase of 15 f.m. per year and hectare the average height of the ;
trees being 27 metres,
average diameter 26
centi-
Here we have the culmination of the if we go on the basis of the poorest quality, the full increment came to 3*6 f.m. per year and hectare. From what metres.
increment at 20 years, and
Eberts
says the robinia yielded 760 f m. under
^
50 years'
Under coppice the to 20 years, and
rotation.
fixed at from
is
15
rotation in
high
from 50 to 60 years.
forest at
Acacia wood enjoys the best reputation everywhere, and in point of durability, hardness and resistance liable to
is
not far short of oak
be broken by the wind and
from early
Hares, Coccus
frost.
robiniarum also diminish
26.
itself.
Ulmus americana,
its
L.,
cacti,^
it
It is
suffers
Lecanium
growth.
American Elm, White
Elm. This for
is
known
forest culture.
It
is,
mended on account '
= 3
over the world as a tree
all
parks, but has only just been taken
up
however, strongly recom-
of
its
rapid growth.
Joch = about one acre. Der Akazienniederwald, "A. F. u. J.," 1899, p. i68. Prof. Sajo, " Die Akazienschildlaus," " Forstl.-naturw.
1896, p. 81.
for
Z.,"
47
East American Conifers.
B.
Abies balsamea, Miller, Balsam
27.
This
which shows
fir,
ornamental standard
tree,
Fir.
everywhere as an
itself
never comes up to the height
required
for
forestal
purposes
in
Germany, namely, 20 metres and more. For this reason no attempts have been made to cultivate
especially as in point of the quality
wood and adaptability for forest planting it no way superior to the indigenous species.
of is
it,
in
In Austria
growth
28.
it
in cold,
is
tested
mountainous
Juniperus virginiana, Pencil
A
Wood, Red
warm
with a view to
climate
the sweet chestnut)
proper growth of this
altitudes.
L., Virginian Juniper,
Juniper,
(such as is
a
tree.
its
first
Red
Cedar.
that required for
necessity to
Under
the
these circum-
stances the attempts at cultivation which have
been made of no value. Stein, this.
Germany would appear to be The oldest Faber plantations at
in
near Nuremberg, are merely a proof of
The
remunerative
cultivation
of
pencil
wood can only be thought of in climates warmer than the warmest in German territory, such as Hungary, Dalmatia, the South of France, &c.
48 Chamcecyparis spkcsroidea, Spach., Spherical
29.
Swamp
Cypress,
This tree
munity to
Cypress,
to be found in parks.
is
made Mayr
frost
be well worth trying
to
White Cypress. im-
Its
consider this species
in the forest at
a height
of 540 metres above sea-level. Experiments in growing it are so far, however, of a very isolated character. 30. Picea alba, Link,
White
This spruce, which ornamental
tree,
is
is
in
Pine,
White Spruce.
great favour as an
in
no way superior to the Experiments
indigenous spruce as a forest tree. are only being
made with
Pine, It
was Mayr
super
-
i
excellent
who
in the
Austrian Alps.
Lamb, Banks
Pinus banksiana,
31.
it
Pine,
Jack
Scrub Pine. first
called attention to the
sylvicultural
qualities
of
this
species of timber tree, the result being that
its
was begun on a large scale all over Germany, Russia, Austria, and even in America cultivation
itself.
In Prussia alone in the year 1900, that
is,
10 years after Mayr's book appeared, 12 hectares
were under outside
cultivation,
Prussia.
and the area
One
single
firm
is
not less
(Hein,
of
Halstenbeck) sold in quite a few years some 5,000,000 Banksia plants. '
As a
preparatory tree
"Die Waldungen von Nord-Amerika," Miinchen, 1890.
49 for the afforestation of all
swampy
waste lands in damp,
places, as well as in arid, poor, sandy,
and gravelly
soil it is
as timber, although
the best yet discovered, but
equal to the native pines
it is
as regards alburnum
and heart wood,
has no
this
decisive influence, in point of value, on the question
of cultivation.
It
is
a great mistake to
form without any reason a comparative estimate
between the timber of the Banksian and Weymouth pines on the basis of the relation of the Banksian pine wood to ordinary pine, 32.
A
Pinus rigida.
Mill, Pitch Pine.
great deal of attention has been paid to this
species of pine, especially in Prussia.
According
Schwappach some i46'5 hectares had been planted there up to 1900. A very poor opinion was formed of the results of the majority of these experiments made both in and out of Prussia. On poor, sandy soil this pine is just as good as the native species, but in marshy places where it to
succeeds better,
common
it
succumbs
sooner than the
pine to other dangers such as
from wild animals, snow
The
far
fall,
timber, to judge from
damage
&c.
American
experi-
ence, does not differ from the Banksian pine
rigida pine for
is,
producing
on the other hand, very
resin,
and
;
this
suitable
this fact alone is sufficient
to justify its continued forest cultivation.
D
The
48 ChamcBcyparis spkcsroidea, Spach., Spherical
29.
Swamp
Cypress,
This tree
munity
made Mayr
to frost
be well worth trying
to
White Cypress.
be found in parks.
to
is
Cypress,
im-
Its
consider this species
in the forest at
a height
of 540 metres above sea-level. Experiments in growing it are so far, however, of a very isolated character. 30. Ptcea alba, Link,
White
This spruce, which ornamental
tree,
is
in
is
Pine,
great favour as an
in
no way superior
made with
it
to the
tree.
Experiments
in the
Austrian Alps.
indigenous spruce as a forest are only being
White Spruce.
Pinus banksiana, Lamb, Banks Pine, Jack Pine, Scrub Pine.
31.
It
was Mayr
super
-
^
excellent
who
first
called attention to the
sylvicultural
qualities
of
this
species of timber tree, the result being that
its
was begun on a large scale all over Germany, Russia, Austria, and even in America cultivation
itself.
In Prussia alone in the year 1900, that
is,
TO years after Mayr's book appeared, 12 hectares
were under outside
cultivation,
Prussia.
and the area
One
single
firm
is
not less
(Hein,
of
Halstenbeck) sold in quite a few years some 5,000,000 Banksia plants. '
As a
preparatory tree
"Die Waldungen von Nord-Amerika," Miinchen, 1890.
49 waste lands in damp,
for the afforestation of all
swampy
places, as well as in arid, poor, sandy,
and gravelly
soil it is
as timber, although as regards
the best yet discovered, but
equal to the native pines
it is
alburnum and heart wood,
has no
this
decisive influence, in point of value, on the question
of cultivation.
It
is
a great mistake to
form without any reason a comparative estimate
between the timber of the Banksian and Wey-
mouth pines on the basis of the Banksian pine wood to ordinary Pinus rigida,
32,
A
relation of the pine.
Mill, Pitch Pine.
great deal of attention has been paid to this
species of pine, especially in Prussia.
According
Schwappach some 146*5 hectares had been planted there up to 1900. A very poor opinion was formed of the results of the majority of these experiments made both in and out of Prussia. On poor, sandy soil this pine is just as good as the native species, but in marshy places where it to
succeeds better,
common
it
succumbs
sooner than the
pine to other dangers such as
from wild animals, snow
The
far
fall,
timber, to judge from
damage
&c.
American experi-
ence, does not differ from the Banksian pine
rigida pine for
is,
producing
to justify
its
on the other hand, very
resin,
and
;
this
suitable
this fact alone is sufficient
continued forest cultivation.
D
The
50 of this pine
capacity
to
produce stool shoots,
which has been so much exaggerated (especially in magazine articles), would seem to have but importance for Germany, and then
slight forestal
only under the warmest climatic conditions.
^;^.
Pinus
Weymouth
strobus, L.,
Pine,
White
Pine.
This pine
is
the only conifer which one hundred
years ago became naturalised in the forests of
Germany and
the surrounding states.
of growth, immunity from frost,
common
pine have assured
especially as
forest,
and other
which distinguish
cultural qualities
Its rapidity
it
sylvi-
from the
it
a place in the
the extraordinarily favour-
able opinions from America as to
its
wood had
directed the attention of foresters previously to this
tree.
Weymouth
This very
what a mistake foreign
country
straight
away
it
to apply the opinion of a
respecting to
timber in one's
is
forest
of
products the
same
land in competition with In the United States of
other kinds of timber.
East America
its
valuation
the
own
pine shows
this pine
was
practically the
one
and only conifer existing amidst an ocean of broad-leaved trees which was capable of providing a strong, soft
wood
suitable for building
purposes, and hence the opinion of the Americans
as to
its
being an excellent
first-class
wood
for
51
commercial objects to
Germany
it
when
but
;
came
it
was transplanted
into conflict with three soft
and strong coniferous timbers of the highest class, namely, pine, fir, and spruce. The opinion as to
wood here
its
regards size and growing capacity
indigenous pine, better
at
and,
it
excels the
a matter of
as
fact,
both spruce and
than
first
time advances
as
As
of course, quite different.
is,
it
is
but
fir,
surpassed by the two
is
wood just mentioned. The shape of trunk is more favourable than in the case
kinds of the of
common
the
fessor
of spruce and
ducing
weight than easier for
all
but
less
is
As
fir.
quality of the
that this pine
is
pine,
Endres,'
wood
is
according
Pro-
to
than that
favourable
regards the timber-pro-
wood,
much
it
must be said
lighter as regards
the rest of European conifers, and
working up.
The
heart of this tree
is
as hard as that of the pine, and far harder than that of the
fir
and spruce, because the heart or
core, like all trees, only develops
of these
firs
after a
comparison of the pines
to
that
admissible.
The
excess of
native
all
resinous firs,
taken '
J.,"
from the
Wachstum und 1890,
p.
206.
and
firs
contents
spruce,
the collective judgment about
is
in the case
number of years, so that a wood of young Weymouth
older pines
of
even
and
not
is
are far in
pines.
Weymouth
very comprehensive Ertrag der Weymouthskiefer.
This pine,
mass
of
" A. F. u.
52 literature published
parison be
on the
made with
subject,
and
if
a com-
the above in the shape of
the few statements from the Americans (Fernow,
Spalding,
Graves,
Macoun,
Dawson,
Sargent), the result will be that the
pine
is
Gifford,
Weymouth
not one whit behind as regards the show
makes
Europe than what the Americans tell us in regard to the output and sylvicultural qualities of the wood. In all this it must not be forgotten that Weymouth pines a hundred years old are not met with every day. These have, as a rule, sprung up here and there, and cannot, therefore, possess the same fine grain as is shown in the American trees which boast of more than a hundred years grown in a thick forest. it
in
TaxodiuM distichum,
34.
Bog
Rich.,
Bald Cypress,
Cypress, Deciduous Cypress.
This beautiful ornamental tree flourishes only in
places where
mild winters prevail, such as
Southern and North-western Europe, Holland, Belgium, and neighbouring
territories,
not
for-
getting Great Britain. 35.
Thuja
occidentalis, L.,
Arbor
Vitae,
White
Cedar.
We
have no account of any
ments with is
to
this species,
be found
itself is
known
all
to
but
it
forestal experi-
may
be said that
it
over outside woods, and the tree
be very hardy.
53 36.
Tsuga canadensis,
Experimental raising of
Carr.,
Hemlock.
this tree
carried out on a small scale
has only been
One
Bavaria.
in
would think that the rapid growth, durability of the wood, and the tanning properties of the bark
would have brought nence.
Even
in
this tree into greater
America
this species of
promi-
wood
was altogether neglected (while Weymouth pine was to be got), except for the bark torn from the trunk for tanning purposes.
West American Broad-leaved
C. 37.
Trees.
Fraxinus oregana, Nutt [Frojcinus oregona, Mayr), Oregon Ash.
The experiments
with this are quite isolated,
and it has only been cultivated with success by Mayr. D,
West American
Conifers.
38. Abies amabalis, Forb., Purple Fir
Amaballs
Fir. 39.
Abies concolor, Gord., American Silver
White 40.
Fir.
Abies grandis,
Lindl.,
Great Silver 41.
Abies
nobilis,
Red
Fir,
Great Coast
Fir,
Fir.
Lindl.,
Pacific,
Noble, Fir,
Fir.
Experiments with these four
firs
have been
54
North Germany, and there
carried out chiefly in
only on a very small scale, say,
Schwappach, hardly 2j hectares 42.
in
according to all.
Chamcscyparis lawsoniana, Pari., Lawson's Cypress, Port Oxford Cedar.
The ornamental some
attention
kind of wood.
planting of parks
drew
years since to this particular
fifty
It
first
belonged to those West Ameri-
can species which came pretty well through the exceptionally cold winter which prevailed in Mid-
Europe
in
1
879-1 880, and
period that Sargent and
it
was only
Mayr
at a later
called attention to
the splendid qualities of the timber (light, very
and scented).
durable, If
we may judge from an experience of twenty wood grown in Germany is quite equal
years, the
in excellence to the
American
Forma-
variety.
wood appears in the tenth year, and wood possesses the same strong, pungent
tion of heart
the
odour
the
as
which had
this cypress,
moving the Another
many the
kind.
Strong
the worst
poles
enemy
of
namely, the root fungus, Agaricus
were
melleus,
American
fallen victim to
utilised
bark, as
fungoid
is
for
palings
often
disease
done
without rein
has proved
different plantations in
America. fatal
to
Germany, that
is,
one which attacks branches and terminal
shoots,
known
as
the bark fungus, Pestalozzia
55
funerea, the characteristics of which are a white resinous drop, a decaying belt of bark with an
intumescence node overlaying 12*7
it.
The
official
putting the experiments in Prussia at
statistics
by no means represent
hectares
attempts
at
cultivation
in
Prussia,
all
the
much
less
Germany. 43.
ChamcBcyparis nutkcensis, Spach., Nutka
Cypress, Yellow Cypress, Yellow Cedar.
This cypress, which constitutes the best wood in the
north of
has not been
West America
officially
as far as Alaska,
recommended
for planting
Germany, because of the unfavourable results of a few garden specimens. The majority of the in
experiments which were carried out by
Mayr
show that this tree is almost on a par with the Lawson cypress as regards its excellent properIn ties and the dangers to which it is liable. exposed areas, however, it is much more sensitive than the Lawson cypress. 44. Picea engelmanni,
Engelmann's Spruce.
45. Picea pungens, Engelm., Blue Spruce. 46. Picea sitkcensis, Mayr (Sichensis Trautw.
Mayr),
et
Sitka
Spruce,
Tideland
Spruce, Menzies Spruce.
As will
there
is
no prospect that these three spruces
produce a better wood than the native
article
56 other reasons were put forward for for instance,
as,
in
Sitkcsnsis, its needle-like
as a protection against
the forest.
cultivation
Pungens and
of
case
the
its
equipment which serves
damage by the denizens
of
Then, again, along with these motives which are quite incontestable from
for cultivation,
the sylvicultural economic point of view,
its
ad-
vantages as regards rapid growth, resistance to frost,
&c.,
have been dwelt upon, and,
in
fact,
was an idea that in these spruces a class of timber had been obtained which could be raised there
mountainous regions beyond the
in
own
In
spruce.
limits of
our
Prussia about 63 hectares of
Sitka spruce have been planted with very successful
results,
having been introduced into most
it
localities of the
forest zone.
very hardy against
considered
moreover,
warmer
much
Pungens
frost,
and
is is,
appreciated as an ornamental*
tree.
47.
Pinus
jeffreyi,
Engelm.,
Jeffrey's
Pine,
Black Pine. 48.
Pinus ponderosa, Lawson, Yellow Pine,
49.
Pinus scopulorum, Lemon.
Bull Pine, ,
These three
species,
which
in their botanical
characteristics
are closely
ciently distinct
from each other to be such, are
related but yet suffi-
57 cultivated
only on a small scale in Germany.
The Pinus yearling
jeffreyi with
shoots,
white bloom covered
buds without resin and
reddish brown scales with dark of a whitish
green shade,
in
light,
Leaves
tips.
robust specimens
turned somewhat towards the shoot, and about
The Pinus
23 centimetres in length.
ponderosa,
with cylindrical buds terminating abruptly in a short
tip,
whitish
brown with young shoots of a brilliant browny
close joining scales rather
tips,
green, and no bloom.
The
needles stand at right
angles from the shoot, colour dark green and of
same length as the preceding species, Pinus scopulorum. Shoots slightly bloom covered, needles shorter than in 47 and 48. Buds brown with whitish scale edges. the
Experiments are much fewer than formerly chiefly because of the susceptibility of the seed-
lings
to
the
Lophoderntium pinastri
shedding fungus).
Schwappach,
says, besides, that the plants
veloped pretty
well, for
some
in
which at
The
timber
equal to that of the indigenous product (the
name "ponderosa" is merely to show wood is heavier than the Weymouth that
its
production
West America.
unnecessary, even
that the pine),
so
if it
does
hundred years) gigantic
sizes
is
attain (after several in
de-
first
inexplicable reason
gradually withered and died later on. is
(Leaf-
his report,
58
50.
Pseudotsuga douglasii, Carr, Coast Doug-
Douglas Spruce,
lasia,
Red
Fir,
Oregon
Douglas
Fir,
Fir.
51. Pseudotsuga glauca, Mayr, Colorado Douglasia,
52.
Colorado Douglas
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa, Mayr, Big Cone
Douglas
Of
Fir.
Fir,
Big Cone Red
Fir.
these three species of Pseudotsugas,
douglasii
and glauca are the most extensively
The Pseudotsuga macrocarpa
cultivated.
far proved useless bility to frost
adopted and Britain
on account of
its
Of the two
(Mayr).
has so
great suscepti-
first
mentioned
Douglasia has been more generally
the Coast
statistics
the
it
is
to this species alone that
apply which
and excellent timber.
Great growing properties
published in
are
and Germany about
all
its
All particulars
on
this
subject confirm the dictum expressed by Mayr, that the maritime districts of the
North Sea and
the Atlantic from Mid-Europe must be considered as
the stronghold
of
the
nearest approach to this
is
Douglas
fir.
The
found in the moist
atmospheric conditions prevailing on the Northern
and Eastern slopes of certain localities of secondary mountain chains (Bavarian Forest, Fichtel Mountains).
Schwappach
gives,
l.c.^
page 264, the following
59 particulars about the height fir
attains, viz.
Age
(years)
:
which the Douglas
6o a period of eighty years on the best sandy loam soil, in
(that
the climatic stronghold of the Douglas
is,
Macoun
fir
the coast of the State of Washington). i
{l.c.
p.
134) mentions several places
which have turned out 3,000 f.m. per hectare in which trunks of less than o"6 metres and over I
'6
metres diameter were not used, which means
that the trees
years old.
were undoubtedly, several hundred
The
earliest
comparative investiga-
wood grown
in
Germany were undertaken by Mayr, who,
in
tions
1884,
with
reference
the
to
compared the oldest example
(at that time)
Germany, raised on the estate of John Booth, Kleinflottbeck, to the American wood. The German wood had the same reddish heart as the American, and displayed, with the increasing annual width of ring, an increasing specific gravity which was confirmed fifteen years later by other in
investigators
(Cieslar,
Hartig).
Mayr occupied
himself simply about the weight which he, as a disciple of Hartig,
very alpha and
assumed
omega
at that time to
be the
in point of quality of the
Mayr came
to
the conclusion that the timber of the Douglas
fir,
wood.
After his investigations
even from the poorest quality (that better than
fir
weight)
and pine timber and as regards
best qualities (weight) '
is,
is
quite
its
equal to larch.
"Report of the Canadian Forestry Association
p. 10.
is
in 1901,"
6i
The
we get from England
information that
i
confirms the fact of the red colour of the heart of
grown worth 35 M. per the timber
In that country
there.
it
is
f.m. and that only for young and rather knotty timber. In the course of twenty
years
it
has been shown that thorough forest
culti-
vation has resulted in about 200 cubic metres per
The bark
hectare being produced.
according to Semler
2
noticable for
properties (13 per cent.).
Prussia
in
statistics,
in
moreover,
its
tanning
The experiments made
according to
1900,
is,
the
official
comprised an area of 146 hectares, and
the area not officially mentioned cannot be less,
as in most cases the Douglas
planted by kinds.
itself,
Amongst
may be mentioned 53.
fir
much
was not
but as a mixture with other its
most inveterate enemies
in
weevils and roebuck.
Sequoia gigantea, Decaisne, syn. Wellingtonia.
Attempts
Giant Sequoia, Bigtree.
at raising
been made not only
this
in
genus of tree have
France, 3 Austria,
England,4 but also in Germany. '
Simpson,
=
Tropische
"The New
and
In Wiirttemberg
Forestry," 1900, p. loi.
und nordamerikanische Waldwirtschaft und
Holzkunde, 1888. 3
" Les Sequoias von Bourotte." " Revue des Eaux at ForSts,
1887," p. 489. *
Simpson,
I.e.,
104.
62 in the
year 1863 seedlings were planted in various
parts of the country
and the report on the subject
says that in the temperate lowlands these plants
were
frost-bitten in the very severe winter of
escaped the danger in the higher altitudes.
80, but
The
on clear, still, and any warmer than higher sites, and,
plains or lowlands are not
frosty nights,
as a matter of
fact,
are
than the more
colder
exposed positions, as naturally the coldest its
1879-
way
The
to the lowest point.
air finds
Sequoiae grown
under home conditions are now about 277 metres in height with a diameter of 95 centimetres one
A
metre above the ground.
high
degree
of
moisture coupled with mild winters such as
we
get on the North Sea Coast and in the higher of the
parts
West German
districts are the
Central
mountain
primary conditions of success in
the cultivation of this timber. 54.
Thuja gigantea, Nutt, Giant Arbor
Red
vitae.
Cedar.
Experiments on a pretty extensive scale were
made with this species of timber throughout Germany and Austria, and for some fifteen years they were very well maintained. their
development
occurred
unusually severe late frosts in (see
Mayr
in
Hindrances to the
in his sessional report to the
Dendrological Society in
shape of
March and April
1901),
German
and also the
63 fungoid disease already alluded to in connection with the
ChamcBcyparis lawsonsiana
Pestalozzia funerea.
In
many
caused by
localities trees
of
twenty years' growth were entirely destroyed.
55.
Tsuga mertensiana, Carr, Western Tsuga,
Western Hemlock, This Tsuga,
first
Fir,
Western Hemlock.
recommended by Mayr on
account of the better (more cylindrical and length) shape of
its
ment as compared with the Canadensis has only been tried risk
it
runs
is
in
a small way.
from early
frost
until
variety,
The
chief
the plant
reaches a height of 2 metres, after which hardy.
fuller
trunk and quicker develop-
it
is
PART Sylvicultural Characteristics
III
and Treatment of the Various
American Species of Trees.
The
solution of the question as to
stand in regard
trees
to
heat
how
and
foreign
light,
the
and physical composition of the technical treatment of seed, planting and
different chemical soil,
raising, is just as
important for the cultivation of
Europe as for its cultivation in its own home in America, For the proper utilisation of European experiences in America it should the foreigner in
be noted that In
I.
the
European reports concerning the
attempts at raising them, unfortunately very information (and that only superficial)
is
little
given on
the subject of the causes of non-growth or total
disappearance. It
must be admitted that
difficult
many
it is
sometimes a very
matter to get such information, and in
cases
it
is
even now quite 64
impossible.
65
Then,
too,
not everybody's business to ac-
is
it
knowledge openly
to faults
nised in the treatment of
and the consequence failure find speedier
committed and recog-
some
is
particular species,
that statements
to
and more permament pub-
than those referring to successful achieve-
licity
The
ments.
cause
of
poor
growth
instance, very often attributed to
any reference as frost,
as
frost
for
is,
without
to late frost, early frost, winter
needle shedding due to
frost,
or unfavourable
temperature during the period of vegetation being in fault, so that other experimenters
the
chance
of
adopting
suitable
have not got sylvicultural
measures, or to give an opinion as to the adaptability of the
timber being grown.
The knowledge of the sylvicultural qualities was acquired in Germany chiefly in exposed 2.
areas, consequently
under the most unfavourable
conditions as regards growth.
kind there
is
In areas of this
a combination of dangers acting
against the plant (such as heat, cold, drought, animals, weeds, and men), so that to spot the
plants
particular cause
or animals to which
it is
impossible
or combination of
the exotic tree
is
exposed. 3.
In most cases the exotics were given un-
favourable
soil,
on the
pretensions must be
assumption that
more modest
in
their
order to
possess a justification for their cultivation.
For
66 instance,
in
country they
this
are
very often
planted in highly cultivated gardens, where they
enjoy the
of
benefit
enclosures
already pro-
vided. 4.
In cases where these were not grown pure
planting of the foreign specie singly amongst the native trees already there
promoting
their
was often adopted
growth, the
result
for
of which
was that the exotics were overgrown and
for-
gotten. 5.
It is
not very clearly discernible from the
reports that any
number of
must be traced not
failures in
Germany
to the climate, soil, or
method
of treating the wood, but simply and solely to the
depredations of wild animals in
On the
the other hand,
experiments oaks,
larches,
German
forests.
appears very plainly from
it
American spruces, firs, maples, and ashes were
that
elms,
same physiological sylvicultural laws as their corresponding European arboreal kindred that all these American timbers can be grown in Europe under identical precautionary measures as those adopted for the home-grown species, that they can be subjected to the same methods of treatment as the indigenous trees, and that their output is equal to that of the subject to
the
;
corresponding native kinds of timber in point of durability, shape,
and excellent
It follows naturally from
all
quality. this that also the
67
American representatives of the said species of trees in America can be treated sylviculturally in
same way as
precisely the
have
relatives for
their
and
been handled
more than one hundred years
such differences
will arise
people
may make
wood.
For
European mishandled
Only
past.
according as different
different
demands on the
reason a comparison of
this
sylvicultural characteristics of the
same
the
species
of trees existing simultaneously in Europe and
America has been as far as possible avoided. If the American readers of these pages should consider this a fault,
especially find
German, on the subject
it
in
which they
necessary information as to
all
treatment of spruce,
Let
can only refer them to the
contained in the forestry publications,
statistics
will
I
firs,
pines, larches, oaks,
not be objected
prevail in America.
Both
the
&c.
that other conditions soil
and climate which
are the basis for the best development of
fir
pine
and larch are absolutely identical over all the Northern Hemisphere. The only difference is the position occupied by the timber in the internal
economics of the inhabitants of Europe, America,
and Asia. general
rule,
Pines do not, however, follow this as they do not constitute a uniform
species of tree, but are
various
kinds.
The
simply a collection of
following
survey of
the
sylvicultural peculiarities of the different kinds of
68
American timber
drawn 1.
trees cultivated
principally from
From
in
two sources
Europe
is
:
observation of the trees in their
own
observation of the trees in their
new
home. 2.
From
home,
chiefly
Germany.
As regards the first point, the studies made in the home of the American varieties of timber, are all
of the most recent date, previous investiga-
tions being principally of a systematic botanical
and geographical
character, with but
little refe-
rence to the physiological peculiarities.
The first
complete work dealing principally with the sylvicultural peculiarities of the trees
of a
who
German
is
forester. Professor
the production
Dr. H. Mayr,
America on behalf of the Bavarian Government, and subsequently proceeded on his own account to Japan and India on a search for various kinds of profitable timber, trees, and to visited
growing the same. The Americans themselves, on the occasion of an inquiry into their supply of timber and the com-
establish natural laws for
mercial value of the different species, brought a
amount of uselful forest data to light, among the number being Professor Charles Sargent, Professor F. Fernow, Charles Mohr, Dr. John Gifford, Henry Graves, Pinchot, and
considerable
a Canadian,, Macoun. Secondly,
a
great
many
observations
were
69
made during this
work
in
the five years which
Germany, Austria, and France, and
data also gathered from the Prof.
Mayr
Dr.
spent in
I
and,
;
scientific
papers of
from the very
finally,
comprehensive reports on the results of planting experiments in the State forests of
Germany and
Austria and the private woods of Great Britain.
In order to spare as the subject as to the
must be allowed during it
to
much
on
detail as possible
amount of warmth which a given species of timber
period of vegetation in order to enable
its
to begin
and complete
time, the following way,
growth
its
in
proper
which was originated by
Mayr, has been chosen.
As
trees are connected with
a certain climatic zone,
classes of timber
all
such trees may, inversely, be used for fixing the
and
climate,
may be
Within
zone.
looked
zone not only can
this
found with
of trees
classes
of trees
a
upon as a
the typical species be grown, but also
kinds
of
distribution
territorial
species
particular
climatic
the
it.
such as Abies,
other
all
Now,
as
the
Larix,
Picea,
Quercus, Fagus, Betula, &c., belong to the same climatic
sphere,
zone it
is
all
over
the
Hemi-
Northern
quite enough, for delimitating the
climatic zone of
any kind of timber,
to
mention
the typical species within whose territory
being or can be grown.
The
fact that
it
is
some
particular kind of timber can be raised outside
70 the boundaries of
distribution has
territorial
its
been used as an argument against the correctness and
adaptability
the
tion,
being
fact
that every species of
some
little
home
is
it
outgrow If
also be
English
is
an example of
territorial
its
If the
beyond
same its
and maturity of seed
Elm ( Ulmus
campestris)
this.
climatic conditions are afforded
territorial
enjoys within such
added that by our
limits,
choose
it
must be
which
to
ability to
are in a position
which
distribution
and the method and degree of
we
grown
would otherwise naturally
fructification
not required.
3.
wood can beyond
it.
the
is
it
forgotten
altogether
kept at a distance from the other
species of timber which
2.
zone forma-
:
If
1.
distance
Mayr's
of
sites,
soil,
protection, &c.,
to modify the conditions
of temperature in a positive or negative direction.
The
best data, therefore, as regards the climatic
demands of any
particular species,
ing-point for the further study of
and the
its
start-
sylvicultural
management, are to be found in the zone of vegetation in which it grows and can be raised. It
is
only in localities where seed and plants
cost almost nothing
and where trained
foresters
are absent that the dictum of ignorant growers
may be
followed,
which,
to
speak the
truth.
71 often possesses a very practical value,
you
that
may sow and
plant
all
namely, kinds
of
seeds and plants wherever you like and chance
with what results.
As tance
regards statistics on the subject of resisto
because, frost
not
frost,
for
may be
these
all
growing period of the
on
the
in
example,
May
the
in
same
which
the
In a given year,
frost
species
beginning of
but also on
tree,
occurrence of a frosty night. for
against a late
instance, hardiness
only depends
averaged,
appeared
of trees
early
are liable
and suffer from frost, which develop their buds at the beginning of May, while in another to
year the late frost only appears in June,
and
those species are liable to and suffer from frost
whose vegetation begins early in June, whereas those which began growing a month earlier have proved
less susceptible.
Much
the
same
applies to the effect of the lowest temperatures
on
trees, as the localities
in
which these occur
are liable to variations so that the idea of establishing a zone of cultivation
on the basis of the
lowest temperature of winter, as has been sug-
gested quite recently,
I.
is
not sound.
Acer dasycarpum.
This very rapid growing tree which
is
said
72 attain
to
a height of 30 metres' possesses no
from a
interest
forestal point of view.
Acer negundo.
2.
The same may be 3.
said of this tree.
Acer saccharinum.
This species can be successfully raised
With
places where other maples grow.
ception of tolerating a
maple
is
the ex-
more shade the sugar
little
so closely allied to the European great
and Norway maple that culturally
in all
all
that
latter
may be
4.
Betula
lenta.
5.
Betula
lutea.
about the
is
known
sylvi-
equally applied
to the sugar maple.
Of lenta,
two
these is
varieties,
a small growing
really only
distinguished
from
Betula
too,
lutea,
the is
a
latter,
like
all
Betula
former,
the
tree,
forest
its
regions
it is
other birches as
by Betula papyrifera. In very much like the European
substituted
other respects
it
is
birches, with the exception of its timber
of greater value, and •
tree.
resistance to frost, but in colder forest
regards
is
as
From "Rod and Gun
in
it
which
stands more shade,
Canada."
Out of the
section of the magazine, Nov., 1901, p. 18.
forestry
1Z
and
it
does
not possess
the
whiplike
latter's
branch formation. 6.
resembles
Betula papyri/era
in
European
the
respects
all
birches.
Carya
7.
This,
most
the the
requires
wherever
alba.
important
of
hickorys,
all
climate
of
the
silver
latter
can
be
grown,
the
and even if
fir,
without the seeds maturing, the cultivation of
Carya
this
quite proof against frost,
up
to its tenth year is
that,
on
account,
this
cultivation
clumps
in
broad-leaved
trees.
such
In
feasible.
is
but in
localities
stool
The
which
renders
it
tivation in
is
youth and
its
very slow in growth, so only suitable for
is
it
among
Sowing
growing
rapid is
recommended,
as planting the long-rooted hickory matter.
it
is
a
difficult
great reproductive power from the displays,
it
according
Mayr,
to
particularly suitable for
coppice cul-
which connection
supply most
On
it
will
valuable small
wood.
suitable too for
growing as high
the best
soil
is
Germany.
Carya porcina
resembles the preceding, except that
grown on pine
it
forest, lOQ-foot
trees being found in various parts of 8.
soil
it
can be
of second quality as well.
74
g.
Apart from tree,
this
quality.
its
Carya amara. advantage as a rapid growing
hickory possesses no other valuable
The same may be
said of
10.
Carya tomentosa.
11.
Carya sulcata
can only be grown on the best
soil,
where the
sweet chestnut also reaches maturity.
12.
Treatment
Castanea americana. the
is
same as
in the case of the
European chestnut. Attempts that have been to grow it outside its territorial and climatic zone have not shown better results than with its European relative.
made
13.
Catalpa speciosa.
This valuable species of wood seems only to thrive
where the nuts of the sweet chestnut come
to maturity.
winter
under a
frost.
The It
chief risks
should
it
runs are late and
be raised
light screen of tall timber
leaved trees.
in
among
clumps broad-
75
Fraxinus americana.
14-
Climate,
and treatment just the same as
soil,
with European ash,
15.
Juglans nigra.
Wherever the sweet chestnut also
flourishes,
Even
preferably
on
the
best
domain
of
the
oak,
black
in
warm
the
within
thrives this tree
be raised on good
walnut can
soil
soils.
Smaller clumps in partial clearings
situations.
or groups of trees are recommended, but plant-
ing
it
pure
On
good.
has
proved
not
be
to
the other hand, in the special zone
of the sweet chestnut mixed planting
other broad-leaved timber trees
is
among
the
quite admis-
on account of the speedy growth of the
sible
walnut.
It is
advisable to keep the nuts during
when they germinate spring they can be planted in the same the winter, so that
This
is
The years'
also
done with the Carya
in the
growth
is
much
plenty of light
it
is
easier
place.
nuts.
transplanting of seedlings of two or
Walnut than Hickory. it
any
of
in
more
the case of
With a view
to giving
necessary that the crown
be entirely exposed, but the stem enclosed by Ashes, Oaks, Maples, Beeches, and so on, for the
purpose
branches.
of
It is
growing
a
trunk
free
from
only high forest with a rotation
76 of eighty to one hundred years that
is
now being
considered. 1
6.
Juglans
cinerea.
This displays a similar attitude to the
fore-
going species, but shows a power of standing a
somewhat colder timber prohibits
The poor
climate. its
value, of its
cultivation in places
where
the black walnut can be raised.
Liriodendron tulipifera.
17.
This tree can be grown very easily within the limit assigned to the
sweet chestnut and on the
warmer
Oak
in
sites
the
zone
—that
is,
under
the lateral protection of other broad-leaved trees
and on tree
varying from good to best.
soils
loves
a straight
the
light
stem and
and
rapidly
produces
This
builds
up
a considerable
quantity of timber in a short period of time.
The
seed usually germinates very well.
Transplantation
be recommended
clumps
banks
plane liable
easy,
and
this
tree
may
for planting small areas or in
broad-leaved woods.
in the
18.
The
is
Platanus
occidentalis.
recommended for planting river now and again to inundation in the is
warmer regions of the broad-leaved woodland,
where
may be
it
utilised
in
copse or as
a
standard.
19.
Populus canadensis and balsamifera.
These trees will It
is
rapid-growing kinds of deciduous
free,
do
moderately good, but fresh
in
soil.
by means of cuttings or raised
cultivated
from seeds, in which case that the seed loses
it
important to note
germinating power a few
its
Even
days after maturity.
is
root shoots can be
Recommended
used as planting material.
to be
planted pure on river banks.
20.
Prunus
serotina.
Wherever the sweet chestnut or oaks grow this
cherry-tree
also
on medium and third
thrives.
It
is
a
rapid-
deciduous tree which can be grown
growing,
good
quality upwards).
amongst broad-leaved
soils
(from
pine
Cultivation
trees,
and
it
is
underplanting of light-loving species,
in
soils
groups
useful for filling
up
of holes due to snow, &c., in young pine plantations. 21.
The
white
oak
Quercus can
alba.
apparently
be
raised
wherever the indigenous oak grows, with which it
also
shares
treatment.
precisely
the
same method of
78
Quercus macrocarpa.
22.
This, which, next to the Quercus alba,
most important American oak, shows ference in it is
of as
In
sylvicultural qualities.
its
little
also
is
the
no
dif-
Germany
importance as the alba.
Quercus palustris.
23.
demands upon the soil than indigenous oaks, grows more rapidly than the latter, but is inferior, as already menThis oak
is
more modest
tioned, in the quality of
ment
is
whether
the it
same
in its
timber.
its
The
treat-
European oaks, but same advantages as the
as that of
possesses the
red oak has yet to be proved.
24.
Quercus rubra.
Thrives wherever oaks are to be found,
is
very quick in growth, easily transplanted, and can be utilised on indifferent of
No.
quality
and
its
3
quality).
makes
it
Its
where,
shade-bearing
growth allows
rapidity of
plantations,
slight
(pine soils
suitable for underplanting pines,
ployed later on for broad-leaved,
soils
also
and
however,
it
filling
pine, is
its
it
to
up any gaps cypress, and
be emin all
thuja
equally suitable in copse,
reproductive
capacity
smaller than in the case of the white oak.
is
79 Robinia pseudoacacia.
25.
The with
sylvicultural qualities of this tree, together
adaptabiHty, have been so thoroughly
its
described in journals dealing with forestry that there
is
hardly anything
now
species of timber tree can be forest
and
soils,
given
in coppice,
warm oak
chestnut and
be
grown both
climate
localities.
It
The Robinia may be recommended
pines.
is
new growth
it
for
roots
are
cut
property which
its
mixing
soil
and
suffers at times
made by
is
root
abundance where
shoots, which appear in great its
espe-
is
also useful for underplanting
In copse forest, where
from storms,
sweet
waste lands.
with the pines on the fourth quality it
as high
the
as
cially useful for the afforestation of
upwards, and
This
said.
and even on the poorest
same
the
to
by making
trenches.
The
roots possess of assimilating
nitrogen from the air gives
it
the character of a
valuable soil-improving species of
tree,
which
should be more widely distributed in high forest than appears to be the case at present.
26.
Apart from
elm
no
shows
peculiarities
its
Ulmus americana. greater rapidity of growth, this difference
in
its
sylvicultural
from the European mountain, Scotch
or witch elm,
Ulmus montana.
8o Abies balsamea.
27.
development and treatment are
Sylvicultural
much
pretty
European for
It
fir.
seems
the case of the
in
be more suitable
to
Northern Europe than the Central European
species, fir,
same as
the
and more
both
in its botanical
and
forestal aspects.
ChamcBcyparis spkceroidea.
28.
A
closely resembles the Siberian
rapid-growing half-shade bearing kind
fairly
domain of the sweet chestnut on moist and on fresh soil in the oak region that is, on fairly good of tree, which
is
worth growing
in the
—
land in groups
among
the broad-leaved timber
The few experiments made
tree.
demonstrated
its
with
it
have
Where oak
frost-hardiness.
disappears and spruce and beech predominate, of course
it
can only be planted on an area with
a south aspect. 29.
Although
makes
little
Juniperus virginiana.
this
fairly
demand
growing
rapid
either
on
soil
or climate,
nevertheless requires a considerable
warmth
to enable
dimensions. that
useful
it
it
amount of
to attain technically useful
All experiments sizes
tree
made
so far prove
can only be produced in the
natural distributive region of the sweet chestnut
where the tree may be raised
in
groups or in
8i
pine plantations on really good vation
be
is
light,
The
simple and easy.
removing
at the right time.
all
In
Its culti-
soils.
thinning should
crooked or poor material
Germany
this juniper can-
not be classed as a commercial tree,
30. Picea alba.
the
same
attitude
spruce
as
the balsam
Displays
European
towards fir
the
does
to
European variety. In America it may be cultivated and raised on the same principles which govern European foresters in regard to their spruces. It has no forestal value in Germany. the
Central
31
The
.
Pinus banksiana.
attempts at growing this
Mayr's investigations made
gave
rise,
have
to
which
in its native localities
answered
fully
tree,
all
expectations.
This very rapidly growing species of timber absolutely frost hardy, so that
the
it
will exist
extremest conditions of temperatures
posed areas, waste lands, &c.).
It
is
is
under (ex-
superior
to all other kinds of trees (even to the rest of the
pines) soils,
on the poorest,
and
in
swampy
driest,
sandy, and gravelly
districts is
the European marsh pine.
more
Its
useful than
high value for
the afforestation of waste lands, the formation of protective
or
"fore"
forest,
F
for fixing the soil
82 of sand screens,
fire
planting with and under indigenous
in
on
pines
the growing of wind and
dunes,
worst
the
class
of
land,
becomes
more and more apparent and exthe enormous sale of plants in Europe,
every day plains
notwithstanding the incredible dearness of the
seed (at present 59s. 3Jd. per pound). will
come about
in
A change
a very short time as the seed from
Banksian
pine begins
sixth year,
and thenceforward almost every year, seeds which, from my investiga-
yield
to
its
fully-formed tions,
Boden
possess sufficient powers of germination. '
also has published his researches
From
subject.
the observations
related to examples planted in the
many
forest,
(the
collected first visit
litre
this
made which
I
more than
15 years
consequently the oldest in Ger-
seeds
of
this
pine
having
been
by Professor Dr. H. Mayr during his to North America in 1885), the follow-
ing results were obtained
I
on
:
of the largest cones weighed,
fresh,
552*15 grammes. I
litre
of the smallest cones weighed, fresh,
57070 grammes. The average was therefore 561 "42. '
Samen von Pinus
Jw.," 1898, p. 17.
rigida
und
P. Banksiana. " Z.
fiir
F. u.
83
The
largest cones weighed, air dried, 407* lo
grammes.
The
smallest cones weighed, air dried,
44172
grammes. Showing an average of 424*4 1 grammes.
When
increased from litre
I
1
the
i
opened
litre to
largest
2^
bulk
their
litres.
open cones
weighed
27*60 grammes.
litre
I
of
were
cones
the
cones weighed
of the smallest open
123*55 grammes.
Average, 125*57 grammes.
The number
of the largest closed cones was
and 140 of the smallest of the largest opened cones 17, and the smallest open per
55
litre,
;
ones 38, thus averaging 97 for the closed and 27 for the open. As regards the largest cones barring two, opened at an average tempera-
all,
ture
of over
25 degrees Celsius, and
smallest 35 remained shut. is
very
common
in the
As
open
this
air,
of the
temperature
and even with
great care the cones can be heated to as as 45 degrees,
it
may be assumed
much
that ordinary
atmospherical conditions will suffice to bring
all
the banksiana cones to their opening point to at
any
within 5 per cent., as happens in the case of the Grafrath trees, partly first of all in rate
October, and partly in
March and
April.
As
the
84
empty cones remain to a great extent on the tree and close up again in damp weather, this is the reason of the quite unnatural representation that the cones of the Pinus banksiana only
when
open ("
Rod and Gun
1902,
page
through
spreads
fire
in
the
first
forests
Canada," Forestal Section,
Pinus banksiana).
17, relating to
10 of the largest cones weighed, fresh, 94-80
grammes. 10 of the smallest cones weighed, fresh, 3 5 '2
grammes. Consequently one medium cone weighed 6 "5
grammes.
The
specific
fresh,
The
was
the
cones,
largest
gravity
of
the
smallest cones,
grammes. grammes.
igo'i
Average, 107 "8 If
of
was 106*5 grammes.
specific
fresh,
gravity
water equal to 100 grammes.
In length the largest cone was 6 centimetres, the 2
medium
size 4 centimetres,
centimetres.
i
litre
of
and the smallest
the
largest
cones
809 grains, weighing, after cleaning, grammes, i litre of the smallest cones
yielded 2 "45
yielded 600 grains, which weighed i"oi grammes.
Consequently average
of
for
71,320
i
kilogramme cones
occupy a space of 735*26
is
litres,
of
seed
required, i
an
which
kilogramme
of seed contains between 300,000 and
500,000
85
The
grains.
seed of the largest cones gave a
germinating capacity of 43 per cent., the smallest 39 per cent., thus constituting an average of
The young
41 per cent.
not
affected
by
banksiana plants are
needle-shedding
the
fungus
damage from forest animals heals easily, and they grow with upward tending branches after the manner of spruce, so that they do not encroach on other underplanted
timber
and
be dispensed
branch prunings can
costly
The
with.
oldest plants in Grafrath
trees,
show
that
the Banksian pines, by reason of their shorter
needles (which from the fifteenth year
even
is
shorter than in the case of the native pines)
In view of
quite insensitive to snowfall.
extraordinary sylvicultural qualities
timber takes only second place. that,
the
as
of
result
It
its
is
these
value as a
would appear
imperfectly
understood
American publications, errors have crept in which may remain a .long time unrecognised.
Mayr
on the other hand,
has,
equal
that
to
of
demonstrated
Pinus banksiana
that the timber of the
European
pines.
is
It
quite
was
found that 22 metres was the greatest height
development ing to
the
banksiana country '
as
in the latest
attains
the
United States, and, accordreports
Canada, '
the
same height in that American red pine, Pinus the
From "Rod and Gun
banksiana.
from
in
Canada," 1902,
p.
17,
Pinus
86 namely, of 35 metres and more. As the climatic conditions of the greater part of resinosa,
Germany resemble each
more closely than those of the United States where the banksiana is
found outside
warmer are far
natural home,
its
that
is,
in
the prospects for the height
latitudes,
development of
other
this species of
pine in
Germany
more favourable than have been
hitherto
imagined. 32.
Pinus Hgida.
This three-needle sheathed pine
generally
is,
speaking, a rapid-growing, light-loving variety of tree which, however, requires a
(coast districts
and sweet
warmer climate
and the inland climate Although, as a
chestnut).
oak
for rule,
its
demands with regard to quality of soil are quite modest, it does not come up to indigenous pines, not to speak of the banksiana, on the very poorest lands.
Its
long
needles expose
stiff
weighed down by snow, and stages of growth injury
by snow.
forest
animals
raise
it
it
parts heal
peculiarity
of
up
damage from
hardly
rapidly, as
being
dormant buds, hence capacity
is
younger
very severely from
It is so liable to
that
its
to being
possible
without some kind of protection.
damaged the
suffers
it
in
it
its
able
to
reputed
it
to
The
possesses
develop
its
reproductive
from the stool after being cut down
^7
an early age.
at
This peculiarity has been the
source of quite a mass of literature, ^
been
far too greatly
sylvicultural
value.
and has
exaggerated as regards
would
It
seem
that
its
the
reproductive power diminishes rapidly part passu
with the lessening of warmth during the growing season.
A
favourable subject for this particular
kind of investigation was found in the experi-
mental forest gardens of
Professor
Mayr, at
Grafrath, near Munich.
In those gardens there were numerous instances of Pinus rigida being partly broken and partly bent by snow, so that
was deemed better to cut all flush with the ground, and the investigations carried out three it
years afterwards proved that only 3 '8 per cent, of the trees produced shoots from the stem stumps,
and one half of these had
at the time of investi-
number of shoots already dying, so that, speaking of the whole number of trees for the three years, barely 2 per cent, of them
gation a great
yielded
doubt the cold level,
on a
any
possessing
shoots
vitality.
N|0
570 metres above seaarea in which the rigida had
situation,
forest
been used as a nurse, was something to blame for
'
the
unfavourable
result
with these pines.
Sprengel, " Widerstandsfahigkeit der Pinus rigida gegen
Feuer," "A. F.
u. J.,"
1896, p. 175.
keit der P. rigida," 1889, p. 75,
Ditmar, " Ausschlagsfahig-
"A.
F. u. J.," Dr. Laspeyres, f. F. u. Jw."
" Ausschlagsfahigkeit der P. rigida," 1889, p. 65, "Z.
88
For is
these reasons the value of this timber
all
of small account, at any rate in
even
if,
indeed,
grown
the
that
is
quite
justice to the
ture
Its
all.
may,
tree
later
on,
be
to
do
for resin-tapping.
Pinus
23It
at
can only be justified by the
cultivation inland
expectation
any
possesses
it
Germany,
on
strobus.
impossible,
in
this
place,
enormously comprehensive
this subject
litera-
by mere quotations from the
authors and reference to their observations. the following lines the idea
is
In
simply to give a
collective sketch of the sylvicultural peculiarities
of this highly interesting and valuable species of just the fundamental differ-
timber
tree.
ence
displays as against the indigenous two-
it
It
needle sheathed position
among
is
pines
that
has assured
it
a
the forest trees worth planting.
Moreover, the other remaining species belonging to the strobus
division share, according to
same sylvicultural peculiarities. This is more especially the case as regards the European strobus, the Greek Weymouth pine, Pinus peuce, which possesses only one disadvantage as against the American variety, that it was discovered 200 years later. Mayr's
reports,
The Weymouth
the
pine
shade bearing kind of
is
a rapid-growing,
tree,
finding
its
half-
home
in
89
where the area of distribution of oak Starting from that point, it seeks the warmest localities with fresh to moist soil-
localities
predominates.
In the colder zones
gives the preference to
it
the ordinary forest soils for oak and beech, and
even on the pine
On
soils
of Class
pine soils under Class III.
Being
whatever.
consequently,
damp
the
for
is,
of
for prepara-
localities,
where
acts as a nurse for other tender pine species. It
has proved
conifer
filling
soils
Class
of
first
growth. this pine
equals
Among
of
and
among to III.
;
broad-
light-demanding
among which
but afterwards surpasses in the
dangers which
may be mentioned
investigation
I.
in
groups of small extent, for
in
underplanting
leaved trees and between ashes, at
up spaces
underplanting
for
on
pines
for planting out
the
value in
its
plantations,
common
it
it
afforestation
on river banks and
tory cultivation in frost-visited it
is
it
absolutely frost-hardy,
suitable
localities
and III. of no use
II.,
I.,
threaten
blister rust, to the
suppression
of
which
Prof.
Dr. V. Tubeuf has devoted the greatest attention.
This fungus attacks young plants from
about their fourth year of existence, up to which time the strobus does not fungoid enemies, as the dangerous
other hand, the
it
appear to have any
does not
Lophodermium
Weymouth
fall
a prey to
pinastri.
pine
is
On
the
attacked up to
90 the pole stage of growth by the Agaricus melleus,
a root parasite which often perforates the plants to a
most serious extent, and
it
is
only by the
planting of a rapid growing species of broad-
leaved it
tree,
such as alder, ash, and red oak with
The
that such danger can be averted.
louse,
Chermes
strobi,
cotton
has a special tendency to
upon the Weymouth pine in its twentieth year, lessening its height growth and destroying weak plants. It is more particularly exposed to fall
the ravages of forest animals, nibbling of the sprigs
and gnawing the bark
so that a certain stalking,
&c.,
German
forester to
everything,
is
seriousness to do
(especially
deer),
whom
proposed
deer-
in
all
away with the Weymouth pine
As
on account of these ravages. timber, the
by
Weymouth
pine
is,
regards
its
in its early years,
much tougher than that of the common pines, and succumbs much less frequently to snowpressure and
breakage.
Investigations
subject of the sylvicultural
peculiarities
Weymouth
pine, just alluded to,
especially
carried
authors
named,
out,
by
apart
Dr.
"
of the
have been more from
Wappes,^
Kunze,2 Dr. Lorey, Burkmayer,
on the
Brill,
the Prof.
other
Dr.
Spalding,3
Zur Kenntnis und Wiirdigung der Weymouthskiefer, " A.
F. u. J.," 1897, pp. 8, SI, 363. "
Beitrage
zur
Weymouthskiefer. 3
"The White
Kenntnis des forstlichen Verhaltens der Tharandter Jahrbuch, 1900, p. 159.
Pine," 1895.
91
Walther and Danckelmann. Plantations in Germany which can now be felled have shown {see
Wappes)
Dr.
that
Weymouth
the
is
Most the
attention
artificial
from
four-
conditions
mouth life,
is
may be
pine,
trees,
grown, trees,
mentioned,
but,
during
the
ten
first
in
Wey-
here remarked that the
but
that
in the
and
is
mixed
if
years of
its
at
therefore liable to be over-
among broad-leaved among conifers. In such
singly
so
less
cases small
groups
any
rate
are
its
best in
and height.
to
be recommended,
two or three individuals
group may reach
felling maturity.
Under
Weymouth
pine appears
cleanness of trunk,
straightness
such circumstances the at
numerous and
the
already
seed-
does not always keep pace with the native
timber
so
under
used
It
trees.
planting of
to six-year-old trees raised in
varied
it
by the
reproduction
beds.
general,
—that
given everywhere to
being
is
can
pine
be reproduced from self-sown seed under the light protection of the older
easily
Pure plantings of
should not exceed an area of to prevent the extension of
its
Weymouth i
pines
hectare, so as
enemies, and also
because in such pure plantations this pine has greater difficulty in shedding branches than
mixed with leaved trees.
coniferous,
and
especially
when
broad-
92
Taxodium distichum.
34-
In the localities already mentioned in the last section this species of timber tree
same time
vated, at the
may be
culti-
must be noted that
it
more moist the situation given to it, the warmer must be the climate in the vicinity of the the
In
plantation.
plantations
localities
may be
general climate necessary
it
hitherto
frost,
or else
oak
Weymouth
is
the more
of shade, and
toleration
timber
of
planting singly in
but the colder the
occidentalis.
neglected
quite
pure
to avoid moisture of soil.
Thuja
quality
quite
this
such a place
becomes
Resistance to splendid
laid out,
in
35.
like
recommend of
species
localities
tree
this
for
between these
pines, for the underplanting
of oaks, pines, larches, and particularly on the
and as a protective timber frost-exposed situations along with the Bank-
fresher kinds of soil in
sian pine.
Even
be only a small
if
;
under such conditions
tree, its
material
is,
it
may
nevertheless,
more valuable than that of an indigenous species of the same dimensions. 36.
A
Tsuga canadensis.
rapid growing, shade-bearing kind of tree,
particularly adapted for planting in groups
be-
93
tween broad -leaved
Weymouth may find a
with the pines
it
soils of
trees
Classes
mixing singly
for
Between the home place in small groups on and III. Among firs and
pine.
II.,
I.,
and
spruces only large groups or pure plantations are
suggested. of timber,
Sylvicultural characteristics, quality
and tanning material
justify
a wide use
of this tree.
Fraxinus oregona.
^i"].
Experimental cultivation with
this
species
is
advisable in localities similar to those in which the native ash
is
grown.
38.
Abies amabilis.
39.
Abies
40.
Abies grandis.
41.
Abies
Trials with these
firs
concolor.
nobilis.
possess a natural justifica-
tion only outside the natural territorial limits of
the
home
fir,
but in similar climatic locations,
conditions of soil and raising are the
same
as the
native species requires.
42.
This, rapid
Chanuscyparis lawsoniana.
generally
growing
among
speaking,
tree,
which
frost-hardy,
fairly
may be reckoned
the shade-bearing species, yields useful
94 timber at quite an
made by me
early
Investigations
age.
on some state property acquired
in the forest district of Freising
—that
is,
gave
in three
70 per cent., and 73 per an average germinating capacity of
samples 68 per cent.
'
70*3 per cent.
cent.,
One
litre of
seed weighs 0*25 kilo
and contains 500,000 grains, so that i kilo contains two millions. The warmer the climate the greater must be
the
moisture in the case of this that
to
of
increase
atmospheric
tree, at least
which characterises oak
equal
locations.
In
humid air (such as on the seacoast and the north and east slopes of medium
situations with
mountain ranges, narrow valleys) a moderately it. Under all other demeanour of the Lawsoniana is unfavourable, and it succumbs to its enemies, to which, on so-called warm slopes, the branch
fresh soil will suffice for
conditions the
disease (according to Mayr, killing of the chloro-
phyl due to low winter temperatures) belongs.
Natural reproduction always ject
to
lateral
that
it
should
or slight
mouth case '
pines, but not
it
Near
upper protection, so
be planted
broad-leaved trees or
in
common
between
groups between pines and
firs
Begun
some
Wey-
and spruces,
should be of equal age with Munich.
on sub-
carried
is
twenty
its
in
environ-
years
ago
by
Forstrat Bierdimpfel, they are being extended by Forstmeister Striegel.
^V^'^
Fig.
2.
Thirty-year Oaks iinderplanted with ChamcEcyfaris lawsoniaiia for Experimental Forest Gardens of Grafrath.
iifteen years in the
Facing
fiage 95.
95 ment.
It
would appear to be better
Weymouth and
pines and
other
to give the
species
said
of timber, especially the oaks, a start in order to bring in the cypress
thinned for the soils of
Class
first
and
I.
but on poorer soils
when
time
the oak
{see Fig.
to be
On
pine
thrives with certainty,
II. it
raising
its
2).
is
The
doubtful.
is
longer time the seedling takes in growing the greater
is
the danger from
the case with
snow
pressure, as
all
greater extension and density of the foliage. is
rapid growth of the
likely that the
cypress in Great Britain, which
home, accounts
is
cypresses, on account of the
for the fact that
in spite of the heavier load of
is
its
It
Lawson climatic
does not suffer
it
Where
snow.
the
sweet chestnut or oak can be grown the climate should correspond as regards warmth, colder
there
situations
planting of
the
is
cypress,
but
in
a drawback to the &c.,
by the way
in
which the plant divides into several shafts just
above the ground. that
is,
a plant to
i
A
small planting distance
square yard
able for cleaning the boles.
pure plantations will
is
—
is
The
always advislaying out of
a doubtful procedure, as they
hardly escape {{Agaricus melleus or Pestalozzia
funerea once take root.
The many
risks,
those
from wild animals amongst others, have greatly diminished the disposition to grow this species in
Germany,
96
Chamacyparis
43-
The
nutkcensis.
foregoing remarks apply to this in every
As
respect.
appears from the demeanour of the
tree in the experimental
gardens of Grafrath, the
Nutka cypress suffers even more than the Lawson variety from Pestalozzia funerea, which
the decay of the bark on the
young
causes
shoots, so
that the overlying shoot (top or side shoot) dies off,
due to the swelling of
base through
its
its
thickening in size during the growing season following the destruction of the bark.
44. Picea engelmanni. 45. Picea pungens.
Engelmann's spruce does not appear to possess
any advantage over the European variety, and where it is indigenous it can be treated in exactly the
same way
The what
as the latter.
prickly spruce starts fresh growth some-
earlier
than the European one, and suffers
less than the latter
under certain circumstances
as, for instance, if late frosts set in
Whether
pretty early.
this circumstance, as well as its prickly
needle-like leaf formation, suffice as a protection
against animals to justify
its
cultivation at the
expense of the European spruce
moot
point.
may remain a
97 46. Picea sitkcensis.
As
regards this spruce,
of a guidance for
its
its
prickly foliage
cultivation than
less
what has
West American
already been said about
is
firs
in
their useful application in connection with spruce.
47.
Pinus
48.
Pinus ponderosa. Pinus scopulorum.
49.
jeffreyi.
These three moderately rapid growing, lightloving species require fairly good soil, somewhat fresh in the case of the Jeffreyi tree. One- and two-year-old trees are very much endangered by the needle-shedding fungus.
The buds
grown plants are gnawed by From reports the squirrel and the bark by mice. received from North Germany they have, for some inexplicable reason, gone largely to decay of the
before reaching the age in which their greatest peril,
snow
pressure, threatens them.
therefore, can
Nothing,
be said about the further employ-
ment of these three
species outside their native
domain.
50.
Pseudotsuga douglasii. Coast douglasia.
51.
Pseudotsuga glauca, Colorado douglasia.
52.
Pseudotsuga macrocarpa.
This
last
kind
of tree
G
can be
left
out of
98
The Coast
further investigations.
rapid-growing,
combines the while
its
douglasia
peculiarities of both
fir
a
which
species
shade-tolerating
is
and spruce,
root system adapts itself readily, accord-
ing to Mayr, with the given conditions of the soil.
On
the other hand,
adaptable for poorer pine III.
In
frosts
on account of
its
early years
soils is
it
its
not a kind of tree
is
it
than Classes
susceptible to early
fir
severe temperature of
(Sep-
late after-growth
tember), but as regards late frost
demeanour, between
II. to
and
it
stands, in
In
spruce.
winter
it
its
the
from
suffers
browning of the needle, needle-shedding, and killing of chlorophyl. in
It
is,
consequently, suitable
moist atmospherical situations such as have
been already mentioned
in
Chammcyparis lawsoniana.
connection with the
Warm, open
plains,
with their contrasts in temperature, should be
Pure plantations can be made on cold
avoided. areas,
or
when
these slope to the south-east or east,
north and north-west, up to an altitude in
which the
some slight
fir
appears pure.
In low-lying places
protection by copse or the stool shoots
of broad-leaved and coniferous trees
The Coast
douglasia develops
amongst broad-leaved coniferous
best
in
groups
It
is
also
up bare patches where it is Close planting, that is one plant
for filling
planted singly.
desirable.
trees introduced
before or after their reproduction.
adapted
is
99 per square yard, tion of the larch
more than
With
suggested.
is
the excep-
no other kind of timber
this one,
has,
such special need for pro-
tection against the rubbing action of the roebuck.
As
regards Agaricus melleus,
less susceptible
it is
than the indigenous spruce.
The Colorado difference in
douglasia displays a remarkable
demeanour which, perhaps, gives
a greater value as an ornamental
many cases, even as a forest tree. blueish
white
needles,
and
spheroidical development of stem raise
it,
tree, and, in
It has, as
its
it
a rule,
regular,
long,
and branches,
in point of beauty, to the level of
a silver
Its absolute immunity to premature frosts and the severest temperatures of winter place it, in
spruce.
this
respect,
above the Coast douglasia, with
which last, however, bility to late
slow growth,
it
displays the
frosts.
in
same
Then, again, there
consequence of which
keep pace with indigenous
j(irs
;
but,
it
the
is
can barely
and spruce.
consequently, not adapted for the
open plantations
suscepti-
filling
It
is,
up of
on the other hand,
it
is
more suitable than the Coast douglasia for making pure plantations in sloping localities, in which southern aspects may also be given
to
(very instructive examples on this point are
be found
in the
Grafrath.
See
it
to
Experimental Forest Gardens of also illustration 3).
It is
advisable
to provide such pure plantations with an admixture
lOO of larch, because larch probably continues to lead
throughout
whole
its
peculiarities of
so
far,
If all the sylvicultural
life.
both species are examined, which,
cannot be kept separate and which explains
the confusion that has arisen
in
description of the Douglas
the rapid growth
of the Coast douglasia
fir,
may be
the biological
contrasted with
the greater safety and certainty of growth of the
Colorado douglasia.
Sequoia gigantea.
53.
Less warmth and much more atmospherical moisture
is
the
first vital
condition for this rapid-
growing, light-loving timber species, hence the reason
why
it
thrives better in an island climate
than on continents, better inside than outside the
on the hill than the plain. In such the extreme temperatures of winter,
forest, better
situations
which form generally the greatest menace to existence,
not
are
admirable results
so
intense,
of
with the sequoia
Britain, Switzerland,
its
which the in
Great
Wurttemberg, and the ex-
perimental gardens at Grafrath, 570 metres above sea-level, gives
ample proof.
It is quite
worthy
of further
despite the failures, which
may be
trials
partly traced to planting its
development.
it
in places
unsuited to
Fig.
3.
Douglas
Fir,
twenty years old and twelve metres high, in the Experimental Forest Gardens of Grafrath. Facing page 100,
lOI
54.
This arbor
Thuja gigantea. shares the
vitae
Lawson
peculiarities as the
under
cultivated
identical
however, in mind that
Lawson cypress from
The
lozzi funerea.
it
same
cypress,
sylvicultural
and may be
conditions,
suffers
bearing,
more than the
the ravages of the Pesta-
suppression of this fungus by
means of continually new forming shoots is more difficult it its case, and the future alone can show whether tion
of
this
fungus
this
species
may
not render the cultiva-
of timber tree altogether
impossible.
55.
Tsuga mertensiana.
This very rapid tolerating
of
its
frosts
tree,
branches,
up
growing
somewhat shade-
with the slender drooping tips is
exposed to danger from early
to the tenth year of
from that period onward
it
its
seems
existence, to
and
be as hardy
as the Canadian tsuga, to which it is superior in This variety of tree may, rapidity of growth.
be employed in the same localities as have already been suggested for the Canadian With these may be added two kinds of plant. therefore,
timber trees
which,
hitherto,
have only been
treated in the experimental gardens of Grafrath,
namely, the
I02 56.
Pinus murrayana, Balfour,
which has been recommended by Mayr
for laying
A
out pure plantations in the high-lying moors.
experiment carried out
slight
a
moor has shown this growth and immune against
adjacent to a
position
species to be rapid in
As
frost.
in
small cold
these pines, which are related to the
Banksian variety, grow to a height of 30 metres soil adjacent to moors in America, it is recom-
on
mended
that further trials with
Pinus
57.
American
This
it
might be made.
resinosa, Ait.
red
pine
belongs
and plays
of Eastern North America,
regions
there a similar
common
part
to
that
red
the
of
the
to
or
There is no reason for Europeans to cultivate it, and no reason why Americans should seek for another method of
pine in Europe.
treating
red
the
Europe
sister in
pine than that which
its
enjoys.
Retrospect. If
we survey
liarities
noted
the collective sylvicultural pecu-
of American trees, the
is
American
the
immunity to
varieties,
those from the
first
frost
with which
thing to be
of
the
East
may be ranked
Rockies, while those from the
Pacific coast, with its moist atmosphere,
appear
I03 to
be the most
that
sensitive.
It
West American
the
also,
is,
trees
noteworthy
an
on
are,
average, more rapid in growth than their East
American kindred, and
attain higher
dimensions
latter.
than
the
As
and stouter regards
the
West American kinds in East America only the coast territories and wooded mountain valleys were taken into consideration,
cultivation of the
while
West America
in
East American
the
same way as the The planting of European varieties in East America is only likely to promise success but in the British section that is, in Canada this would be quite superfluous, as the closely
species of trees thrive in the
European.
—
—
related
varieties
in
those
already
parts
fulfil
their purpose.
For the is
afforestation of bare tracts of land
it
only the East American species that can be
considered.
According
Mayr's
Professor
to
estimate, the prairie should be suitable for forest cultivation as far as 90°
W.
lat.,
but afforestation
with the usual far-reaching methods of planting
on extensive
which
areas,
unnatural,
is
however, to be recommended.
is
not,
Let large areas
be planted with groups of trees in order to continue afforestation round each until the extended
groups
close
up
together.
This
method which helps forward the bution of any species of wood.
is
also
the
natural distri-
I04
American
varieties
of trees in relation to their value for the
German
If we, then, glance over the
and,
incidentally,
valuable
European
acquisitions,
the
forests
both
regards
as
most forest
planting and value for sylvicultural purposes are,
the Robinia,
Weymouth
and the Banks
lasias
pine,
likely to
species
With
pine.
next hickory and walnut
both the Dougthese
come
cypresses are hardly
;
become of a greater general value. Such as are closely related to European firs,
may
pines, ashes, oaks, &c.,
turn out useful for
sylvicultural reasons in those parts of
Europe
in
which these species of tree are not to be found, but
in
those
where these kinds
localities
of
timber already exist the kindred exotics appear to be superfluous.
Out of all the general of
raising
trees
as
natural laws
partly
Mayr, and partly given culture,
and methods
published by
Prof.
on
sylvi-
in his lectures
both with the cultivation of the native
as well as the foreign varieties, the following data
are selected with his sanction 1.
The
raising of different
best carried out
in small
the high forest.
Where
open land 2.
later
:
kinds of trees
is
gardens sheltered by it
is
desired to
slight protection should
sow on
be given.
Sowing with indigenous kinds can be done than in the case of foreign
autumn or spring sowing
trees, for
in April
is
which
advisable.
I05
As a
rule
one should avoid giving the exotics
a special treatment
for instance, covering
;
them
in winter, as this usually turns out unfavourably. It
only in the case of very late sowing that a
is
winter shelter becomes necessary, at least in the year,
first
and
this
must not be too
and
thick,
should be gradually removed as spring approaches.
The
3.
by
its
quality of the seed
Of two
percentage of germinative power.
quantities
of seeds quite equal in this respect,
one
cheaper
the
must only be judged
should
be
used,
not
advertised by the dealer on account of
good
specially
origin
(coming
from
those their
unknown
northern territories of distribution, straight-growing trunks, &c.), as this recommendation simply
making
results in
more
it
costly.
In every grain of seed plant in
its
normal
lies
state, as
the type
of the
regards frost-hardi-
power of growth, straightness of trunk, and so on, and it is only the new situation (soil and climate) plus the raising, which decide whether, ness,
and
in
4.
what way, the
The
first
tree grows.
attempts at growing an indigenous
tree outside its natural stronghold (take, say, the
over Europe, north of the Alps) or even a foreign wood, must always be carried out under larch
all
such conditions (climatic zone, protection, soil, &c.) as will give the greatest guarantee of their
development.
It
is
only after
we become
ac-
io6 quainted with the results of
these experiments
all
some
that others can take place, which in ticular
respects
method of
different
raising) the
so that in the
cause of
(say,
case of
some
different,
is
failure
the exact
The
can be given there and then.
it
or
climate,
soil,
experiment
par-
mere accumulation of unfavourable conditions one experiment, such as bad
open
in
cold situation,
soil,
location, depredations of forest animals, or
the rivalry of weeds and copse
wood does not
any useful starting
yield in the case of failures
point for further experiments. 5.
The
genous or native soil
farther
The
indi-
it
away from
its
must
light that
it.
farther
away from
some its
variety of tree
home
climatic
is
trans-
to a warmer
on moister
soils.
stand longer and stronger effects of
light,
region the greater claims has It will
be
to a colder climate the better the
and the more abundant the
ferred
tree,
foreign, is transplanted
home
be given to 6.
any variety of
which, again, facilitates
it
being raised under
its
slight shade. 7.
On
poorer
soils all
kinds of trees are in
greater need of light, so that their raising under
shade becomes more 8.
As
difficult.
a protective growth, broad-leaved,
light-
loving trees should be used wherever possible,
such as
birches,
poplars,
willows,
alders,
and
I07
by conifers is always more unfavourable than that of the above trees, with the oaks.
Shelter
exception of the Strobus species
with these
;
may
be ranked two- and three-needle-sheathed pines Spruces and firs, along with beeches, are the least suitable as protective plants. 9.
The
whether
notion that anywhere in the world,
above,
or
north
of,
boundaries, species of timber
planted 10.
may be
our
vegetative
may grow
dismissed as unnatural.
only in the case of trees which
It is
or be
grow
quicker, or at least as quickly, as their neighbours
that individual mixing
is
admissible.
cases planting in groups
is
In other
preferable, so that
perpetual supervision and continued felling in
may
the experimental areas
No
1 1.
foreign
firs,
not be required.
spruce, oaks, ashes, &c.,
domain of their closely related indigenous species any better product than the latter. The same conditions under which the native tree produces good or can furnish
bad wood
in the distributive
will also
make
its
foreign kindred
good
or bad. 12.
On
the other hand,
in
the case of
all
climatically admissible "foreign trees," the species
of which (genus in the pine section) are not
represented
in
the
home
forests,
experimental
plantations should be undertaken. 13.
In order to arrive at climatic conditions of
io8
a country and to
fix
zone of vegetation, not
its
only particular species of timber but also agricultural plants
way
may be
For
used.
instance, in this
the cultivation of the vine, rice, mulberry,
almond,
corresponds
&c.,
climatically
the
to
natural growing territory of the sweet chestnut
the cultivation of tobacco and maize corresponds
oak
to the hottest territory of the
which the
in
sweet chestnut grows partly wild and raised.
The
cultivation
hops
of
partly
is
and
wheat
corresponds to the cold territory of the oaks
The
and beeches. rye
corresponds to
that
is, firs,
or pasture
of wheat
cultivation
and
warmest spruce zone,
the
spruce, or beech, whereas rye alone
land areas
characterise
domain of the spruce and larch. 14. The pine, Pinus sylvestris,
is
the
colder
no use
for
judging the climate of any particular species, and is
to be found
between the zone of evergreen,
sub-tropical, broad-leaved trees as far as the confines of the
Alpine or Polar forest regions.
In conclusion,
met with
all
I
may
refer to
a symptom
over Europe, and which
is
I
have
more
convincing than any number of words, namely, that
plants
thrive
best,
foreign species of trees,
both
indigenous and
where the planter devotes
himself impartially, lovingly, and patiently to the raising of his charges.