From Enslavement to Environmentalism: Politics on a Southern African Frontier 9780295800516, 9780295988405

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CULTURE, PLACE, AND NATURE STUDIES IN ANTHROPOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Devon Pefia and K. Sivaramakrishnan, Series Editors

CULTURE, PLACE, AND NATURE Centered in anthropology, the Culture, Place, and Nature series encompasses new interdisciplinary social science research on environmental issues, focusing on the intersection of culture, ecology. and politics in global, national, and local contexts. Contributors to the series view environmental knowledge and issues from the multiple and often conflicting perspectives of various cultural systems. The Kuhls of Kangra: Community-Managed Irrigation in the Western Himalaya by Mark Baker The Earth's Blanket: Traditional Teachings for Sustainable Living by Nancy Turner Property and Politics in Sabah, Malaysia: Native Struggles over Land Rights by Amity A. Doolittle Border Landscapes: The Politics of Akha Land Use in China and Thailand by Janet C. Sturgeon From Enslavement to Environmentalism: Politics on a Southern African Frontier by David McDermott Hughes Ecological Nationalisms: Nature, Livelihood, and Identities in South Asia edited by Gunnel CederlOf and K. Sivaramakrishnan

From Enslavement to Environmentalism POLITICS ON A SOUTHERN AFRICAN FRONTIER

David McDermott Hughes

UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON PRESS Seattle and London in association with WEAVER PRESS Harare

THIS PUBLICATION IS SUPPORTED IN PART BY THE BY THE DONALD R. elLEGOOD INTERNATIONAL PUBLICATIONS ENDOWMENT, ADDITIONAL SUPPORT IS PROVIDED BY GRANTS FROM THE FORD FOUNDATION AND RUTGERS UNIVERSITY.

© 2006 by the University of Washington Press

Printed in the United States of America Designed by Pamela Canell 12

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10 09 08 07 06

5 4 3 2 1

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. University of Washington Press P.O. Box 50096, Seattle, WA 98145 www.washington.eduJuwpress Distributed in southern Africa by Weaver Press P.O. Box Al922, Avondale, Harare www.weaverpresszimbabwe.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hughes, David McDermott. From enslavement to environmentalism: politics on a Southern African frontier / David McDermott Hughes. p. cm. - (Culture, place, and nature) Includes bibliographical references and index. 0-295-98590-9 (hardback: alk. paper) Land use-Zimbabwe-Vhimba-History. 2. Land tenure-ZimbabweISBN

1.

Vhimba-History.

3. Land use-Mozambique-Gog6i-History.

tenure-MozanIbique-Gogoi-History.

6. Gog6i (MozanIbique)-Colonization. HD992.z8v484 2006

4. Land

5. Vhimba (Zimbabwe)-Colonization.

I. Title.

333.3'096891-dc22

II. Series.

2005027615

The paper used in this publication is acid-free and 90 percent recycled from at least 50 percent post-consumer waste. It meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials,. ANSI Z39.48-1984- 0G

To my mother, and in memory of my father

CONTENTS

Abbreviations ix Linguistic Conventions xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Introduction: Power on African Frontiers 3 PART 1

Colonization, Failed and Successful

19

CHAPTER 1

Compulsory Labor and Unclaimed Land in Gogoi, Mozambique, 1862-1992 22 CHAPTER 2

From Clientship to Land-Grabbing in Vhimba, Zimbabwe, 1893-1990 45

PART 2

The Border

75

CHAPTER"

Refugees, Squatters, and the Politics of Land Allocation in Vhimba 78 CHAPTER 4

Community Forestry as Land-Grabbing in Vhimba 98 CHAPTER 5

Expatriate Loggers and Mapmakers in Gogoi 122 PART"

Native Questions

147

CHAPTER 6

Open Native Reserves or None? CHAPTER 7

In Conclusion, Three Liberal Projects Reassessed 186

Glossary Notes

201

203

References

241

Index 273

150

ABBREVIATIONS

ABCFM

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions

AEF

Africa Evangelical Fellowship

AHM

Arquivo Hist6rico de Mo~ambique (Historical Archives of Mozambique)

BCG

Beira Corridor Group

BSAC

British South Africa Company

Campfire

Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources

CC

civil commissioner

CIES

Centro Informazione e Educazione alIo Sviluppo (Center for Information and Education for Development)

CNA

Companhia Nacional Algodeira (National Cotton Company)

CNC

chief native commissioner

DA

district administrator

DC

district commissioner

DNFFB

Direc~iio

D PAP

Direc¢o Provincial de Agricultura e PecUllria (Provincial Directorate of Agriculture and Livestock)

Frelimo

Frente de Liberta¢o de Mo~ambique (Front for the Liberation of Mozambique)

Nacional de Florestas e Fauna Bravia (National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife)

IX

FSM

Floresta e Serra~ao do Muda (Muda Forest and Sawmill)

GTZ

Gesellschaft fOr technische Zusammenarbeit (Organization for Technical Cooperation)

INSANI

Fundo da Inspec ibid. 37. "A judidosa practica sdenda administrativa e colonial dos Inglezes, ... conseguindo augmentar a intensidade da popuiatyao pelo influxo de indigenas do nosso territorio ... " (Mossurize annual report for 1902, p. 34, ibid.). 38. "NunC3 ... usurpamos os sellS legitimos direitos de propriedade; pelo contnirio, temo-Ios sempre defendido escrupulosamente" ("Relat6rio do InspectorChefe referente a 1954," p. 34> AHM, Fundo do Govemo Geral, Relat6rio no. 497, Servityos Geogntficos e Cadastrais). The statement helped support Mozambique's evolving policy of native reserves (see below). 39. For a discussion on the various regional meanings of chibaro, see van Onselen (1976:99). Gogol elders also recalled a term,jeti, for early-twentieth-century forced labor. I am unsure of the derivation of this word and of how its meaning might differ from chibaro. 40. "Aus seinem Stamme sucht skh femer der Hauptling gewohnlkh drei oder vier 16-18 jiihriger Hinglinge aus, die er zu allerlei persOnlichen Diensten heranzieht und denen er dann spater zum Danke daftir Madchen seiner Familie-Tt)chter oder Schwestern-zu Frauen gibt, ohne fur diese den sonst iiblkhen Heiratspreis zu verlangen.... Man bezekhnet diese Junglinge, die in friiheren Zeiten eine Art Leibgarde bildeten, als muranda" (Spannaus 1961:633). This observation applied to the whole swath of Manka and $ofala through whkh Gunther Spannaus passed. For a map of his route, see Spannaus (1933). For assistance in obtaining materials by Spannaus, I am indebted to Karin Bautz of the Institute for Ethnology, Leipzig University. 41. Unfortunately, the work-from February to May-occupied much of the peak agricultural season. Mossurize monthly report for June 1906, AHM, Fundo da Companhia de Moc;:ambique, Relat6rios eX. 260. 42. The last two firms were known by their Portuguese names, Gremio dos Cereais and Serratyoes Inhasato. See, e.g., Mossurize monthly diaries for September 208

NOTES TO PAGES 35-38

1950, October 1950, December 1950, and January 1951, AHM, Fundo do Govemo do Distrito da Beira, A/.p., Cx. 216. 43. Mossurize monthly report for July 1905, 16 August 1905, p. 2, AHM, Fundo da Companhia de Mo~ambique, Relat6rios Cx. 260. 44. Mossurize annual report for 1901, 5 January 1902, p. 9, ibid., Relat6rios CX.259. 45. "Desviar para elles a corrente de trabalhadores" (Mossurize annual report for 1902, p. 35, ibid.). 46. "0 indigena de Mossurize, desde rapaz novo, s6 tern uma ambi~ao na vida que etrabalhar para 0 Rand e, logo que chega a idade de pagar imposto, ele ai vai a caminho de 'John' como eles dizem, pois quem nao trabalha nas minas nao econsiderado homen" (Mossurize annual report, "Recenseamento da popula 109, 113, 118, 193 Turnbull, David, 131 underpopulation,. 5 University of Zimbabwe: Centre for Applied Social Sciences, 137, 149, 16z: use of "native" as term at, 147 Unruh, Jon, 234n67 utilitarianism, 158

vahlafalmuhlafa (new residents), 126 vajibha youths, 218n89 vakhonzwalmukhonzwa (pledges of obedience),z6.87 van der Post, Laurens, 8 Van Onselen. Charles. Z14039 varandalmuranda (floating client populations), Z7, 35,60-61. 2191113 Vhintba: afforestation and land alloca-

tion. 63-69; and Chintaninlani National Park, 70-73: banana plantation, 101-Z. 111, llZ-13: Development Committee and SAFIRE, 102-5; and emancipation. 188-89; forced and free labor systems. 54-59: grinding mill, 105-7; hotel and tourist projects in, 16z-67; marriage and clientage, 5963: pre-colonization balance of forces, 46-48; refugees, 79-4 85-88; Rusitu Botanical Reserve and Nyakwawa forest. 114-Z0, 119: and squatters, 88-96: tourism projects, 107-14> 111, 16z-67: as village republic. 19Z; white arrival, 48-54. See also Ngorima Reserve Vhimba Area Development Committee: formation and composition of, 10Z-,5; grinding mill project, 105-7; Nyakwawa forest boundary dispute. 114-20, 119: tourism project, 107-14; and village republic movement, 192 Vhimba Collaborative Committee. 116-20 Vhimba Rco-Tourism Project, 163 Village Development Committees (Videos), 73. 89, 114, 239nS village republics, 191-9Z villagization, 43 Walker, Collin (pseud), 108, 109-10, 165, 181,192 wards, 216n70 wars: Frelimo vs. Renamo in Mozambique, 42-44, 85, 123-24, 169; Zimbabwe war of independence, 72 wealth in people: bride-service, 59-63. 86; in Gaza Nguni empire, 25-29; money vs., 62; and Portuguese colonization, 29-30, 34-40; and returned refugees, 126. See also forced labor, servitude. and ambulatory enslavement wealth vs. money, 6z, 194 weekend farmers, 124-Z5 Welgelegen Farm, 63 white, as term, 203n4 white highlands, establishment of. 4 widows. dispossession of, 69 284

INDEX

wildlife management: and fences, 23m27; royal control, 28; Tchuma. Tchato (Our Wealth) program, 173-74; and tourism, 155-56, 158-62, 160 Wildlife Society of Zimbabwe, Chipinge Branch, 107, 120, 164, 165-66 Wilson, Ken, 76, 173-74, 227025 Winichakul, Thongchai, 10 workshops, corporatist, 192-93 World Bank, 1)4, 174-75, 236m09, 2380132 World Conservation Union (IUCN), 1)4, 137

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 158, 159, 162

Zambe'zi River Valley zone, 2380126 ZANI.A (Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army), 72 Zimbabwe Trust, 162 Zimmerer, Karl, 13 Zion Christian Church, 75 zones of expansion, 177, 195 zoning and open reserves, 177-83. See also native reserves

285

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