From Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam 9781463207625

Citation preview

FROM CONSTANTINOPLE THE HOME OF OMAR KHAYYAM

From AT

THE

TOMB

OF

OJIAK

a painting

by Jay

Hambidffe

KHAYYAM

T h e S a r c o p h a g u s m a y by seen in t h e M i d d l e Arcii of t h e L e f t W i n g .

{See page

¿hi)

FROM

CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE

HOME OF OMAR KHAYYAM TRAVELS IN TRANSCAUCASIA AND NORTHERN PERSIA FOR HISTORIC AND LITERARY RESEARCH

W I T H OYER TWO H U N D R E D

ILLUSTRATIONS

AND A

MAP

BY

A. Y. W I L L I A M S PROFESSOR

JACKSON

OP INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SOMETIME

PROFESSOR

OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND

IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, AUTHOR OF PAST AND PRESENT THE

PROPHET

1

AND OF

1

IRAN'

A

M GORGIAS PRESS 2002

'PERSIA

ZOROASTER,

OF ANCIENT

ADJUNCT

LITERATURE

First Gorgias Press Edition. Copyright © 2002 by Gorgias Press LLC. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. Published in the United States of America by Gorgias Press LLC, New Jersey, from the original edition published by The Macmillan Company in 1911.

ISBN 0-9715986-4-9

GORGIAS PRESS 46 Orris Ave., Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA www.gorgiaspress .com

Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

TO MY FRIEND AND F E L L O W - T R A V E L E R ALEXANDER SMITH COCHRAN ' Long they thus traveiled in friendly wise Through countreyes waste and eke well edifyde.' — S P E N S E R , Faerie Quecne.

ERRATA P. vii, for 1908 read 1910. P. 77, note 2, for Caspia read Caspiae.

PREFACE THE kind reception given to my previous volume, Persia Past and Present, has encouraged me to describe the first half of two subsequent journeys made through Northern Iran, Transcaspia, and Turkistan in 1907 and 1908 for the purpose of scholarly research. The portion included in the present book gives an account of the route from Constantinople, along the shores of the Black Sea and the Caspian, across Northern Persia, and into Russian Asia. The second section, which is planned to appear later, will cover the territory traversed beyond the Caspian into the Heart of Asia. Among the generous criticisms of the book that appeared five years ago was a special comment by George Edward Woodberry in approval of the ' blending of scholarship and travel — the research side imparting a touch of romance, and dignifying the travel.' I hope that the present pages may not be found to fall too far below the standard which the critic demanded to have maintained. For that reason I have refrained, as before, from an earlier idea of labeling certain chapters as ' dedicated to the special student,' because of their more technical contents, and of designating others as 'dedicated to the general reader.' It will not be found difficult, I think, to distinguish the appeal in either case. The nature of the regions visited is, necessarily, a factor in determining the character of the descriptive part of the work. If there be less of the element of hardship in travel in the present book, there is more of vision in regard to the history of civilization, the development of literature, and the sphere of man's influence. Zoroaster, the founder of Persia's ancient vii

viii

PREFACE

religion, ran as a minor chord through the pages of the earlier volume ; in the present volume Alexander the Great, upon whose track I have traveled so extensively, adds another connecting link between the interests of East and West, while Omar's home, as a goal to visit, gave to the journey the semblance, at least, of a pilgrimage. Most of the places described in these pages have been visited twice (some even three times) in the course of the travels, so the accounts of them will, I trust, be found fairly accurate. In several instances, moreover, it seemed convenient to combine the incidents or experiences of the different journeys into a single account, since the circumstances were practically the same. A s to the general aim of the travels, the manner of observation, and the method of presentation, I may refer to what has been said already in the Preface of the companion book. Special attention has been given, as before, to the subject of illustration; the material generally accessible has been augmented by photographs taken with my own camera or that of my fellow-traveler, supplemented by pictures secured by friends who live in Persia. In every case, where possible, I have acknowledged the source in the List of Illustrations, and I here express my added thanks and appreciation of the obligation. I wish at the same time to acknowledge my indebtedness to those writers, ancient and modern, who have left records of their own journeys in the territories named, or who have made researches along similar lines. The footnotes on every page will bear sufficient testimony to my sense of obligation in that respect. There are certain particular friends who come in for a special score of recognition which I gladly record now and always. First, I may mention the friend of years and comrade on the longest of my journeys, Mr. Alexander Smith Cochran, of Yonkers, New York, whose name graces the dedication-page of this volume and whom I desire thus to assure of my true and lasting regard. A t the same moment I wish to record my

ix

PREFACE

thanks to President Nicholas Murray Butler and the Trustees of Columbia University for granting me leave of absence to travel in the East for the scholarly aims I had in view. Next, a special meed of praise is due to those representatives in high office at Washington, St. Petersburg, and Teheran, for the facilities they so generously offered to further the interests of my travels into the more remote regions that were visited. And three fellow-workers know best the help they have so freely given. Dr. Abraham Yohannan, my associate in Oriental studies at Columbia, has been ready at all times to give assistance in translating passages from the Arab-Persian geographers which might throw light on the history of the cities on the route. To my pupil and aid, Dr. Louis H. Gray, once Fellow in Indo-Iranian Languages at Columbia, I owe all thanks, not only for reading the entire book in manuscript with an eye to detail and for adding valuable suggestions from his well-known store of scholarship, but also for perusing the proofsheets as they passed through the press. At the same time my constant helper and adviser, Dr. George C. O. Haas, former Fellow in my Department at Columbia and now Instructor at the College of the City of New York, has stood at hand to lend his critical acumen with regard to each page of the proofs and the entire make-up of the book, besides preparing the Index, as in the case of the previous volume. To each of these friends, and to others who come in for an unnamed share of thanks, I renew my gratitude as before. Time has increased the due that I owe and has enriched the appreciation that I feel, as well as my obligations to the Publishers and their corps of assistants, who have made the appearance of the book possible. A. Y. W I L L I A M S COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, October 10, 1911.

JACKSON.

CONTENTS PAGE

PREFACE

VII

LIST

OF ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST

OF W O R K S

XIII

OF R E F E R E N C E

XXVII

L I S T OF A B B R E V I A T I O N S

XXXII

CHAPTER

I. II.

ONCE AGAIN E A S T W A R D

HO!

1

F R O M T H E B L A C K S E A TO T H E C A S P I A N

III.

B A K U , T H E C I T Y OF O I L W E L L S

IV.

THE

O I L - F I E L D S AND T H E F I R E - T E M P L E

Y.

OFF

TO D E R B E N T

VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII.

.

.

.

25 OF B A K U

.

ALONG THE HIGHWAY

ON THE TRACK

.

.

T H R O U G H P L A C E S P A S S E D ON A L E X A N D E R ' S R O U T E

.

.

THROUGH THE MOUNTAIN P A S S OF AHUAN

.

THE GREAT

.

.

THE

F R O M D A M G H A N TO F R A T

AND T A K

.

XIX. XX.

THE

.

176 189

BATTLE-GROUND

OF

THE

WARS . 2 0 2

O N T H E R O A D TO N I S H A P U R NISHAPUR,

139

161

SITES

ANCIENT

115

. 1 5 3

D A M G H A N AND I T S E N V I R O N S

OVER

90 94

B E T W E E N I R A N AND T U R A N

XVIII.

.

PERSIA .

EXCURSIONS

39

81

TO T H E S H A H ' S C A P I T A L

OF A L E X A N D E R

AMONG H I S T O R I C

XVII.

.

58

T E H E R A N AND A N E W E R

XIV.

XVI.

12

O N T H E C A S P I A N TO P E R S I A

XIII.

XV.

.

THE H O M E OF O M A R K H A Y Y A M

T O M B OF OMAR K H A Y Y A M

218 .

.

. 2 2 9 240

H I S T O R I C A L S K E T C H OF JSTISHAPUR

240

M A S H A D , THE H O L Y C I T Y OF P E R S I A

261

xi

xii

CONTENTS

CHAI-TEB

XXI. XXII.

PAGH

K U I N E D T U S , T H E H O M E OR T H E P O E T F I K D A U S X AU

REVOIR

TO P E R S I A

.

.

278 297

GENERAL INDEX

307

I N D E X OF P A S S A G E S

317

M A P OF P E R S I A AND C E N T R A L A S I A

318

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Frontispiece

A T THE T O M B OF O M A R K H A Y Y A M

From a painting by Jay Hambidge PAGB V I E W FROM CONSTANTINOPLE OVERLOOKING G A L A T A AND P E R A

.

1

From a photograph M O S Q U E OF S A I N T S O P H I A , C O N S T A N T I N O P L E

3

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY SEBAH AND JOAILLIER, CONSTANTINOPLE INTERIOR

OF T H E M O S Q U E O F S A I N T S O P H I A

4

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH MOSQUE OF A H M A D AND THE HIPPODROME, CONSTANTINOPLE .

.

4

FROM A PRINT EAST END

OF T H E S A R C O P H A G U S

5

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY SEBAH AND JOAILLIER "WEST E N D

OF T H E S A R C O P H A G U S

5

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY SEBAH AND JOAILLIER S O U T H S I D E OF T H E S A R C O P H A G U S

5

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY SFIBAH AND JOAILLIER THE

SO-CALLED SARCOPHAGUS OF A L E X A N D E R , CONSTANTINOPLE

.

12

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY SEBAH AND JOAILLIER, CONSTANTINOPLE T H R O N E R O C K O F D A R I U S ON T H E B O S P O R U S

14

From a photograph by the author T H E DOLMA BAGHTCHAH

P A L A C E ON T H E B O S P O R U S

.

.

.

14

From a photograph by Sebah and Joaillier, Constantinople THE

BOSPORUS AT R U M A I L I

HISSAR, WHERE D A R I U S CROSSED

.

15

From a print M U S E U M OF SEVASTOPOL

15

From a print P O R T A L OF B A I D A R B E T W E E N S E V A S T O P O L A N D Y A L T A

.

.

.

16

From a print R O A D TO Y A L T A O V E R L O O K I N G T H E B L A C K S E A

From a print xiii

.

.

.

.

16

xiv

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE

T E R R A C E OVERLOOKING T H E B A Y OF Y A L T A

17

FROM A PRINT F E O D O S I A ON T H E B L A C K S E A

19

F R O M A PRINT A

V I L L A AT FEODOSIA

19

From a print B A T U M W I T H T H E C A U C A S U S IN T H E B A C K G R O U N D

.

.

.

.

22

From a photograph P R O M E N A D E AND T H E C A T H E D R A L OF A L E X A N D R C K N E V S K Y , B A T U M

22

From a photograph O X T H E S E A S H O R E NEAR B A T U M

23

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH TAMARA, THE GEORGIAN Q U E E N

23

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH OF A PAINTING O V E R L O O K I N G B A K U TOWARD T H E B A Y

26

FROM A PRINT T H E R A I L W A Y S T A T I O N AT B A K U

26

From a photographic album of Baku A

F O U N T A I N AT B I B I - E I B A T IN F L A M E S , B A K U

.

.

.

.

27

From a photographic album of Baku A WATER

V E N D E R N E A R T H E P A L A C E OF T H E K H A N S , B A K U

.

27

From a print THE

G A R D E N AND O L D W A L L S OF B A K U

30

F R O M A PRINT A L O N G T H E Q U A Y AT B A K U

30

FROM A PRINT B A K U AND I T S E N V I R O N S

33

FROM A PRINT M O S Q U E OF T H E K H A N S , B A K U

34

From a print ARABIC

INSCRIPTION

A,

RECORDING

THE

REBUILDING

P A L A C E OF T H E K H A N S AT B A K U IN 1 3 0 9 A.D.

OF .

.

THE .

34

From a photograph by Georgi, Baku I N S C R I P T I O N B , IN P E R S I A N , UNDATED, B U T MENTIONING ( 1 5 2 4 - 1 5 7 6 A.D.)

From a photograph by Georgi, Baku

TAIIMASP 35

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

XV PAGE

INSCRIPTION

C,

IN

PERSIAN,

UNDATED,

BUT

BELONGING

TO

THE

SIXTEENTH C E N T U R Y A.D

35

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y GEORGI INSCRIPTION

D,

IN P E R S I A N , D A T E D 1 6 1 5 A . D

35

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY GEORGI PERSIAN

(E)

AND

ARABIC

(F)

INSCRIPTIONS,

THE

LATTER

DATED

1 7 8 9 A.D

35

From a photograph by Georgi A R A B I C I N S C R I P T I O N ON T H E M O S Q U E , B E A R I N G T H E D A T E 1 9 4 A . H . = 8 0 9 A . D . , I N T H E R E I G N OF B A H A D U R

KHAN

.

.

.

.

36

From a photograph by Georgi THE

MAIDEN'S

TOWER

AT B A K U

36

F R O M A PRINT THE

BOILER

A N D M A C H I N E R Y OF A P E T R O L E U M W E L L

.

.

.

37

F R O M A PRINT THE

OIL

FIELD

OF B A L A K H A N Y , N E A R

BAKU

37

F R O M A PRINT AN

OIL

SPOUTER

BLOWING

OFF

44.

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPHIC ALBUM OF B A K U THE

OIL

FIELDS

ABLAZE

44

From a print I N S C R I P T I O N ON T H E S H R I N E OF T H E F I R E - T E M P L E , B A K U

.

.

45

.

46

.

50

From a photograph by the author THE

FIRE-TEMPLE

A N D ITS P R E C I N C T

AT SURAKHANY, BAKU

A f t e r a print from a photograph INSCRIPTIONS

XII

AND X I I I

ON T H E W A L L S

OF T H E P R E C I N C T

From a photograph by the author THE

CENTRAL

SANCTUARY,

EASTERN

ELEVATION,

WITH

INSCRIP-

TION

From a photograph by the author THE

PORTAL

AND

FIRE-TEMPLE

TOWERED

EDIFICE

IN

THE

EASTERN

WALL,

OF B A K U

51

From a print WORSHIPERS

IN T H E B A K U

T E M P L E IN 1 8 6 5

From the colored frontispiece in Ussher, A Journey from London to Persepolis

51

xvi

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE

SCENE A T

T H E F I R E - T E M P L E OF B A K U I N 1825

.

.

.

.

54

From the frontispiece in Eichwald, Iteise in den Caucasus, vol. 1. VIEW

OP D E R B E N T I N 1860

58

F R O M A SKETCH BY DORN, ATLAS, PLATE 11. M O D E R N P O R T I O N OF D E R B E N T , ON T H E C A S P I A N

.

.

.

.

59

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY LIPOVO, DERBENT WALLS

OF D E R B E N T

63

AFTER THE SKETCH M A P OF ERCKERT, DER CAUCASUS, P . 216. S K E T C H OF D E R B E N T

B Y O L E A R I U S I N 1637

63

FROM OLEARIUS, REISEBESCHREIBUNGEN, P . 377. V I E W OF D E R B E N T I N 1796

63

F R O M EICHWALD, REISE IN DEN CAUCASUS, PLATE 3. SHORE OF D E R B E N T A B O U T

1850

64

After a sketch by Moynet, in Yule's Marco Polo, 1. 55. REPUTED PORTRAIT

OF A N U S H I R V A N

THE JUST

.

.

.

.

64

From a Persian illuminated manuscript WHERE

PETER

T H E G R E A T LODGED A T D E R B E N T I N 1722

.

.

65

From a photograph by Lipovo, Derbent I N THE P A R K

AT DERBENT

65

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY LIPOVO THE M A I N

THOROUGHFARE

OF D E R B E N T

66

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY LIPOVO RUSSIAN CHURCH AT DERBENT

66

From a photograph THE

BAYAT

GATE

AND THE C I T A D E L

HEIGHT

OF D E R B E N T

.

.

67

.

.

71

From a photograph by Lipovo THE BAYAT

G A T E I N THE SOUTHERN W A L L

OF D E R B E N T

From a photograph by Lipovo A R A B I C I N S C R I P T I O N S OVER T H E B A Y A T

GATE

74

PHOTOGRAPHED FOR THE AUTHOR BY HERMANN MEYER, B A K U A

F L A N G E OF T H E C I T A D E L

WALL

C O N T A I N I N G I N S C R I B E D STONES

74

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR ENTRANCE

TO T H E C I T A D E L

75

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR G A T E I N THE C I T Y ' S N O R T H E R N W A L L

From a photograph

75

LIST

OF ILLUSTRATIONS

xvii PAGE

V I E W OP T H E C I T A D E L F R O M T H E T O W N

78

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH STONE STRUCTURE WITHIN THE CITADEL

78

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH POSSIBLY THE RUINS

OF A F I R E - S H R I N E

79

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR PARAPET

ON T H E N O R T H E R N S I D E O F T H E C I T A D E L

.

.

.

79

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY LIPOVO, DERBENT O N T H E S H O R E OF T H E C A S P I A N S E A

81

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH SCENE NEAR THE SHORE AT ASTARA

82

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH A

P A L A C E OF THE S H A H AT A N Z A L I

82

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH O U R B O A T M E N ON T H E M U R D A B

83

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR B Y T H E R I V E R R O A D TO R A S H T

83

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR TOWING

ALONG

THE

BANKS

OF

THE

LAGOON

FROM

ANZALI

TO

RASHT

85

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B A Z A R OF K U C H I K I S F A H A N

86

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR PEASANTS AT W O R K

IN THE R I C E F I E L D S

86

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR CROSSING THE SAFID R U D

87

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR A

MOUNTAIN L A K E NEAR L A H I J A N

87

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY H . L . RABINO, RASHT B R I N G I N G T H E S I L K COCOONS TO T H E D R Y I N G - S H E D S

.

.

.

88

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY H . L . RABINO, RASHT S O R T I N G T H E COCOONS

88

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY H . L . RABINO, RASHT THE

CHAMBER

OF T H E T A K - I G A B R , OR A R C H O F T H E

SHIPERS

From a photograph by the author

FIRE-WOR89

xviii

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE

MOSQUE A D J O I N I N G T H E G A B R A R C H

89

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR O N THE R O A D BETWEEN R A S H T

AND L A H I J A N

90

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY H . L . RABINO, RASHT THE BAZAR

AT L A H I J A N

90

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR V I E W OP T H E S A F I D R U D , OR W H I T E

RIVER

92

From a photograph by A . S. Cochran AT

A

CHAI-KHANAH,

OR T E A - H O U S E , ON T H E R O A D

.

.

.

93

From a photograph by the author RELAY

S T A T I O N A T U I Z - B A S H I ON T H E R O A D B E T W E E N R A S H T A N D KAZVIN

93

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR AT

THE G A T E W A Y

OF K A Z V I N

94

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH MUZAFFAR

AD-DIN SHAH

(1896-1907)

98

From a photograph THE

YOUNG

SHAH — SULTAN AHMAD

R I Z A ( c r o w n e d J u l y 20, 1 9 0 9 )

98

From a photograph MUHAMMAD ALI SHAH (1907 — deposed July 16,1909) From a photograph REFUGEES AT

.

.

.

THE B R I T I S H L E G A T I O N I N T E H E R A N D E M A N D I N G

C O N S T I T U T I O N FROM T H E S H A H

( J u l y - A u g u s t , 1906)

.

98 A .

99

From a photograph P E R S I A N R E V O L U T I O N I S T S F R O M THE P R O V I N C E S ON T H E I R W A Y TO TEHERAN

99

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH GATEWAY

OF THE S H A H ' S P A L A C E A T

TEHERAN

.

.

.

.

102

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY ANTOIN SEVRUGUIN, TEHERAN THE

T H R O N E R O O M I N THE S H A H ' S P A L A C E

102

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH T H R O N E OF F A T H A L I

S H A H , OR THE C H A I R

THRONE

.

.

.

103

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY ANTOIN SEVRUGUIN S H A H J A H A N HOLDING A N A U D I E N C E

103

AFTER AN INDIAN PICTURE (COURTESY OF THE GROLIER SOCIETY) T H E PEACOCK THRONE

From a photograph by Underwood and Underwood, New York

106

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

xix PAGE

I N THE G A R D E N OF THE P A L A C E

110

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH T H E T A K H T - I M A R M A R , OR M A R B L E T H R O N E

110

FROM BENJAMIN, PERSIA AND THE PERSIANS INCLOSURE WHERE RELIGIOUS P L A Y S ARE PRESENTED A N D

WHERE ILL

THE D E A D S H A H L A Y I N S T A T E FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY ANTOIN SEVRUGUIN N O R T H SIDE OF THE G R E A T SQUARE A T T E H E R A N , LOOKING TOWARD

ILL

THE A L B C R Z M O U N T A I N S

From a photograph by Antoin Sevruguin T H E C A T A F A L Q U E ON W H I C H M U Z A F F A R A D - D I N S H A H L A Y I N S T A T E

112

From a photograph by Antoin Sevruguin T A K I - Z A D A H , O N E OF THE DEPUTIES FOR T A B R I Z

.

.

.

.

112

From a print A

V I E W OF T E H E R A N

113

COURTESY OF THE ' BURR MCINTOSH MAGAZINE.' A

GROUP OF A D V A N C E D L E A D E R S I N THE C O N S T I T U T I O N A L

MOVE-

MENT

113

FROM A PRINT T H E B A H A R I S T A N , OR P A R L I A M E N T B U I L D I N G

114

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH MOUNTAINS AT K A I , ANCIENT RAGHA

116

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY ANTOIN SEVRUGUIN, TEHERAN K H U R A S A N ROAD AFTER LEAVING T E H E R A N

118

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY A . S . COCHRAN A

B L I N D M A N B Y THE W A Y S I D E

118

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY A . S. COCHRAN A

MOVING HAYSTACK

119

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR H A L T I N G FOR A D R I N K

119

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY A . S. COCHRAN M A P TO I L L U S T R A T E

THE R O U T E FOLLOWED

BY

ALEXANDER

THE

GREAT

120

After Holdich's Map of Persia T A P A H , OR MOUND, W I T H T R A C E S OF R U I N S , N E A R A I V A N - I K A I F .

From a photograph by the author

126

LIST

XX

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS PASS

THE

K A L A H M A R I , OR S E R P E N T F O R T , N E A R A I V A N - I K A I F

.

.

126

From a photograph by the author AIVAN-I K A I F

127

From a print THE

RIVER-BED WHEN DRY, AIVAN-I K A I F

127

From a photograph by the author APPROACH

T O T H E S A R - D A R R A H P A S S , OR C A S P I A N G A T E S

.

.

128

,

.

128

From a photograph by the author NEARING

THE ENTRANCE

TO T H E S A R - D A R R A H P A S S

.

From a photograph by the author D A R I U S CODOMANNUS

129

After the mosaic in the Museum at Naples ALEXANDER

THE GREAT

129

From a tetradrachm of Lysimachus G O R G E O F T H E S A R - D A R R A H P A S S , OR C A S P I A N G A T E S

.

.

.

131

From a photograph by the author ROCKY H E I G H T S AT THE E N T R A N C E

TO T H E P A S S

.

.

SAR-DARRAH,

OR

.

.

134

From a photograph by the author PECULIAR

HILL-FORMATION

IN

THE

CASPIAN

GATES

134

From a photograph by the author THE

T O W E R - L I K E S T R U C T U R E IN THE S A R - D A R R A H PASS

.

.

135

From a photograph by the author THE

S I A L A K P A S S , OR D E F I L E , N O R T H O F T H E S A R - D A R R A H P A S S

138

From a photograph by the author KISHLAK

142

From a print A R A D A N AND ITS F O R T

142

From a print W A I T I N G F O R A F R E S H R E L A Y O F H O R S E S AT D A H N A M A K

.

.

143

From a photograph by the author DAH

NAMAK,

OR

'SALT

VILLAGE,'

BACKGROUND

WITH

THE

CITADEL

IN

THE 143

From a photograph by the author T Y P E OF PERSIAN DONKEYS

From a photograph by the author

144

LIST

xxi

OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

STATION AT ABDULABAD

144

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR THE

A P P R O A C H TO L A S G I R D

145

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR T H E M U D FORT AT LASGIRD

145

From a photograph V I E W OF S E M N A N , SHOWING ITS MOSQUE A N D M I N A R E T .

.

.

147

From a photograph A

NEWSPAPER

C L I P P I N G ABOUT THE A U T H O R ' S V I S I T

150

TO S E M N A N

From the Iran-i No, June 6, 1910, no. 225. GATEWAY

TO T H E C I T A D E L A T S E M N A N

150

From a photograph by the author MOSQUE OF F A T H

ALI

SHAH AT SEMNAN

151

From a photograph by the author B A S T I O N S OF T H E R I B A T , OR F O R T I F I E D C A R A V A N S A R A I .

.

.

154

From a photograph by the author F R O N T OF T H E R I B A T

OF A N U S H I R V A N

AT A H U A N

.

.

.

.

154

From a photograph by the author R I B A T OF A N U S H I R V A N A T A H U A N

157

DIAGRAM BY THE AUTHOR A

CAPTIVE GAZELLE

158

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR C A R A V A N S A R A I OF S H A H A B B A S A T

AHUAN

159

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY A . S. COCHRAN INTERIOR

OF THE R I B A T

OF A N U S H I R V A N A T

AHUAN

.

.

.

159

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY A . S. COCHRAN AT

THE S T A T I O N OF G U S H A H

160

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR FORTRESS W A L L S

OF D A U L A T A B A D

160

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR BRIDGE AT D A M G H A N

164

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR FATH ALI

SHAH

(BORN AT DAMGHAN, 1 7 6 9 )

164

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH OF A PAINTING L O O K I N G F R O M THE C I T A D E L

T O W A R D THE S H R I N E OF I M A M Z A D A H

JAFAR

From a photograph by the author

165

xxii

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE

I N T E R I O R OF T H E C I T A D E L AT DAMGHAN

165

From a photograph by the author MINARET

OP THE C H I E F M O S Q U E

OF DAMGHAN

.

.

.

.

172

.

.

.

.

172

From a photograph by the author M I N A R E T OF T H E M O S Q U E OF F O R T Y COLUMNS

From Sarre, Denkmäler persischer Baukunst, plate 83. M A U S O L E U M OF P I R - I A L A M D A R AT DAMGHAN

173

F R O M SARRE, DENKMÄLER PERSISCHER BAUKUNST, PLATE 8 4 . M A U S O L E U M OF T H E F O R T Y D A U G H T E R S AT DAMGHAN

.

.

.

173

F R O M SARRE, DENKMÄLER PERSISCHER BAUKUNST, PLATE 8 4 . T H E A P P R O A C H TO F R A T

176

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR WALLS

OF F R A T NEAR DAMGHAN

176

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR THE

S A N D Y P L A I N B E T W E E N F R A T AND DAMGHAN .

.

.

.

177

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR THE

S M A L L T A K I A H S Q U A R E AT F R A T

177

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR FORTIFIED WALLS

OF T A K

186

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR MODERN G A T E W A Y AT T A K

186

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR A

TURKOMAN CARAVAN

192

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH A

H A L T F O R T E A ON T H E R O A D

192

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH B Y A . S . COCHRAN AMONG T H E R U I N S OF A N C I E N T B U S T A M

193

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR P A R T OF THE P R E C I N C T OF B A Y A Z I D ' S S H R I N E AT B U S T A M

.

.

193

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR B U S T A M AND I T S S A C R E D B U I L D I N G S

194

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH T H E S H A K I N G M I N A R E T AND THE M A U S O L E U M S AT B U S T A M .

.

198

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH THE

C H I E F P R I E S T AT BAYAZID'S SHRINE

From a photograph by the author

198

LIST

OF

xxiii

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE S K E T C H M A P OF T H E R O U T E FROM M I A N D A S H T TO N I S H A P U R

.

Drawn by George C. O. Haas, oil the basis of Holdich's Map Persia I N T E R I O R OF T H E C A R A V A N S A R A I AT M A Z I N A N

.

.

.

199

of

.

202

From a photograph by the author H A L T I N G AT M I A N D A S H T

202

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y A . S . COCHRAN W A T C H T O W E R AT A L - H A K

203

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH B Y A . S . COCHRAN A

C H A N G E OF R E L A Y S

203

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR A B B A S A B A D FROM A D I S T A N C E

206

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR P U L - I A B R A S H A M — ' B R I D G E OF S I L K '

206

From a photograph by the author F O R T R E S S N E A R B A H M A N A B A D ON T H E W A Y TO M A Z I N A N

.

.

207

T H E B R O K E N R o w OF H I L L S IN THE M I D D L E OF T H E G R E A T P L A I N

207

From a photograph by A. S. Cochran From a photograph by the author WATER-TOWER

WITH

GABR,

OR

ZOKOASTRIAN,

RUINS

IN

THE

BACKGROUND

210

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR OUR

G U I D E TO M O U N T M I H R

214

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR T H E C R E S T OF M O U N T M I H R

214

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH B Y A . S . COCHRAN APPROACH TO K U H - I M I H R FROM T H E S O U T H

215

From a photograph by the author R U I N E D S T R U C T U R E ON T H E T O P OF M O U N T M I H R

.

.

.

.

215

.

.

.

.

216

From a photograph by the author V I E W N O R T H W A R D FROM T H E H E I G H T OF M I H R

From a photograph by the author R E T U R N I N G TO T H E V I L L A G E OF M I H R

216

From a photograph by the author A

G A T E IN T H E W 7 A L L S OF S A B Z A V A R

After a print

222

xxiv

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS PAG«

THE

M I N A R E T OF K H U S R U G I R D

218

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR RUSTAM

SLAYING

THE W H I T E

DEMON, D I V - I SAFID

.

.

.

222

F R O M A PERSIAN PAINTING THE

ROAD APPROACHING NISHAPUR

232

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY A . S . COCHRAN A

CARAVANSARAI NEAR NISHAPUR

232

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR A

W E L L OUTSIDE THE CITY

233

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR THE

W A L L S OF N I S H A P U R

233

SKETCHED BY F . E . BAUER AFTER A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR I N A P O T T E R ' S SHOP AT N I S H A P U R

234

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR A

POTTER

THUMPING HIS W E T

CLAY

234

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR A

DERVISH IN THE BAZAR

236

From a photograph by the author THE

SHRINE

OF M A H R U K , W H I C H O M A R ' S T O M B A D J O I N S

.

.

236

From a photograph by Capt. J . W. Watson, published in Travel and Exploration, London, Sept., 1909 DISTANT VIEW

OF T H E M O S Q U E

OF

MAHRUK

ADJOINING

OMAR'S

GRAVE FROM

240

A PHOTOGRAPH BY M R . TANNER, OF THE PERSIAN

TELEGRAPH

SERVICE P O R T A L AT THE

ENTRANCE

OF

THE

GARDEN WHERE

OMAR

LIES

BURIED

242

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR THE

T O M B OF O M A R

KHAYYAM

242

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR AFRASIAB, THE LEGENDARY RULER

OF T U R A N

.

.

.

.

248

F R O M A PERSIAN ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT THE

SASANIAN MONARCH

SHAPUR

I

248

F R O M AN ANTIQUE G E M THE

D Y E R S ' G A T E AT N I S H A P U R

From Lacoste, Around Afghanistan, p. 18 (courtesy of D.Appleton & Co. and Isaac Pitman & Son.«, Ltd.)

249

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

XXY PAGE

A

P E R S I A N PREPARING R A W COTTON

249

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH MAJOR

S Y K E S ' S D I A G R A M OF T H E R U I N S OR O L D E R N I S H A P U R

.

252

FROM THE GEOGRAPHICAL JOURNAL, 3 7 . 1 5 7 . THE

C H I E F MOSQUE OF M O D E R N N I S H A P U R

252

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR AGHA MUHAMMAD

SHAH ( 1 7 8 6 - 1 7 9 7 A.D.)

256

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH OF A PORTRAIT T Y P I C A L D R E S S OF A P E R S I A N W O M A N

256

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH SHAH ABBAS THE GREAT

( 1 5 8 7 - 1 6 2 9 A.D.)

261

From a print THE

S H R I N E AT K A D A M G A H , WITH ITS T E R R A C E D

GARDEN

.

.

261

From a photograph by Capt. J. W. Watson, published in Travel and Exploration, London, Sept., 1909. MUHAMMAD

THE P R O P H E T

266

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH OF A PICTURE IN THE SACRED PRECINCT AT MASHAD IDEALIZED NATIVE PORTRAIT

OF T H E P R O P H E T I N H I S Y O U T H

.

266

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH THE

G R E A T S H R I N E OF I M A M R I Z A

267

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH ENTRANCE

TO T H E S H R I N E O F I M A M R I Z A

267

From a photograph P O R T A L OF Q U E E N G A U H A R

SHAD'S BEAUTIFUL MOSQUE

.

.

268

SANCTUARY OF IMAM R I Z A ' S S H R I N E

.

268

From a photograph C O U R T Y A R D AND ' B A S T '

From a photograph P O R T A L LEADING FROM THE G R E A T THE LOWER

COURT

OF

THE

SHRINE

INTO

KHIABAN

269

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH THE

G R E A T G R A V E Y A R D AROUND THE SHRINE

.

.

.

.

269

FROM A PHOTOGRAPH THE

TOMB-CHAMBER

OF S A I N T R I Z A

272

FROM A PERSIAN PICTURE BIRD'S-EYE V I E W OF M A S H A D

From a photograph

276

xxvi

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE

A

GATHERING

I N THE

G A R D E N OF T H E A R K , OR C I T A D E L

.

.

276

F r o m a photograph A

G R O U P OF P A R L I A M E N T A R I A N S

AT

MASHAD

277

F r o m a photograph THE

CHIEF M U L L A H

AND PRIESTLY

OFFICIALS

OF T H E

SHRINE

.

277

F r o m a photograph THE

B R I D G E OVER T H E ' K A S H A F

RIVER

AT

TUS

OF

THE

.

.

.

.

284

F r o m a photograph b y the author RUINED

WALLS

OF

TUS

AT

THE

SITE

FORMER

RUDBAR

GATE

284

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR THE

CRUMBLING MAUSOLEUM AT

TUS

.

.

.

.

.

.

290

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR THE

CITADEL

OF T U S F R O M

A DISTANCE

292

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH BY A . S . COCHRAN INNER

FORTRESS

OF T H E

CITADEL

OF T U S

292

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y A . S. COCHRAN O U R G U I D E P O I N T I N G OUT T H E SUPPOSED L O C A T I O N OF

FIRDAUSI'S

GRAVE

293

F R O M A PHOTOGRAPH B Y THE AUTHOR AT

THE

RIZAN

GATE

OF R U I N E D

TUS

293

F r o m a photograph b y the author SKETCH-MAP

OF T H E R U I N S OF T U S , B Y M A J O R

F r o m Journal STARTING

of the Royal

ON T H E L A S T

Asiatic

Society,

P . M . SYKES .

.

294

.

296

1910, p . 1113.

S T A G E OF T H E J O U R N E Y

.•

.

F r o m a photograph b y the author NADIR

SHAH (1736-1747 A.D.)

296

F r o m a p h o t o g r a p h of a p a i n t i n g CARAVAN

AT

HALT

298

F r o m a p h o t o g r a p h b y A . S. C o c h r a n TURKOMANS

AT

THE R A I L W A Y

From a photograph

S T A T I O N OF A S K I I A B A D

.

.

.

298

LIST OF WORKS OF REFERENCE This list includes only the works most often referred to. Detailed information concerning other books and papers is given in the footnotes.

Abu '1-Fida. Geographie, ed. Reinaud et de Slane. Paris, 1840. Barbaro, Josafa. Travels to Tana and Persia by Josafa Barbaro and Ambrogio Contarmi, tr. William Thomas. London, 1873. (Hakluyt Society publications, vol. 49.) Barbier de Meynard, C. See Masudi and Yakut. Bartholomae, Christian. Altiranisches Wörterbuch. Strassburg, 1905. [Air. Wb.] Bassett, James. Persia, the Land of the Imams. New York, 1886. Browne, Edward G. A Literary History of Persia. 2 vols. London and New York, 1902, 1906. Browne, Edward G. The Persian Revolution of 1905-1909. Cambridge, 1910. Brugsch, Heinrich. Im Lande der Sonne : Wanderungen in Persien. Second edition. Berlin, 1886. Clavijo, Ruy Gonzalez de. Narrative of the Embassy to the Court of Timour at Samarcand A.D. 1403-6, tr. C. R. Markham. London, 1859. (Hakluyt Society publications, vol. 26.) Clerk, C. Notes in Persia, Khorassan, and Afghanistan (with map). In Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 31. 37-64, London, 1861. Conolly, Arthur. Journey to the North of India through Russia, Persia, and Affghaunistaun. 2 vols. London, 1834. Contarini, Ambrogio. See Barbaro. Curzon, George N. Persia and the Persian Question. 2 vols. London, 1892. Daulatshah. The Tadhkiratu 'sh-Sh n'ara (Memoirs of the Poets) of Dawlatshäh, edited by E. G. Browne. London and Leyden, 1901. De Goeje, M. J. Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum. 8 vols. Leyden, 1870-1894. Dorn, B. Atlas zu Bemerkungen einer Reise in dem Kaukasus und den südlichen Küstenländern des Kaspischen Meeres in den Jahren 18601861. St. Petersburg, 1905. (Re-issue ; originally published in 1871.) Droysen, J. G. Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen. Hamburg, [1834]. Dumas (pere), Alexandre. Impressions de voyage : Le Caucase. Nouvelle édition. Paris, 1880. xx vii

xxviii

LIST

OF WORKS

OF

REFERENCE

Eastwick, E. B. Journal of a Diplomate's Three Years' Residence in Persia. 2 vols. London, 1864. Eichwald, Eduard. Reise auf dem Caspischen Meere und in den Caucasus. Erster Band. Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1834. Erckert, R. von.

Der Kaukasus und seine Völker.

Leipzig, 1888.

Ethg, Hermann. Neupersische Litteratur. In Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, 2. 212-368, Strassburg, 1896-1904. Ferrier, J. P. Caravan Journeys and Wanderings in Persia, Afghanistan, Turkistan, and Beloochistan, tr. W. Jesse, ed. II. D. Seymour. London, 1856. Firdausi. Firdusii Liber Regum qui inscribitur Shah Name, ed. J . A. Vullers (et S. Landauer). 3 vols. Leyden, 1877-1884. Firdausi. Le Livre des rois, traduit et commente' par Jules Mohl. 7 vols. Paris, 1876-1878. Firdausi. The Shähnäma of Firdausi, done into English by A. G. and E. Warner. Vols. 1-5. London, 1905-1910. Forster, George. Voyage du Bengale ä Petersbourg ä travers la Perse, traduit de l'anglais par L. Langles. 2 vols. Paris, 1802. Fraser, James B. Narrative of a Journey into Khorasän, in the Years 1821 and 1822.

London, 1825.

Fraser, James B. A Winter's Journey ( T a t a r ) from Constantinople to Tehran. 2 vols. London, 1838. Geiger, Wilhelm. Ostiränische Kultur im Altertum. Erlangen, 1882. (English translation: Civilization of the Eastern Iranians in Ancient Times, tr. Däräb Dastur Peshotan Sanjänä, 2 vols., London, 1885, 1886.) Geiger, Wilhelm, und Ernst Kuhn. Grundriss der iranischen Philologie. 2 vols. Strassburg, 1895-1904. Goldsmid, F. J. Eastern Persia : Journeys of the Persian Boundary Commission, 1870-71-72. 2 vols. London, 1872. Grosvenor, E. A. Constantinople. Revised edition, 2 vols. Boston, 1900. Hanway, Jonas. An Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea, with a Journal of Travels and the Revolutions of Persia. First edition, in 4 vols., London, 1753. Third edition, revised and corrected, in 2 vols., London, 1762. Henry, J. D. Baku, an Eventful History. London, [1906]. Hoffmann, Georg. Auszüge aus syrischen Akten persischer Märtyrer. Leipzig, 1880. (Abhandlungen f ü r die Kunde des Morgenlandes, vol. 7, no. 3.) Holdich, Col. G. H. Map of Persia. Published by Stanford, London, 1897. Horn, Paul. Geschichte Irans in islamitischer Zeit. In Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, 2. 551-604, Strassburg, 1896-1904.

LIST

OF WORKS

OF

REFERENCE

xxix

Houtum-Schindler, A. Beschreibung einiger wenig bekannten Routen in Chorassän. In Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft f ü r Erdkunde, 12. 215-229, Berlin, 1877. Huntington, Ellsworth.

The Pulse of Asia.

Boston and New York, 1907.

Xbn Haukal. The Oriental Geography of E b n Haukal, tr. Sir William Ouseley. London, 1800. Idrisi.

Géographie d'Edrisi, tr. A. Jaubert.

2 vols.

Paris, 1840.

Isfandiar. An Abridged Translation of the History of Tabaristân, compiled about A.H. 613 (A.D. 1216) by Muhammad b. al-Hasan b. Isfandiyâr, by E. G. Browne. London and Leyden, 1905. (Gibb Memorial Series, vol. 2.) Jackson, A. V. Williams. Persia Past and Present : a Book of Travel and Research. New York, 1906. Jackson, A. V. Williams. Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran. New York, 1899. Justi, Ferdinand. Beiträge zur alten Geographie Persiens. Parts 1 and 2. (Marburg University programs, 1869, 1870.) Justi, Ferdinand. Geschichte Irans von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Ausgang der Sasaniden. In Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, 2. 395-550, Strassburg, 1896-1904. Justi, Ferdinand.

Iranisches Namenbuch.

Marburg, 1895.

Kazem-Beg, Mirza A. Derbend Kam eh, or the History of Derbend, translated from a select Turkish version and published with the Texts and with Notes. St. Petersburg, 1851. (Printed for the Imperial Academy of Sciences.) Kennedy, Robert J. and Bertha J. A Journey in Khorassan and Central Asia, March and April, 1890. For private circulation only. London (Hatchards, publisher), 1891. Khanikoff, N. Mémoire sur la partie méridionale de l'Asie Centrale. Paris (1861), 1862. Lacoste, Major de Bouillane de. Around Afghanistan, tr. from the French by J . G. Anderson. New York, 1909. Le Strange, Guy. The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Central Asia. Cambridge, 1905. Le Strange, Guy. See also Mustaufi. Malcolm, Sir John.

History of Persia.

2 vols.

London, 1829.

Marquait, J. Eränsahr nach der Geographie des Ps. Moses Xorenac'i. Berlin, 1901. (Abhandlungen der kgl. Gesellschaft der Wissenchaften zu Göttingen, Phil.-Hist. Klasse, new series, vol. 3, no. 2.) Marquart, J. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte von Eran. lologus, Supplementband 10, Leipzig, 1905.

P a r t 2.

In Phi-

XXX

LIST

OF

WORKS

OF

REFERENCE

Masudi. MaQoudi, Les Prairies d'or, ed. et tr. C. Barbier de Meynard. 9 vols. Paris, 1861-1877. Melgunoff, G. Das südliche Ufer des kaspischen Meeres, oder die Nordprovinzen Persiens, tr. J. T. Zenker. Leipzig, 1868. Mordtmann, A. D. Hekatompylos, ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Geographie Persiens. In Sitzungsberichte der kgl. Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1. 497-536, München, 1869. Morier, J. A Second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor. 2 vols. London, 1818. Mustaufi. Description of Persia and Mesopotamia in the year 1340 A.D., from the Nuzhat-al-Kulüb of Hamd-Allah Mustawfi, tr. G. Le Strange. London, 1903. (Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.) Mustaufi. Tarikh-i Guzldah, tr. J. Gantin. Paris, 1903. Nasir ad-Din Shah. Siyähati Shäh [Diary of a Journey to Mashad and Afghanistan]. Lithographed. Teheran, 1286 A.H. = 1869 A.D. Nöldeke, Theodor. Persische Studien. Part 2. In Sitzungsberichte der kais. Akademie zu Wien, Phil.-Hist. Classe, 126, Abh. 12, Vienna, 1892. Nöldeke, Theodor. See also Tabari. O'Donovan, E. The Merv Oasis : Travels and Adventures East of the Caspian during the years 1879-80-81. 2 vols. New York, 1883. Olearius, Adam. Reise-Beschreibungen . . . nach Musskau und Persien. Hamburg, 1696. (English translation : The Voyages and Travels of the Ambassadors from the Duke of Holstein to Muscovy and Persia, tr. John Davies, London, 1662.) Omar Khayyam. For a detailed statement of editions referred to see page 229, note 2. Orsolle, E. Le Caucase et la Perse. Paris, 1885. Ouseley, Sir William. Travels in Various Countries of the East, more particularly Persia. 3 vols. London, 1819-1823. Polo, Marco. The Book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, tr. and ed. Sir Henry Yule. 3d ed., revised by Henri Cordier. 2 vols. London, 1903. Sarre, Friedrich. Denkmäler persischer Baukunst. (Lief. 1-6, plates, 1901; Textband, 1910.)

Berlin, 1901-1910.

Shah Namah. See Firdausi. Shoemaker, M. M. The Heart of the Orient: Saunterings through Georgia, Armenia, Persia. New York, 1904. Skrine, F. H., and E. D. Ross. The Heart of Asia: A History of Russian Turkestan and the Central Asian Khanates from the Earliest Times. London, 1899.

LIST Spiegel, Friedrich. 1878.

OF WORKS

OF

REFERENCE

Érânische Alterthumskunde.

3 vols.

xxxi Leipzig, 1871-

Sprenger, A. Post- und Reiserouten des Orients. Erstes Heft. Leipzig, 1864. (Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, vol. 3, no. 3.) Sykes, Ella C. Persia and its People. London and New York, 1910. Sykes, Percy M. The Glory of the Shia World (assisted by Khan Bahadur Ahmad Din K h a n ) . London and New York, 1910. Sykes, Percy M. A Pilgrimage to the Tomb of Omar Khayyam. In the magazine Travel and Exploration, 2. 129-138, London, Sept. 1909. Sykes, Percy M. A Sixth Journey in Persia. In The Geographical Journal, 37.1-19, 149-165, London, 1911. Tabari. Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden, aus der arabischen Chronik des Tabari, übersetzt von Theodor Nöldeke. Leyden, 1879. Tabari. Chronique de Tabari sur la version persane de Bel'ami, tr. H. • Zotenberg. 4 vols. Paris, 1867-1874. Tavernier, Jean Baptiste. Travels in India, translated from the original French edition of 1676, by V. Ball. London, 1889. Tha'alibi. Histoire des rois des Perses : texte arabe publié et traduit par H. Zotenberg. Paris, 1900. Tomaschek, Wilhelm. Zur historischen Topographie von Persien. In Sitzungsberichte der kais. Akademie zu Wien, Phil.-Hist. Classe, 102. 145-231 ; 108. 561-652 (with map), Vienna, 1883, 1885. Truilhier, Capt. Memoire descriptif de la route à Meched, reconnue en 1807. In Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, 2. série, 9. 110-145 ; 249-282 ; 313-329 ; 10. 5-18, Paris, 1838. Ussher, J. A Journey from London to Persepolis. London, 1865. Wishard, J. G. Twenty Years in Persia. New York, 1904. Yakut. Geographisches Wörterbuch, ed. F. Wüstenfeld. Leipzig, 1866. Yakut. Dictionnaire géographique, historique, et littéraire de la Perse, extrait du Môdjem el-Bouldan de Yaqout, par C. Barbier de Meynard. Paris, 1861. Yate, C. E. Khurasan and Sistan. London, 1900. Zolling, Theodor. Alexanders Feldzug in Centrai-Asien. Second edition. Leipzig, 1875. Zotenberg, H.

See Tabari and Tha'alibi.

ABBREVIATIONS Abh. A.H.

Bd.

=

Abhandlung.

=

(Anno Hegirae),

=

Bundahishn.

BR.

=

c.

=

(circa),

ch.

=

chapter.

d.

M u h a m m a d a n era.

Batson and Ross (see p. 229, n. 2). about.

=

died.

Dät.

=

Datistan-i D i n i k .

Dk.

=

Dinkart.

ed.

=

edition, edited by.

FG.

=

F i t z G e r a l d (see p. 229, n. 2).

FHG.

=

F r a g m e n t a Historicorum Graecorum.

Ges.

=

Gesellschaft.

G r u n d r . i r a n . Philol.

=

Grundriss der iranischen Philologie.

H-A.

=

Heron-Allen (see p. 229, n. 2).

ibid.

=

(ibidem), in t h e same work.

id.

=

(idem),

JAOS.

=

J o u r n a l of t h e A m e r i c a n Oriental Society.

JRAS.

t h e same author.

=

J o u r n a l of t h e Royal Asiatic Society.

JRGS.

=

J o u r n a l of t h e Royal Geographical Society.

Lief.

=

Lieferung.

NR.

=

inscriptions of D a r i u s a t Naksh-i R u s t a m .

Ny.

=

Nyayish.

OP.

=

Old Persian.

op. cit.

=

(opus citatum),

=

P a y n e (see p. 229, n. 2 ) .

pi.

=

plate.

Sb.

=

Sitzungsberichte.

SBE.

=

Sacred Books of t h e East.

Sir.

=

Sirozah.

s.v.

=

(sub verbo), u n d e r t h e word.

P.

Th.

t h e work previously cited.

= T h o m p s o n (see p. 229, n. 2).

xxxii

ABBREVIATIONS

tr. Yd. Wh. WZKM. Xerx. Alv. Ys. Yt. ZDMG. Zsp. Zt.

= = = = = = = = = =

XXXÜi

translation, translated by. Vendidad. Whinfield (see p. 229, n. 2). Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. inscription of Xerxes at Alvand. Yasna. Yasht. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. Zatsparam. Zeitschrift.

FROM CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE HOME OF OMAR KHAYYAM CHAPTER

I

ONCE AGAIN EASTWARD H O ! • If you've 'eard the Bast a-callin', why, you won't 'eed nothin' else.' — KIPLING,

Mandalaij,

30.

A C H A B I T Y B A L L and a journey to the East seem to have little connection, yet so they had in the case of the third of my four visits to the Land of the Dawn. A few words will suffice ',o explain. I t was at the Charity Ball in Yonkers, my home in the Hudson, that I chanced to be talking with my friend Alexander Smith Cochran, about the success which the evening had proved despite the furious storm of snow that raged outside with all the violence of early January. Somehow—perhaps recalling snows I had encountered in Iran — our conversation veered to travel in the Orient, and a moment later we had resolved to take a trip together to Persia and Central Asia, starting in the spring, when travel would be easier in the Province of the Sun. The weeks went swiftly by, and we found ourselves betimes on an ocean liner, speeding for Europe with messages of bon voyage in our mail — among them Hamlet's wish of ' well be with you, g e n t l e m e n ! ' There was a spirit of eagerness for the prospective journey which will best be appreciated by those who have traveled in Eastern lands. Hour after hour on board the ship we talked of Persia, Transcaspia, and Turkistan, of India, of Oriental problems, and of Alexander the B

1

2

ONCE

AGAIN

EASTWARD

HO!

Great, who first threw open the Gates of the Morning to Greece and the Western world. In chats like these, with books and maps at hand, we developed our plans, and gradually laid out the route we wished to follow. With the Eastern lodestar beckoning, there was little time for tarrying in Paris longer than a single day to complete the ' kit ' for our journey and to greet some special friends who were as much interested in the Orient as we. Constantinople was the first goal we had in view, for I was particularly anxious this time to cross the Black Sea on my way to the Caspian, instead of traversing Russia, as I had done on my previous journey to Iran. The close of our busy day of preparations in the French capital found us on board the Oriental Express, booked for the sixty hours by rail to the great metropolis of the Ottoman Empire ; and the third morning following saw us in Constantinople, amid balmy air and a flood of sunshine that lent added sheen to the Golden Horn as it swept past ancient Stambul. Mosques, minarets, and madrasahs, with touches of color made more brilliant by the shimmer of the blue sea and dazzling Oriental sun ; historic monuments, noble relics of the city's whilom glory as capital of the Byzantine Empire ; thronged narrow streets where hurrying feet can scarce find space to avoid the packs of mangy curs that do duty as townscavengers 1 ; busy bazars, shops, and booths with cross-legged Turks ; bridges and boats ; smiling gardens cheek by jowl with dilapidated cemeteries ; towers and cupolas ; terraced heights, laid out with broad thoroughfares and graced by up-to-date European buildings that bear witness to the modern progress of a new régime, ' Young Turkey' — these are the hopelessly jumbled impressions that crowd upon the senses as one first sees Constantinople. Though in Europe, Constantinople belongs in part to Asia, and travelers who are familiar with types of border cities 1

Since banished, as I noticed on my second visit in 1911.

FROM

NEW

YORK

TO

CONSTANTINOPLE

3

between E a s t and West know well the pousse cafS effect of such Asiatic-European towns, which take on the composite complexion of the elements that make up the mixture, though the blend is never quite complete. T h e T u r k i s h capital aptly illustrates the truth of this statement, even if the European tinge tends more and more to predominate over the Oriental tone. Y e t there is something irresistibly attractive about such cities — something easy-going, something truly cosmopolitan. In Constantinople the tourist in white flannels and soft cap, or in frock coat and top hat, passes quite as unnoticed among the motley-colored crowd as does the native with fez, b a g g y trousers, heel-less slippers, and slipshod gait. No more surprise is shown at, and no more attention is paid to, the latest accepted import of Western civilization than is evinced at the oldest remnant of Eastern custom that has lingered on, caught up in the eddying current of modern progress. In respect to its location Constantinople occupies one of the most favored and picturesque situations in the world. T h e Bosporus, the Golden Horn, and the Sea of Marmora unite in giving to it all the maritime advantages that easy access by water can b e s t o w ; and nature has lavishly lent of her beauty to adorn its site at every point. T h e general topography and the arrangement of the town are easy to grasp. Stambul, the city proper, occupies the jutting peninsula between the Sea of Marmora and the Golden Horn, or practically the position of ancient Byzantium. Galata, lying northward and eastward beyond the golden inlet, and rising toward the hillside, forms a suburban q u a r t e r ; whilst Pera, crowning the height above it, stands out as the more European quarter of the town. In the distance to the east, across the Bosporus, lies the old city of Scutari in Asia Minor. This is the Asiatic section of Constantinople, and its site corresponds to the ancient Chrysopolis, or 'Golden City,' although Scutari now is a center of modern education, fostered by the American College for Girls, just as Robert College, on the European side of the Bosporus,

4

ONCE

AGAIN

EASTWARD

HOÌ

north of Constantinople, is a seat of Western learning for the training of young men. In Constantinople one never loses sight of the historic past, for the city has been one of importance from ancient times. 1 Founded in the sixth century B.C.,by Dorian Greeks, it became the flourishing metropolis of Byzantium, with a widely developed commerce throughout the Hellenic world. Centuries later, in 330 A.D., Constantine the Great chose Byzantium as the place for his new capital, dedicating it 'to the service of Christ' and giving it the appellation New Rome, though it has always since been known by the great emperor's name. Its power outlived the fall of Home, and it still retained its place as the metropolis of the Byzantine, or Eastern, Empire until the Turks captured it, May 29, 1453. Since that memorable day it has been the Sublime Porte and the capital of the Turkish Empire. In that same eventful year of 1453 destiny made it the future mother of the Renaissance, for the revival of learning in Europe begins with the flight of the Greek scholars from Constantinople, carrying with them the treasures of Hellenic literature to scatter broadcast for the enlightenment of the Western world. Of most recent memory was the almost bloodless revolution of 1908, which gave the country a constitution and firm government, the old order giving place to the new, and the ' Young T u r k ' coming into being as a factor in the world's progress. The public buildings of Constantinople are numerous and notable. Foremost among them is the famous Mosque of Saint Sophia. • Built originally by Constantine as a Christian church, but later twice destroyed, it was constructed anew by Justinian in the sixth century, and remained dedicated to the service of Christ until the fifteenth century, when the city fell before the 1 1 must emphasize the fact that I have included this brief sketch of Constantinople merely because our visit to the city was an incident of the journey. Among the many books

accessible on the subject I would refer especially to the valuable work by Grosvenor, Constantinople, 2 vols., Boston, 1900.

MOSQUE

OP

AHMAD

AND T H E

HIPPODROME,

CONSTANTINOPLE

SOUTH

SIDE

OF T H E

SARCOPHAGUS

(Alexander in Battle with the Persians)

CONSTANTINOPLE

ÄND

ITS

MONUMENTS

5

Turks, and the Church of Saint Sophia became a mosque. The architectural beauties of this masterpiece of the builder's art are too well known to need description here, for Hagia, or Saint, Sophia holds a special place among the ecclesiastical edifices of the world. The Islamic note sounded by the mention of this now Muhammadan place of worship serves to recall the fact that the muazzin's cry is raised from the minarets of fully four hundred mosques in the city, so that the boast of having a mosque for each day in the year is no idle vaunt in Constantinople, the present center of the Moslem world. Among these Musulman sanctuaries may be named the Mosque of Sulaiman the Magnificent, dating from the sixteenth century and handsomely decorated in its interior with porphyry, marble, and mosaics, as well as enriched with rose-windows of stained glass, taken from the Persians. One is sure to have a glimpse also of the Mosque of Sultan Ahmad, built early in the seventeenth century, an edifice that rivals, with its six minarets, the holy Ka'ba at Mecca.1 Of high antiquity, and one of the sights of the city, is the ancient race-course, the Hippodrome, which on the east lies close to the Mosque of Ahmad, not far from Saint Sophia. The name At-maidan, 'horse-course,' which it bears in Turkish today, is merely a rendering of the Greek Hippo-dromos, thus keeping up at least the content of the old tradition, although the present extent of the course is much less than that occupied by the Hippodrome in days of old, and its original surface is now covered twelve feet deep with earth and sand.2 This scene of 1

See Grosvenor, Constantinople, 2. 666-672, 676-684. 2 An excellent description of the Hippodrome is given by Grosvenor, The Hippodrome of Constantinople and its Existing Monuments, London, 1889, which is reproduced in the same author's Constantinople, 1. 319-353.

For an account of the Hippodrome in the time of Sulaiman the Magnificent and a woodcut of it by Peter Koeck, about 1530, see Wiegand, Der Hippodrom von Konstantinopel zur Zeit Suleimans d. Gr., in Jahrbuch des kaiserlich deutschen archaeologischen Instituts, 23.1-11, Berlin, 1909.

6

ONCE

AGAIN

EASTWARD

HO I

spirited contests in times gone by owed its beginnings to the Roman emperor, Septimius Severus, about 208 A.D., and its completion to Constantine, who lavished treasures upon it. Among these precious gifts was the Column of Brazen Serpents, brought from Delphi. This serpentine shaft was once a memorial of the victory of Grecian arms over the Persians at Plataea, and it is still to be seen in the midst of the Hippodrome, being one of the three old monuments that have been preserved there. The other two relics are the Egyptian Obelisk from Thebes, and the so-called Built Column, which was restored by Constantine the Seventh, who reigned from 911 to 959. Together these three help to mark the line of the spina, or central barrier, past which the chariots rushed at breakneck speed to graze the goal post at the end, only to dash back again seven times around the wild course, either to triumph or defeat. Today the easy-riding victoria or phaeton drives comfortably around the historic arena, not for the prize and laurel wreath, but for the reward of so and so many piasters extra as bakshish for the tour. A score and more of interesting places throughout the city are ready to engage the attention and amply to repay the time spent in a visit; but our interest on this occasion was of a more special character. I t was centered in the Imperial Ottoman Museum and the rich treasures of antiquity — rare sculptures, tablets, and inscriptions — that are gathered there. The collection of sepulchral monuments in the museum is incomparably fine; but the gem of the entire exhibit is the so-called Sarcophagus of Alexander the Great, which was discovered at the site of ancient Sidon in 1887. Long had I wished to feast my eyes upon the beauties of this wonderful monument, particularly as I had traveled much on Alexander's track in Persia and India. To have a glimpse of the precious relic would surely lend added inspiration for our journey through Asia. This masterpiece of Attic art, for it is Attic in origin, though found in Phoenicia, dates from the latter part of the fourth century B.C., and is wrought of beautiful Pentelic marble.

THE SO-CALLED

SARCOPHAGUS

OF ALEXANDER

7

The skill of the architect, sculptor, and painter have all been united in its execution. In form it is the model of a Greek temple, considerably elongated in shape, being about ten and a half feet in length, five and a half in width, and seven feet in height. 1 Each element and part, whether basement, façade, architrave, frieze, or cornice, or the low-gabled pediment of the wonderfully ornate roof — to speak still in architectural terms — is a paragon of design and a triumph of artistic execution. The groups of figures chiseled in high relief on the sides, ends, and tympanums of the cenotaph (for it is now empty of the remains once gloriously interred within) are models of carving. 2 Then, to give final perfection, the painter's brush has added a delicate touch of color to the sculptures, thus imparting warmth to the chill marble, even though the tones of the pigments are now fading from exposure to the light. On the side of the sarcophagus facing the south, as it now stands in the hall of the museum, is portrayed a spirited scene of battle, Issus or Arbela, in which the Greeks are represented as triumphing over the Persians. On the reverse side, or northern face, is an animated scene of the chase. In this latter the Greeks and Persians, now friends, join in a lion-hunt and in the pursuit of a stag — the Greeks hastening to the aid of a brother Persian hard pressed by a lion, which is graphically pictured as tearing the chest of the Iranian's horse. In both the battle-scene and the hunting-scene the mounted figure on 1 For a full account of the sarcophagus and its discovery, and of the theories regarding its identification, see Hamdy Bey and Th. Reinach, Une Nécropole royale à Sidon, Paris, 1892; and consult the excellent summary in the guidebook of the Ottoman Museum by André Joubin, Monuments funéraires, 2 ed., Constantinople, 1898. The measurements in meters, as given by Hamdy Bey and Reinach (p. 64) and by Joubin (p. 60), are: 3 m.

18 cm. x 1 m. 67 cm. x 2 m. 12 cm. Essentially the same figures (though differing in the height) are given in feet and inches by Coufopoulos, A Guide to Constantinople, p. 106, 3 ed., London, 1906, as follows: 10 ft. 8 in. x 6 ft. 7 in. x 8 ft. 2 in. 2 Even such a detail as the difference between the frontlock of the Persian horses and of the Greek horses is noticeable.

8

ONCE

AGAIN

EASTWARD

HO !

the left is easily recognizable as Alexander, who dominates the entire scene by his heroic presence. The two ends, east and west, which form the head and foot of the sarcophagus, as well as the gabled tympanums that crown these ends, are sculptured with similar scenes, Persian and Greek, and, like the others, each is a chef d'œuvre in its way. 1 It is impossible here to attempt any description of the scenes in detail or of the sarcophagus as a whole. For such particulars I must refer to the writings of Hamdy Bey, to whose archaeological zeal we owe the recovery of the masterpiece, and to the discussions by Théodore Reinach, André Joubin, and others who have studied the subject. 2 My only point here has been to bring out the association of Greek with Persian, and the connection between East and West, as symbolized in this nonpareil of Attic workmanship. There is something pathetic in the fact that the name of the great artist who conceived and executed the design is unknown. Scholars are agreed, however, that he must have lived in the last quarter of the fourth century B.C., and specialists have sought to discover in his work traces of the influence of Grecian sculptors of renown, though with no really well-defined success. 3 1 The scene figured on the e a s t e r n e n d is a combat ; a Persian horseman thrusts his lance at a fallen Greek warrior, while other Persians and Greeks join in the fight. On the t y m p a n u m above this is a scene of a massacre or conflict in which only Greeks take part. On the w e s t e r n e n d five Persians engage in a panther h u n t ; on the t y m p a n u m above this a Persian horseman, with other Persians on foot, fights against several Greeks, also on foot. 2

Some of these authorities are cited by Hamdy Bey and Reinach, Une Nécropole, pp. 125-126. Special reference may be made to the articles by Studniczka, in Jahrbuch des

deutsch, archaeol. Instituts, 9. 204-244, Berlin, 1895; Judeich, Der Grabherr des Alexandersarkophags, ibid. 10. 165-182, Berlin, 1896; Perdrizet, Venatio Alexandri, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, 19. 273 (cf. 276), London, 1899; Winter, Archaeologischer Anzeiger für 1894, I>. 15, 1894; Sittl, in Archaeologie der Kunst, pp. 656, 684, 685, in Müller's Hdbch. d. klass. Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 6, Munich, 1895; E . von Mach, Handbook of Greek and Roman Sculpture, p. 398, Boston, 1905. 8

The name of the Greek artist Lysippus seems to be most often thought of in this connection. Cf. Gardner, A Handbook of Greek Sculpture, p. 428, London, 1905.

CONJECTURES

REGARDING

THE

SARCOPHAGUS

9

Still more difficult than the riddle of authorship is the problem of determining for whose mortal remains the magnificent coffin was chiseled. The first and natural inference was that it must have been designed for Alexander, as all students of Greek art concede that he is twice (and possibly thrice) represented in the scenes carved on its sides. There are serious obstacles, however, in the way of this assignment, especially the difficulty of accounting for the presence of the sarcophagus at Sidon, whereas tradition holds that Alexander's remains were finally laid to rest at Alexandria. For that reason, even though the tomb still goes popularly under Alexander's name, and although, as Joubin emphasizes, there is nothing à priori to refute the hypothesis that it was originally at least 'ordered and executed ' — commandé et exécuté — for his coffin, nevertheless, the consensus of scholarly opinion is practically unanimous in the view that the marble was not chiseled to receive Alexander's body. But if we may not ' trace the noble dust of Alexander,' as Hamlet might, till found resting in the marble's cold embrace, then whose casket was it? The hypothetical answers to this very pertinent inquiry are numerous. 1 Possibly it held the body of one of his generals. Among this number the names of Perdiccas or Parmenion have been doubtfully suggested ; the former met death by assassination in Egypt, and the latter was put to death in Media by Alexander's orders. 2 The proposal seems hardly tenable. The right of Laomedon to be considered has been warmly maintained, but is open to equal objections. 3 1 For the names of some of the possible claimants as perhaps portrayed in the carvings (including Laomedon), see Hamdy Bey and Reinach, Une Nécropole, p. 314, 2 For the death of Perdiccas, see Plutarch, Eumenes, chap. 8, and Diodorus Siculus, Hist. 18, 36. For Parmenion's death cf. Curtius, 7. 2. 2327 ; Arrian, 3. 2 6 . 3 - 6 ; Plutarch, Alex.

49. 7 ; Diodorus Siculus, 17. 80. 3 ; Justin, 12. 5. 3. Regarding this hypothesis, see Hamdy Bey and Reinach, op. cit. pp. 77-78, and Judeich, op. cit. p. 168. 8 The champion for Laomedon is Judeich of Marburg, op. cit, especially pp. 168, 170, 172-179, but this view is combated by Reinach ( U n e Necropole, p. 314, n. 1), particularly the

10

ONCE

AGAIN

EASTWARD

HO !

A fanciful surmise, but one that appeals strongly to my own imagination, even if little attention seems to have been given to it, would seek grounds for assigning the sarcophagus to Alexander's favorite, Hephaestion, whom Alexander, when at Sidon, authorized to select a king for the Sidonians, and who named Abdalonimus for the office.1 When Hephaestion died of fever at Ecbatana, Alexander's grief knew no bounds, as Plutarch says, and he planned for the remains of his favorite a magnificent tomb that was to be executed by Stasicrates and was to cost ten thousand talents.3 There are, nevertheless, some objections against urging the plea, despite its attractiveness, and I shall content myself with simply presenting it. A title, still further, has been set up for Abdalonimus himself, whom Hephaestion named as king of Sidon, but the evidence in his favor is regarded as unsubstantial.3 The strongest plea that has been urged is that put forward by Reinach, according to which the sarcophagus once held the remains of Mazaeus,4 a supposition that the Greeks had assumed the Persian dress (see also my note above on the horses' frontlocks, p. 7, n.2). But it is the view adopted by Justi (also of Marburg) in Grundr. iran. PMlol. 2. 477. My own student and friend, Dr. Gray, also inclines to the belief that the coffin was probably that of a Diadochus, and that it was perhaps a miniature of Alexander's own burial-place, if we may attach any credence to the Pseudo-Callisthenes or to the templar form of Alexander's own tomb; see Julius Valerius, Res gestae Alex. Mag. 3. 57. 1 See Curtius, 4. 1.15-26 ; Justin, 11. 10; and other references in Eiselen, Sidon, 69-71, New York, 1907. Joubin, op. cit. p. 15, merely mentions Hephaestion's name by the side of Parmenion and Abdalonimus as claimants, but without entering into a discussion of the matter.

2 Plutarch, Alexander, 72. 3, and cf. Jackson, Persia, p. 165. 8 The claim in behalf of Abdalonimus was put forward by Studniczka, Die Sarkophage von Sidon, in Verhandlungen der zweiundvierzigsten Versammlung deutscher Philologen und Schulmänner in Wien, 189S, pp. 91-92, Leipzig, 1895 ; idem, Ueber die Grundlagen der geschichtlichen Erklärung der sidonischen Sarkophage, in Jahrbuch des kaiserlich deutschen archaeologischen Instituts, 9. 243, Berlin, 1895. Against Studniczka's view see Hamdy Bey and Reinach, pp. 392-395 and 316, n. 1; cf. also Joubin, p. 13. 4 See Eeinach's discussion in Hamdy Bey and Reinach, Une Necropole, pp. 317-320 and 341. It must, however, be remmebered that Alexander confirmed Mazaeus in his satrapy of Babylon, where he remained until his death.

TBE

SARCOPHAGUS

STILL

UNIDENTIFIED

11

Persian satrap, who died in 328 B.C. Mazaeus held a post as governor of Babylon under Darius, and was therefore first the foe of Alexander, though he became the conqueror's friend after the downfall of the Achaemenian fortunes. According to this view, the central figure of a Persian in three of the sculptured groups would be taken as an effigy of Mazaeus. If such an explanation be accepted, it must be said that the Persian governor had certainly the richest funeral casket that the world has ever seen. But again we must confess that the hypothesis is merely guessing, even though it be ingenious guessing, and we must await the acquisition of more material or of greater knowledge than our present archaeological grasp has at command, before we can be at all sure; and it may be that we shall never know definitely about the real ownership of the wonderful cenotaph. If, therefore, we must conclude, as Keats did with the Grecian Urn, to allow ' this foster-child of Silence and slow Time' to ' tease us out of thought,' we may equally concede that the ' Attic shape' of the marble at Constantinople mutely records for all time the early tale of conflict and union between West and East; and from the elements blended so truly and so exquisitely in this monument of death we may repeat with the poet: — ' Beauty is truth, truth beauty — that is all Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.'

CHAPTER II FKOM THE BLACK SEA TO THE CASPIAN ' Off to sea again.' — S H A K E S P E A R E , Tempest, 1. 1. 53.

IT was just daybreak when I was roused by a loud rap at my door and heard a voice call, ' Sir, wake up — there's a Russian steamer arrived in port and ready to start at ten o'clock for Sevastopol and Batum.' It was the voice of Demetriou, our Greek guide in Constantinople, whom we had stationed on watch the night before to bring news of any craft, even a lighter or a tank ship, that might convey us across the Black Sea before the regular mail steamer to Batum, which was not due to call for a week. The tidings were welcome, for they meant that we should save time in this way; and Demetriou, with an unwonted enthusiasm, due to early rising or late retiring, urged the advantages of a prompt start. With everything thus favorable, we lost no time in bundling our luggage together for the faithful courier to transfer from the hotel to the steamer, and we were soon ensconced on the after deck of the Pushkin long before the hour of sailing. The morning was a glorious one, and it was Easter Sunday, a fortnight behind our own Easter according to the Russian calendar. Captain, officers, crew, and passengers alike seemed to feel in a holiday humor ; and every one, from the bridge to the forecastle, hailed the other with a kiss on both bearded cheeks as they met and exchanged good wishes for the Paschal season. The engines began to revolve, our prow headed northeastward into the Bosporus, and we were off at last for a five days' voyage, coasting the northern shore of the Black Sea. 12

SCENES

ALONG THE

BOSPORUS

13

Stambul with Seraglio Point, Galata, and Pera, like distant Scutari on the Asiatic side, were soon gliding astern in the vanishing panorama, and their place was quickly taken by the first of that brilliant series of triumphs of Eastern and Western architecture which line the shores of the Bosporus Strait. First the snowy sheen of the Dolma Baghtchah Palace, a seraglio built half a century ago by Sultan Abd al-Majid, flashed into view. Beyond it, clear mirrored in the blue Bosporus, rose the marble façade of Cheraghan, a sumptuous sarai erected at fabulous expense by Sultan Abd al-Aziz, in 1867 (since burned, in 1911) ; and its brilliant image, stretching, with the adjacent princely palaces, for nearly half a mile along the water front, seemed to reflect the magnificence of its forbidden interior. Then, from the hill crest back of both these palaces of dreams, there peered out from the emerald of its leafy surroundings the less ostentatious but more famous Yildiz Kiosk, the abode of the now deposed Sultan Abd al-Hamid I I . The fortunes of this palace, whose renown the hand of fame has tarnished rather than burnished, have all been changed — changed with the changes of the times rung in by the revolution of 1908. Our steamer is by this time well up the Bosporus. This famous strait of water, which is sometimes only a little more than a mile broad, sometimes even scarcely half that width, calls up a host of classic and Oriental associations along the eighteen miles of its banks. Gossip, old as Olympus, has never failed to repeat the fabulous tale of how Zeus, in the form of a bull, crossed its waters when pursuing the beauteous but frenzied Io, transformed into a heifer; and talebearing legend has perpetuated the myth in the fanciful etymology of Bos-poros as Ox-ford. But enough of myth and legend ! From the realm of history we know that not only vandal Goths and consecrated Crusaders have crossed its narrow channel, but Herodotus tells us that the great Darius led his Persian hosts across it on a bridge of boats in 513 B.c., when

14

FROM

THE BLACK

SEA

TO THE

CASPIAN

making an expedition against the Scythians prior to his invasion of Greece.1 We can see the place, as it is pointed out on the west bank under the height of Rumaili Hissar. A Turkish fortress, built in 1452, now crowns the elevation at this narrow span, and near it rise the buildings of Robert College, founded by American philanthropy within our own time; while close to these halls of learning stands the very rock where Darius's throne is believed to have been placed as he watched his countless army crossing from Asia into Europe. How mighty have been the events that this storied height has looked upon since then ! As our craft steamed along, one could note that the shores, now narrowing and now expanding, were close enough at times to bear out the classic statement that persons might converse with those on the opposite side, or even that birds might be heard singing and dogs barking across its narrow banks. 2 Soon we were close to the channel's mouth. Here lay the Symplegades, or Cyanean Rocks, of classic fame, guarding on either side the entrance into the Black Sea, and fabled to have dashed together ever and anon, crushing the venturesome bark that dared to pass between their hostile cliffs. One of these islands still stands on the left, near the European shore; the other, to the right, adjoining the Asiatic bank, has gradually been washed away by the action of the waves till it has practically disappeared. 3 Happily since the day when Jason and the Argonauts slipped in between the clashing sides, these Wandering Rocks, as Homer calls them, have become forever fixed, so that our steam-driven ship sailed swiftly by, without a menace of the mischance that cost the oar-propelled Argo a part of her poop on that memorable voyage of antiquity. 4 1

Herodotus, History, 4. 83-89, and of. Justi, Geschichte Irans, in Grundr. iran. Philol. 2. 442-443; see also Grosvenor, Constantinople, 1. 166. 2 Pliny, Nat. Ilist. 6. 1. 2. 8 Grosvenor, 1. 199-205.

4

Homer, Od. 12. 59 fi. Apolloiiius Khodius, 2. 551-620. Compare many more references in Gruppe, Or. Myth, und Beligionsgesch. pp. 396, n. 13, 397, n. 3, Munich, 1906.

THRONE

ROCK

OF D A R I U S

ON T H E

T H E DOLMA BAGHTCHAH PALACE

BOSPORUS

ON T H E

BOSPORUS

MUSEUM OF

SEVASTOPOL

COASTING

ALONQ

THE

SHORES

OF THE BLACK

SEA

15

On even keel, and under a serene sky as azure as the deep, we swept into the waters of the Black Sea, the Pontus Euxinus of historic fame and evil reputation from the days of antiquity. The Greeks were wont once to call this vast inland sea by the name A-xenos, ' In-hospitable,' because of its treacherous nature and the savage character of the tribes that lived on its shores. Later they ameliorated the harsh title and euphemistically dubbed the sea Eu-xenos,' Very Hospitable, Kindly to Strangers.' The mighty sheet of water, as we saw it, lived up to its latter name and was on its best behavior. True though in general may be Othello's simile of ' the Pontic sea, whose icy current and compulsive force ne'er feels retiring ebb, but keeps due on,' there was nothing to suggest the image on this particular day. 1 Byron's ribald lines, which found a rhyme for Euxine in a seasick jingle, fell flat at the moment for lack of aptness. Poet and dramatist alike could have sung of the sea on this particular occasion in terms only of the highest encomium as we reeled off knot after knot in our Mayday course. But some of our fellow-passengers had sorrowful tales to tell of this same Euxine when Boreas lashes its wintry waves into fury. The huge expanse of the Black Sea covers an area of more than seven hundred miles in length and almost four hundred miles in breadth at its widest part. This immense surface of nearly one hundred and seventy thousand square miles is plied by merchant vessels of all nations, though by the Treaty of Paris in 1856 no warship may sail its waters. The prohibitory provision against vessels of war and fortified stations was abrogated by Russia in 1870; but she later paid dear for the violation when, after the war with Japan in 1905, a mutinous crew on one of her own ironclads seized the ship and trained the guns on Odessa and Sevastopol. Twenty-eight hours of superb sea-weather brought our craft into the land-locked harbor of Sevastopol, where everything was in gala array for the Russian Easter Monday. The ships 1

Shakespeare, Othello, 3. 3. 453-455.

16

FROM THE BLACK

SEA

TO THE

CASPIAN

lying at anchor in the roadstead were bright with bunting, and the streets of the town were lined with holiday-makers in festive garb to match it. Sevastopol is a place of some fifty thousand inhabitants and is a naval port of the highest significance to Russia. The part which it played in the Crimean War, two generations ago, when Turkey, Great Britain, and France were combined in arms against Russia, and when Sevastopol was the center of action and the object of a long siege, is still fresh in memory. The allied forces reduced it and victoriously entered it on Sept. 11, 1855, only to yield it up again to the government of the Czar by the Treaty of Paris in the following year. Today the visitor is promptly reminded of the official head at St. Petersburg, for he is immediately obliged to hand in his passport, without which a traveler in Russia has practically no existence, and he learns by experience to cherish this guarantee of free passage with the same care that he guards his letter of credit. A glimpse of the city is worth the while, as its history goes back to the ancient Greek colony of Chersonesus, which name is still perpetuated in the ruins of Kherson or Korsun, a short distance to the west of the present town. Even in the sixteenth century Sevastopol had not come into existence, for its site was then occupied by the Tatar village of Akhtiar, a settlement that owed its origin to the Mongol invasion of the Crimea. Sevastopol itself, ' the August City,' was founded by Catharine the Second of Russia, in 1784, and the city today is almost wholly Russian, with only a slight tincture of the Orient. The military history of the town, for such a history it is, is summed up in its Museum, filled with mementos of the Crimean War. Its religious history is epitomized in the presence of the Cathedral of St. Vladimir, for we must bear in mind that Russia originally entered into the war with Turkey, which ultimately embroiled France and Great Britain, on the claim of defending her right to be the protector of the Greek Christians in the Turkish dominions.

R O A D TO Y A L T A

OVERLOOKING THE

BLACK

SEA

SEVASTOPOL

AND

YALTA

17

Our drive around the city was hardly completed when the sunset gun of the fortress rang out and we sat down to an excellent dinner at the cosmopolitan restaurant near the Hotel Kist. The hour waxed late in conversation, with the key-note of East and West running through the talk, and it hardly seemed as if sleep had begun before the fortress gun boomed out once more with the announcement of dawn. The sun had not climbed far above the horizon before a three-horsed troika drew up at the door, and we took our seats to scurry (a Russian word, by the way) on our long drive of more than fifty miles across the lower end of the Crimea and over the Euxine road to Yalta. The bells at the horses' throats rang out merrily in the clear morning air as we dashed out of the city into the rolling country beyond, and the crested lark caught up the note in a matin of good cheer. Undulating plain, dale, hilltop, and steep decline were passed by in succession at a rapid gallop, when suddenly some gravestones and a distant monument rounded up my wandering thoughts with a sharp turn, for we were nearing the historic scene of Balaklava. 'Half a league, half a league, half a league onward' I had learned in schoolboy days from my mother's volume of Tennyson; but never did I form a real conception of the scene till I saw the gorge between the encroaching hills with ' cannon to right of them, cannon to left of them,' and that ; valley of death' into which the gallant Six Hundred rode to destruction. The Tatar village of Ba'idar brought me back from past European memories to present Oriental impressions, and after that to an enjoyment of some of the most beautiful scenery that nature has anywhere to show. Not that the humble Tatar hamlet has that to offer, but near to it, and taking from the village its name, Portal of Baidar, is a gateway of stone that opens into a wonderful vista. As one looks through the deep frame of the picture, there suddenly bursts upon the vision a chaos of skyey crags, scarped rocks, sheer declivities, c

18

FROM

THE BLACK

SEA

TO THE

CASPIAN

and a sweep of sea magnificent in the extreme. The steep zigzag descent, through the archway of Foros piercing the living rock, past a Russian Greek church cresting a height, and among a wilderness of rugged peaks and jagged cliffs that beetle over the blue Euxine, gives a thrill of excitement that enhances twofold the enjoyment of the beautiful. This doubled sensation, ever renewed, melted into a feeling of aesthetic pleasure, heightened by the sunset glow, as we drew nearer to the splendid Bay of Yalta some six hours later. The driveway was then between rich country-houses with green lawns and luxurious shade trees, and past the parks of the Imperial Domain at Livadia, with their almost tropical exuberance of vegetation. In good style our troika galloped up before the terrace of the Hotel de Russie, from whose garden surroundings a myriad electric lights flashed forth as darkness fell, and illuminated the broad paths leading down to the quay where our vessel lay ready to convey us farther on our journey towards the East. Steaming on the Black Sea under conditions of weather so perfect was like a pleasure outing on a yacht. A call at Feodosia gave a chance to see how a modern commercial port may inherit the advantages of ages past. Founded under the name of Theodosia as a colony of the Milesians in the sixth century B.C., it soon became the granary of Greece, nor has it ever lost its tradition of being a thriving center of export for cereals. The Genoese were proud to hold it while they were masters of the sea in the thirteenth century; the T u r k s knew its worth when they took it later; and the Russians recognized its value when the place passed into their sovereign hands. The old walled town that rises on a slight elevation from the shore shows traces of the varied historic past; the new Russian city, skirting the strand, is modern in its way, commercial in tone, and prosperous, even to the possession of villas by its ruble-rich merchants. Another day and we hove in sight of Gagri, a favorite seaside and health resort for the Russians, which lies nestled

A V I L L A AT

FEUDOSIA

FROM

FEODOSIÁ

TO

BATUM

19

among pine groves between sea and mountains, like our own Mount Desert in Maine. So popular has this watering-place become that the ship is sure to have numbers of passengers disembarking and embarking here. Among those who came on board were several who knew the Caucasus well, and could tell harrowing tales of bloody conflicts between Muhammadans, Armenians, and Russian Christians during the disturbed period that followed in the train of the Russo-Japanese war. The hills of the Titan Caucasus began to loom up next day as we neared the eastern shores of the Black Sea and caught a distant view of Poti, the Phasis of the Greeks. This town was once the emporium of the farther end of the Euxine, and held its position till supplanted, within our own times, by Batum, about forty miles lower down. For ages Poti was the port from which were trans-shipped to Greece and Rome the goods that had been carried from the Orient by the Oxus route and via the Caspian Sea across Transcaucasia. An incidental mention of this fact to a fellow-passenger turned the conversation to the subject of trade with the East in antiquity. He told me of two old ruined forts between Sukhum Kalah and Poti, from which runs eastward a line of great wall, with rounded bastions, the whole matching the mighty rampart at Derbent on the Caspian, as will be described in the fifth chapter. One tradition, he said, ascribed its origin to Alexander the Great; but another assigned it to the time of the Mongol invasion, the story being that it was built largely to protect the caravan trade that came westward from India. This was but another version of the reports which I knew were current concerning a colossal line of fortifications that start at Derbent, as will be mentioned below, and it showed how generally familiar is the tale regarding their common origin. Daylight, next morning, found our vessel safely warped to the pier in the harbor of Batum, with the ridges of the rugged Caucasus forming a snowy background to the scene. Batum has become what Poti might have developed into if its

20

FROM

THE

BLACK

SEA

TO THE

CASPIAN

situation had only been more healthful ; but even in this latter respect Batum cannot boast too much, although Russia is doing everything to make its location a thoroughly salubrious one. The city's history, like that of its displaced rival, is a long one, for near its site lay ancient Petra and still earlier Bathys. The Turks made nothing of the town while they held it, so far as one can judge by the derogatory comments upon it during their rule ; but it began to pick up at once when ceded to Russia by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 ; and it became a growing place with a brisk business and a large export trade, so that today it shows a predominance of West over East in the composite blending brought about by its active commerce.1 By a topographical paradox, the Occidental portion of its inhabitants, Russians, Armenians, and Greeks, reside mostly in the eastern quarter of the town; the Musulmán portion, Turks, Tatars, and Persians, live in its western quarter. A pleasant promenade leads through the public gardens and along the main boulevard facing the sea. The vegetation has a touch of the tropical, for palms are seen lifting their fronds among other trees, while the snow still lingers on the distant hills. The chief edifice of the city is the Russian cathedral of Alexandro-Nevsky, which harmonizes well with the Muhammadan mosques in the Eastern tinge of its architecture. In the business section, the buildings of the European banks, commercial houses, stores for merchandise, wine-shops, and cafés form a Western offset to the native booths and bazars, the center of Oriental life. As in other cities of the Caucasus, there is a constant intermingling of races radically different; and this very dissimilarity of nationality, creed, ideals, and political views has led at times to riotous outbreaks, and even to bloodshed. In one of these disturbances, two years before our visit, the American consul was accidentally killed by a bomb; nor were the newspapers 1 On the noticeable improvement that took place, see especially Brugsch,

Im Lande der Sonne, pp. 20-26, Berlin, 1886.

BATUM,

THE EASTERN

PORT

OF THE EUXINE

21

lacking later in reports of assassinations of public officials in broad daylight in the city streets. All was quiet when we were there, and there was no interference with the extensive business interests of the place. Those who are acquainted with commerce will recall the active export trade which Batum does in petroleum, as its direct connection with Baku via Tiflis, not only by rail but by six hundred miles of pipe line, makes it the Western headquarters for the shipment of oil from the naphtha wells on the Caspian. Nor is this all, for a lively traffic is carried on in the exportation of timber, hides, honey, and wax, not to enumerate a list of ordinary products in which the merchants do business. The mineral resources found in the neighboring mountains and in the orebeds of the Caucasus have attracted both European and American capital, and the investments promise to pay an ever increasing return for the venture. So much for the general aspects of this commercial town. From the historic side we were interested, in the environs, in the ruins of a castle of Queen Tamar, or Tamara, who ruled the Georgians in the twelfth century of our era. To her are ascribed the remains of numerous edifices and works of public benefit in the Caucasus, though all now lie in ruins. The fortress, at present sadly dilapidated, is located on an elevation about a half hour's drive outside of Batum. The low-lying stretch of road along the seashore, with marshlands on the other side, was naturally damp enough in the moist climate that prevails ; but this particular afternoon the condition of the heavy atmosphere made the thick air still more foggy, so that it was impossible to have a clear glimpse of the ruined walls, especially for photographing. Yet, on ascending the mound, we could get a good idea of the stronghold and its barriers from the tumbled masses of débris. The commanding character of the height was made more strong by the swift stream that swept in its rear and turned with hurrying course into the sea. I pictured the defence which this citadel keep could set up for the

22

FROM

THE BLACK

SEA

TO THE

CASPIAN

Amazon queen, who is portrayed as the embodiment of all that was noble and high. With all her prowess, peace above war was her aim, example and practice more than precept were her ideal, and her face seems to show combined gentleness and strength, if I may judge by a photograph I obtained from a painting on my earlier journey. Legends of the virtues of Tamara still live in the hearts of the Georgian people, and we know from the annals of her long reign (1184-1213) that her historic achievements entitle her to a prominent place among the number of women who have ruled the fortunes of a nation well. 1 A dangerous mishap to our horses and carriage occurred about a mile beyond Tamara's castle, and it might have brought our journey to a disastrous close. A t a rickety bridge over a stream our horses suddenly bolted and plunged into the water, dragging the carriage over the string-piece, though luckily we sprang out of the vehicle in time to escape the fall. It seemed a miracle that the horses were not killed, but by the merest chance they had leaped into a spot where the water formed a deep pool between the jagged rocks, so that they escaped being dashed to pieces. The struggling animals were finally rescued, and the wagon was restored to the highway. We took good care on the homeward road to watch the skittish span at every doubtful point, and reached the city safely in time to depart for Tiflis, two hours after sunset. The route by rail from Batum by the way of Tiflis to Baku traverses the ancient historic ground of Colchis, Iberia, and Albania, on the classic maps, answering in later times to Georgia and the surrounding districts, and in modern times to the whole territory known as Transcaucasia. The journey, which took weeks in ancient times to accomplish, is now easily 1

See Holldack, Von der Sage und dem, Reich der Grusinischen Königin Tamara, Leipzig, 1906 (dissertation), and consult the interesting chapter

oil Tamara in Shoemaker, Heart of the Orient, pp. 40-64, New York, 1904.

B A T U M W I T H T H K C A U C A S U S IN T H E

PROMENADE

AND THE CATHEDRAL

BACKGROUND

OF ALEXANDRO-NEVSKY,

BATUM

FROM BATUM

TO

TIFLIS

23

covered in less than twenty-four hours over the road of steel which links the Black Sea and the Caspian. Hardly an hour has elapsed after leaving Batum before the line, skirting northwards along the shore, crosses the ancient caravan route, mentioned above, from Asia to Europe. The region is that of Kutais, corresponding nearly to the ancient Colchis, the home of Medea, and the goal of Jason when in quest of the Golden Fleece. A night's ride in the capacious and fairly well equipped Russian cars was no hardship, and we arrived at early morn at our destination, the Capital of the Caucasus. Here I was glad to greet old Rustom, the Georgian who had been my guide to the borders of Persia four years before, and to meet Hovannes Agopian, whom we familiarly called ' John,' our Armenian courier who was to accompany us on the present journey. We were sorry, through a change in our dates, to miss finding Safar Adilbegh, the young Persian from Tabriz and Teheran who had been with me through Persia, the time before, but he attended me on the next trip, proving competent as ever and still more useful, as he had added a knowledge of medicine to his previous accomplishments. 1 We decided to remain only a day at Tiflis, as I had spent several days there in 1903 and have given some impression of it elsewhere. 2 The town seemed to be quieter than when I first saw it, for then there had been riotous outbreaks and mob disturbances; and even now friends warned us to avoid any crowds or gatherings, lest a bomb should be thrown. Luckily we had no untoward experiences, but enjoyed our day roaming around the bazars, revisiting the Caucasian Museum, and seeing other points of interest in this thriving, busy city of many nations. There was time enough before our departure at evening to ascend the funicular cog-railway to the top of St. David's hill overlooking the town, and to enjoy the fine view before proceeding on our journey over somewhat familiar ground to Baku. 1

See Jackson, Persia, pp. 55-66.

8

See my Persia, pp. 8-15.

24

FROM

THE BLACK

SEA

TO THE

CASPIAN

A day later found the train drawing into the handsome station of Baku on the Caspian, which I was entering for the fourth time (and have twice since entered). As I always count that the real journey to Persia begins at the Caspian Sea, I shall give a fuller description of this interesting mart of commerce on its shores, devoting to it the two chapters that are to follow.

CHAPTER

III

BAKU, THE CITY OF OIL WELLS ' From Badku and those fountains of blue flame That burn into the Caspian.' — MOORE,

Lalla Bookh.

BAKU is a city founded upon oil, for to its inexhaustible founts of naphtha it owes its very existence, its maintenance, its prosperity. The flowing treasure that wells up from the hidden depths of its subterranean reservoirs brings occupation to thousands, wealth to tens of thousands, and light and heat to millions. At present Baku produces one-fifth of the oil that is used in the world, and the immense output in crude petroleum from this single city far surpasses that in any other district where oil is found.1 Verily, the words of the Scriptures find illustration here: ' the rock poured me out rivers of oil.' 2 Oil is in the air one breathes, in one's nostrils, in one's eyes, in the water of the morning bath (though not in the drinkingwater, for that is brought in bottles from distant mineral springs), in one's starched linen — everywhere. This is the impression one carries away from Baku, and it is certainly true in the environs. The very dust of the streets is impregnated by the petroleum with which they are sprinkled; the soil of the home garden is charged with oil; and if 1

Statistics on the annual yield of oil at Baku will be found below, p. 40. Compare also Shoemaker, Heart of the Orient, p. 84, and consult Henry, Baku, an Eventful History, pp. vii and 104,

London, 1906 ; this latter volume is the best work yet published on the general subject of Baku and its oil wells. 2 Job 29. 6. 25

26

BAKU,

THE

CITY

OF OIL

WELLS

flowers are really to thrive, it is said that earth must be imported from Lankuran farther down on the Caspian. The busy wheels of commerce that roll out from Baku are lubricated with the native product; the engines and steamers are propelled by i t ; the coffers of the great petroleum companies are filled by i t ; and the bourse of the city's exchequer is governed by its rise and fall. Long trains of tank cars line the track as one approaches Baku from Batum and Tiflis on the west, or from Beslan and Petrovsk on the north. A pall of smoke hangs its heavy drapery over the ' Black Town' (Tchorny Gorod) in the oil section on the eastern and northern outskirts of the city. Forests of wooden and iron pyramidal towers serrate the horizon as one looks over the petroleum belt of Balakhany, Sabunchy, and Romany to the north, or over Bibi-Eibat on the south. At times lurid flames burst into the sky if a conflagration takes place in one of these inflammable sources, and then there is danger that the titan torch may destroy everything in its radius, engulfing it in a veritable holocaust of flame. The train moves slowly as we draw to our destination, giving us a good opportunity to form a general idea of the city and its surroundings. A few minutes later the halt is made in the well-appointed railway station — a station worthy of Europe — and we crowd our way through a throng of Tatars, Armenians, Georgians, Persians, and Cossacks, gathered on the platform and waiting to scramble across the tracks to catch an outgoing local train, in which some Russian workmen have already taken seats. At the exit of the station a polite hotel porter is standing by the steps. He has French, besides several other languages, at his polyglot command, so that we are at once reminded of distant Paris, and feel an added sense of comfort when he assures us that his particular hotel is the very best in Baku. In a minute more our luggage is being tossed into one of the Russian phaetons in

THE

R A I L W A Y STATION AT

BAKU

IMPRESSIONS

ON ARRIVING

AT BAKU

27

front of the ' stanzia,' and we gallop away to the Hotel de 1'Europe. The streets are dusty, and the hurrying tram-cars and a crowd of vehicles of every description add to the cloud of powdery sand that is swept into our eyes by the ever blowing wind — a wind that justifies the popular etymology of Baku in Persian as Bad-kubah,' Wind-beaten.' 1 We wish at the moment that the streets had an extra sprinkling of the ever convenient oil, though in general the thoroughfares are cleanly kept and give the impression that the town is well looked after. Shops line either side of the way, and their lettered signs, in Russian, Arabic, and, sporadically, Hebrew, are supplemented by rudely painted pictures of boots, hats, clothing for men and boys, and what not. The styles represented must wait for a reincarnation in a far-distant cycle before the fashion comes round to them again. Yet these crude drawings help business, as the masses cannot read. Grotesque though they are, I fancy that some of our own show-window wax models or cigar-store wooden Indians could hardly afford to ridicule their far-off compeers on the Caspian! Anon we are at the door of our hotel — a fairly comfortable domicile, with attentive service and an excellent Russian-French cuisine. A s I have been in Baku a number of times, I feel fairly at home in the city and am even familiar with the odor of oil that one cannot forget in its suburbs. But, though perhaps over-sensitive on that point, I look back with pleasure to each visit; and I shall gladly welcome the chance to see this busy metropolis again if another opportunity takes me to the Caspian. Old and new, ancient and modern, past and present, commingle in the make-up of Baku. It is the same repeated story 1 There are several ways of spelling the name of B a k u in the Eastern languages, such as Bakuh, Bakuyah, Bakhui; cf. Kazem-Beg, Derbend Nameh, p. 142, St. Petersburg, 1851.

The etymology is uncertain ; d'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientate, 1. 320, Paris, 1777, gives no ground for his derivation of the name from an eponyinous hero called after a constellation.

28

BAKU,

THE

CITY

OF OIL

WELLS

Of an Eastern town transformed into a Western city, or, rather, of a modern city of nearly a quarter of a million population sprung up out of an ancient settlement. 1 There is a common belief that the natural fires in its vicinity were associated from the earliest antiquity with the ancient worship of the Zoroastrians, but of this unproved claim I shall speak below. A local tradition maintains that the town existed under the name of Khansar long before the time of Alexander the Great though it then occupied a position somewhat south of the present site; and the account also narrates a fanciful legend how 'Aristoon' (Aristotle), at Alexander's bidding, destroyed the place by means of some artifice, after which the present Badkubah ( B a k u ) came into existence. 2 In any event we have material in the early Arab-Persian geographers to trace the history of the town back for a thousand years. Thus, Masudi (948 A.D.) speaks of Baku as having been ravaged by the Russians; he calls it ' the place of naphtha' (naffatat),3 alludes to its 'volcanoes,' and adds, 'there are wells of fire coming out of the ground, and there are islands opposite the naphtha-place in which there are wells of great fires that can be seen at a distance in the night'; he also mentions the ' white naphtha' produced here. 4 Istakhri (951 A.D.) likewise tells of the presence of naft;5 while Mukaddasi (895 A . D . ) draws attention to the significant fact that Baku is a seaport town. 6 Yakut (1225 A.D.) states that one of the oil wells daily produces oil to the value of ' a thousand dirhams' (about $ 200) — a mere bagatelle today — and adds that another well, 1 These figures include the suburbs, Henry, Baku, p. 11. 2 See Kazem-Beg, Derbend Nämeh, p. 142, St. Petersburg, 1851, where the legend is recounted in detail. 3 Masudi, Prairies d'or, tr. Barbier de Meynard, 2. 18-25, Paris, 1865. 4 Masudi, Mura} adh-Dhahab, ed. De Goeje, Bibl. Qeog. Arab. 8. 60, and Prairies d'or, tr. Barbier de Meynard,

2. 25-26. A remarkable pyrotechnic display of the oil burning on the waters in the Bay of Baku is sometimes made by throwing a lighted torch into the waves. This phenomenon is described by some of the writers mentioned below: Dumas (2.43-44), Ussher (p.209), Orsolle (p. 139), Henry (pp. 27-28). 6 Istakhri, ed. De Goeje, 1. 190. 6 Mukaddasi, ed. De Goeje, 3. 376.

ARAB

AND

VENETIAN

ACCOUNTS

OF BAKU

29

close by it, ' flows night and day with white naphtha,' and that all the ground round about was rendered highly inflammable by the presence of oil. 1 The inscriptions on the buildings in the citadel, as given below, show that in medieval times Baku possessed wealthy and influential men, for only such citizens could have erected edifices so imposing. As early as the thirteenth century European travelers began to visit Baku and to mention its oil products. The renowned Venetian, Marco Polo, in the second half of that century speaks of the territory in such terms as to leave no doubt that he means Baku, when he says: — ' On the confines towards Georgiana there is a fountain from which o i l springs in great abundance, insomuch that a h u n d r e d s h i p l o a d s \_v.l. camel-loads] might be taken from it at one time. This oil is not good to use with food, but 'tis good to burn, and is also used to a n o i n t c a m e l s that have the mange. People come from vast distances to fetch it, for in all the countries round about they have no other oil.' 3

Two centuries later another Venetian, Josafa Barbaro, who traveled in Persia in 1474 up from Tabriz (' Thauris') to Derbent on the Caspian, where he spent several months, refers to ' Bachu ' and ' the sea of Bachu,' as follows : — 'Vpon this syde of the [Caspian] sea there is an other citie called B a c h u , whereof the sea of Bachu taketh name, neere vnto which citie there is a mountaigne that casteth foorthe b l a c k e oyle, s t y n k e n g h o r r y b l y e , which they, nevertheless, vse for furnissheng of their l i g h t s , and for the a n n o y n t e n g of their c a m e l l s twies a yere. For if they were not anoynted they wolde become skabbie.' 8 1

For Yakut's statements see Barbier de Meynard, Diet. geog. p. 78, and compare Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate, pp. 180-181. 2 Marco Polo, ed. Yule, 1. 48, London, 1875; see also Yule's notes ad loc. concerning rubbing the camels with oil; a similar statement is made in another connection by Barbaro (see

next paragraph). In 1404 Clavijo (Hakluyt Soc., pp. 93, 95) mentions the ' sea of Bakou.' 3 See Josafa Barbaro, Travels to Tana and Persia, tr. and ed. Thomas, Boy, and Stanley, p. 88, London, 1873 (Hakluyt). The date, 1474, is given on p. 50 of that work.

30

BAKU,

THE

CITY

OF OIL

WELLS

The earliest Englishman to come to the district of Baku was Anthony Jenkinson (Oct. 1562), but he says nothing about the place except to mention merely its name as ' Bacowe.' 1 The English agent of the Muscovy Company, Jeffrey Ducket, in his ' f i f t voyage into Persia,' in 1574, is more explicit. ' There is a very great riuer [i.e. the K u r ] which runneth through the plaine of I a u a t [ = J a v a t ] , which falleth into the Caspian sea by a towne called B a c k o , neere vnto which towne is a strange thing to behold — for there issueth out of the ground a marueilous quantitie of Oyle, which Oyle they fetch f r o m the vttermost bounds of all Persia; it serueth all the countrey to burne in their houses. ' T h i s o y l e is b l a c k e , and is called Nefte ; they use to cary it throughout all the country vpon kine and asses, of which you shall oftentimes meete with foure or fiue hundred in a companie. There is also by the said towne of Backo an other kind of oyle, which is w h i t e and very precious, and is supposed to be the same as t h a t here is called Petroleum.' 2

The German Olearius (1636) counts Baku among the few good harbors on the Caspian and tells how the ' Nefta,' which is produced in great quantities, is carried in skin bags [' Schleuchen'] and great casks [' Fudern '], and widely transported for sale. 3 The Englishman John Bell, in 1715, makes the following statement regarding Baku and its petroleum sources : — ' Two days journey eastward f r o m Niezbatt stand Absheroon and Backu, two considerable towns. A t the former is a good harbour, reckoned the best in the Caspian Sea, except t h a t of Astrabatt, which lies in t h e southeast corner of it. All t h e rest are so dangerous t h a t they scarce deserve 1

Jenkinson, ed. Morgan and Coote, Early Voyages and Travels in Russia and Persia, p. 138, London, 1886 (Hakluyt Society). Jenkinson came from Shamakha to Javat, and was at Shabran, which lay somewhat north of Baku, so he may possibly not have visited the city ; see the old map in Hanway, British Trade over the Caspian Sea, 1. 344, London, 1753.

2

See Ducket in Jenkinson, ed. Morgan and Coote, Early Voyages, p. 439-440, London, 1886 (Hakluyt Society). Ducket's first voyage was made in 1568 (1569). 8 Olearius, Reisebeschreibungen, pp. 215, 284, Hamburg, 1696 = earlier Eng. transl. by Davies, pp. 193, 197, London, 1662.

ALOXG THE

QUAY

AT

BAKU

EARLY

ENGLISH

AND

GERMAN

VOYAGERS

TO BAKU

31

the name of harbours. I n the neighbourhood of Backu are many f o u n t a i n s of N a p h t h a ; it is a s o r t of p e t r o l e u m , of a brown colour and inflammable nature. The Persians burn it in their lamps; no rain can extinguish it, but the smell is disagreeable. I h a v e s e e n of i t a s c l e a r as r o c k w a t e r . ' 1

The London merchant, traveler, and philanthropist, Jonas Hanway, author of a learned work on the Caspian Sea in the eighteenth century, gives an extended excerpt from the journal of the Scottish physician, Dr. John Cooke, 'relating to the route of the Russian embassy into Persia.' Six days were spent by the embassy in Baku, Feb. 6-12, 1747, and some of the memoranda are well worth quoting here as a description of the city at that date. ' I n this city is a s u m p t u o u s p a l a c e of hewn stone, which the bombs in 1 7 2 2 [ 1 7 2 3 ] had contributed to reduce to the ruinous state in which we found it. The P E R S I A N S say, that as the T U R K S made use of it as a magazine, they will not repair i t ; but the truth is, they are in no circumstances to do any such thing. The rebellion of 1743 did not cost less than the lives of 1 5 , 0 0 0 men to the province and the adjacent country of Shirvan. Formerly many m e r c h a n t s lived here, especially I N D I A N S 2 and A R M E N I A N S , together with several T A R T A R S ; and, in the single branch of r a w s i l k , they used to export 400 bales of 25 batmans each [about 160 pounds] ; but n o w they have s c a r c e a n y vestiges of c o m m e r c e . This city is said to have been built by the T U R K S [ ? ] : the f o r t i f i c a t i o n is semicircular, and the t w o p o i n t s of it are e x t e n d e d i n t o t h e s e a . I t is defended b y a d o u b l e w a l l , of which the inmost is lofty for a P E R S I A N fortification. . . . As" all the country here is impregnated with salt and RUSSIAN

1

Bell, Travels in Asia, ed. Pinkerton, 7. 288, London, 1811. Bell made his camp at 'Niezbatt,' in the vicinity of Baku, from Aug. 30 to Sept. 18, 1715 (cf. Pinkerton, 7. 273, 288), and appears to have visited Baku between Sept. 2 and 4, if we may judge from his statement of a 1 two days journey eastward from Niezbatt' and his remarks about having seen the clear petroleum. He was in his camp at

' Niezbatt' again on Sept. 4 ; no mention is made of a fire temple at Baku. 'Niezbatt' (cf. op. cit. p. 313) is the same as ' Nizabad or Nizawoy' on the map of Hanway, 1. 344 (1753) and the modern Pristan Nizova'ia, from which Baku lies southeast, not ' eastward.' 2 The importance of this statement will be mentioned below in connection with the fire temple at Surakhany.

32

BAKU,

THE CITY

OF OIL

WELLS

sulphur, the water, though esteemed wholesome, is very unpleasant.' [Details regarding the environs are here omitted.] 1

From the middle of the eighteenth century onward, the number of travelers visiting Baku, like George Forster (1784), S. G. Gmelin (about 1771), and those in the nineteenth century, has constantly increased, and reference to the most of them will be found below in connection with the celebrated fire temple. In its long history Baku has seen many changes. Originally a part of the Persian Empire, it came under the power of the Arabs with the Muhammadan conquest in the seventh century A.D., but after the fall of the Caliphate it passed into the hands of the Khans, or powerful princes, of Shirvan, who held sway over it for several hundred years. In 1509 it was taken by Persia, but fell later before the Turks, only to be recaptured by Shah Abbas the Great. Early in the eighteenth century there arose a mightier crisis with far-reaching results. Peter the Great of Russia, when on his campaign in Persia, in 1722, set his heart upon B a k u ; and in the following year, 1723, his general, Matushkin, bombarded and took the place. It was restored to Persia in 1735, during the reign of Empress Anna, but was subsequently taken by Russia in 1806, and was finally ceded to the Czar by the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813. From the moment of Russian occupation dates the great commercial growth of the city. Steamers constantly ply between its harbor and Astrakhan on the north, Krasnovodsk on the east, and Anzali or Astrabad on the south side of the 1 Han way, An Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea: with a Journal of Travels, 4 vols. London, 1753; 3 ed. 2 vols. London, 1762 (1 ed. 1. 377-384; 3 ed. 1. 260261). It appears that Dr. Cooke later regretted having communicated his material to Hanway, or felt that he had been misrepresented, and accordingly he published an independent

work entitled, Voyages and Travels through the Russian Empire, Tartary, and Part of the Kingdom, of Persia, 2 ed. Edinburgh, 1778 (of. 2. 379-380)— see George Forster, Voyage du Bengale a Petersbourg, traduitpar L. Langles, 2. 343, n. 1, 356-359, n. 1, Paris, 1802. My authority for this is Langlfes (loc. cit.), as the volume by Cooke is not accessible to me.

HISTORY

AND

TOPOGRAPHY

OF

BAKU

33

Caspian Sea, bringing or despatching great quantities of imported and exported goods, while the railway on either side of the Caucasus and the petroleum pipe-line to Batum never cease to convey its oil to all parts of Europe. I t is true that the heterogeneous character of its population has at times been a drawback to progress ; and as recently as 1905 the streets flowed with blood in the riots and massacres that took place between the Tatars and Armenians and resulted in a temporary destruction of the oil fields by fire. W e saw signs of the sanguinary struggle and heard stories of the atrocities committed; but the wounds of this civil war have already been healed, and will soon be forgotten, even if the scars remain; business was quickly resumed, and the town is in flourishing condition at this hour. 1 Topographically, the city lies almost at the middle point of a crescent formed by the bay that cuts with graceful sweep into the Apsheron Peninsula on the north, but turns its sickle-curve with a slightly jagged edge before it reaches the point B A K U AND ITS ENVIRONS that extends near BibiEibat on the south. The town, as I have said, is a modern place sprung up on an ancient site. The Caspian, now lower than it was in olden times, has allowed this new town considerable space for spreading along the strand of the bay and to crowd its way rearwards, pushing old Baku back to its very walls. These walls mark the historic capital, the 1 An account of the uprisings among the Orientals in 1905 will

D

be found in the volume by Henry, Baku, pp. 148-214.

34

BAKU,

THE

CITY

OF OIL

WELLS

stone-ramparted citadel of the Khans, and beyond them rise arid, rocky hills, bare of any trace of vegetation, and dreary enough, were it not that the eye can catch a glimpse of intervening green, below the fortress bulwarks, in the public gardens, once the possession of the Khans. Russian Baku begins at the fine stone quay, which extends for a mile and a half along the shore and affords excellent opportunities for the shipping — steam craft and sailing vessels — that crowds its port in numbers. The entire modern section of the town, with its public square, cobble-paved or asphalted streets, and curbed sidewalks, is as European as St. Petersburg. We step out of the hotel into a phaeton with a Russian or Tatar driver to take us to the bank, post-office, and telegraph, or we walk from shop to shop, where all the up-to-date articles may be purchased. The Russian cathedral of AlexandroNevsky thrusts aloft its spire to overtop the towering Moslem minarets, and the Armenian church seeks to outdo its ecclesiastical rivals by its prominent position on the Parapet Square. A city hall for the Duma and several handsome edifices for educational purposes, one of the best being for girls, together with a technological institute and various governmental buildings, are as new as any in Europe or America. The old town, the Oriental section, has the interest that is always imparted by a certain Eastern touch — and, I may add, smell. The Bala-Hissar, or ' H i g h Citadel,' shuts within its walls the old palace of the Khans and two mosques, and it goes back to ancient times. The Persian Mustaufi, writing in 1340, speaks of the citadel as keeping the town in its shadow at mid-day by its commanding position. 1 The origin of this palace is sometimes ascribed to Shah Abbas the Great, of Persia (1587-1629), who is mentioned in the fourth tablet (D), referred to below ; 2 but at least one ( J . ) of the inscriptions, which 1

See Le Strange, op. cit. p. 181. Thus attributed by Saint-Martin, Nouv. Diet. geog. univ. 1.315, Paris, 1879, art. Bakou; by Durrieux and 2

Fauvelle, Samarkand, p. 17, Paris, 1901; Le Caucase et la Perse, p. 137, Paris, 1885; and Shoemaker, Heart of the Orient, p. 87.

A R A B I C I N S C R I P T I O N A , R E C O R D I N G T H E R E B U I L D I N G OF T H E P A L A C E T H E K H A N S A T B A K U I N 1309 A . D .

or

INSCRIPTION B ,

IN P E R S I A N , TAHMASP

UNDATED,

(1524-1570

I N S C R I P T I O N C , IN P E R S I A N ,

BUT

UNDATED,

BUT BELONGING

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

INSCRIPTION

PERSIAN

(E)

AND A R A B I C

I >, IN P E R S I A N ,

(F)

MENTIONING

A.D.)

DATKD 1015

INSCRIPTIONS,

THE

TO

A.D.

A.D.

LATTER DATED 1789

A.D.

INSCRIPTIONS

ON

THE BUILDINGS

OF THE

CITADEL

35

I reproduce from photographs purchased in Baku, shows that a part of the buildings must have existed long before, as it speaks of the palace as having been 'renewed,' or 'rebuilt,' in the year 709 of the Hijra = 1309 A.D. Its two lines in Arabic read : — ' Prince Sharaf ad-Din Mahmud, K i n g of Nobles and Grandees, and son of Fakhr ad-Din, the K i n g — may his glory be everlasting — ordered the renewal of this Palace.

D a t e d Rajab 709 ( = December, 1 3 0 9 ) . ' 1

The second of the inscriptions ( 5 ) , five lines in Persian, is undated, but mentions Shah Tahmasp of Persia, who reigned 1524-1576 A.D., and begins with the words: ' In the days of Shah Tahmasp, of the family of Husain.' The third inscription ((7), four lines in Persian and likewise undated, adjoins the latter tablet, being on its right, and is written in a somewhat larger script. I t belongs to the sixteenth century, in the time of Khudabandah, the father of Shah Abbas, for it contains a glorification of God for the long life of Shah Khudabandah Muhammad, who, we know, ruled 1578-1587. 2 The fourth tablet (Z>), seven lines in Persian, belongs to the time of Shah Abbas, as it is dated 1024 A . H . ( = 1615 A . D . ) . The last tablet, or rather two tablets, contains two inscriptions — a longer one in Persian QJS) over an arch, and by its side a small one ( F ) , which gives in Arabic the regular formula of the Bismillah, ' In the name of God the Most Merciful and Compassionate,' and adds the date 1204 A . H . ( = 1789 A . D . ) . Within the grim enclosure of the citadel the Khans of Shirvan long held sway, and sombre tales are current of how they used to administer justice in days gone by. I t is usually claimed that condemnation was speedily followed by consignment of the convicted unfortunate to a well—a true oubliette — which is said to have connected with the sea, so that the traces of the victims of their judgment were disposed of forever. 1

My thanks are due to my colleague, Dr. Yohannan, for translating this and the other inscriptions. 3 A modern hand has written the

Arabic date '1307' A.H. ( = 1889 A.D.) over the words ' the country of Yazdagard' {i.e. Persia).

36

BAKU,

THE CITY

OF OIL

WELLS

The Turks once used the palace as a magazine, and today it serves the Russians as an arsenal. Of the two mosques within the citadel, one is in dilapidation, having doubtless suffered from the bombardment at the command of Peter the Great in 1723, if we may judge from the condition of the palace twenty-four years afterwards, according to Hanway's journal quoted above (p. 31). The other mosque is well preserved, and its elegant arabesque inscription and fine traceries on stone have all the beauty which the Persian art of arts in the delicate use of filigree texts can impart. 1 The inscription, in four lines of Arabic, gives the date of the building of the mosque in the reign of Bahadur Khan, and is dated 194 A . H . ( = 809 A . D . ) . I t reads as follows : — ' During the reign of Shah Sultan Bahadur Khan, Emperor and son of an Emperor, King and son of a King — may God prolong his rule — in order to please God, it was agreed, in the seqond year, by the honorable chiefs, Muhammad Beg of Teheran, who is the head of the nobles, and Ali Talibi Khan, to build this Blessed Mosque according to the direction of God the Most High, in the year 194 A . H . ( = 809 A . D . ) . ' 2

A few steps to the south of the citadel, as we retrace our way towards the quay, we pass beneath the height of a remarkable structure that looms nearly a hundred and fifty feet above us. This is the Kis-Kalah, or Maiden's Tower, as] old as Byzantine times. Folk legend gathers about its ponderous bulk, and though the versions of the tale are many, it is always a phase of the same sad story of love that led to a maiden's tragic death from its towering heights. The story as I heard it was in the form of a Cenci horror : — ' A brutal old Khan fell in love with his own daughter. She 1 1 saw the palace and the mosque several times from the outside, but was not in the courtyard itself, as it was too late to enter on the last afternoon of my visit; so I have supplemented my notes by a couple of memoranda on the interior from

Brugsch, pp. 49-50 ; Orsolle, p. 138 ; and Shoemaker, pp. 86-87. 2 My thanks are again due to Dr. Yohannan for deciphering the tablet from the photograph. For additional inscriptions see Dorn, Melanges asiatiques, 4. 486-488.

THE

MAIDEN'S TOWER

AT

BAKÜ

THE

OIL

F I K L D OP B A L A K H A N Y ,

NEAR

BAKU

THE

LEGEND

OF THE

MAIDEN'S

TOWER

37

naturally rejected liis addresses, until, overwhelmed at last by his importunities, she promised to yield to his desire, provided that he would build her the loftiest tower in the land. On the day when the structure was completed, she flung herself headlong from the parapet into the sea, which at that time washed close to the wall.' ' An old fool and a pretty daughter ! ' — was my guide's terse comment when he concluded the tale. Other variants make slight changes in the elements, adding now the romance of a lover who sues the maiden for her hand, though it is pledged to another, or again the tragic complication of a father and son who are both in love with the beautiful damsel. The Cenci version seems to me as likely as any ; 1 at all events some tragedy seems to have been associated with the scene. The present position of the tower, standing back from the shore, bears witness to the fact, acknowledged by scientists, that the Caspian Sea was much higher in ancient times than it is now.2 The tower itself has a practical use today, for it serves as a lighthouse for the harbor. Some vestiges of walls of stone construction, emerging from the sea not far from where the tower stands, are thought to show traces of Arab architecture of the ninth or tenth century, and are doubtless the remains of a portion of the fortifications described two centuries ago, in the quotation given above from Hanway, as ' extended into the sea.' 3 As we stand by the shore of the bay and look back once more over the new and the old town, our eye catches another scene, but one far different from the life and stir of the town. Far 1 1 have since found that the same general version is given by Dumas, Impressions de voyage ; le Caucase, 2. 18-20, Paris, 1880. There is no reason for assuming (as has been done, I believe) that the legend is due to any invention by Dumas. 2 See, for example, Huntington, The Pulse of Asia, pp. 329-358, New

York, 1907 ; and id. The Historic Fluctuations of the Caspian Sea, in Bulletin of the Amer. Oeog. Soc., 39. 577-596, New York, 1907. 3 See Dumas, op. cit. 2. 42-43 ; Baedeker, La Mussie, p. 397, Leipzig, 1902, and compare Hanway, Caspian Sea, 1. 378 ; 3 ed. 1. 261.

38

BAKU,

THE

CITY

OF OIL

WELLS

up on a hillside in the distance, back of the city, sleep the dead — the dead of historic and commercial Baku. There in the spacious unwalled plot of ground that is dedicated to their silent slumber, rest Musulmans, Armenians, Georgians, Jews, Russians, English — all in their turn alike, and all made one in death. Far from the turmoil of the city, of whose maddening throng they once formed a part, they repose now in peace. The elevated site of this abode of those who have gone before commands the fairest view in Baku, reaching over the city's busy quarters, over the blue bay beyond. Each morn as the sun sweeps up from the Caspian it touches the cemetery with its beams first, gilding now some stone chiseled in memory of one long dead (most likely a Moslem in creed), or lighting up the mound over some unnamed grave, but ever symbolizing by its radiance the breaking of that day when the Eternal Sunrise shall dawn.

CHAPTER

IV

THE OIL-FIELDS AND THE FIRE-TEMPLE OF BAKU • By a towne called B a c k o , neere vnto which towne is a strange thing to behold — for there issueth out of the ground a marueilous quantitie of Oyle.' — JEFFREY DUCKET, Fift Voyage into Persia, p. 439.

A V I S I T to the oil wells at the fields in the BalakhanySabunchy-Romany region, about eight miles northward from Baku, or at Bibi Eibat, some three miles south of the city, is an interesting experience. I t was my pleasant privilege, during my first visit at Baku, to pay such a visit under the guidance of the British vice-consul, Mr. Urquhart, whose kindness was equaled only by his knowledge of Baku and all that relates to the city. On entering the fields, one becomes lost amid a maze of towering derricks, erected over the wells to operate them. These pyramidal wooden structures are covered with gypsolite or iron plating as a protection against fire. The shafts of the wells are often sunk fifteen hundred or two thousand feet to strike the oil. 1 Metal tubes, from six to twelve inches in diameter, are inserted in the bores so as to serve as pipes through which the precious liquid may spring upward or be drawn to the surface by a metallic bucket, the ' bailer,' ready to pass in iron conduits to the refinery in Black Town and become one of the richest articles of commerce. There are over two thousand of these wells in the Apsheron (Absharan) Peninsula, on which Baku stands, and one can hardly conceive of the activity implied in this wilderness of 1 A good idea of the difficulties connected with making these borings may be

gained from Norman, All the pp. 219-227, New York, 1904. 39

Bussias,

40

THE OIL-FIELDS

AND THE FIRE-TEMPLE

OF

BAKU

truncated pyramids, each in itself a source of revenue that is a fortune. 1 The stupendous figures of the annual yield from these fields is almost staggering. It runs up into the many millions of ' poods,' a pood being approximately five American gallons.2 Sometimes the borings strike 'fountains,' and then a tremendous ' spouter' is the result, belching up its concealed contents with the force of a geyser, and perhaps bringing ruin instead of fortune to its owner unless the giant can be speedily throttled and gagged. Thrilling descriptions are given of how some of these monsters have, within the last generation, thus wrought destruction to everything within immediate reach. 3 The magnificence of the spectacle is surpassed only by the awful grandeur when fire adds terror to the scene. On all occasions when visiting the petroleum fields it is advisable to wear old clothes, for one may find it anything but the oil of gladness, as I learned from sad experience when one of the spouters blew off unexpectedly while we were near it, filling the air with a deluging rain from whose greasy downpour there was no escape. All who have been at Baku, and almost all who have heard of Baku, know of the Fire Temple at Surakhany in the northern environs of the city. The place is easily reached 1 See Henry, Baku, pp. vii, 104, and the remarkable statistics given throughout that standard work. 2 Through the kindness of Mr. Wilson D. Youmans, of Yonkers, N. Y., I have been most courteously furnished, by the statistician of the Standard Oil Company of New York, with the following figures regarding Baku : ' During the year 1908 the production of the Baku Field was 465,343,000 poods, equaling 55,863,504 barrels of 42 gallons. The world's production of crude oil during the year 1908 was 284,614,022 barrels of 42 gallons, and the Baku production represented 19.6 % of the total production of the world.

' The production of the Baku Field annually since 1903 was as follows : — 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

596,581,155 614,115,445 414,762,000 447,520,000 476,002,000 465,343,000

poods poods poods poods poods poods

' During the year 1908 the production of American crude oil was 179,572,479 barrels of 42 gallons. The United States government uses as a basis 8.33 poods of crude oil = one American barrel of 42 gallons. This is approximately 5 American gallons to 1 pood.' 3 See Henry, Baku, pp. 63-108.

THE FIRE-TEMPLE

TRADITIONALLY

ZOROASTRIAN

41

by driving, or better by rail with a short spin in a phaeton afterwards. Common tradition has long associated the onetime sanctity of this region with the veneration of the so-called Zoroastrian Fire-worshipers, though whether with absolute justice must remain to be seen. Zoroaster flourished at least as early as 600 B.C., and his religion became the faith of Ancient Iran, continuing as its creed until the seventh century of the Christian era. This remarkably pure religion, which bears striking resemblances to Judaism and to our own faith, which it antedates, was supplanted in the seventh century of our era by the new and militant creed of Islam. Ormazd yielded his throne in heaven to Allah, the Avesta gave place to the Kuran, and Zoroaster was superseded by Muhammad as the acknowledged prophet of truth. Having previously devoted a volume to the life and legend of Zoroaster and a monograph to his religion, as well as given special attention to the subject as a whole in my former book on Persia, I shall not now go further into the history and fortunes of the ancient creed. 1 Suffice it to say that a few Zoroastrians refused to adopt Muhammadanism when the conquest came (650 A . D . ) . Some of this scanty band sought refuge and freedom to worship Ormazd in India, where they became the ancestors of the flourishing community of the Parsis in Bombay ; a remnant persisted in staying in their old home, only to meet with persecution and hatred as infidel G-abrs, 4 Ghebers, Unbelievers,' and these still find an insecure asylum at Yazd and Kerman in the desert, while a handful even reside in Teheran. 2 They see not God but the purest effulgence of God in the Flame Divine, and they abhor the name of ' Fire-worshipers.' Yet in the eyes of Muhammadans they are such, and it is not strange that local tradition associates their name with Baku as the very source of eternal fire. 1

See Jackson, Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran, New York, 1899 ; Die iranische Religion, in &rundr. iran. Philol. 2. 612-708,

Strassburg, 1903-1904 ; Persia Past and Present, New York, 1906. 2 See Jackson, Persia, pp. 353-400.

42

THE OIL-FIELDS

AND

THE FIRE-TEMPLE

OF

BAKU

I have said that ' tradition' has connected the name of the Zoroastrians with the igneous realm of Baku, but I have not been able to trace it back more than two hundred years, as I shall show below, and I believe that some of the sweeping statements made on the subject by modern writers (including myself) may have to be modified so far as Zoroastrianism is concerned. The present shrine is apparently of Northern Indian rather than of Persian foundation, although possibly the site itself may have been a hallowed one in ancient times ; but before I turn to that matter, I shall give a description of the sanctuary and its surroundings. The sacred precinct consists of a walled enclosure that forms nearly a parallelogram, following the points of the compass. Its length is about thirty-four yards from north to south, or forty on its longer side ; the breadth is about twenty-eight yards from east to west. The central shrine stands nearly in the middle of the court. A square-towered building, approached by a high flight of steps, rises toward the northeast corner. The walls of the precinct are very thick, as they consist of separate cells or cloistered chambers, running all the way around, and entered by arched doors. The whole is solidly built and covered with plaster. The structure in the middle is a square fabric of brick, stone, and mortar, about twenty-five feet in height, twenty feet in length, and the same in width, with arched entrances on each side facing the points of the compass. 1 These entrances are approached by three steps each on the north and east sides, and by two steps on the south and west sides, where the ground is slightly higher. In the middle of the floor is a square well or hole (visible in my smaller photograph), measuring exactly forty and one-half inches ( 1 m. 13 cm.) in each direction. Evidences are seen of pipes once used to conduct the naphtha to this and to the roof. The top of the shrine is surmounted 1 My measurements on the occasion of my last visit gave in meters,

6 m. 10 cm. x 6 m. 6 cm. or 20 ft. 0 iu. x 19 ft. 11 in.

THE SACKED

PRECINCT

AND

THE SANCTUARY

43

by four chimneys at the corners, from which the flaming gases used to rise when the temple was illumined in times gone by. In the middle of the roof is a square cupola, from whose eastern side there projects, like a flag, a three-pronged fork that resembles tbe trisula, or trident, of the Indian god Siva. High over the archway on the eastward front is a double oblong tablet, three and a half feet high by two broad, the upper section of which shows a swastika emblem and a sun, four flowers, and several nondescript figures.1 The lower section is devoted to an inscription in nine lines in the Nagari character of India, beginning Sati Sri Qane&aya namah, ' In verity, Homage to the Honored Ganesa ' — the common invocation, in Sanskrit writings, to the divinity who removes obstacles. The inscription continues, apparently in the Marwar dialect of the Panjab,2 stating that the shrine was built for Jvala-ji (the same as the flame-faced goddess Jvala-muklii, of Kangra in the Panjab), 3 and quoting a Sanskrit couplet on the merits of a pilgrimage and pious works. It concludes with the date of the Yikramaditya era,' Samvat 1873'( = 1816 A.D.). 4 As 1

These figures may represent a fire-altar, supposed to be behind a trisula, and possibly a chaitya-bell over a trisula. This is the view of Dr. Gray, Dr. Abbott, and myself. The exact measurements of the tablets in meters are: 1 m. 7 cm. high by 59 cm. broad, the upper section being 37 cm. in height, the lower 75 cm. in height. 2 Such is the opinion of Pandit D. Kosambi, of Poona, India, to whom, as to Professor Lanman, Dr. Gray, and especially Dr. J. E. Abbott, I am indebted for suggestions and help in connection with the decipherment. 3 See Stewart (and Cust), The .Hindu Fire Temple at Baku, in Journ. Boy. ¿s. Soc. 1897, p. 311-318. Several references to jv&lamukhi in Sanskrit literature will be found in Bohtlingk and Roth, Skt. Wb. 3. 171-172.

4

There is some uncertainty in regard to the third cipher, whether 1 or 7. I have since found in Eichwald (Reise auf dem, Caspischen Meere, 1. 217, Stuttgart, 1834) that in 1825 (or 1826) he saw and talked with the priest who, he says, had composed the inscription. So far as Eichwald could understand, the name of this recluse was 'Atteit Kanzenger,' from the city of 1 Kotessur' (Kotlsa Shah, [Isvara ?] in the Panjab, N. India); that the temple had been erected ' 16' years previously, and the inscription on it began 'Ssri Gnass' (i.e. GaneSaya), mentioning the name of the Indian ruler 1 Bikker Mandit' (i.e. Vikramaditya) and likewise his own name. I cannot find the priest's name on the tablet, but Eichwald acknowledges the difficulty in understanding what he said.

44

THE OIL-FIELDS

AND

THE FIRE-TEMPLE

OF

BAKU

the inscription is high and in a position not easy for photographing, it was necessary to perform the somewhat acrobatic feat of perching on the top of a long ladder that was shakily held in the air, about ten feet off, by six men. Considering the difficulties of the task, the photograph (the only legible one I have seen) turned out to be quite a success. Around the walls of the precinct, either above or near the side of the doorways of the cells, are fifteen more dedicatory tablets sunk in the plaster and written, with one exception, in the same Nagari character, prevailingly used for Sanskrit, or in a variety of this Indian alphabet. In my note-book I gave them numbers, beginning at the northwest corner near the usual entrance. Two of them in the northern wall are in the Panjabi language and script of Upper India and are of Sikh origin, as they quote from the Adi Granth, the sacred book of Nanak's religion, which was founded about 1500 A.D. Their date, however, must be two centuries or more after that era, as was shown by Dr. Justin E. Abbott, of Bombay, from a couple of photographs of two other tablets in the southern wall, which I brought back after my first visit to the temple. 1 One of these latter inscriptions ( X I I — also published previously by Colonel C. E. Stewart in JRAS. 1897, pp. 311-318) is in Nagari and bears the date ' Samvat 1802' = 1745 A.D. ; the other ( X I I I ) , immediately below it, is in Persian, the only one in that language, and gives the same year according to Muhammadan reckoning, Hijra ' 1158 ' = 1745 A.D.2 I have since found similar dates on still others of the tablets within the precinct. For example, one of the tablets ( I ) near the westby-north corner, beginning Sri Rama sat, contains the year 'Samvat 1770' = 1713 A.D., and seems to be the earliest date found. One of the northern tablets ( I V ) appears to have the date ' Samvat 1782' (?) = 1725 A.D., although the figures for 8 1

Abbott, Indian Inscriptions on the Fire Temple at Baku, in JAOS. 29. 299-304, New Haven, 1908.

2

For a rendering of the Persian tablet see below, p. 53, n. 2.

AN

OIL SPOUTER

THE

BLOWING

OIL FIELDS

ABLAZE

OFF

INSCRIPTION

ON T H E

SHRINE

OF THE

FIRE-TEMPLE,

BAKU

INSCRIPTIONS

AT THE

FIRE-TEMPLE

45

and 2 are very uncertain. Another (XI), on the east side, bearing a swastika followed by Om Sri Gfaneidya namah, has at the end (though almost illegible) ' Sam(v)at 1820' = 1763. Yet another (IX), also on the eastern wall, concludes, ' Samvat 1889 ' = 1782 A.D. (the last cipher being slightly broken) ; while still another (V), on the northern side, closes, as I read it, with ' 1840' = 1783 A.D.1 They all belong, therefore, to the eighteenth century. Besides the total of fifteen inscriptions, dated or undated, within the circumvallation, there are two more on the outside, connected with the square tower near the northeast corner. The lower one of these ( X V I ) is inscribed on a black stone over the arch, facing east; it begins with the common Ganesh formula, mentions Jvala-Ji, the divinity of fire, and concludes with the date ' Samvat 1866' = 1809 A.D. The upper one (XVII), placed on the outside of the story above, is likewise in Nagari, but is less clearly written, and the close is hardly legible in my photograph, which was taken with difficulty, as I had to be held up over the top of the high doorway while I made the snapshot. The tablet has been stupidly set in, or reset, upside down, and below it is scrawled in Russian block letters the name ' N. Mintova.' As I secured photographs of all the inscriptions, and the majority were successful, in case the tablet photographed was still legible,2 it will be possible to study them in greater detail later, and I hope to publish them elsewhere in co-operation with Dr. Abbott, whose interest in the subject has already been proved. 3 1 Of this latter tablet I have two photographs. 2 Inscription X (small) on the east site was wholly illegible, but I photographed it also. As most of the tablets are of cement, and the letters raised, they are peculiarly vulnerable to the attacks of the elements. 8 I did not know until after my last

visit to Baku that copies of the insoriptions had been drawn in 1860-1861 by Dorn, Atlas einer Reise im Kaukasus, St. Petersburg, 1871, reissued in 1895 by the press of the Eoyal Academy of St. Petersburg, in Russian, and also in German as Atlas zu Bemerkungen einer Reise in dem Kaucasus und den südlichen Küstenländern des

46

THE OIL-FIELDS

AND THE FIRE-TEMPLE

OF

BAKU

After this long, and, I fear, somewhat technical, disquisition, I turn to the more attractive problem of determining the possible age of the temple and its buildings. I may state at once that I used to hold the generally current opinion that the sanctuary was of Gabr, or Parsi, origin — a Zoroastrian firetemple. 1 Further study of the subject has forced me to abandon this view (certainly for the present temple) as the following paragraphs will show. So far as my researches go, I have not been able to find any allusion to a temple on the site in the classic writers of Greece and R o m e ; 2 nor in the early Armenian authors; 3 nor do the medieval Arab-Persian geographers refer to it, as we might (5th century or later), to a fire altar Kaspischen Meeres in denJahren 18601861, St. Petersburg, 1905. I have in Bagavan that was fostered by the worked throughout from photographs Sasanian king Ardashir. The reference (Mos. Ilhor. 2. 77) reads in the and personal inspection of the tablets, having secured Corn's work only after German translation by Lauer, Geschichte Gross-Armeniens, p. 136, Rethis chapter was set up. 1 See Jackson, Notes of a Journey gensburg, 1869, ' Auch vermehrt er [d. h. Artaschir] noch den Tempelto Persia, I, in J AOS. 25. 176-178. 2 The Byzantine writer Priscus (d. dienst und befiehlt, das Feuer des after 471 a.d.) incidentally refers to Ormist, welches auf dem Altar in Bagavan war, ohne erlöschen leuchten the region of the naphtha wells of Baku, but not the temple, in an allu- zu lassen.' The modern Armenian author Alishan (Hin Havatk gam sion to ' the flame that comes out of the rock beneath the sea' (rrjv ¿k rijs Hetanosagan gronk Hayots [i.e. Anv

¿L-alc.1 •J*

•

A - J J U

C ' j y

I

j ' j j i

J J»!..

i S ' j

J&.C