Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans, with Documents [2 ed.] 1319021336, 9781319021337

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Freedom on My Mind A History of African Americans with Documents SECOND EDITION Deborah Gray White Rutgers University Mia Bay Rutgers University Waldo E. Martin Jr. University of California, Berkeley

FOR BEDFORD/ST. MARTIN’S Vice President, Editorial, Macmillan Learning Humanities: Edwin Hill Publisher for History: Michael Rosenberg Senior Executive Editor for History: William J. Lombardo Director of Development for History: Jane Knetzger Developmental Editor: Jennifer Jovin Editorial Assistant: Lexi DeConti Senior Production Editor: Rosemary Jaffe Media Producer: Michelle Camisa Production Supervisor: Robert Cherry History Marketing Manager: Melissa Famiglietti Copy Editor: Arthur Johnson Indexer: Leoni Z. McVey Cartography: Mapping Specialists, Ltd. Photo Editor: Cecilia Varas Photo Researcher: Bruce Carson Permissions Editor: Eve Lehmann Senior Art Director: Anna Palchik Text Design: Boynton Hue Studio Cover Design: John Callahan Cover Photos: Top to bottom: Olaudah Equiano: Portrait of an African, c. 1757–1760 (oil on canvas), Ramsay, Allan (1713–1784) (attr. to)/Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter, Devon, UK/Bridgeman Images; Harriet Tubman: Lindsley, H. B., photographer (Harriet Tubman, full-length portrait, standing with

hands on back of a chair) between c. 1860 and 1875. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2003674596; Madame C. J. Walker: The Granger Collection, New York; Shirley Chisholm: © Everett Collection Historical/Alamy Stock Photo; U.S. President Barack Obama: Andrew Harrer/Bloomberg via Getty Images. Copyright © 2017, 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin’s. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted by the applicable copyright statutes or in writing by the Publisher. For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA 02116 ISBN 978-1-319-06604-8 (ePub) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Acknowledgments and copyrights appear on the same page as the text and art selections they cover; these acknowledgments and copyrights constitute an extension of the copyright page.

Preface for Instructors Why This Book This Way “Freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed,” wrote Martin Luther King Jr. in his “Letter from Birmingham City Jail.” Written in April 1963 while he was incarcerated for participating in a nonviolent protest against racial segregation, King’s letter was a rebuttal to white religious leaders who condemned such protests as unwise and untimely. King’s understanding of freedom also summarizes the remarkable history of the many generations of African Americans whose experiences are chronicled in this book. Involuntary migrants to America, the Africans who became African Americans achieved freedom from slavery only after centuries of struggle, protest, and outright revolt. Prior to the Civil War, most were unfree inhabitants of a democratic republic that took shape around the ideals of “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” Although largely exempted from these ideals, African Americans fought for them. Writing of these enslaved noncitizens in the first chapter of The Souls of Black Folk (1903), black historian W. E. B. Du Bois proclaimed, “Few men ever worshipped Freedom with half such unquestioning faith as did the American Negro.” Du Bois saw a similar spirit among his contemporaries: He was certain that “there are to-day no truer exponents of the pure human spirit of the Declaration of Independence than the American Negroes.” Yet Du

Bois lived in an era when freedom was still the “unattained ideal.” Segregated and disfranchised in the South, and subject to racial exploitation and discrimination throughout the nation, black people still sought “the freedom of life and limb, the freedom to work and think, the freedom to love and aspire.” Moreover, as long as black people were not free, America could not be the world’s beacon of liberty. The black freedom struggle would continue, remaking the nation as a whole.

Our Approach Like Du Bois, we, the authors of Freedom on My Mind, take African Americans’ quest for freedom as the central theme of African American history and explore all dimensions of that quest, situated as it must be in the context of American history. Our perspective is that African American history complicates American history rather than diverging from it. This idea is woven into our narrative, which records the paradoxical experiences of a group of people at once the most American of Americans — in terms of their long history in America, their vital role in the American economy, and their enormous impact on American culture — and at the same time the Americans most consistently excluded from the American dream. Juxtaposed against American history as a whole, this is a study of a group of Americans who have had to fight too hard for freedom yet have been systematically excluded from many of the opportunities that allowed other groups to experience the United States as a land of opportunity. This text encourages students to think critically and analytically about African American history and the historical realities behind the American dream. The following themes and emphases are central to our approach: The principal role of the black freedom struggle in the development of the American state. Our approach necessitates a study of the troubled relationship between African Americans and the American democratic state. Freedom on My Mind underscores the

disturbing fact that our democracy arose within the context of a slaveholding society, though it ultimately gave way to the democratic forces unleashed by the Revolution that founded the new nation and the Civil War that reaffirmed federal sovereignty. Exempt from the universalist language of the Declaration of Independence — “all men are created equal” — African Americans have been, as Du Bois insightfully noted, “a concrete test of the underlying principles of the great republic.” Most vividly illustrated during the political upheavals of Reconstruction and the civil rights movement — which is often called America’s second Reconstruction — African American activism has been crucial to the evolution of American democratic institutions. The diversity of African Americans and the African American experience. Any study of the African American freedom struggle must recognize the wide diversity of African Americans who participated in it, whether they did so through open rebellion and visible social protest; through more covert means of defiance, disobedience, and dissent; or simply by surviving and persevering in the face of overwhelming odds. Complicating any conceptions students might have of a single-minded, monolithic African American collective, Freedom on My Mind is mindful of black diversity and the ways and means that gender, class, and ethnicity — as well as region, culture, and politics — shaped the black experience and the struggle for freedom. The book explores African Americans’ search for freedom in slave rebellions, everyday resistance to slavery, the abolitionist movement, Reconstruction politics, post-emancipation

labor struggles, the great migration, military service, civil rights activism, and the black power movement. It shows how American democracy was shaped by African Americans’ search for, as Du Bois put it, “human opportunity” — and the myriad forms and characters that this search assumed. An emphasis on culture as a vital force in black history. Freedom on My Mind also illuminates the rich and self-affirming culture blacks established in response to their exclusion from and often adversarial relationship with American institutions — the life Du Bois metaphorically characterized as “behind the veil.” The rhythms and structure of black social and religious life, the contours of black educational struggles, the music Du Bois described as the “greatest gift of the Negro people” to the American nation, the parallel institutions built as a means of self-affirmation and self-defense — all of these are examined in the context of African Americans’ quest for freedom, escape from degradation, and inclusion in the nation’s body politic. A synthesis that makes black history’s texture and complexity clear. While culture is central to Freedom on My Mind, we offer an analytical approach to African American culture that enables students to see it as a central force that both shaped and reflected other historical developments, rather than as a phenomenon in a vacuum. How do we process black art — poetry, music, paintings, novels, sculptures, quilts — without understanding the political, economic, and social conditions that these pieces express? When

spirituals, jazz, the blues, and rap flow from the economic and social conditions experienced by multitudes of blacks, how can we not understand black music as political? Indeed, African American culture, politics, and identity are inextricably entwined in ways that call for an approach to this subject that blends social, political, economic, religious, and cultural history. Such distinctions often seem arbitrary in American history as a whole and are impossible in chronicling the experiences of African Americans. How can we separate the religious and political history of people whose church leaders have often led their communities from the pulpit and the political stump? Therefore, Freedom on My Mind sidesteps such divisions in favor of a synthesis that privileges the sustained interplay among culture, politics, economics, religion, and social forces in the African American experience. Twenty-first-century scholarship for today’s classroom. Each chapter offers a synthesis of the most up-to-date historiography and historiographical debates in a clear narrative style. So much has changed since Du Bois pioneered the field of African American history. Once relegated to black historians and the oral tradition, African American history as a scholarly endeavor flowered with the social history revolt of the 1960s, when the events of the civil rights movement drew new attention to the African American past and the social upheaval of the 1960s inspired historians to recover the voices of the voiceless. Women’s history also became a subject of serious study during this era, and as a result of all of these changes, we now

survey an American history that has been reconstituted by nearly a half century of sustained attention to race, class, and gender. Drawing on the most recent scholarship, this text not only will deepen students’ understanding of the interconnectedness of African American and American history but also will link African American struggles for political and civil rights, individual autonomy, religious freedom, economic equity, and racial justice to other Americans: white, red, yellow, and brown. As Americans, these groups shared a world subject to similar structural forces, such as environmental changes, demographic forces, white supremacy, and the devastating effects of world events on the American economy in times of global economic upheaval or war. Sometimes blacks bonded with other groups, and sometimes their interests clashed. Often the experiences of other Americans ran parallel to the African American experience, and sometimes African American resistance served as a template for the resistance of others. Freedom on My Mind recounts this complex historical interaction. Although more than a century has unfolded since Du Bois wrote Souls, we have tried to remain true to the spirit of that text and write, with “loving emphasis,” the history of African Americans.

The Docutext Format We believe that the primary goals of our book — to highlight the deep connections between black history and the development of American democracy, illustrate the diversity of black experience, emphasize the centrality of black culture, and document the inextricable connections among black culture, politics, economics, and social and religious life — could not be realized to their fullest extent through narrative alone. Thus Freedom on My Mind’s unique docutext structure combines a brief narrative with rich, themed sets of textual and visual primary documents, reimagining the relationship between the narrative and the historical actors who form it. The narrative portion of each chapter is followed by a set of primary sources focused on a particular chapter topic. Each set is clearly cross-referenced within the narrative so that students can connect it to and interpret it in terms of what they’ve learned. Carefully developed pedagogical elements — including substantive introductions, document headnotes, and Questions for Analysis at the close of each set — help students learn to analyze primary documents and practice “doing” history. These visuals and documents showcase and examine a rich variety of African American cultural elements and underscore the abiding connections among African American political activism, religious beliefs, economic philosophies, musical genres, and literary and fine art expression. A host of pictorial source types — from artifacts, photographs, paintings, and sculpture to cartoons and

propaganda — and documentary sources ranging from personal letters, memoirs, and poetry to public petitions and newspaper accounts illuminate the primary evidence that underpins and complicates the history students learn. Taken together, documents and images as varied as slave captivity narratives, early American visual portrayals of black freedom fighters, the writings of free blacks like Absalom Jones and James Forten, scenes of everyday realities in the 1930s, accounts from Tuskegee Syphilis Study participants, the narratives of the civil rights era, reflections on redefining community in a diverse black America, and the responses of #BlackLivesMatter protesters and the police to the deaths of young black men all provide students with a vivid and appealing illustration of the interplay of societal forces and the centrality of African American culture to American culture. By placing these historical actors in conversation with one another, we enable students to witness firsthand the myriad variations of and nuances within individual and collective black experiences and to appreciate the points at which African Americans have diverged, as well as those at which they have agreed. Together with a narrative that presents and analyzes their context, these documents facilitate students’ comprehension of the textured, complicated story that is the history of African America.

Support for Students Freedom on My Mind includes a variety of carefully crafted pedagogical features to help students grasp, assimilate, analyze, and recall what they’ve learned. Each chapter opens with a thematic vignette illustrating the issues confronting African Americans of that time period and then transitions to an informative introduction that sets out the thesis and takeaway points of the chapter. A chapter timeline highlights the most significant events of both African American history and general United States history during that time period, providing a quick reference for students. At the end of each chapter’s narrative, a Conclusion allows students to retrace their steps through the chapter and previews the chapter that follows. A Chapter Review section provides a list of key terms — all of which are bolded when first defined in the narrative and listed with their definitions in a Glossary of Key Terms at the end of the book — as well as three to five Review Questions encouraging students to think critically about the deeper implications of each chapter section and the connections between sections. In addition to the visual sources in the document sets, the narrative is enhanced by the inclusion of over 160 images and 35 maps and By the Numbers graphs, each with a substantive caption that helps students relate what they’re seeing to what they’ve read and analyze quantitative data.

To facilitate further research and study, we have included extensive Notes and section-specific lists of Suggested References at the close of every chapter. Finally, we have provided an Introduction for Students that introduces students to the work of the historian and the practice of primary source analysis, and two Appendices that include a wide variety of tables, charts, and vital documents, many of them annotated to provide a deeper reference tool. We are confident that these elements will be useful not only for students but also for instructors who wish to introduce students to the practice of history and provide the resources their students will need for research projects, further reading, and reference.

Support for Instructors We structured this book with the instructor in mind as well as the student: We believe that the book’s docutext format provides the convenience and flexibility of a textbook and source reader in one, allowing instructors a unique opportunity to incorporate primary readings and visuals seamlessly into their classes and introduce students to primary-source analysis and the practice of history. The Document Projects and the pedagogy that supports them can be used in many ways — from in-class discussion prompts to takehome writing assignments or essay questions on exams. An Instructor’s Resource Manual for Freedom on My Mind provides a variety of creative suggestions for making the best use of the documents program and for incorporating rich multimedia resources into the course. The Bedford Lecture Kit and online test bank provide additional instructional support. For more information on available student and instructor resources and the wide range of books that can be packaged with this text at a discount, see the Versions and Supplements section on pages x–xii.

New to the Second Edition Based on reviewer feedback to the first edition, we decided to consolidate the written and visual primary sources at the ends of the chapters into mixed-source Document Projects. As a result, we were able to expand the number and types of documents offered on a particular topic, such as those on the Middle Passage (chapter 1), debt peonage (chapter 9), lynching (chapter 9), and the Tuskegee experiments during World War II (chapter 11). The new edition also gave us the opportunity to add wholly new document sets on the codification of slavery in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (chapter 2) and the Black Lives Matter movement (chapter 15). Outside of the Document Projects, we expanded coverage of key topics in both African American and general U.S. history. In the eighteenth century, we further explore the impact of the Great Awakening on slaves’ lives (chapter 3) and go into more depth about the significance of Crispus Attucks to American Revolutionary history (chapter 3). We examine African Americans’ roles in the War of 1812, both as members of the nation’s military forces and as free black civilians (chapter 4). We added to our examination of the evolution of race relations over the last one hundred years by discussing racial discrimination in labor unions (chapter 10), white backlash against affirmative action in the late 1960s and early 1970s (chapter 14), increased tension among blacks and other racial groups that also felt marginalized and oppressed (chapter 14), and the relationship between the black community and law enforcement

(chapter 15). Finally, we updated the last chapter to include an analysis of President Obama’s second term.

Acknowledgments In completing this book, we owe thanks to the many talented and generous friends, colleagues, and editors who have provided us with suggestions, critiques, and much careful reading along the way. Foremost among them is the hardworking group of scholarteachers who reviewed the first edition for us. We are deeply grateful to them for their insights and suggestions, and we hope we do them justice in the second edition. We thank Luther Adams, University of Washington Tacoma; Ezrah Aharone, Delaware State University; Jacqueline Akins, Community College of Philadelphia; Okey P. Akubeze, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Lauren K. Anderson, Luther College; Scott Barton, East Central University; Diane L. Beers, Holyoke Community College; Dan Berger, University of Washington Bothell; Christopher Bonner, University of Maryland; Susan Bragg, Georgia Southwestern State University; Lester Brooks, Anne Arundel Community College; E. Tsekani Browne, Montgomery College; Monica L. Butler, Seminole State College of Florida; Thomas L. Bynum, Middle Tennessee State University; Erin D. Chapman, George Washington University; Meredith Clark-Wiltz, Franklin College; Alexandra Cornelius, Florida International University; Julie Davis, Cerritos College; John Kyle Day, University of Arkansas at Monticello; Dorothy Drinkard-Hawkshawe, East Tennessee State University; Nancy J. Duke, Daytona State College, Daytona Beach; Reginald K. Ellis, Florida A&M University; Keona K. Ervin, University of Missouri–Columbia; Joshua David Farrington,

Eastern Kentucky University; Marvin Fletcher, Ohio University; Amy Forss, Metropolitan Community College; Delia C. Gillis, University of Central Missouri; Kevin D. Greene, The University of Southern Mississippi; LaVerne Gyant, Northern Illinois University; Timothy Hack, Middlesex County College; Kenneth M. Hamilton, Southern Methodist University; Martin Hardeman, Eastern Illinois University; Jarvis Hargrove, North Carolina Central University; Jim C. Harper II, North Carolina Central University; Margaret Harris, Southern New Hampshire University; Patricia Herb, North Central State College; Elizabeth Herbin-Triant, University of Massachusetts Lowell; Pippa Holloway, Middle Tennessee State University; Marilyn Howard, Columbus State Community College; Carol Sue Humphrey, Oklahoma Baptist University; Bryan Jack, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Jerry Rafiki Jenkins, Palomar College; Karen J. Johns, University of Nebraska at Omaha; Winifred M. Johnson, BethuneCookman University; Gary Jones, American International College; Ishmael Kimbrough III, Bakersfield College; Michelle Kuhl, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh; Lynda Lamarre, Georgia Military College; Renee Lansley, Framingham State University; Talitha LeFlouria, University of Virginia; Monroe Little, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis; Margaret A. Lowe, Bridgewater State University; Vince Lowery, University of Wisconsin–Green Bay; Robert Luckett, Jackson State University; Steven Lurenz, Mesa Community College; Peggy Macdonald, Florida Polytechnic University; Bruce Mactavish, Washburn University; Gerald McCarthy, St. Thomas Aquinas College; Suzanne McCormack, Community College of Rhode Island; Anthony Merritt, San Diego State

University; Karen K. Miller, Boston College; Steven Millner, San Jose State University; Billie J. Moore, El Camino Compton Center; Maggi M. Morehouse, Coastal Carolina University; Lynda Morgan, Mount Holyoke College; Earl Mulderink, Southern Utah University; Cassandra Newby-Alexander, Norfolk State University; Victor D. Padilla Jr., Wright College; N. Josiah Pamoja, Georgia Military College, Fairburn; Leslie Patrick, Bucknell University; Abigail Perkiss, Kean University; Alex Peshkoff, Cosumnes River College; Melvin Pritchard, West Valley College; Margaret Reed, Northern Virginia Community College, Annandale Campus; Stephanie Richmond, Norfolk State University; John Riedl, Montgomery College; Natalie J. Ring, University of Texas at Dallas; Maria Teresa Romero, Saddleback College; Tara Ross, Onondaga Community College; Selena Sanderfer, Western Kentucky University; Jonathan D. Sassi, CUNY–College of Staten Island; Gerald Schumacher, Nunez Community College; Gary Shea, Center for Advanced Studies and the Arts; Tobin Shearer, University of Montana; John Howard Smith, Texas A&M University–Commerce; Solomon Smith, Georgia Southern University; Pamela A. Smoot, Southern Illinois University Carbondale; Karen Sotiropoulos, Cleveland State University; Melissa M. Soto-Schwartz, Cuyahoga Community College; Idris Kabir Syed, Kent State University; Linda D. Tomlinson, Fayetteville State University; Felicia A. Viator, University of California, Berkeley; Eric M. Washington, Calvin College; and Joanne G. Woodard, University of North Texas.

Our debt to the many brilliant editors at Bedford/St. Martin’s is equally immeasurable. We are grateful to publisher Michael Rosenberg, senior executive editor William J. Lombardo, director of development Jane Knetzger, history marketing manager Melissa Famiglietti, editorial assistant Lexi DeConti, and the other members of Bedford’s outstanding history team for guiding the development of this second edition. We also thank Bruce Carson and Cecilia Varas for researching and clearing the book’s photographs, Kalina Ingham and Eve Lehmann for clearing the text permissions, Arthur Johnson for copyediting the manuscript, Roberta Sobotka and Linda McLatchie for proofreading, Leoni Z. McVey for indexing, Cia Boynton for her design of the book’s interior, and John Callahan for his design of the cover. We also want to acknowledge Rosemary Jaffe, our production editor for both the first and second editions, who coordinated the work of copyediting, proofreading, and illustrating this book with amazing grace, good humor, and attention to detail. Finally, we would like to thank Jennifer Jovin, whose careful editing of the second edition helped streamline and fine-tune the original text. Letting go of carefully crafted paragraphs and sections is always difficult, but Jennifer’s insight, patience, and gentle nudging made it easier than usual. Without her guidance we would not have been able to reimagine the book. We thank them all for making the writing of this book such a pleasant experience. In writing this book we have also relied on a large number of talented scholars and friends within the academy to supply us with guidance, editorial expertise, bright ideas, research assistance, and

many other forms of support, and we would like to thank them here. The enormous — but by no means comprehensive — list of colleagues, friends, students, and former students to whom we are indebted includes Isra Ali, Marsha Barrett, Rachel Bernard, Melissa Cooper, John Day, Jeff Dowd, Joseph L. Duong, Ann Fabian, Jared Farmer, Larissa Fergeson, Krystal Frazier, Raymond Gavins, Sharon Harley, Nancy Hewitt, Martha Jones, Stephanie Jones-Rogers, Mia Kissil, Christopher Lehman, Thomas Lekan, Emily Lieb, Leon F. Litwack, Julie Livingston, David Lucander, Catherine L. Macklin, Jaime Martinez, Story Matkin-Rawn, Gregory Mixon, Donna Murch, Kimberly Phillips, Alicia Rodriguez, David Schoebun, Karcheik SimsAlvarado, Jason Sokol, Melissa Stein, Ellen Stroud, Melissa Stuckey, Anantha Sudakar, Patricia Sullivan, Keith Wailoo, Dara Walker, and Wendy Wright. Deborah would especially like to thank Maya White Pascual for her invaluable assistance with many of the documents in the last third of the book. Her insight, skill, and talent were absolutely indispensable. Finally, all three of us are grateful to our families and loved ones for the support and forbearance that they showed us during our work on this book. Deborah Gray White Mia Bay Waldo E. Martin Jr.

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Get the Right Version for Your Class To accommodate different course lengths and course budgets, Freedom on My Mind is available in several different formats, including e-Books, which are available at a substantial discount. Combined edition (chapters 1–15) — available in paperback and e-Book formats Volume 1: To 1885 (chapters 1–8) — available in paperback and e-Book formats Volume 2: Since 1865 (chapters 8–15) — available in paperback and e-Book formats Students can find PDF versions of the e-Book at our publishing partners’ sites, such as VitalSource, Barnes & Noble NookStudy, RedShelf, Kno, CafeScribe, and Chegg. As noted below, any of these volumes can be packaged with additional titles for a discount. To get ISBNs for discount packages, visit macmillanlearning.com or contact your Bedford/St. Martin’s sales representative.

Take Advantage of Instructor Resources Bedford/St. Martin’s has developed a rich array of teaching resources for this book and for this course. They range from lecture and presentation materials to course management options. Most can be downloaded at macmillanlearning.com. Bedford Coursepack for Blackboard, Canvas, Brightspace by D2L, or Moodle. We can help you integrate our rich content into your course management system. Registered instructors can download coursepacks that include our popular free resources and book-specific content for Freedom on My Mind. Visit macmillanlearning.com to find your version or download your coursepack. Instructor’s Resource Manual. The instructor’s manual offers both experienced and first-time instructors tools for preparing lectures and running discussions. It includes content learning objectives, annotated chapter outlines, and strategies for teaching with the textbook, plus a survival guide for first-time teaching assistants. Guide to Changing Editions. Designed to facilitate an instructor’s transition from the previous edition of Freedom on My Mind to this new edition, this guide presents an overview of major changes as well as changes within each chapter.

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accompanying guide provides each clip’s historical context, ideas for use, and suggested questions.

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Brief Contents CHAPTER 1 From Africa to America, 1441–1808 CHAPTER 2 African Slavery in North America, 1619–1740 CHAPTER 3 African Americans in the Age of Revolution, 1741– 1783 CHAPTER 4 Slavery and Freedom in the New Republic, 1775– 1820 CHAPTER 5 Black Life in the Slave South, 1820–1860 CHAPTER 6 The Northern Black Freedom Struggle and the Coming of the Civil War, 1830–1860 CHAPTER 7 Freedom Rising: The Civil War, 1861–1865 CHAPTER 8 Reconstruction: The Making and Unmaking of a Revolution, 1865–1885 CHAPTER 9 Black Life and Culture during the Nadir, 1880–1915 CHAPTER 10 The New Negro Comes of Age, 1915–1940 CHAPTER 11 Fighting for a Double Victory in the World War II Era, 1939–1948 CHAPTER 12 The Early Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1963 CHAPTER 13 Multiple Meanings of Freedom: The Movement Broadens, 1961–1976 CHAPTER 14 Racial Progress in an Era of Backlash and Change, 1967–2000 CHAPTER 15 African Americans and the New Century, 2000– Present

Contents Preface for Instructors Versions and Supplements Maps and Figures Introduction for Students CHAPTER 1 From Africa to America, 1441–1808

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: Prince Henry’s African Captives African Origins

The History of West Africa Slavery in West Africa The Rise of the Transatlantic Slave Trade Europe in the Age of the Slave Trade The Enslavement of Indigenous Peoples The First Africans in the Americas The Business of Slave Trading The Long Middle Passage Capture and Confinement On the Slave Coast Inside the Slave Ship Hardship and Misery on Board Conclusion: The Slave Trade’s Diaspora Chapter 1 Review DOCUMENT PROJECT: Firsthand Accounts of the Slave Trade OLAUDAH EQUIANO, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, 1789 • BELINDA, The Petition of Belinda, 1782 • JAMES BARBOT Jr., General Observations on the Management of Slaves, 1700 • A Slave in Revolt • ALEXANDER FALCONBRIDGE, An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa, 1788 • The Brig Sally’s Log Notes

• Suggested References CHAPTER 2 African Slavery in North America, 1619–1740

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: “20. and Odd Negroes”: The Story of Virginia’s First African Americans Slavery and Freedom in Early English North America Settlers, Servants, and Slaves in the Chesapeake The Expansion of Slavery in the Chesapeake The Creation of the Carolinas Africans in New England Slavery in the Middle Atlantic Colonies Slavery and Half-Freedom in New Netherland

Slavery in England’s Middle Colonies Frontiers and Forced Labor Slavery in French Louisiana Black Society in Spanish Florida Slavery and Servitude in Early Georgia The Stono Rebellion Conclusion: Regional Variations of Early American Slavery Chapter 2 Review DOCUMENT PROJECT: Making Slaves The Codification of Slavery and Race in Seventeenth-Century Virginia, 1630–1680 • The Massachusetts Body of Liberties, 1641 • An Act for Regulating of Slaves in New Jersey, 1713–1714 • The South Carolina Slave Code, 1740 • SAMUEL SEWALL, The Selling of Joseph, 1700 • The Code Noir Notes • Suggested References CHAPTER 3 African Americans in the Age of Revolution, 1741– 1783

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: The New York Slave Plot of 1741 African American Life in Eighteenth-Century North America Slaves and Free Blacks across the Colonies Shaping an African American Culture The Slaves’ Great Awakening The African American Revolution The Road to Independence Black Patriots Black Loyalists Slaves, Soldiers, and the Outcome of the Revolution

American Victory, British Defeat The Fate of Black Loyalists Closer to Freedom Conclusion: The American Revolution’s Mixed Results for Blacks Chapter 3 Review DOCUMENT PROJECT: Black Freedom Fighters PHILLIS WHEATLEY, A Poem to the Earl of Dartmouth, 1772 • PHILLIS WHEATLEY, Letter to the Reverend Samson Occom, 1774 • LEMUEL HAYNES, Liberty Further Extended, 1776 • JEAN BAPTISTE ANTOINE DE VERGER, Soldiers in Uniform, 1781 • BOSTON KING, Memoirs of a Black Loyalist, 1798 • JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, The Death of Major Peirson, 1782–1784 Notes • Suggested References CHAPTER 4 Slavery and Freedom in the New Republic, 1775– 1820

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: Benjamin Banneker Questions Thomas Jefferson about Slavery in the New Republic The Limits of Democracy The Status of Slavery in the New Nation Slavery’s Cotton Frontiers Slavery and Empire Slavery and Freedom outside the Plantation South Urban Slavery and Southern Free Blacks Gabriel’s Rebellion Achieving Emancipation in the North Free Black Life in the New Republic

Free Black Organizations Free Black Education and Employment White Hostility Rises, Yet Blacks Are Still Called to Serve in the War of 1812 The Colonization Debate Conclusion: African American Freedom in Black and White Chapter 4 Review DOCUMENT PROJECT: Free Black Activism ABSALOM JONES AND OTHERS, Petition to Congress on the Fugitive Slave Act, 1799 • JAMES FORTEN, Letters from a Man of Colour, 1813 • Sentiments of the People of Color, 1817 • SAMUEL E. CORNISH AND JOHN BROWN RUSSWURM, An Editorial from Freedom’s Journal, 1827 • Kidnapping of an African American Mother and Child, c. 1840 • EDWARD WILLIAMS CLAY, Bobalition, 1833 Notes • Suggested References CHAPTER 5 Black Life in the Slave South, 1820–1860

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: William Wells Brown and Growing Up in the Slave South The Expansion and Consolidation of Slavery Slavery, Cotton, and American Industrialization The Missouri Compromise Crisis Slavery Expands into Indian Territory The Domestic Slave Trade Black Challenges to Slavery Denmark Vesey’s Plot David Walker’s Exile

Nat Turner’s Rebellion, the Amistad Case, and the Creole Insurrection Everyday Resistance to Slavery Disobedience and Defiance Runaways Who Escaped from Slavery Survival, Community, and Culture Slave Religion Gender, Age, and Work Marriage and Family Conclusion: Surviving Slavery Chapter 5 Review DOCUMENT PROJECT: Slave Testimony JAMES CURRY, Narrative of James Curry, a Fugitive Slave, 1840 • Slave Punishment • LEWIS CLARKE, Questions and Answers about Slavery, 1845 • MARY REYNOLDS, The Days of Slavery, 1937 Notes • Suggested References CHAPTER 6 The Northern Black Freedom Struggle and the Coming of the Civil War, 1830–1860

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: Mary Ann Shadd and the Black Liberation Struggle before the Civil War The Boundaries of Freedom Racial Discrimination in the Era of the Common Man The Growth of Free Black Communities in the North Black Self-Help in an Era of Moral Reform Forging a Black Freedom Struggle

Building a National Black Community: The Black Convention Movement and the Black Press Growing Black Activism in Literature, Politics, and the Justice System Abolitionism: Moral Suasion, Political Action, Race, and Gender Slavery and the Coming of the Civil War Westward Expansion and Slavery in the Territories The Fugitive Slave Crisis and Civil Disobedience Confrontations in “Bleeding Kansas” and the Courts Emigration and John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry Conclusion: Whose Country Is It? Chapter 6 Review DOCUMENT PROJECT: Forging an African American Nation — Slave and Free, North and South SARAH MAPPS DOUGLASS, To Make the Slaves’ Cause Our Own, 1832 • HENRY HIGHLAND GARNET, An Address to the Slaves of the United States of America, 1843 • FREDERICK DOUGLASS, What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?, 1852 • Escaping Slavery via the Underground Railroad • Dred and Harriet Scott • Jim Crow Notes • Suggested References CHAPTER 7 Freedom Rising: The Civil War, 1861–1865

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: Robert Smalls and the African American Freedom Struggle during the Civil War The Coming of War and the Seizing of Freedom, 1861–1862 War Aims and Battlefield Realities Union Policy on Black Soldiers and Black Freedom Refugee Slaves and Freedpeople Turning Points, 1862–1863 The Emancipation Proclamation The U.S. Colored Troops African Americans in the Major Battles of 1863

Home Fronts and War’s End, 1863–1865 Riots and Restoration of the Union Black Civilians at Work for the War Union Victory, Slave Emancipation, and the Renewed Struggle for Equality Conclusion: Emancipation and Equality Chapter 7 Review DOCUMENT PROJECT: Wartime and Emancipation ALFRED M. GREEN, Let Us . . . Take Up the Sword, 1861 • ISAIAH C. WEARS, The Evil Injustice of Colonization, 1862 • SUSIE KING TAYLOR, Reminiscences of My Life in Camp, 1902 • WILLIAM TOLMAN CARLTON, Watch Meeting — Dec. 31st — Waiting for the Hour, 1863 • Private Hubbard Pryor, before and after Enlisting in the U.S. Colored Troops, 1864 • Freedmen’s Memorial, 1876 Notes • Suggested References CHAPTER 8 Reconstruction: The Making and Unmaking of a Revolution, 1865–1885

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: Jourdon and Mandy Anderson Find Security in Freedom after Slavery A Social Revolution Freedom and Family Church and Community Land and Labor The Hope of Education A Short-Lived Political Revolution The Political Contest over Reconstruction Black Reconstruction The Defeat of Reconstruction

Opportunities and Limits outside the South Autonomy in the West The Right to Work for Fair Wages The Struggle for Equal Rights Conclusion: Revolutions and Reversals Chapter 8 Review DOCUMENT PROJECT: The Vote SOJOURNER TRUTH, Equal Voting Rights, 1867 • PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN EQUAL RIGHTS ASSOCIATION, A Debate: Negro Male Suffrage vs. Woman Suffrage, 1869 • MARY ANN SHADD CARY, Woman’s Right to Vote, early 1870s • A. R. WAUD, The First Vote, 1867 • THOMAS NAST, The Ignorant Vote, 1876 • THOMAS NAST, Colored Rule in a Reconstructed(?) State, 1874 Notes • Suggested References CHAPTER 9 Black Life and Culture during the Nadir, 1880–1915

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: Ida B. Wells: Creating Hope and Community amid Extreme Repression Racism and Black Challenges Racial Segregation Ideologies of White Supremacy Disfranchisement and Political Activism Lynching and the Campaign against It Freedom’s First Generation Black Women and Men in the Era of Jim Crow Black Communities in the Cities of the New South New Cultural Expressions Migration, Accommodation, and Protest

Migration Hopes and Disappointments The Age of Booker T. Washington The Emergence of W. E. B. Du Bois Conclusion: Racial Uplift in the Nadir Chapter 9 Review DOCUMENT PROJECT: Agency and Constraint The Lynching of Charles Mitchell, 1897 • The Lynching of Virgil Jones, Robert Jones, Thomas Jones, and Joseph Riley, 1908 • A GEORGIA NEGRO PEON, The New Slavery in the South, 1904 • W. E. B. DU BOIS, Along the Color Line, 1910 • LETTER TO THE EDITOR, From the South, 1911 • Chain Gang Notes • Suggested References CHAPTER 10 The New Negro Comes of Age, 1915–1940

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: Zora Neale Hurston and the Advancement of the Black Freedom Struggle The Great Migration and the Great War Origins and Patterns of Migration Black Communities in the Metropolises of the North African Americans and the Great War The New Negro Arrives Institutional Bases for Social Science and Historical Studies The Universal Negro Improvement Association The Harlem Renaissance The Great Depression and the New Deal Economic Crisis and the Roosevelt Presidency

African American Politics Black Culture in Hard Times Conclusion: Mass Movements and Mass Culture Chapter 10 Review DOCUMENT PROJECT: Communist Radicalism and Everyday Realities W. E. B. DU BOIS, Negro Editors on Communism: A Symposium of the American Negro Press, 1932 • CARL MURPHY, Baltimore Afro-American • W. P. DABNEY, Cincinnati Union • ANGELO HERNDON, You Cannot Kill the Working Class, 1934 • RICHARD WRIGHT, 12 Million Black Voices, 1941 • RUSSELL LEE, Negro Drinking at “Colored” Water Cooler in Streetcar Terminal, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 1939 • ARTHUR ROTHSTEIN, Girl at Gee’s Bend, 1937 • MARION POST WOLCOTT, Negroes Jitterbugging in a Juke Joint on Saturday Afternoon, Clarksdale, Mississippi Delta, 1939 Notes • Suggested References CHAPTER 11 Fighting for a Double Victory in the World War II Era, 1939–1948

CHAPTER VIGNETTE: James Tillman and Evelyn Bates Mobilize for War The Crisis of World War II America Enters the War and States Its Goals African Americans Respond to the War Racial Violence and Discrimination in the Military African Americans on the Home Front New Jobs, Wartime Migration, and Race Riots Organizing for Economic Opportunity The Struggle for Citizenship Rights Fighting and Dying for the Right to Vote

New Beginnings in Political and Cultural Life Desegregating the Army and the GI Bill Conclusion: A Partial Victory Chapter