Forest Hydrology An Introduction to Water and Forests [1 ed.] 9780849313639, 0-8493-1363-5

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Forest hydrology: An introduction to water and forests

Forest hydrology: An introduction to water and forests Mingteh Chang

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chang, Mingteh. Forest hydrology: an introduction to water and forests p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-1363-5 (alk. paper) 1. Hydrology, Forest. I. Title. GB842 .C535 2002 551.48'0915'2—dc21

2002023354 CIP

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Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2003 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-1363-5 Library of Congress Card Number 2002023354 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper

The rivers run into the sea but the sea is never full, and the water returns again to the rivers, and flows again to the sea. Ecclesiastes 1:7 The Old Testament

Preface This book is based on lecture material in the course "Forest Hydrology," offered to undergraduate and postgraduate students in the Arthur Temper College of Forestry at Stephen F. Austin State University, Texas. As is the case with many other forestry programs in the U.S., forest hydrology (or watershed management) is the only required course in water sciences in the curriculum. Because students are new to the subject, it is necessary to cover some basic topics in water and water resources before discussing topics in forest hydrology. Although a few texts on forest hydrology are available for college students, they cover very little or none of the background on water resources. On the other hand, books dealing with water resources do not cover topics in forest–water relations. This book intends to fill that gap and provide an introduction to forest hydrology by bringing water resources and forest–water relations into a single volume, and broadly discussing issues that are common to both. It focuses on concepts, processes, and general principles; hydrologic analyses are not emphasized here. The book comprises 12 chapters and 3 appendices. Subjects in the 12 chapters are arranged in two general groups. The first six chapters deal with the introduction and basic background in water and water resources, while the remaining six chapters address the impact of forests on water. Chapter 7 describes forests and forest characteristics important to water circulation and sediment movement. It serves as an introduction to the study of forest impacts on water resources — as a bridge connecting water and forests. The impacts — precipitation, vaporization, streamflow, and stream sediment — of forests on the hydrologic cycle are discussed separately in Chapters 8 through 11. Streamflow topics include water quantity, water quality, and stream habitat, while stream sediment topics include erosion processes, sediment predictions, and forest impacts. The stream habitat section in Chapter 10 (“Forests and streamflow”) was not originally included in this book. Its inclusion is due to the suggestion of Dr. Younes Alila of the University of British Columbia and the increasing interest among forest hydrologists in aquatic environment in relation to the fish population, especially in the Pacific Northwest. Also, sediment predictions are becoming a management tool for controlling nonpoint sources of water pollution in forested watersheds. Basic prediction concepts and approaches are included in the text too. The chapters on streamflow and stream sediment are therefore much longer than the chapters on precipitation and vaporization. Chapter 12 deals with forest-hydrology research. It covers research issues, objectives, principles, and methodology along with a step-by-step numerical example of watershed calibration and assessment of treatment effects. The laborious presentation in Chapter 12 provides a foundation for those who might pursue graduate studies or engage in watershed research. The book’s discussion of hydrologic measurements covers only precipitation, streamflow, and stream sediments. Subjects for each type of measurement include general background, available instruments, and sampling procedures. They are presented in the appendices for those who practice hydrology in the field.

The use of mathematical expressions is inevitable in hydrology and other earth sciences. This book uses mathematical equations in forms for which a knowledge of college algebra and trigonometry is sufficient for understanding. Readers with less mathematical background can skip the difficult equations without hindering their comprehension. The book can be used as a text for students in agriculture, forestry, and land-resources management, and as a reference for foresters, rangers, geographers, watershed managers, biologists, agriculturists, environmentalists, policy makers, engineers, and others who may need such background in their professions. Mingteh Chang

Acknowledgments I am much obliged to Stephen Fuller Austin State University for the award of a sabbatical leave spring semester 2001 to complete this book. The support of Dr. R. Scott Beasley, dean of the College of Forestry, during my sabbatical leave is gratefully acknowledged. Critical reviews of selected chapters were provided by Drs. Scott Beasley, Douglas G. Boyer, Thomas O. Callaway, Dean Coble, George G. Ice, Ernest Ledger, James A. Lynch, Darrel L. McDonald, Ahmad A. Nuruddin, David A. Rutherford, Donald J. Turton, William E. Sharpe, Kim L. Wong, Lizhu Wang, and Jimmy Williams. Their corrections and suggestions have greatly improved the readability, clarity, and contents of the final manuscript. Drs. Mason D. Bryant, John M. Laflen, Kenneth Farrish, David Kulhavy, Shiyou Li, and Brian Oswald provided literature information and other assistance. Matthew McBroom was the first instructor to use the rough draft of the manuscript in a senior class. His experience with this book and the students in his class provided useful perspective. Mark C. Cochran of the Texas Soil and Water Conservation Board proofread the entire manuscript with exceptional care. He also called my attention to a number of issues and provided new references that are important to forestry students. Mian Ahmad enthusiastically helped me with a literature search, graphics, files, and computer programs. Brent Bishop, Misti Compton, Richard Ford, James Hoard, Danny McMahon, Adam G. Mouton, and Melissa Watson provided assistance with drafting, computer files, a literature search, proofreading, and table preparation. The entire CRC editorial staff, including, but not limited to, John Sulzycki (senior editor), Judith S. Kamin (project editor), Jamie B. Sigal (production coordinator), and Kristina M. Rosello (editorial assistant), provided assistance and numerous suggestions. Their professionalism and helpfulness made the completion of this book project smooth and orderly. My children Benjamin, Rebecca, and Solomon also helped with some computer programs, proofreading, and pictures. Finally, the love and encouragement of my wife Phyllis were indispensable in the preparation of the manuscript. This book could not have been completed without the support, assistance, and encouragement of the aforementioned individuals. I am very grateful and indebted to all of them. I am also grateful to the following organizations, individuals, and publishers for permission to reproduce copyrighted materials: American Water Resources Association; American Society of Agricultural Engineers; Harwood Academic Publishers; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.; Springer-Verlag; GmbH & Co. KG; and UNSECO Press.

Author Dr. Mingteh Chang is Regents professor of forest hydrology at the Arthur Temple College of Forestry, Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Texas. He has taught courses there on forest hydrology, watershed management, environmental measurements, hydrologic measurements, hydrologic analyses, microclimate, forest soils, and introduction to forestry at the undergraduate and graduate levels since 1975. Dr. Chang was born in China and grew up in Taiwan. He worked for 3 years as watershed technologist for the Taiwan provincial government and for 2 years as a laboratory lecturer at National Chung-Shing University, Taichung, Taiwan before he started his graduate work at Pennsylvania State University and West Virginia University. He is a certified professional hydrologist and a member of the American Water Resources Association, American Geophysical Union, International Association of Hydrological Science, the Soil and Water Conservation Society of America, and the Texas Forestry Association. His major interests in research are forest–water relations, conservation plants, nonpoint water pollution, precipitation hydrology, and forest climatology. Dr. Chang has four patents and has authored or co-authored more than 80 technical articles and three books.

Contents Chapter 1

Introduction..............................................................................................................1

Chapter 2

Functions of water ..................................................................................................5

Chapter 3

Water as a science .................................................................................................23

Chapter 4

Properties of water................................................................................................37

Chapter 5

Water distribution .................................................................................................57

Chapter 6

Water resource problems .....................................................................................73

Chapter 7

Characteristic forests...........................................................................................109

Chapter 8

Forests and precipitation ...................................................................................131

Chapter 9

Forests and vaporization....................................................................................151

Chapter 10

Forests and streamflow ......................................................................................175

Chapter 11

Forests and stream sediment.............................................................................233

Chapter 12

Research in forest hydrology ............................................................................279

Appendix A Precipitation measurements ..............................................................................307 Appendix B Streamflow measurements.................................................................................319 Appendix C Measurements of stream sediment ..................................................................341 Index..............................................................................................................................................361

chapter one

Introduction Contents I. Water spectrum....................................................................................................................1 II. Forest spectrum ...................................................................................................................2 III. Issues and perspective........................................................................................................3 References .........................................................................................................................................4

Water and forests are two of the most important resources on earth. They both provide food, energy, habitat, and many other biological, chemical, physical, and socioeconomic functions and services to lives and the environment. Without water, there would be no forests. With forests, the occurrence, distribution, and circulation of water are modified, the quality of water is enhanced, and the timing of flow is altered. Indeed, water and forests impact each other greatly.

I.

Water spectrum

Water is essential to life, the environment, and human development. Flora and fauna depend on water for growth, development, and survival, and water sustains human societies; environments without water are hot, dry, uncomfortable, and unsuitable for living. Fortunately, the Earth is blessed with water. More than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by water, and a layer of water vapor up to about 90 km thick embraces the entire planet. Water makes Earth flourish with lives of various forms and with places for cultures to develop. Although water on Earth is so abundant in quantity and so vast in distribution, it still imposes problems in many regions. At least 80 countries, accounting for nearly 40% of the world’s population, have experienced periodic shortages of water preventing them from growing enough food to support their people (Miller, 1999). Water-pollution problems have made the regions with water shortages even worse. Water shortage not only creates many problems and inconveniences in daily activities, but also affects lifestyles and cultural development. At Chungungo, Chile, each villager lived on 13 liters of water per day delivered by trucks once a week. In the northwest plateau of China, it is said that people take only three baths in their lifetimes: when they are born, when they are married, and when they die. Indeed, water is a luxury to many people in many regions. On the other hand, many people in other parts of the world suffer damage, casualties, and life disruptions from disastrous floods. A major flood occurred in the upper Mississippi and lower Missouri rivers in the summer of 1993. The flood affected nine states in 1

2

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

which more than 41,000 km2 of farmland and 75 small towns were completely under water for months. Property damages were estimated to exceed $20 billion (Dvorchak, 1993). Probably the most devastating flood in modern times was the Yellow River (Huang Ho) flood in China, which occurred between July and November 1931. It completely inundated 87,000 km2, partially inundated another 20,000 km2, drowned 1 million people, and left 80 million people homeless (Clark, 1982). Since water is so crucial to life, livestock are grazed in areas with plenty of water and grass, crops are grown along floodplains, cities are built along major rivers and seaports, and civilizations are developed in regions with mild climates and an abundance of water resources. The Nile River has thus been referred to as the “Springs of Life” and the Yellow River as the “Cradle of Chinese Civilization.” However, the uneven distribution of water on Earth has caused major disputes over water throughout history and in modern times, between nations, within countries, and among people. Wars over water between nations were fought in the Mideast throughout ancient history and continue even today. Babylon, for example, was a center of dispersal of agricultural knowledge in early historical times, about 5000 years ago. Babylonia occupied the lower delta of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, which was exceptionally fertile because of alluvial deposits from Assyrian highlands and the retreat of the great ice sheet. The constant wars for water supply between Babylonia and Assyria partially contributed to the fall of Babylonian civilization. In the U.S., the 19th-century California gold rush produced diverse competition for water between farmers and miners, between cattle grazers and crop growers, and between advocates of both public and private irrigation (Pisani, 1992). The availability and distribution of water is a determining factor for the prosperity of cities, industries, agriculture, and tourism in the Western region of the U.S., where water scarcity is a common phenomenon. A dam on the Nueces River Basin in south Texas was planned in the 1960s but was delayed for almost 20 years due to disputes over water rights between upstream and downstream water users, along with the conceptual struggle between conservationists and developers. Allocating freshwater inflows from the Nueces River to bays and estuaries for maintaining a healthy and productive Texas estuarine system created a series of conflicts among the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Bureau of Land Reclamation, Texas Water Commission, and the City of Corpus Christi, Texas, as well as between environmental groups and individuals (Ting, 1989). Indeed, water is a major concern in our society. People are concerned with too much water, too little water, water being unsafe to use, no rights to use water, and water allocation. Most universities provide training on subjects relating to water. For example, all 16 state-controlled four-year universities in Texas offer courses related to water. Knowledge of water properties, problems, environmental significance, and management is essential for effective utilization of this vital natural resource.

II. Forest spectrum A forest is a biotic community predominated by trees and woody vegetation that cover a large area. It supports an array of complex flora and fauna. The forest forms a distinctive microclimate compared to other land uses. Of the many different types of forests, each has different characteristics such as species composition, size, diversity, and density, with variation depending mainly on temperature and precipitation. No matter what type the forest is, the plant sizes, canopy density, litter floor, and root systems are significantly taller, greater, thicker, and deeper than other vegetation types. These characteristics make forests able not only to provide a number of natural resources, but also to perform a variety of environmental functions.

Chapter one:

Introduction

3

Resources associated with forests may include timber, water, soil, wildlife, vegetation, minerals, and recreation. Except for minerals, all these resources are greatly affected by forestry activities. Some resources can be completely destroyed, depending on the intensity and extent of the forest activity. Environmental functions performed by forests may include control of water and wind erosion, protection of headwater and reservoir watershed and riparian zone, sand-dune and stream-bank stabilization, landslide and avalanche prevention, preservation of wildlife habitats and gene pools, mitigation of flood damage and wind speed, and sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Many established forests have managed to achieve one or more of these environmental functions, while others are preserved to prevent reduction in biodiversity and degradation of the ecosystem. The approximately 4.2 ¥ 109 ha of forests and woodlands on Earth cover about onethird of the total land surface. This is about 80% of the preagriculture forested areas (Mather, 1990). Forested areas in the Temperate Zone (23.5 to 66.5∞ latitudes) have not changed much in recent decades, but deforestation in the tropical regions was conducted at about 17 ¥ 106 ha/year in the 1980s and is believed to have been done at least the same amount in the 1990s. Tropical forests make up about one-half of the world’s forest cover (World Resources Institute, 1996) and are the major genetic and pharmaceutical pools of the world. Judging from the forest environmental functions mentioned above, the impacts of such large-scale forest destruction on soil, water, air, and biology have been of great concern among scientists, environmentalists, policy makers, and the general public. History and modern studies have shown that the misuse of forest resources has caused adverse watershed conditions, depletion of land productivity, disruption of people’s routine activities, conversion of arable lands into semiarid or desert, and destruction of villages, towns, or even civilizations. Through these experiences, the use of forests has been shifted from single into multiple purposes — from exploitative into preservation and then conservation uses, and from productive into environmental and then ecological functions. The recent growing interest in biological sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and the balance between production and protection are examples of the awareness of ecological functions. It is our task to seek a balance in forest management between productive and protective functions.

III. Issues and perspective Water and forests both cover large portions of Earth and both are crucial to lives and the environment. As the world’s population exponentially increases with time, so do the pressures of population and the extent of utilization of all natural resources. This makes water and forests two of the most important issues in the 21st century. We are concerned with water and forests not only as raw materials required by cultures and industries, but also as key factors in the environment. Water and forests are not two independent natural resources; a close linkage exists between the two. Consequently, a study of the interface between these two resources, called forest hydrology, has become an important field. It provides basic knowledge and foundations for watershed management, a discipline and skill for maintaining land productivity and protecting water resources. Forest distributions enhance the forest–water relation significantly. Forests usually grow and develop in areas with annual precipitation of 500 mm or higher. These are also the areas suitable for certain agricultural activities. Forests cover about 30% of the land, yet this 30% forested land generates 60% of total runoff. In other words, most of our drinking-water supplies originate from forested areas. Any activities, development, and utilization in forested areas will inevitably destroy forest canopies and disturb forest floors to a certain degree. This may affect water quantity through their impacts on transpiration and canopy interception losses, infiltration rate, water-holding capacity, and overland flow

4

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

velocity. Water quality also is affected because of the exposure of mineral soils to direct raindrop impacts, the loss of soil-binding effect from the root systems, the increase in overland flow, and the accelerated decomposition of organic matter. All these may result in an increase in soil erosion and nutrient losses. All forests should be managed with their impacts on water resource in mind so that water resource can be properly protected and utilized. Many issues concern water and forests, but this book will emphasize the linkages between the two, beginning with a basic explanation of water and water resources, and then moving forward to examine the impacts of forests and forest activities. We all recognize that proper management of these two resources is of utmost importance to the well-being of nations. Without fundamental knowledge, adequate studies, and sufficient information, proper management cannot be achieved.

References Clark, C., 1982, Flood, Time-Life, Chicago, IL. Dvorchak, R.J., 1993, The Flood of ’93, Wieser & Wieser, New York. Mather, A.S., 1990, Global Forest Resources, Timber Press, Portland, OR. Miller, G.T., Jr., 1999, Environmental Science: Working with the Earth, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. Pisani, D.J., 1992, To Reclaim a Divided West: Water, Law, and Public Policy, 1848–1902, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM. Ting, J. C., 1989, Conflict Analysis of Allocating Freshwater Inflows to Bay and Esturaries — A Case Study on Choke Canyon Dam and Reservoir, Texas, Doctoral dissertation, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX. World Resources Institute, 1996, World Resources, 1996–97, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

chapter two

Functions of water Contents I. Biological functions.............................................................................................................6 A. A necessity of life........................................................................................................6 B. A habitat of life ...........................................................................................................6 1. Wetlands .................................................................................................................6 2. Estuaries .................................................................................................................7 3. Ponds and lakes ....................................................................................................7 4. Streams and rivers ................................................................................................8 5. Oceans.....................................................................................................................8 C. A therapy for illness (hydrotherapy).......................................................................8 II. Chemical functions .............................................................................................................9 A. A solvent of substance ...............................................................................................9 B. A medium in chemical reactions..............................................................................9 III. Physical functions ...............................................................................................................9 A. A moderator of climate..............................................................................................9 B. An agent of destruction ...........................................................................................10 C. A potential form of energy and power .................................................................10 D. A scientific standard for properties .......................................................................12 E. A medium of transport ............................................................................................13 IV. Socioeconomic functions..................................................................................................13 A. A source of comfort ..................................................................................................13 B. An inspiration of creativity.....................................................................................14 C. An issue of world peace and regional stability...................................................14 1. Regional conflicts ................................................................................................14 a. Alabama, Florida, and Georgia ..................................................................15 b. Northern vs. Southern California ..............................................................15 c. New Mexico vs. Surrounding States .........................................................15 d. Eastern vs. Western Colorado.....................................................................15 e. Nebraska vs. Wyoming................................................................................15 2. International conflicts.........................................................................................15 a. The Euphrates and Tigris ............................................................................15 b. The Golan Heights........................................................................................16 c. The Nile River ...............................................................................................16 d. The Rio Grande .............................................................................................17 D. A medium for agricultural and industrial productions.....................................17 1. Hydroponics ........................................................................................................18 5

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

2. Fish culture ....................................................................................................19 3. A tool for industrial operations..................................................................19 References .......................................................................................................................................20

The significance of water to life and the environment can be discussed from the perspective of its various biological, chemical, physical, and socioeconomic functions. These functions stem from its unique properties, abundant quantity, and vast distribution on Earth, which subsequent chapters will discuss.

I.

Biological functions

A.

A necessity of life

Life cannot exist without water; it began in water and depends on water for survival, growth, and development. Water is the primary constituent of protoplasm, a substance that performs basic life functions. Without water, a plant cannot absorb required nutrients, cannot perform photosynthesis and hydrolytic processes, and cannot maintain its state of vigor. In animals, water removes impurities and the byproducts of metabolism, transports oxygen and carbon dioxide, enhances digestion, and regulates body temperature. It acts as a solvent and as a raw material in the chemical reactions necessary to sustain life and maintains a balance between bases and acids in the body. The tissue can die with minute changes in pH. A forest can transpire 1000 kg m-2 year-1 of water while producing 1 kg m-2 year-1 of dry matter. The body of a newborn calf is 75 to 80% water, and 75% of the weight of a living tree is either water or made from water. Water represents 60 to 90% of human body weight. Total daily requirement of water for a person is about 20 liters for minimum comfort, while 1 to 5 liters are essential for survival. The human body obtains 47% of its water from drinking, 39% from solid food, and 14% as a by-product of the chemical process of cellular respiration (Leopold and Davis, 1972). We die when 15% of the water in our body is lost through dehydration. Man can survive without food for about one to two weeks, but only a few days without water.

B.

A habitat of life

Water is not only the substance of life; it also provides a living environment for about 90% of Earth’s organisms. Blue whales (measured up to 30 m long and 200 t) and hippopotamus, the two largest mammals on the earth, use oceans and rivers, respectively, as their homes. Oceans, seas, streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, estuaries, wetlands, and even bodies of water in drainage ditches and abandoned containers are habitats to a variety of animals and plants.

1.

Wetlands

Wetlands — areas where water is near, at, or above ground level — are considered to be transitional zones between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The five recognized wetland systems are marine, estuarine, lacustrine (associated with lakes), riverine (along rivers and streams), and palustrine (marshes, swamps, and bogs). Biologically, they are one of the richest and most interesting ecosystems on Earth. Hydrologically, they provide mechanisms and resources for aquifer recharge, flood control, sediment control, wastewater treatment, biogeochemical cycling and storage, and water supplies. Richardson (1994)

Chapter two:

Figure 2.1.

Functions of water

7

The life zones in lakes.

assigned 5 wetland functions and 19 wetland values only realized in recent decades. Unfortunately, wetlands in the U.S. have reduced more than 50% in the past 200 years. In the 1780s, there were 89 ¥ 106 ha of wetlands in the conterminous U.S., and wetlands occupied 5% or more of the land area in 34 states. By the 1980s, wetlands had decreased 53% to 42 ¥ 106 ha, and the number of states that had wetlands on 5% or more of the land area had fallen to 19 (Dahl, 1990). The losses of wetlands were due to the cumulative impact of agricultural development, urban development, conversion of wetlands to deepwater habitats, and other types of conversion activities (Dahl and Johnson, 1991).

2.

Estuaries

An estuary is the narrow zone along a coastline where freshwater from rivers mixes with a salty ocean. Estuaries receive heavy loads of sediments, suspended and dissolved organic or inorganic materials, and freshwater from rivers, which provide nutrients and maintain salinity levels necessary to sustain marine organisms. These distinctive properties, along with relatively shallow depths that allow deep penetration of sunlight, make estuaries primary spawning areas for a wide variety of finfish and shellfish, nurseries for juvenile marine species, and homes for wildlife and waterfowl (Ting, 1989).

3.

Ponds and lakes

Regardless of their sizes, ponds and lakes contain three life zones: littoral, limnetic, and profundal. The littoral, at the edge of the lake, is the most richly inhabited. Here the conspicuous angiosperms, such as cattails and rushes, grow. In this zone, sunlight can penetrate to the bottom and root vegetation can grow. Farther from the shore are water lilies, and often the pond floor is covered with many varieties of weeds. The submerged plants provide shelters for many small organisms. Snails, arthropods, and mosquito larvae feed upon the plants and algae. Large animals such as ducks and geese will in turn feed upon them (Figure 2.1). In the limnetic zone, the zone of open water, and extending to the limits of light penetration (compensation depth), phytoplankton is usually the dominant photosynthetic organism. This zone provides the habitat for bass, bluegill, and other fish species. The compensation depth is reached when the light intensity in the water reaches 1% of full

8

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

sunlight (can be detected by a Secchi disk), and photosynthesis balances with respiration. At depths below the limnetic zone to the floor is the profundal zone of deep water where no penetration of light and no plant life exist. The principal inhabitants are scavenging fish, aquatic worms, bacteria, and other organisms that consume the organic debris filtering down from above.

4.

Streams and rivers

Species inhabiting streams and rivers are largely affected by flow velocity. In swift streams, most organisms live in the shallows, where small photosynthetic organisms, algae, and mosses cling to the rock surfaces. Insects in both mature and larval form live in and among the rocks and gravel. In slow-moving streams, variations in water temperature, dissolved oxygen levels, nutrients, and light penetration provide diversified habitats for various aquatic species.

5.

Oceans

Marine life forms, including plants and animals, fall into three major groups: a. Benthos: These are plants (such as kelp) and animals (such as brittle stars) that live on or depend on the bottom of the ocean. Habitats extend from the shore to the edge of the continental shelf, the continental slopes, and beyond, including the deepest part of the ocean floor. b. Nekton: These are swimming animals, such as fishes and whales, that move independently of water currents and are found in greatest abundance in the relatively shallow and well-lit strata of water above the continental shelf. c. Plankton: These are small to microscopic organisms with limited powers of locomotion carried along with the currents. They are the dominant life and food source of the ocean. These life forms depend upon organic matter suspended in the water.

C.

A therapy for illness (hydrotherapy)

Hot springs, because of their temperature and mineral contents, are believed to have special healing powers for certain skin diseases, arthritis, and other illnesses in ancient as well as contemporary times. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Berry et al., 1980) lists 3506 thermal springs along with their temperature and exact locations in the U.S. Many of these springs, such as Hot Springs, Arkansas, Palm Springs and Soda Springs in California, Saratoga Springs in New York, Mineral Wells in Texas, Sulphur Springs in West Virginia, and Thermopolis in Wyoming, have been developed as resorts and earned fame as tourist attractions and health treatments. Warm water will relax spasms; muscular strains or sprains, muscular fatigue, and backache are treated with water in conjunction with heat and pressure (water massage, whirlpool bath). Sitz baths (sitting in hot water) are effective in treatment of swollen, painful hemorrhoids. Muryn (1995) prescribed numerous bath recipes that combine water and herbs as measures for healing, pleasure, beauty, and spiritual growth. In physical therapy, patients can move weak parts of their bodies without contending with the strong force of gravity if they exercise in a buoyant medium such as water. Mineral Wells is located about 100 km west of Dallas. It attracted some 150,000 health seekers annually in the 1920s and 1930s. Advertising by some of its sanitariums claiming curative powers included “rheumatism, indigestion, insomnia, diabetes, kidney and liver troubles,” “very efficacious in treatment of all female complaints,” and “guaranteed cures for cocaine, whiskey and morphine habits” (Fowler, 1991). Many physicians endorsed the therapy of Mineral Wells water in those early days. Although many of the wilder claims

Chapter two:

Functions of water

9

began fading out due to the invention of antibiotics and advancement of medical science in the 1950s, the physical effects of hot springs on blood circulation and tension release that everybody can enjoy conveniently and cheaply at home will never meet with substitutes in the future.

II. Chemical functions A.

A solvent of substance

Water molecules are covalently bonded together with one oxygen atom and two much smaller hydrogen atoms. However, the two hydrogen atoms are separated from each other on one side at an angle of 105∞. As a result, the side with the two hydrogens is electropositive and the other is electronegative. The positive (hydrogen) end causes water molecules to attract (cohere) the negative (oxygen) end of another molecule, causing water molecules to join together in chains and sheets that give water a higher viscosity and greater surface tension. Both positive and negative charges make water molecules attract (adhere) to other materials, which cause water to dissolve a larger variety of substances than any other liquid. Thus, water is the best cleansing agent for humans, animals, and the environment. In time, water will dissolve almost any inorganic substance, and about half of the known elements are found dissolved in water. One liter of water can dissolve 8.4 kg of the fertilizer ammonium nitrate (Leopold and Davis, 1972).

B.

A medium in chemical reactions

The majority of chemical reactions take place in aqueous solutions, which affect the chemical properties of many materials. For example, pure water contains dissociated H+ and OH- ions in very low concentrations. This makes the pH of materials change when they go into solution in water. Water affects chemicals through the processes of hydrolysis, hydration, and dissolution. Hydrolysis is the process that occurs when water enters into reactions with compounds and ions, while hydration is the attachment of water to a compound. Dissolution refers to the decomposition of ionic compounds in water. These processes result in degradation, alteration, and resynthesis of minerals and materials.

III. Physical functions A.

A moderator of climate

Atmospheric water vapor absorbs and reflects parts of incoming solar radiation during the daytime and provides heat energy to Earth in the form of longwave radiation at night. Moreover, water is a good medium for heat storage when air temperature is high, and the stored heat in the water is released when the air temperature is low. This is due to the high thermal capacity and latent heat of water. Consequently, temperature fluctuations are always smaller over water than land, and climates in areas close to oceans or lakes are always moderate compared to climates of inland areas. If water vapor were not present in the atmosphere, Earth’s temperature would be much warmer in the daytime and much colder at night. The Great Lakes region of the U. S. illustrates the effects of water on climate. The amount of precipitation, and the frequency of thunderstorm and hailstorm activity over the lakes and their downwind areas, tend to decrease in the summer and increase in the fall and winter (Changnon and Jones, 1972). Apparently, this is because the waters of these

10

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

lakes in the fall and winter are warmer than the overlying air. Precipitation over the lakes and their downwind areas is enhanced when moisture and heat are added from the lakes to increase atmospheric instability. On the other hand, the lakes are cooler than the overlying air in summer, tending to stabilize the atmosphere, and precipitation is reduced. Table 2.1 gives normal monthly air temperatures from 1941 to 1970 for three stations in the U.S. They are located at about the same elevation and latitude, but differ in distance from the Pacific Ocean. The station in California (Happy Camp) is only about 64 km from the Pacific, and its climate is under direct influence of the ocean. The normal air temperature in January, the coldest month of the year, was 3.5∞C at Happy Camp, warmer than Fremont, Nebraska, and Atlantic, Iowa, by as much as 8.8∞C and 10.1∞C, respectively. In July, the warmest month of the year, the normal temperature was 23.3∞C at the California station, colder than the Nebraska and Iowa stations by 1.6∞C and 0.2∞C, respectively.

B.

An agent of destruction

Although water is so fluid that it fits any shape of container, it is also very mobile, persistent, forceful, and destructive. Moving water over the land surface is responsible for soil erosion, nutrient losses, landslides, stream sedimentation, and various forms of topographical movement and formation. Alternative freezing and thawing, scouring, undercutting, abrasion, hydrolysis, and hydration often break down large rocks into small pieces that finally become small enough to be soil particles. In time, a big rock can be pierced by water drips. All landscape features such as valleys, canyons, floodplains, deltas, alluvial, caves, gullies, and slopes are results of the continuous actions of water. The Grand Canyon, created by the Colorado River about 20 million years ago, is a unique example of the cutting power of water. It has been estimated that the average erosion rate of the canyon was about 0.3 mm/year (Bloom, 1978). The destruction caused by water can be further manifested through damage to agricultural lands, animals, properties, human life, and environment as a result of floods, severe storms, hail, snow, ice rain, tsunamis, and avalanches. On May 30, 1899, an earthen dam at South Fork Lake in Pennsylvania collapsed, spilling 20 million tons of water into the valley and Johnstown below. In a matter of hours, 2209 people lost their lives. The 1927 flood of the Mississippi River measured 160 km wide at some points and caused more than 6.4 million ha of land in seven states to be covered by the flood waters. Total losses in crops were about $102 million and more than 600,000 people were evacuated from the area (Floyd, 1990). More recently, the great 1993 flood of the upper Mississippi and lower Missouri Rivers covered land for 960 km in length and 320 km in width, submerging 75 small towns in 10 states completely under water for months. It caused 48 flood-related deaths and damaged 50,000 homes with estimated losses exceeding $20 billion. Other statistics showed that total property losses due to tornadoes, floods, and tropical cyclones in the U.S. were $1,484,000,000 between 1936 and 1945, $2,721,000,000 between 1955 and 1965, and $21,493,000,000 between 1976 and 1984 (der Leeden et al., 1990).

C.

A potential form of energy and power

At 30∞C, it takes about 590 cal (2470 J) of energy to change one gram of water from a liquid state into a vapor state. Conversely, the same amount of energy will be released when the water is condensed from a vapor state into a liquid state. The condensation of water vapor in the atmosphere is the major source of energy to generate violent storms.

41.26

41.25

366

364

–6.6

–5.3

3.5

Jan Jun

–3.7

–2.3 1.5

2.7 24.9 23.5

Fremont, Nebraska 11.1 17.1 22.1 Atlantic 1 NE, Iowa 9.9 16.0 20.9

22.6

24.1

22.3

May

Happy Camp Ranger Station, California 6.6 8.6 11.8 15.7 19.3 23.3

Apr Aug

Mar Jul

Feb

17.6

18.8

19.3

Sep

Source: U.S. National Weather Service, Climatological Data Annual Summary, California, Nebraska, and Iowa, 1975.

41.48

Latitude (°)

369

Elevation (m)

12.0

13.1

13.6

Oct

3.1

4.2

7.9

Nov

-3.6

-2.4

4.6

Dec

Table 2.1 Normal (1941–1970) Monthly Air Temperatures for Three U.S. Stations Located at about the Same Elevation and Latitude but at Different Distances from the Pacific Ocean

Chapter two: Functions of water 11

12

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Humans have used water as a prime mechanical power for thousands of years. One such use was the water mill. At a water mill, a dam was built across a river, which raised the water level. Water spilling over the dam provided force to turn a paddle wheel; its shaft drove a millstone for grinding grain. Electricity is the key to success in industrial societies. It provides power to heat and cool buildings, drive trains, melt metals, and run machines. Water helps generate power through thermoelectric and hydroelectric processes. Thermoelectric plants convert water into steam by heating it with fossil or nuclear fuels. Hydroelectric power can be generated using hydraulic drop in rivers (hydropower), ocean waves (tidal power), or temperature gradient between surface and deep tropical water (sea thermal power). In the U.S., only about 28% of the maximum potential capacity of hydroelectric power has been developed, which accounts for about 15% of the total electricity produced. In hydroelectric power, the force used to drive turbines is the “head” of water held back behind the dam along a river. Total head is the difference in elevation between the turbine and the water level above the turbine. The greater the head is, the more power generated in a given amount of water. The energy created by the head of water in the river can be applied to generate energy in the ocean. Oceanic tides occur as a result of the gravitational attraction in water bodies of Earth by the sun and moon. Twice a day a tremendous volume of water flows into and out of bays, producing high or low tides. The kinetic energy in the tidal flows, if differences in water elevation between high and low tides are sufficiently high, can be used to spin turbines to generate electricity. For such purposes, a dam is built, similar to that in a river, with operational gates across the bay. About two dozen sites around the world are suitable for tidal power generation and dam construction (Miller, 1999). Caterpillar Inc., a construction and earth-moving equipment manufacturer at Peoria, Illinois, is developing a water-based fuel called A-55. The fuel is a blend of water, carbonbased fuels, and an emulsifier holding the mixture together. Water content in the fuel is exhausted as steam in the combustion process. Initial tests show that A-55 makes the filthy emissions of diesel engines cleaner, reduces emissions, and improves fuel economy. The cost savings of the fuel are roughly equal to its 55% water content (U.S. Water News, 1996a).

D. A scientific standard for properties Because of its abundance and distribution on the earth, along with its unique physical and chemical properties, water is used as a scientific standard for mass, specific gravity, heat, specific heat, temperature, and viscosity of other substances. One kilogram is the mass of water that is free of air at 3.98∞C in a volume of 1 liter or 1000 g. The ratio between the weight of a given volume of substance and the weight of an equal volume of water is defined as specific gravity. A standard heat unit is expressed in calories. One calorie is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of liquid water 1∞C. The number of calories required to raise 1 g of a substance is defined as the thermal capacity of that substance, and the ratio between the thermal capacity of a substance and the thermal capacity of water is called specific heat. A typical soil has a specific heat of 0.25 cal/g/∞C, which is about one-fourth that of water. Temperature scales are based on melting ice and boiling water under standard atmospheric pressure. Four temperature scales are in general use today: Fahrenheit (∞F), Rankine (∞R), Centigrade (∞C), and Kelvin or Absolute (∞K). The temperature of melting ice is set at 32∞F, 492∞R, 0∞C, and 273.16∞K, and boiling water is set at 212∞F, 672∞R, 100∞C, and 373.16∞K. In the U.S., the Fahrenheit scale is commonly used, with the Rankine scale used mainly by engineers. The Centigrade and Kelvin scales are used internationally for scientific measurements.

Chapter two:

Functions of water

13

Table 2.2 Diseases Associated with Water Problem of Water Water quality (waterborne)

Disease Agent Bacterial

Viral Parasitic

Enteric Water quantity (water-washed)

Skin

Water consuming

Louse-borne Trepanematoses Eye and ear Crustacea Fish Shellfish Mosquitoes

Proximity to water

Tsetse flies Blackflies

Disease Salmonella (typhoid) Enterobacteria (E.coli, campylobacter) Cholera, leptospirosis, etc. Hepatitis A, poliomyelitis Rotaviruses, enteroviruses Amoebiasis, giardiasis Intestinal protozoa Balantidium coli E.g., a proportion of diarrheas and gastroenteritis Scabies, ringworm, ulcers, Pyodermitis Typhus and related fevers Yaws, bejel, pinta Otitis, conjunctivitus, trachoma Guinea worm, paragonimiasis Diphyllobothriasis Flukes, schistosomiasis Malaria, filariasis, yellow fever Dengue, haemorraghic fever Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) Onchocerciasis

Source: UNESCO, 1992, Water and Health. IHP Humid Tropics Programme Series No.3. Division of Water Sciences, Paris.

E.

A medium of transport

Nutrients, sediments, seeds, pollen, bacteria, viruses, pathogenic agents, parasitic organisms, insect eggs, pollutants, and many other materials are transported by water. Such transports are beneficial in some areas but more frequently they are detrimental to human beings and to the environment. Many microorganisms that cause typhoid fever, cholera, bacillary dysentery, leptospirosis, gastroenteritis, intestinal worms, hepatitis, giardiasis, shigellosis, etc. are transmitted by water. These waterborne and many other water-related diseases are threats to human health and life (Table 2.2). Waterway transportation is crucial to the development of many countries and to the cultural and technological exchanges among regions and countries. In ancient China, water was spread over the land surface to form ice in freezing weather so that big rocks and stones could be transported from farther north for construction purposes. The Grand Canal of China, built about 2500 years ago, is a 1782 km (1107 mi) waterway between Tientsin in the north and Hangchow in the south. It was the main life artery of commercial and social activities then and is still in use today. The Suez Canal, built in 1914, links the Mediterranean and Red Seas, and the Panama Canal joins the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and shortens navigation around South America by 20,000 km (12,500 mi).

IV. Socioeconomic functions A.

A source of comfort

Surface waters are often used in conjunction with recreational activities such as relaxation, fishing, sports, and aesthetic appreciation. Lakes are beautiful to our eyes, thundering

14

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

waterfalls are joyous to our ears, and the feel of water is sensational to our body. The soaring ocean surf and pounding tides serve many as a source of peace and tranquility. Most people enjoy water as a source of relaxation in one way or another. Of the recreation areas administered by six U.S. federal agencies from 1981 to 1990, the average millionvisitor days per year were highest for Corps of Engineers reservoirs at 556.89. Visitors to national parks, national forests, Bureau of Land Reclamation, and Bureau of Land Management properties were only 62.0, 42.5, 4.5, 9.0 million-visitor days per year — only 8.7% that of Corps of Engineers sites. This love for water often gives land with access to water higher value than land without access to water.

B.

An inspiration of creativity

Water is a subject that inspires writers, poets, artists, and musicians to create many great works. The feeling of being beautiful, peaceful, soothing, intriguing, mystifying, angry, violent, and encompassing triggers streams of inspiration for creativity. Authors such as Shakespeare, Byron, Thoreau, Twain, and Hemingway, among many others, have given water a major role in some of their masterpieces. Christianity has used water as a symbol of holiness and cleanliness. When a person is baptized in a river or other body of water, it symbolizes the burying of his or her sinful body. The person is a reborn Christian when he or she is pulled out of the water. Since Jesus was baptized in the Jordan River, thousands of people go there every year to fill bottles with this holy water to baptize their own children. Water in another form — snow — is an indispensable element to Christmas charm and spirit. Songs of winter wonderlands, snowmen, and white Christmas have been around for years and are enjoyed by persons of all ages. Hindus consider the Ganges River holy. Millions of people make pilgrimages to the river and bathe in it to wash away their sins, even though it serves as an open sewer for urban areas. Funeral ashes of deceased loved ones are cast into the Ganges with the belief that their souls will ascend to Heaven. As long as there is water, there will be activities to enjoy, stories to write, songs to sing, art to create, and rites to follow.

C.

An issue of world peace and regional stability

Freshwater on the land is unevenly distributed, constantly moving from mountains to plains and eventually to sea. The economic growth, lifestyle, and cultural development of a region or country are largely dependent on water supplies. A river may flow through several countries, (7 for the Amazon, 10 for the Nile, and 12 for the Danube) or through regions with different population densities and consumption rates. Competition and conflict for water resources occur not only among regions within the same country but also among nations.

1.

Regional conflicts

Lagash and Umma, two ancient Mesopotamian cities, were in dispute over water as early as 4500 B.C. (Clarke, 1993). In the U.S., competition over the most precious and most wasted resource — water — is steadily rising among regions, states, cities, farmers, industries, Indians, and the federal government. Today, lawyers, lobbyists, and politicians dispute over water in courtrooms and legislatures, using arguments based on history, law, economics, considerations of fairness, environmental impacts, and issues of survival. The impact of the disputes is profound. Some of the major disputes are described briefly below:

Chapter two:

Functions of water

15

a. Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. Water allocation from southeastern rivers has spawned disputes among Georgia, Alabama, and Florida. Alabama filed a federal lawsuit in 1990 to keep Atlanta from drawing more water from the Chattahoochee River to meet the needs of exploding economic growth in the metropolitan area. Alabama officials indicated that the withdrawals would lead to higher hydropower costs and filthier rivers downstream because of less available water to dilute pollutants. Florida joined the lawsuit later, worried about the impact on Apalachicola Bay and on the state’s oyster industry. b. Northern vs. Southern California. In California, two-thirds of the state’s rainfall is in the north, but more than 60% of the population lives in the south. Southern Californians complain that the north is allowing surplus water to flow out to the Pacific unused, while the north contends that water is used wastefully in the south for filling swimming pools and watering lawns. In 1982 voters in the north rejected a plan to built a 43-mi earthen ditch, called the Peripheral Canal, to divert water from the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta to southern California. c. New Mexico vs. Surrounding States. New Mexico is involved in battles over its groundwater resources with El Paso, a bordering city in Texas, over how to divide water from the Pecos River and the Rio Grande with Texas, and over use of the Vermejo River with Colorado. The El Paso case is the more controversial one. El Paso has obtained water rights in southern New Mexico and plans to pipe groundwater across the New Mexico state line. New Mexico passed a law to ban the exportation, but in 1982 a federal court ruled it to be unconstitutional interference with interstate commerce. Lawmakers in New Mexico promptly passed legislation to circumvent the court’s decision. Again, the new law was challenged in court by El Paso as unconstitutional. d. Eastern vs. Western Colorado. Almost 70% of the water supply in Colorado comes from west of the Continental Divide, but 80% of the population lives east of the Rockies, mainly in Denver. The uneven distribution of water and population causes constant bickering among the state’s west slope, Denver, and environmentalists. To mediate the water disputes, in 1981 Colorado formed the Metropolitan Water Roundtable, a group of 30 representatives from all interested parties. It reached an agreement that allows Denver to divert water from the west slope. In exchange, Denver agreed to implement water conservation programs and build a reservoir on the west slope to offset the impact of the diversion. e. Nebraska vs. Wyoming. Since 1986, Nebraska and Wyoming have been involved in disputes over water rights concerning flows in the North Platte, a river running southeast from Wyoming, crossing Nebraska, and joining Missouri River at Omaha. Issues raised by Nebraska include: (1) Wyoming’s failure to offer an accurate accounting of the volume of reservoirs to be less than 18,000 acre feet (22.2 ¥ 106m3), as ruled by the Supreme Court in 1945; (2) the type of water use allowed from the Glendo Reservoir, a Bureau of Reclamation project in eastern Wyoming on the North Platte, which was built for supplemental irrigation supplies for each state; and (3) the fact that Wyoming maintains a flow operation ratio of the Laramie River close to 60% for Nebraska and 40% for Wyoming rather than 75% vs. 25% as allocated by the Supreme Court in 1945. The case is expected to go to trial, if settlement between the two states cannot be reached.

2.

International conflicts

a. The Euphrates and Tigris. The water shortage and water-rights allocation in the Middle East are crucial to the peace of the region and consequently the world. The

16

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Euphrates and Tigris are the two greatest rivers in western Asia. They originate, only 30 km away each other, high in the mountains of Turkey within a relatively cool and humid climate, diverge hundreds of kilometers apart in their courses, and flow southeasterly together into the Persian Gulf (Hillel, 1994). The Euphrates is 2700 km long with the upper 40% in Turkey, the middle 25% in Syria, and the lower 35% in Iraq. Lying northeast of the Euphrates, the Tigris is 1900 km long with the upper 20% in Turkey, 78% in Iraq, and only 2% in Syria. The upper courses of these two rivers are at elevations of 2000 to 3000 m above sea level, carry heavy suspended particles (as much as 3 ¥ 106 tons in a single day), and are responsible for the great deposits of alluvium in the Mesopotamian Plain. On the average, the discharge of the Euphrates is about 30 ¥ 109 m3/year-1 at the Turkey–Syria border, 32 ¥ 10 m3/year-1 at the Turkey–Iraq border, and stays at about the same flow level in the last 1000 km reach in Iraq. The mean discharge of the Tigris at the northeast tip of Syria is about 20 to 30 ¥ 109 m3/year-1 and about 50 ¥ 109 m3/year-1 in Iraq. In other words, the Euphrates is the biggest source of water supply for Iraq. However, being a downstream state with an extremely arid climate, Iraq is at a strategic disadvantage compared to Turkey and Syria. Turkey launched the Southeast Anatolia Project in the 1960s to develop 10% of the country bordering Syria and Iraq. The project plans to construct 80 dams, 66 hydroelectric power stations, and 68 irrigation projects on the headwaters of both the Euphrates and the Tigris. One of its designated dams, the Ataturk Dam near the Syrian border on the Euphrates, is to generate 2400 MW of electricity and to store up to 82 billion m3 of water. Turkey started the dam in 1983 and impounded it in January 1990. The flow of the entire Euphrates was blocked for one month. During the no-flow period, Syria experienced crop losses, electricity reduction, and shortages of drinking water. The event affected Iraq as well. The release of water from Ataturk Dam is crucial to Syria and Iraq’s population growth and economic development, creating a major conflict for Turkey with Syria and Iraq. b. The Golan Heights. The Golan Heights is not only a strategic area from a military point of view; it is also a water-rich area (the headwaters of the Jordan River) of the region controlled by Israel since the 1967 “Six-Day War.” With a population that is only about 50% more than Jordan’s, Israel uses nearly twice as much water from the Jordan and Yarmuk rivers. However, in the 1996 peace negotiation between Israel and Syria, Israel refused to give up water from the Golan Heights. Israeli Foreign Minister Ehud Barak told a closed-door parliamentary session: “The Syrians know that the waters of the Galilee and of the Jordan are for exclusive use by us” (U.S. Water News, 1996b). Disputes on water rights must be settled before any peace agreement in the Middle East can be achieved. c. The Nile River. The conflict on the water allocation of the Nile River is more severe than those in the two Middle East regions described above. The White Nile originates in the highlands of Rwanda and Burundi, flows into the huge basin of Lake Victoria in Tanzania, then travels northward through Kenya, Uganda, Congo, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Egypt, and then empties into the Mediterranean Sea. At Khartoum, Sudan, the Blue Nile, originating from Lake Tana in Ethiopia, merges with the White Nile to form a total drainage area of 3,050,000 km2. The river sprawls from about lat. 5∞ S to lat. 31.5∞ N and covers about one tenth of the African continent (Figure 2.2). Although the Nile (6825 km) is the longest river in the world, its annual discharge is only a small proportion of that of other major rivers, for example, 3% of the Amazon, 14% of the Mississippi, and 43% of the Danube (Said, 1981). The low volume of waters shared

Chapter two:

Figure 2.2

Functions of water

17

The Nile River.

by ten countries makes allocation of the waters of the Nile River crucial to downstream areas. Egypt’s water supply is almost totally derived from the Nile. The entire 1530 km of the Nile within the borders of Egypt receives not a single tributary. With the increasing stress of water resources due to population growth and economic development, international agreements addressing the development of water resources are necessary to ensure the stability of the entire region. d. The Rio Grande. The Rio Grande originates from San Juan County, Colorado, flows southward through New Mexico, enters Texas at El Paso, then travels southeasterly along the Texas–Mexico border, and finally pours into the Gulf of Mexico at Brownsville, Texas. (The south side of the river is Matamoros, Mexico.) It stretches 2816 km long and covers an area of 870,240 km2. Friction between the U.S. and Mexico concentrates on control of water supply (by the U.S.) and water-pollution problems (by Mexico).

D. A medium for agricultural and industrial productions Water is a vital element in agricultural and industrial production. In 1995, agricultural irrigation consumed more than 33% of total off-stream water withdrawals in the U.S. (Solley et al., 1998). Grazing lands, barrens, and deserts with sufficient supplies of water can be converted into agricultural production. On the other hand, a deficit of water, due to either climatic conditions or lack of artificial irrigation, can affect plant vigor and growth,

18

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

the quantity and quality of production, seedling survival, litter production, and fertilizer uptake. Worldwide, about 18% of cropland is irrigated, making crop production two to three times greater than that from rain-watered land (Miller, 1999). Although irrigation is beneficial to agricultural production, inappropriate water management can create salinization and waterlogging problems on irrigated land. Irrigation water contains salts. Evapotranspiration of irrigation water leaves salts behind in the soil, and the salts accumulate to a harmful level through prolonged irrigation practices. Salinization retards crop growth and yields, and eventually ruins the land. Farmers often reclaim saline soils by applying a large amount of irrigation water to leach salts through the soil profile. However, inadequate underground drainage makes water accumulate under the ground. The water table then gradually rises to the root zone and soaks and eventually kills the plants. Water is used for the cooling processes in steam electric-generation plants and as coolant, solvent, lubricant, cleansing agent, conveying agent, screening agent, and reagent in most industrial manufacturing processes. For example, it takes about 55 to 390 t of water to fabricate 1 t of paper, and 9 to190 t of water to make 1 t of textiles. Total industrial use of water accounted for more than 54% of all withdrawals and consumptive uses of water in the U.S. in 1995.

1.

Hydroponics

Water, by making a nutrient solution containing all the essential elements required by plants for normal growth and development, can be used to culture vegetables, fruits, and flowers in a variety of environments. The technique is referred to as water culture, or more professionally as hydroponics, meaning “water working.” Today, hydroponics is inclusively referred to as the science of growing plants by media other than soils, such as water, gravel, sand, peat, sawdust, vermiculite, or pumice. The growing of plants in water dates back to several hundred years B.C. in Babylon, China, Greece, and Egypt, but modern techniques were not developed until the plants’ macro- and micronutrients were discovered in the late 1880s and early 1890s. During World War II, the U.S. military applied hydroponics to grow fresh vegetables and food for troops stationed on nonarable islands in the Pacific (Resh, 1989). Today, the entire hydroponic system, due to the development of plastics, vinyl, suitable pumps, time clocks, plastic plumbing, solenoid valves, and other equipment, can be automatically operated at costs a fraction of those in the past. Large commercial installations exist throughout the world. Hydroponics is particularly valuable in countries with little land or limited arable land and large populations. City dwellers and hotel managers may find it attractive to grow plants in living rooms, along hallways, and on porches or windowsills for decoration. Many citizens in Taipei, Taiwan, grow vegetables as supplemental crops on their rooftops. The technique can be used in atomic submarines, spaceships, or space stations. The crop yield per unit area by hydroponics is about 4 to 30 times higher than soil culture under field conditions (Resh, 1989). This may be due to several reasons, including high planting density, more efficient use of water and fertilizers, less environmental damage, and low operational costs. Soil culture requires regular control of weeds, and may have problems with soilborne diseases, insects, and animal attacks. It needs crop rotation to overcome build-up of infestation and nutrient-deficiency problems. Hydroponics does not encounter these problems. In traditional soil culture, plants must develop large root systems to absorb elements required for development and growth. However, the availability of nutrients in the soil depends upon soil bacteria to break down organic matter into elements and soil water to dissolve elements into solutions. With hydroponics, nutrients are immediately available

Chapter two:

Functions of water

19

to plants. It takes only 1/20 to 1/30 the amount of water required by conventional soil gardening. All these advantages lead hydroponics to be the quickest and simplest method for producing the maximum amount of vegetables from a minimum area (DeKorne, 1992).

2.

Fish culture

Fish culture or farming, in which fish and shellfish are raised for food, began in China around 2000 B.C. (Lee, 1981). As of 1993, about 15.7 million metric tons or 15.5% of the total global fish harvest were raised artificially through fish farming, 10.1% from inland farming, and 5.4% from marine farming (FAO, 1995a). It supplies 60% of the fish consumption in Israel, 40% in China, and 22% in Indonesia (Miller, 1999). Fish farming usually involves stocking fish in ponds or containers until they reach the desired size (inland farming) or holding captured species in fenced-in areas or floating cages in lagoons or estuaries until maturity (marine farming). Surveys conducted by FAO show 1028 species that have been farmed around the world and summarize them into six categories (World Resources Institute et al., 1996): Freshwater fish: e.g., carp, barbel, and tilapia Diadromous fish: e.g., sturgeon, river eel, salmon, trout, and smelt Marine fish: e.g., flounders, cod, redfish, herring, tuna, mackerel, and sharks Crustaceans: e.g., crabs, lobsters, shrimps, and prawns Molluscs: e.g., oysters, mussels, scallops, clams, and squid Others: includes frogs, turtles, and aquatic plants FAO (1995b) projects that global fish farming will need to double by 2010 in order to meet the steady increase in demand. Overfishing has been a serious problem in world fisheries since the early 1980s. It has caused 25% of the stock to be seriously depleted and put another 44% at their biological limit (World Resources Institute et al., 1996). A reduction of 30 to 50% fishing intensity has been suggested to return the oceans to healthy and sustainable fisheries. The reduction, if carried out, will cause the supply of seafood to come from fish farming. Although fish farming produces high yields per unit area, the rapid growth of fish farming is subject to some environmental risks. Without proper pollution-control measures, the wastes generated from fish farms can contaminate surface streams, lakes, groundwater, and bay estuaries. Some of the ecologically important mangrove forests in Ecuador, the Philippines, Panama, Indonesia, Honduras, and other less-developed countries have been destroyed by fish farming (Miller, 1999; FAO, 1995b).

3.

A tool for industrial operations

Through extreme pressure and speed, water can even be used as a tool to remove the bark of trees (hydraulic debarker) and cut rocks or other materials. In construction, water jets with high speed and pressure are used to excavate mountains and cut tunnels in massive construction projects. Using hydraulic principles, hydraulic jacks and levels can raise or lower heavy loads precisely with a small force. The Bureau of Mines designed a water-jet perforator, which issues a high-velocity water jet, to penetrate nonmetallic well casings for the purpose of completing or stimulating in situ uranium-leaching wells (Savanick and Krawza, 1981). In situ uranium leaching is a mining method in which wells are drilled from the surface to the mineralized rock. An oxidizing leaching solution is injected through these wells into the uraniferous rock. The solution dissolves the uranium minerals, and the uraniferous solution is subse-

20

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

quently drawn into another well. It is then pumped to a processing plant where the uranium is extracted and precipitated as uranium oxide. Uraniferous ore is usually formed in consolidated sandstones. Thus, a well screen at the base of the casing adjacent to the ore is necessary to assure fluid flow between the wellbore and the ore and to prevent caving of the ore and sand. The water-jet device, having a flow of at least 7 gpm at 10,000 psi, is lowered into the wellbore and penetrates the well casing, cement, and the surrounding uraniferous sandstone. The perforation allows leaching solution to pass between the sandstone and the wellbore, enhances local permeability of the mineralized zone, and saves time and energy.

References Berry, G.W., Grim, P.J., and Ikelman, J.A., 1980, Thermal Springs List for the U.S., U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Geophy. and Solar-Terrestrial Data Center, Boulder, CO. Bloom, A.L., 1978, Geomorphology — A Systematic Analysis of Late Cenezoic Landforms, Prentice Hall, New York. Changnon, S.A., Jr. and Jones, D.M.A., 1972, Review of the influences of the Great Lakes on weather, Water Resour. Res., 8, 360–371. Clarke, R., 1993, Water: The International Crisis, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands Losses in the U.S. 1780s to 1980s, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Dahl, T.E. and C.E. Johnson, 1991, Wetlands Status and Trends in the Conterminous U.S., mid1970s–1980s, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington D.C. DeKorne, J.B., 1992, The Hydroponic Hot House, Loompanics Unlimited, Port Townsend, WA. der Leeden, F.V., Troise, F.L., and Todd, D.K., 1990, The Water Encyclopedia, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI. FAO, 1995a, Global Fish and Shellfish Production in 1993, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Fisheries Dept., Fisheries Information, Data and Stat. Service, Rome. FAO, 1995b, Review of the State of World Fishery Resources: Aquaculture, FAO Fisheries Circular No. 886, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Floyd, C., 1990, America’s Great Disasters, Mallard Press, New York. Fowler, G., 1991, Crazy Water, Texas Christian University Press, Fort Worth, TX. Hillel, D., 1994, Rivers of Eden, the Struggle for Water and the Quest for Peace in the Middle East, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Lee, J., 1981, Commercial Catfish Farming, Interstate Printer & Publishers, Inc., Danville, IL. Leopold, L.B. and K.S. Davis, 1972, Water, Silver Burdett Co., Morristown, NJ. Miller, G.T., Jr., 1999, Environmental Science: Working with the Earth, 7th ed., Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. Muryn, M., 1995, Water Magic, Simon & Schuter, New York. Resh, H.M., 1989, Hydroponics Food Production, Woodbridge Press, Sant Barbara, CA. Richardson, C.J., 1994, Ecological functions and human values in wetlands: a framework for assessing forestry impacts, Wetlands, 14, 1–9. Said, R., 1981, The Geological Evolution of the River Nile, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg. Savanick, G.A. and Krawza, W.G., 1981, Water Jet Perforation, A New Method for Completing and Stimulating In Situ Leaching Wells, Rep. of Investigations 8569, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Solley, W.B., Pierce, R.R., and Perlman, H.A., 1998, Estimated Use of Water in the U.S. in 1995, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200, Washington, D.C. Ting, J.C., 1989, Conflict Analysis of Allocating Freshwater Inflows to Bays and Estuaries — A Case Study on Choke Canyon Dam and Reservoir, Texas, Doctoral Dissertation, College of Forestry, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX. UNESCO, 1992, Water and Health. IHP Humid Tropics Programme Series No.3. Division of Water Sciences, Paris.

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U.S. National Weather Service, 1975, Climatological Data Annual Summary, California, Nebraska, and Iowa, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, NC. U.S. U.S. News & World Report, 1983, War over water, crisis of the ’80s, U.S. News & World Report, October 31, 1983,. 57–62. U.S. Water News, 1996a, Water fuel is on track, U.S. Water News, 12, 1, 4. U.S. Water News, 1996b, Israel refuses to give up a drop of water from Golan Heights, U.S. Water News, 12, 2. World Resources Institute, the United Nations, and the World Bank, 1996, World Resources, a Guide to the Global Environment, 1996–97, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

chapter three

Water as a science Contents I. Water in history .................................................................................................................23 A. Asia..............................................................................................................................23 B. Middle East................................................................................................................25 C. Europe.........................................................................................................................26 D. The United States......................................................................................................27 II. Hydrosciences ....................................................................................................................28 A. Hydrology ..................................................................................................................28 1. Disciplines in hydrology ...................................................................................28 a. On the body of waters .................................................................................29 b. On land-surface conditions .........................................................................30 c. On interdisciplinary studies........................................................................32 References .......................................................................................................................................34

Early humans experienced water with reverence, superstition, folklore, fear, and speculation on the one hand, and on the other hand showed many ingenious ways of utilizing water. Water has been a topic for systematic measurement and scientific study since the 17th century. We shall first provide an overview of significant events in water management and development, and then introduce the disciplines of water science.

I.

Water in history

The history of water-resources management is an integral part of the history of civilization (Bennett, 1939; Frank, 1955). The floodplains along China’s Yellow River, Egypt’s Nile River, India’s Ganges, and Babylon’s Tigris and Euphrates cradled the four oldest civilizations of the world. Yet, history has taught us how the depletion of soil and water resources caused by wars among nations and tribes have caused the fall of cities, countries, and even civilizations. An ancient Chinese proverb, “To rule the mountains is to rule the waters,” reveals the general principle learned from these incidents — that upstream watershed management is necessary for control of downstream flooding.

A.

Asia

Early civilizations worked strenuously and continuously to reduce flooding at higher latitudes, where precipitation is greater than evaporation, and to develop and conserve 23

24

Figure 3.1

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

An ancient hydraulic wheel and a pedal irrigator in the Tang Dynasty (618–907 A.D.).

water resources at the lower latitudes, where evaporation exceeds precipitation. In China, Emperor Yau (about 2880 B.C.) put a man, Yu, in charge of flood control in North China. Because of the success of Yu’s dams, dikes, diversion ditches and other works on the Yellow River, he was chosen to succeed Emperor Shun as the ruler of China, and is known as “Yu, the Great.” From old documents and recent archeological evidence, we know that the ancient Chinese had the skills for digging wells for drinking water as early as six or seven thousand years ago (Young, 1985). A well excavated at Ho-Moo-Du, Yee-Yau in the Tse-Kiang Province of China is believed to have been built during the New Stone Ages. The well was cased by four rows of logs with a squared frame attached to the logs at the top of the well. Also excavated were more than 60 tile wells southwest of Peking that are believed to have been built around 600 B.C. for drinking and irrigation. Figure 3.1 is a mechanical water wheel used in Tang Dynasty (618–907 A.D.) for agricultural irrigation and domestic water supply. In central China, the Tukianguien irrigation system, built by Lee Bien about 2200 years ago, was an ingenious multipurpose water-resources project (Wang, 1983). The project diverted the flow of the Ming River, a tumultuous stream emerging from the Tibetan plateau, through a series of dams and dikes on the main river where it first enters the broad plain from a mountain canyon. It employed bamboo frames weighted down by rocks to dam or divert the water, a spillway to adjust flow volume in the river, and periodic dredging activity when sediment built to a certain level, as indicated by stone marks in the channel. The project irrigated about 200,000 ha of fertile soils, reducing greatly the heavy toll of life and property resulting from spring and summer floods. As a result, the Ming River basin became the most productive region of China. In turn, the river provided the necessary resources to enable Chin Shihuang (the “First Chin Emperor”) to overthrow the Chow Dynasty and its feudal lords, making China a unified country. Even today, the system is still the major agricultural water supply in the region. Another great water project in Asia is the Grand Canal of China, the longest waterway system of the world. The canal integrates the peoples and economies of the North, South,

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inland, and coastal areas into a single political–economic entity. It was the economic artery and a political arm over six major dynasties, from the Sui to the Ching. It had two major periods of development. The first period began in 584 A.D. during the Sui Dynasty, connecting and expanding upon preexisting waterways to form a two-branch water system. One branch extended northeasterly from the Yellow River at Luoyang, the eastern capital in central China, to today’s Beijing, about 800 km in length. The other branch extended southeasterly from Luoyang through the Huai River basin to the Yangtze River region, also about 800 km. The second period of development started in 1283 A.D. during the Yuan Dyansty, stretching the canal between the capital city Beijing in the north to Hangzhou in the south with a total length of about 1100 km (Chen et al., 1992). Variations in climate, geology, topography, and elevation between north and south are great, and a few major rivers cross all the regions. The development and construction of the canal system reflects the ingenuity and technological skill of the Chinese. Lo Lan was a small country located on the western bank of Lop Nor (a salt lake now dried), Sinkiang between 300 B.C. and 400 A.D. It was a trading center in the middle of the silk routes between China and countries in the Near East during the Han Dynasty. The area was covered with beautiful forests, fertile soils, and thick pastures nourished by flowing rivers and springs. However, the country disappeared after 400 A.D., and the area is dry and barren today, leaving a series of questions. Recent archaeological work revealed that Lo Lan had a full set of laws regarding taxes, water conservancy, lands, hunting, forest protection, criminals, and property. The forest-protection law set the fine for eradicating a living tree at one horse and for chopping tree’s limbs at one head of cattle. The importance of forests for the control of soil erosion, sand-dune stabilization, and protection of stream siltation was well recognized. It was probably the earliest law regarding forests and environment in the world (Southern Chinese Daily News, 1997).

B.

Middle East

In drier and lower latitudes, the people of Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, and Israel began construction of water supply and drainage systems about 5000 years ago. Egyptians had core drilling in rock for wells as early as 3000 B.C. The world’s oldest known dam was built by the Egyptians in about 3000 B.C. to store drinking and irrigation water. Perhaps it also controlled flooding waters. The dam was a rock-fill structure, about 108 m long and with a crest of about 12 m above the riverbed. It failed soon after construction. However, a Roman reservoir in Jordan (Jacob’s well) was so well-built that it holds water today (Frank, 1955). Small earth and masonry dams built by the Roman Empire were used not only to store runoff water but also to raise the general water level in streams (The United Nations Environmental Program, 1983). The oldest streamflow records in the world are recognized as the markings of the flood stages of the Nile River carved in its cliffs between Semneh and Kumneh around 2000 B.C. (Boyer, 1964), and mention of annual flooding of the Nile dates back to between 3000 and 3500 B.C. In the lower reach of the Nile River, annual floods deposit rich sediment along the floodplains, which makes the land agriculturally productive. Thus, the crop yields in the Nile valley are dependent upon the annual flood of the river, and the flood stage in the Nile each year was a criterion for taxation in early Egypt. The Egyptian pharaoh Menes developed a flood-control system for the Nile River more than 3000 years ago that included at least 20 recording stations (Grant, 1992). These stations used a crude staff gage — referred to today as the Nilometer—to measure the water level, s, probably the oldest hydrometric in the world. In and around the third millennium B.C., well-planned city drainage and water-supply systems, public toilets, and baths were constructed with burnt bricks along the Indus River

26

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

in Pakistan. Most houses in the capital city Mohenjo Daro, discovered in the early 20th century, were supplied with water from household wells as deep as 25 m. The average distance between wells was about 35 m in an area of at least 300 ha. Artificial elevation was constructed on the residential areas to survive the threat of the river’s annual inundation (Jansen, 1999). Records on central water supply and wastewater disposal date back about 5000 years to Nippur of Sumeria. The Sanskrit medical lore of India and Egyptian wall inscriptions taught that foul water can be purified by boiling, exposure to sunlight, filtering through charcoal, and cooling in a tile vessel. These teachings were verified by the English philosopher Sir Francis Bacon, who in 1627 published experiments on the purification of water by filtration, boiling, distillation, and clarification by coagulation. Bacon stated that purifying water tends to improve health and increase the pleasure of the eye (Viessman and Hammer, 1985).

C.

Europe

Early Europe made many important contributions to water utilization and management. The collection of water by rain harvesting dates back to prehistorical times in Europe. Designs have been found in the ruins of the palace of Knossos (1700 B.C.), the center of Minoan Crete. Small courts were built between the western and eastern wings of the palace. Besides providing light for the lower floors, these courts collected rainwater, which was drained out for ritual activities and air conditioning. Rainwater also was collected from the roof, channeled to small cisterns, and stored for various purposes (The United Nations Environmental Program, 1983). Waterwheels for irrigation, water supply, and milling corn were used in ancient Greece and Rome. However, due to the scarcity of cheap slave and animal labor, the application of waterpower did not become widespread until the 12th century. Concerns about water and environment were documented in the 13th century. Louis VI of France promulgated “The Decree of Waters and Forests” in 1215, considered to be the earliest written document in the West concerning the relation between waters and forests (Kittredge, 1948). However, analysis of such a relationship was not addressed until the 1830s, when systematic streamflow measurements became available. Dr. Heinrich Berghaus, a German hydrographer, found that the streamflows in the Elbe and Oder rivers gradually decreased from 1778 to 1835. He attributed the decrease of streamflows to the destruction of forests, cultivation of the soil, and the draining of swamps. In 1873, an Austrian hydrographer, Gustave Wex, attributed the diminishment of water in the Rhine, Elbe, Oder, Vistula, and Danube rivers to the decrease in precipitation which, in turn, was due to forest destruction (Zon, 1927). Wex’s works generated a great interest in the relation between waters and forests in Europe in the 19th century and were well accepted by many prominent scientists, although his interpretations are no longer acceptable in the light of modern hydrology. In 1837, a special commission set up to investigate the causes of decreasing river discharge in Russia concluded that it was due to deforestation and expanding agricultural acreage. Later, G. Wex also blamed the severe droughts occurring through most of Europe in 1870 to the effects of expanding agriculture (Molchanov, 1963). In 1860, France began a reforestation program in a region where some 320,000 ha of farmland had been seriously damaged as a result of clearcutting on the headwaters of streams. The planting program resulted in complete control of damage from 163 torrents, 31 of which were considered hopeless about a half-century earlier. It was then concluded that forest cover is one of the most effective means of erosion control and that the best place to control streamflow is at the headwaters of streams.

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A German scientist, Krutsch, started the first investigation of the effects of forest upon precipitation under a pine stand in 1863. Over a period of 16 months, he found that throughfall was merely 9% when rainfall was very light (not over 0.5 mm), and it might amount to 80 to 90% in case of strong showers (Molchanov, 1963; Friedrich, 1967). There was also a great interest in the forest and floods relationship in the last part of the 19th century in Europe. The first scientific watershed research on the effects of forest upon streamflow regularity was initiated by the Swiss Central Experimental Station in 1890 (Zon, 1927). Two small watersheds of similar topography, geological formation, soil, and latitude, but different in forest cover (one was 98% forested while the other was 30%) were selected for the study. Rainfall, snowfall, runoff, and temperature data for these two watersheds were collected carefully using recording or nonrecording gages. The preliminary result based on 11 years of data showed: (1) the deforested watershed carried 30 to 50% more water per unit of area during the high flood periods; (2) the lowflows were higher in the forested watershed; and (3) total annual discharges of the two watersheds were about the same. The streamflow discharge in the forested watershed was more uniform than that of the deforested watershed.

D. The United States America inherited many of the European concepts about water and forests. Many conservationists claimed that deforestation caused floods in wet seasons and made streams and creeks drier in the summer. Conversely, the existence of forest could prevent floods because tree-root systems held soil in place, and soil stored moisture. Thus, streamflow benefited in the dry seasons from the slow release of stored water and by the increase of precipitation in the forested area. The forest-streamflow hypothesis and consequent conservation movement inevitably generated disputes, conflicts, and controversies in the U.S. (Walker, 1983; Pisani, 1992). The disputes extended from the 19th century to the early 20th century. Hiram M. Chittenden, an officer in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, presented a paper titled “Forests and Reservoirs in Their Relation to Streamflow with Particular Reference to Navigable Streams” at the 1908 annual meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers. He stated that forests did not prevent floods, the main benefit of forests being to protect soil from erosion. Willis L. Moore, chief of the Weather Bureau, issued a pamphlet in 1910 entitled “A Report on the Influence of Forests on Climate and on Floods,” which aimed to show that forests were an insignificant factor in floods. This opposition was forcefully attacked by the chief of the U.S. Forest Service, Gifford Pinchot, who stated in 1910, “The connection between forests and rivers is like that between father and son. No forests, no rivers” (Sartz, 1983). The heated debate and nationwide campaign of the Forest Service led to the passage of the Weeks Act in 1911 (Douglas and Hoover, 1987). The act authorized federal purchases of forestlands in the headwaters of navigable streams and federal matching funds for approved state agencies to protect forested watersheds of navigable streams. Although there was no agreement with respect to the relationship between forests and floods, many realized that the deficiencies in scientific information and experimental data for justification needed to be addressed. The first experimental watershed project of the U.S., similar to that of the Swiss study, was established in 1910 at Wagon Wheel Gap, headwaters of the Rio Grande in Colorado, and continued until 1926. The project, a joint effort between the Forest Service and the Weather Bureau, was designated to compare streamflows from a denuded watershed and an undisturbed, forested watershed. Similar watershed experiments included the San Gabriel River basin in Southern California (1917), San Dimas, California (1935), White Hollow Watersheds, Tennessee (1934), Coweeta, North Carolina (1933), Fraser Experimental Forest, Colorado (1937), H. J. Andrews Watersheds,

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Oregon (1948), Hubbard Brook, New Hampshire (1955), Parsons, West Virginia (1955), Oxford, Mississippi (1957), and many others. Today, at least 440 major experimental watersheds are located at 49 different areas throughout the United States (Figure 12.1). The concerns of the U.S. Congress about stream-water quality were manifested by the passage of the Rivers and Harbors Act in 1899. The act prohibited discharge of refuse into waterways or deposits of materials on the bank of any navigable waters. It was the first legislation to include nonpoint sources of water pollution in a federal program. However, it was not until the end of World War II that the concerns became more widespread and a series of laws passed to regulate national water-quality conditions caused by various land uses and industrial activities. Major water-pollution acts include: the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 (PL80–845) and Amendments of 1956 (PL84–660) and of 1961 (PL87–88), Water Quality Act of 1965 (PL89–234), Clear Water Restoration Act of 1966 (PL89–753), Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970 (PL91–224), Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL92–500), Clear Water Act of 1977 (PL95–217), and Water Quality Act of 1987.

II. Hydrosciences A.

Hydrology

The scientific study of water, called hydrology, is a branch of earth science. It is concerned with the problems of water on the earth. Such problems may involve water quantity and quality, interrelations between water and environment, and the impact of man’s activity on the occurrence, circulation, and distribution of water. Hydrology looks for the causes and effects of these problems, predicts water-related events and problems, and studies the adjustment, management, and operation of water and water resources to benefit society and the environment. Man’s interest in water may be as old as our civilization. The source of water in streams and springs was a puzzling problem that was the subject of much speculation and controversy until a comparatively recent time. King Solomon, who lived nearly 1000 years before Christ, wrote in the Old Testament that all streams flow into the sea but the sea is never full. The Greek philosophers, such as Thales (about 650 B.C.), Plato (427–347 B.C.) and Aristotle (about 384–322 B.C.), developed ideas that the springs and streams are supplied from the ocean, driven into rocks by winds, and elevated in the mountains, by rock pressure, by vacuum produced by the flows of springs, by pressure exerted on the sea, or by the virtue of the heavens. The French physicist Pierre Perrault (1608–80) quantitatively demonstrated that rainfall in the Seine River is sufficient to account for discharge by the river. Soon after Perrault, the English astronomer Edmund Halley (1656–1742) made observations on the rate of evaporation. He demonstrated that evaporation from the Mediterranean Sea was ample to supply the quantity of water returned to that sea by rivers (Meinzer, 1942). These scientists unveiled our modern concept of the hydrologic cycle and initiated quantitative studies of modern hydrology.

1.

Disciplines in hydrology

Water can be found in solid, liquid, and gaseous states at common earth temperatures. The presence of water, changes in water from one state to another, and water translocation and storage serve environmental, biological, and sociological functions. Hydrology embraces such a large and diversified field that no one can study it all. The broad science of hydrology, more properly called hydroscience, is further broken down into disciplines

Chapter three:

Water as a science

The Body of Waters Potamology Limnology Cryology Oceanography Glaciology Hydrometeorology Hydrogeology Hydrometry

Land-Use Conditions Rangeland Hydrology Agriculture Hydrology Forest Hydrology Urban Hydrology Wetland Hydrology Desert Hydrology

29 Interdisciplines Geomorphology Paleohydrology Engineering Hydrology Watershed Management Hydrobiology

and specifications that can be grouped into the body of waters, land-surface conditions, and interdisciplines of water and land. a. On the body of waters. Potamology. The study of surface streams may emphasize stream dynamics and morphology, the fluvial processes (Knighton, 1984; Garde, 1985), hydraulic characteristics, transport capacity (Morisawa, 1968; 1985), or physical habitat, management, and classification (Gordon et al., 1993). Streams have to be controlled in times of flood; kept open for transportation; stored for agricultural, industrial, and municipal usage; converted into electrical energy; managed for environmental integrity, leisure enjoyment, and biological habitats. Limnology. The study of life and phenomena of lakes and ponds — of the functional relationships and productivity of freshwater communities as related to their physical, chemical, and biotic environment — is called limnology (Lampert and Sommer, 1997). Study topics may include physical, chemical, and biological properties of lakes; element cycles; the distribution, origins, and forms of lakes; biotic communities such as phytoplankton and zooplankton, fish, and benthic animals; the ontogeny (successional development) of lake ecosystems; structure and productivity of aquatic ecosystems; and interrelations between water quality and biotic communities (Cole, 1994; Wetzel and Likens, 2000). Cryology. Also called snow hydrology, it is the study of snow and ice. Studies may include occurrence and distribution of snow; measurements, physics, and properties of snow cover, snowmelt, and runoff; snow and ice on lakes; avalanches; snow on buildings, highways, and airports; snowpack management; and recreation (U.S. Corps of Engineers, 1956; Gray and Male, 1981; Singh and Singh, 2001). Oceanography. The study of oceans and their phenomena is called oceanography. About 97% of the total waters of the earth are confined in the oceans, which in turn cover about 71% of the earth’s surface area. The maximum depth of the ocean exceeds 11 km, with an average depth of about 4 km. Oceans provide ecological niches for more than 250,000 marine plant and animal species, which serve as foods for man and other organisms. They are also a source of salts and minerals for man’s utilization; a sink for industrial, domestic, and instream disposals; a storage for solar-energy dissipation; and a medium for moderating the earth’s climate. Oceanography can be divided into three branches: physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, and biological oceanography (Longhurst, 1998). Physical oceanography deals with the physical properties and processes of seas and oceans and is of more concern to hydrologists (Pickard and Emery, 1990; Davis, 1987). Topics in this study include properties of sea water, ocean currents, waves and tides, sea levels, temperature variation and distributions, thermal interactions between ocean and atmosphere, topography of the ocean floor, sediment deposition, ocean precipitation and evaporation, and the drift of icebergs. Glaciology. A glacier is a body of ice originating on land by the recrystallization of snow or other solid precipitation and presents a slow transfer of mass by creeping from

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

region to region. The study of ice and glaciers in all aspects is termed glaciology. The scope may include formation of ice in the ground, glacier classification, runoff, movement, climatic effects and changes, and hydrologic problems related to glaciers (Meier, 1966; Hutter, 1983; The Geological Society of America, 1999; Singh and Singh, 2001). Hydrometeorology. Meteorology deals with the movement of water in the atmosphere, while hydrology is concerned with the distribution and occurrence of water on and under the earth’s surface. The hydrologic cycle is a concern common to both sciences. Thus, the application of meteorology to hydrological problems such as developing water resources and flood control is called hydrometeorology (or hyetology, precipitation hydrology). Major topics may include the estimation of probable maximum precipitation, storm models, temporal and spatial variations of storms, storm transposition, engineering design and river forecasting, and accuracy and representativeness of precipitation measurements. (Bruce and Clark, 1966; Wiesner, 1970; Am. Water Resour. Assoc., 1983; Upadhyay, 1996). Hydrogeology. More than 22% of all freshwaters on Earth are confined under the ground, while surface water in lakes and rivers makes up only about 0.36%. Currently, about 80% of water withdrawals in the United States come from streams and lakes. Groundwater is then logically seen as a major resource for easing water-shortage problems. In fact, groundwater is even more desirable than surface water due to: (1) no pathogenic organisms in general, (2) constancy of temperature and chemical composition, (3) absence of turbidity and color, (4) no effects of short droughts on supplies, and (5) difficulty of radiochemical and biological contamination. However, groundwater development may be difficult in some areas due to its costs, low permeability, land subsidence problems, and great content in dissolved solids. The science that studies groundwater occurrence, distribution, and movement is called hydrogeology or groundwater hydrology (Davis and DeWiest, 1966; Palmer and Peterson, 1991). The exploration of groundwater, the effects of geological environment on groundwater chemistry and mode of migration, and groundwater contamination are also interesting subjects to many hydrogeologists. Hydrometry. The science of water measurements is called hydrometry. More than 3000 years ago the Egyptian pharaoh Menes developed the first staff gage, now called the Nilometer, to monitor the water level of the Nile River (Leupold & Stevens, Inc., 1987). The Nilometer was marked in graduations on walls to obtain a visual reading of the water level on-site (Kolupaila, 1960). Today water is measured in terms of water level, velocity, discharge, and depth, and it can be measured manually, semiautomatically, and automatically with radio and satellite communication systems and computer data storage and manipulation capability (Ackers et al., 1978; WMO, 1980; USGS, 1985; Herschy, 1999; Boiten, 2000). b. On land-surface conditions. Rangeland Hydrology. Land on Earth may be classified into five categories: nonproductive land (about 15%), forestland (30%), rangeland (40%), cropland (10%), and urban-industrial land (5%). Rangelands are natural grasslands, savannas, shrublands, most deserts, tundra, alpine communities, coastal marshes, and wet meadows. Rangelands are often are intermingled with other types of land and are distributed from sea level to above timberline. These lands are more suitable for management by ecological principles than for management by economic principles. Rangeland vegetation is predominantly short, consisting of broad-leafed plants such as grasses, forbs, and shrubs. It provides a variety of natural resources including forage, livestock, fish and wildlife, minerals, recreation, and water beneficial to man in both tangible and intangible aspects. The study of hydrologic principles as applied to rangeland ecosystems is called rangeland hydrology. Topics associated with rangeland hydrology may include vegetation management in relation to water loss and conservation; grazing impact on surface runoff,

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Water as a science

31

soil erosion, stream sedimentation, and water quality; snowpack management, and water harvesting (Branson et al., 1981; American Soc. of Agri. Engineers, 1988). Agricultural Hydrology. Water use for agricultural irrigation and raising livestock is the greatest single use in the U.S., accounting for 41.8% of the total water utilized in 1985, while thermoelectric, industrial, and domestic uses of water were 38.7%, 9.1%, and 10.4%, respectively (Paulson et al., 1988). The study of application of hydrologic principles to agricultural development, production, and management is called agrohydrology. Land drainage, irrigation, water harvesting, water conservation, soil erosion and sedimentation, water quantity, and quality of surface and groundwater are some major topics and concerns in agricultural hydrology (van Hoorn, 1988). Forest Hydrology. With respect to its height, density, and thickness of crown canopy, fluffy forest floor, spread root system, and wide horizontal distribution and vertical coverage, forest is the most distinguished type of vegetation on the earth. Generally, forests prosper in regions where the minimum net radiation is 20,000 1 y yr-1 and the minimum precipitation is 500 mm yr-1. Those areas are the major sources of our surface water for domestic and industrial use. In the U.S., for example, forests occupy about 30% of the total territory, yet this 30% of land area produces about 60% of total surface runoff. Harvesting and other activities in the forest area will inevitably disturb forest canopies and floors, consequently affecting the quantity, quality, and timing of water resources. The geographical significance of forestland, along with the uniqueness of forest ecosystems, makes the study of water in forested areas a specification of scientific study. The study of water in forest areas was largely covered under the discipline of forest influences in the first half of this century. All effects of natural vegetation on climate, water, and soil are under the scope of forest influences. By the middle of the century, Kittredge (1948) suggested that the water phases of forest influences be called forest hydrology. Forest hydrology is a study of hydrology in forestland. It is concerned with forest, and forest activity in relation to all phases of water — an interdisciplinary science that brings forest and hydrology together. Thus, all the influences of forest cover along with forest management and activity on precipitation, streamflow, evapotranspiration, soil water, floods, drought, soil erosion, stream sediment, nutrient losses, and water quality are within the scope of forest hydrology. It provides the basic knowledge, principles, scientific evidence, and justification for managing water resources in forested watersheds. Topics in forest hydrology are discussed in detail by Penman (1963), Monke (1971), Lee (1980), and Black (1991). Studies extending issues in forest–water relations to plant–water relations may be called “eco-hydrology” (Baird and Wilby, 1999) or “environmental hydrology” (Ward and Elliot, 1995). Urban Hydrology. The physical environment of urban and industrial areas is completely different from that of forests, agricultural lands, and rangeland. Many observations and studies have shown greater precipitation in and around major urban areas than in the surrounding countryside due to the enormous number of condensation nuclei produced by human activities and atmospheric instability associated with the heat island generated by the city (Sayok and Chang, 1991). The impervious surfaces created by urban development may cause an increase in flooding, soil erosion, stream sedimentation, and pollution of land and water bodies (American Public Works Asso., 1981; Lazaro, 1990). The study of hydrology in urban areas and the hydrologic problems associated with urbanization fall within the scope of urban hydrology. Wetland Hydrology. Wetlands are areas where the water table is at or near the surface of the land for at least a consecutive period of time, or is covered by shallow water up to 2 m (6 ft) deep. The abundant water in the soils makes soil properties significantly different from those in the uplands and the soil is suitable for growth of certain plant species. Five

32

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

major wetland systems have been recognized: marine, estuaries, lacustrine, riverine, and palustrine. Marine and estuaries systems are coastal wetlands, such as tidal marshes and mangrove swamps. Lacustrine and riverine wetlands are associated with lakes and rivers, respectively. The last system includes marshes, swamps, and bogs (Niering, 1987). Thus, wetlands are transitional zones between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, all rich in plants and animals. Water is the primary factor that controls the environment, plants, animals, and soils. Wetlands are no longer wastelands as they were thought to be in the past. They are not only habitats of a variety of plant and animal species, but also important natural floodcontrol mechanisms, nature’s water-purification plants, nutrient and food suppliers to aquatic organisms, a major contributor to groundwater recharge, and a buffer zone for shoreline erosion (Chang, 1987). Wetland hydrology studies vegetation and flooding, hydrologic characteristics of wetlands, streamflow, and sediment. It examines the impact of development projects on wetland ecosystems, groundwater fluctuation, water quality, nutrient removal and transformation, wetland construction and restoration, wetland management, soil characteristics, wetlands delineation and classification, erosion control, etc. (Marble, 1992; Lyon, 1993; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1993; Gilman, 1994). Desert Hydrology. Although arid and semiarid lands cover about 30% of the world’s land area, only about 15% of the world’s population lives in these regions. However, the regions are of strategic and economic importance because these regions contain over onehalf of the precious and semiprecious minerals and most of the oil and natural gas. Here rainfall is little, highly variable, and infrequent. Coupling rainfall scarcity with great rates of soil and water evaporation makes water deficiency a general phenomena and characteristic across the region. A vast area depends on springs and groundwater for its water supply. Desert hydrology studies the characteristics and processes of the hydrology cycle in arid and semiarid areas, springs, and groundwater resources. It also examines water conservation and harvesting, the adaptation of plants to the environment, hydro-climate changes, decertification, and water quality (Beaumont, 1993; Shahin, 1996). c. On interdisciplinary studies. Geomorphology. Geomorphology is concerned with landforms and drainage characteristics created by running water and other physical processes. The study of drainage basins and channel networks was largely qualitative and deductive prior to the 1950s. Dr. Arthur N. Strahler and his Columbia University associates have made great contributions to transform the science from descriptive into quantitative study. Geomorphology provides an invaluable basis for assessing the potential of land for development, for land-use planning, and for environmental management (Cooke and Doornkamp, 1990). Since the behavior of streamflow is highly affected by watershed topographic characteristics (Wolman et al., 1995), the quantitative description of drainage basins and channel networks enables hydrologists to evaluate the spatial variations of streamflow, precipitation, temperature, snow distribution, and other hydro-climatic variables, and consequently to produce hydrologic models and simulations (Verstappen, 1983; Wilson and Gallant, 2000). Paleohydrology. Many hydraulic structures are designed to meet climatic and hydrologic conditions 50 to 100 years in the future. The estimation of these future events is based on data collected in the past. Accuracy of these estimates is affected greatly by data availability and representativeness of the data observations. If a short period of hydrologic data recorded in a relatively dry period were used in the analysis, the designed flood for a structure might well be too small to accommodate large floods in wet periods. The physical and financial success of such a project might be seriously jeopardized. Paleohydrology is the study of hydrologic conditions in ancient times. The study may be useful in understanding the changes in precipitation, temperature, stream levels, and water

Chapter three:

Water as a science

33

balance from the past to modern times, defining the physical laws that govern the fluctuations of hydrologic conditions, and studying environmental change on continents (Gregory et al., 1996; Benito et al., 1998). It is related to paleoclimatology (Cronin, 1999). Techniques used in the study may include tree rings (dendrochronology), glacial fluctuations, fossils, pollen deposition in bogs (palynology), sediment cores in deep seas and lakes, and other geological evidence. Engineering Hydrology. Hydrological information is essential in the design, operation, and management of flood-control works, irrigation systems, water-supply projects, stormrunoff drainage, erosion controls, highway culverts, and many other hydraulic structures. Engineering hydrology is the study of hydrologic characteristics of a watershed or a drainage system required to solve these engineering problems. The study may include frequency analysis of hydrologic events, depth–area–duration analysis, estimation of evapotranspiration, hydrograph analysis, streamflow routing, rain–runoff relations, streamflow simulation, estimation of soil erosion and stream sedimentation, risk analysis, and many others (Linsley et al., 1975). Watershed Management. Due to gravitation, rainwater is always drained from places of higher elevation to a lower elevation. All land enclosed by a continuous hydrologic drainage divide and lying up-slope from a specific section on a stream is a watershed. Thus, every piece of land belongs to one watershed or another, depending on the reference section in question, and in any watershed all surface water is drained out through that particular section in the channel. The watershed, also called a catchment or drainage basin, is the unit of land area that the hydrologist and watershed manager consider for study or management. It is analogous to the silviculturist’s stand, or the forest manager’s compartment. However, stand and compartment may be a more or less artificial unit, while watersheds have natural boundaries. Watersheds have been employed as social and economic units for community development and conservation of natural resources including water, soils, forests, wildlife, and others. Because of the steadily increasing demands for water in our modern society and the fact that much of the water for agriculture, industry, recreation, and domestic use has its source in forested land, watershed management has become increasingly important to foresters. Thus, watershed management is management of all natural resources including forests, land, wildlife, recreation, and minerals within a watershed for the protection and production of water resources while maintaining environmental stability. Accordingly, watershed management is water oriented; it is primarily concerned with water resources and related problems. Since soil erosion may greatly affect water quality, flood damage, land deterioration, environmental aesthetics, and many other factors, the soil stabilization and prevention of soil erosion is also one of the most important challenges in protecting water resources, an area that is generally covered under the discipline of soil conservation. Soil conservation is soil oriented, and ignorance of water movement causes severe soil erosion and environmental problems. Thus watershed management and soil conservation share the same concerns in some areas. In reality, watershed management involves much more complex problems and broader tasks than soil conservation. It deals with water as well as soil problems, along with land planning and resource management activities in upstream forested land, while soil conservation deals with soil problems relating to land productivity in downstream agricultural regions. In a sense, watershed management is integrated resources management for the production and protection of watershed water resources and should properly be called “integrated watershed management.” Watershed management is based on principles in forest hydrology and the knowledge in general hydrology, meteorology, climatology, ecology, soils and geology, engineering, land planning, environmental regulation, and social science. It is essential that the atmo-

34

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

spheric, plant, soil, and water systems of the watershed — and frequently the impact of man’s activity on the complex system — be considered simultaneously. Ignorance of any one variable may make watershed projects costly and ineffective. Detailed discussions of watershed management are given by Colman (1953), FAO (1977), Hamilton and King (1983), Brooks et al. (1991), and Satterlund and Adams (1992). Hydrobiology. Aquatic plants can be grouped into six categories based upon size, shape, and growth habits: plankton algae, filamentous algae, submersed weeds, emerged weeds, marginal weeds, and floating weeds. Extensive infestations of these plants create problems in water for recreation, irrigation, flood control, and navigation, increase water loss due to transpiration, and organism-transmitted diseases, and affect physical properties. Topics such as the characteristics of aquatic plants, plant distribution, plant growth and development, aquatic plants and environment, and control and management of these plants are interesting to hydrobiologists (Gangstad, 1986; Riemer, 1993; Caffrey, 2000). Other disciplines such as medical hydrology (water in relation to human health), and hydroecology (water and its environmental and physiological functions) also have been mentioned in the literature.

References Ackers, P. et al., 1978, Weirs and Flumes for Flow Measurement, John Wiley & Sons, New York. American Public Works Association, 1981, Urban Stormwater Management, APWA Research Foundation, Chicago. American Soc. of Agri. Engineers, 1988, Modeling Agricultural, Forest, and Rangeland Hydrology, Proceedings of the 1988 International Symposium, St. Joseph, MI. American Water Resour. Assoc., 1983, International Symposium on Hydrometeorology, Bethesda, MD. Baird, A.J. and Wilby, R.L., 1999, Eco-Hydrology, Routledge, New York. Beaumont, P., 1993, Drylands: Environmental Management and Development, Routledge, New York. Benito, G., Baker, V.R., and Gregory, K.J., Eds., 1998, Paleohydrology and Environmental Change, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Bennett, H.H., 1939, Soil Conservation, McGraw-Hill, New York. Black, P.E., 1991, Watershed Hydrology, Prentice Hall, New York. Boiten, W., 2000, Hydrometry, Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam. Boyer, M.C., 1964, Streamflow measurement, in Handbook of Applied Hydrology, Chow, V.T., Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York. Branson, F.A. et al., 1981, Rangeland Hydrology, Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque, IA. Brooks, K.N. et al., 1991, Hydrology and the Management of Watersheds, Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA. Bruce, J.P. and Clark R.H., 1966, Introduction to Hydrometeorology, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY. Caffrey, J.M., Ed., 2000, Biology, Ecology and Management of Aquatic Plants, Kluwer, Dordrecht. Chang, M., 1987, Monitoring bottomland hardwoods in response to hydrologic changes below dams, in Bottomland Hardwoods in Texas, McMahan, C.A. and Frye, R.G., Eds., Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, pp. 162–164. Chen, M.T. et al., 1992, Brief Histories of the Chinese Sciences and Technology, Ming-Wen Book Co., Taipei. Cole, G.A., 1994, Textbook of Limnology, Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL. Colman, E.A., 1953, Vegetation and Watershed Management, Ronald Press, New York. Cooke, R.U. and Doornkamp, J.C., 1990, Geomorphology in Environmental Management: A New Introduction, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Cronin, T.M., 1999, Principles of Paleoclimatology, Columbia University Press, Irvington, NY. Davis, R.A., 1987, Oceanography: An Introduction to Marine Environment, W.C. Brown, Dubugne, IA. Davis, S.N. and DeWiest, R.J.M., 1966, Hydrogeology, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Douglas, J. E. and Hoover, M.J., 1987, History of Coweeta, in Forest Hydrology and Ecology at Coweeta, Swank, W.T. and Crossley, D.A., Jr., Eds., Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg.

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FAO, 1977, Guidelines for Watershed Management, Food and Agri. Organ. of the United Nations, Rome. Frank, B., 1955, The story of water as the story of man, in Water, the Yearbook of Agr., USDA, Washington, D.C. Friedrich, W., 1967, Forest hydrology research in Germany, in International Symposium on Forest Hydrology, Sopper, W.E. and Lull, H.W., Eds., Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY. Gangstad, E.O., 1986, Freshwater Vegetation Management, Thomas Publications, Fresno, CA. Garde, R.J., 1985, Mechanics of Sediment Transportation and Alluvial Stream Problems, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Gilman, 1994, Geological Society of America, 1999, Glacial Processes, Past and Present, Boulder, CO. Gordon, N.D., McMahon, T.A., and Finlayson, B.L., 1993, Stream Hydrology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Grant, D.M., 1992, ISCO Open Channel Flow Measurement Handbook, 3rd ed., ISCO, Inc., Lincoln, NE. Gray, D.M., and Male, D.H., 1981, Handbook of Snow, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY. Gregory, K.J., Starkel, L., and Baker, V.R., Eds., 1996, Global Continental Paleohydrology, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Hamilton, L.S. and King, P.N., 1983, Tropical Forested Watersheds, Hydrologic and Soils Response to Major Uses or Conversions, Westview Press, Boulder. Herschy, R.W., Ed., 1999, Hydrometry: Principles and Practices, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York. Hutter, K., 1983, Theoretical Glaciology: Material Science of Ice and the Mechanics of Glaciers and Ice Sheets, Reidel/Terra, Dordrecht. Jansen, M.R.N., 1999, Mohenjo Daro and the River Indus, in The Indus River — Biodiversity, Resources, and Humankind, Meadows, A. and Meadows, P.S., Eds., Oxford University Press, Oxford. Kittredge, J., 1948, Forest Influences, McGraw-Hill, New York. Knighton, D., 1984, Fluvial Forms and Processes, Edward Arnold, London. Kolupaila, S., 1960, Early history of hydrometry in the United States, Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., J. Hydrau. Div., 86, 1–50. Lampert, W. and Sommer, U., 1997, Limnoecology: The Ecology of Lakes and Streams, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Lazaro, T.R., 1990, Urban Hydrology — A Multidisciplinary Perspective, Technomic, Lancaster, PA. Lee, R., 1980, Forest Hydrology, Columbia University Press, New York. Leupold & Stevens, Inc., 1987, Stevens Water Resources Data Book, Beaverton, OR. Linsley, R.K., Jr., Kohler, M.A., and Paulhus J.L.H., 1975, Hydrology for Engineers, 2nd ed., McGraw Hill, New York. Longhurst, A.R., 1998, Ecological Geography of the Sea, Academic Press, New York. Lyon, J. G., 1993, Practical Handbook for Wetland Identification and Delineation, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. Marble, A.D., 1992, A Guide to Wetland Functional Design, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. Meier, M.F., 1966, Ice and glaciers, in Handbook of Applied Hydrology, Chow, V.T., Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 16:1–32. Meinzer, O.E., 1942, Hydrology, Dover, New York. Molchanov, A.A., 1963, The Hydrological Role of Forests, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Monke, E.J., Ed., 1971, Biological Effects in the Hydrological Cycle, Proc. of the Third International Seminar for Hydrology Professors, Dept. of Agr. Eng., Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN. Morisawa, M., 1968, Streams, Their Dynamics and Morphology, McGraw-Hill, New York. Morisawa, M., 1985, Rivers, Longman, New York. Niering, W.A., 1987, Wetlands, Alfred A. Knopf, New York. Palmer, C.M. and Peterson, J.L., 1991, Principles of Contaminant Hydrogeology, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. Paulson, R.W., Chase, E.B., and Carr, J.E., 1988, Water supply and use in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey National Water Summary 1987, in Water-Use Data for Water Resources Management, Waterstone, M. and Burt, R.J., Eds., Amer. Water Resour. Assoc., TPS-88–2, Bethesda, MD.

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Penman, H.L., 1963, Vegetation and Hydrology, Commonwealth Agr. Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Buks, England. Pickard, G.L. and Emery, W.J., 1990, Descriptive Physical Oceanography: An Introduction, 5th ed., Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY. Pisani, D.J., 1992, To Reclaim a Divided West: Water, Law, and Public Policy, 1848–1902, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Riemer, D.N., 1993, Introduction to Freshwater Vegetation, Krieger Publ. Co., Melbourne, FL. Sartz, R.S., 1983, Watershed management, in Encyclopedia of American Forest and Conservation History, Vol. ll, Davis, R.C., Ed., MacMillan, New York. Satterlund, D.R. and Adams, P.W., 1992, Wildland Watershed Management, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Sayok, A.K. and Chang, M., 1991, Rainfall in and around the city of Nacogdoches, Texas, Texas J. Sci., 43, 173–178. Shahin, M., 1996, Hydrology and Scarcity of Water Resources in Arab Region, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam. Singh, P. and Singh, V., 2001, Snow and Glacier Hydrology, Klumer Academic Publishers, Hingham, MA. Southern Chinese Daily News, 1997, Exploring the Secrecy of Lop Nor: Archaeologists revealed the life styles of Lo Lanian (Editoral), Southern Chinese Daily News, December 28, 1997. United Nations Environmental Program, 1983, Rain and Sormwater Harvesting in Rural Areas, Tycooly International Publ. Ltd., Dublin, Ireland. Upadhyay, D.S., 1996, Cold Climate Hydrometeorology, John Wiley & Sons, New York. U.S. Corps of Engineers, 1956, Snow Hydrology, North Pacific Div., Portland, OR. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1993, Created and Natural Wetlands for Controlling Nonpoint Source Pollution, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds, Washington, D.C. USGS, 1985, Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the United States Geological Survey, Alexandria, VA. van Hoorn, J.W., 1988, Agrohydrology — recent developments, Proc. Symp. Agrohydrology, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 29 Sept. – 1 Oct. 1987, Elsevier, New York. Verstappen, H.T., 1983, Applied Geomorphology, Elsevie, New York. Viessman, W., Jr. and Hammer, M.J., 1985, Water Supply and Pollution Control, Harper & Row, New York. Walker, L.C., 1983, Forest influences, in Encyclopedia of American Forest and Conservation History, Vol. I, Davis, R.C., Ed., Macmillan and Free Press, New York. Wang, P., 1983, A brief history of engineering technology in China, in The History of Science and Technology in China, Vol. ll, Wu, L.C., Ed., Natural Sci. and Culture Publ. Co., Taipei, pp. 255–262. Ward, A.D. and Elliot, W.J., Eds., 1995, Environmental Hydrology, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. Wetzel, R.G. and Likens, G.E., 2000, Limnological Analyses, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg. Wiesner, C.J., 1970, Hydrometeorology, Chapman & Hall, London. Wilson, J.P. and Gallant, J.C., Eds., 2000, Terrain Analysis: Principles and Applications, John Wiley & Sons, New York. WMO, 1980, Manual on Stream Gauging, Operational Hydrology Report No. 13, WMO-NO. 519, World Meteorological Organization,. Wolman, M.G., Miller, J.P., and Leopold, LB., 1995, Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology, Dover Publishers, Mineola, NY. Young, L.S., 1985, How did our ancestors utilize groundwater? International Daily News, March 2 (in Chinese). Zon, R., 1927, Forests and Water in the Light of Scientific Investigation, U.S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C.

chapter four

Properties of water Contents I. Physical properties............................................................................................................38 A. Three states of water ................................................................................................38 B. Latent heat of water .................................................................................................38 C. Saturation vapor pressure .......................................................................................39 D. Vapor diffusion..........................................................................................................39 E. Heat capacity .............................................................................................................40 F. Thermal conductivity ...............................................................................................41 II. Hydraulic properties ........................................................................................................41 A. Density........................................................................................................................42 B. Pressure ......................................................................................................................42 C. Buoyancy ....................................................................................................................44 D. Surface tension and capillary rise..........................................................................45 E. Viscosity......................................................................................................................46 F. The Reynolds number..............................................................................................46 G. Shear stress.................................................................................................................47 H. Stream power ............................................................................................................48 III. Chemical properties..........................................................................................................48 A. The water molecule ..................................................................................................48 B. Formation of water...................................................................................................49 C. Chemical reactions....................................................................................................49 IV. Biological properties .........................................................................................................50 A. Temperature ...............................................................................................................50 B. Dissolved oxygen......................................................................................................51 C. pH................................................................................................................................52 D. Conductivity ..............................................................................................................53 E. Sediment.....................................................................................................................54 References .......................................................................................................................................55

Water is the most vital and ubiquitous substance on Earth. It has been described as a miracle of nature, the mirror of science, and the blood of life. Many properties of water are used as references and standards for properties of other substances. This chapter examines water properties from four perspectives: physical, hydraulic, chemical, and biological. 37

38

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

I.

Physical properties

A.

Three states of water

Water has three states: solid, liquid, and gaseous. They all exist at common Earth temperatures. At standard atmosphere (760 mm Hg) and at about 0∞C, all three states of water are in equilibrium when the partial pressure of water vapor is 4.6 mm Hg. Changes from one state to another depend on water temperature and atmospheric pressure. Increases in air pressure will lower the freezing point and raise the boiling point of water. When atmospheric pressure is below 760 mm Hg and temperature is lower than 0∞C, water can change from solid state directly into Figure 4.1 The triple point of water. vapor state, a phenomenon called sublimation (Figure 4.1). Changes in the state of water do not alter its chemical properties but do affect the cohesion of water molecules and water density (Table 4.1). Water molecules are rigidly bound to one another, but the space between molecules and their rigidity are different among the three states. The arrangement of the molecules in water vapor is a lot looser than that in the solid or liquid states. Water molecules in the liquid state are the closest of the three. This makes ice’s density less than, and its volume larger than, liquid water’s, a property unique among the solid states of substances. Water vapor is a much poorer heat conductor than liquid water. The thermal conductivity of ice is about 144 times greater than that of water vapor (Table 4.2).

B.

Latent heat of water

Any change in the state of water involves a tremendous amount of heat transfer. At 20∞C, it takes 586 calories of heat to convert one gram of water from the liquid state into the vapor state. The heat required is reduced to about 541 cal/g when water temperature is at 100∞C, the boiling point. Water temperature does not increase beyond the boiling point even if heat is continually being added. The added heat is not retained in the water, but Table 4.1 Densities (g cm-3) of Water in Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous States for Selected State of Water 0 Solid

0.91600

Liquid Gaseousa

0.99984 4.845 ¥ 10-6

a

4 0.99997 6.36 ¥ 10-6

Temperatures (°C) 10 20 0.99970 6.94 ¥ 10-6

0.99821 17.30 ¥ 10-6

30

40

0.99565 30.38 ¥ 10-6

0.99222 51.19 ¥ 10-6

Saturation over water.

Table 4.2 Specific Heat and Thermal Conductivity of Dry Air, Liquid Water, and Ice at 0°C Property Specific heat, cal g-1 °C-1 Thermal conductivity, cal cm-1 sec-1 ∞C-1

Dry Air

Liquid Water

0.24 0.058(10-3)

1.00 1.32(10-3)

Ice 0.50 5.35(10-3)

Chapter four:

Properties of water

39

is carried off by the vapor through the boiling process. This is the so-called latent heat of vaporization (Lv), which can be computed by the equation: Lv = 597 - 0.564 (T)

(4.1)

where T is water temperature in ∞C, and Lv is in cal/g of water. The Lv decreases at the rate of about 1% per 10∞C. Similarly, the heat required to change 1 g of water from a solid state into a liquid state without change in temperature, referred to as the latent heat of fusion (Lf), is a function of surface temperature T, ∞C: Lf = 80 + 0.564 (T)

(4.2)

where Lf is in cal/g. Thus, to melt 1 g of ice at 0∞C requires 80 cal, only 13.4% of the latent heat of vaporization at the same temperature. The process of sublimation requires a latent heat equivalent to the sum of Lv and Lf, or 677 cal/g. Vaporization, sublimation, and fusion represent an energy-sink of surfaces because heat is absorbed from the environment to conduct these processes. Conversely, the same amount of heat will be liberated if water vapor is condensed into dew (a process called condensation), liquid water is frozen into ice (crystallization), or water vapor is directly deposited as frost (frostilization). Therefore, we do not feel cold during the snowfall, but do feel cold when the snow is melting.

C.

Saturation vapor pressure

Water vapor, like other gases, exerts a partial pressure in the air. This is called the vapor pressure of the atmosphere (e). The maximum amount of water vapor that can be held in the atmosphere is dependent upon air temperature (Figure 4.2). When the amount of water vapor in the air reaches the maximum at a specific temperature, the air is considered saturated and the pressure exerted by the water vapor is called the saturation vapor pressure es. The difference between es and e, or (es - e), is the saturation vapor deficit. For temperatures common to the biosphere, saturation vapor pressure es, in mbar, can be estimated by (Tabata, 1973): ln es = 21.382 - 5347.5/T

(4.3)

where T is air temperature in ∞K and ln is the nature logarithm. Vapor pressure e can be converted into vapor density rv (or absolute humidity) by: rv = 217e/T

(4.4)

where rv is in g/m3, e is in mbar, and T is in °K. Vapor density is greater when it is near moist ground, water, or canopy surfaces and decreases with height.

D. Vapor diffusion Water vapor, like other gases, diffuses in the air in response to a gradient in density or partial pressure of water molecules. Under air free of any convective motion and turbulence, the flux of water vapor qv is proportional to the gradient of vapor density over the distance z by: qv = –Dv (drv/dz)

(4.5)

40

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Figure 4.2

Saturation vapor pressure as a function of air temperature.

where qv is in g/cm2 sec,-1 DV is the diffusion coefficient of water vapor in cm2/sec, z is in cm, and the negative sign shows that the diffusion takes place in the direction of decreasing density. The DV increases with temperature T due to the increase of molecular activity but decreases with the atmospheric pressure P due to the greater frequency of molecular collision by: Dv = (210 + 1.5T)/P

(4.6)

where T is in ∞C and P is in mbar. For example, a standard atmosphere (1013 mbar) air parcel at 20∞C has a Dv of 0.237 cm2/sec.

E.

Heat capacity

Heat is a form of energy, a quantity, and a measure of the total kinetic energy of all molecules of a subject. Temperature is an indicator of hot and cold, a scale, and a measure of the mean kinetic energy per molecule of a subject. A reservoir of water may have a lower temperature than the land and still have a greater content of heat because of its greater mass and greater specific heat. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of any substance 1∞C is called the specific heat of that substance. The amount of heat required to raise 1 g of water 1∞C is 1 cal. Thus, the specific heat of water is 1 cal/∞C/g, and all other specific heats are expressed in proportion to that of water (Table 4.2). The heat capacity of a substance is the total heat contained in that substance as determined by its specific heat, temperature, and mass: HC = (c)(T)(v)(r)

(4.7)

where c = specific heat in cal/∞C/g, T = temperature in ∞C, v = volume of the substance in cm3, r = density in g/cm3, and HC = heat capacity in calories. Thus, the heat capacity for 1 cm3 of ice (c = 0.5 cal/∞C/g) with T = 1∞C is 0.050 cal or: HC = (0.50 cal/∞C/g)(1 ∞c)(1cm3)(0.1 g/cm) = 0.050 cal

(4.8)

Chapter four:

Properties of water

41

Figure 4.3 Thermal conductivity (k) for ice and snow. (Data source: List, 1971, R.J., Smithsonian Meterorological Tables, 6th rev. ed., Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington, D.C.)

The heat capacity for 1 cm3 of water at T = 1∞C is 1 cal, or about 20 times greater than that of ice. Note that 1 cal = 4.19 joule (J) = 4.19 ¥ (107) ergs = 1/252 British thermal unit (Btu) = 3.09 ft-lb. The specific heat of seawater decreases with increasing ocean salinity. At a temperature of 17.5∞C and a pressure of 1 atm, the specific heat is 0.968 cal/∞C/g at 1% salinity, 0.951 cal ∞C g at 2% salinity, and 0.926 cal ∞C g at 4% salinity (List, 1971). For soils, specific heat ranges from 0.2 to 0.6 cal ∞C g, depending on moisture content, porosity, and temperature.

F.

Thermal conductivity

The thermal conductivity (k) is defined by: H = -k (DT/DZ)

(4.9)

where H is the rate of heat conduction per unit area and DT/DZ is the temperature gradient. The thermal conductivity (k) increases with increasing temperature. At 20∞C and under 1 atm, the k value is 0.00143 cal cm-1 sec-1 ∞C–1 for liquid water and 0.0000614 cal cm–1 sec1 ∞C-1 for air. In other words, the thermal conductivity of water is about 23 times greater than that of air. But the thermal conductivity is even greater for ice. It is 0.00535 cal cm-1 sec-1 ∞C-1 at 0∞C and increases to 0.00635 cal cm-1 sec-1 ∞C-1 at –40∞C (Figure 4.3). Snow is a poor heat conductor and consequently a good heat insulator. The average thermal conductivity of fresh snow with a density of 0.1 g cm-3 is about 0.00018 cal cm–1 sec-1 ∞C-1, or about 14% of that for water at 0∞C. This makes winter soil temperatures under snow cover less extreme than those in the open.

II. Hydraulic properties Hydraulic properties of water refer to the behavior of water in the states of motionlessness (hydrostatics) and pure motion (hydrokinetics), and to forces involved in motion (hydrodynamics). The following are some parameters describing the properties of water as a fluid. Other properties of water under various states, surfaces, and conveyors can be found in books dealing with fluid mechanics, hydraulics, or fluid dynamics.

42

A.

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Density

The density of matter is defined as the mass per unit of volume. In equation form, it may be expressed by: m ----r= v

(4.10)

where m = mass in g, v = volume in cm3, and r = g/cm3. The maximum density of water is at 4∞C (r = 0.99997 g/cm3) and, consequently, dense water sinks to the bottom. This unique property is responsible for thermal stratification of oceans, large rivers, and deep lakes, along with floating ice at the surface. The density of water in solid, liquid, and gaseous states for a few selected temperatures is given in Table 4.1.

B.

Pressure

Pressure is defined as weight per unit area. Since the weight (W) of an object is the downward force exerted by that object due to gravitation, or: W = mg

(4.11)

where g is the acceleration due to gravity and m is the mass of the object, pressure is more properly defined as the normal force exerted by the object per unit area. For a water column of cross section A and height h, the total pressure is equal to: P = W/A = (rghA)/A = hrg

(4.12)

The total pressure of water exerted on the bottom of a container depends on the height of the water, not on the shape of the container or the quantity of water (Figure 4.4a). In the hydrostatic state, water pressure acts in all directions and is perpendicular to the wall with which water is in contact. Since the pressure in a fluid depends only on depth, any increase in pressure at the surface of one end must be transmitted to every point in the fluid at the other end. Hydraulic jacks and car lifts are applications of this principle to produce a large force with a small force (Figure 4.4b).

Figure 4.4 The pressure exerted by a column of water is determined by its height, not by the shape of the container (a) and the principle of car lift (b).

Chapter four:

Properties of water

43

The product of r and g in Equation 4.12 is called the specific weight of water, and if the equation is rearranged to divide total pressure by the specific weight of water, or: P/rg = h

(4.13)

then the h is termed pressure head. The pressure head is the hydraulic head (H) if the water is at hydrostatic state and the reference datum is at the base of the water column, or H = h. If the water is in motion, then the total hydraulic head H is: H = (V2/2g) + (P/rg) + z

(4.14)

where V is flow velocity. The equation shows that total hydraulic head in a steady flow system is the sum of velocity head (V2/2g), pressure head (P/rg), and position head (z). The position head is the height between the point in question and the reference datum; the pressure head is due to the water column above that specific point; and the velocity head is the height of water surface created by motion of water. Thus, the flow of water that has risen to a height h meters (i.e., the velocity head) above its surface by a vertical obstacle has a velocity V2 = 2gh, or: V = (2gh)0.5

(4.15)

If h is in m (g = 9.80 m/s2), Equation 4.15 is simplified into: V = 4.427(h)0.5

(4.16)

to give V in m/sec. The velocity head can be used to estimate streamflow velocity in small creeks. The hydraulic head pertains to the energy status of water and is analogous to potential in electrical flow or to temperature in heat conduction. It can be used to describe energy levels for flow transitions in open channels. Figure 4.5 shows that the total energy level at a point in the upstream is equal to the total energy level at a downstream point plus the head loss (in the mass of water) that occurred over the reach. The energy conservation along a streamline is known as the Bernoulli equation. A reduction in the cross-sectional area of the lower reach, due to either rise of floor or contraction of banks, results in increased flow velocity and decreased surface elevation.

Figure 4.5

Energy level along a flowing stream.

44

C.

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Buoyancy

A solid object of volume v submerged in water displaces an equal volume of water, consequently causing the water level to rise to accommodate the displaced volume. If ro and rw are the densities of the submerged object and water, respectively, then the weight (W) of the object after submersion is: W = vro - vrw

(4.17)

Equation 4.17 can be rearranged to solve for the density of the submerged object, ro, by: ro = (W + Vrw)/v

(4.18)

If ro is smaller than rw, or the density of a submerged object is less than the density of water (or other fluids), then the object floats. This means that the hydrostatic upthrust is greater than the downward pressure of the object. This is the so-called Archimedes’ Principle, which states that the loss in weight of an object placed in a fluid equals the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. The principle can be applied, as an example, to design floating lysimeters, devices for measuring percolation, leaching, and evapotranspiration (ET) from a column of soil under controlled conditions. A floating lysimeter consists of a soil tank floating in a larger outer tank filled with water (or other fluids). The two containers are buried under the ground to imitate natural conditions. Changes in weight of the soil container due to ET are detected by changes in water level in the outer tank due to buoyancy of the water. To float a soil tank of diameter d1 and height H1 in a water tank with its rim at least h (H1 > h) above water surface, the total volume of water displaced (v1) is (Chang et al., 1997): v1 = (d12)(p)(H1 – h)/4

(4.19)

and the weight of water displaced (W) by the soil tank can be as much as: W = (v1)(rw)

(4.20)

where rw is water density. If the diameter and height of the outer water tank are d2 and H2, respectively, then the volume of water required (v2) in the water tank must be: v2 = [(d22)(H2 – h) – (d12)(H1 – h)](p)/4

(4.21)

in order to keep the soil tank flush with the water tank. To meet the conditions given above, the total weight of the soil tank, which is the sum of soil, tank, and other bedding materials, must be equal to W in Equation 4.20. A loss of water of depth ds in the soil tank has a weight (w) equal to: w = (ds)(As)(rw)

(4.22)

where As is the surface area of the soil tank. This loss in depth in the soil tank will cause a change of water level dw in the water tank equal to: dw = w/[(As+Aw) rw]

(4.23)

Chapter four:

Properties of water

45

where Aw is the area of the annular water surface in the water tank. Since the lysimeter is installed under the ground, the gain or loss of water in the water tank is detected through a reservoir connected to the water tank. In this case, the loss of water ds in the soil tank will cause a change in water level in the reservoir equal to: dw = (ds)(As)/(As+Aw+Ar)

(4.24)

where Ar is the surface area of the reservoir.

D. Surface tension and capillary rise The force exerted by molecules to bind two different substances in contact together is adhesion, while the force holding molecules of the same substance is cohesion. For example, when a drop of liquid is placed on a solid surface, the liquid tends to spread out over and wet the surface if the adhesive force between the two substances is greater than the cohesion of the liquid, such as water. On the other hand, the liquid will remain in the drop form if the adhesive force between the two is smaller than the cohesion of the liquid, such as mercury. The cohesion of molecules gives a phenomenon at the surface of a liquid called surface tension. When a liquid is in contact with the wall of a vessel, the edge of this liquid tends to form considerable curvature due to the inward pull of intermolecular forces. At liquid–air interfaces, the molecular attraction for each other at the liquid surface is greater than in the air above. This results in an inward force at the liquid surface that acts as though it has a thin membrane stretched over it. The surface is under tension and contraction. The force causes the liquid surface to become as small as possible and causes fog drops, raindrops, and soap bubbles to assume a spherical shape as they fall from the air. When a fine glass tube is placed in water, water surface rises inside the glass tube. First, adhesion causes water to wet and spread over the glass tube. Then, cohesion causes water to creep up along the glass wall. The rise will stop when the vertical component of the surface tension is equal to the weight of the water raised. This is called capillary action. The height of rise h for any liquid in a capillary tube can be calculated by: h = 2T/(rrg)

(4.25)

where T is the surface tension, r is the radius of the tube, r is the density of the liquid, and g is the force of gravity. For water, T = 73.05 dyn/cm (Table 4.3), Equation 4.24 is reduced to give h in cm per unit area in the simple expression: h = 0.15/r

(4.26)

Table 4.3 Some Physical and Hydraulic Properties of Water, Alcohol, and Mercury Properties Density at 20 ∞C, g cm Volume expansion, (10-3) ∞C-1 Latent heat of vaporization, cal g–1 at 20∞C Specific heat, cal g–1 ∞C-1 Surface tension, dyn cm-1 at 20∞C Heat conductivity, cal sec-1 cm–1 ∞C–1 at 20∞C Viscosity, centipoise at 20∞C -3

a

At boiling point 356.58∞C.

Ethyl Alcohol

Water

Mercury

0.789 1.4 220 0.58 22.75 0.00040 1.200

0.988 0.21 586 1.00 73.05 0.00143 1.002

13.55 0.18 70.4a 0.033 484 0.0198 1.554

46

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Surface tension has remarkable effects on water behavior in soils. Water has a T value higher than most common liquids. This causes water to be absorbed strongly by capillary attraction of porous materials, capable of holding water for various purposes.

E.

Viscosity

All fluids exhibit, more or less, a property of resistance to changes in shape (or to flow) under the action of external forces. Highly viscous liquids approach solid conditions. This is due to the cohesiveness of the molecules in the fluid. According to Newton, the shear stress t at a point within a fluid is proportional to the velocity gradient dv/dz at that point, or: t = m (dv/dz)

(4.27)

where m ( in dyn-sec/cm2 or lb-sec/ft2) is the constant of proportionality known as dynamic or absolute viscosity. Under ordinary conditions, the viscosity of liquids is only affected by temperature, not by pressure. As temperature increases, gas molecular momentum increases, and viscosity decreases. For water, a simple way to calculate m by temperature is (Russell, 1963): 0.01799 m = --------------------------------------------------------------------2 , dyn-sec/cm2 1 + 0.03368T + 0.000221T

(4.28)

where T is temperature in °C and m is in dyn-sec/cm2, or g/sec/cm. One dyn-sec/cm2 (or 0.1 Newton-sec/m2) is equal to one poise, in honor of Poiseuille as the unit of viscosity in metric system. One centipoise (cp) is equal to 0.01 poise. Values of the dynamic viscosity for water, alcohol, and mercury are given in Table 4.3. There is no liquid with viscosity as low as that of water, and freshwater is lower than saltwater. As water temperature decreases, viscosity increases, which causes water to flow slower and requires more work for wind to produce surface waves, for fish to swim, and for athletes to row a boat. A parameter often used in fluid motion analyses is the kinematic viscosity n, which is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity m to the density of the fluid r, or: –2

dyne-sec-cm ( dyne-sec ) cm m 2 –1 n = --- = ----------------------------------------- = --------------------------------- = cm sec –3 g r g cm

F.

(4.29)

The Reynolds number

The state of flow in an open channel is often described as laminar flow or turbulent flow. When velocity exceeds a critical value, the flow becomes turbulent, chaotic, and disorderly. Otherwise the flow is smooth, calm, and undisturbed. Changes of flow from laminar into turbulent state depend on the ratio between inertial forces and viscous forces (Albertson and Simons, 1964). Inertia tends to maintain its speed along a straight line, promoting turbulent conditions, while viscosity dampens disturbances, promoting laminar conditions. The Reynolds number (NR) expresses this ratio as follows: NR = VR/n = rVR/m

[Dimensionless]

(4.30)

Chapter four:

Properties of water

47

where V = mean velocity of flow, m/sec R = hydraulic radius, m n = kinematic viscosity, m2/sec (m)/(r) r = fluid density, kg/m3 m = dynamic viscosity, N-sec/cm2 When NR £ 500, viscous forces are dominating and the flow is laminar. When NR ≥ 2000, the inertia forces are dominating and the flow is turbulent. The flow in an open channel can be either laminar or partly turbulent within the transitional range of NR = 500 to 2000 (Chow, 1959). The Reynolds number may range from 0.00001 for a bacterium swimming at 0.01 mm/sec to 3,000,000,000 for a large whale swimming at 10 m/sec (Vogel, 1994). The Reynolds number is highly affected by the size and speed of organisms. The Reynolds number is of great biological significance, since it affects aquatic species distribution and activity, and the transport of nutrients, energy, and gases to an organism (Gordon et al., 1993; Vogel, 1994). In streamflow measurements with a precalibrated gauging device, maintaining a laminar flow in the approach section is a must for satisfactory readings.

G.

Shear stress

The forces that moving water exerts on a wetted surface are the tractive force, drag force, and shearing force. They are the components of the weight of water (w) in the direction of flow divided by the area (A) over which they act. Dividing the shearing force by the area over which it acts is the shear stress. This is the force that causes flow resistance along the channel boundary. The stress at which the channel material moves is known as the critical stress. A greater value of shear stress than critical stress will cause the channel to be unstable. The shear stress is calculated by: t = w sin a/A = r · g · V · sin a/A t=g·R·S

(4.31)

where t w r g V a A R

= shear stress (Newton/m2) = weight of streamflow = r · V· g = water density (1000 kg/m3 at 4∞C = acceleration due to gravity (9.80 m/s2) = volume of streamflow (m3) = channel slope (degrees), for small a, sin a ª tan a = S = channel bed area (m2) = hydraulic radius (m) channel cross sectional (m2)/length of wetted perimeter (m) g = specific weight of water = r · g (= 9800 N m–3) S = slope gradient (dimensionless). The shear stress has been applied extensively to studies in soil erosion, sediment transport, and channel-bank stabilization. More discussion is given in Chapter 11.

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

H. Stream power Another important index for describing the erosive capacity of streams is stream power. Power is the amount of work done per unit of time, and work is the product of force applied in the direction of the displacement and the distance of the displacement. In mathematical form: Work (w, N-m = joule) = Force (F, Newton) ¥ Distance (D, m)

(4.32)

Power (w, J/sec) = Work/Time = N-m/sec = (F)(V)

(4.33)

Note that 1 N of force = 1 kg-m/sec2. Expressing stream power as per unit of streambed area A (m2), then: w (N/m◊sec = watts/m2) = (F/A)(V) = (t)(V)

(4.34)

where t is shear stress in N/m2. Thus, as velocity increases, stream power increases, resulting in a more erosive flow. A flash flood in steep, mountainous areas can generate values of stream power much greater than major rivers. In his sediment-transport study, Bagnold (1966) expressed stream power as the rate of potential energy over a unit length of stream channel: wL = rgQS

(4.35)

where Q = the whole discharge of the stream (m3/sec), S = the energy slope of the channel (dimensionless), r and g are defined in Equation 4.31, and wL = stream power in unit length (N-m/sec3, or watts/m). The whole available power (wL) supply to the column of water over unit bed area is the w in Equation 4.34 or: 3 –1 wL m sec rgQS ------------------------------------------------ˆ Ê w = flow width = ----------------------------- = rgS = rgS(dV) = (rgSd) (V) = tV Ë m ¯ flow width

(4.36)

where d is the average depth in m and can be used to substitute the hydraulic radius R.

III. Chemical properties A.

The water molecule

A water molecule is made of one electronegative oxygen (O-) atom and two much smaller electropositive hydrogen (H+) atoms. Each atom consists of electrons in negative charge and a nucleus in positive charge. Electrons circle around the central nucleus. The number of electrons in an atom, the atomic number, varies among elements. There are eight electrons in an oxygen atom and one electron in a hydrogen atom. There are two types of chemical bonds in water: covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds. Each H atom in a water molecule is attached to the O atom by a single covalent bond. Thus, the three atoms are held together by two covalent bonds. Oxygen is the second most electronegative element. As a result, the two covalent bonds in water are polar and are structured in a V shape of 105°. The polarization makes a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and a partial positive charge on each hydrogen atom, which is responsible for many of water’s unique properties, such as its being an excellent solvent.

Chapter four:

Properties of water

49

Hydrogen bonds are intermolecular bonds, or bonds between atoms in different molecules formed by electrostatic attraction. Each oxygen atom in water can form two hydrogen bonds, one through each of the unbounded pairs of electrons. Thus, each water molecule is linked to others through intermolecular hydrogen bonds to form a threedimensional aggregate of water molecules (Buchan, 1996). The bonds give water a much larger and heavier molecule and explain in part its relatively higher melting point, boiling point, heat of fusion, and heat of vaporization.

B.

Formation of water

Water is formed when hydrogen is burned in air. However, the ignition will cause an explosion if it occurs on hydrogen mixed with air or oxygen: 2 H2 + O2 Æ 2 H2O + 115.6 kcal Other reactions that produce water include the process of respiration in the cells and organs of living plants: C12H6O12 + O2 Æ 6 CO2 + H2O + 673 kcal neutralization of acid and base: H2SO4 + 2 NaOH Æ Na2SO4 + 2 H2O and combustion of hydrogen-containing materials: CH4 + 2 O2 Æ CO2 + 2 H2O + 192 kcal

C.

Chemical reactions

Water molecules are very stable with respect to heat. Water decomposes into its elements to the extent of about 1% at temperatures up to 2000∞C. However, water reacts with many elements, including metals, nonmetals, and metal and nonmetal oxides, or it may become a part of the crystalline structure of compounds known as hydrates through the process of hydration (Hein, 1990) The reaction of water with metals may take place at cold temperatures, such as calcium sinks in water, to form calcium hydroxides and liberate a gentle stream of hydrogen: Ca (Solid) + 2 H2O (Liquid) Æ H2≠ + Ca(OH)2 or at high temperatures, such as zinc and water, to form oxidized zinc: Zn (Solid) + H2O (steam) Æ H2≠ + ZnO (solid) Metal oxides known as basic anhydrides react with water to form basic anhydrides, such as: CaO (Solid) + H2O Æ Ca(OH)2 (Calcium hydroxide)

50

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Nonmetal oxides known as acid anhydrides react with water to form acids, such as: CO2 (gas) + H2O ´ H2CO3 (Carbonic acid) Hydrolysis and oxidation are two chemical processes of great importance in the environment. Hydrolysis is the reaction of an ion or mineral with water in which the water molecule is split into H+ and OH- ions, while an increase in the oxidation number of an atom as a result of losing electrons is called oxidation. For example, the hydrolysis of the mineral olivine (MgFeSiO4) produces sepentine and ferrous oxide (FeO), which may be immediately oxidized to ferric oxide (geothite): Hydrolysis: 3 MgFeSiO4 + 2 H2O Æ H4Mg3Si2O9 + SiO2 +3 FeO Oxidation: 4 FeO + O2 + 2 H2O Æ 4 FeOOH (geothite) Hydration is the attachment of water to minerals, such as: Al2O3 + 3 H2O Æ Al2O3 · 3H2O

IV. Biological properties A.

Temperature

Temperature is a scale to measure hotness and coldness of water or other substances. Four temperature scales are in general use today: Centigrade (∞C), Fahrenheit (∞F), Absolute (∞K), and Rankine (∞R). Water freezes at 0∞C and boils at 100∞C (Table 4.4). Conversions among these scales are: C = (F–32)(5/9) = K– 273.16

(4.37)

F = C(9/5) + 32 = (9/5)(K – 273.16) + 32

(4.38)

K = C + 273.16 = (F – 32)(5/9) + 273.16

(4.39)

R = F + 459.69 = (9/5)(K – 273.16) + 491.69

(4.40)

Table 4.4 Freezing and Boiling Points of Water, Alcohol, and Mercury Substance Water Freezing Boiling Alcohol Freezing Boiling Mercury Freezing Boiling

Centigrade, °C 0 100 -117.3 78.4 -38.87 356.58

Fahrenheit, °F

Absolute, °K

Rankine, °R

273.16 373.16

491.69 671.69

-179.14 173.12

155.86 351.56

280.55 632.81

–37.97 673.84

234.29 629.74

421.82 1133.53

32 212

Chapter four:

Properties of water

51

The main sources of heat for streams and reservoirs are solar radiation (Rs), longwave radiation from the atmosphere (Ra), the energy advected into the body of water by precipitation and inflow (Ri), and the conducted heat from the ground (Rc). However, heat also can be lost from water to the environment through surface reflection of solar radiation (Rr), longwave radiation or sensible heat to the atmosphere (Rw), and latent heat of vaporization (Rv). The difference between heat gain and heat loss is balanced by a positive or negative term of heat storage, Rst, by the following equation: (Rs + Ra+Ri + Rc) - (Rr + Rw + Rv) ± Rst = 0

(4.41)

Thus, water temperature will increase or decrease in response to the positive or negative value of Rst. In small forested streams, the exposure of stream channel to direct solar radiation due to clearcutting of riparian vegetation may cause an increase in stream temperature adversely affecting aquatic ecosystems. Stream and lake waters are often used in industrial cooling processes. Hot water discharged into streams from a power plant may raise the temperature of water enough to produce major changes in aquatic communities. The effect of thermal discharge of power plants on stream temperature can be calculated by the following mixing equation:

Td =

( Tp ) ( Qp ) + ( Tm ) ( Qm ) ---------------------------------------------------Qp + Qm

(4.42)

where T is temperature, Q is flow rate, and subscripts p, m, and d refer to power plant, upstream, and downstream, respectively. Water temperature is a primary factor affecting physical and chemical properties of water, including the rate of chemical reaction, gas solubility, decomposition of organic matter, latent heat, saturation vapor pressure, changes in the state of water, water density, viscosity, heat conduction, velocity of particle settlement, water circulation, and others. It also regulates biological activities in the aquatic environment. Cool water is always better in quality than warm water because of higher concentration of dissolved oxygen and lower rates of microbial activities, organic matter decomposition, and chemical reaction. The internal temperature for most aquatic animals follows closely with water temperature. As a rule of thumb, an increase in temperature 10∞C doubles the metabolic rate of cold-blooded organisms and the rate of chemical reactions. The optimum temperature range for aquatic organisms varies with species and the life stage of each species. Changes in temperature of only a few degrees can adversely affect the production, growth, development, and survival of an organism. The optimum temperature range for most salmon species is about 12 to 14∞C, and the lethal level for adults is about 20 to 25∞C, depending on duration and rate of the temperature increase. Some salmon eggs and juveniles may be killed at 13.5∞C (MacDonald et al., 1991).

B.

Dissolved oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to the amount of oxygen dissolved in water and is expressed in ppm or mg/liter. The concentration of DO in stream water is determined by the oxygenholding ability, oxygen depletion, and oxygen replenishment of the stream. Oxygen dissolves in water through diffusion at the interface between water and air. The solubility of oxygen in water is inversely proportional to water temperature and increases with increasing atmospheric pressure (Figure 4.6). At one standard atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg),

52

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Figure 4.6

The saturated concentration of oxygen as a function of water temperature.

the saturated concentration of DO in water is about 14.6 mg/liter at 0∞C and gradually decreases to 7.6 mg/liter at 30∞C (Vesilind and Peirce, 1983). For actual saturation values at pressures other than 760 mm Hg, DO can be approximated by the equation: DOp = DOs (P/760)

(4.43)

where DOp is the saturation concentration at atmospheric pressure P, and DOs is the value reported at one standard atmosphere. Oxygen in streams is depleted by respiration of aquatic plants and the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of substances in the stream. The BOD refers to the chemical oxidation of dissolved, suspended, or deposited organic materials in the streams and the decomposition of these materials by aquatic microorganisms. The depletion of oxygen is replenished by photosynthesis of aquatic plants and the dissolution of oxygen from the atmosphere. Increasing water temperature not only reduces the dissolution of oxygen in water but also increases the rate of BOD. Since oxygen is transferred to the stream by the diffusion process, stream conditions that maximize the contact between the atmosphere and water, such as turbulent flows, will increase the dissolution level. Thus, a slow-moving stream is usually low in DO because of lower reaeration rates, higher water temperatures, and greater values of BOD. The concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the stream is critical to the character and productivity of biological communities. Aquatic organisms depend on oxygen for survival, growth, and development. In the northwest of the U.S., for example, the instream DO level should be at least 11 mg liter-1 for embryos and larvals of salmonids. A drop of DO level to 9 mg liter-1 will cause a slight production impairment, while production is severely impaired for DO at 7 mg liter-1 (EPA, 1986).

C.

pH

Water molecules (HOH) are normally dissociated into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-). If more water molecules are dissociated into hydrogen ions, then the water is acidic. Conversely, an excess of hydroxyl ions indicates a basic solution. Water or a solution with equal concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions is called “neutral.” The pH of a solution is a measure of hydrogen–ion concentration in moles (molecular weights in grams) per liter. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of H+ ions, or:

Chapter four:

Properties of water

53 1 + ----------------pH = log H + = – log H

(4.44)

Thus, every unit change in pH represents a tenfold change in the concentration of the H+ and OH- ions. The product of H+ and OH- concentrations is a constant, 10-14 mol/liter. If the concentration of H+ is 10-5, then the concentration of OH- must be equal to 10-14/10-5, or 10-9. A concentration of 10-5 (pH 5) is greater than a concentration of 10-9, and the solution is acidic. Thus, the lower the pH value, the higher the acidity. For a neutral solution, the H+ concentration is 10-7 and the pH is 7. The pH for pure water at 25°C is 7. However, many solutes, solid or gaseous, may enter into the water. The reaction or dissociation of these solutes in water may produce H+ or OH- ions, resulting in changes of pH. For example, the reaction of dissolved carbon dioxide in water produces carbonic acid (H2CO3). Then the H2CO3 is further dissociated into H+ and HCO3.- The current level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 325 ppm, which means saturated rainwater has a concentration of carbonic acid 10-5 mol/liter-1 and a pH of 5.7 (Spiro and Stigliani, 1980). Surface waters of very low to moderate pH are generally derived from contact with volcanic gases containing hydrogen sulfide, hydrochloric acid, and other substances associated with oxidizing sulfide minerals such as pyrite and organic acids from decaying vegetation. Waters associated with sodium-carbonate-bicarbonate have high to moderately high pH. The pH values are generally higher for waters from limestone than waters from clay-rich sediments (Davis and DeWiest, 1969). Rivers in the U.S. with no effects of pollution generally have a pH ranging from 6.5 to 8.5, while pH in groundwaters range from about 6.0 to 8.5. Unusual pH values as high as 12.0 and as low as 1.9 have been observed in water from springs in the U.S. (Hem, 1985). The solubility of many metal compounds and the chemical equilibrium in water are affected by pH. It is important in chemical treatment and corrosion control. Low pH is very damaging to fish and other aquatic organisms because of their sensitivity to pH changes. The effects of acid rain and acid-mine drainage on the aquatic ecosystem in streams and reservoirs are well documented. pH must be controlled and monitored at an optimum range for microorganism activity in wastewater treatment.

D. Conductivity The ability of a substance to conduct an electric current is termed conductivity, or electric conductivity (EC). It is the reciprocal of resistance. The unit for resistance is ohms and the unit for conductance is the inverse of ohms or mhos. Conductivity is expressed in terms of conductance per unit length, or mhos/cm, but, it is usually given in µmhos cm-1 to account for the small values for natural waters: 1 mho/cm = 106 µmhos/cm. In System International d’Unites (SI), electrical conductivity is expressed in S m-1 (siemen per meter), and 1 S m-1 = 10 mmhos cm-1 (millimhos per centimeter) or 1mS cm-1 = 1mmho cm-1. The electric conductivity of water is dependent upon the concentration of dissolved ions and water temperature. As the concentration of dissolved ions in water increases, the ability of water to conduct electric current increases. Thus, stream ecologists commonly find that using electroshock to stun fish for monitoring their abundance and distribution is difficult if water is too soft, meaning low electric conductivity. Since the electric current flow increases with temperature, EC values are usually standardized to 25∞C and the values are technically referred to as specific electric conductivity. The specific electric conductivity for pure water not in contact with the atmosphere is about 0.05 µmhos/cm-1. Such water is difficult to produce because of the dissolution of carbon dioxide. Normal distilled water or water passed through a deionizing exchange

54

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

unit usually has a conductivity of at least 1 µmho cm-1. Seawater has a concentration of dissolved solids of about 35,000 mg/liter-1; thus, its conductivity is about 50,000 µmhos cm-1. Conductivity is often used as a parameter to determine the suitability of water for a specific purpose such as food preparation, agricultural irrigation, and water supply; to test the result of wastewater treatment; or to control water quality and other manufacturing processes. In soils, conductivity is higher on clays and lower on sands. Many soil properties such as texture, subsoil characteristics, salinity, cation exchange capacity, level of organic matter, and drainage conditions can be related to EC.

E.

Sediment

Stream sediments are particles, usually inorganic, released from land surfaces or stream banks by the action of raindrops, gravity, animals, overland flows, and streamflows. They can be in suspension (no contact with streambed), saltation (bouncing along streambed), and bed-load (rolling along streambed). No streams are free from sediments. Expressed in ppm or mg/liter-1, the concentration of sediment is affected by environmental conditions of the watershed such as geology, soil, topography, climate, vegetation cover, and land-use activity. Sometimes, the amount of stream sediment is expressed in terms of turbidity. Turbidity is an optical measure either in Jackson turbidity units (JTU; one such unit is the turbidity produced by 1 ppm of silica in distilled water) or nephelometric turbidity units (NTU, comparable to Jackson units). It measures the clarity of water as affected by light attenuation of suspended particles (Davies-Colley and Smith, 2001). Since the optical property of water samples is greatly affected by the size, shape, configuration, color, and origin of particles, the correlation between JTU and the weight of sediments per unit volume of water is valid only through local calibration. Sediment concentration has tremendous impacts on the physical and chemical properties of water and consequently affects lives in the aquatic environment. Physically, sediments affect water turbidity, odor, taste, temperature regime, and abrasiveness; reduce light penetration; increase solar absorption at water surface; deplete reservoir capacity; and clog stream channels. Recreational and aesthetic values of streams can be impaired and turbines in hydroelectric plants can be damaged because of sediment. Sometimes sediment concentration is weighed by flow volume to obtain sediment loss in mass per unit time and per unit watershed area. It is also referred to as sediment yield or sediment load. Generally, watershed area has a negative effect on sediment loss. This may be attributable to the fact that a small watershed is generally associated with less watershed storage, greater rainfall intensity and depth, steeper mean watershed slope, and greater chance for the entire watershed to be covered by a storm. Sediments can carry many elements and compounds that may interact with one another in water, consequently affecting water chemistry and quality (Tessier, 1992). The nature and content of these compounds and elements resemble the origin of soil particles plus the residuals from applications of fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, industrial wastes, fallout from air pollution, and decomposition of organic matter. Concentration of sediment in streams is often highly correlated with nutrient concentration and can be used to estimate nutrient losses in streams (Chang et al., 1983; Granillo et al., 1985). The effects of stream sediment on aquatic ecosystems can be direct through its presence or indirect through interactions with the physical and chemical environment of the stream. Streams with sandy beds have the lowest species diversity and aquatic productivity. The habitat space for small fish, invertebrates, and other organisms can be reduced if the interstices between coarse particles are filled by fine sediments (MacDonald et al., 1991). Photosynthesis of aquatic plants can be inhibited because of the reduction of light pene-

Chapter four:

Properties of water

55

tration. This may lead to declines in foods along the aquatic food chain. In addition, increases in absorption of solar radiation at the water surface may raise water temperature, which will lead to declines in dissolved oxygen for aquatic life consumption.

References Albertson, M.L. and Simons, D.B., 1964, Fluid mechanics, in Handbook of Applied Hydrology, Chow, V.T., Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 7:1–49. Bagnold, R.A., 1966, An Approach to the Sediment Transport Problem from General Physics., U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, 422-I. Buchan, G.D., 1996, Ode to H2O, J. Soil Water Conser., 51, 467–470. Chang, M., McCullough, J.D., and Granillo, A.B., 1983, Effects of land use and topography on some water quality variables in forested East Texas, Water Resour. Bull., 19, 191–196. Chang, M. et al., 1997, Evapotranspiration of herbaceous mimosa (Mimosa strigillosa), a new drought-resistant species in the southeastern United States, Resour., Conserv. and Recycling, 21, 175–184. Chow, V.T., 1959, Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, New York. Davies-Colley, R.J. and Smith, D.G., 2001, Turbidity, suspended sediment, and water clarity: a review, J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc., 37, 1085–1101. Davis, S.N. and DeWiest, R.J.M., 1969, Hydrogeology, John Wiley & Sons, New York. der Leeden, F.V., Troise, F.L., and Todd, D.K., 1990, The Water Encyclopedia, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI. EPA, 1986, Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Washington, D.C. Gordon, N.D., McMahon, T.A., and Finlayson, B.L., 1993, Stream Hydrology, an Introduction for Ecologists, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Granillo, A.B., Chang, M., and Rashin, E.B., 1985, Correlation between suspended sediment and some water quality parameters in small streams of forested East Texas, Texas J. Sci., 37, 227–234. Hein, M., 1990, Foundations of College Chemistry, Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA. Hem, J.D., 1985, Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural Water, 3rd Ed., U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2254. List, R.J., 1971, Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, 6th rev. ed., Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington, D.C. MacDonald, L.H., Smart, A.W., and Wisssmar, R.C., 1991. Monitoring Guidelines to Evaluate Effects of Forestry Activities on Streams in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska, EPA/910/91–001, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Seattle, WA. Spiro, T.G. and Stigliani, W.M., 1980, Environmental Science in Perspective, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY. Tabata, S., 1973, A simple but accurate formula for the saturation vapor pressure over liquid water, J. Appl. Meteorol., 12, 1410–11. Tessier, A., 1992, Sorption of trace elements on natural particles in oxic environments, in Environmental Particles, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 425–453. Vesilind, P.A. and Peirce, J.J., 1983, Environmental Pollution and Control, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI. Vogel, S., 1994, Life in Moving Fluids, the Physical Biology of Flow, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

chapter five

Water distribution Contents I. The globe ............................................................................................................................58 A. Saline water ...............................................................................................................58 B. Freshwater..................................................................................................................59 1. Icecaps and glaciers............................................................................................60 2. Water under the ground ....................................................................................61 3. Lakes .....................................................................................................................62 4. Rivers ....................................................................................................................62 5. Atmospheric water .............................................................................................62 II. The U.S................................................................................................................................62 A. Rivers ..........................................................................................................................63 B. Lakes ...........................................................................................................................64 III. The hydrologic cycle.........................................................................................................65 A. The hydrologic processes ........................................................................................66 1. Precipitation.........................................................................................................66 2. Evapotranspiration .............................................................................................67 3. Runoff ...................................................................................................................67 B. The hydrologic budget.............................................................................................67 1. The globe..............................................................................................................67 2. The U.S. ................................................................................................................68 3. Watersheds ...........................................................................................................69 C. The energy budget....................................................................................................70 References .......................................................................................................................................72

Earth is the only planet in the solar system where water appears in solid, liquid, and vapor states at common temperatures. The existence of water on Earth has a lot to do with Earth’s size and distance from the Sun. Hydrogen (90%), helium (9%), and oxygen are the three most abundant elements in the universe, followed by neon, nitrogen, and carbon (Cox, 1989). Helium and neon are solitary elements. Thus, two hydrogens and one oxygen atom are easily bound to become water (H2O), three hydrogens join one nitrogen to become ammonia (NH3), and four hydrogens join one carbon to become methane (CH4). The melting points of H2O, NH3, and CH4 are 0∞C, -78∞C, and -183∞C, respectively, while the boiling points are 100∞C, -33∞C, and -162∞C. The average surface temperature of Earth is about 27∞C, sufficient to keep water in liquid state. 57

58

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Figure 5.1 Mean distance (d, between Earth and Sun = 1.0), along with relative diameter (D, Earth diameter = 1.0), for each of the nine planets to the Sun. (Data source: Dormand and Woolfson, 1989).

All the energy used and exchanged in the atmosphere and biosphere of Earth originates from the Sun. Solar radiation decreases inversely with the square of the distance. The distance between Earth and the Sun makes the average Earth temperature around 27∞C, enabling water to stay in liquid state. The mean distances from the Sun to Mercury and to Jupiter are, respectively, 0.37 and 5.2 times the distance from the Sun to Earth (Figure 5.1). The surface temperatures at the visible sunlight surfaces of Venus and Jupiter are approximately 430∞C and -120∞C, respectively. They are not able to keep water in a liquid state. A planet’s gravity is largely affected by its size. Large planets have greater gravity and are able to attract light volatile elements and molecules. If a planet is too small, it cannot attract volatile elements. Then, there are no gasses but nonvolatilized matter such as iron, rocks, and sulphates around the planet. Earth’s size and right distance from the sun make it able to keep water in the liquid state. Water could not exist in all three states on the two nearest neighbors, Venus and Mars, under their current conditions. The surface temperature of Venus is about 430oC, too high for ice or liquid water. As for Mars, although small amounts of water vapor and ice crystals have been detected, the surface temperature (polar caps at -38 to -66∞C) is too cold to keep water liquid. From Mars out to Pluto, all water, if any, is frozen all the time.

I.

The globe

Total water of Earth is about 1.384 ¥ 109 km3, enough to cover Earth’s surface to a depth of 2.7 km. Water is present in oceans, lakes, rivers, underground, ground surface, atmosphere, and organic materials. The quantity of water is discussed in two categories, saline water and freshwater.

A.

Saline water

Water is saline if it contains more than 1000 mg of dissolved solids per liter or one part per thousand by weight (ppt). More than 99.97% of saline water is in the ocean, and only a very small fraction is in saltwater lakes.

Chapter five:

Water distribution

59

Table 5.1 Water around the Earth Volume

Category km3 Saline water Fresh water Ice, glaciers Groundwater Soil moisture Lakes Rivers; hydrated and organic materials Atmosphere Total

acre-ft

Percentage of Total Water Fresh Water

109 107 107 106 104 105 103

1.093 ¥ 1015 2.920 ¥ 1013 2.255 ¥ 1013 6.482 ¥ 1012 4.964 ¥ 1010 1.022 ¥ 1011 2.920 ¥ 109

97.398 2.602 2.010 0.578 0.0044 0.009 0.0003

— 100.00 77.23 22.20 0.17 0.35 0.01

1.300 ¥ 104 1.384 ¥ 109

1.054 ¥ 1010 1.122 ¥ 1015

0.0009 100.000

0.04 —

1.348 3.602 2.782 7.996 6.123 1.261 3.602

¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥

Source: Adapted from Baumgartner, A. and Reichel, E., 1975, The World Water Balance, Mean Annual Global, Continental and Maritime Precipitation, Evaporation, and Runoff, R. Oldenbourg, Munich.

Ocean water contains dissolved salts and minerals with a concentration of about 35 ppt. These dissolved solids are cumulatively delivered from rivers and are derived from the weathering of rocks, erosion, or human activities. Ocean evaporation also leaves salt behind, increasing salt concentration in the ocean. Dissolved solids in water increase water density, reduce light penetration, and lower the freezing point and temperature of maximum water density. Horizontally, saline water covers 361 ¥ 106 km2 or 70.8% of Earth’s surface. It makes up 60.6% of the total area in the Northern Hemisphere and 81.0% in the Southern Hemisphere. The ocean is described geographically by four names: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic. The Pacific Ocean covers 176.9 ¥ 106 km2 or 34.68% of Earth’s surface area. It is larger than the other three oceans combined and is 20.8 times larger than the Arctic Ocean, which covers 8.5 ¥ 106 km2. The average depth of the Pacific is 4257 m, followed by 3940 m for the Indian, 3903 m for the Atlantic, and 1198 m for the Arctic. The overall average of the four is about 3750 m. Although not confirmed yet, the Philippine trench, which can reach 11,449 m, is thought to be the deepest (Wang and Felton, 1983). The Pacific Ocean, being the largest and the deepest, contains more than half of the water on Earth. Total volume of saline water is estimated to be 1.348 ¥ 109 km3, and 57% of it is in the Southern Hemisphere (Baumgartner and Reichel, 1975). This volume represents 97.4% of the total water in the world; the other 2.6% is freshwater contained in rivers, lakes, grounds, polar regions, organic matter, and the atmosphere. If Earth had a uniform surface, the water in the ocean could cover the ground to a depth of 2643 m. The Caspian Sea is the largest salty lake in the world with a volume of water about 0.75 ¥ 105 km3 (Table 5.2). The volume is about 75% of the total volume of all saltwater lakes in the world. Some groundwater and springs are saline too.

B.

Freshwater

Total freshwater of Earth is about 0.0360 ¥ 109 km3, or less than 3% of saline water on Earth, including oceans and saline lakes (Table 5.1). Of the total freshwater, about 77.23% is locked up as icecaps and glaciers in the polar regions and alpine areas, and 22.2% or 0.0078 ¥ 109 km3 is confined in underground aquifers. Water in freshwater lakes and rivers that is readily available for utilization accounts for only 0.36% or 0.1297 ¥ 106 km3. Major rivers and lakes of the world are given in Table 5.2 and Table 5.3, respectively.

60

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests Table 5.2 The 30 Largest Natural Lakes of the World Lake

Caspian Sea Lake Superior Lake Victoria Lake Aral Lake Huron Michigan Lake Tanganyika Great Bear Lake Lake Baikal Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi) Great Slave Lake Lake Erie Lake Winnipeg Lake Ontario Lake Ladoga Lake Balkhash Lake Chad Lake Maracaibo Lake Onega Lake Eyre Lake Titicaca Lake Athabaska Lake Gairdner Reindeer Lake Issyk Kul Lake Resaieh (Urmia) Lake Torrens Vanern Lake Winnipegosis Lake Mobuto-Sese-Seko (Lake Albert)

Country

Russia, EP U.S. and Canada, NA Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, AF Russia, AA U.S. and Canada, NA U.S. NA Zaire, Burundi, Zambia, and Tanzania, AF Canada, NA Russia, AA Malawi, Tanzania, and Mozambique, AF Canada, NA U.S. and Canada, NA Canada, NA U.S. and Canada, NA Russia, EP Russia, AA Niger, Chad, Nigeria, and Cameroon, AF Venezuela, SA Russia, EP Australia, AS Bolivia, SA Canada, NA Australia, AS Canada, NA Russia, AA Iran, AA Australia, AS Sweden, EP Canada, NA Zaire and Uganda, AF

Surface Area (km2)

Maximum Depth (m)

371,000 (1) 83,300 (2) 68,800 (3) 66,458 59,570 57,016 34,000

(4) (5) (6) (7)

31,792 (8) 31,500 (9) 30,500 (10)

995 (3) 307 (29) 80 — 223 (54) 265 (42) 1435 (2) 445 (17) 1620 (1) 706 (4)

28,438 (11) 25,719 (12) 24,530 (13) 18,760 (14) 18,400 (15) 17,000– 19,000 (16) 12,000– 26,000 (17) 14,343 (18) 9,600 (19) 0–15,000 (20) 8,100 (21) 8,080 (22) 7,000 (23) 6,330 (24) 6,200 (25) 3,900– 5,930 (26) 5,776 (27) 5,546 (28) 5,447 (29) 5,300 (30)

614 (6) 64 28 225 (53) 225 (51) 26.5 4–11 250 (47) 124 — 304 (31) 60 — –— 702 (5) — — 89 12 48

Notes: AA = Asia; NA = North America; SA = South and Central America; AF = Africa; EP = Europe; AS = Australia. Figures in parentheses indicate rank in the world. Source: Adapted from Czaya, E., 1981, Rivers of the World, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

1.

Icecaps and glaciers

Water in solid state is formed in polar regions and mountains of higher elevation. The total volume is equivalent to 27.8 ¥ 106 km3, the biggest entity of all freshwater in the world. In Antarctic regions, icecaps extend to an area of about 15.54 ¥ 106 km2, and the total volume is about 25 ¥ 106 km3 (Nace, 1984). In other words, about 90% of all existing solid water is in the Antarctic. Icecaps in Greenland cover an area of 1.23 ¥ 106 km2 with an average depth of 1.52 km. The total volume of water on Greenland is about 2.62 ¥ 106 km3, or 9.5% of solid water. Alpine areas, continental patches, and the Arctic regions

Chapter five:

Figure 5.2

Water distribution

61

The vertical distribution of water on Earth.

account for 0.208 ¥ 106 km3 of water, only a small fraction of that contained in the Greenland and the Antarctic icecaps.

2.

Water under the ground

Beneath the ground, water can be divided into two distinct zones. Immediately below the ground surface is the zone of aeration. Here, both water and air are present in the ground. Under the zone of aeration is a layer in most areas of the ground where sands, gravel, and bedrock are saturated with water. This is the zone of saturation. The boundary between these two zones is the groundwater table. A shallow, wet layer immediately above the groundwater table to which water can rise up slightly due to capillary force is called capillary fringe. Water in the surface layer where plants’ root systems can reach is called soil water. Water present between soil water and the groundwater table is vadose or gravitational water (Figure 5.2). A typical content of soil water is about 25% or 0.25 g/cm3. Total soil water and vadose water of Earth are around 61 ¥ 103 km3. Water in the zone of saturation is called either confined or unconfined groundwater. If groundwater is under pressure due to the weight of the overlying impervious stratum and the hydrostatic head, it is called confined groundwater. The permeable geological formations that permit appreciable water to move through them are known as aquifers. Below the zone of saturation, waters have been imprisoned in the interior or chemically bound with rock since the formation of the Earth. These are juvenile or internal waters that do not originate from precipitation or surface runoff. Since water under the ground is held in pores, voids, interstices or spaces, and fractures in and between rocks, the occurrence of groundwater must be within the top of Earth’s crust where pore spaces exist. Areas with unconsolidated sand and gravels of alluvial, glacial, lacustrine, and deltaic origin; sedimentary rocks such as limestones, dolomites, sandstones, conglomerates; or volcanic rocks with pores and fractures are the most common aquifers and abundant in groundwater. The depth can go to at least 800 m with a typical porosity of about 4% (Mather, 1984). Total water in this layer is estimated to be around 4 ¥ 106 km3, a volume about 3000 times greater than the volume of water in all rivers. Groundwater can go down below 800 m to about 3 to 4.5 km deep. However, rocks and formations here are tight and their porosity is generally around 1% or less. Although

62

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

the volume of water in this layer is about equal to that in the overlying layer, it may not be economically feasible for recovery. Thus, total volume of water below the groundwater table is around 8 ¥ 106 km3.

3.

Lakes

The total surface area of freshwater lakes in the world is about 8.45 ¥ 103 km2, while the area for saltwater lakes is about 6.91 ¥ 105 km2. The total volume of water aggregated in freshwater lakes is about 1.3 ¥ 105 km3, greater than water in rivers by as much as 100 times (Nace, 1984). Most of this surface water is retained in a few relatively large lakes in Africa, Asia, and North America. Lake Baikal in Asiatic Russia (north of Mongolia) contains 25.8 ¥ 103 km3 of water, more than the total volume of water added together in the five North American Great Lakes by as much as 3.28 ¥ 103 km3. The total volume of freshwater in Lakes Baikal (Siberia), Tanganyika (Africa), Nyasa (Africa), Superior (U.S.–Canada) and Great Bear (Canada) is about 7.4 ¥ 104 km3, equivalent to about 60% of the total. Lake Baikal is the greatest and the deepest (1620 m) single body of freshwater in the world. Saltwater lakes hold 1.0 ¥ 105 km3 of water or only 83% of that in all freshwater lakes. The Caspian Sea of European Russia alone contains a volume of water equal to 75% of the volume of water in all saltwater lakes combined and is the largest lake of the world. Its surface area, 371,000 km2, is almost 12 times larger than that of Lake Baikal (Table 5.2).

4.

Rivers

The volume of water stored in rivers is more difficult to estimate than that stored in lakes. The estimates, besides length, require information on average width and depth for each river and sum of estimated water for all streams on Earth. There are uncountable numbers of rivers, streams, creeks, and brooks on Earth with widths varying from a few meters to many tens of kilometers. For example, in the U.S., there are about 10,000 rivers with lengths greater than 40 km each and a combined length of 512,000 km. The total length of all sizes of streams and rivers in the U.S. lies at about 5.76 million km (Palmer, 1996). Total water in rivers is about 1.23 ¥ 103 km3 (Nace, 1984; L’vovich, 1979), sufficient to cover Earth’s surface to a depth of just 2.4 mm. This is about one-hundredth of that in freshwater lakes and one-tenth of that in the atmosphere. Of all rivers in the world, the Amazon River contains the greatest volume, accounting for 20% of the total. The 30 largest, longest, and biggest rivers of the world are given in Table 5.3. The ranks of these rivers may be different among authors because of different scales of maps used in measurements and disagreement over river sources.

5.

Atmospheric water

Earth is embraced by a layer of water vapor with a density up to 4% by volume (3% by weight) near the surface and decreasing to about 3 to 6 ppm by volume at 10 to 12 km above the ground. Total water vapor in the atmosphere at any given time is around 1.3 ¥ 104 km3, sufficient to cover Earth’s surface to a depth of 25 mm if all were converted into liquid state.

II. The U.S. The total volume of water in the continental U.S. is around 146 ¥ 103 km3, of which 86% or 126 ¥ 103 km3 is under the ground and 13% or 19 ¥ 103 km3 is in freshwater lakes. Waters in stream channels, glaciers, saltwater lakes, the atmosphere, and soil root-zone sum to 0.995 ¥ 103 km3 or 0.68% of the total (Table 5.4).

Chapter five:

Water distribution

63

Table 5.3 The 30 Largest Rivers of the World River

Country at River Mouth

Drainage Area (1000 km2)

Amazon (with Tocantins) Congo Mississippi-Missouri Ob-Irtysh Nile Rio de la Plata

Brazil

7180 (1)

Zaire and Angola U.S. Russia Egypt Argentina and Uraguay

3822 3221 2975 2881 2650

(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Yenisei Lena Niger Yangtze Kiang

Russia Russia Nigeria China

2605 2490 2092 1970

(7) (8) (9) (10)

Amur Mackenzie-Peace Volga Zambesi Orinoco Ganges Nelson Murray-Darling St. Lawrence River Tarim-Khotan Indus Brahmaputra Yukon Orange

Russia Canada Russia Mozambique Venezuela Bangladesh Canada Australia Canada China Pakistan Bangladesh U.S. (Alaska) South Africa and Namibia Iraq Romania Botswana Vietnam China Cameroon and Chad

1855 1805 1380 1330 1086 1073 1072 1072 1030 1000 960 938 855 850 808 805 800 795 745 700

Shatt-al-Arab Danube Okavango Mekong Hwang Ho Chari

Maximum Length (km) (1)

(11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24)

6516 6400 4700 6019 5570 6484 4700 6650 5550 4270 4030 5800 6300 4510 4250 3688 2660 2500 2700 2575 2570 3100 2000 3180 2900 3185 1860

(25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30)

2900 2850 1600 4500 4845 1400

Average Annual Discharge at Mouth (m3/sec) 180,000 (1)

(8) (3) (5) (2) (9)

42,000 17,545 12,600 1,584 19,500

(7)

(6) (12) (14) (4)

19,600 16,400 5,700 35,000

(6) (9) (23) (3)

(10) (13) (15) (28) (34) (27) (31) (32) (20) (40) (19) (22) (18)

12,500 7,500 8,000 2,500 28,000 15,000 2,300 391 10,400 — 3,850 20,000 7,000 —

(14) (19) (17) (37) (4) (11)

(24) (26)

856 6,450 (22) — 15,900 (10) 1,365 —

(11) (7)

(2) (8) (13)

(16) (27) (5) (20)

Note: Figures in parentheses indicate rank in the world. Source: Adapted from Czaya, E., 1981, Rivers of the World, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

A.

Rivers

Although the country has a network of rivers 5.86 ¥ 106 km long (excluding Alaska), the total volume of water in rivers is only 50 km3, or about 0.263% of the volume of water in freshwater lakes. The Mississippi River, the Missouri River, the Ohio River, the St. Lawrence River, and the Columbia River are the five major rivers in the U.S. (Figure 5.3). They have a total drainage area of more than half of the conterminous U.S. Some statistical data on the streamflow of these five rivers are given in Table 5.5. The Missouri River flows into the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri, making the river system the third longest (6019 km) and the third largest (3221 km2) drainage basin in the world. However, the average annual discharge of the river system is only 17,545 m3/sec, less than 10% of that of the Amazon River. The Amazon is a tropical

64

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests Table 5.4 Distribution of Water in the Continental U.S. Categories

Groundwater 800 m deep Lakes Freshwater Saltwater Soil moisture (0.35 m deep) Rivers Atmosphere Glaciers

Volume (km3)

(%)

Annual Circulation (km3/yr)

Replacement Period (years)

63.0 ¥ 103 63.0 ¥ 103

43.20 43.20

310 6.2

>2000 >10,000

19.0 ¥ 103 0.058 ¥ 103 0.63 ¥ 103

13.0 0.04 0.43

190 5.7 3100

100 >10 0.2

0.05 ¥ 103 0.19 ¥ 103 0.067 ¥ 103

0.03 0.13 0.05

1900 6200 1.6

0.03 >40

Source: Federal Council for Science and Technology, 1962, Report by an ad hoc panel on hydrology and scientific hydrology, Washington, D.C.

Figure 5.3

The five major rivers of the U.S.

giant, with its main channel swaying along the south side of the equator. Rainfall within the Amazon basin ranges from 1500 to 3500 mm/year. The Mississippi–Missouri River is in the temperate region with rainfall ranging from 500 to 1650 mm/year, much less than the Amazon River.

B.

Lakes

The five Great Lakes of North America — Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario (Table 5.6) — are the most important inland freshwater bodies of the U.S. and Canada. Spanning more than 1200 km in width, they contain a total volume of 22.7 ¥ 103 km3, about 18% of total water in lakes and six times greater than that in rivers worldwide.

Chapter five:

Water distribution

65

Table 5.5 Statistics on Streamflow for the Five Biggest Rivers in the U.S., 1951–1980 and the Overall Records Stream Location

Drainage Area (km2)

Mean m3/sec

Maximum m3/sec

Minimum m3/sec

Mississippi River at Vicksburg, MI (Up to 1983, 55 yrs) Missouri River at Hermann, MO (Up to 1983, 86 years) St. Lawrence at Cornwall, Ontario, near Massena, NY (Up to 1983, 123yrs) Columbia River at The Dalles, OR, (Up to 1983, 105 yrs) Ohio River at Louisville, KY (Up to 1983, 55 yrs)

2.909 ¥ 106

16,332 16,377 2,233 2,265 6,874

27,761 58,864 12,611 19,131 9,896

8889 2813 193 119 4379

6,885 5,473 5,476 3,284 3,274

9,962 19,003 35,092 16,858 31,413

3934 1051 342 140 59

1.342 ¥ 106 0.765 ¥ 106

0.607 ¥ 106 0.233 ¥ 106

Note: Maximum and minimum discharges are daily averages. Source: Saboe, C.W., 1984, The Big Five, Some Facts and Figures on Our Nation’s Largest Rivers, U. S. Geological Survey, General Interest Publications.

Table 5.6 Physical Features of the Great Lakes of North America Features

Superior

Michigan

Huron

Erie

Ontario

Drainage area, km2 Water area, km2 Volume, km3 Mean depth, m Maximum depth, m Length, km Width, km

49,300 82,100 12,100 147 406 563 257

45,600 57,800 4,920 85 282 494 190

51,700 59,600 3,540 59 229 332 245

30,140 25,700 484 19 64 388 92

24,720 18,960 1,640 86 244 311 85

Source: Government of Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1995, The Great Lakes, an Environmental Atlas and Resources Book, 3rd ed., The Great Lakes National Program Office, Chicago, IL.

There were 2654 man-made reservoirs with storage capacity of 5000 acre-ft (6.165 ¥ 106 m3) or greater in the U.S. Total volume of storage was 480 ¥ 106 acre-ft or 592 km3. In addition, there were at least 50,000 reservoirs with capacities between 50 and 5000 acre-ft and about 2 million ponds less than 50 acre-ft (der Leeden, 1990). As of 1998, total surface area of reservoirs, lakes, and ponds in the U.S. was 168,330 km2 (EPA, 2000).

III. The hydrologic cycle Water continues to change its state in response to changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure, or to flow to a new location due to gravitational effect. Such movements and changes can occur in the atmosphere (precipitation process), on the ground (runoff process), and in the interface between ground and the atmosphere (evapotranspiration process). Thus, precipitation, runoff, and evapotranspiration are the major components of the hydrologic cycle. The circulation of water on Earth through the atmosphere, land, and ocean forms the hydrologic cycle. It is a continuous process with no beginning or end (Figure 5.4).

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Figure 5.4

A.

The hydrologic cycle.

The hydrologic processes 1.

Precipitation

Precipitation is water delivered to Earth from the atmosphere in solid or liquid states. It is the major source of water to a watershed system including streams, springs, soil moisture, groundwater, and vegetation. However, not all rains or snows from a storm event will reach the ground. Some may be vaporized before reaching the ground and some may be intercepted by vegetation canopies and litters. For precipitation to occur, water vapor in the atmosphere has to be cooled down below the dewpoint through certain temperature-cooling mechanisms. This makes water vapor condense into liquid or solid states around condensation nuclei. The formed water droplets are usually very small and drift in the air. If these water droplets grow large enough, through coalescence processes, to be pulled down by gravity, then it precipitates. However, the total volume of water vapor in the air at a given time is equivalent to about 25 mm (1 inch) of liquid water in depth. Thus, a sufficient amount of water vapor must be supplied and converged at the stormy area in order to have an observed rainfall greater than 25 mm. Before reaching the ground, part of precipitation will be intercepted and retained by the aerial portions of vegetation and ground litter. The intercepted precipitation will be either vaporized back to the air or dripped to the ground. This process, called forest interception, can affect precipitation disposition, soil moisture distribution, and the impact energy of raindrops on the soil. The amount of interception loss is determined by storm and forest characteristics.

Chapter five:

Water distribution

67

After precipitation has reached the ground, it can enter into the soil to become soil moisture or groundwater. Some of it can run through land surfaces and the soil profile to become streamflow, or is lost to the air again through evaporation and transpiration.

2.

Evapotranspiration

Liquid water is vaporized to the air whenever there is a vapor pressure gradient between the surface and the ambient atmosphere. Vaporization can occur over surfaces such as soil, water bodies, streams, snowpacks, and vegetation. If the active surface of vaporization is leaves (through stomata or cuticle) or bark (through lenticels) and water is conducted through the root system, it is called transpiration. Since separation of transpiration and evaporation is rather difficult in a vegetated watershed, evapotranspiration is a collective term used to describe total loss of water to the air in vapor state. Thus, evapotranspiration is a negative item in the watershed hydrologic balance. Every 1 cm of water lost to the air requires about 600 cal/cm2 of energy. It represents an energy sink of the environment.

3.

Runoff

Precipitation that reaches the soil surface can be entirely or partly absorbed by the soil in the process of infiltration. The infiltrated water can be lost to the air through evapotranspiration, be retained in the soil as soil moisture storage, become ground water through percolation, or run laterally in the soil profile as interflow or subsurface runoff to reach stream channels. The rate of infiltration processes largely depends on precipitation intensity and soil properties. When precipitation intensity is greater than the infiltration rate of the soil, or precipitation is greater than the soil water-holding capacity, the excess water will run over the ground surface as overland flow or surface runoff to the nearest stream channel. Some of the overland flow can be trapped in concavities of the surface as depression storage. The combination of surface and subsurface runoff is called direct runoff. It is an influent stream if streamflow comes solely from direct runoff. Such streams flow only during storms, after storms, and in wet seasons. Under the ground, the profile is divided into two zones: the zone of aeration overlying the zone of saturation. The zone of aeration provides soil moisture, air, nutrients, and sites for plants and animals. The zone of saturation provides a natural reservoir to feed springs, streams, and wells. A stream is effluent if its channel intersects with a groundwater table in which water flows all year round. Runoff is considered the residual of the hydrologic system in a drainage basin. Precipitation is first to satisfy the watershed storage and evapotranspiration demands before overland runoff can occur. The runoff process involves translocation, water storage, and the change of the state of water. Since its occurrence is in response to watershed climate, topography, vegetation, soil, human activity, and streamflow quantity and quality provide an effective indicator for watershed management conditions.

B.

The hydrologic budget

In a hydrologic system, the law of conservation applies and water input must be equal to water output plus storage. The hydrologic budget seeks a quantitative water balance between the input and output components of a watershed system.

1.

The globe

For Earth as a whole, there is neither gain nor loss in runoff, and what goes up (vaporization, V) must be equal to what comes down (precipitation, Pt), or

68

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests Pt = V

(5.1)

The estimated total precipitation on Earth varies among investigators. According to Baumgartner and Reichel (1975), it is about 973 mm per year, and the average annual precipitation is about 746 mm for the land vs. 1066 mm for the oceans. Since the area of land is only about 41.35% of the oceans, the ratio of precipitation volume falling on land to that on the oceans is about 1:3.5. Equation 5.1 is not valid for all individual localities on Earth. Over some regions of the ocean, Pt exceeds vaporization V, whereas in other regions V exceeds Pt. Overall, V is greater than Pt over the ocean, and the extra water required to maintain sea level nearly unchanged with time comes from runoff (RO) of the land: V = Pt + RO, or V – (Pt + RO) = 0

(5.2)

For land, the overall precipitation is greater than vaporization (V) and the difference appears as runoff to supplement the vaporization need in the ocean, or: Pt – V = RO

(5.3)

Note that V is evaporation in oceans and is evapotranspiration on land. Mean annual balances of Pt, V, and RO for land, ocean, and the globe are given in Table 5.7.

2.

The U.S.

Annual precipitation for the 48 contiguous states is about 76 cm over the entire surface. About 55 cm, or 72.4%, of the precipitation is vaporized back to the air, leaving 21 cm, or 27.6% to become runoff in rivers and streams. Spatial variations of precipitation and streamflow are given in Figure 5.5 and Figure 5.6, respectively. The inflow of water vapor in the U.S. is generally from the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico and the outflow northward and eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. However, on the routes of water vapor between inflow and outflow, some water vapor is lost to the ground as precipitation and some new water vapor joins the routes as vaporization from the ground. Thus, the water vapor balance of the atmosphere is: Iv + V – Pt = Ov

(5.4)

where Iv and Ov are the inflow and outflow of water vapor, respectively. Court (1974) showed the total inflow of water vapor is about 122 cm/yr, or a rate of 0.344 cm/day. Thus, the outflow must be 122 cm + 55 cm - 76 cm = 101 cm per year, or 0.277 cm/day. Table 5.7 Annual Water Balance of Earth by Different Investigators Land V

Pt

Ocean V

RO

Globe Pt = V

Reference

RO

745

476

269

1066

1177

111

973

800 765

485 489

315 276

1270 1140

1400 1254

130 114

1130 1030

Baumgartner and Reichel, 1975 UNESCO, 1978 L'vovich, 1979

Pt

Note: All figures are in mm/year.

Chapter five:

Water distribution

69

Figure 5.5 Average annual precipitation in the U.S. (U.S. Forest Service, 1982, An Assessment of the Forest and Range Situation in the United States, Forest Resour. Rep. 22, Washington, D.C).

Figure 5.6 Average annual streamflow in the U.S. (U.S. Forest Service, 1982, An Assessment of the Forest and Range Situation in the United States, Forest Resour. Rep. 22, Washington, D.C).

The mean vapor content of the atmosphere over the U.S. is about 1.7 cm. An inflow rate of 0.334 cm/day would have a residence time of about 5 to 6 days to replace the existing water vapor.

3.

Watersheds

Equation 5.3 is frequently employed to balance a long-term water budget for a watershed. For watersheds of small size the boundary for surface water may not be in agreement with the boundary for ground water. This can make watershed leakage a serious problem because subsurface water can flow out to or flow in from neighboring watersheds. Also,

70

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

small watersheds may have unsteady soil moisture storage, especially during short periods of time. Under these circumstances, watershed hydrologic balance should take this form: Pt – RO - V + DS + DL = 0

(5.5)

where DS and DL are, respectively, changes in soil moisture storage and watershed leakage. Note that the variables DS or DL can be positive or negative. If gauging stations are carefully constructed with no occurrence of seepage, such as in many experimental watersheds, and there is no subsurface inflow and outflow caused by physiographic features, DL = 0 and Equation 5.5 can be employed to solve for vaporization loss V. Since there is so much variation in the geology, soil, topography, vegetation, and climate within a watershed, many hydrologic studies have been conducted on small plots that are more uniform in environmental conditions. The small plot watershed approach makes replication of treatments possible. During a dry period, Pt = 0, no free water is standing in the soil profile of small plot watersheds. Thus it is logical to assume that there is no surface runoff, no downward water percolation, and no lateral movement of subsurface water in or out of the plot. In this case Equation 5.5 becomes: V = DS

(5.6)

or changes in soil moisture storage can be used to estimate V of the plot. If the soil surface is sealed to prevent soil evaporation, then DS is a measure of plant transpiration.

C.

The energy budget

The hydrological cycle described above is a continuous change of the state of water between Earth and the atmosphere. A tremendous amount of energy is involved in every component and process of this cycle. Without this supply of energy, there would be no hydrologic cycle and no climate changes. The major components that affect net radiation (Rn) of a location are incoming solar radiation (Rs), outgoing solar reflection (Rr), incoming atmospheric radiation (Ra), and outgoing terrestrial radiation (Rg). In equation form, it appears: Rn = Rs – Rr+ Ra – Rg

(5.7)

Net radiation can be negative, depending on geographic location, season of the year, time of day, and duration. The observed net radiation is further dissipated into latent heat (Lh), sensible heat (Sh), and conductive heat (Ch), or: Rn = Lh + Sh + Ch

(5.8)

For long-term averages, Ch is considered constant, then Rn is dissipated into either Lh or Sh. Table 5.8 shows the average net radiation to be 49 kcal cm-2 yr-1 for land, 91 kcal cm–2 yr–1 for ocean, and 79 kcal cm-2 yr-1 for Earth as a whole. Of the total net radiation of Earth, about 67 kcal cm-2 yr-1 or 84.5% is used for vaporization. Average temperature of Earth is about 300∞K. The latent heat of vaporization corresponding to the 300∞K is 582 cal for every cm3 of water. In other words, the 67 kcal cm-2 yr-1 of Lh is sufficient to vaporize about 1151 mm of water every year (see Table 5.7). The heat budgets of different continents and oceans are given in Table 5.9. In humid areas where water is not a limiting factor for vaporization, Lh takes a greater proportion than Sh does. On the other hand, in arid areas such as land at 20 to 30∞ north and south latitudes, water shortage causes Sh to use a greater proportion of Rn than does Lh (Table 5.8).

20 30 45 60 69 71 72 72 73 70 62 41 31 49

Rn

16 23 25 23 19 32 57 61 45 28 29 22 22 27

Land Lh

4 7 20 37 50 39 15 11 28 42 33 19 9 22

Sh 22 40 63 90 111 123 126 128 123 110 93 72 45 91

Rn 26 47 65 96 106 117 106 97 113 108 86 38 34 82

Lh

Ocean 23 19 15 15 7 7 7 6 9 11 11 4 9 9

Sh

-27 -26 -17 -21 -2 -1 13 25 1 -9 -4 20 2 0

Fo 21 34 54 77 95 109 114 115 115 101 89 71 45 79

Rn 19 33 44 65 73 94 95 88 98 90 79 47 34 67 10 12 18 24 23 15 9 7 13 18 14 4 9 12

Earth as a whole Lh Sh

-8 -11 -8 -12 -1 0 10 20 0 -7 -4 20 2 0

Fo

-77 -66 -66 -76 -90 -91 -84 -81 -84 -81 -78 -70 -63 -79

34 51 51 46 39 70 128 101 74 61 68 77 89 67

Atmosphere Ra Lr

Source: UNESCO, 1978, World Water Balance and Water Resources of the Earth, UNESCO Press, Paris. With permission.

Note: Rn = net radiation balance at Earth's surface; Lh = latent heat; Sh = sensible heat; Fo = redistribution of heat by sea currents; Ra = radiation balance of the atmosphere; Lr = heat input from condensation in the atmosphere. The quantities Rn, Ra, and Lr are taken as positive when they represent a heat input, and other quantities as positive when they represent an expenditure of heat.

70–60 N 60–50 50–40 40–30 30–20 20–10 10–00 00–10 S 10–20 20–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 Overall

Latitude

Table 5.8 Heat Balance, in kcal cm-2/year-1, of Earth's Surface and of the Atmosphere

Chapter five: Water distribution 71

72

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests Table 5.9 Heat Balance, in kcal cm–2 yr–1, of Continents and Oceans (Unesco, 1978. With permission.) Component Rn Lh Sh

EUP

ASA

39 28 11

47 24 23

Continent AFA NAM 68 31 37

40 24 16

SAM

AUA

ATL

Ocean PAC

IND

70 51 19

70 29 41

90 79 9

96 88 10

97 84 7

Notes: EUP = Europe, ASA = Asia, AFA = Africa, NAM = North America, SAM = South America, AUA = Australia, ATL = Atlantic, PAC = Pacific, IND = Indian, Rn = Net radiation, Lh = Latent heat, Ah = Sensible heat.

References Baumgartner, A. and Reichel, E., 1975, The World Water Balance, Mean Annual Global, Continental and Maritime Precipitation, Evaporation, and Runoff, R. Oldenbourg, Munich. Court, A., 1974, Water balance estimates for the United States, Weatherwise, December 1974, 252–255, 259. Cox, P.A., 1989, The Elements, Their Origin, Abundance, and Distribution, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Czaya, E., 1981, Rivers of the World, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. der Leeden, F.V., Troise, F.L., and Todd, D.K., 1990, The Water Encyclopedia, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI. Dormand, J.R. and Woolfson, M.M., 1989, The Origin of the Solar System: the Capture Theory, John Wiley & Sons, New York. EPA, 2000, The Quality of Our Nation’s Waters, a Summary of the National Water Quality Inventory: 1998 Report to Congress, EPA841-S-00–001, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Federal Council for Science and Technology, 1962, Report by an ad hoc panel on hydrology and scientific hydrology, Washington, D.C. Government of Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1995, The Great Lakes, an Environmental Atlas and Resources Book, 3rd ed., The Great Lakes National Program Office, Chicago, IL. L’vovich, M.I., 1979, World Water Resources and Their Future, Litho Crafters, Chelsea, MI. Mather, J.R., 1984, Water Resources, Distribution, Use, and Management, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Nace, R., 1984, Water of the World, 1984–421–618/107, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Government Printing Office. Palmer, T., 1996, America by Rivers, Island Press, Washington, D.C. Saboe, C.W., 1984, The Big Five, Some Facts and Figures on Our Nation’s Largest Rivers, U. S. Geological Survey, General Interest Publications. UNESCO, 1978, World Water Balance and Water Resources of the Earth, UNESCO Press, Paris. U.S. Forest Service, 1982, An Assessment of the Forest and Range Situation in the United States, Forest Resour. Rep. 22, Washington, D.C. Wang, J.Y. and Felton, C.M.M., 1983, Instruments for Physical Environmental Measurements, 1, Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque, IA.

chapter six

Water resource problems Contents I. Water demand and supply ..............................................................................................75 A. Water demand ...........................................................................................................75 1. The world.............................................................................................................75 2. The U.S. ................................................................................................................75 3. Projections for the U.S. ......................................................................................76 B. Water supply..............................................................................................................78 1. The world.............................................................................................................78 2. The U.S. ................................................................................................................80 II. Water quantity ...................................................................................................................82 A. Drought ......................................................................................................................82 1. Rainmaking..........................................................................................................83 2. Water translocation.............................................................................................83 3. Desalination .........................................................................................................84 4. Water reclamation ...............................................................................................84 5. Rain harvesting ...................................................................................................85 6. Iceberg harvesting...............................................................................................86 7. Household conservation....................................................................................86 8. Evaporation reduction .......................................................................................86 9. Irrigation efficiency.............................................................................................87 10. Vegetation control ...............................................................................................87 11. Genetic engineering............................................................................................88 12. Drought forecast .................................................................................................88 13. Price control .........................................................................................................88 B. Floods..........................................................................................................................89 1. Forms and causes................................................................................................89 a. Flash flood......................................................................................................89 b. River flood .....................................................................................................89 c. Urban flood....................................................................................................90 d. Coastal flood..................................................................................................90 2. Nature of floods ..................................................................................................91 3. Flood damages ....................................................................................................91 a. Flood damages increase with time ............................................................92 b. Losses per unit area decrease with increasing watershed size.............92 c. Forested watersheds are less damaging ...................................................92 d. Inundation can be a blessing ......................................................................93

73

74

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

4. Flood control and management .......................................................................93 a. Flood-control measures................................................................................93 b. Flood forecasting...........................................................................................95 c. Floodplain zoning.........................................................................................95 d. Flood insurance.............................................................................................96 e. Disaster aids...................................................................................................97 III. Water quality......................................................................................................................97 A. Water pollutants........................................................................................................98 1. Sediments .............................................................................................................98 2. Heat .......................................................................................................................98 3. Oxygen-demanding wastes...............................................................................99 4. Plant nutrients .....................................................................................................99 5. Disease-causing agents ......................................................................................99 6. Inorganic chemicals and minerals .................................................................100 7. Synthetic organic chemicals ............................................................................100 8. Radioactive substances ....................................................................................100 B. Sources of water pollution ....................................................................................100 C. Water quality control..............................................................................................101 1. Monitoring and research .................................................................................102 2. Public education................................................................................................102 3. Prevention and treatment................................................................................102 4. Management ......................................................................................................102 5. Legislation and enforcement...........................................................................103 D. Water-quality laws and regulations.....................................................................103 IV. Water rights ......................................................................................................................103 A. Diffused water.........................................................................................................104 B. Surface water ...........................................................................................................104 1. Riparian rights.............................................................................................104 2 Prior appropriation.....................................................................................105 3 Hybrid doctrine...........................................................................................105 4. Reserved-rights doctrine............................................................................105 C. Groundwater ...........................................................................................................106 References .....................................................................................................................................106

Water resource problems are problems of water quantity, quality, and timing. Some regions may have too much water (flooding), while others may have too little water (drought). Water may not occur at the right time and in the right place (timing), or water may not be clean enough for drinking and other uses (water pollution). Moreover, the complexity of water usage in our modern society and the requirement of water for economic development make the rights to capture water and water allocation important issues in water resources (water rights). No region in the world is immune from these problems, which stem from the uneven distribution of water, water mobility, imbalance in supply and demand, steady increases in population, economic growth, poor environmental management, and lack of concern by the public.

Chapter six:

Water resource problems

75

Table 6.1 Trends in World Water Consumption (in km3/year) by Region Region

1900

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

Africa Europe North and South America Asia and Oceania World Population, 109

41.8 37.5 84.5

49.2 70.9 249.0

56.2 93.8 345.0

86.2 105.0 475.0

116.0 294.0 641.0

168.0 435.0 774.0

232.0 554.0 874.0

317.0 673.0 1012.0

416.0

689.0

869.0

1237.0

1543.0

1940.0

2480.0

3190.0

580.0 1.6

1060.0 2.3

1350.0 2.5

1980.0 3.0

2590.0 3.7

3320.0 4.5

4140.0 5.3

5190.0 6.3

Source: UNESCO, 1993, Water for the Common Future, International Hydro. Prog., Committee on Water Res., Paris.

I.

Water demand and supply

A.

Water demand

Water demand is often described as either water withdrawal or water consumption. The term withdrawal refers to pumping or taking water from a source for various uses or storage. Water consumption or consumptive use of water refers to the part of withdrawn water that is vaporized to the air, consumed by humans, plants or livestock, incorporated into products, and not discharged into a supply source for potential reuse.

1.

The world

Total freshwater consumption of the world increased from 1.589 km3/d in 1900 to about 3.699 km3/d in 1950 and 11.342 km3/d in 1990 (Jordaan et al., 1993; Gleick, 1998). The consumption rate increased about 0.042 km3/d/year (15.403 km3/year) between 1900 and 1950, and about 0.191 km3/d/year (69.742 km3/year) between 1950 and 1990. In other words, total freshwater withdrawals increased about 7.14 times in the 90-year period (Table 6.1). The increases in water consumption are reflections of population growth, agricultural expansion, and industrial development, and were most rapid after World War II. The world population increased 3.31 times during the 90-year period, from about 1.6 billion in 1900 and 2.5 billion in 1950 to 5.3 billion in 1990. Total water withdrawals on a per capita basis were 0.993 m3/person/d in 1900 and doubled to 2.140 m3/person/d in 1990. Agriculture is the biggest consumer despite a continuing fall in its proportion of total water consumption from 90.5% (525 km3/year) in 1900 to 66.3% (2200 km3/year) in 1980 and to an expected 62.6% (3250 km3/year) in 2000. During the same period, industry used 6.4% in 1900, 18.8% in 1980, and an expected 24.7% in 2000 (Figure 6.1). Of the major regions around the world, Asia and Oceania, the biggest water consumers and the fastest growing regions in the world, made up 60% of the world’s total consumption in 1990 (Table 6.1). Because of abundant water resources, both the volume and growth rate of water consumption are the smallest in South America (WMO/UNESCO, 1991).

2.

The U.S.

The rates of total withdrawals in the U.S. were much greater than the average withdrawal rate of the world. In 1900, The U.S. population was 76 million or only 4.75% of the world. Total withdrawals, however, were 0.153 km3/day, or almost 10% of the world. This was a per capita withdrawal of 2.019 m3/person/d, about double that of the world average. Interesting enough, 90 years later the U.S. population maintained at 4.75% (252 million) of the world total, but total withdrawals increased to 1.545 km3/d (Solley et al., 1998), or

76

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Figure 6.1

Water consumption of the world, by five categories (WMO/UNESCO, 1991).

13.6% of the world. This was a per capita withdrawal of 6.132 m3/person/d, or about 2.87 times greater than the world average (Table 6.2). Unlike worldwide withdrawals, total withdrawals in the U.S. did not increase steadily during the period of record. U.S. withdrawals increased from 0.153 km3/d in 1900 to a peak of 1.665 km3/d in 1980 and then decreased to 1.518 km3/d in 1995 (Figure 6.2). The increasing rate was 0.019 km3/d/year (6.925 km3/year) or 12.4% per year during the 80-year period. However, population growth rate during the same period was 2.5%, only about one-fifth of the growth rate for water withdrawals. Despite the continuous growths in population, industry, and agriculture, water withdrawals declined from 1.671 km3/d in 1980 to 1.518 km3/d in 1995 or about 91% of the peak 1980 level. Agricultural irrigation and industry are the two most important categories in water demand. They make up more than 80% of total water withdrawals in the U.S. Public water supply and rural domestic and livestock are only small fractions of the total demand. The declines in water withdrawals in the 1980s and 1990s seem to reflect improvements in efficiency of water use in industry and agriculture. Withdrawals for irrigation and industry in 1995 were, respectively, only at 88.15% and 85.5% of levels in 1980, while public water supply and rural domestic water uses continued to grow (Table 6.2).

3.

Projections for the U.S.

Past water usage provides insight for estimating water demands in the future. Such estimation is necessary for water-resources management and planning. However, factors that affect water demand such as population growth, per capita income, energy consumption, agricultural expansion, economic development, and advances in technology are very complex. Projections for the future demand for water are therefore extremely difficult to make and far from precise. Thus, a short-term projection is more reliable than a long-term one, and constant revisions are necessary as new information and technology becomes available. In its first national assessment of future demands for water, the U.S. Water Resources Council (1968) projected the total U.S. withdrawal for 1980, 2000, and 2020 as 1.675 km3/d, 3.045 km3/d-1, and 5.178 km3/d, respectively. The projected values for 1980 compared well with the actual withdrawals reported by the U.S. Geological Survey (Table 6.2), especially for public supply, rural, domestic and livestock irrigation, and the U.S. total

0.2725 0.1476

0.1779 0.0023

0.6813 0.0681 0.0008

()f

5.6775

0.1514 0.1400

0.1287 ()f

0.5299 0.0379 ()f

()f

4.1635 7.5700

0.2309

0.7192 0.1173 0.0023

0.1893 0.0015

0.3785 0.1438

1.0220 0.0795 0.0136 0.4164

179.3

1960b

Data not available. Freshwater only.

Fifty states, District of Colombia, and Puerto Rico. Fifty states, District of Colombia, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands. Revised.

Forty-eight states and District of Colombia. Fifty states and District of Colombia.

0.9084 0.0643 0.0136 0.4164

164.0

1955a

0.6813 0.0530 0.0136 0.3369

150.7

1950a

8.7055

0.2914

0.7949 0.1628 0.0026

0.2271 0.0019

0.4921 0.1741

1.1734 0.0908 0.0151 0.4542

193.8

1965b

Year

10.5980

0.3293g

0.9463 0.2006 0.0019

0.2574 0.0038

0.6435 0.1779

1.4005 0.1022 0.0170 0.4921

205.9

1970c

12.4905

0.3634g

0.9841 0.2612 0.0019

0.3104 0.0038

0.7570 0.1703

1.5897 0.1098 0.0185 0.5299

216.4

1975d

12.4905

0.3785g

11.5443

0.3494g

1.0030 0.2256 0.0022

0.2771 0.0025

0.3142e 0.0034 1.0977 0.2687 0.0019

0.7078 0.1154

1.5102 0.1382 0.0295 0.5185

242.4

1985d

0.7949 0.1703

1.6654 0.1287 0.0212 0.5678

5

229.6

1980d

12.4527

0.3558g

0.9803 0.2581 0.0028

0.3005 0.0046

0.7381 0.1132

1.5443 0.1457 0.0299 0.5185

252.3

1990d

11.9696

0.3785g

0.9992 0.2260 0.0039

0.2891 0.0042

0.7192 0.1101

1.5216 0.1522 0.0336 0.5072

267.0

1995d

Water resource problems

Source: Solley, W.B., Pierce, R.R., and Perlman, H.A., 1998, Estimated use of water in the United States in 1995, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200, Washington, D.C.

g

f

e

d

c

b

a

Population 106 Offstream Use Total withdrawals Public supply Rural uses Irrigation Industrial Thermal power Others Source of Water Ground Fresh Saline Surface Fresh Saline Reclaimed wastewater Consumptive use Instream Use Hydroelectric power

Water Use

Table 6.2 Trends in Estimated Water Use (in km3/d) in the U.S., 1950–1995

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Figure 6.2 Total water withdrawals and population in the U.S., 1900–1995. (Data source: Solley et al., 1998, Estimated use of water in the United States in 1995, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200, Washington, D.C.)

withdrawals. Total water withdrawals for 2000 and 2020 were projected to be 1.818 and 3.091 times greater, respectively, than that of 1980. Other projections for 2000 were 1.480 to 3.210 km3/d made by Wollman and Bonem (1971) and 2.223–4.992 km3/d by the National Water Commission (1973). The U.S. Water Resources Council (1978) released its second national water assessment including projections of water withdrawals for 1985 and 2000. The new projections for total water withdrawals for 2000 were 1.609 km3/d-1, a figure even lower than the predicted total withdrawals for 1980 made 10 years previously. These discrepancies in water demand projections are in part due to the unreliability of available data and different assumptions about population growth, economic development, energy consumption, and environmental regulations. Frequently, unexpected human factors and environmental policies alter established trends in water demand. Water rationing and conservation programs, implemented in times of need, add more difficulty to the prediction of water withdrawals. The U.S. Forest Service (1989) projected total freshwater withdrawals to be 1.458 km3/d, 1.603 km3/d, 1.746 km3/d, 1.823 km3/d, and 1.993 km3/d for the years 2000, 2010, 2020, 2030, and 2040, respectively (Table 6.3). These projections were more conservative than the earlier projections made by others.

B.

Water supply 1.

The world

Total land runoff of the world is 266 mm/year (Baumgartner and Reichel, 1975), or 39.162 ¥ 103 km3/year. This is renewable water that is available for management. However, not all of this water can be utilized due to geographical location or lack of suitable sites for capture. Total freshwater withdrawals were 4140 km3, or 781 m3/person/d in 1990. The world’s water resources are finite, but the demand for water steadily increases with increasing population and economic development. A 2% annual population growth rate would bring the world’s population to 46 billion by the end of the year 2100 and require 32 ¥ 103 km3 of water to meet 1990 water consumption standards at the 1990 levels. WMO/UNESCO (1991) stated that the world’s water resources would be fully utilized before the end of the next century.

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Table 6.3 Projection of Total Freshwater Withdrawals (in km3/d) in the U.S., 2000–2040 2000

2010

Year 2020

2030

2040

0.0026 0.5931 0.5958

0.0026 0.6605 0.6631

0.0026 0.7275 0.7301

0.0026 0.7945 0.7971

0.0026 0.8615 0.8641

0.2104 0.3278 0.0011 0.5394

0.2207 0.3516 0.0010 0.5734

0.2305 0.3751 0.0008 0.6064

0.2371 0.3944 0.0008 0.6325

0.2430 0.4129 0.0008 0.6563

0.0761 0.1154 0.1915

0.0912 0.1310 0.2222

0.1067 0.1457 0.2525

0.1196 0.1576 0.2737

0.1276 0.1646 0.2918

0.0212 0.0821 0.0011 0.1045

0.0242 0.0893 0.0015 0.1151

0.0278 0.0962 0.0016 0.1257

0.0315 0.1030 0.0018 0.1363

0.0354 0.1096 0.0019 0.1469

0.0163 0.0003 0.0166

0.0182 0.0002 0.0184

0.0199 0.0002 0.0200

0.0212 0.0001 0.0213

0.0220 0.0001 0.0221

0.0057 0.0045 0.0101

0.0061 0.0048 0.0108

0.0064 0.0050 0.0114

0.0066 0.0052 0.0118

0.0067 0.0053 0.0121

0.3323 1.1232 0.0022 1.4580

0.3630 1.2374 0.0025 1.6033

0.3939 1.3497 0.0023 1.7460

0.4186 1.4549 0.0025 1.8728

0.4372 1.5541 0.0026 1.9932

Water Use Thermoelectric Steam Cooling Groundwater Surfacewater Total Irrigation Groundwater Surfacewater Wastewater Total Municipal Central Supplies Groundwater Surfacewater Total Industrial Self-Supplies Groundwater Surfacewater Wastewater Total Domestic Self-Supplies Groundwater Surfacewater Total Livestock Watering Groundwater Surfacewater Total All Water Use Groundwater Surfacewater Wastewater Total Withdrawals

Note: Data may not add to totals because of rounding errors. Source: U.S. Forest Service, 1989, RPA Assessment of the Forest and Rangeland Situation in the United States, 1989, USDA Forest Service Forest Resource Rep. No. 26, Washington, D.C.

Water supply is an issue of global quantity and distribution. Annual rainfall ranges from 4000 mm at some stations in Taiwan to sometimes nothing at all in the Sahara Desert of Libya. The uneven distribution of precipitation and consequently runoff around the world made water a scarcity to 132 million people in 1990 and a projected 1.06 to 2.43 billion people by 2050 (World Resources Institute et al., 1996). About one-fifth of the land on Earth is classified as arid or desert and, when combined with semiarid lands, makes up about one-third of the total land area (Robinson, 1988). Deserts are found in North Africa, southwest Asia, Central Eurasia, the Pacific coasts of Peru and Chile, Argentina, the Great Plains and the Southwest of the U.S., the Atlantic coasts of Namibia and South Africa, and most parts of Australia (Figure 6.3). There, the annual precipitation is less than 254 mm, evaporation is greater than precipitation, and water deficit prevails. Water supplies in these regions depend on groundwater, imported water, or other alternatives. Water scarcity in these regions may force residents to adjust lifestyles and cause limitations in economic development.

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Figure 6.3 Distribution of arid region climates. (After Dregne, 1983, Desertification of Arid Lands, Hardwood Academic Publishers, New York.)

Since water supplies are finite and water consumption increases with time, a measure to assess pressures on water supplies is called the water stress index. It is the annual renewable water resources per person that are available to meet needs for production and domestic use. An index of 1000 m3/person/year has been proposed as a benchmark for moderately developed countries in arid regions. Countries with a water stress index below that benchmark are most likely to experience chronic water scarcity sufficient to impede development and harm human health. By this measure, some 20 countries including Kuwait (75 m3/person), Israel (461 m3/person), and Singapore (222 m3/person/year) already suffered from water scarcity in 1990 (World Resources Institute et al., 1996). UNEP (1999) reported that about one-third of the world’s population already suffers from moderate to high water stress in which water consumption exceeds 10% of the renewable freshwater supply. If the present consumption pattern continues, two out of three persons on Earth will live in a water-stressed condition by 2025.

2.

The U.S.

About 80% of water withdrawals in the U.S. come from streams and reservoirs (surface water), and the other 20% from water deep under the ground. The surface water is of course replenished by precipitation (Pt). However, streamflow is only a portion of Pt. A great deal of Pt is lost to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration (ET, or vaporization V). Thus, the amount of water supply in a region is dependent upon the magnitudes of Pt and ET. In areas where annual Pt is less than annual ET, water deficit prevails and the water supply depends largely on groundwater. On the other hand, water surplus occurs if annual Pt is greater than annual ET. In 1995, for example, groundwater contributed about 60% of total water withdrawals in Nebraska, a semiarid state in the mid-central U.S. However, groundwater was only 9% of total withdrawals in Pennsylvania (Solley et al., 1998), a humid state in the East where Pt exceeds ET. Annual precipitation in the continental U.S. is about 16.05 km3/d, and about 11.42 km3/d are lost to the air through evapotranspiration. This leaves 4.63 km3/d of water (the manageable supply) to percolate to groundwater or run directly over the land surface to streams that eventually drain into the oceans.

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Table 6.4 Total Water Withdrawals, Population, and Per Capita Use of Water between the Eastern (31 States) and Western (17 States) U.S. in 1990 and Their Normal Runoff Items Water withdrawals, km3/d Surface Water Fresh Saline Sum Groundwater Fresh Saline Sum Total Fresh Saline Sum Per Capita, m3/d Fresh Total withdrawals Population, thousands Runoff (1931–1960), km3/d

Western States Volume %

Eastern States Volume %

Total Volume

0.4158 0.0548 0.4707

41.4 25.6 30.9

0.5810 0.1583 0.7393

58.6 74.4 69.1

0.9968 0.2132 1.2100

0.1833 0.0037 0.1870

64.0 94.9 64.4

0.1031 0.0002 0.1033

36.0 05.1 35.6

0.2864 0.0039 0.2903

0.5991 0.0586 0.6577

59.9 27.0 43.8

0.6841 0.1585 0.8426

40.1 73.0 56.2

1.2832 0.2171 1.5003

32.1 32.8

3.8529 4.7455 177,563 3.0522

67.9 67.2

4.9088 5.7391 261,416 4.5420

7.1353 7.8431 83,853 1.4898

Note: Percents in rows total to 100. Sources: Data for water withdrawals and population were calculated from Solley, W.B., Pierce, R.R., and Perlman, H.A., 1998, Estimated use of water in the United States in 1995, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200, Washington, D.C. Runoff data were calculated from Murray, C.R., 1968, Estimated use of water in the United States, 1965, U. S. Geological Survey Circular 556, Washington, D.C.

Of the 1.52 km3/d total water withdrawals in 1995, about 1.22 km3/d were surface water (Table 6.2). This was about 26% of annual runoff. The remaining 74% or 3.41 km3/d were available to supply additional growth in water demand. The projected surface water withdrawals in 2040 made by the U.S. Forest Service are 1.55 km3/d. U.S. water supplies should be adequate to meet this demand. Although overall the U.S. seems to have plenty of water to meet demand in the future, a large region of the U.S. has experienced water shortages every year due to uneven distribution of population, industry, agriculture, and available water. A deficit of water exists where potential evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation, or demand for water is greater than supply. These areas lie generally west of the 96th meridian and east of the Rocky Mountains. Here annual precipitation is generally less than 60 cm, and surface runoff of less than 10 cm occurs only during or immediately after storms, except areas in higher mountains. Table 6.4 shows that the 17 western states have 33%, or 544 km3/year, of the total runoff in the contiguous U.S., but the West withdrew 44% or 240 km3 of the nation’s streamflow in 1990. The greatest demand for water in the West is agricultural irrigation, and in the East it is for industry purposes. These uses, respectively, make up 82% of total off-stream withdrawals in each region. The precipitation regime of a region is affected by (1) position relative to air-mass movement and moisture content of the air, (2) proximity to major pressure systems, and (3) elevation and other topographic characteristics. The U.S. is located in a region of Earth that is influenced by the westerlies (prevailing winds blowing from west to east). Major tracks of storms and weather fronts move from the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic Ocean. These cause the windward (western) slopes of the Rocky Mountains and the Northern Pacific coastal plains to record the greatest precipitation in the U.S. They

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Figure 6.4

Seasonal precipitation distribution for selected locations in the U.S.

are followed by the Gulf Coast around the mouth of the Mississippi River, southeast Florida around West Palm Beach, and the high mountain plateau of western North Carolina. Annual precipitation for the community of Forks on the western side of the Olympic Mountains, Washington, is about 3000 mm, but it drops to about 450 mm at Port Townsend, only 120 km away on the leeward (eastern) side of the same mountains. The Intermountain region and the Southwest are in a rain-shadow created by the Cascade Range and Coast Ranges to the west. The Coast Ranges block the influx of warm moist-air masses moving from the Pacific. Also, moist-air masses from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic gradually lose moisture as they travel inland. These factors cause the Southwest and the Intermountain regions to be the driest in the nation. Normal annual precipitation is only about 100 mm at Yuma, an Indian Reservation near the border of Arizona, California, and Mexico. The seasonal precipitation distribution for a few selected locations in the U.S. is shown in Figure 6.4.

II. Water quantity A.

Drought

When water demand is greater than supply, water shortage occurs. If the shortage extends over a significant period of time, it is a drought. However, water shortage can apply to agriculture, to water level in the rivers and reservoirs, or to human comfort as a result of lack of rainfall, high temperature, and low humidity. Thus, drought has been defined through meteorological, agricultural, hydrological, or even socioeconomic points of view. It means different things to different people and varies from region to region. In equatorial areas, a week without rain is a drought, while such a period can extend to 2 years in Libya. Unlike floods, drought occurs slowly, grows gradually, and acts silently. There are no exciting violent occurrences or immediate disruptions of life and social order associated

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with drought. The damages of drought are chronic. But once it becomes noticeable, it may have already caused tremendous losses in agriculture, reductions in economic growth, increases in food prices, and problems of infestation associated with insects, fungi, bacteria, and viruses, which in turn may shift farming practices and life-styles. Drought is not just a natural phenomenon affecting only crops or water supplies. The effects of drought cover all aspects of life and are much more profound and widespread than those of floods. No panacea can be used with economic feasibility to fight effectively against drought. Although elimination of drought is unattainable, numerous measures have been developed to cope with shortages of water and reduce drought damage. These measures either augment water supply or conserve water use and work better when applied in concert. They include: Water Augmentation Rainmaking Water translocation Desalination Water reclamation Rain harvesting (Water storage) Iceberg harvesting

1.

Water Conservation Household conservation Evaporation reduction Irrigation efficient Vegetation control Genetic engineering Drought forecast Price control

Rainmaking

Artificially induced rain or snow would be an ideal solution to droughts especially if precipitation timing, location, and amounts could be controlled. Rainmaking is done by cloud seeding with crystals of dry ice, silver iodide, salts, or even clay particles when rain clouds are present in the sky. Experience in the U.S. shows that such activities could increase precipitation on the order of 10 to 50% in some regions, with no significant increases or even decreases in precipitation in other regions. Much of the uncertainty is due to the nature of precipitation variability (MIT, 1971). Besides the uncertainty problem, the fact that rain clouds are a requirement makes rainmaking inapplicable in very dry areas where such clouds are rarely available. In addition, using these clouds may create legal disputes over their ownership. As water is removed from clouds in one area, it could deprive neighboring areas of water. Large-scale application can cause changes of regional or even global weather patterns in undesirable ways. A cloud-seeding experiment conducted near Rapid City, South Dakota, in the summer of 1972 was allegedly responsible for the subsequent 356 mm of rain and flooding that followed (Owen, 1985). The usefulness of rainmaking is limited by a lack of control over the volume, intensity, and distribution of resulting precipitation.

2.

Water translocation

The distribution of freshwater supplies in nature is very uneven geographically. Cities are expanding, becoming so large that water supplies are not sufficient for their demands; agricultural irrigation is always needed in arid areas but water is in limited supply. A conventional solution to the water shortage is to transport water from an area of surplus to an area in need through pipelines, channels, canals, trucks, etc., depending on distance and quantity. Libya is located in North Africa with the Mediterranean Sea on the north, Egypt and Sudan on the east, and Chad and Niger on the south. About 95% of the country is desert, and the average annual rainfall is 26 mm with only 7% of the land exceeding 100 mm/year. The arid climate leads Libya to rely on water stored in reservoirs during wet years and

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

in underground aquifers for its water supply. In 1986 Libya initiated the “Great Manmade River Project” to pump water out of aquifers deep beneath the Sahara desert formed 20,000 to 40,000 years ago. Some 4000 km of pipeline with a diameter of 4 m, buried 6 to 7 m under the ground, will stretch from the desert to cities along the Mediterranean (Borrell, 1986; Jordaan et al., 1993). The project consists of five phases with a total volume of water 2 km3/year to be transported for a period of at least 50 years. It is expected to meet the demands for water for the heavy population along the coast and to irrigate nearly 200,000 ha of agricultural land. The first phase was completed in 1997. Tapping the deep aquifers has raised concerns that smaller pockets of water close to the surface and scattered oases may disappear. As a result, large areas of desert may be depopulated and the traditional way of life of its nomadic inhabitants destroyed. The North American Water and Power Alliance (NAWAPA) proposed to make all major rivers in Alaska and northwest Canada run backward so that water could be pumped and directed into 7 provinces in Canada, 33 states in the U.S., and 3 states in Mexico. The scheme was to build massive dams on most north-flowing rivers above the 55oN latitude. Thousands of kilometers of beautiful valleys would be permanently flooded to create gigantic reservoirs, 15 of them larger than Lake Mead, the largest artificial lake in North America. NAWAPA would take 20 to 30 years to construct with an estimated cost of $100 billion in 1964 (Mather, 1984). Perhaps the most complex and expensive water-translocation project in the U.S. is California’s aqueduct system. About 70% of California’s potentially usable water originates from the northern third of the state, while 77% of the demand comes from the semiarid southern two-thirds of the state. A dam of 235 m height blocks water in the Feather River in the North to form Lake Oroville with a capacity of 4.32 ¥ 109 m3 and 213 m deep. The water is then alternately translocated toward Los Angeles, San Diego, and the San Fernando Valley through 21 dams, 22 pumping plants, and 1046 km of canals, tunnels, and pipelines (California Department of Water Resources, 1973). The project has been criticized for its excessive costs in construction and energy, losses in scenic beauty and free-flowing wild rivers, and the destruction of fish and wildlife habitats (Owen, 1985). New large-scale water-transfer projects are increasingly difficult to establish because (1) political and environmental issues will create lengthy delays, (2) the costs will be extremely high, (3) the construction time is too long, (4) smaller projects or other approaches with fewer environmental-impact issues will be more attractive to policy-makers, and (5) environmental groups will insist on greater water use efficiency prior to construction.

3.

Desalination

Saline water includes brackish water (1000 to 4000 mg/liter of dissolved solids), salted water (4000 to 18,000 mg/liter), seawater (18,000 to 35,000 mg/liter), and brine water (more than 35,000 mg/liter). With seawater accounting for more than 97% of the world’s total water budget, converting the saline water into usable water seems to be a logical alternative for augmentation of water supply. Technologically, the conversion can be done by use of distillation processes or reverse osmosis. Commercially, the techniques are not yet in widespread use because of energy requirements, costs, and environmental constraints such as waste disposal problems, heat, and other air pollutants. Desalted water costs about $1 per 1000 gal (3.785 m3) compared to $0.25 to $0.40 per 1000 gal for tap water. In 1999, desalination capacity of the world was about 0.021km3/d (0.15% of water consumption) and 75% of the capacity was in ten countries (Gleick, 2000).

4.

Water reclamation

Sewage wastes have long been used to irrigate agricultural crops and, more recently, forested lands as a provider of both moisture and fertilizers in areas where water supplies

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are limited (Stulp, 1995). Although many people are concerned about aesthetic effects and about the possible transmission of viruses and other contaminating organisms, waste effluents in fact can be treated to yield a quality suitable for many uses, including body contact. Such processed sewage water has already been used for a variety of functions, including irrigation, steel cooling, groundwater recharging, aquaculture, creation of constructed wetlands, streamflow augmentation to enhance salmon runs and to improve water quality, recreational lakes, and domestic and industrial supplies. As new water resources and transfer projects become more difficult to develop, reclaimed water provides an economical source to ease our water-supply constraints. It already has become a safe, reliable, and drought-proof source of nonpotable water for arid states such as California, Arizona, Nevada, and Florida. In 1992, the state of Washington passed the Reclaimed Water Act (codified as RCW 90.46) to encourage beneficial use of reclaimed water for various applications. The reclamation and reuse system created by the city of Yelm, Washington, is a success story (Skillings, 1999). The system totally eliminates the discharge of wastewater into the Nisqually River to protect water quality and salmon habitat and the city’s groundwater resources, and provides water for public uses such as ground watering, vehicle washing, and a wetland park.

5.

Rain harvesting

In rain harvesting, rainwater is captured to increase water availability for crop production, gardening, household, livestock, or other uses. Methods include trapping more runoff through land-surface treatments, collecting rainwater from roofs, increasing snow accumulation through snow fences, terrain modification and forest management practices, and catching fog and cloud drips in coastal areas or at tops of mountains by installing artificial screens. Some techniques for harvesting rainwater from roofs and ground catchments were described by the United Nations Environment Programme (1983). Land surfaces can be treated to produce more runoff water by digging ditches to catch water from hillsides and directing the water to a pond for various uses. The ditches must be on soils with low water permeability; otherwise the soil needs to be treated with sodium salts, or spread with water-repellent compounds such as asphalt, paraffin, latex, or silicones. One can use large sheets of plastic or Agri-fabric, a nonwoven engineering geotextile made from 100% Trevira polyester, to cover the entire runoff-producing area and the storage reservoir. To reduce evaporation losses, the reservoir should be deep rather than large in surface area. Rainwater can also be harvested from house roofs using gutters, drains, or troughs and stored in tanks (cisterns). These are all ancient practices and can be applied in areas where average annual rainfall is as low as 50 to 80 mm. In the U.S. Virgin Islands roof rainwater-catchment systems are quite common, and local ordinances specify catchment areas and storage volumes (Sharpe, 2001). Systems like these have been promoted in urban areas to provide water for landscape maintenance. Several publications are available that provide methods for calculating necessary roof areas and storage volumes based on rainfall amounts (Young and Sharpe, 1989). In alpine areas, snowfall is the most important type of precipitation and the dominating factor in the yield and timing of streamflow. Intensive management of alpine forests and snowfields offers excellent opportunities for increasing snow accumulation and delay of snowmelt, and consequently augmenting water yields. Along coastal areas or fog-prone regions, reversing the effect of rainfall interception can be observed due to condensation of fog or cloud moisture on the forest canopy, dripping to the ground as additional rainwater (Goodman, 1985). Arranging lattices and nets above woods in Japan has collected as much as 20 times more water on the windward than on the leeward side (Ooura, 1952). Under an old-growth Douglas-fir forest near Portland, Oregon, fog drip could add an additional 882 mm of water to total precipitation during a year (Harr, 1982).

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Accordingly, loss of fog drip due to patch clearcutting of the watershed could cause a significant decrease of streamflow in the summer (Ingwerson, 1985). A fog-collection system of 75 polypropylene nets was installed to capture water drops at Chungungo, Chile. The trapped water was directed into troughs where the water was chlorinated. It was then fed into a gravity system that descended to the village through a 6.5 km pipeline. Before the system was installed, each villager lived on 13 l of water per day delivered by trucks once a week. Now, the fog-collection system furnishes each resident 53 l of water a day at half of the previous cost (U.S. Water News, 1994). The barrel-shaped baobab trees (Adansonia digitata) of tropical Africa have trunks up to 9 m in circumference. Some tribesmen hollow out the trunks of these trees for houses and commercial stores or for water storage. In Sudan, people dig a moat around a baobab tree for rain harvesting. The harvested rain is then bucketed, as much as 4 m3, into the hollow trunk for storage.

6.

Iceberg harvesting

More than 77% of the world’s freshwater is locked up in ice, mostly in Antarctica and in the Arctic. If the ice could be melted and drained into reservoirs, there would be enough water to supply our needs for more than 7000 years at the present withdrawal rates. Icebergs in Antarctica are broad and flat, resembling giant float tables or ice islands. It may be economically feasible to tow Antarctic icebergs to Southern California, South America, Saudi Arabia, Australia, or other coastal places with oceangoing tugs aided by the favorable Humboldt Currents. These icebergs would then be melted and piped inland for domestic, industrial, or agricultural purposes. The idea received considerable attention when the First International Conference and Workshop on Iceberg Utilization was held at Iowa State University in Ames, Iowa, in 1978 (Husseiny, 1978). However, there are some problems regarding the utilization of icebergs: (1) the ownership of icebergs, (2) the environmental effects on coastal water temperature, fish reproduction, and migration as well as on climatic patterns, and (3) the hazards that might be created if chunks of icebergs were broken off in international shipping lanes. It is unlikely that the intriguing idea will be implemented in the near future. But as water shortages continue to grow and the operational technology is further developed, icebergs provide a new water resource that will meet our water demands for a long time.

7.

Household conservation

About 30 to 50% of the water used in the U.S. is wasted unnecessarily. Water conservation means using water wisely, increasing the efficiency and reducing waste. Thus, household conservation involves the use of technologies, practices, policies, and education to reduce per capita use of water by people in drinking, cooking, bathing, toilet flushing, lawn watering, fire protection, swimming pools, car washing, laundering, and washing dishes. Much of the water around individual homes is wasted due to poor habits, lack of concern, or inefficient plumbing fixtures. A slow drip from faucets can waste as much as 650 l of water each day or 240 m3 each year. Texas Water Development Board (1994) has shown how household water consumption can be reduced in a brochure called “Forty-nine water saving tips.” Frequently, city ordinances are required to help govern plumbing codes, lot sizes, drainage grades and slopes, or outdoor usage, which can reduce the quantity of water used. Nationally, legislation was passed in 1992 requiring water-efficient plumbing fixtures (Energy Policy Act of 1992).

8.

Evaporation reduction

Annual lake evaporation in the U.S., excluding Alaska and Hawaii, ranges from about 500 mm in the north of Maine to 2000 mm in the southwest of Texas (U.S. Weather Bureau,

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1959). Saving 10 mm of water from a reservoir of 50,000 ha in size is sufficient to supply domestic water to 50,000 people for more than 5 months. Reservoir evaporation can be reduced by reducing the evaporation surface, by application of mechanical covers to its surface, or by spreading the surface with thin films of chemicals. The surface-film method is the simplest and the most economical for evaporation reduction. Chemicals used for this purpose must be insoluble, nontoxic, pervious to oxygen and carbon dioxide, penetrable by raindrops, flexible with motion of the water surface, and inexpensive. Depending on wind effects, type of chemical, and the conditions under which it is used, normal evaporation can be reduced as much as one-third by efficient use of monofilms.

9.

Irrigation efficiency

Water loss due to inefficient agricultural irrigation is another important item in water conservation. As much as 50% of the irrigated water is not used by crops due to evaporation loss or seepage. Improving the efficiency of existing irrigation practices can increase crop yields, reduce weed growth, and cut irrigation water by 50 to 60%. The methods include: (1) better scheduling of water application (based on real-time soil moisture and meteorological conditions), (2) use of closed conduits in water-conveyance systems, (3) using trickle or drip irrigation systems to apply water directly into the roots of plants rather than flooding the entire area, (4) reducing irrigation water runoff by using contour cultivation and terracing, and storing runoff water for use in farm ponds or small lakes, and (5) covering the soil with mulches.

10. Vegetation control Because of surface area, deep root systems, more available energy, and wind effects, water losses from vegetated watersheds are greater than if the same area were bare ground. Plant size, canopy density, roots, and leaf characteristics vary among species, resulting in variable transpiration losses. Thus, vegetation management, especially on phreatophytes and forested watersheds, provides promising opportunities to reduce water loss, and consequently augment water yield. Phreatophytes are water-loving plants whose roots penetrate into the groundwater table or spread widely for possible sources of water. They represent the most serious problem in water management in semiarid and arid regions. In Texas one such plant, mesquite, grows in drainage ways with annual rainfall of 15 cm extending to beyond 75 cm. Its roots penetrate the soil more than 5 m deep and spread as much as 15 m from its trunk, transpiring a luxurious amount of water to the air. Another plant, saltcedar, grows extensively in 15 of the 17 western states. It forms an almost continuous band of vegetation along many rivers and streams. Saltcedar not only consumes a large quantity of water (possibly reaching 2700 mm/year), but also chocks river beds with vegetation and sediment, thereby increasing flooded areas and peak flows. An elimination of saltcedar growth followed by grassland restoration might result in a collective net water saving of 300 mm/year (Texas Water Development Board, 1968). Other species of such water-wasting plants include cottonwood, elm, post oak, black oak, live oak, shin oak, whitebrush, sagebrush, sassafras, cactus, juniper, yaupon, retama, and willow. Forests transpire more water than other types of vegetation. Water yield can thus be increased by manipulation of forests without increasing surface runoff and soil erosion. The method is to reduce transpiration by (1) converting vegetation from species that use much water to species that require less water, (2) clearcutting or partial cutting of the forest, (3) reducing forest densities, and (4) using antitranspirants. Many management methods, including conversions of chaparral to grass, tree to grass, tree to shrub, and hardwood to conifer, or forest clearcutting, patch cutting, understory cutting, and thinning, have been tested in small watersheds for their effects of streamflows. The results show an

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increase in streamflow ranging from 30 to 540 mm/year, depending on annual precipitation, vegetation, management, and physiographic factors. Since most of the vegetation-management studies were conducted in small watersheds, it is uncertain how much water can be increased from large watersheds, and when and how that water will be released. Upstream forest manipulation results in increases of water yield downstream. Frequently, the landowners and beneficiaries are different people, especially when large watersheds are involved. Until the legal problems are solved, and objective models for evaluating input and output components of water augmentation projects over a broad range of environmental conditions have been developed, validated, and accepted by the courts, the approach, if carried out, will inevitably be restricted to public lands. Private forest owners will not base their management strategies on water production. Moreover, the method is inapplicable in areas where annual rainfall is less than 500 mm, or topography is so rugged and fragile that clearcutting would create severe soil-erosion problems.

11. Genetic engineering Through research and experiments in genetics, it may be possible to breed plants that require considerably less water or grow well in saline soils. Once these salt-resistant and drought-resistant crops are developed, seawater can be used for irrigation and vast areas of arid or semiarid regions can become productive. A new saltwater barley developed by two scientists from the University of California at Davis grew well on a tiny windswept beach with a yield of 1500 kg/ha (Owen, 1985). There are 1.8 ¥ 106 ha of once-prime agricultural land in California that are worthless now due to the salinization caused by improper irrigation practices or seawater intrusion. The new barley could be expected to do well in this type of soil.

12. Drought forecast Low-flow information is essential for reservoir design, the management of water-supply systems, and the study of the waste-assimilative capacity of streams. A common criterion for these purposes is the average lowest 7-day, 10-year flow. Information on the probability of occurrence of droughts with various severity and duration during a single year or during any specific period of years can be statistically analyzed using historical records of precipitation and streamflow. The severity of droughts can be measured by parameters such as deficiencies in rainfall and streamflow, declines in soil moisture and groundwater level, persistence of rainless days, various drought indexes, and the storage required to meet prescribed withdrawals. Analysis of past records indicates that the sequence of dry years is not random, and a prolonged drought in the Western U.S. occurs about every 22 years. Large-scale studies on the distribution, occurrence, severity, and duration of droughts may provide clearer insight and more reliable information to help us to prepare for problems in the future, including addressing them with conservation programs and water storage.

13. Price control Water has been priced at reproduction costs in the past. However, most systems charge a minimum price for a given quantity of water with a decreasing price for additional use, while others charge a minimum price with an increasing rate for additional use. Other water systems charge a uniform rate that is independent of use. Innovative increasing block rates have been adopted in many municipalities to encourage conservation (Young et al., 1983). When water-supply savings are added to sewer and energy costs, consumer savings can be substantial.

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Floods

An inundation or overflow of the floodplain of a river, which causes substantial loss of life, personal property, public facilities, or agricultural productivity, is called a flood. Floods are the number one killers among natural disasters. A flood that occurred along the Yellow River (Huang Ho), China, in 1931 inundated 1.1 ¥ 105 km2, caused 1 million fatalities, and left 80 million people homeless. The death toll outnumbered any other major natural disaster known today, including the earthquake of Tangshan, China, in July 1976 (800,000 lives), the cyclones of Bangladesh in November 1970 (300,000 lives), and the tornadoes of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925 (689 lives). Floods occur in various forms: flash floods, river floods, urban floods, and coastal floods. Each type has features different from the others. Knowing the characteristics of these floods can help us prepare for the threat and reduce the damage to a minimum level.

1.

Forms and causes

a. Flash flood. Flash floods occur in mountain streams, upper tributaries, or canyons with relatively small watershed areas. Small watersheds have smaller water-storage capacity than large watersheds. The water-storage capacity refers to the ability of a watershed to keep water or delay the movement of water within its drainage system through vegetation, land surface, topography, soil profiles, and stream channels. Thus, smaller watershed storage means that water moves out of the watershed faster and in greater volume per unit area. Most flash flooding is associated with slow-moving thunderstorms, intensive rains from hurricanes, tropical storms, a sudden release of water from snowpacks, or a collapse of dams and levees. Generally, thunderstorm activities are of high intensity, short duration, and small area. If the rate of an intense rain is greater than the storage rate of a watershed, the excessive rainwater will become overland flow and run to nearby stream channels. When thunderstorms occur in upper tributaries, which have small watershed-storage capacity, overland flow from every portion of the watershed can arrive in stream channels in a short period of time. The enormous amount of water can easily exceed the channel capacity, resulting in flooding of its floodplain areas. Flash floods can rise to a height of 10 m or more in a few minutes or hours. These waters move at very fast speeds with a roar like running horses and are accompanied by sediment, rocks, stones, and a variety of debris. Floodwaters can travel to downstream areas where there are no storm activities at all. They uproot trees, destroy buildings, and wipe out bridges. They occur with little or no warning, and retreat rapidly. b. River flood. Unlike flash floods, river floods occur along major rivers and in lower tributaries of large watersheds. Since it takes more time for water to travel through large watersheds, the crest of a river flood can arrive at a downstream location in a few days or even weeks after storms. Similarly, floodwaters can stay in floodplains for days or weeks before completely draining. River flooding is associated with torrential rains in spring, heavy thunderstorms, hurricanes, tropical storms, and snow thaws. If waters generated from these storms in the watershed exceed the capacity of river channels, flooding results. Because the ground is usually saturated or frozen, a severe storm occurring in winter has a greater potential for flooding than if it occurs in summer. Sometimes a failure of dams, or a jam of ice, can cause severe flooding. The failure is usually the result of negligence, poor management, inadequate design, or structural damage. Water from a collapsed dam sweeps everything downstream.

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Figure 6.5 The urban flood caused by tropical storm Allison on June 5–9, 2001, inundated some areas in Houston to more than 3 m deep with total damage of more than $4 billion (Courtesy of Rebecca Chang.)

Most communities in the U.S., in humid or arid areas, are subject to substantial risks of flooding. Flooding is a natural phenomenon of rivers; no rivers are exempt from periodic flooding. Since a river usually takes a great deal of time to build up to its flood stage, it also provides sufficient time for people to make necessary preparations. As a result, river floods are a greater threat to property, while flash floods are more dangerous to human life. c. Urban flood. Urban communities are the major areas of human activity. The World Resources Institute et al. (1996) estimated that more than 50% of the world population would live in urban areas by the end of the 20th century. In the U.S., about 75% of people live in 350 metropolitan areas with populations of 50,000 or more. Urbanization destroys vegetation cover on the ground and paves the ground with concrete, asphalt, and roofing materials. These conversions reduce the soil moisture being depleted by plant transpiration and prevent absorption of rainwater into the soil profile. Consequently, rainwater will run into drainage ditches and channels instead of infiltrating into soils. When an intense storm lasts long enough to produce street and surface runoff greater than the capacity of drainage channels, flooding occurs. In cities, runoff from streets is drained out through conduits into drainage channels and creeks. Frequently, these conduits are too small to accommodate all rainwater at once if storms are too intense and long lasting. The resultant flooding can rapidly cover streets, low-lying areas, or even bridges. Streets become a fast-moving stream, and side ditches and creeks covered with water are potential traps for vehicles and people (Figure 6.5). Urbanization makes runoff about two to six times greater than if the area were natural terrain. Urban floods occur shortly after storms or during storms. The damage and casualties caused by urban floods stem from negligence of people, overlooking the potential risk, and unfamiliarity with the area. Beware of the risk that 15 cm in depth of fast-moving water can knock you off your feet, and 0.6 m of water can float your car. d. Coastal flood. Coastal floods are caused either by tidal surges from the ocean or large lakes, or rainfall runoff from rivers. Waters in the ocean can be driven inland through wave actions induced by winds in tropical storms and hurricanes, or created by

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earthquakes and volcanic activity. When an earthquake or volcanic activity occurs in the ocean, the created waves, called tsunamis, can travel in all directions for thousands of miles. These waves, depending on how deep they are in the ocean, can be 30 m or more in height, as short as 1500 m in length, and travel up to 800 km/h. A tsunami can travel from one side of the Pacific to the other in less than one day, or it can hit a coastal area in a few minutes. They are not very tall when they are traveling in the water, but can become tall when they strike the land. Tsunamis are very destructive. They carry away people, animals, objects, and boats, wipe out villages, and flood the area for weeks.

2.

Nature of floods

Floods can be measured for their elevation, area inundation, peak discharge, volume of flow, and duration. The size of these variables depends upon the rate, duration, distribution, and direction of the storm as well as the weather and the condition of the ground on which it falls. Thunderstorm activity and intense storms are predominantly warm-season phenomena in the U.S. However, no specific intensity of storm or rate of flow will cause flooding. What may be a flood at one section of the river may be well-controlled flow at another section. The flood-producing potential of intense storms is much greater during winter and in urban areas. When unexpected storm intensities occur during cold seasons, especially during late winter, streamflow rates may be maximum, and where there is no canopy interception or transpiration in hardwood forests, evaporation is negligible, and the soil possibly frozen or highly saturated, the results are frequently disastrous. When an abnormally warm temperature, which can melt much of the snowpack, is followed by an intense storm in the cold season, flooding results are frequently disastrous. Paved streets prevent rainwater from entering into soils, and the removal of trees in urban areas reduces transpiration loss of water from the soil. Consequently, runoff in urbanized areas can be two to six times over what would occur on natural terrain. The hydrological behavior of watersheds varies with basin sizes. In small tributaries or upstream areas, the average slope steepness is greater, the average rainfall intensity is higher, the soil depth is shallower, the watercourse is shorter and steeper, and the variables of climate may be more extreme than in large watersheds. Thus, small watersheds are very sensitive to high-intensity rainfalls of short duration and can be greatly affected by land use. Floods in small watersheds are characteristically flash floods of short duration and high peak flows per unit area. On large watersheds, the effect of channel flow or basin storage is the dominant factor in flood hydrographs. Thus, if flood flows from several small tributaries arrive at the main stream at about the same time, a major flood can occur. Major floods do not occur in direct response to storm intensity. They occur gradually and drain out slowly.

3.

Flood damages

People can be drowned in floodwaters or indirectly killed by flood-induced fire, diseases, or even animal attack. In India and Pakistan, as reported by Time magazine (Clark, 1982), “people seeking refuge in treetops have died in agony from the bites of venomous snakes.” Similarly, property damages can be direct, indirect, or intangible. Direct losses apply to those items that can be determined in cash value, while indirect losses are those, such as property depreciation and loss of business or job, caused by the effects of flooding. Intangible losses include damages to environmental aesthetics, environmental hazards, loss of ecological habitat, migration of population, or crime activity that cannot be assessed by cash value. The assessment of flood losses is not an easy job. For example, flooding can cause substantial soil erosion and consequently soil deposition on crop fields, streets,

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buildings, reservoirs, and many other locations. In Bangladesh, the raging floodwaters in the summer of 1998 submerged tens of thousands of wells across the country, making the well water undrinkable. The government reported nearly 194,000 cases of diarrhea and at least 160 deaths. Thus, the damages may include loss of crops, costs due to the cleanout of soil deposition, depletion of land productivity, degradation of water quality, reduction of reservoir capacity, and impairment of landscape aesthetics. River flooding can deliver a large quantity of freshwater to the ocean, dilute the ocean’s salinity level, and consequently affect marine biology. For example, the 1998 summer flood that occurred along the middle and lower Yangtze River is the biggest recorded in China in the 20th century. It lasted more than 60 days, drowned more than 1300 people, and caused a direct economic loss exceeding 177 billion Chinese yuan. The floodwaters poured into the Yellow Sea, drifted to the Cheju Island, South Korea, and reduced the island’s salinity level from 3.1% to 2.5%. It was reported that the island’s marine shellfish farming was already reduced by 30% during the Yangtze River’s flood of August 1996. Flood damages can also cause the disruption of communication and transportation systems as telephone lines go down, bridges are washed out, and highways and railroad tracks are torn apart. Broken power lines and ruptured gas mains can cause fire, rats and dead animals can spread diseases, and floodwaters can be contaminated from sewers, animal feedlots, and other sources. If flooded areas are not treated properly and promptly, epidemic diseases can prevail. After the livestock and crops are wiped out, famine can menace the land. Many of these effects can take months or even years to assess fully. a. Flood damages increase with time. Property losses caused by flooding in the U.S. increased from $1,484,000,000 in 1936–1945, to $2,721,000,000 in 1956–1965, to $21,493,000,000 in 1976–1984. Between 1986 and 1995 the annual loss from flood damage in the U.S. ranged from $24 million in 1986 to $16,370,000,000 in 1993 with an average of $3,550,000,000 per year. As population increases exponentially with time, so does utilization of and development in floodplain areas. The concentration of population and intensive development along the floodplain makes property values higher and the potential flood damage greater. Moreover, the utilization of groundwater to meet water demands for population increase often causes a subsequent land subsidence, resulting in more areas that are subject to flooding. In the past, flash floods in the Eastern U.S. were often associated with storms of 4 in. (about 10 cm) or greater (Maddox and Chappel, 1979). Now, floods occur in many areas with a storm of only 2 in. (about 5 cm) or greater. b. Losses per unit area decrease with increasing watershed size. S t re a m fl o w p h e nomena and behavior are quite different between large watersheds and small watersheds due to their environmental conditions. A large watershed usually implies a condition in which watershed slope, rainfall intensity, flow velocity per unit area, and the chances of getting the entire watershed covered by storms are smaller, soil is deeper, and watershed storage is greater. Small watersheds are very sensitive to land-use conditions and to storms of high intensity and short duration. This means that the increase of streamflow in response to storm rainfall is more rapid for small or bare watersheds than for large or forested watersheds. Stream sedimentation and flow volume per unit area decrease with increasing watershed area, as do flood damages. c. Forested watersheds are less damaging. Forests are the most distinguished types of vegetation on Earth. Their large and thick canopies, fluffy forest floor, and deep root systems impose tremendous effects on water, soil, and nutrient movements within the watershed. For example, forested watersheds transpire a great deal of water to the air, cut

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down the amount of rainwater to reach mineral soils, increase soil water holding capacity, and reduce overland flow velocity and soil-erosion losses (Anderson et al., 1976). These make flood damages in forested watersheds less than those in agricultural or urban watersheds. Moreover, less population and development in forested watersheds make the potential damage lower than in other watersheds. d. Inundation can be a blessing. A flood carries a tremendous amount of water, energy, soil particles, nutrients, and other substances. The geomorphologic, hydrologic, and ecological processes dynamically affect the release of this energy and materials in the river systems. Frequently, flooding results in the formation of new channels, floodplains, riffles, pools, sandbars, oxbows, islands, sloughs, deltas, backwaters, and other formations depending on the stream’s energy level and its dissipation. These geomorphologic features along stream channels can support a wide array of new habitats that stimulate the growth and reproduction of living organisms. Thus, from an ecological point of view, flooding has positive impacts on natural systems. The 1993 Mississippi flood was reported to enhance the number and types of many kinds of plants and animals. It was an ecological boon. The lower reach of the Nile River is flooded every summer by tropical storms and melting snows from the Abyssinian plateau. When the floodwaters begin to recede in October every year, they deposit black sediment rich in nutrients to nourish soils along the floodplain. The Egyptians developed agricultural systems in compliance with the periodic inundation of the Nile, which made the growth of crops such as cotton, grain, and sugar cane possible in the otherwise arid sands. Thus, the greatest problems for farmers along the Nile occurred not when it flooded, but in the years when it did not flood. No wonder the Nile has been called the “life blood” of Egypt. These fertile soils, through periodic inundation, conceived one of the oldest and richest civilizations in the world. The Aswan Dam now prevents this flooding.

4.

Flood control and management

We cannot prevent all floods, but we can control some of the lesser ones and reduce the magnitude and destructiveness of others through flood-control measures and floodplain management. In general, flood-control measures use techniques that retain as much stormwater and surface runoff in the soil (or in reservoirs) as the soil water-holding capacity is able to retain, and drain the excess water out of the watershed as fast as possible. The floodplain-management approach can involve flood forecasting to prepare for floods ahead of time, floodplain zoning to relocate valuable property and life in areas less subject to flood hazards, and flood insurance to spread individuals’ flood losses among participating majorities. For an effective flood-prevention program over a drainage area, none of these approaches should be neglected. a. Flood-control measures. The four categories of flood-control measures are floodcontrol reservoirs, channel modification (dikes and levees), soil and vegetation treatments, and land drainage. The main function of flood-storage and retarding reservoirs is to reduce peak discharge, but not flood volume. However, reduction of peak flows by small reservoirs diminishes rapidly with distance below the dam. Thus, small reservoirs cannot fully replace protective works downstream, nor can downstream measures contribute protection to headwater floods. Some dams are built for raising the level of the stream so that flows can be diverted into canals for irrigation of lowlands or to spreading grounds for groundwater recharge. Most are built for multiple purposes, such as hydroelectric power, recreation, water supply, irrigation, and flood control. Despite the value of reservoirs in flood control and other uses, big dams have drawn much criticism. Some charge that: (1) dams cost too much and take too long to build,

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(2) prime agricultural land and scenic sites above the dam are lost due to flooding, and wetlands and bottomlands below the dam suffer flow reduction, (3) they can result in saltwater intrusion to freshwater aquifers in coastal areas and alter marine environments due to reduction of instream flow to bay estuaries, (4) the natural habitats of endangered species are destroyed, and the upstream migration of adult salmon is blocked, (5) the reduction of periodic flooding below the dam can result in soil-salinization problems in arid and semiarid regions, and (6) many existing reservoirs have siltation problems that seriously deplete their storage capacity and over time shorten their useful life. Soil and vegetation treatments are designed to increase infiltration rate, soil waterholding capacity, surface detention, depression storage, and roughness coefficient; slow surface-flow velocity; reduce peakflow; and delay time of flow concentration. The most common practices are contouring, strip cropping, no tillage, terracing, vegetated watercourses, crop rotation, seasonal cover crops, green manure, mulching, gully control, reforestation, and grazing control. The choice among these practices depends largely on topographic characteristics, soil conditions, vegetation types, climatic factors, and other variables affecting hydrologic behavior of the watershed. It is generally agreed that the effects of these treatments on the reduction of flow rates and delayed time of concentration are most effective in small watersheds and for storms of low intensity and short duration. No data have been published on the effects of such treatments over areas larger than 5 to 10 km2. Land treatments can be effective for watersheds up to 50 to 100 km2, while for areas over 1000 km2 or for storms of high intensity and long duration, they would be of lesser importance (Chang and Watters, 1984). Once storm water can no longer be held in the soil or stored in the reservoirs, the excess of water will run into a stream. Damage is minimized if the flow moves rapidly enough to reduce depth and duration of flooding. This can be accomplished through channel modifications such as (1) deepening or widening channels to increase flow capacity, (2) removing vegetation, debris, and sandbars from the watercourse, lowering the water level at the outlet, channel straightening, or setting levees and embankments to increase flow velocity, and (3) placing revetments and jetties on the shoreline or vegetation planting on the bank to reduce channel erosion. Although channelization can benefit the flood-control program of upstream areas, it usually leads to increases in the amount of flooding, sedimentation, and bank erosion in downstream areas. The habitats of certain fish along with plant and animal species may be eliminated due to the drainage of wetlands as a result of channelization. Moreover, a winding stream possesses the aesthetic value of a natural area, while a straight and open ditch is a degradation of such beauty. Thus, the conflicts between upstream and downstream need to be weighed carefully before any action is implemented. The main purposes of land drainage are: (1) to prevent waterlogging in agricultural land, (2) to minimize flood damage to agricultural crops and urban areas, (3) to confine the rivers in their channels, (4) to dispose of surface water from urban areas, and (5) to prevent seawater from penetrating into land areas (Shaw, 1983). Methods used in land drainage include land smoothing, drainage ditches, tile drainage, and drainage wells. Water spreading over a gentle slope can divert some of the extra water from flooding streams, consequently recharging groundwater, rehabilitating rangeland, and enhancing forage and crop production. Frequently, drainage projects may have reduced local flood damages, but have also created drainage and flood problems below the project area. Many flooded river valleys, marshlands, tidewater swamps, and bottomlands are natural habitats for waterfowl and other wildlife species, and spawning and nursery areas for economically important aquatic life. These wetlands in a watershed also attenuate flood peaks and storm flows by temporarily storing surface flows (Carter et. al., 1978; Novitzki, 1978). Not only are the natural

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habitats and aquatic life lost if these wetlands are drained, but also the flood volumes and frequency are increased. b. Flood forecasting. Flood forecasts are a modern technology for predicting the occurrence of flood in advance so that flood damage can be mitigated to a minimum level. The forecasts usually cover flood regions, the height of flood crest, the date and time when the river is expected to overflow its banks, and the date and time when the flow in the river is expected to recede within its banks. It gives time for authorities to remove people, livestock, and movable goods from the floodplain, to make reinforcements of bridges, levees, and other flood-control structures, and to prepare food, water, and medicine for emergency purposes. Reservoir operation for flood control and water supply is more efficient if reliable river forecasts are available. River-flood forecasts for the U.S. are prepared by 13 National Weather Service (NWS) river-forecast centers and disseminated by 218 NWS weather-forecast offices to the public for appropriate preparations. However, the NWS cannot prepare flood forecasts alone. A great deal of support and coordination from agencies at federal, state, local, and private levels is required for data collection, storage, and release. These agencies include the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE), the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), the U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), state water resources departments, and many others. The USGS is a major cooperator in the nation’s flood-warning system. Chartered in 1879 by Congress, the USGS operates and maintains a cooperative program with other federal, state, and local agencies on 7292 stream-gauging stations or more than 85% of the total throughout the nation. These continuous streamflow records and the stage–discharge relationship at each gauging station are used by the NWS for river-flood forecasting. Besides the USGS streamflow data, the NWS also needs data on precipitation, temperature, snowpack, sunshine duration, soils, vegetation, and topography collected from its own weather-observation networks or provided by agencies such as the U.S. Forest Service, COE, USBR, and NRCS. These data are applied to specially calibrated riverrunoff models to predict the discharges and stages at about 4000 points along the nation’s major rivers. Procedures for an effective flash-flood warning system include: (1) accurate determination of regions in which a severe storm is developing, (2) observation, collection, and assimilation of hydrologic data, and (3) the prediction of runoff volumes and peakflow by means of developed rainfall-runoff models. If the expected storm event is big enough to produce serious flooding in a given region, a special weather statement, such as river (flash) flood warning or watch, is issued to state and local agencies and to the general public through the news media. c. Floodplain zoning. Zoning, administered by a zoning commission or planning board and enforced by the courts, was originally designed to classify or protect a community’s land-use pattern. Typically, a community is divided into zones of agriculture, industry, business, multifamily residences, and single-family residences, and the uses of land within the community will follow the zoning ordinances. Someone who desires to put a piece of land into a nonconforming use may apply to the zoning commission, and the application is considered, with public input, on a case-by-case basis. Zoning now is used as a tool for environmental improvement and for protection of the public from hazards. Wetlands such as swamps, bogs, marshes, ponds, and creeks, forested areas, and rugged landscapes may be classified as protected natural areas and hence not open to development. An area zoned floodplain (Figure 6.6) may be banned for certain land uses or certain building codes imposed for the flood protection. Local, state,

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Figure 6.6

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

A 100-year floodplain.

and federal governments bear many of the costs of flood damage incurred in a classified floodplain area, such as rescue, cleanup, building restoration, and construction of floodcontrol measures. A desirable and low-cost insurance is available to participating communities under the National Flood Insurance Program of 1968, provided that the residents have taken active measures to prevent further development in the floodplain. Part of the insurance is paid for by the federal government, and is used to entice local communities to adopt the idea of floodplain zoning. On May 24, 1977, President Jimmy Carter issued Executive Order #11988 for floodplain management (CEQ, 1978). It recognizes the natural and beneficial values of floodplains to our citizens, and seeks to avoid possible long- and short-term adverse impacts associated with the occupancy and modification of floodplains and to avoid direct or indirect support of floodplain development wherever there is a practicable alternative. The executive order directs every federal agency to provide leadership and take action to reduce the risk of flood loss and to restore and preserve the special values served by floodplains. d. Flood insurance. The development of economically and aesthetically attractive floodplains makes all properties in those areas subject to periodic flood damages. Flood insurance is an overall community program of corrective measures for restoration of such damages. However, because of the high-risk potential and frequent ignorance of construction techniques that reduce flood damages to new or remodeled buildings, flood insurance is available only through federal programs. The National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 (PL90–448) established the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) under the administration of the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA) and the Mitigation Directorate (MD) within the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The program enables property owners in participating communities to buy flood insurance at reasonable rates. To participate, a community must (1) make efforts to reduce flood losses through more comprehensive floodplain management and (2) require new buildings to be elevated or floodproofed up to or above the 100-year flood level. Floodplain management may include zoning, building codes, subdivision development, and special-purpose floodplain ordinances (FEMA, 1997). The NFIP was broadened and modified with the passage of the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973 and the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994. The program

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enables property owners in participating communities to buy flood insurance at reasonable rates. Commercial insurance companies can sell and service flood insurance in their names under the FIA’s Write Your Own (WYO) program. WYO was intended to increase the geographic distribution of the NFIP policies and to improve service to the policyholders. As of October, 1996, about 90% of insurance companies had signed arrangements with FIA under the WYO program. Federal flood insurance coverage is available to all owners of insurable property in a community participating in the NFIP. The insurable property refers to a building and its contents that are principally above ground and not entirely over water. Buildings entirely over water or principally below ground, animals, crops, and all objects in the open are not insurable. Flood insurance under the NFIP is not available within communities that do not participate in the NFIP. A participating community that does not enforce its floodplain management ordinances can be placed on probation or suspended from the program. The probation may last up to 1 year, and an additional $50 charge is added to the premium for each policy for at least 1 year after the probation period begins. e. Disaster aids. The federal government also provides assistance programs that compensate disaster victims for economic damages suffered from flooding. FEMA coordinates most of the direct assistance to nonagricultural losses while the USDA provides direct compensation for damages to crops. Both programs are available only in counties where the President has declared a disaster. FEMA administers the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program for compensation of damages to local governments and the Individual and Family Assistance Program for direct aid in temporary housing, counseling, and property loss to flood victims. FEMA distributed over $5 billion in direct assistance to presidentially declared disaster areas between 1965 and 1989 and $27.6 billion between 1989 and 1993. The USDA provides two programs to compensate for crop damages: the Federal Crop Insurance Program and Agricultural Disaster Assistance. The Federal Crop Insurance Program is implemented through designated insurance companies and covers 51 crops including wheat, cotton, sorghum, barley, corn, and rice. Farmers pay premiums up front and get compensation when crop losses are incurred. The Agricultural Disaster Assistance program is a noninsured assistance program that applies only to presidentially declared disaster areas. If qualified, each individual can get assistance up to 60% of total losses or $50,000. The declaration of a disaster starts at the county level. A county committee gathers data on weather, crops, and production to support the disaster conditions. The data are then sent to a committee at the state level. The state committee, after reviewing recommendations from local committees, will determine the disaster areas and request a declaration from Washington, D.C. Once an area is declared a disaster by the President, the local government and residents are qualified to apply for assistance from USDA or FEMA.

III. Water quality Due to its solubility and its role as a habitat for aquatic life, all water in nature contains organic matter, inorganic matter, and dissolved gases derived from its environment, from man’s activities, from the atmosphere, or from living organisms. The concentration of these substances and the biological, physical, and chemical effects of these substances are the basic criteria in the determination of water quality. In practice, water is considered polluted if it is not suitable for intended uses such as drinking, recreation, irrigation,

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industry, or aquatic life. The U.S. EPA (1976; 1998) has established national water quality standards for various uses. Water pollution is probably the most common hazard to people in much of the world. About 20% of the world’s population lacks access to safe drinking water, and about 50% lacks adequate sanitation (UNEP, 1999). In the U.S., the EPA indicated that 95% of the 246 hydrologic drainage basins in the U.S. were affected by water pollution in 1977 (CEQ, 1978). Under Section 305(b) of the Clean Water Act, the states assessed water-quality conditions of 17% of total river-miles, 42% of total lake-acres, and 78% of estuarine waters in 1994. The results showed that 64% of river miles, 63% of lake acres, and 63% of estuarine waters assessed were found to fully support uses designated for them (Bucks, 1997). This was a great improvement in the 20-year period. However, about 60% of the impairments in rivers and 50% in lakes came from agriculture. Groundwater is generally assumed safe and pollution free, counting on the filtering effect of Earth on moving water. However, some groundwater aquifers are occasionally contaminated due to intrusion of seawater, sewer leakage, waste discharged to the ground, and other contaminants. Polluted water affects human health and aquatic life, and it compounds the problems of water scarcity. It affects the health of about 120 million people and contributes to the death of about 15 million children under the age of five every year (WMO, 1992).

A.

Water pollutants

All substances that make water unsuitable for intended uses are water pollutants. They can be classified into eight categories.

1.

Sediments

Stream sediments are soil and mineral particles, usually inorganic, but in part organic or composites of the two, released from the land by surface runoff, streamflow, wind, melting glaciers, raindrop impact, animals, gravity, or avalanche. The amount of sediment delivered to waters in the U.S. each year exceeded 4 ¥ 109 t in the 1960s, a quantity greater than the total sewage load by 500 to 700 times (Glymph and Carlson, 1966). Today, it is still the largest single water pollutant in the nation (EPA, 1997). Physically, the presence of sediment can affect water turbidity, light penetration, energy exchange, taste, odor, temperature, and abrasiveness. When deposited, it can deplete reservoir capacity, clog stream channels and drainage ditches, alter aquatic habitat, suffocate fish eggs and bottom-dwelling organisms, form alluvium, and increase flooding and flood damages. Also, excessive siltation interferes with drinking-water–treatment processes and recreational use of rivers. Chemically, many plant nutrients, mineral elements, organic chemicals, fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, and radioactive substances can attach to the soil particles to be carried to streams with sediment. These substances are responsible for degradation of water quality, lake eutrophication, and harmful effects on aquatic life and human health. Biologically, aquatic ecosystems can be affected directly by the physical presence of sediment or indirectly by the interaction of sediment with the physical and chemical environment of the stream.

2.

Heat

Excessive heat caused by the summer sun, the reduction of flow volume, the removal of riparian plants, and the discharge of heated water from power plants and other industries can be a serious pollution problem. Higher water temperature causes lower viscosity, greater sediment-falling velocity, increased chemical reaction, reduction in dissolved oxygen, and more evaporation. Biologically, the undesirable blue-green algae and other destructive microorganisms can be reproduced or introduced in warm water due to their

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tolerance of higher temperature. Not only are blue-green algae undesirable as aquatic animal food, they also give off toxic substances and cause a series of problems in water quality. A change in water temperature by a few degrees can adversely affect the survival, migration, spawning, and reproduction of fish.

3.

Oxygen-demanding wastes

Oxygen-demanding wastes include domestic sewage, animal manure, and some industrial wastes of largely carbonaceous organic material that can be decomposed by microorgan– – – isms to carbon dioxide, water, some basic ions (such as NO 3 , PO 4 , SO 4 ), and energy. The decomposition of organic material in water is carried out by bacteria at the expense of dissolved oxygen. Since the maximum level of dissolved oxygen in water is about 15 mg/liter the activity of bacteria can deplete oxygen concentration. This can cause detrimental effects to other aquatic organisms if sufficient organic matter and other conditions are favorable for multiple expansion and bacteria activity. Large amounts of sewage or other oxygen-demanding wastes from industry or agriculture can deplete the dissolved oxygen level in the water to septic conditions. A common parameter to describe the oxygen demand of waste is the 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). It measures the rate at which oxygen is used rather than the level of oxygen in the water or in certain specific pollutants. A very low value of BOD implies either that the water is clean or that the bacteria are inactive. In either case, the dissolved oxygen level is usually high.

4.

Plant nutrients

Frequently, plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are added to reservoirs by dissolving in runoff water or attaching to eroding soil particles. Nutrients may come from (1) soil and water erosion, (2) agricultural fertilizers, (3) domestic sewage, (4) livestock wastes, (5) decomposition of plant residuals, and (6) phosphate detergents. They stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, which in turn interfere with water use, produce disgusting odors when they decay, and add BOD to the water. Waters excessively enriched with nutrients are referred to as eutrophic. They have high plant populations and appear turbid and greenish in color. As a result, algae and aquatic weeds bloom excessively, destroy aesthetic qualities, and interfere with fishing, sports, navigation, irrigation, and the generation of hydroelectric power.

5.

Disease-causing agents

Waste discharges from cities, slaughtering plants, animal feedlots, or ships can carry bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms capable of producing disease in man and animals. These microorganisms are responsible for such diseases as cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, polio, and infectious hepatitis. However, waters contain numerous kinds of pathogenic bacteria, and identification of each one is both time consuming and expensive for routine pollution tests. Coliform bacteria are relatively harmless microorganisms that live in the gut of animals and are discharged with feces in sewage-contaminated waters. Their existence and density are reliable indicators of the adequacy of treatment for the reduction of pathogens in water. Thus, the most probable number of coliform bacteria in water samples becomes a standard parameter for the determination of pathogenic pollution. A high count of coliform indicates the probability of the presence of a high number of disease-causing microorganisms in the water. The maximum for drinking water is 1 per 100 ml, and 200 per 100 ml for swimming.

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6.

Inorganic chemicals and minerals

Many acids, salts, heavy metals, and toxic pollutants from industrial and municipal discharges affect water quality adversely in more than 70% of the large river basins in the U.S. (CEQ, 1978). Acid mine drainage (AMD) arises from strip-mining and undergroundmining areas when iron pyrites (FeS2) are oxidized into ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH)3] and sulfuric acid (H2S04) through water, air, and bacteria. AMD affects a total length of more than 17,600 km of U.S. streams (ReVelle and ReVelle, 1984). It is characterized by highly acidic water and stream bottoms coated with ferric hydroxide (yellow color), creating an environment toxic to aquatic life. Mercury, cadmium, arsenic, zinc, and lead are some examples of other inorganic chemicals contaminating rivers and water supplies, toxic to aquatic species and human health. Chlorine has been applied to destroy disease-causing bacteria in drinking water, but it can combine with organic compounds in the water to form chlororganic compounds such as chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and trihalomethanes (THMS). These chemicals have been found to cause cancer in rats and mice, and may have some effects in people (Owen, 1985). Many different pollutants are present in the stream environment. The presence of certain particulate matter can increase the toxicity of other pollutants, a function usually referred to as potentiation. In other cases the combined effects of two or more pollutants are more severe or different in quality from each individually, a phenomenon called synergism. It is called antagonism if the combined effects of two pollutants are less severe than each individual. All these make the effects of water pollution extremely difficult to study.

7.

Synthetic organic chemicals

Detergents, plastics, oil, pesticides, septic-tank cleaners, phenols, DDT, and many other organic compounds are products of modern industrial technology. Some of these chemicals are slowly degradable pollutants, while the others are nondegradable. The slowly degradable chemicals remain in the water for a long period of time but are eventually broken down to harmless levels by natural processes. Nondegradable pollutants, such as plastics, cannot be broken down in nature and must be controlled either by removing them through mechanical treatment or by preventing them from entering the environment. Synthetic organic chemicals can disrupt aquatic ecosystems, damage the economic, recreational, and aesthetic value of lakes and rivers, impair the taste and odor of water, enhance growth of algae and aquatic weeds, and poison fish, shellfish, predatory birds, and mammals. They can be toxic to humans, induce birth and genetic defects, or cause cancer. Since many new compounds can be introduced each year without testing of their environmental effects, it is possible that they will have caused chronic damage to human health and to aquatic life long before scientists realize their effects.

8.

Radioactive substances

Radioactive substances can come from radioactive rocks and soils, from uranium mining and processing, from nuclear power plants, from nuclear weapon tests, or from leakage of radioactive instruments and laboratories. They can cause chronic effects to human health such as cancer and genetic defects.

B.

Sources of water pollution

For management purposes, surface water pollution is generally identified as point sources or nonpoint sources. If wastes and pollutants are discharged from identifiable locations, they are point sources of water pollution. Point sources can come from municipal sewage,

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industrial plants, animal feedlots, combined storm runoff and sewer lines, offshore oilwell or tanker accidents, and power plants. Thus, point-source pollution is generally created by man’s activities and is discharged into receiving water through “discernible, confined, and discrete conveyances including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or other floating craft,” as defined by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL 92–500). When discharges from a point source exceed effluent limitations, the discharges must be treated, treatments must be upgraded, or the discharges terminated. If pollutants come from the land surface, their sources are difficult to identify, their routes are intermittent and diffused, and their occurrences are associated with storms and surface runoff, then they are nonpoint sources of water pollution. They include: Sediment from natural ground surfaces, forest activities, agricultural production, construction, mining, grazing Chemicals from applications of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, saline water irrigation Urban storm runoff Acids and minerals drained from mines Acid deposition Untraceable oils and other hazardous materials Generally, nonpoint sources of water pollution cannot be corrected using technology and treatments similar to those employed for point sources of water pollution. Instead, “best management practices (BMPs)“ to land and vegetation are adopted to all of man’s activities and to all areas that have potential to generate water pollution. The term BMP is a vague and localized approach, depending on soil, topography, vegetation, and climates of the area. Using mulches alone to reduce soil erosion may be a good BMP in location A, but might not be effective enough in location B. Ground water can be contaminated with organic chemicals through a number of point and nonpoint sources. They include waste lagoons; groundwater recharge activities; leaks from sewers, septic tanks, or gasoline-storage tanks; injection wells of waste disposal and oil fields; drainage from landfill and mining operations; seawater intrusion; chemicals applied to soils; and pumping wells.

C.

Water quality control

Controlling water quality is a tedious and complicated process. It involves scientific research, technological development, resources management, economic analysis, political movements, law enforcement, public participation, and education. An effective water-quality program requires technical and financial assistance from governments, cooperation and support from industries and farmers, and awareness and participation from the public. In dealing with water-quality problems, one should keep in mind that prevention is cheaper than reclamation and that the nation’s pollutants from nonpoint sources are much greater than those from point sources. Thus, protection and prevention of streams with good water quality from deterioration should be the first consideration. Proper and improving land management is an important element in the nation’s water-quality programs. Control of water-quality programs includes the following tasks.

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1.

Monitoring and research

The environmental effects of pollutants and their tolerance levels for various uses need to be studied. The basic knowledge for each pollutant in the aquatic environment such as its biological magnification; the residence time in soil, air, water, plants, animals, and people; any synergistic interaction with other pollutants; and any adverse effects on ecosystems, aquatic life, physical environment, and human health all need to be fully understood. The tolerance level of each pollutant needs to be determined and waterquality standards for various uses need to be established. Monitoring is basic to research and management. Water-quality levels and sources of pollutants need to be continuously monitored at local, regional, national, and global levels. Pollution sources need to be identified. The long-term water-quality conditions from undisturbed forested areas can serve as an important basis for aquatic water-quality standards for the region. In addition to these chemical and physical measurements, ecological and biological changes in our ecosystems need to be measured. The ecological measurements should be evaluated with respect to short- and long-range effects of water pollution.

2.

Public education

Awareness on the part of the general public of water-pollution problems is an important element of water-pollution–control programs. It can be accomplished through public schools, TV programs, workshops, and town meetings.

3.

Prevention and treatment

Nonpoint sources of water pollution can be greatly reduced by preventing pollutants, mainly sediment and nutrients, from running off to creeks by application of the “best management practices.” Point sources of water pollution, such as industries and cities, can be prevented first by use of “best practical technology” and later by improved “best available technology.” Land management practices such as mulching, terracing, contour cropping, strip cropping, and planting cover crops greatly increase soil infiltration, reduce overland runoff, and consequently cut down sediment delivered to the streams. Traditionally, the effluent from paper and pulp plants impairs the water quality of streams, but a new technique using a dry-barking process removes bark from poplar and aspen trees without water, and consequently there is no discharge of pollutants to streams (Owen, 1985). Many industries have developed effective technology either to reduce the amount of discharged wastes or to convert their wastes into commercially valuable by-products. Polluted water can undergo various levels of purification and treatment, depending on the sophistication of the plant and the degree of purity desired. Treatment of liquid wastes may involve mechanical (primary), biological (secondary), and specialized chemical and physical (tertiary) processes. Disinfection is also carried out in final stages of sewage treatment to remove water coloration and to kill bacteria and viruses.

4.

Management

Standards for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of sewer systems and treatment plants need to be established. State and federal governments may need to provide financial assistance to municipalities in water-pollution–abatement programs. It is also important to develop different water-quality standards for various uses. Institutional activities of water-pollution control among governments at different levels and between countries need to be coordinated properly. National water-pollution policies need to be established as guidelines for controlling various programs.

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Legislation and enforcement

Policies and regulations on water quality need to be established legislatively at the federal, state, and local levels. Legislatures provide authorities, standards, finance, guidelines, responsibilities, and assessment for control and management programs on water quality. Industries and individuals are fined or penalized if they do not comply with environmental laws and regulations. Severe violations of such laws can cost them their operating licenses, and companies may even be shut down through legal action.

D. Water-quality laws and regulations Two laws are of paramount importance in control of water quality conditions in the U.S. One is the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899, and the other is the Clean Water Act of 1977. The 1899 Act flatly prohibits discharging refuse matter of any kind from a ship or shore installation into navigable waters in the U.S. Depositing material of any kind in any place on the bank of any navigable waters that can be washed off into the waters is also prohibited. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was authorized to require permits before anything can be dumped, deposited, or constructed in any navigable U.S. waterway. The Clean Water Act (CWA), formally known as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL 92–500) and originally enacted in 1948 (PL 80–845), is the principal law governing pollution in the nation’s streams, lakes, and estuaries. It set an ambitious interim goal of making all U.S. waters safe for fish, shellfish, wildlife, and people by 1983 and a national goal of eliminating all discharges into U.S. waters by 1985. The EPA, the federal agency charged with the programmatic responsibilities for the nation’s environmental quality, was required by PL92–500 to establish a system of national effluent standards. Each state was required to establish regulations for nonpoint sources of water pollution (Section 208). The Army Corps of Engineers was authorized to regulate the discharge of dredged and fill material into navigable waters (Section 404). Both point and nonpoint sources were considered a threat to the nation’s water-quality conditions and were controlled simultaneously. Congress made certain important amendments in 1977 (PL 95–217), 1981 (PL 97–117), and 1987 (PL 100–4). A new section (319) entitled “Nonpoint Source Management Programs” to improve Section 208 “Nonpoint Source Planning Process” was added to the 1987 law. In addition to the existing industrial and municipal stormwater-discharge programs known as the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), it also established a program for controlling toxic-pollutant discharges. Overall, the law is a comprehensive and complex water-quality–management law; it establishes water-quality policies, regulations, permits, requirements, and deadlines on water-quality standards, quality assessments, reduction of discharges from point and nonpoint sources, waterquality certification, enforcement, financial assistance, and nationwide corporations. Five primary provisions of the law have impacts on forestry and other related naturalresources activities. They are Sections 208 (nonpoint pollution planning), 303 (total maximum daily load, TMDL), 304 (water quality standards), 319 (water pollution assessment and management programs), and 404 (wetlands and dredging activities). Traditionally, nonpoint sources of water pollution are managed through the two nonregulatory Sections 208 and 319. Recent developments show that the TMDL process is becoming a powerful tool to control point and nonpoint sources of activities (Dubensky and Ice, 1997).

IV. Water rights Increasing competition and conflicting interests in water make water rights a legal, and sometimes a political, problem in water resources. The problem is triggered by the facts

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that (1) water is necessary for survival and development, (2) there is not always enough water of the right quality in the right place at the right time, and (3) water in a river is often shared by many countries and by users of different withdrawal intensities. For example, the same stream may be needed by farmers in upper reaches, by manufacturers or recreationalists in middle reaches, by city planners downstream, and by fishermen in the bay estuaries. An absence of clearly defined water rights and rules of liability can cause hateful actions among individuals and communities or between nations. The fact that water is a moving, returnable, and critical resource with various tangible and intangible values makes water allocation necessarily different from the traditional concepts of private ownership. Absolute ownership may not be appropriate. All allocations among uses and users should be considered in terms of survivability, productivity, environmental integrity, and fairness. Generally, waters on Earth can be grouped into five distinct categories in accordance with their geographical locations: atmospheric, ocean, diffused, surface, and groundwater. No legal rights have yet been established with respect to uses of clouds for artificial rain. It might become a problem, however, as cloud-seeding techniques advance to greater effectiveness. Ocean water is generally regarded as a universal commodity. It can be used in navigation, fishing, recreation, and other purposes subject to national and international laws. The diffused, surface, and groundwater rights are of great concern to watershed management.

A.

Diffused water

Water on the ground surface not in connection with a stream channel is considered diffused water. Diffused waters include bogs, fallen rain, fallen snow, springs, seepage, water detached from subsiding floods not forming a part of a water course or lake, and any water that has not yet reached a recognized water course, lake, or pond. Thus, springs that run directly into a stream are not considered diffused water. Diffused water is generally regarded as the property of the landowner. It allows landowners an absolute right to any use of diffused waters on their lands, including damming, storing, selling, or even preventing it from flowing to adjoining lands. The unlimited right to capture diffused water may affect downstream water flow and groundwater level, especially in arid and semiarid regions. Because virtually no states attempt to regulate landowner uses of diffused water, no legal action can be taken to stop this capture.

B.

Surface water

A body of water flowing in a well-defined channel or watercourse is regarded as surface water. It is the water that is found in lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks, streams, and springs. Water contained in a surface depression as a result of rainfall or snowmelt is generally not considered surface water. Allocations for surface water are generally guided by three doctrines of water law: riparian, prior appropriation (or Colorado), and hybrid (or California). 1. Riparian rights. Lands bordering a watercourse give the landowners special rights to make use of water in the channel, provided such use is reasonable relative to all other users. These rights include domestic and household uses, and water for livestock, navigation, power generation, fishing, recreation, and other purposes. Generally the landowner has no right to use water if his land does not adjoin a stream course. If there is insufficient water to satisfy all reasonable riparian needs, then uses of water must be

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reduced in proportion to the land size. The doctrine of riparian right is applied mainly in the eastern half of the U.S. 2 Prior appropriation. The riparian-rights doctrine is inadequate in the arid West, where water is generally scarce and less dependable than in the humid East. Under the prior-appropriation doctrine, both riparian and nonriparian owners have specific rights to divert water from streams or other bodies of water as long as their use does not conflict with prior claims. The theme of water rights is first-come, first-served with priority determined by a recording system similar to that used for land transactions. Thus, water rights depend on usage, not land ownership. Prior appropriation gives an exclusive right to the first appropriator. The rights of later ones are conditioned by the prior rights of those who have proceeded. However all rights are conditioned upon beneficial use as a protection to later appropriators against the wasteful use by those with earlier rights. The appropriation rules are exercised in nine Western states: Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming. 3 Hybrid doctrine. Ten other states — California, Kansas, Mississippi, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, and Washington—adopt a portion of the riparian and the prior-appropriation doctrines. In general, this modified doctrine restricts the rights of the riparian owner while recognizing appropriation rights to reasonable amounts of water used for beneficial purposes. The limitations of riparian rights include: (1) reasonable use and (2) elimination of unused riparian rights by statute. Thus, a riparian cannot prevent an appropriation to a nonriparian unless interference with the riparian’s reasonable use of water can be proven. 4. Reserved-rights doctrine. The U.S. is entitled to claim water rights for instream flows on federal lands or in Indian reservations. In March, 1891, Congress passed the Forest Reserve Act (or Creative Act) allowing the President of the U.S. to set aside forest reserves, whether of commercial value or not, to be inaccessible to the public for any purpose. The forest reserves were further specified under the Organic Act of 1897 to provide a continuous supply of timber and secure favorable conditions of water flow. In the 1963 Arizona vs. California case, the court ruled that a sufficient reserve of water is accompanied with the U.S. lands when they were reserved for a particular purpose (Gordon, 1995). Under this doctrine, lands such as national forests, national parks, national wildlife refuges, and the wild and scenic rivers that are reserved from the public domain for a particular purpose may be claimed for water rights to carry out that purpose (Lamb and Doerksen, 1990). Thus, reserved water rights on federal lands do not exist by statute. They are required to be identified and quantified by court procedures. In another case, the Colorado Supreme Court concluded in 1987 that the federal government could claim water rights based on the Organic Act, and that each claim must be properly examined or determined for its: (1) documents reserving the land from the public domain and the Organic Act, (2) precise purposes, (3) importance of water for such purposes, and (4) precise quantity of water required. On the basis of the Organic Act, the Department of Justice, representing the Forest Service and acting on behalf of the U.S., filed claims for federal reserved water rights in 1976 to keep certain amounts of water for the Arapahoe, Pike, Roosevelt, and San Isabel National Forests within Water Division 1 in Colorado to protect stream channels and timber. These claimed water rights were for three purposes: (1) fire fighting, unlimited amount, (2) administrative sites, not more than 10 acre-ft (12,335 m3)per site per year and not more than one site per 100,000 acres (40, 470 ha) of national forest, and (3) instream flows for channel maintenance, 50% of average annual runoff.

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However, these claims were challenged by the State of Colorado and Water Conservancy districts in northern Colorado that divert water from national forests. The opposition claimed that the U.S. did not need water rights because it had other mechanisms for controlling diversions such as special-use permit, and that such claims of water rights would injure other water users, especially during the critical spring runoff period. The case went to trial in 1990 in District Court, Water Division 1, of the State of Colorado. Closing arguments were made in March 1992 and the court decision and order were on February 12, 1993. The judge recognized the reserved water rights of the U.S., but the applicant (U.S.) failed to show that the claims were necessary to preserve the timber or to secure favorable water flows, and failed to establish the minimum quantity needed to ensure that purpose. Thus, the court granted water rights for fire-fighting and administrative sites to the U.S. and suggested the Forest Service use its special-use permitting authority to control water diversion in lieu of obtaining water rights on instream flows (Gordon, 1995).

C.

Groundwater

Either flowing water in an underground channel (aquifer) or diffused percolating water is considered groundwater. Allocating rights and obligations in groundwater among the states is based either on the concept of property ownership or on the notion of a shared public resource, or both (Getches, 1984). Thus, a state may (1) recognize the ownership of groundwater by the overlying landowner, (2) limit the use of groundwater at a reasonable level, (3) provide a special protection for prior users, or (4) manage groundwater resources as public property with rights created under a permit program. Groundwater is a part of the hydrological system. Any pumping activities at one site would affect the water table and water yield in nearby locations. Thus, absolute ownership and uncontrolled use of groundwater is no longer feasible. Many states adopted the concepts of reasonable use and correlative rights to protect all landowners against the inadvertent activities of a few others.

References Anderson, H.W., Hoover, M.D., and Reinhart, K.G., 1976, Forest and Water: Effects of Forest Management on Floods, Sedimentation, and Water Supply, General Tech. Rep. PSW-18, U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Baumgarter, A., and Reichel, E., 1975, The World Water Balance, Mean Annual Global, Continental and Maritime Precipitation, Evaporation, and Runoff, R. Oldenbourg, Munich. Borrell, J., 1986, A plan to make the desert gush, Time, September 29, 1986. Bucks, D.A., 1997, Competition for water use — an agricultural perspective, Environ. Prof., 19, 33–34. California Department of Water Resources, 1973, The California Water Plan, Sacramento, CA. Carter, V. et al., 1978, Water resources and wetlands, in Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Understanding, Am. Water Resour. Assoc, pp. 344–375. CEQ, 1978, Environmental Quality, The 9th Annual Rep., Council on Environmental Quality, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Chang, M. and Watters, S.P., 1984, Forests and other factors associated with streamflows in east Texas, Water Resour. Bull., 20, 713–720. Clark, C.,1982, Flood, Time-Life Books, Alexandria, VA. Clean Water Act, 1977, 33 USC (United States Code) 1251, H.R. 3199. Dregne, H.E., 1983, Desertification of Arid Lands, Hardwood Academic Publishers, New York. Dubensky, M. and Ice, G., 1997, Common issues and challenges in Clean Water Act programs — natural resource policy and research perspectives, Environ. Prof., 19, 58–61. EPA, 1976, Quality Criteria for Water, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

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EPA, 1997, Monitoring Guidance For Determining the Effectiveness of Nonpoint Source Controls, EPA 841-B-96–004, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA, 1998, Current Drinking Water Standards, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, www. epa.gov/OGWDW/wot/appa.html. Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments, 1972, 33 USC (United States Code), 1151, 70 stat. 498, 84 stat 91, S.2770. FEMA, 1997, Answers to Questions about the National Flood Insurance Program, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C. Getches, D.H., 1984, Water Law, West Publishing, St. Paul, MN. Gleick, P.H., 1998, The World’s Water, Island Press, Washington, D.C. Gleick, P.H., 2000, The World’s Water, 2000–2001, Island Press, Washington, D.C. Glymph, L.M. and Carlson, C.M., 1966, Cleaning up Our Rivers and Lakes, Am. Soc. Agr. Eng., Paper No. pp. 66–74, St. Joseph, MI. Goodman, J., 1985, The collection of fog drip, Water Resour. Res., 21, 392–394. Gordon, N., 1995, Summary of Technical Testimony in the Colorado Water Division 1 Trial, General Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-270, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. Harr, R.D., 1982, Fog drip in the Bull Run municipal Watershed, Oregon., Water Resour. Bull., 18, 785–789. Husseiny, A.A., Ed., 1978, Iceberg Utilization, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY. Ingwersen, J.B., 1985, Fog drip, water yield, and timber harvesting in the Bull Run municipal watershed, Oregon, Water Resour. Bull., 21, 469–473. Jordaan, J. et al., 1993, Water in our common future, a research agenda for sustainable development of water resources, UNESCO International Hydrological Programme, Paris. Lamb, B.L. and Doerksen, H.R., 1990. Stream water use in the United States — water laws and methods for determining flow requirements, in National Water Summary 1987 — Hydrologic Events and Water Supply and Use, Water Supply Paper 2350, U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 109–116. Maddox, R.A. and Chappel, C.F., 1979, Flash flood defenses, Water Spectrum, 11, 1–8. Mather, J.R., 1984, Water Resources: Distribution, Use, and Management, John Wiley & Sons, New York. MIT, 1971, Inadvertent Climate Modification, Rep. of the Study of Man’s Impact on Climate (SMIC), Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Murray, C.R., 1968, Estimated use of water in the United States, 1965, U. S. Geological Survey Circular 556, Washington, D.C. National Water Commission, 1973, Water Polices for the Future, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Novitzki, R.P., 1978, Hydrologic characteristics of Wisconsin’s wetlands and their influences on floods, streamflow, and sediment, in Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Understanding, Am. Water Resour. Assoc., pp. 377–88. Ooura, H., 1952, The capture of fog particles by the forest, J. Meteo. Res., Suppl., pp. 239–259. Owen, O.S., 1985, Natural Resources Conservation, 4th ed., MacMillan, New York. ReVelle, P. and ReVelle, C., 1984, The Environment, Issues and Choices for Society, Willard Grant Press, Boston. Rivers and Harbors Act, 1899, 33 USC (United States Code) 401–413. Robinson, D.F., Ed., 1988, Living on the Earth, National Geographical Society, Washington, D.C. Sharpe, W.E., 2001, personal communication, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. Shaw, E.M., 1983, Hydrology in Practice, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Skillings, T.E., 1999, Water reuse: the wave of the future, in Watershed Management to Protect Declining Species, Proc., AWRA, December 1999, pp. 481–484. Solley, W.B., Pierce, R.R., and Perlman, H.A., 1998, Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1995, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1200, Washington, D.C. Stulp, J.R., 1995, Social, political, and educational factors involved in facilitating municipal waste utilization, in Agriculture Utilization of Urban and Industrial By-Products, Karlen, D.L., et al, Eds., Am. Soc. Agron. Spec. Publ. No. 58, pp. 1–10. Texas Water Development Board, 1994, “Forty-nine water saving tips,” Austin, TX.

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Texas Water Development Board, 1968, The Texas Water Plan, Austin, TX. UNEP, 1999, Global Environment Outlook — 2000, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya. UNESCO, 1993, Water for the Common Future, International Hydro. Prog., Committee on Water Res., Paris. United Nations Environment Programme, 1983, Rain and Stormwater Harvesting in Rural Areas, Tycooly International, Dublin, Ireland. U.S. Forest Service, 1989, RPA Assessment of the Forest and Rangeland Situation in the United States, 1989, USDA Forest Service Forest Resource Rep. No. 26, Washington, D.C. U.S. Water News, 1994, Chilean fog collection system furnishes daily baths, U.S. Water News, 11, 2 U.S. Water Resources Council, 1968, The Nation’s Water Resources, Part 1, First National Water Assessment, Washington, D.C. U.S. Water Resources Council, 1978, The Nation’s Water Resources 1975–2000, Vol. 1: Summary; Second National Water Assessment, Washington, D.C. U.S. Weather Bureau, 1959, Evaporation Maps for the United States, Tech. Paper No. 37, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. WMO, 1992, International Conference on Water and the Environment: Development Issues for the 21st Century, 26–31 Jan 1992, Dublin, Ireland. WMO/UNESCO, 1991, Water Resources Assessment, WMO/UNESCO report on Progress in the implementation of the Mar del Plata action and a strategy for the 1990s. Wollman, N. and Bonem, G.E., 1971, The Outlook for Water Quality, Quantity and National Growth, Johns Hopkins Press University, Baltimore. World Resources Institute, the United Nations Environment Programme, the United Nations Development Programme, and the World Bank, 1996, World Resources, 1996–97, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Young, C.E., Kinsley, K.R., and Sharpe, W.E., 1983, Impact on residential water consumption of an increasing rate structure, Water Resour. Bull., 19, 81–86. Young, E.S. and Sharpe, W.E., 1989, Rainwater Cisterns — Design, Construction, and Water Treatment, College of Agriculture, Special Circular 277, Penn State University, University Park, PA.

chapter seven

Characteristic forests Contents I. A natural resource...........................................................................................................110 A. Characteristics .........................................................................................................110 B. Forest trees ............................................................................................................... 111 1. Canopies ............................................................................................................. 111 2. Root systems......................................................................................................113 3. Stems ...................................................................................................................114 C. Forest distribution ..................................................................................................115 1. Horizontal distribution ....................................................................................116 a. Tropical forests ............................................................................................116 b. Temperate forests ........................................................................................116 c. Boreal Forests...............................................................................................117 2. Vertical distribution ..........................................................................................117 3. Forest areas ........................................................................................................118 II. Environmental functions................................................................................................119 A. Hydrological ............................................................................................................120 B. Climatological..........................................................................................................120 C. Mechanical ...............................................................................................................121 D. Biological ..................................................................................................................122 E. Societal......................................................................................................................123 III. Functional forests ............................................................................................................123 A. Production forests ...................................................................................................123 B. Protection forests.....................................................................................................124 C. Preservation forests ................................................................................................125 D. Public forests ...........................................................................................................126 IV. Threats to forests .............................................................................................................126 A. Deforestation and grazing.....................................................................................126 B. Forest fires................................................................................................................127 C. Air pollution ............................................................................................................127 References .....................................................................................................................................128

Forests have appeared on Earth for 350 million years and reached a peak about 270 million to 220 million years ago during the Carboniferous period (Burch et al., 1976). Today, forests cover about one third of the Earth’s land surface. They are the most distinguished type of vegetation community and provide many resources and environmental functions that 109

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far exceed those of other vegetation covers. Accordingly, forests have always played a vital role in the survival, development, and growth of human society since prehistoric times. Maintaining healthy forests helps improve environmental quality.

I.

A natural resource

A forest is a community of somewhat dense growth of vegetation, dominated by trees and other woody plants, that supports an array of microbes and wildlife and occupies an area large enough to have a distinguished microclimate. Thus, forests are composed not only of many large trees but also of smaller plants with multiple canopy levels, and are home to many animals and other living organisms. They include land, streams, and climate in a shared and dynamic ecological system. Each forest is uniquely different from others because of differences in species composition, age, soils, wildlife, and microclimatic conditions. There are no clear boundaries on how small an area can be called a “forest.” An area of plant community, which is not large enough or dense enough to create an environment and microclimate significantly different from the surrounding areas, probably should be considered woodland rather than a forest. If the trees in a stand are artificially regenerated and professionally cultivated for economic gains, they are called a plantation. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations terms forest all lands with trees of 7 m or taller and a minimum crown cover of 10% in developing countries or 20% in developed regions.

A.

Characteristics

Being a natural resource, forests possess a few important characteristics. First, natural resources are generally divided into either renewable or nonrenewable, depending on whether or not their uses can be carried on indefinitely. A nonrenewable resource, like coal and minerals, will be depleted in time if used continuously. If used properly, forests act like a renewable resource, such as water and solar energy, which cannot be exhausted. However, some types of use can destroy the original forest environment and exhaust the forest and its associated resources. In this case, forests behave like a nonrenewable resource. For example, many nutrients in tropical rain forests are stored in the biomass above the ground and recycled directly between litter and plants. There, soils are fully weathered, rich in iron and aluminum oxides; most nutrients are retained in the organic layers. The high productivity in tropical forests is due to high temperature, long growing season, and rapid recycling of the nutrients, not to the nutrient levels in the mineral soils. Thus, forest clearcutting causes rapid decomposition of the organic matter and extensive leaching of nutrients, particularly the common cations K, Ca, and Mg, and the organic phosphate reserves (Medina and Cuevas, 1997). As a result, the clearcut sites may take centuries, or may never be able, to regenerate a forest similar to the original, and loss or even extinction of many plants from the forest occurs. Accordingly, forests are in a position between renewable and nonrenewable natural resources, depending on how well they are treated. They can be classified as “potentially renewable” resources (Mather, 1990), resources that cannot be taken for granted. Abusive use of forest resources has resulted in the degradation of the environment, the conversion of fields into deserts, and the disappearance of civilizations. Second, a forest not only produces wood, fibers, foods, fuels, and medicinal materials; it also provides an environment that affects soil, wildlife, water, and atmosphere. Thus, forest resources should not be referred to as timber resources only. Soil, water, wildlife,

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fish, livestock, and recreation resources are all associated with the forest. Without the forest or if the forest is improperly used, all the associated resources will be degraded, damaged, or destroyed. Third, the forest is considered a “common property” in that any forest activities have on-site as well as off-site effects. In other words, the effects can expand from the activity forest (site-scale) to adjacent areas (local-scale), distance areas (regional-scale), and remote areas (global-scale), depending on the areal coverage and intensity of the activity, weather conditions, and the general circulation of the atmosphere. In Indonesia, the forest fires of summer 1997 covered over 1 million hectares of forests, causing haze and smoke in Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, and the surrounding region for weeks. They released an estimated 220 million to 290 million tons of CO2 to the atmosphere, about half of the U.K.’s annual emissions. Fourth, forest growth and development are exposed to a series of threats from nature and human activities. Such threats can come from wildfires, tornadoes, ice storms, severe drought, prolonged floods, tsunamis, insect infestation, diseases, and air pollution. Many of them come from nature, while others are derived from unbalanced nutrients and foods in the ecosystem or from the results of industrial activity. In most cases, they are beyond the control of forest mangers, a risk and uncertainty that need to be recognized. Finally, resources are referred to as attributes of materials that lead to exchanges and trade-offs, not the materials themselves (Duerr, 1979). In that sense, resources are a manmade concept in that their value depends on how humans need them. Thus, resources are always changing because of culture and lifestyles, and so are forest resources. Traditionally, forests were a resource for lumber. Today, their environmental settings and functions are at least as important as timber production. On fragile lands, steep slopes, or sites critical to environment, however, forests are grown primarily for environmental protection; monetary income is not of primary consideration.

B.

Forest trees

There are 60,000 to 70,000 species of trees belonging to either Gymnospermae (conebearing plants, commonly called softwoods) or Angiospermae (flowering plants, commonly called hardwoods). All of them contain vascular or conducting tissues and are grouped under the seed vascular plants, to be distinguished from seedless vascular plants or nonvascular plants of the plant kingdom. Seed vascular plants are upright, perennial, woody, and photosynthetic, living in a wide variety of terrestrial environments. Morphologically, a tree consists of three components: a root system in the soil, a foliar canopy in the air, and stems in between to connect roots and canopies. The height (depth), size, shape, and biomass of the three components are different among species (Figure 7.1). For example, redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) in northern California can grow to a height over 100 m and a diameter more than 6 m. The life span of some oaks is as long as 1500 years, while bristlecone pines can be over 4500 years old. These three plant components perform many physiological functions required for growth and development as well as environmental functions important to human society. They are summarized in Table 7.1.

1.

Canopies

The canopy is the most distinguished part of a plant. It is composed of leaves, flowers, fruits, buds, and stalks (petiole) supported by small branches and shoots. In the presence of light, leaves convert solar energy into chemical-bond energy (carbohydrates) and release oxygen by using carbon dioxide in the air and water in the plant through the mechanism of chlorophyll, a process called photosynthesis. The process is important biologically

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Figure 7.1 The shape of canopies for a few species in the U.S. (Compiled from the National Audubon Society, Inc., 1992, The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees, Alfred A. Knopf, New York.)

because it manufactures food for plants. Environmentally, it serves as carbon sinks and pools, a major sector affecting the carbon cycle of Earth and global warming. The water required in photosynthesis is obtained from soil through root systems. However, a great deal of water transmitted from roots to canopies is transpired to the air through stomata. A mature forest can transpire as much as 1000 tons of water to produce 1 ton of wood. Some plants, such as willow and saltcedar, because of large canopies or extensive root systems, can transpire many times more water than others.

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Table 7.1 Biological and Environmental Functions of Canopy, Stem, and Root System Component Canopy

.

Biological Functions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Stem

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Roots

Photosynthesis Transpiration Respiration Reproduction Gas exchange Assimilation of foods Food storage Precipitation interception Affecting solar radiation dissipation Fog and cloud condensation Reducing raindrop impact to soil Snow accumulation and snowmelt Transport water and nutrients Support canopies Help store materials Photosynthesis, if green Use for plant regeneration Transpiration Absorb water and nutrients Transport water and nutrients Anchor plant Store materials Use for plant regeneration Respiration Nitrogen fixation, if legumes

Environmental Functions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Carbon sinks and pools Affecting soil moisture and infiltration Intercepting advective energy Shading Aesthetic value Shelters for birds and insects Barriers to wind movement

1. Mechanical barriers to wind and water 2. Tree rings as an index for past hydroclimatic conditions 3. Mechanical support and nutrient provider to vines, mosses, and lichens 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Reinforcement of soils Increase soil permeability Improve soil structure Add soil organic matter when decayed Slow-down overland runoff, such as buttress roots 6. Deplete soil moisture content

Since photosynthesis and transpiration are conducted through leaves, the difference in the quantity of leaves among species is commonly expressed in terms of leaf area index (LAI), or total surface of leaf per unit land area in m2 m-2. Variations in LAI are great among species and within species due to differences in site quality, age, stand composition, density, and season. LAI is about 3.1 for aspens in the central Rocky Mountains (Kaufmann et al., 1982), 5.3 for a 10-year-old stand of eastern white pine (Swank and Schreuder, 1974), 4.2 to 9.6 for tropical regenerating forests near Manaus, Brazilian Amazonia (Honzák et al., 1996), and 10.2 for Norway spruce in Wisconsin (Gower and Son, 1992). For a forest stand with multiple stories, LAI can go much higher than a single species. The LAI is 42 for mature stands of western hemlock and silver fir in the western Oregon Cascades (Gholz et al., 1976), and 40 to 50 for a mature stand with 90% spruce and 10% fir in the central Rocky Mountains (Kaufmann et al., 1982). Many biological processes and environmental functions such as transpiration, canopy interception, light penetration, heat exchange, carbon fluxes, respiration, photosynthesis, and wind movements are highly correlated with LAI.

2.

Root systems

About 10% of the wood mass of a tree is in the form of roots under the ground (Mirov, 1949), and 70% or more of the roots tend to concentrate in the A horizon (Farrish, 1991). A big spreading oak tree can have roots totaling many hundreds of kilometers. Living roots of mesquite, a phreatophyte growing on rangeland in the Southwest, were found

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53.3 m below the original surface of an open-pit mine in Arizona (Phillips, 1963) and commonly spread more than 15 m wide from a single tree. The root mass beneath the root crown of a shrub live oak, the zone occupied by the taproot, reached 99 kg/m3 of soil in Arizona (Davis and Pase, 1977). Those deep and widespread roots are able to use ephemeral surface soil moisture, moisture deep in the soil, and groundwater. In the Harvard Black Rock Forest, New York, the average surface coverage of the root systems was about 4.5 times greater than the ground surface covered by the canopies for 25 mature hardwood trees. A sprout clump of chestnut oak, 17 years old and 10 m in height, had a root system that covered 57 m2 surface area and was about 41 times greater than the ground area covered by its canopies (Stout, 1956). Differences in the depth, surface coverage, and density of root systems are reflections of species and a variety of environmental factors such as soil texture, depth, moisture content, nutrients, groundwater table, and plant competition. Sprouting shrub species tend to have deeper roots than nonsprouting species (Keeley and Keeley, 1998). Root systems are an important factor affecting soil properties, surface hydrology, and slope stability. Large roots can anchor the plant and soil mantle to the substrate, while fine roots, fungal mycelia, and decomposed organic matter can contribute to the formation of stable aggregates for subsurface soils. The improvement of soil granulation may be due to: (1) pressure exerted by growing roots, (2) the dehydration of the soil around root systems, and (3) secretion of substances produced by roots and accompanying bacteria that bind and cement soil aggregates. Roots grow and die every year. The dead roots, root secretions, and fallen litter, through microbial activities, become important parts of organic matter in the soil. They provide a physical environment suitable for a vast array of plants and animals in various sizes. The large population of macro- and microorganisms in and around the soil promote the decomposition of organic matter, the mixing of organic matter and inorganic surface soil, the creation of soil organic horizon, and the improvement of the soil’s physical and chemical properties. As a result, soil porosity, infiltration capacity, soil water-holding capacity, and plant transpiration are increased, and surface runoff is reduced. Plants enhance soil stability against downslope movement due to the reduction of soil water content through transpiration and the mechanical reinforcement of the root system (Waldron and Dakessian, 1982). Roots increase the cohesive and frictional components of the soil’s shear strength, which is a force counter to the force causing the soil to move downslope. The increase in soil shear strength is proportional to the fresh weight of roots per unit volume of soil. Trees usually exert a greater strength than grasses, and the removal of trees causes a decrease in root tensile strength due to the decay of root systems. Many landslides in New Zealand and the northwestern U.S. were attributed to forest removals (Sidle et al, 1985). Plant roots provide most of the shear strength for soil stability along stream banks (Kleinfelder et al., 1992).

3.

Stems

Forest trees usually have a single stem; its environmental functions are far fewer than those of the canopy and the root. Stems can impose mechanical disruptions to wind and water movements; however, the effectiveness is largely dependent upon the diameter and density of stems in the area. Some of the environmental functions of canopies are affected by stem height. Since the stem accounts for about 80% or more of the biomass of a single tree, carbon storage can be an important environmental function of stems. The total area of closed and open tropical forests is about 1.929 ¥ 106 ha, which contains a total stemwood biomass of about 119.89 ¥ 109 tons. Assuming 1 ton of organic matter is equivalent to 0.5 tons of organic carbon (Brown and Lugo, 1984; Brown et al., 1989), the stemwood in the tropical forests contains 59.96 ¥ 109 tons or 31.08 tons/ha of carbon. The

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The world’s major vegetation biomes.

worldwide CO2 emissions from industrial processes were 22.34 ¥ 109 tons in 1992 (World Resources Institute et al., 1996). Using the factor 3.67 to convert organic carbon to carbon dioxide (Dept. of Energy, 1992), a 1.0% burning of tropical forests would release CO2 to the atmosphere equivalent to 10% of the industrial emissions of the world.

C.

Forest distribution

Plants require energy and water for survival and development. No plants can thrive where monthly air temperature is below freezing year round. Thus, temperature and rainfall are the two major determinants that control the distribution of forests (Figure 7.2), while the variation in topographic conditions affects forest types in a given region. In general, forests occur in areas where the annual precipitation is greater than 38 to 50 cm and the frostfree period is at least 14 to 16 weeks long (Buell, 1949). The minimum net solar radiation required for a forest is about 20,000 cal cm -2 year-1, or 27 W/m-2 (Reifsnyder and Lull, 1965), which is in regions around lat. 60 to 65∞, depending on cloudy conditions. In middle latitudes where energy is not an issue, rainfall is the main control on lowland forests and is responsible for the occurrence of deserts and steppe zones that separate tropical and temperate forests. The situation is different in higher latitudes where temperature determines the northern latitudinal limits of forests. The isotherm of 10∞C for the warmest month has long been considered the approximate north bound of forests. Regions with mean July temperature of 10∞C correspond very well with the 20 kcal cm-2 yr-1 net radiation line. North of this line is the tundra where low-growing and densely matted arctic plants dominate the region and no forest trees are present.

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1.

Horizontal distribution

On the latitudinal scale there are three zones of great precipitation. The greatest zone occurs in the equatorial areas and two secondary zones are in the high latitudes around lat. 50∞ N and lat. 50∞ S. The precipitation patterns cause the majority of Earth’s forests to be distributed in two regions, one in the tropical areas and the other in the North Hemisphere roughly between 35∞ and 65∞ latitudes. According to the temperature regimes, forests are broadly grouped into three major types: tropical, temperate, and boreal. a. Tropical forests. The tropical regions are bounded roughly between the Tropic of Cancer (lat. 23.5∞ N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (lat. 23.5∞ S), where the mean temperature of the coldest month is at least 18∞C, and precipitation tends to decrease outward from the equatorial region. Accordingly, there is a vegetation gradient from tropical rain forests (evergreen) in the equatorial zone to tropical seasonal forests, tropical scrub forests, and tropical savannah forests. Tropical rain forests are found in the Amazon Basin, Southeast Asia, and central Africa. Here the climate is hot and damp throughout the year, plant growth is profuse, the diversity of tree species is high, plant litter deposition is very rapid, and soils are old, weathered, and well leached. Outward from the equatorial areas is the tropical seasonal forest where dry seasons are clear and pronounced. Tropical seasonal forests are well distributed in the northern part of South America, from northeast India to Burma and northern Australia, and from Angola to Tanzania in south-central Africa. The forest is simpler and lower than either semievergreen or deciduous rain forest. Tropical deciduous forests, also known as monsoon forests, are in areas where there is a distinguished dry season in the year, all the arboreal species are deciduous, and the ground is bare for long or short periods of time. Tropical scrub forests occur in regions of light rainfall, bordering wet forests in the south and deserts in the north. They run roughly along lat. 10 to 14∞ N in north-central Africa, South Africa, and southern Australia. Small leaved evergreen vegetation with warm and wet winters, and long, dry summers dominate the forest. Where the dry season lasts on the order of 6 months, a mixture of trees and grasslands called savanna forests occur. The savanna forests, dominated by grasses and sedges with open stands of wellspaced trees, are widespread in Africa and in southern Brazil. b. Temperate forests. Forests in the Temperate Zone can be grouped into five types: deciduous, coniferous, broad-leaved evergreen, mixed evergreen, and Mediterranean. Here, winter is distinct, growing seasons are long, and precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration. Climate changes from season to season and within each season as well. Temperate deciduous broad-leaved forests are distributed in regions with 4 to 6 frost-free months and precipitation either relatively even throughout the year or higher in the summer. They occur in western and central Europe, eastern North America, and northeastern Asia. Coniferous forests are found mainly in North America, stretching from Minnesota to New England, much of the coastal plains from New Jersey to east Texas, and the Pacific coast from Alaska to British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and northern California. The winter is mild and precipitation in winter is higher than in the summer in these areas. In areas where winter is mild and wet, summer is warm and dry, and annual rainfall is less than 1000 mm in general, forests tend to be dominated by mixed evergreen coniferous and broad-leaved species, the so-called “Mediterranean forests.” They can be found in Mediterranean basins, western and southwestern North America, temperate Asia, and Australia. However, west of the Mediterranean climate and along the coastal areas from northern California to southeast Alaska, their precipitation remains concentrated in the

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winter but reaches from 1500 to over 2000 mm/year. Here, redwoods, Douglas fir, hemlock, and Sitka spruce are mixed with evergreen hardwood species. These forests are some of the most long-lived and productive in the world, longer in life and production than many tropical rain forests (Perry, 1994). Evergreen broad-leaved forests occur mainly in southern China, the lower slopes of the Himalayas, southern Japan, southeastern U.S., much of southeast and southwest Australia, New Zealand, and southern coast of Chile. All these areas have mild temperatures, frost-free winters, and relatively high precipitation (>1500 mm/year). c. Boreal Forests. North of the temperate forest where winter temperature is too cold and growing seasons are too short to support hardwood species, cold-tolerant conifers known as the boreal forests become dominant. Typically, the boreal forests develop in areas with about 6 months of below freezing temperatures, 50 to 125 days of the growing season, 1 to 3 months of mean summer temperature above 10∞C, and 35 to 50 cm of annual precipitation. They are distributed in two bands, one in North America from Alaska to Newfoundland and the other in Eurasia from the Atlantic coast of Scandinavia to the Pacific coast of Siberia, roughly between lat. 50∞ N and lat. 60∞ N. The boreal forests are a lot simpler and more uniform than forests in other regions. Species of spruce, fir, larch, and pine are numerically dominant throughout most of the forests. Contrary to the 4 years for temperate deciduous forests and 0.7 years for tropic forests, the mean residence time of organic matter on the forest floor for boreal forests is 350 years (Mather, 1990). Thus, most of nutrients in the boreal forests, not like those in tropical forests, are contained in the litter, not in the vegetation. The boreal coniferous forests are by far the most extensive remaining forests outside of the tropical forests.

2.

Vertical distribution

In the free air — air not in contact with the ground — there is a fairly uniform decrease of temperature with increasing elevation. The rate of temperature decrease is about, on the average, 0.65∞C/100 m. This is called the normal lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient. On the horizontal scale, the temperature gradient between lat. 20∞ N and lat. 80∞ N varies from -0.5 to -1.0∞C/1∞ latitude. This means that a mountain at lat. 20∞ N where its mean base surface annual temperature is 25.3∞C would have a mean annual temperature of 5.8∞C at 3000 m, a thermal climate equivalent to temperate zone at lat. 50∞ N (Figure 7.3). Also, due to orographic effects, precipitation is greater on windward slopes and at higher elevations of the mountain. However, the greater precipitation at higher elevations occurs only up to a certain level. Above this level, the air humidity is too low, precipitation declines, and the environmental harshness increases with height. Therefore, precipitation and temperature variation cause changes in forest types along an elevation gradient in mountainous areas. At a sufficient height, harsh environmental conditions such as short growing seasons, frigid air and soil temperatures, low available water, high wind speed, and deficient carbon dioxide can cause the abrupt termination of a closed forest stand. Beyond this forest limit, or the so-called timberline, tundra and alpine vegetation predominate. Forest types below the timberline start with conifers, mixed conifers and hardwoods, hardwoods, shrubs, grasslands or deserts, and tropical rain forests, depending on latitude, height of the mountain, and distance to the ocean. This vertical distribution of vegetation can be uniquely illustrated by the slopes of the central Sierra Nevada in California (Figure 7.4). Rising to more than 3965 m, over a dozen distinct plant zones have been identified between the base and the mountain peak. The height of timberline is 900 m at Haines, Alaska (lat. 60∞ N); 1850 to 1900 m at Garibaldi Park, British Columbia (lat. 50∞ N); 3300 m at the Sierra Nevada mountains, California (lat.

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Figure 7.3 Mean annual air temperature of the world, by degree zones. (Data source: Landsberg, H., 1968, Physical Climatology, Gray Printing Co., DuBoise, PA.)

Figure 7.4 Vertical distribution of major vegetation types along the slopes of the central Sierra Nevada in California. (After Hughes R.O. and Dunning, D. in Yearbook of Agriculture, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 1949).

38∞ N); 4500 m in southeast Sinkiang, China (lat. 38∞ N); and up to 4900 m in northern Chile (lat. 19∞ S) (Kimmins, 1997). It tends to increase in elevation from polar regions toward the equator, but the greatest height occurs in warm-temperate belts, around 25 to 30∞ (Spurr and Barnes, 1973). In the Northern Hemisphere, the rate of decline between 40 and 55∞ is about 100 m/1∞ latitude (Peet, 1988). Southern exposures and areas with maritime climate have a timberline higher than northern exposures and continental climate.

3.

Forest areas

Forests cover about 4.17 ¥ 109 hectares or 31.8% of Earth’s land surface (Table 7.2). Russia has the greatest area of forests, 779 ¥ 106 ha or 18.7% of the global total, followed by

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Table 7.2 Total Land Areas (in 106 hectares), by Land Use, 1991–1993 Regions

Cropland

Pasture

Forest and Woodland

Others

Total

World Africa Europe N/C America S America Asia Oceania

1451(11.1) 187(06.3) 137 271(12.5) 104(05.9) 470 52(06.2)

3365(25.7) 853(28.8) 81 362(16.6) 496(28.3) 800 431(50.9)

4169(31.8) 761(25.7) 158 855(39.2) 847(48.3) 533 200(23.6)

4114(31.4) 1163(39.2) 808 690(31.7) 306(17.5) 958 163(19.3)

13,099 2,964 2,269 2,178 1,753 3,089 846

Notes: Figures in parentheses are percent in each region. Regional land-use totals do not include countries of the former Soviet Union. Regional sums may not add up to the worldwide totals. Source: Extracted from the World Resources Institute, the U.N. Environmental Programme, the U.N. Development Programme, and the World Bank, 1996, World Resources, 1996–97, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Figure 7.5

Acreage of land uses, in 106 hectares and % total, in the conterminous U.S. (NRCS, 1999.)

Canada (11.9%), Brazil (11.8%), and the U.S. (6.9%) (World Resources Institute et al., 1996). About 1.76 ¥ 109 ha of forests or 42% of the total are in low latitudes, of which more than half are in tropical America. Mid-latitude forests make up about 25% of the global total or 1.04 ¥ 109 ha (Dixon et al., 1994). The mid-latitude (temperate) forests had the greatest conversion to other land uses in the past. In Europe, development has probably reduced forests and woodlands to less than half of their original extent. In the U.S., forests cover about 286.4 ¥ 106 ha, or 29.9% of the land. The proportion, however, is reduced to 21.1% or 161.6 ¥ 106 ha for the conterminous U.S. Acreage of land uses in eight different categories is given in Figure 7.5 (Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1999). However, in recent years the major concern with respect to forest alteration is the tropical forest. According to the FAO, the world lost 450 million ha of its tropical forest cover between 1960 and 1990. About one-third of tropical forests in Asia and 18% each in Africa and Latin America were lost during that period (FAO, 1995; World Resources Institute et al., 1996). Estimates of tropical forest alteration rates were about 17 million ha/year during 1981–1990 and 20 million ha/year for the early 1990s (Bruijnzeel, 1996). Impacts of deforestation, especially in the Amazon basin, on climate have been a subject of heated discussion in recent decades (Gash et al., 1996)

II. Environmental functions The physical environment of Earth is composed of three phases: atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Collectively, they form the so-called geosphere of Earth. The interface of

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Figure 7.6

The atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere forming Earth’s ecosphere.

these three phases is life, or biosphere, and the combination of geosphere and biosphere is called ecosphere (Figure 7.6). Forests are the largest and biggest system in the biosphere and provide numerous significant impacts to the environment. The actions of a tree’s canopy, root systems, and stem on the environment are outlined in Table 7.1. The integrated actions of all canopies, stems, root systems, and litter floor of the forest system acting upon the environment are significant functions of the forest. These functions can be hydrological, climatological, mechanical, biological, and societal.

A.

Hydrological

Forests affect both water quantity and quality. First, the amount of precipitation that reaches the mineral soil is reduced by canopy interception. Then, a great amount of soil moisture is transpired to the air through the roots–stem–leaf system. Finally, the root systems, organic matter, and litter floor increase the infiltration rate and soil moistureholding capacity. Combining these three processes makes overland runoff smaller, runoff timing longer, and water yield lower in forested watersheds than those in nonforested watersheds (See Chapter 10, part III). A reduced amount of runoff carries less sediment and elements to the stream. This reduced runoff, combined with the shielding and shading effects of canopies, the binding effect of root systems, and the screening effect of forest floor, makes streamflow from forested watersheds have less sediment, lower dissolved elements, cooler temperature, and higher dissolved oxygen (See Chapter 10, part III).

B.

Climatological

The Earth’s surface conditions, such as topography, water, land, and vegetation, play an important role in the state and properties of the atmosphere near the ground. These conditions modify water and energy exchanges between Earth and the atmosphere and affect the local and regional patterns of the atmospheric circulation. This is especially true in the forest because of its height, canopy density and depth, and area coverage.

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Solar radiation is the major energy source that affects the climate of Earth. In a forest, canopies usually receive more incoming solar radiation than pasturelands or the bare ground because of their dark color and great roughness, but only a fraction of the received energy is transmitted to the ground surface. On the other hand, the emission of longwave radiation from the ground surface to the sky is reduced due to the shielding effect of forest canopies and less wind movement in the heat-transfer processes. Thus, the forest can cause net radiation to be greater and air and soil temperatures to be cooler in summer and warmer in winter. A long-term study at six locations in the Amazon basin showed that replacing forest by pasture reduced the net radiation at the surface by 11% (Culf et al., 1996). In east Texas, the mean annual air and soil temperatures were lower and the amplitudes of fluctuation were smaller in an undisturbed loblloly and shortleaf pine forest than in a nearby cleared site by 0.5 to 1.0∞C (Chang et al., 1994). The most significant effect of forests on precipitation is canopy interception, which reduces the net amount reaching the soil and delays snowmelt. However, whether forests increase the quantity of local precipitation or not has been a matter of conjecture and debate for decades. Some conservationists, noting generally higher precipitation in forested regions, have suggested that meteorological droughts are a result of forest cutting, and that reforestation enhances local precipitation. Others have argued, on the basis of physical processes, that forests result from abundant and frequent rains, but they do not increase the amount of precipitation in the area. Because of the temporal and spatial variability of precipitation, the accuracy limit of modern precipitation measurements, and the scale of a forest involved, it is difficult to resolve the arguments through field observations. Any evidence for a forest influence on precipitation must be weighted with theoretical support and justification (See Chapter 8, part IV). Perhaps the largest-scale climatological functions of forests are carbon storage and the release of oxygen by respiration. The world’s forests have been estimated to contain 358 ¥ 1015 g or 80% of all above-ground carbon and 787 ¥ 1015 g or 40% of all below-ground (soils, litter, and roots) terrestrial carbon. Estimates for annual emissions of CO2 by fossilfuel and land-use change for 1980–1989 were 5.4 ± 0.5 ¥ 1015 g of carbon per year (Dixon et al., 1994).

C.

Mechanical

Many of the hydrologic and climatological functions mentioned above are due to the mechanical performance of roots, canopy, and litter floor. However, a more recognized mechanical function is the forest’s effects on water and wind erosion. Forests are the most efficient means of controlling soil water erosion by: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Reducing overland runoff through canopy interception and transpiration Increasing soil porosity through the organic horizon and root systems Slowing down overland flow velocity through litter coverage Reducing the terminal velocity of raindrops through canopy interception Enhancing soil aggregates and binding through root reinforcement

As a result, the soil-erosion rate from a forested watershed can be 1000 times less than that of a bare-ground watershed (Chang et al., 1982). Forest clearing along a stream bank often causes severe channel erosion and even stream-bank collapse. Like raindrops and streamflow, wind has energy to detach and transport soil particles. The detachment, rate of soil movement, and transport capacity grow with the second, third, and fifth powers of wind’s drag velocity (WMO, 1964). The drag (friction) velocity describes the erosive power of wind. It is a function of surface shearing stress and air

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Figure 7.7 Change of wind speed at different levels above the surface behind a shelterbelt of height H. (Adapted from van Eimern, J. et al., 1964, Windbreaks and Shelterbelts, WMO-No. 147.TP.70. Tech. Note No. 59, Geneva.)

density, and can be assumed to be about one-tenth of the mean wind velocity (Sutton, 1953). Wind speed is reduced behind a shelterbelt. The retardation of wind speed depends on wind direction, the density and height of canopy, distance from the windbreak, and height above the ground (WMO, 1981). For dense foliage perpendicular to the prevailing wind, wind speed at 1.0 tree’s height (H) immediately behind the windbreak can be reduced by about 40% (Figure 7.7). The reduction of the erosive power of wind coupled with the trap of soil particles by canopies makes shelterbelts the most efficient, economic, and relatively permanent control of wind erosion and sand dune stabilization. In addition to protecting against water and wind erosion, a forest can also protect against avalanches if it occupies the zone of potential occurrence areas. The shadow cast by shelterbelts along with the retardation of wind speed has a great impact on soil evaporation and soil moisture conservation.

D. Biological Forests provide habitats for an array of fauna and flora that live and properly develop in a particular environment. They not only are the genetic pools for life on Earth, but also play a crucial role in the stability and viability of the biosphere. The biosphere is a largescale life-support system with all components mutually interactive in a state of equilibrium. Large-scale alterations of forests or destruction of habitats can lose species of potential importance to human health, medicine, food production, and other uses. Most important, a chain reaction and the cumulative effects, if not corrected in time, may lead to a collapse of food chains and to a biological disaster. There are about 1,360,000 species of identified animals on Earth. About 90% of nonhuman primates, 40% of birds of prey, and 90% of insects live in tropical forests (Mader, 1998). Many species are listed as endangered due in part to the loss of their habitats in forests. Some of the many endangered species are: spotted owl, California condor, redcockaded woodpecker, Indian tiger, black rhino (Africa), African elephant, peregrine falcon (North and South America), wood thrush (migratory North American songbirds), and hyacinth macaw (exotic birds in Brazil). Plants have contributed to the development of 25 to 50% of all prescription drugs used in the U.S., either directly or indirectly by providing biochemical models (Swerdlow, 2000). Instances of effective disease remission include childhood leukemia by the Madagascar rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), ovarian cancer by Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia),

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dementia by ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), malaria by qing hao (Artemisia annua), tumor and cancer activity by happytrees (Camptotheca acuminata), and many others. In China, herbal medicine has been practiced for more than 5000 years. Li Shih Tseng wrote the book Outlines of Medicinal Plants in 1595 (the Ming Dynasty). It listed 1097 drugs extracted from 512 plant species and 11,096 prescriptions for botanical remedies or pharmaceutical treatments. Some utilized plants’ roots and bark, while others used leaves, flowers, shoots, nuts, fruits, fruit skins, stems, and sap. The U.S. National Cancer Institute has identified 3000 plants as potential sources for cancer-fighting chemicals.

E.

Societal

Cool and shaded forests, with their vast area, wilderness setting, and fresh air are ideal places for people to relax from tension, pressure, and hectic activities. Green canopies with blue sky and white clouds are a natural beauty to our eyes, and the environmental tranquility relaxes our ears and minds. Thus, many recreation and leisure-time activities — picnicking, sightseeing, bird watching, hiking, camping, and canoeing — take place in forest areas. Psychologists have even used “forest bath,” a mental bath in the forest environment, as a treatment for persons with depression. Retreating from hectic cities to wilderness has become a part of lifestyle in modern societies. The presence of forests can benefit the health of people living in their vicinity. This may be attributable to the continuous replenishment of oxygen and the reduction of dust and air pollutants in forested areas. City and traffic noise can be attenuated and unsightly environments can be blocked by a greenbelt of trees. Wilderness areas serve as field laboratories for various research and educational purposes. They provide opportunities for the public to study and appreciate forest ecosystems, ecological processes, habitats, landscapes, and natural-resources conservation.

III. Functional forests Although forests perform many environmental functions, some functions may be more significant than others for a particular forest because of its location and environment. Thus, a forest may be intentionally managed to maximize one or two specific functions, with little attention paid to others. It can be described as a functional forest. Functional forests can be grouped into four categories: production forests, protection forests, preservation forests, and public forests. The functions that a forest is managed to perform are mostly a matter of site and environmental conditions. Frequently, however, the ownership, economic constraints, and prospective value of the forest play an important role in determining management objectives. Also, many environmental regulations and governmental policies provide guidelines for managing forest resources. For example, the Multiple-Use and Sustained Yield Act of 1960 requires that the national forests be established and administered for outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed, wildlife, and fish purposes. The National Forest Management Act of 1976 further strengthened multipleuse practices in the national forests. Multiple uses are less emphasized in private and industrial forests.

A.

Production forests

The main purpose of production forests is to obtain financial profit from the forest by producing timber, pulpwood, fuels, wildlife, forest and agricultural byproducts, livestock, and recreation services. In the U.S., production forests are owned and operated mainly by private individuals (57%) and industry (15%), while only 28% are national and public

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forests (MacCleery, 1993). Traditionally, the primary concern of industrial and private owners is timber production. Only in recent decades have other products and services become a serious consideration in maximizing forest incomes. Today, hunting for a fee is available in many private forest clubs throughout the nation, and many ranchers and cabins nestled in forested areas are operated for families to spend a weekend in the forest for relaxation, enjoyment, and outdoor activities. In rural areas of the tropical regions, a sizeable population lives in and around forests. They grow crops in the forest for food and harvest branch and litter for fuel. India has begun a social program in which people plant and grow trees in their back yards and community woodlots for fuel and other purposes. Many feasibility studies have shown that power stations could be operated and the liquid fuel ethanol could be produced based on trees growing in “energy plantations” (Fung, 1982). Forest grazing is also a common practice that often damages trees, destroys litter floor, and compacts soils. These exploitative agroforestry practices interrupt nutrient cycling in the forest, increase soil and water erosion, deplete land productivity, and eventually lead to the abandonment of forests for production. In northeastern India alone, about 2,600,000 people depend on shifting cultivation, affecting about 2,700,000 ha of forestland (Shafi, 1992). In the pursuit of maximum economic gain from a forest, exploitative uses of its resources should be avoided. Best-management practices should be incorporated in all forestry activities so that land productivity can be maintained and water quality is not impaired. The U.S. Forest Service adopted ecosystem management as a policy in June 1992. The ecosystem-management approach is to use ecological principles and the best available science and technology in managing natural resources. It recognizes soil, water, vegetation, wildlife, society, and the economy as integrated factors in the formulation of management objectives. Experience from the national forests can serve as guidelines to managing private forests.

B.

Protection forests

On rough terrain, steep slopes, stream banks, water-resource areas, wind-prone regions, or potential landslide sites, forests are often established to reduce soil erosion, increase sand stability, improve water quality, retain reservoir capacity, mitigate flood damage, and attenuate air pollution. Forests are also managed to protect habitats for birds, fish, and other animals. Protection forests emphasize environmental functions; economic income is insignificant or even totally ignored. In India, protection forests make up about 23.4% or 15 ¥ 106 ha of the nation’s forests (Lal, 1992). Since protection forests are there to protect a specific site and environmental condition, species used are more restrictive, and management activities need to assure the sustainability of the forest. For example, salt spray, high wind speed with abrasive sands, low fertility, high temperature, and extremely wet and dry soil conditions are the general characteristics of coastal sand dunes. Because of their adaptability, species such as sand live oak (Q. virginiana) and southern waxmyrtle (Myrica cerifera) in the south Atlantic coast and casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia) in Taiwan are often planted to protect against wind erosion and sand-dune movement in coastal areas. Protection forests are usually in areas sensitive to environmental problems; clearcutting, grazing, cropping, and litter harvesting should not be practiced. A clearcut in these sensitive areas would make artificial regeneration very difficult or too long to establish. It can consequently make the destruction of forests in the protected area devastating. Thus, legal enforcement may be required to prevent protection forests from damage by cultivation, harvesting, grazing, and other impairing activities.

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Special forests commonly managed for environmental protection include: Headwater resource (reservoir) protection forests Coastal protection forests Windbreaks Sand-stabilization forests Riparian forests Habitat-protection forests Avalanche-protection forests Soil-erosion–prevention forests Landslide-protection forests Swamp-prevention forests Noise-reduction belts (greenbelts) In fact all forests can be considered protective in view of their function as sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide, a gas linked to global warming. An estimate of potential carbon sequestering in the tropical closed-forest landscape is about 1.5 to 3.2 Pg C/year (1 Pg = 1015 g = 1 Gt), or 31 to 58% of the current CO2 emission by fossil fuels (Lugo and Brown, 1992). A sustainable forest-management plan should be developed that can provide simultaneously both a profitable income from the forest and an inexpensive way to reduce accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere.

C.

Preservation Forests

It has been estimated that about 30% of Earth’s land surface has been devegetated since farming began. Between 1981 and 1990, about 12% or 168 ¥ 106 ha of the highly biodiversified tropical forests in 62 tropical countries were lost due to deforestation (Table 7.3). Loss of forests leads to the loss of many plant and animal species from the genetic and pharmaceutical pools of the world. The nature and ecosystems of managed forests are different from those of the virgin forests. Impacts on the hydrological cycle, soil and nutrient losses, and climate changes are highly significant and well documented. In the U.S., Congress has established two systems for preserving forests and related areas in natural and unimpaired condition. One is the National Wilderness Preservation System authorized under the Wilderness Act of 1964, and the other is the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System authorized under the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. A wilderness is an area of undeveloped land retaining its primeval character and influence and an area with its ecosystems untrammeled by man. About 4% of U.S. land area is preserved under the wilderness system, most of it in Alaska, the West, and Florida. Table 7.3 FAO’s Assessment of Tropical Forest Cover and Deforestation in the Tropical Regions, Including Part of the Dry Area Tropical Region

Number of Countries

Total Land Area (106 ha)

Africa America Asia Total

15 32 15 62

609.8 1263.6 891.1 2764.5

Forest Area (106 ha) 1981 1990 Difference 289.7 825.9 334.5 1450.1

241.8 753.0 287.5 1282.3

47.9 72.9 47.0 167.8

Rate of Change (%/year) -1.7 -0.9 -1.4 -1.2

Source: Lanly, J-P., Singh, K.D., and Janz, K., 1991, FAO’s 1990 reassessment of tropical forest cover, Nature Resour., 27, 21–26. Reproduced by permission of UNESCO.

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The preserved areas can be used only for recreational activities such as hunting, fishing, camping, and rafting, and for scientific studies and educational programs. They are free from any development and management, even for disease and insect salvages. Harvesting, logging, road construction, mining, damming, mechanized transport, and other commercial activities are prohibited. The Scenic Rivers System allows river segments with outstanding recreational, scenic, geological, wildlife, ecological, historical, or cultural values to be protected from development and alteration. They are used for enjoyment and recreational activities such as camping, swimming, fishing, and hunting. The river segments under the systems may not be dammed, diverted, straightened, widened, dredged, or filled. Currently, river segments totalling 17,490 km in length, or 0.31% of the 5.6 ¥ 106 km of rivers in the U.S., are protected under the system.

D. Public forests Forests that are developed and managed for the public to enjoy are referred to as public forests. They may include parks, botanic gardens, zoos, and wildlife refuges. The majority of public forests are national, state, and city parks. In 1872 the federal government set aside over 8 ¥ 106 ha of forest as Yellowstone National Park in northwestern Wyoming, the first national park of the world. Today there are 54 major national parks in the U.S. and over 1100 national parks of at least 1000 ha each in more than 120 countries around the world (Miller, 1999). The national parks are dedicated to preserving vegetation, wildlife, natural wonders, cultural heritages, and historical sites for people’s pleasure and health. They also provide educational programs through forest trails, on-site written explanations, and viable environmental interpretation as well as a natural setting for ecological research and naturalresources studies. All preservation, development, and management are allowed through integral plans administered through the National Park Service.

IV. Threats to forests The most serious threats to the forests, such as deforestation, grazing, forest fires, and air pollution, come from human activities. Naturally induced insects, disease, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, and winter storms can cause substantial damage to forests; however, their effects are, in general, not a widespread threat to the forest. Weakened trees created by overcrowding, age, or other agents are less resistant to insect and disease attacks. Their populations build up easily in these weakened trees and then spread to the entire forest. In many cases, poor forest management can cause insects and diseases. For example, a severe winter storm may cause a massive wind-throw of timber in forested areas. Unless active salvage actions are taken, potential for insect infestations and wildfire outbreaks is great.

A.

Deforestation and grazing

In the lower latitudes, because of population and economic pressures, deforestation and grazing caused a net loss of tropical forests of 167.8 ¥ 106 ha in the 1980s (Table 7.3). These forests were lost in most cases to shifting cultivation. In the middle latitudes, however, reforestation and conservation programs increased temperate forests and other woodlands by 0.23 ¥ 106 ha in the same period (World Resources Institute et al., 1996). Thus, deforestation and forest grazing are more a regional and global issue in the lower latitudes, and a local issue in the middle latitudes. In the U.S., about 50% of all forestlands are

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Table 7.4 Total Number and Areas of Fires on Forested, Wooded, and Other Lands in North America, 1991–1997 Country Canada Number Area (103 ha) United States Number Area (103 ha)

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

Average

10,267 1,526

9,026 869

6,018 1,840

9,727 6,182

8,367 6,569

5,853 1,878

5,681 502

6,560 2,767

118,796 1,114

176,536 1,283

153,023 1,831

79,107 1,649

82,325 787

96,363 2,452

66,196 1,157

110,335 1,468

Source: U.N. ECE/FAO International Forest Fire News: Forest Fire Statistics 1995–1997, Timber Bull., Vol. II, ECE/TIM/BULL/514, 1998.

grazed by domestic livestock, ranging from 41% in the Northeast to 83% in the West (Troeh et al., 1999). Grazing causes damage to tree seedlings, sprouts, and roots; destroys organic floor and soil structure; and reduces soil porosity and infiltration capacity. The average water erosion on grazed forestlands is about 5.2 mt/ha/year vs. 1.6 mt/ha/year on nongrazed forestlands in the U.S. (National Research Council, 1986).

B.

Forest fires

Like precipitation and wind, wildfire is a natural phenomenon, but it occurs less frequently than other weather events. It ranges from once in 3 years for long-leaf pine communities in the southeastern U.S. to once in 230 to 1000 years for mixed forests in Burnswick (Kimmins, 1997), depending on vegetation types and regions. Since plant adaptations to fire differ among species, fire plays an important role in the characteristics of an ecosystem. However, many regions have more forest fires that are caused by human activities than those that are naturally induced. From the management point of view, fires can cause on-site and off-site as well as detrimental and beneficial effects to soils, water, nutrient, vegetation, and wildlife. The intensity and duration of these effects depend on the type of vegetation, the severity and frequency of fires, the type of burning (ground, surface, or crown fires), season, slope, aspect, soil texture, and climatic conditions. Virtually all terrestrial ecosystems have been affected by fire at one time or another. Foresters consider forest fires a great threat because they can destroy the forest and its protective functions, reduce the value of existing timbers, induce insect or disease infestation, damage the recreational and scenic value, and cause forest regeneration to take a long time. The effects of fire on watersheds are a major concern of watershed managers (Berg, 1989). Forest fires occurred on about 1,500,000 ha every year between 1991 and 1997 in the U.S. (Table 7.4).

C.

Air pollution

Air pollution is the concentration of certain chemicals or particles in the air at levels that can cause harmful impacts to humans, plants, animals, materials, soils, and water. Pollutants originate from natural events such as ocean splash, wind erosion, forest fires, and volcanic eruptions, or from human activities such as fuel emissions and industry. These original pollutants can react with the chemicals and moisture already in the air to form induced pollutants. Air pollutants, including acid deposition, gaseous sulfur dioxide, ozone, and heavy metals, have great impacts on forest vegetation. Acute vegetation damage caused by smelters, power plants, and other large point sources of air pollution have been reported frequently. However, the most widespread effects of air pollution on the forest are probably due to acid deposition. Pure water has a pH of 7.0; pH of uncontaminated rain is 5.65 but may reach 5.0 in some remote areas

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of the world (Council on Environmental Quality et al., 1983). Industrial emissions such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are transformed chemically into acids with moisture in the atmosphere and fall to the ground as acid rain, snow, and fog or dry acid-particles with pH values lower than the reference level. In the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire, precipitation pH has been recorded as low as 3.0 (Likens et al., 1977). The acidity of pH 3.0 is 100 times greater than that of pH 5.0. Acid deposition can adversely affect forest vegetation either directly by damaging protective surface structures (cuticles) of the canopy or indirectly through the acceleration of soil acidification. The damage of cuticular layer can lead to malfunction of guard cells, alteration of leaf- and root-exudation processes, interference with reproduction, water stress, and leaching of minerals from the canopy. The soil acidification can lead to leaches of basic nutrient ions, alterations of nutrient availability, slowdown of microbiological processes, reduction of microbial populations and variety, and increases in ion toxicity level to plants. Combining these effects on soils and plants can ultimately result in leaf coloration and abscission, and in reduction of forest growth, productivity, and species diversity. The former West Germany employed a loss of tree’s foliage by 11% or more as the main criterion in air-pollution damage inventories (Huettl, 1989). Air pollution is a major concern in industrial countries, especially in central Europe and North America. In Europe, trees between 3.5 and 4 million ha showed injury linked to air pollution in the early 1980s (Postel, 1984). Former West Germany estimated forest damage by air pollution at 562,000 ha in 1982 and increased to 2,545,000 ha in 1983, or 34% of the nation’s forests. The damage further increased to 50% in 1985 and 54% in fall 1986, of which 19% was marked by foliage losses greater than 25% (Huettl, 1989). In the U.S., injury and mortality of pine has been most extensive in California, of red spruce in the Appalachian Mountains, of yellow pines in the Southeast, of eastern white pines in the East, and of sugar maples in the Northeast and Canada. Some of the damage began as early as in the late 1940s. In view of the complexity of the forest ecosystems, MacKenzie and El-Ashry (1989) stated that these injuries and declines probably were a collective reflection of multiple stresses, such as acid deposition, ozone, and drought, rather than of a single cause.

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Medina, E. and Cuevas, E., 1997, Biomass production and accumulation in nutrient-limited rain forests: implications for responses to global change, in Amazonian Deforestation and Climate, Gash, J.H.C. et al., Eds., John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 221–239. Miller, G.T., Jr., 1999, Environmental Science, Working with the Earth, Wadsworth, New York. Mirov, N.T., 1949, A tree is a living thing, in Trees, Yearbook of Agr., USDA, Washington, D.C., pp. 1–10. National Audubon Society, Inc., 1992, The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees, Alfred A. Knopf, New York. National Research Council, 1986, Soil Conservation: Assessing the National Resources Inventory, Vol. 1, p.7. Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1999, Summary Report: 1997 National Resources Inventory, USDA, Washington, D.C. Peet, R.K., 1988, Forests of the rocky mountains, in North American Terrestrial Vegetation, Barbour, M.G. and Billings, W.D., Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 63–101. Perry, D.A., 1994, Forest Ecosystems, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Phillips, W.S., 1963, Depth of roots in soil, Ecology, 44, 424. Postel, S., 1984, Air Pollution, Acid Rain, and the Future of Forests, Worldwatch Paper 58, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C. Reifsnyder, W.E. and Lull, H.W., 1965, Radiant Energy in Relation to Forests, Tech. Bull. No. 1344, USDA Forest Service. Shafi, M., 1992, Utilization and conservation of forests in India with special reference to social forestry, in Forest Ecosystems of the World, Shafi, M. and Raza, M., Eds., Rawat Publications, New Delhi, pp. 21–26. Sidle, R.C., Pearce, A.J., and O’Loughlin, C.L., 1985, Hillslope Stability and Land Use, Water Resour. Monograph Series 11, Amer. Geophy. Union, Washington, D.C. Spurr, S.H. and Barnes, B.V., 1973, Forest Ecology, 2nd ed., Ronald, New York. Stout, B.B., 1956, Studies of the Root Systems of Deciduous Trees, Black Rock Forest Bull. No. 15, Harvest University. Sutton, O.G., 1953, Micrometeorology, McGraw-Hill, New York. Swank, W.T. and Schreuder, H.T., 1974, Comparison of three methods of estimating surface and biomass for a forest of young eastern white pine, Forest Sci, 20, 91–100. Swerdlow, J.L., 2000, Medicines in nature, Nat. Geogr., April 2000, pp.98–117. Troeh, F.R., Hobbs, J.A., and Donahue, R.L., 1999, Soil and Water Conservation: Productivity and Environmental Protection, Prentice Hall, New York. Van Eimern, J. et al., 1964, Windbreaks and Shelterbelts, WMO Tech. Note No. 59. Waldron, L.J., and Dakessian, S., 1982, Effects of grass, legumes, and tree roots on soil shearing resistance, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 46, 894–899. WMO (World Meteorological Organization), 1964, Windbreaks and Shelterbelts, WMO-No. 147.TP.70. Tech. Note No. 59. Geneva, Switzerland. WMO, 1981, Meteorological Aspects of the Utilization of Wind as an Energy Source, WMO-NO.575, Tech. Note No. 175. Geneva, Switzerland. World Resources Institute, the U.N. Environmental Programme, the U.N. Development Programme, and the World Bank, 1996, World Resources, 1996–97, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

chapter eight

Forests and precipitation Contents I. Precipitation processes ...................................................................................................132 A. Atmospheric moisture............................................................................................132 1. Magnitude ..........................................................................................................132 2. Measures.............................................................................................................132 B. Precipitation formation ..........................................................................................133 1. Cooling mechanisms ........................................................................................133 2. Condensation nuclei.........................................................................................133 3. Growth of water droplets................................................................................133 4. Moisture convergence ......................................................................................134 C. Precipitation types ..................................................................................................134 1. Orographic precipitation .................................................................................134 2. Convective precipitation..................................................................................134 3. Cyclonic precipitation ......................................................................................135 II. Forest interception...........................................................................................................136 A. Interception components .......................................................................................136 1. Interception loss ................................................................................................136 2. Canopy interception .........................................................................................137 3. Litter interception .............................................................................................137 4. Throughfall and stemflow...............................................................................138 B. Related events .............................................................................................................138 1. Canopy condensation.......................................................................................138 2. Transpiration reduction ...................................................................................139 3. Mechanical barriers ..........................................................................................139 III. Snow accumulation and snowmelt ..............................................................................140 A. Forest effects ............................................................................................................140 B. Clearcut Size ............................................................................................................141 C. Water yields .............................................................................................................143 IV. Do forests increase precipitation?.................................................................................144 A. The arguments.........................................................................................................144 B. Counterarguments ..................................................................................................145 C. Assessment...............................................................................................................146 References .....................................................................................................................................147 131

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Precipitation in the form of rain and snow is the major input to a watershed hydrologic system. Its occurrence, distribution, amount, intensity, and duration affect streamflow, soil moisture, soil erosion, nutrient losses, and distribution of plant species. Precipitation in the form of sleet, frost, dew, and hail, due to its lower occurrence and small quantity, is less important to hydrology. Hydrologic studies and watershed research are mainly concerned with rain and snow.

I.

Precipitation processes

A.

Atmospheric moisture

The atmosphere is a mixture of many gaseous, liquid, and solid substances. Water, up to 4% by volume, is one of the constituents and can be in solid, liquid and gaseous states in the same region. For a storm to occur, sufficient water has to be present in the atmosphere.

1.

Magnitude

Water is always present in the atmosphere even in areas above desert or during severe drought conditions. The amount of moisture in the atmosphere at any one time is about 1.233 ¥ 104 km3 or about 0.035% of the total fresh water of Earth. If all of the moisture in the air fell as rain, it would cover Earth’s surface to a depth of about 25 mm. Average annual precipitation of Earth is about 1000 mm. This means that the resident period of water vapor in the atmosphere is about 10 days. The source of renewed water in the atmosphere comes from vaporization in the ocean and at land surfaces including lakes, soils, and vegetation. Plant transpiration is often more important than soil evaporation. However, evaporation from the ocean is the major source of moisture for precipitation due to large surface area and great evaporation rate. Water loss per unit area from the land is about 40% of that from the ocean, but it is only 17% in terms of total volume. Although oceans are the major supply of water for precipitation, nearness to the ocean does not necessarily lead to abundant precipitation. This is evidenced by the fact that many subtropical islands and deserts have edges around the ocean but are low in rainfall. The general air-mass movement, orographic effects, and distance to the storm tracks are major factors affecting the precipitation climate of a region.

2.

Measures

A variety of measures have been employed to describe the water content of the atmosphere. Some of them are explained below. Specific humidity, q, is the ratio of the mass of water vapor (Mv) in a sample of moist air to the total mass of the sample (sum of mass of dry air Md and mass of water vapor), or: q (in g/kg) = Mv/(Mv + Md) @ 622 e/pa

(8.1)

where e and pa are actual vapor pressure and total air pressure, all in millibar, respectively. Absolute humidity or vapor density, Vd is defined as the mass of water vapor per unit volume of air V, or: Vd (in g/m3) = Mv/V

(8.2)

Relative humidity, RH, is the ratio between actual (e) and saturated (es) vapor pressure at a given temperature, or:

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133 (8.3)

Saturation deficit, SD, is the difference between saturation and actual pressure, all in millibar, at the ambient temperature, saturation vapor pressure, or: SD (in mbar) = es – e = es(1-RH)

(8.4)

which is a measure of evaporation potential of the air. Dew point is the temperature to which a given parcel of air mass must be cooled at constant pressure and constant vapor content in order for saturation to occur. If the air is cooled below the dew point, the excess of water vapor in the air is condensed, which forms clouds. This is the initial mechanism required in precipitation processes; however, for a precipitation to occur, additional mechanisms are required.

B.

Precipitation formation

The total amount of water vapor in the atmosphere at a given time is about 25 mm. This amount of water vapor can supply a moderate rainfall for about 2 to 3 hours. However, many intense storms have intensity greater than 100 mm/h. For an observed rate of storm precipitation, four conditions are required: (1) mechanisms to cool the air temperature below dew point, (2) small particles and nuclei to enhance the condensation of water vapor, (3) growth of water droplets large enough to be pulled down by gravitation, and (4) the convergence of atmospheric moisture to the stormy region.

1.

Cooling mechanisms

Air temperature can be cooled down due to one or more of the following causes: Adiabatic cooling due to convective heating or orographic lifting Frontal cooling due to mixing of two air masses different in temperature Contact cooling due to a colder surface Radiation cooling due to the loss of heat at the ground surface When a parcel of air is lifted up due to convective heating or mountain barriers, the reduced atmospheric pressure at higher elevations causes the volume to expand. The volume expansion consumes the internal heat energy and results in reduction of air temperature. Adiabatic cooling and frontal cooling can produce large-scale and significant amounts of precipitation, while contact and radiation cooling produces small condensation such as dew, frost, and fog.

2.

Condensation nuclei

When the air temperature is cooled down below the dew point, water vapor content in the atmosphere is then greater than the maximum capacity that the atmosphere can hold. The excess of water vapor is then condensed around small condensation nuclei about 0.1 to 10 mm in diameter to form water droplets or ice crystals. It is very difficult for condensation to occur in pure air, and nuclei of marine origin are more effective than other sources. However, they are usually not a limiting factor in precipitation formation.

3.

Growth of water droplets

Water droplets or ice crystals formed in the air are small and drifting. They will not fall out as rain or snow unless these water particles grow to a size large enough to be pulled

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T

D

P

10,000 ft — 15.0°F — 15.0°F — 20.8 in (3,048 m) (-9.4°C) (-9.4°C) (52.8 cm)

6,000 ft — 28.2°F — 28.2°F — 24.28 in (1,829 m) (-2.1°C) (-2.1°C) (61.7 cm) 3,000 ft — 44.1°F — 31.7°F — 26.60 in (914 m) (6.7°C) (-0.2°C) (67.6 cm) (Relative Humdity = 39%) Surface — 60.0°F — 35.0°F — 30.00 in (15.6°C) (1.7°C) (76.2 cm) Dry rate = 5.3°F/1000 ft, or 1.0°C/100 m Moist rate = 5.3°F/1000 ft, or 1.0°C/100 m Dewpoint rate = 5.3°F/1000 ft, or 1.0°C/100 m Condensation height, ft = 1000(T-D)/4.2 (in British units) Condensation height, m = 100(T-D)/0.7655 (in metric units)

T

D

15.5°F — 15.5°F (-9.4°C) (-9.4°C)

36.2°F — 19.4°F (2.3°C) (-7.0°C) 52.1°F — 22.7°F (11.2°C) (-5.2°C) RH = 20% 68.0°F — 26.0°F (20.0°C) (-3.3°C) E = Elevation, T = Air Temperature D = Dewpoint, P = Pressure

Figure 8.1 Orographic effects on precipitation in Washington state. (After Small, R.T., 1966, Weatherwise, October, 204–207.)

down by gravitation. The growth of these particles may be due to collisions with one another when they drift in the air. They can grow at the expense of other particles due to evaporation and condensation because saturation vapor pressure can be different among water droplets and ice crystals. This process is called coalescence.

4.

Moisture convergence

Water-vapor content in the atmosphere is about 25 mm at any given time. Thus, additional water must be supplied from the surrounding areas dominated with high pressure to the stormy areas dominated with low pressure in order for a storm to remain at a constant rate or even increase during a storm system. The greater the atmospheric pressure gradient between the high and low pressure areas, the greater the storm intensity.

C.

Precipitation types

Precipitation is often categorized into three types in accordance with cooling mechanisms that generate vertical lifting and formation of precipitation.

1.

Orographic precipitation

When an air mass is lifted up mechanically by mountain barriers, the reduced atmospheric pressure at higher elevations causes cooling and condensation by expansion. It results in greater precipitation (Figure 8.1). Thus, precipitation is greater at higher elevations on the windward slope of mountainous areas. The increasing rate, the so-called precipitation gradient, ranges from 12 to 165 mm/100 m in the coastal range of Washington to 5 mm/100 m in western Colorado. However, there is an upper limit on the increase in precipitation with elevation. The zone of maximum precipitation is about 2135 m at the Alps, 1525 m in northern California, and 2440 m in the southern Sierra Nevada. Beyond this level, precipitation decreases.

2.

Convective precipitation

Unequal heating between different surfaces, such as plowed field vs. forest or land vs. water, or the increase of water vapor content in the air due to evapotranspiration in hot

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Table 8.1 Rainfall Intensity, Drop Diameter, and Terminal Velocity (Humphreys, 1964) Popular Name Fog Mist Drizzle Light rain Moderate rain Heavy rain Excessive rain Cloudburst

Intensity, mm/hr Trace 0.05 0.25 1.00 4.00 15.00 40.00 100.00

Drop Diameter, mm 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.45 1.0 1.5 2.1 3.0

Terminal Velocity, m/sec 0.003 0.25 0.75 2.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 8.00

summer afternoons, can make air unstable. Heated air over the hot surface expands, becomes lighter, and begins to rise. The unstable air continues to rise and is replaced by cool air from the surroundings. This can cause pronounced vertical movements, adiabatic cooling, condensation, and precipitation. Convective storms are spotty with intensity ranging from light to cloudbursts (100 mm/h or more). A good example of unequal surface heating is precipitation in the Great Lakes area. The amount of precipitation and frequency of thunderstorm and hailstorm activity over the Great Lakes and their downwind areas tend to decrease in summer and increase in winter and fall (Changnon and Jones, 1972). Apparently, this is because lake water in the fall and winter is warmer than the overlying air. Precipitation over the Great Lakes and their downwind area is enhanced when moisture and heat are added from the lakes to increase atmospheric instability. On the other hand, because the lakes are cooler than the overlying air in summer and tend to stabilize the atmosphere, no precipitation is induced.

3.

Cyclonic precipitation

Cyclonic precipitation can cover a large area over a long duration. It can be either frontal or nonfrontal. Fronts are boundaries that separate masses of air having significantly different physical properties in humidity, temperature, pressure, and motion. If the moving warm air masses are pushed upward by a cold air mass, it is a cold front. If the cold air retreats, warm air pushing over it produces a warm front. When the boundary does not move, the front becomes stationary. Fronts usually bring bad weather. Cold fronts usually move faster, the frontal surfaces are steeper, their upward movements are more rapid, and precipitation rates are much greater than those of warm fronts. Nonfrontal precipitation results from air lifting through horizontal convergence of the inflow from high-pressure areas into low-pressure areas. The precipitation types mentioned above can have intensity from near zero to over 100 mm/h. Rainfall intensities and their corresponding drop sizes and terminal velocities are given in Table 8.1 and Figure 8.2.

II. Forest interception Forest canopies stand up in the air, serving as a barrier against precipitation reaching the ground. A portion of precipitation is inevitably intercepted by the canopy (canopy interception), flows along the stem to the ground surface (stemflow), drips from the foliage and branches or passes through canopy openings to the ground (throughfall), or is further intercepted by forest floor (litter interception). These processes cause a reduction in precipitation quantity and a redistribution of precipitation toward the soil.

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Figure 8.2

A.

Terminal velocity as a function of raindrop diameters.

Interception components

Quantitatively, total forest interception (IF) is the sum of canopy interception (IC) and litter interception (IL), or: IF = IC + IL

(8.5)

The precipitation that actually reaches the mineral soil is called effective precipitation (PE). It is the difference between gross precipitation in the open or above the canopy (PG) and total forest interception, or: PE = PG - IF

(8.6)

The amount of precipitation that reaches the forest floor or the sum of throughfall (PTH) and stemflow (IS) is termed net precipitation (PN), or: PN = PTH + IS

(8.7)

In this case, canopy interception can be estimated by the difference between gross precipitation and net precipitation, or: IC = PG – PN = PG – (PTH + IS)

(8.8)

Forest interception is an important event in the hydrologic cycle because of its effects on rainfall deposition, soil moisture distribution, snow accumulation and snowmelt, wind movement, heat dissipation, and impact energy of raindrops on soil erosion (particle detachment).

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1.

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137

Interception loss

Precipitation intercepted by forest canopies and litter floor, collectively termed forest interception, is lost to the air by evaporation. It is a negative term in the hydrologic budget. For eastern white pine stands 10, 35, and 60 years old in western North Carolina, Helvey (1967) showed that total interception loss increased with maturity and could be estimated empirically from gross precipitation for a given season (PG) and number of storms (N) in that season: IF = 1.27N + 0.08 PG (for 10 years stand)

(8.9)

IF = 1.27N + 0.12 PG (for 35 years stand) IF = 1.52N + 0.18 PG (for 60 years stand)

2.

Canopy interception

Approximately 10 to 20% of annual precipitation is lost by canopy interception, depending on evaporation power of the air, storm characteristics, and vegetation. In field observations, canopy interception is frequently expressed in this empirical form: IC = a + b PG

(8.10)

where a and b are regression coefficients. However, a can be considered the canopy storage, which is the amount of water retained on the canopy when rainfall and throughfall have ceased, and b is equivalent to the average evaporation rate of the intercepted water during rainfall. During the beginning of a storm, water storage in the canopy increases with time and gradually levels off at maximum canopy storage capacity as storm duration is prolonged or intensity increases. The canopy storage is affected by factors such as leaf quantity, orientation, and surface features. Satterlund and Adams (1992) state that temperature also has effects on the storage capacity through its modification of water viscosity and surface tension. This effect may be too small to be significant or within a magnitude less than measurement errors. The quantity of leaves varies among species and among forest stands. It is commonly expressed in terms of leaf area index, the ratio of total surface area of vegetation to the covered areas in m2/m2. The leaf area index ranges from 0.5 to 4.5 for sugarcane in Florida (Shih, 1989), 5.3 for a 10-year-old stand of eastern white pine (Swank and Schreuder, 1974), 10.2 for Norway spruce in Wisconsin (Gower and Son, 1992), and 40 to 50 for a mature stand of 90% spruce and 10% fir in the central Rocky Mountains (Kaufmann et al., 1982). Generally, the tall, mature, and evergreen conifer species are the greatest, followed by deciduous hardwoods, shrubs, forbs, and grasses. Thus, the capacity of canopy storage among vegetation should also reflect this order. An extensive review in the American literature showed that the storage capacity ranges from 0.3 to 6.6 mm for conifers, 0.03 to 2.0 mm for hardwoods, 0.3 to 2.0 for shrubs, and 1.0 to 1.5 mm for grasses (Zinke, 1967). From a review of forest-interception studies in North America (Helvey, 1971), the b values can be derived as 0.21 for spruce–fir–hemlock (i.e., 21% of gross precipitation), 0.11 for red pine, 0.07 for ponderosa pine, and 0.06 and 0.03 for the growing and dormant season of mature mixed hardwoods, respectively. These are approximate values because they are used to apply to all gross precipitation, regardless of intensity and duration, and the interval between storms. In addition, they should not be extrapolated to forests and climatic conditions from which the b values were not derived.

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Actually, evaporation of canopy-intercepted water should be determined by available energy, vapor pressure gradient, aerodynamic resistance of the leaves, and air characteristics. When the whole canopy is wet, the Monteith-Penman equation (Monteith and Unsworth, 1990) can be used to estimate the potential evaporation rate of the intercepted water. If the canopy moisture level is less than saturation, then the potential evaporation is only proportional to the percentage of wet canopy (Rutter and Morton, 1977). Physical or analytical models for estimating evaporation of canopy-intercepted water are available from Rutter et al. (1975), Stewart (1977), and Gash (1979). These models require hourly inputs of meteorological data, which are not available in most forested areas.

3.

Litter interception

Litter interception is much smaller than canopy interception. The amount is largely dependent upon the thickness of litter, water-holding capacity, the frequency of wetting, and evaporation rate. Studies have shown that it is only a few millimeters in depth in most cases and can be up to 11 mm during a storm. Generally, about 1 to 5% of annual precipitation (Helvey and Patric, 1965) and less than 50 mm/year are lost to litter interception. However, it has been reported to be as high as 17% of gross precipitation under pole size (30 to 70 years) ponderosa pine stands (Alden, 1968) and 94 mm/year for shortleaf pine (Rusk, 1969). Although litter reduces the quantity of precipitation actually reaching the mineral soil, most importantly it also affects the velocity of overland flow, which allows more time for soils to absorb runoff water. It also protects the ground surface from direct impact of raindrop energy and wind energy as well as shades the soil surface, which in turn can reduce soil evaporation. Thus, the conservation of soil moisture due to evaporation reduction for a period of time can outweigh litter interception of the forest floor. Runoff and sediment production in areas covered by litter is much lower than in areas with no cover of litter (Singer and Blackard, 1978). Unger and Parker (1976) showed that a 1-cm thick floor of crop litter can reduce potential evaporation to 46% and can further reduce to about 17% and 6% if the litter floor is increased to 3 and 5 cm in depth, respectively. A litter floor of 3 cm is common in forest stands. The soil moisture conservation of a 3-cm litter floor in a 5-day period can reach 20 mm of water, much greater than the 1 to 5% of rainfall that can be lost due to litter interception in one or two storms.

4.

Throughfall and stemflow

The total of throughfall and stemflow, termed net precipitation, is subject to litter interception before reaching the mineral soil. Throughfall is highly variable among forests and within a forest. Drips from certain points in a stand can cause more throughfall than the total rainfall in the open. Average throughfall of a stand is determined by factors such as species, age, density, season, and storm characteristics. For example, total throughfall was about 88, 85, 83, and 82% of gross precipitation for four adjacent longleaf, loblolly, slash, and shortleaf pine stands in east Texas (Roth and Chang, 1981), different by 5% from those weighted values proposed by Helvey (1971) (Table 8.2). The greatest amount of stemflow reported in the literature is 12% of gross precipitation in a loblolly pine stand in South Carolina (Swank et al., 1972). This may be due to the sharp angles between branches and trunks. For most species, about 2 to 5% of gross precipitation flows to the ground along stems. Although it is small in quantity, it may be of ecological importance because rainwater flows directly into the rooting zone of the tree.

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Table 8.2 Weighted Equations for Estimating Throughfall and Stemflow as a Function of Gross Precipitation for a Few Species in North America (Helvey, 1971) Species Red pine Loblolly pine Shortleaf pine Pondersoa pine Eastern white pine Spruce-fir-hemlock

B.

Throughfall PTH PTH PTH PTH PTH PTH

= = = = = =

0.87PG 0.80PG 0.88PG 0.89PG 0.85PG 0.77PG

– – – – – –

1.02 0.25 1.27 1.27 1.02 1.27

Stemflow PS = 0.02PG PS = 0.08PG – 0.51 PS = 0.03PG PS = 0.04PG – 0.25 PS = 0.06PG – 0.25 PS = 0.02PG

Related Events

There are other events relevant to canopy interception. The following events are important to forest hydrologists.

1.

Canopy condensation

In coastal areas or on top of mountains, the contact of moist fog or clouds with cold forest canopies often results in water condensation. The condensed water in the canopy then drips as an addition of water to the ground, a reversed effect of canopy interception loss. This phenomenon, often referred to as horizontal precipitation, occult precipitation, fog drip, or cloud drip, is most significant near the coast and decreases with increasing distance from the ocean. The type, density, and size of foliage and slope position also affect the condensation. Trees with needle-type leaves, such as pine, redwood, and fir, are the best condensation collectors (Goodman, 1985). In western Oregon, net precipitation under an old-growth Douglas fir forest totaled 1739 mm during a 40-week period, 387 mm of water more than that in adjacent clearcut areas. Converting these data into annual basis and adjusting canopy interception losses, fog drip could have added 882 mm of water or 41% to the annual precipitation in the open (Harr, 1982). As an extreme case, cloud drip plus rain averaged 3300 mm/year under Norfolk Island pine in Hawaii, whereas rain in the open averaged only 1270 mm/year. The total increase due to cloud drip was 2030 mm/year, and 760 mm of the increase occurred during rainless days (Ekern, 1964). Fog drip can be artificially utilized as an augmentation for water supply. Chungungo is a small desert coast village in Chile. A system of 75 polypropylene nets, resembling black volleyball nets, was installed to trap fog that shrouds nearby mountains on most days. The “fog trappers” feed troughs where water is chlorinated. It is then fed into a gravity system that causes the water to descend to the village through a 6.5-km pipeline. Originally, the 200 or so villagers were dependent on a once-a-week truck with 13 l/d/person of water. Now, the fog-collection system furnishes 53 liter/d to each person at half the cost of the trucked-in water (U.S. Water News, 1994). Horizontal precipitation can help plants maintain vigor through direct absorption during dry periods, reduce the inflammability of litter in the fire-prone season, and provide additional water to the soil and streamflow. In the aforementioned Oregon study, the removal of 25% of the forest in two small watersheds caused a small (20 mm) but significant reduction of streamflow (Harr, 1982), a result contradicting many other studies that claim timber harvesting increases water yield.

2.

Transpiration reduction

Canopy interception is conventionally considered a loss in the hydrologic budget. However, intercepted water appears as a thin layer on a leaf’s surface, and the diffusion

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resistance of water on the leaf is smaller than that of water in the leaf. This makes the evaporation rate of intercepted water greater than the transpiration rate from dry leaves under similar environmental conditions. During the evaporation process of intercepted water, the energy available for transpiration is reduced. Water in stomata has no access to the atmosphere or to heat energy as long as the leaves are sealed by intercepted water. Therefore, the intercepted water has to be lost first before transpiration can occur, and a reduction in transpiration is expected (Chang, 1977). Results in studies of interception-induced transpiration reduction vary due to species and environmental conditions. They were 100% reduction for grass vegetation (Burgy and Pomeroy, 1958), 20 to 40% for a hardwood forest (Singh and Szeics, 1979), 9% for a 6- to 7-year-old ponderosa pine (Thorud, 1967), and 6% for a Colorado blue spruce and Austrian pine (Harr, 1966). In England, Stewart (1977) showed that the average rate of evaporation of intercepted precipitation in a Scots pine stand was three times the average rate of transpiration, an indication of partial compensation for the subsequent suppression of transpiration loss.

3.

Mechanical barriers

Besides the quantitative effects on the disposal of precipitation, forest canopies also provide mechanical barriers to the transfer process of many other substances. These mechanical effects reduce wind speed in the forest, trap suspended particles and dusts, redistribute energy budget at the ground, and slow down the terminal velocity of raindrops. Other effects in the forest environment include the increase of relative humidity, the suppression of soil evaporation, the amelioration in the environment for livestock and wildlife, the reduction of costs for home cooling and heating, and the enhancement of the environment for people. By use of the mechanical barrier, a few rows of trees and shrubs, in a proper design and arrangement, can be used as a shelterbelt and windbreak to protect the leeward side from wind and heat effects (Caborn, 1964; WMO, 1964; Sturges, 1983; Harris, 1989). Shelterbelts are often established along coasts, in wind-prone areas, beside the edge of deserts, in arid and semiarid regions, and on the west or southwest sides of farms and villages. Wind speed can be reduced by shelterbelts, depending on the density, height, width, distance from the forest, and wind direction, to about 15 to 60% on the leeward side at a distance about one to eight times the height of trees (Figure 8.3). They are also managed for increasing snow accumulation and delay of snowmelt for water augmentation (Gray and Male, 1981).

III. Snow accumulation and snowmelt Snow is often referred to as “delay precipitation” because of its coverage on the ground and gradual release of water until as late as the spring. In areas where snow is the dominant type of precipitation, melting snow is the major source of water supply and a potential cause for spring floods. Many of the snow-prone, water-producing regions are usually covered with forest vegetation. Here, the forest management activities could impose significant effects on snow accumulation and snowmelt and, consequently, water supply and flood alleviation in downstream areas.

A.

Forest effects

The distribution of snow within forests is significantly affected by timber volume and canopy density, while snowmelt in the open is related to temperature, aspect, and elevation. Thus, dense conifer forests intercept the largest amounts of snow, while thin and leafless hardwoods or open lands catch the least. It is therefore expected that snow

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Figure 8.3 Relative wind speed around shelterbelts of different degrees of penetrability. (After Naegeli, W., 1946, Mitteil. Schweiz. Anstalt Forstl. Versuchw. 24, 659–737.)

accumulation and water equivalent are greater in the open than in the forest (Berris and Harr, 1987) and that they decrease with increasing canopy density (Table 8.3). Also, due in part to the impact of canopy drips from the saturated snow, snowpacks in the forest are usually denser and have higher free water contents than those in the open. Forest canopy also modifies microclimates within the forest. Generally, it has a lower air and dew-point temperatures, less shortwave radiation, higher relative humidity, and slower wind speed. As a result, energy inputs to snowpacks are consistently greater in the open. This makes snowmelt rate slower and snowpack duration longer in the forest (Haupt, 1979; Ffolliott et al., 1989). Similarly, snowmelt on a south-facing slope is greater than that of a north-facing slope (Rosa, 1956). A study compared snow accumulation and melt between an old-growth of Douglas-fir and western hemlock forest and an adjacent clear-cut plot in the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest in the western Cascades of Oregon. The results showed that in open areas: (1) water equivalents were two to three times greater, (2) water outflow (rain plus snowmelt) was 21% greater, and (3) total available energy was 40% greater than those in the forest. Differences in various sources of available energy based on predicted snowmelts between the forested and clear plots are given in Table 8.4 (Berris and Harr, 1987). Table 8.3 Snow Accumulation (cm) at the Tully Forest of the State University of New York College of Forestry, 1961-62 (Eschner and Satterlund, 1963) Cover type Open land Brush hardwoods Northern hardwoods Red pine, thinned Red pine, dense Norway spruce, thinned Norway spruce, dense

Crown Density, %

Total Accumulation (Nov. 30 – April 27)

0 2.8 7.6 85 93 94 96

154.2 234.4 184.9 163.6 135.4 130.3 121.9

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Table 8.4 Predicted Snowmelts (mm) Based on Various Available Energy vs. Measured Snowmelt in an Old-Growth Forest in the Western Cascades of Oregon (Berris and Harr, 1987). Energy Source Shortwave radiation Longwave radiation Sensible heat Latent heat Rain Total 1 2

Clearcut Plot1 Predicted Measured 0.3 (1%) 2.9 (13%) 7.8 (35%) 4.8 (22%) 6.4 (29%) 22.2 (100%)

25.1

Forested Plot2 Predicted Measured 0.0 (0%) 2.8 (25%) 2.7 (24%) 1.8 (16%) 3.9 (35%) 11.2 (100%)

11.9

From 2300 hours February 11, 1884 to 0300 hours February 13, 1984. From 2300 hours February 11, 1984 to 1900 hours February 12, 1984.

Numerous field studies have shown that any forest-management activities that reduce forest canopies will cause an increase in snow accumulation on the ground and an overall increase in water yield. Such management activities have included thinning (Goodell, 1952), shelterwood cutting (Bay, 1958), selection cutting (Anderson et al., 1960), patch or block cutting (Troendle and Leaf, 1981; Gary, 1980), and strip cutting (Gary, 1979). The increase in snow accumulation in the forest openings is due to reduction in canopy interception and to the redistribution of snow induced by wind effects. However, studies also found that forest cuttings caused an increase in snow accumulation in the opening and in the upwind forest, but a decrease in the downwind forest. There was no evidence that increased snow in openings was caused by decreased interception loss (Hoover and Leaf, 1967; Gary, 1974). Total snow was unchanged before and after treatment. Physiographic characteristics too play an important role in snow accumulation and snowmelt (Packer, 1971). In northern Idaho, strip clearcutting in a young-mature stand of mixed conifers resulted in a 56% initial increase in peak snow water equivalent to a 37% increase at the end of the 34th year on a northern slope. However, the initial increase on the south slope was only 37% due to greater winter melt and evaporation and sublimation loss (Haupt, 1979). A study that clearcut mature lodgepole pine in blocks of 2, 4, and 8 ha was conducted in the Big Horn Mountain, Wyoming (Berndt, 1965). It showed that the greatest increase in peak snow accumulation was 97 mm of water equivalent for the 4-ha block on the east aspect, but the greatest average increase was 72 mm on the south aspect. Snow packs persisted in the uncut forests about 10 to 14 days longer than in the clearcut blocks. These effects were attributed to the reduction in interception loss, snow redistribution due to disruption of wind speed and patterns, and the increase in heat and mechanical energy input to snowpack surfaces.

B.

Clearcut Size

Cutting forests into small openings traps more snow, but snow cover in openings disappears faster. A greater rate of snow disappearance implies more loss of water to the atmosphere, reducing water available for soil–moisture recharge. Also, the flood potential is high if snow melts rapidly in late spring. What, then, is the optimum size of forest cutting for proper snowfall management? Openings of 1 tree-height (H) wide have been suggested to accumulate the greatest depth of snow (Niederhof and Dunford, 1942; Kittredge, 1953). However, in the Sierra Nevada, Kattelmann (1982) reviewed 70 years of studies and stated that openings about 0.4 ha in size with a solid wall of trees to the south and not more than 2 H wide from south to north will provide the maximum accumulation and delayed melt. In Alberta, the

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greatest snow accumulation was an opening of about 2 H in size, and the lowest ablation rates were in the 1 H openings (Golding and Swanson, 1978). The optimal forest harvesting for snow redistribution in Colorado and Wyoming is reported to be block or patch cuttings of about 5 H in width spaced at least 5 H apart. These cuttings should not be more than 50% of the forest at any one time, and openings should be protected from wind (Gary and Troendle, 1982). As the size of openings increases, so do the duration of exposure and intensity of solar irradiation and wind speed. This will make snow sublimation increase with increasing opening sizes. If forest cuttings do not affect the total amount of snowfall to be disposed in the entire watershed and cause only snow redistribution (Stegman, 1996), then cutting a forest opening with proper wind and shade protection becomes of utmost importance in snowpack management. The length of shadow (S) cast by a stand of trees is a function of latitude, aspect, stand height (H), season, and time of the day. It can be calculated by the equation: S = H (sin b)/(tan a)

(8.11)

where a is solar altitude and b is the acute angle between the edge of stand and the sun’s azimuth. Values of b can be calculated by the absolute difference between stream azimuth and azimuth of the sun. If the absolute difference is greater than 90∞, subtract the difference from 180∞. The solar altitude a and azimuth az are given by: sin a = sin f sin d + cos f cos d cos h

(8.12)

sin az = -cos d sin h/cos a

(8.13)

where f is latitude of the stand; d is declination of the sun (various with seasons); h is hour angle of the sun or the angular distance from the meridian of the stand, negative before solar noon and positive after noon; and az measures eastward from north. Equations 8.12 and 8.13 can be read directly from sun-path diagrams given in Smithsonian Meteorological Tables (List, 1971). The sun-path diagram at f = 40∞ is given in Figure 8.4. For a stand on the south with its edge facing to the north, the S/H ratios for four selected days between winter solstice (December 22) and vernal equinox (March 21), for five morning hours, and for two latitude locations are given in Figure 8.5. The shadow is longer for a smaller a or a greater b. It decreases from morning toward the solar noon and from winter solstice toward summer solstice (June 21). On March 21, the shadow length is constant throughout the entire solar day (Lee, 1978). Besides 1 to 5 H as optimal opening sizes suggested for trapping snow accumulation on the ground, lengths of shadow cast by a forest stand provide useful information for snowpack management.

C.

Water yields

Although total snow accumulation in a watershed is not affected by cutting small openings in the forest, many studies have shown that forest cuttings increased water yields (Folliott et al., 1989; Kattelmann, 1982). This is attributable to the reduced transpiration losses, the greater concentration of snowmelt water in the openings, and the greater soil moisture that carries over from the previous year (Gary and Troendle, 1982). Increases in water yield ranged from 7 to 111% in the Southwest. They are more pronounced in wet years; no increases or insignificant increases are expected in dry years.

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Figure 8.4

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

The sun-path diagram for lat. 40∞ N.

Figure 8.5 Shadow length (S)/tree height (H) ratios for a forest stand with its edge facing north at lat. 45∞ N and lat. 40∞ N for four selected days between winter solstice and vernal equinox.

For increasing water yield, 30 to 50% of a forest could be put in small clearcut patches. Trees growing at the base of a slope may use more water than trees up-slope. Therefore, harvesting timber in those areas should yield more water to streamflow than cutting in other areas. Cuttings should provide the longest shadow to shade snow for delay snowmelt. In this case, openings should face to the north with tall wall-trees on the south and upper slopes. If it is a strip cut, the longer sides should be in an east–west direction.

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Patches should also be perpendicular to prevailing winds. Frequently, right angles to prevailing winds and east–west aspect are unlikely to be satisfied at the same time. In this case, a compromise should be reached between the two. If snow is managed to prolong melt as long as possible, strip width can be greater on north slopes than on south slopes. Slope gradient needs to be considered too. Strips can be narrower for a steep slope on the south but wider on the north. Desynchronizing runoff from different parts of watersheds can reduce peak flow during snowmelt. This can be done by having large openings on south slopes to hasten snowmelt and small openings on north slopes to retard snowmelt.

IV. Do forests increase precipitation? It is well established, as discussed in the previous sections, that precipitation deposition and distribution is greatly affected by forest canopies, but the question of whether forests increase precipitation above the canopy has been a subject of arguments over a long period of time.

A.

The arguments

Based on folklore, experience, visual observation, and imagination, quotations and statements on positive effects were already prevalent in the 1820s (Hazen, 1897). The frequent phenomenon in hilly regions that fog and low-lying clouds suspend near a forest, not over a clearing, led to the idea that forests attract rainfall. Our densest forests are found in areas of the greatest precipitation. No forests form in areas where precipitation is less than 300 to 400 mm/year. The association of forests with humid environments implies more precipitation, similar to the greater precipitation over the ocean. The linkage of forests to precipitation could be explained by some meteorological reasons. First, warm air passing over a forest may drop its temperature below dewpoint by contact cooling, and moisture is condensed with a chance for precipitation (Brown, 1877). Second, forests add effective height to the mountains, especially those on the crests of hills and the higher windward slopes, resulting in an increase of orographic precipitation by up to 3% (Kittredge, 1948). Third, the roughness of forest canopies may slow down air-mass movement, but the air mass behind continues to flow in. As a result, the air mass above the canopy is piled up to a greater depth, initiating vertical turbulence and currents (Rakhmanov, 1963). This can cause condensation due to adiabatic cooling. Fourth, the occurrence of precipitation requires water vapor in the atmosphere. Forests transpire a greater amount of water to the air than do other surfaces. The additional water transpired to the air will trigger more condensation and precipitation in the forested area. The idea that planting trees could modify local humid environment was highlighted during the big drought of the Midwest in the 1930s. More than 200,000 trees and shrubs were planted in strips of 29,800 km in length stretched from North Dakota to northern Texas between 1935–1942. Zon (1927) stated that forests increase both the abundance and frequency of local precipitation to more than 25% in some cases. The strongest argument on the alleged forest influences in the past has relied on quantitative comparisons between rainfall measured in the forest and the nearby open field. A network of four rainfall stations within a distance of 9 km was established in France in 1872. The first pair, Bellefontaine (forested), recorded 4% more rainfall than Nancy (open) in 8 years, while the second pair, about 164 m higher in elevation and hilly, Cinq-Tranchees (forested), recorded 25% more than Amance (open) in 25 years (Hazen, 1897). In an extensive overview of Russia’s literature, Molchanov (1963) stated that forests increase the amount of precipitation up to 10%. Fedorov and Burov (1967) showed that

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precipitation was 7% greater in the spruce forest than in adjacent open areas in their 15-year study. In the Copper Basin of eastern Tennessee, a 4-year study showed that rainfall in the forest (1459 mm/year) was as much as 19% greater than in the denuded area and 9% greater than in the grassland (Hursh, 1948). However, average wind speed during the four years was 33 cm/sec, 167 cm/sec, and 226 cm/sec for the forest, grass, and denuded areas, respectively. Chang and Lee (1974) showed that the greater precipitation in the forested area was due to lower wind speeds. Differences in precipitation among the three surface conditions were insignificant if the wind effects on precipitation were adjusted. A regional analysis was used to evaluate the relationships between rainfall and percent of forested area in the northeastern regions of Thailand. Based on data collected at 36 stations during a 34-year period, Tangtham and Sutthipibul (1989) found no significant relationships between percent forested area and annual, seasonal, and monthly rainfall or rain days. If the data were expressed in 10-year or longer periods of moving averages, total rainfall tended to significantly decrease while the number of rain days significantly increased with the depletion of percent forested areas. However, interpretations of the results need to be cautious because (1) data for the first 10 years of percent forested area were estimated based on records of the recent period; (2) the size around each rain gage used to calculate percent forested area is unknown and may have impacts on the result; (3) a period of 34 years may not be long enough to calculate the moving averages of 10 years or longer; (4) the region’s rainfall is dominated by the prevailing southwest monsoon climates, which makes local circulation less important; and (5) several large man-made reservoirs in the region affect local climates.

B.

Counterarguments

Meteorologists and hydrologists argued that it is mainly the general circulation of the atmosphere and topographic characteristics that affect the horizontal distribution of precipitation on Earth (Figure 8.6), not the forest. In the equatorial regions, excessive solar heating over the oceans makes the air highly unstable and rapidly uprising in response. The uplifting warm and moist air expands due to reduced air pressure, and the expansion causes cooling and, in turn, condensation due to the consumption of internal energy. Therefore, the regions are dominated by low pressures and characterized by frequent local thunderstorm activities and the most abundant rainfall on Earth. As a result, forests are profuse, diverse, and complex. On the other hand, the polar regions are dominated by high pressure, and the air is dry, cold, heavy and stable. Here precipitation is the minimum and the lands are barren. Hazen (1897) stated: “The ‘early and latter rain’ are experienced in Palestine today just as they were 4000 years ago.” The statement that local transpiration triggers local precipitation is questionable, at least in the temperate zones. Since the atmosphere is in constant motion, the sources of moisture contributing to precipitation come from oceans hundreds and thousands of kilometers away. In the Mississippi River Basin, only about 10% of the precipitable water comes from the basin vaporization; the remainder is from the oceans. The average watervapor content of the air over deserts may be greater than over a rain forest (Penman, 1963). For the formation of precipitation, water vapor content is not enough. It requires certain mechanisms to enhance the condensation, growth, and convergence of water vapor (see Chapter 8, part I). On the other hand, deforestation may even increase precipitation. For example, in warm and humid areas, forest clearcutting creates different surface heating between bare ground and the forest, triggering vertical lifting of the hot air over the clear site. It could

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Figure 8.6 The horizontal distribution of precipitation for every 15∞ latitude zone. (Data source: Baumgarter, A. and Reichel, E., 1975, The World Water Balance, Mean Annual Global, Continental and Maritime Precipitation, Evaporation, and Runoff, R. Oldenbourg, Munich.)

result in convective storm activities during summer months. Also, the denuded lands might contribute more dust as condensation nuclei to the air, resulting in more rainfall.

C.

Assessment

Reasonable arguments for the positive, negative, and no effects of deforestation on the amount of rainfall can be established, but careful examination of the supporting evidence often leads to uncertain conclusions. The main difficulty is due to the great spatial variation of rainfall within a short distance. It is impossible to compare the differences in rainfall for a site with and without forest cover at the same time. Some arguments may never be attempted for quantitative verification due to the scale and costs. This led a few studies to examine the problem through analytical approaches or computer simulations in recent years. A review of 94 experimental watersheds around the world showed that a 10% reduction in conifer and eucalypti, deciduous hardwood, and shrub would cause an average increase of water yield by 40 mm, 25 mm, and 10 mm per year, respectively (Bosch and Hewlett, 1982). Thus, cutting all forests on Earth might increase water yield, or reduce transpiration, by a prospective 250 mm. There are 4 billion hectares of forests on Earth. A complete deforestation might reduce 1013 m3 of water to the atmosphere. Comparing the reduced amount of water in the air to the global annual precipitation of 4.6 ¥ 1014 m3/year, the prospective reduction in precipitation is about 2%. Indeed, a forest adds effective height to the ground and causes an increase in orographic precipitation. Assume a saturated air mass is uplifted to an additional 30 m above the forest. This will make the air temperature over the canopy about 0.24∞C cooler than temperature at the ground (assuming the temperature lapse rate with height = –0.6∞C/100 m). The additional water vapor condensed due to the decrease in air temperature is about 1.7%, depending on actual air temperature. It is doubtful that the effect of this size is detectable with our standard measurement techniques. In tropical regions such as the Amazon Basin where internal circulation is dominant in local climates, deforestation is likely to have a significant impact on local rainfall. Measurements of the isotope oxygen-18 content of precipitation in the Amazon Basin have provided evidence of the large contribution of reevaporated moisture to the basin water

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balance (Salati et al., 1979). A number of studies showed the actual percent of recycled water varying between 35 and 50% (Salati et al., 1983). Using simulation models, the potential impact of deforestation on rainfall in Amazon is a rainfall decrease of 600 to 640 mm/year (Henderson-Sellers, 1981; Salati and Vose, 1983; Shukla et al., 1990). It is therefore generally accepted by scientists that there is a significant impact of deforestation on rainfall in the tropical regions (Bruijnzeel, 1990), but the size of deforestation and its levels of impacts require further study. Vertical circulation of transpired water in the temperate zones is probably insignificant. The amount of rainfall profits the forest, not the other way around.

References Alden, E.F., 1968, Moisture loss and weight of the forest floor under pole-size ponderosa pine stands, J. For., 66, 70–71. Anderson, H.W. and Gleason, C.H., 1960. Logging and Brush Removal Effects on Runoff from Snow Cover, IASH. Pub. No. 51, 478–489, Merelbeke, Belgium. Baumgarter, A. and Reichel, E., 1975, The World Water Balance, Mean Annual Global, Continental and Maritime Precipitation, Evaporation, and Runoff, R. Oldenbourg, Munich. Bay, R.R., 1958, Cutting methods affect snow accumulation and melt in black spruce stands, Tech. Notes 523, USDA Forest Service, Lake States Forest Exp. Sta. Berndt, H.W., 1965, Snow accumulation and disappearance in lodgepole pine clearcut blocks in Wyoming, J. For., 63, 88–91. Berris, S.N. and Harr, R.D., 1987, Comparative snow accumulation and melt during rainfall in forested and clear cut plots in the western Cascades of Oregon, Water Resour. Res., 23, 135–142. Bosch, J.M. and Hewlett, J.D., 1982, A review of catchment experiments to determine the effect of vegetation changes on water yield and evapotranspiration, J. Hydrology, 55, 3–23. Brown, J.C., 1877, Forest and Moisture, Simpkin, Marshall & Co., London. Bruijnzeel, L.A., 1990, Hydrology of Moist Tropical Forests and Effects of Conversion: A State of Knowledge Review, UNESCO International Hydro. Programme. Burgy, R.H. and Pomeroy, C.R., 1958, Intercepted losses in grassy vegetation, Trans. Am. Geophy. Union, 39, 1095–1100. Caborn, J.M., 1964, Shelterbelts and Windbreaks, Faber & Faber, London. Chang, M., 1977, Is canopy interception an accurate measure of loss in the hydrologic budget? Texas J. Sci., 18, 239–346. Chang, M. and Lee, R., 1974, Do Forests Increase Precipitation? West Virginia Forestry Notes, West Virginia University, 2, 16–20. Changnon, S.A., Jr. and Jones, D.M.A., 1972, Review of the influences of the Great Lakes on weather, Water Resour. Res., 8, 360–371. Ekern, P.C., 1964, Direct interception of cloud water on Lanaihale, Hawaii, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., 28, 419–421. Fedorov, S.F. and Burov, A.S., 1967, Influence of the forest on precipitation, in Soviet Hydrology: Selected Papers, AGU, Washington, DC, Vol. 3, pp. 217–224. Folliott, P.F., Gotterfried, G.J., and Baker, M.B., Jr., 1989, Water yield from forest snowpack management: research findings in Arizona and New Mexico, Water Resour. Res., 25, 1999–2007. Gary, H.L., 1974, Snow accumulation and snowmelt as influenced by a small clearing in a lodgepole pine forest, Water Resour. Res., 10, 348–353. Gary, H.L., 1979, Duration of snow accumulation increases after harvesting in Lodgepole pine in Wyoming and Colorado, Res. Note RM-266, U.S. Forest Service. Gary, H.L., 1980, Patch clearcut to manage snow in lodgepole pine, in Watershed Management 1980, Proc. ASCE, pp. 335–348. Gary, H.L. and Troendle, C.A., 1982, Snow accumulation and melt under various stand densities in Lodgepole pine in Wyoming and Colorado, Res. Note RM-417, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Esp. Sta. Gash, J.H., 1979, An analytical model of rainfall interception by forests, Q. J. R. Meteoro. Soc., 105, 43–55.

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Golding, D.L. and Swanson, D.H., 1978, Snow accumulation and melt in small forest openings in Alberta, Can. J. For. Res., 8, 380–388. Goodell, B.C., 1952, Watershed management aspects of thinned young lodgepole pine stands, J For., 50, 374–378. Goodman, J., 1985, The collection of fog drip, Water Resour. Res., 21, 392–394. Gower, S.T. and Son, Y., 1992, Differences in soil and leaf litterfall nitrogen dynamics for five forest plantations, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 56, 1959–1966. Gray, D.M. and Male, D.H., 1981, Handbook of Snow, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y. Harr, R.D., 1966, Influence of Intercepted Water on Evapotranspiration from Small Potted Trees. Ph.D. dissertation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. Harr, R.D., 1982, Fog drip in the Bull Run municipal watershed, Oregon, Water Resour. Bull,. 18, 785–788. Harris, A.S., 1989, Wind in the Forests of Southeast Alaska and Guides for Reducing Damage, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-244, U.S. Forest Service. Haupt, H.F., 1979, Effects of Timber Cutting and Revegetation on Snow Accumulation and Melt in North Idaho, Res. Paper INT-224, U.S. Forest Service. Hazen, H.A., 1897, Forests and rainfall, in Proc. Am. Forestry Congress, the 7th Annual Meeting, pp. 133–139. Helvey, J.D., 1967, Interception by eastern white pine, Water Resour. Res., 3, 723–729. Helvey, J.D., 1971, A summary of rainfall interception by certain conifers of North America, in Biological Effects of the Hydrologic Cycle., Proc. 3rd Intl Seminar. Hydro. Prof., Lafayette, IN, pp. 103–113. Helvey, J.D. and Patric, J.J., 1965, Canopy and litter interception of rainfall by hardwoods of eastern United States, Water Resour. Res., 1, 193–206. Henderson-Sellers, A., 1981, Climatic sensitivity to variations in vegetated land surface albedos, in Proc., 6th Annual Climate Diagnostics Workshop, Columbia University, Oct. 14–16, 1981, pp. 135–144. Hoover, M.D. and Leaf, C.F., 1967, Process and significance of interception in Colorado subalpine forest, in Forest Hydrology, Sopper, W.E. and Lull, H.W., Eds., Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY, pp. 213–224. Hursh, C.R., 1948, Local Climate in the Copper Basin of Tennessee as Modified by the Removal of Vegetation, USDA Circular 774. Kattelmann, R.C., 1982, Water yield improvement in the Sierra Nevada snow zone: 1912–1982, in Proc. 50th Western Snow Conf., Reno, Nevada, pp. 39–48. Kaufmann, M.R., Edminster, C.E., and Troendle, C.A., 1982, Leaf Area Determination for Subapline Tree Species in the Central Rocky Mountains, Res. Paper RM-238, USDA Forest Service. Kittredge, J., 1948, Forest Influences, McGraw-Hill, New York. Kittredge, J., 1953, Influence of forests on snow in the ponderosa pine–sugar pine–fir zone in the Central Sierra Nevada, Hilgardia, 21, 1–96. Lee, R., 1978, Forest Microclimatology, Columbia University Press, New York. List, R.J., 1971, Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, 6th rev. edition, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Molchanov, A.A., 1963, The Hydrological Role of Forests, Israel Program for Sci. Translations, Jerusalem, Office of Tech. Service, US Dept. Commerce, Washington, D.C. Monteith, J.L. and Unsworth, M.H., 1990, Principles of Environmental Physics, Edward Arnold, London. Naegeli, W., 1946, Further investigation on wind conditions in the range of shelterbelts, Mitteil. Schweiz. Anstalt Forstl. Versuchsw., 24, 659–737. Niederhof, C.H. and Dunford, E.G., 1942, The effect of openings in a young lodgepole pine forest on the storage and melting of snow, J. For., 40, 802–805. Penman, H.L., 1963, Vegetation and Hydrology, Commonwealth Agr. Bureaux, Tech. Communication No. 53. Farnham Royal, Bucks, England. Rakhmanov, V.V., 1963, Dependence of the amount of precipitation on the wooded area in the plains of the European USSR, Meteoro. Geoastrophysical Abs., 14, 712. Rosa, J.M., 1956, Forest snowmelt and spring floods, J. For., 84, 231–135. Roth, F.A., II and Chang, M., 1981, Throughfall in planted stands of four southern pine species in East Texas, Water Resour. Bull., 17, 880–885.

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Rusk, C.R., 1969, Interception of Precipitation by Forest Canopies and Litter, M.S. thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Rutter, A.J. and Morton, A.J., 1977, A predictive model of rainfall interception in forests. III: Sensitivity of the model to stand parameters and meteorological variables, J. Appl. Ecol., 14, 567–588. Rutter, A.J., Morton, A.J., and Robins, P.C. 1975, A predictive model of rainfall interception in forests. II: Generalization of the model and comparison with observations in some coniferous and hardwood stands, J. Appl. Ecol., 12, 367–380. Salati, E. et al., 1979, Recycling of water in the Amazon Basin: an isotopic study, Water Resour. Res., 15, 1250–1258. Salati, E., Lovejoy, T.E., and Vose, P.B., 1983, Precipitation and water recycling in tropical rain forests with special reference to the Amazon Basin, Environmentalist, 3, 67–72. Salati, E. and Vose, P.B., 1983, Analysis of amazon hydrology in relation to geoclimatic factors and increased deforestation, Beitrage zur Hydrologie, 9, 11–22. Satterlund, D.R. and Adams, P.W., 1992, Wildland Watershed Management, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York. Shih, S.F., 1989, Relating calculated leaf area index, evapotranspiration, and irrigation method of sugarcane, Agron. J., 81,111–115. Shukla, J., Nobre, C., and Sellers, P.J., 1990, Amazon deforestation and climatic chang, Science, 247, 1322–1325. Singer, M.J. and Blackard, J., 1978, Effect of mulching on sediment in runoff from simulated rainfall, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 42, 481–486. Singh, B. and Szeics, G., 1979, The effect of intercepted rainfall on the water balance of a hardwood forest, Water Resour. Res., 15, 131–138. Small, R.T., 1966, Terrain effects on precipitation in Washington State, Weatherwise, October, 204–207. Stewart, J.B., 1977, Evaporation from the wet canopy of a pine forest, Water Resour. Res., 13, 915–921. Sturges, D.L., 1983, Shelterbelt Establishment and Growth at a Windswept Wyoming Rangeland Site, Res. Paper RM-243, U.S. Forest Service. Swank, W.T., Goebel, N.B., and Helvey, J.D., 1972, Interception loss in loblolly pine stands of the South Carolina piedmont, J. Soil Water Conserv., 27, 160–164. Swank, W.T. and Schreuder, H.T., 1974, Comparison of three methods of estimating surface and biomass for a forest of young eastern white pine, Forest Sci., 20, 91–100. Tangtham, N. and Sutthipibul, V., 1989, Effects of diminishing forest area on rainfall amount and distribution in North-East Thailand, in Regional Seminar on Tropical Forest Hydrology, Sept. 4–9, Institute Penyelidikan Perhutanan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Thoroud, D.B., 1967, The effect of applied interception rates on potted ponderosa pine, Water Resour. Res., 3, 443–450. Troendle, C.A. and Leaf, C.F., 1981, Effects of timber harvest in the snow zone on volume and timing of water yield, in Interior West Watershed Management, Baumgartner, D.M., Ed., Washington State University, Pullman, pp. 231–243. Unger, P.W. and Parker, J.J., 1976, Evaporation reduction from soil with wheat, sorghum, and cotton residues, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 40, 938–942. U.S. Water News, 1994, Chilean fog collection system furnishes daily baths, U.S. Water News, 11,: 2. WMO, 1964, Windbreaks and Shelterbelts, World Meteoro. Org., Tech. Note No. 59, WMO-No. 147.TP.70, Geneva, Switzerland. Zinke, P.J., 1967, Forest interception studies in the United States, in International Symposium on Forest Hydrology, Sopper, W.E. and Lull, H.W., Eds.,. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY. Zon, R., 1927, Forests and Water in the Light of the Scientific Investigation, U.S. National Waterways Comm., Final Rep. 1912 (Senate Document No. 469, 62nd Congress, 2nd Session).

chapter nine

Forests and vaporization Contents I. Vaporization processes ...................................................................................................152 A. Water surface ...........................................................................................................152 B. Bare soils ..................................................................................................................153 C. Vegetative surfaces .................................................................................................154 II. Sources of energy ............................................................................................................155 A. Net radiation............................................................................................................155 B. Energy dissipation ..................................................................................................157 1. Sensible heat ......................................................................................................157 2. Conductive heat ................................................................................................157 3. Latent heat .........................................................................................................161 4. Proportionality ..................................................................................................161 C. Extraterrestrial radiation........................................................................................162 III. Evapotranspiration..........................................................................................................163 A. Potential evapotranspiration.................................................................................163 1. Thornthwaite (1948) model.............................................................................163 2. Hamon (1963) method .....................................................................................164 3. Penman (1948) method ....................................................................................164 4. Penman-Monteith method ..............................................................................166 B. Actual evapotranspiration.....................................................................................166 1. The hydrologic balance approach..................................................................167 2. Lysimeters ..........................................................................................................167 3. Soil-moisture depletion approach ..................................................................167 IV. Forested vs. nonforested ................................................................................................168 A. Environmental conditions .....................................................................................168 B. Forested watersheds...............................................................................................169 C. Forest species...........................................................................................................169 References .....................................................................................................................................171

Vaporization refers to the change of water from liquid state into vapor state. It occurs on water, snow, soil, and vegetation surfaces and is a negative item in the hydrologic balance of a watershed system. The loss of water is commonly termed evaporation when it occurs on water, snow, and soil surfaces, transpiration when it occurs on vegetation surfaces, and evapotranspiration as the total loss of water in vapor state. In addition, the process by which snow and ice dissipate due to melting and evaporation is referred to as ablation. 151

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I.

Vaporization processes

A.

Water surface

The process of water evaporation involves not only the transfer of mass but energy as well. Above absolute zero, water molecules are active and move in different directions. Some move from the water surface to the air and some jump from air into water. The net loss of water molecules of the water is evaporation, the net gain of water molecules is condensation, while the equilibrium between air and water is saturation. In the narrow layer immediately above water surface where the air is still (boundary layer), the occurrence of evaporation is analogous to heat conduction. Water molecules diffuse from the surface (water) of greater vapor density to the overlying air of less vapor density. Thus, the net rate of water molecular diffusion is driven primarily by the vapor density gradient between water surface and air rs - ra, which is further modified by the diffusivity of the air and the thickness of the boundary layer in the path of diffusion. Thus, evaporation rate can be expressed by: V (g cm–2 sec–1) = – (rs – ra)(Dv)/dv

(9.1)

where Dv is the diffusion coefficient of water vapor in the air (cm2 sec-1) as estimated by Equation 4.6, (rs - ra) is vapor density gradient in g cm-3, and dv is the thickness of the wind speed dependent boundary layer in cm. Since the reciprocal of Dv/dv is aerial resistance (ra) to vapor diffusion in sec cm-1, Equation 9.1 can be rewritten as: V (g cm–2 sec–1) = – (rs – ra)/ra

(9.2)

In still air (free convection) with temperature at 20∞C and 100 kpa (1000 mbar), Campbell (1977) showed that ra can be estimated by: – 0.25 D ----------------ˆ Ê ra (sec cm ) = 2.654 T s – T a Ë ¯ –1

(9.3)

where D is a characteristic dimension in cm, and Ts and Ta are the surface and air temperature in ∞C, respectively. As vaporization from a water surface proceeds, the molecules of water entering the air mass near the surface can cause a substantial increase in ra, therefore reducing both the vapor density gradient and the vaporization rate. But if the air mass near the surface is renewed continually, as by wind, a higher rate of evaporation can continue indefinitely. In other words, vaporization from a free-water surface is proportional both to the wind and the vapor density (or pressure) difference. In equation form, V = ¶(u)(es – ea) = (a + bw)(es – ea)

(9.4)

where ¶(u) is function of wind speed and es - ea is vapor pressure gradient between a water surface and the air, a and b are constants, and w is wind speed. The vaporization in Equation 9.4 has appeared in many different forms; one of them shows (Harbeck, 1962): V (cm day–1) = 0.000169w2 (A–0.05)(es – ea)

(9.5)

where A is reservoir area up to 120 km2 in the U.S., w2 is wind speed at 2 m above the surface in km d-1, and es and ea are in mbar.

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The saturated vapor pressure of water, es, is very sensitive to changes in temperature. It increases by about 7% for every 1∞C increase in temperature between 10 and 30∞C. However, temperature has only a small effect on the vapor pressure of an air mass, ea, so the difference, es - ea, is largely a temperature function.

B.

Bare soils

Evaporation from a wet, bare soil surface is similar to that from a water surface and occurs at the potential rate as determined by meteorological factors and by the energy available to change the state of water (often referred to as Stage I). As evaporation proceeds, soil moisture is reduced, the soil profile cannot supply water to sustain atmospheric evaporativity, and the evaporation rate falls steadily below the potential rate. During this falling stage of drying (Stage II), the evaporation rate is primarily determined by the water-flow properties within the soil, namely hydraulic conductivity. When the surface zone becomes so dry that liquid flux of water virtually ceases, water transmission occurs through vapor flux as governed by soil vapor diffusivity. Soil vapor diffusivities are affected by soil moisture content, temperature, and pressure. The evaporation rate at this vapor-diffusion stage (Stage III) is slow and steady. It can persist for a long period of time until water is supplied to the soil again by precipitation or irrigation. For a semiinfinite, initially saturated soil subjected to infinite evaporativity, the cumulative evaporation E (cm) and the evaporation flux e (cm/day-1) during the first and second stages of drying are related to square root of time (t, days) and the weighted mean diffusivity ( D , cm2 d-1) by these equations (Gardner, 1959; Hillel, 1982): E = 2(qi - qf)[ D t/p]0.5

(9.6)

e = (qi - qf)[ D /(pt)]0.5

(9.7)

where qi and qf are the initial profile wetness and final surface wetness in fractions of volume. For a soil with qI = 0.45 (45%), qf (air-dry) = 0.05 (5%), and D = 100 cm2/d, the cumulative E at the end of 5 days = 2(0.45 – 0.05)[100 ¥ 5/3.1416]0.5 = 10.09 cm, and the mean e at the fifth day = 0.40[100/(3.1416 ¥ 5)]0.5 = 1.01 cm day-1. The vapor flux of a soil is affected by vapor diffusion coefficient and vapor pressure gradient as described by the following equation (Hanks, 1958; Jalota and Prihar, 1998): DM ---------q = af RT

P ---------------P – PV

dP ---------VdX

(9.8)

where q = water vapor flow rate, g cm-2 sec-1 D = diffusivity of water vapor into still air, cm2 sec-1 P = the atmospheric pressure, dyn cm-2 (1 atm = 1.013 ¥ 106 dyn cm-2) Pv = water vapor in the soil, dyn m-2 R = gas constant, 8.314 ¥ 107 dyn-cm ∞K-1 mol-1 T = soil temperature, ∞K M = molecular weight of water vapor (=18 g mol-1) dPv/dX = vapor pressure gradient in a dry layer X, dynes cm-2 cm a = tortuosity factor (taken as 0.87 for silt loam and 0.66 for sandy loam) f = volume fraction of air-filled voids.

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The vapor flux is greater in soils with higher diffusivity, higher vapor pressure, and finer textures, but is lesser in soils with deeper drying layers. For a 3 cm layer of dry soil with a = 0.66, f = 0.58, D = 0.245 cm2 sec-1, T = 293∞K, P = 1,023 ¥ 103 dyn cm-2, and Pv = 16 ¥ 103 dyn cm -2, the calculated q = 0.0037 ¥ 10-4 g cm-2/ sec-1, or 0.032 g cm-2 d–1 (0.032 cm day-1). Mulches have been used frequently as a management practice for reducing soil evaporation. However, they are effective only during the early stages of drying when climatic factors dominate evaporation rate. During the drying stages, the soil surface begins to dry up and gradually forms a “self-mulch” that is more effective than gravel or other mulches (Hanks and Gardner, 1965). Also, tillage is generally thought to destroy soil structure and break down the capillaries. It causes the tilled layer to dry out quickly, retards liquid movement of water from the underlying untilled layer, and keeps the lower portion of the tilled layer moist. Recent studies showed that the upward capillary flow was not completely cut off by tillage; it was only retarded because of the decrease in vapor diffusivity (Jalota and Prihar, 1998).

C.

Vegetative surfaces

Water loss from vegetative surfaces, or transpiration, is basically an evaporation process except that its active surface is through stomata or cuticles on leaves and lenticels on bark, and water is conducted through the root system. Thus, compared to water loss per unit area of soil, transpiration has a greater and deeper evaporating sphere. This means that while the rate of soil evaporation is reduced because of the depletion of water content near the surface, transpiration can continue to be active because water deeper in the soil can still be available through plant root systems. Water potential is a term often used in plant physiology and soil physics to describe the status of water in terms of energy level. A potential is defined as the work required to move a unit mass of water from a reference point of pure free water (the potential y = 0) to the point in question (y = -works/mass or ergs/g; tension, suction or negative pressure). When water potential in the stomata is greater than the air, water in the stomata is vaporized to the air due to vapor pressure gradient, es - ea. The losses of water to the air cause the total water potential in the stomata to be less than that in adjacent cells. This causes water in the adjacent cells to move to the stomata and thus form a driving force from the stomata all the way to root tips and surrounding soils. In equation form, transpiration Tr can be expressed by: Tr = –3600(cpra)/(gLv)[De/(rc + ra)]

(9.9)

where cp is the specific heat of air (cal g-1 ∞C-1), ra is the air density (g cm-3), g is the psychrometric constant (from 0.654 to 0.670 mbar ∞C-1, 0 to 30 ∞C, De is the saturation vapor pressure deficit of the air (mbar) or es - ea, the denominators rc and ra are canopy and aerial resistance (generally tp, the infiltration capacity fm is calculated by Equation 10.12 and the cumulative infiltration can be calculated by the following equation (Mein and Larson, 1971; Skaggs and Khaleel, 1982): K(t – tp + t’p) = F – Ns ln[1 + F/Ns]

(10.17)

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where t¢p is the equivalent time to infiltrate volume Fp under initially ponded surface conditions.

Example 10.1 Consider these input data: K = 0.2 cm/h, qs = 0.40, qi = 0.15, Hf = 16 cm, and i = 1.20 cm/h. Determine the total infiltration and net runoff. 1. From Equation 10.15, the cumulative infiltration (Fp) at the time of surface ponding (Fp) is:

Fp =

16 ( 0.40 – 0.15 ) ---------------------------------------= 0.80 ( cm ) ( 1, 20/0.20 ) – 1

2. From Equation 10.16, the ponding time: F 0.80 t p = -----p = ---------- = 0.67 ( hr ) 1.20 i 3. From Equation 10.14, the equivalent time to Fp (t¢p time required to reach Fp under ponding condition): 0.8 (0.20)(t’p) = 0.80 - 16(0.40–0.15) ln 1 + -------------------------------------16 ( 0.40 – 0.15 ) t’p = 0.35 (h) 4. From Equation 10.17, the cumulative infiltration F after ponding: F 0.20(t – 0.67 + 0.35) = F – 16(0.40 – 0.15) ln 1 + -------------------------------------16 ( 0.40 – 0.15 ) t = 0.32 + 5F – 0.20 In (1 + 0.25F)

(10.18)

A plot of F vs. t for a graphical solution of Equation 10.18 is given in Figure 10.3. Values of F for different time t can be read directly from the graph. 5. The overland flow at each sequential hour is given in Table 10.1.

Figure 10.3 Graphical solution for Equation 10.18 (right) and infiltration rate vs. time (left).

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests Table 10.1 Cumulative Infiltration and Overland Flow Estimated by the Green-Ampt Approach Time, t (hr) (1)

F (cm) (2)

Dt (hr) (3)

DF (cm) (4)

PT (cm) (5)

RO (cm) (6)

0.67 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 Total

0.80 1.10 1.90 2.47 2.95

0.33 1.00 1.00 1.00

0.30 0.80 0.57 0.48

0.40 1.20 1.20 1.20

0.10 0.40 0.63 0.72 1.85

Note: (1), time; (2), cumulative infiltration, read from Figure 10.1; (3), time interval between consecutive times in column 1; (4), changes between consecutive F in column 2; (5), column 3 ¥ i = (Dt)(i); (6), column 5 - column 4.

b. The SCS RCN approach. The SCS (Soil Conservation Service, now renamed Natural Resources Conservation Service) estimates watershed abstractions by soil type, soil moisture condition, land use, and management. The method has wide application in predicting storm runoff. See section of this chapter II. C. Estimation of Streamflow.

C.

Mechanics of runoff

When effective rainfall exceeds accumulated infiltration, the excess of rainfall will run off from the land surface or pond on the surface. At the initial stage, soil water deficit is relatively high and a majority of rainfall will enter the soil. Gravity and capillary forces cause the infiltrated water to percolate down to deeper layers or divert laterally from large pores to smaller pores. As pores fill with water, the increase in soil water content causes the decline in soil water deficit and consequently slows down the infiltration rate. Also, the presence of impermeable or semipermeable rocks or clays in the soil profile can block and slow down water movement. Eventually, infiltration will be equal to percolation at a constant rate. Infiltrated water can become surface runoff again as it flows laterally and downslope or routes to nearby stream channels as subsurface runoff. It is difficult to separate surface and subsurface runoff in hydrologic analysis. The combination of channel rainfall, surface runoff, and subsurface runoff is called direct runoff. Direct runoff implies direct response of streamflow to storm rainfall over a relatively short time frame. Water that flows in stream channels during periods of no rainfall (baseflow) comes from groundwater. The sum of direct runoff and baseflow is total streamflow. Rangeland watersheds usually have shallow and compact soils with low infiltration capacities, consequently exhibiting a quick streamflow response dominated by surface runoff. On the other hand, forested watersheds are characterized by deep and loose soils, fluffy floor, complex root systems, big canopies, and high infiltration capacities. As a result, streamflow responses are slow and small in general, predominated by subsurface runoff. Surface runoff is responsible for producing quick streamflow discharge. However, forested watersheds usually have little surface runoff. Here quick streamflow discharge is largely generated from subsurface flow processes as described by the variable source area (Hewlett and Troendle, 1975). As a storm proceeds, the increase in watershed storage causes the rise of stream channels and the expansion of saturated areas adjacent to stream channels. These wet and saturated areas contribute water to streamflow directly and efficiently from storm rainfall. The source area contributing stormwater increases as storm duration increases, but shrinks to original size after the storm stops. At that time, water

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Figure 10.4 A typical hydrograph with a separation of direct and baseflow runoff.

in underground pores, decayed root channels, animal burrows, and soil tubes will gradually seep out to prolong direct runoff (Chen, 1988). Interflow in forested watersheds could be more than 90% of rainfall during a calendar quarter (Beasley, 1976).

II. Watershed discharges The discharge of streamflow varies greatly with watershed and time. It is often characterized by flow rates of various statistical parameters: crest height, volume, duration, frequency, or a combination of these parameters. The fluctuation of streamflow is important to water supply and floodplain management, and can be used as an indication of the effectiveness of watershed management conditions.

A.

Hydrograph

Streamflow, either in discharge rate or stage, is often plotted against time for graphical illustrations, studies, and analyses. Such a plotting is called a hydrograph, and the area covered under the hydrograph is total runoff over the specified period of time. Several features can be identified in a typical hydrograph (Figure 10.4).

1.

Prominent features

The beginning of storm runoff a is the beginning of the rising limb and usually falls in time behind the storm rainfall due to watershed storage. The lag in time is longer for forested than for rangeland watersheds. Large watersheds can take a few days to respond to rainfall. The rising limb (a–d) represents the increase in watershed discharge. The shape of the rising limb is affected by the watershed characteristics and storm duration, intensity, and distribution. The crest (d–f) includes from the inflection point on the rising limb to the inflection point on the recession limb, representing the arrival of water from all hydrologically active parts of the watershed to the outlet. This is the highest concentration of storm runoff. The end of the crest indicates the end of direct runoff to the stream outlet.

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests Table 10.2 Calculations of Direct Runoff for the Hydrograph in Figure 10.4

Time (hr) (1) 7.2 9.2 12.0 15.6 16.8 18.0 20.4 24.0 31.2 39.6 48.0 Total

Segment Duration

(2)

(hr) (3)

a b c d e f g h I j k

0 2.4 2.4 3.6 1.2 1.2 2.4 3.6 7.2 8.4 8.4

Total Discharge Ave Reading (m3/s) (m3/s) (5) (4) 0.15 0.45 0.40 1.25 1.30 1.25 1.05 0.85 0.60 0.40 0.25

— 0.300 0.425 0.825 1.275 1.275 1.150 0.950 0.725 0.500 0.325

Baseflow Ave. Reading (m3/s) (m3/s) (7) (6) 0.150 0.165 0.178 0.189 0.196 0.205 0.214 0.223 0.232 0.241 0.250

— 0.1575 0.1715 0.1835 0.1925 0.2005 0.2095 0.2185 0.2275 0.2365 0.2455

Direct Flow Vol Ave. (m3) (m3/s) (9) (8) 0.00 0.1425 0.2535 0.6415 1.0825 1.0745 0.9405 0.7315 0.4975 0.2635 0.0795

0.00 1231.20 2190.24 8313.84 4676.40 4641.84 8125.92 9480.24 12895.20 7968.24 2404.80 61927.92

Remark

(10) BDR

Peak

EDR

Note: BDR = the beginning of direct runoff; EDR = the end of direct runoff. Column 5 = the average between two proceeding segments in Column 4. Column 7 = the average between two proceeding segments in column 6. Column 8 = Column 5 - Column 7. Column 9 = Column 8 ¥ Column 3 ¥ 3600.

The recession limb (f–k) represents the contribution of water from watershed storage, including detention storage, interflow, and groundwater runoff. The recession limb, representing the draining-off process, is independent of storm characteristics. The duration of direct runoff is referred to as the time base, the sum of the time (from the beginning) to peakflow and the time (from the peakflow) to the end of the direct runoff. An intense storm over a small, bare watershed often results in a rapid discharge in which the time to peakflow and time base are short.

2.

Direct runoff vs. baseflow

The area under a hydrograph represents direct runoff and baseflow. A few methods can be used for separating direct runoff from baseflow (Pilgrim and Cordery, 1993), but the simplest one is to draw a straight line connecting the beginning of runoff on the rising limb and the end of direct runoff on the recession limb. The area above this line is direct runoff and under the line is baseflow. The volume of direct runoff can be calculated first by breaking the direct runoff hydrograph into segments of uniform flow rate. Then multiply the average flow rate (m3/sec) of each segment by its time interval (sec) to get discharge volume (m3) of that segment and sum the discharges of all segments to get the total discharge under the direct runoff hydrograph. Finally, the total discharge volume (m3) is divided by watershed area (m2) and multiplied by 100 to convert it into average depth in cm so that it can relate to storm rainfall (Table 10.2). The end of direct runoff can be approximated by (Linsley et al., 1975): N = 0.827 A0.2

(10.19)

where N is the time in days from the peak of a hydrograph to the end of direct runoff, and A is watershed area in square kilometers.

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B.

Forests and streamflow

185

Factors affecting watershed discharge

Like rainfall, streamflow fluctuates with time within watersheds in response to watershed climate, topography, and land-use conditions.

1.

Climate

Precipitation is the input in the hydrologic system. Its intensity, depth, duration, type, distribution within the watershed, and direction of storm movement impose direct and significant impacts to streamflow regimes and hydrograph shape. For a given duration, the hydrograph produced from storms of greater intensity will exhibit a higher peakflow and a greater runoff volume. A storm that occurs near the watershed outlet will result in a rapid rise and sharp peakflow. On the other hand, the hydrograph will exhibit a longer time base, lower peakflow, and slower rise to peak if the storm occurs in the upper parts of the watershed. In general, snowmelt tends to exhibit a lower and broader runoff hydrograph than rainfall. Lower atmospheric humidity, higher air temperature, solar radiation, and wind speed tend to increase evapotranspiration and reduce water available for runoff. As a result, streamflow generally decreases with air temperature and increases with rainfall as illustrated by an empirical equation for estimating annual streamflow (Q, mm) for the 80 km2 La Nana Creek watershed in Nacogdoches, east Texas (Chang and Sayok, 1990): Q = –396.16 + 194.23 (Pt/T2)

(10.20)

where Pt is annual rainfall in mm and T is annual air temperature in ∞C. In areas where snow is the major type of precipitation, a sudden rise in air temperature in early spring often causes rapid melting of snowpacks, which can result in devastating floods (Chang and Lee, 1976).

2.

Topography

Watershed topography can be characterized by a variety of parameters such as slope, shape, elevation, size, relief ratio, stream density and frequency, and many others (Chang and Boyer, 1977; Chang, 1982). They affect streamflow and influence the shape of the hydrograph through watershed storage, runoff speed, infiltration, and soil water content. A watershed with higher elevations implies lower temperature, less evapotranspiration, greater rainfall, steeper slope, and shallower soil depth, which lead to produce more runoff. A steep slope can make overland runoff greater and faster and soil infiltration lower. The hydrologic behavior of small watersheds tends to be different from that of large watersheds. A small watershed is very sensitive to high-intensity rainfall of short duration and land use. Thus, overland flow is a dominating factor affecting the peakflow, and the streamflow hydrograph is characterized by a sharp rise to peakflow and a rapid fall in recession. In large watersheds, the average watershed slope, chances for a single storm to cover the entire watershed, and the average storm depth and intensity are smaller. Thus, the streamflow hydrograph is dominated by watershed and channel storage, and it exhibits a broader crest and longer time base (Figure 10.5). The positive effects of watershed area A (km2) on streamflow Q (m3/sec) leads it perhaps to be the most widely used topographic parameter in hydrologic analyses (Gingras et al., 1994): Q = aAb

(10.21)

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Figure 10.5 Hydrographs produced from two side-by-side watersheds in Texas, one arge (Lacaca River at Edna, 2116 km2) and one small (Garcitas Creek near Inex, 238 km2); total rainfall was 135.4 mm covering the entire watersheds.

where a and b are empirical constants. In mountainous regions, however, Equation 10.21 can be improved for its predictability by introducing watershed mean elevation or other topographic parameters in the analysis. For example, the following equation was developed from 36 gaging stations to estimate mean annual flood Q (m3/sec) as a function of watershed area A (km2) and watershed mean elevation E (m) in New Hampshire and Vermont (Dingman and Palaia, 1999): Q = 0.5154 (A0.792)[100.000833(E)]

(10.22)

The two variables explain about 93% of the flood variation with a standard error of 38%.

3.

Land use

Plant cover, through the unique effects of its canopy and root systems on precipitation interception, infiltration, percolation, surface detention and roughness, transpiration, snow accumulation, and snowmelt, is a very important factor in the hydrologic cycle. Forest cutting usually results in an increase in water yield. The increase is most significant if the cutting is conducted in watersheds with conifer species, followed by hardwoods, chaparrals, and grasses. A forested watershed is expected to produce a hydrograph with lower peakflow, smaller volume of runoff, and broader time base than if the watershed had been cleared, cultivated, and pastured. Changes in hydrographs due to forests can be illustrated by the comparative hydrographs from two adjacent watersheds (elevations 2880 to 3536 m) in the Fraser Experimental Forest, Colorado (Figure 10.6). One of the watersheds, Lexen (124 ha), was used as the control to evaluate the effects of forest cutting on streamflow in the treatment watershed, North Fork, Deadhorse Creek (41 ha). The subalpine forest in the treatment watershed was reduced by 36% through patch-cut in 1977–1978. Prior to the harvest, the annual streamflow for the treatment watershed was 37% of the control watershed (15.0 vs. 40.4 cm). After the treatment, the streamflow increased to 55% of the control watershed (23.1 vs. 41.9 cm). The increase in flows due to forest removal appears on the rising limb of the hydrograph, mainly in May (Troendle, 1983).

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Figure 10.6 Comparative hydrographs for North Fork Deadhorse Creek (treatment) and Lexen Creek watersheds in the Fraser Experimental Forests, Colorado; A: before treatment, B: after 36% of the subalpine forest in the North Fork Creek was cleared in patches of 1.2 ha each. (Adapted from Troendle, C.A., 1983, Water Resour. Bull., 19, 359–373.)

Figure 10.7 Maximum 1-day 10-year flow as a function of watershed area and percentage of forest cover. (After Chang, M. and Waters, S.P., 1984, Water Resour. Bull., 20, 713–719.)

In southern pine-dominated east Texas, a regional analysis showed that a reduction of watershed forest area by 10%, other things being equal, would increase annual streamflow about 20 mm (Chang and Waters, 1984). Differences between full forest cover watersheds and watersheds devoid of vegetation could be as much as 200 mm. This difference was much less than that reported in western Oregon (Harr, 1983), greater than that in Arizona (Hibbert, 1983), and about the same as that in West Virginia (Kochenderfer and Aubertin, 1975). For flood flows, the inverse effect of forest can be expressed by the general equation: Qd,t = a (Ab)/(Fc), F> 0%

(10.23)

where Qd,t is the maximum flood discharge in m3 sec-day–1 for a period of d days with a return period of t years; A is watershed area in m3 sec-day–1; F is percent forested area; and a, b, and c are coefficients, varying with d, t, and region. The equation shows that an increase in percent forest area causes a decrease in the maximum peak discharge. However, the effect is more pronounced for large watersheds than for small watersheds and for watersheds of lower forest coverage (Figure 10.7).

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Estimation of streamflow

Streamflow data are usually available only at a few stations or inadequate in waterresource applications, and many hydrologic projects are too urgent to wait for actual measurements. In any of these cases, streamflow data have to be estimated using techniques such as: (1) hydrograph analysis to estimate runoff volume and peakflow from rainfall, (2) statistical analysis to estimate runoff from environmental factors or other sites, (3) time-series analysis to generate sequential data into the future, and (4) hydrologic simulation to generate data based on physical models. Discussion of these techniques is beyond the scope of this book; only a few well-accepted methods are introduced here.

1.

The SCS RCN model (storm runoff volume)

The Soil Conservation Service’s (1979) curve number approach is one of the most commonly used methods for estimating storm runoff volume. The approach estimates direct runoff Q in inches from storm rainfall Pt in inches and watershed storage S by: Q = (Pt – Ia)2/(Pt – Ia + S)

(10.24)

where Ia is the initial abstractions in inches, and S is the maximum potential difference between Pt and Q. Both Ia and S are affected by factors such as vegetation, infiltration, depression storage, and antecedent moisture conditions. Empirical evidence shows Ia = 0.2S; Equation 10.24 becomes: Q = (Pt – 0.2S)2/(Pt + 0.8S)

(10.25)

S = (1000/RCN) – 10

(10.26)

The parameter S is defined by:

where RCN is an arbitrary runoff curve number ranging from 0 to 100. For RCN = 100, S = 0 and P = Q, which is the height potential for causing direct runoff. In other words, there is no watershed storage and all Pt becomes Q. As RCN approaches 0, S approaches infinity, and all rainfall is stored in the watershed. In this case, there is no occurrence of Q. The RCN describes the land use, soil-infiltration rate, and soil-moisture conditions prior to the storm event. The SCS has divided soils into four hydrological groups in accordance with their infiltration rates and soil textures (Table 10.3), and defined antecedent moisture conditions (AMC) into three categories (Table 10.4). The AMC is based on the season and 5-day antecedent precipitation. Once the land use and the hydrologic soil group of the watershed are identified, the RCN can be obtained from Table 10.5 for AMC II, which is an average value for initial abstraction equal to 0.2S. Using Table 10.4, the RCN for the AMC II condition can be converted into RCN for AMC I or III conditions, if necessary. Solutions of Equation 10.25 are given in Figure 10.8.

2.

The rational equation (storm peakflow)

Estimates of peak discharges are required for the design of culverts, drainage works, soilconservation works, spillways of farm ponds, and small bridges. Although several empirical and hydrographic methods have been developed for estimating peak discharges from storm events, the rational equation is perhaps the most commonly used and simplest one in water-resource applications: Qp = k CIA

(10.27)

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189

Table 10.3 Hydrologic Soil Groups Minimum Infiltration Rate (in./h)

Group A B C

0.30–0.45 0.15–0.30 0.05–0.15

D

0.00–0.05

Soils Deep sand, deep loess, aggregated silts Shallow loess, sandy loam Clay loam, shallow sandy loam, soils low in organic content, and soils usually high in clay Soils that swell significantly when wet, heavy plastic clays, and certain saline soils

Source: Soil Conservation Service, 1979, National Engineering Handbook, Section 4: Hydrology, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

Table 10.4 Estimation of Runoff Curve Number (RCN) for Various AMC RCN for AMC II 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50

Corresponding RCN AMC I AMC III 100 87 78 70 63 57 51 45 40 35 31

100 99 98 97 94 91 85 83 79 75 70

RCN for AMC II 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Corresponding RCN AMC I AMC III 27 23 19 15 12 9 7 4 2 0

65 60 55 50 45 39 33 26 17 0

Note: AMC I: Optimum soil moisture condition from about lower plastic limit to wilting point; the 5-day AMC is less than 0.5 and 1.4 inches for dormant and growing seasons, respectively. AMC II: Average value for annual floods; the 5-day AMC is 0.5–1.1 and 1.4–2.1 in., in that order. AMC III: Heavy rainfall or light rainfall and low temperature within 5 days prior to the given storm; the 5-day AMC is greater than 1.1 and 2.1 in., in that order. Source: Soil Conservation Service, 1979, National Engineering Handbook, Section 4: Hydrology, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

where Qp is peak discharge in ft3/sec for the rainfall intensity I in in./h, A is the watershed area in acres, C is runoff coefficient or the ratio of runoff to rainfall, and k is 1.008, or a factor for unit conversion. If I is in mm/h and A is in ha, then k = 0.00278 to give Qp in m3/sec. The equation assumes that rainfall continues at a uniform intensity with duration equal to the time of concentration. The time of concentration (tc) is the time required for water to travel from the remotest part of the watershed to reach the outlet. For uniform rainfall intensity, this would be equal to the time of equilibrium at which the rate of runoff is equal to the rate of rainfall supply. Accordingly, the size of watershed should be small enough, up to 10 km2, to have storm duration equal to tc. If the duration is less than tc, then water is not contributed from the entire watershed. On the other hand, if the duration is greater than tc, then there are no additional areas to contribute water, and the rainfall intensity decreases. This makes Qp the highest when the duration equals tc. In practice, the rainfall intensity is obtained from the rainfall intensity–duration–frequency atlas (Hershfield, 1961) for the location with its frequency the same as the designed

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Table 10.5 SCS’s (1979) Runoff Curve Number (RCN) for Hydrologic Soil-Cover Complexes, Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) II Cover Land Use Fallow Row crops

Hydrologic Soil Group

Treatment or Practice Straight row Straight row Straight row Contoured Contoured Contoured and terraced Contoured and terraced Straight row

Small grain

Contoured Contoured and terraced Close-seeded legumes, or rotation meadow

Straight row

Straight row Contoured Contoured Contoured and terraced Pasture or Range

Contoured Contoured Contoured Meadow Woods

Farmsteads Roads

Dirt Hard surface

Hydrologic Condition

A

B

C

D

— Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor

77 72 67 70 65 66 62 65 63 63 61 61 59 66

86 81 78 79 75 74 71 76 75 74 73 72 70 77

91 88 85 84 82 80 78 84 83 82 81 79 78 85

94 91 89 88 86 82 81 88 87 85 84 82 81 89

Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Fair Good Poor Fair Good good Poor Fair Good — — —

58 64 55 63 51 68 49 39 47 25 6 30 45 36 25 59 72 74

72 75 69 73 67 79 69 61 67 59 35 58 66 60 55 74 82 84

81 83 78 80 76 86 79 74 81 75 70 71 77 73 70 82 87 90

85 85 83 83 80 89 84 80 88 83 79 78 78 79 77 86 89 92

flood and duration equal to tc. Values of tc in minutes are often estimated by the Kirpich’s (1940) formula: tc = 0.0078L0.77 S -0.385

(10.28)

where L is the length of channel from watershed divide to outlet in feet and S is the average channel slope in ft/ft. The constant 0.0078 should be replaced by 3.97 if L is in km and S is in m/m. The runoff coefficient C is affected by land use, surface condition, soil, and slope. Some typical C values are given in Table 10.6.

3.

The Manning equation (flood flows)

When there is no stream gaging station, the peak discharge of a flood is beyond the highest measured stage-discharge rating curve; when one is interested in the peak discharge of a

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191

Figure 10.8 Solution of SCS runoff equation (Equation 10.25) for rainfall P = 0–12 inches.

Table 10.6 Some Runoff Coefficients (C Values) for Equation 10.27 by Hydrologic Soil Groups (A, B, C, D) and Watershed Slope Range, Selected Values from McCuen (1998) Land Use

A 0–2% 2–6% 6%+

B 0–2% 2–6% 6%+

C 0–2% 2–6% 6%+

D 0–2% 2–6% 6%+

Cultivated

0.08a 0.14b 0.12 0.15 0.10 0.14 0.05 0.08 0.70 0.76 0.85 0.95

0.11 0.16 0.18 0.23 0.14 0.20 0.08 0.10 0.71 0.80 0.85 0.95

0.14 0.20 0.24 0.30 0.20 0.26 0.10 0.12 0.72 0.84 0.85 0.95

0.18 0.24 0.30 0.37 0.24 0.30 0.12 0.15 0.73 0.89 0.85 0.95

Pasture Meadow Forest Street Parking

0.13 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.16 0.22 0.08 0.11 0.71 0.77 0.86 0.96

0.16 0.22 0.30 0.37 0.25 0.30 0.11 0.14 0.72 0.79 0.87 0.97

0.15 0.21 0.28 0.34 0.22 0.28 0.11 0.14 0.72 0.82 0.86 0.96

0.21 0.28 0.37 0.45 0.30 0.37 0.14 0.18 0.74 0.84 0.87 0.97

0.19 0.25 0.34 0.42 0.28 0.35 0.13 0.16 0.73 0.85 0.86 0.96

0.26 0.34 0.44 0.52 0.36 0.44 0.16 0.20 0.76 0.89 0.87 0.97

0.23 0.29 0.40 0.50 0.30 0.40 0.16 0.20 0.75 0.91 0.86 0.96

0.31 0.41 0.50 0.62 0.40 0.50 0.20 0.25 0.78 0.95 0.87 0.97

a

Runoff coefficients for storm-return periods less than 25 years. Runoff coefficients for storm-return periods of 25 years or longer. Source: McCuen, R.H., 1998, Hydrologic Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, New York. b

previous flood, the Manning equation is often used for estimating steady and uniform flows in open channels. The equation requires measurements of channel depth, crosssectional area, and water surface slope (or bed slope) with an estimate of roughness coefficient in the following manner: Qp = (A R0.67 S0.5)/n

(10.29)

where Qp = the peak discharge in m3/sec, A = the channel cross-sectional area in m2, R = the hydraulic radius in m, S = the energy slope in m/m, and n is Manning’s roughness coefficient.

192

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests Table 10.7 A Few Values of Manning’s Roughness Coefficient for Natural Streams Compiled by Chow (1959) Type of Stream and Description

1. Minor streams (top width at flood stage < 30.5 m) a. Streams on plain Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools Clean, winding, some pools and shoals Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways with heavy stand of timber and underbrush a. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks Usually deep, trees and brush along banks Usually submerged at high stages Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulders Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 2. Flood plains a. Short grass pasture, no brush Long-grass pasture, no brush b. Cultivated areas, no crop Cultivated areas with mature row crops c. Scattered brush, heavy weeds Medium to dense brush, summer d. Dense willows, summer, straight Heavy stand of timber, a few trees down, little undergrowth, flood stage below branches

Minimum

Normal

Maximum

0.025 0.033 0.050 0.075

0.030 0.040 0.070 0.100

0.033 0.045 0.080 0.150

0.030 0.040

0.040 0.050

0.050 0.070

0.025 0.030 0.020 0.025 0.035 0.070 0.110 0.080

0.030 0.035 0.030 0.035 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.100

0.035 0.050 0.040 0.045 0.070 0.160 0.200 0.120

Dividing the difference in elevation of the high-water marks between upper and lower sections by the reach length in between can approximate the channel’s energy slope S. Values of R are calculated by dividing the channel cross-sectional area in m2 by the wetted perimeter of the cross section in m. The parameter n describes the resistance of a watercourse to flow. It ranges from about 0.009 for closed brass conduits to 0.50 for vegetated, lined channels (Chow, 1959). There are tables and pictures that give average or typical n-values for various channel conditions. A few values of n compiled by Chow (1959) are given in Table 10.7. Those channel photographs (Barnes, 1967; Arcement and Schneider, 1989; Coon, 1998) for which n values have been computed, along with hydraulic data and particle size, can be used to compare to a site of interest for estimating an n value. Also, equations have been developed to relate n values that were obtained from actual streamflow measurements with the hydraulic data and particle-size characteristics of stream channels (Table 10.8). These equations can be used to estimate n values for sites of similar conditions. The determination of n is critical to flood estimates. Roughness coefficient is not constant. It varies with time and depth of flows. Vegetation, bank, bed materials, channel configuration, and water temperature may change due to seasons and the magnitude of flow, which in turn impose different resistance to flows. A correction procedure involving the selection of one base value of n along with four adjustment factors (due to surface irregularities, channel configuration cross section, obstructions, and vegetation) and one corrective factor for sinuosity can improve the determination of n values (Cowan, 1956, sited by Arcement and Schneider, 1989). Perhaps the most reliable estimates are obtained by the calibration with historical discharge and stage records (Fread, 1993). In practice, a straight reach that is at least 100 m long and fairly homogeneous must be carefully selected. In other words, the width, depth, flow velocity, channel slope, roughness, bank soil texture, and bed materials must be relatively uniform. Reaches with

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193

Table 10.8 A Few Equations for Estimating Manning Equation’s n Values Equation 1/6

n = 0.113(R) /[1.16 + 2.0log(R/d84)]

n = 0.104(Sw)0.177 n = 0.32(Sf)0.38(R)-0.16 n = 0.121(Sw)0.18 (R)0.08 n = 0.289(R)0.14(R/d50)-0.44(R/T)0.30 Note:

Channel Conditions For high within-bank flows in gravelbed channels, D50 = 0.6 – 25 cm; Sw < 0.002. No significant vegetation in the channel bed, no dominate bed-form features; D50 = 2 – 15 cm R = 0.15–2.13 m; Sf = 0.002 – 0.09. Sw = 0.0003 - 0.018; R £ 5.8 m. Sw = 0.0003 - 0.018; R £ 5.8 m.

Reference Limerinos, 1970

Bray, 1979

Jarret, 1984 Sauer, 1990 Jobson and Froehlich, (1988)

R = hydraulic radius, m; d84 = intermediate particle diameter, m, that equals or exceeds 84% of the particles; Sw = slope of the water surface, m/m; Sf = energy gradient, m/m; d50 = median particle diameter, m; T = top width of stream, m.

Source: Cited in British units by Coon, W.F., 1998, Estimation of Roughness Coefficients for Natural Stream Channels with Vegetated Banks, U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2441.

rapids, abrupt falls, excessive channel-width variation, tributary flows, back flows, or submerged flows should be avoided.

4.

Water balance approach (annual streamflow)

Information on annual streamflow or long-term averages at ungaged watersheds can be estimated from: (1) runoff maps of the Nation (Busby, 1966; McGuinness, 1964; U.S. Forest Service, 1982), (2) empirical equations, and (3) the water balance approach. Runoff maps show long-term averages of existing conditions for different regions. They provide only general information for the region in question. Empirical equations estimate streamflow as a function of climatic, topographic, and land-use conditions. They are useful not only for estimating streamflow at ungaged watersheds, but also for providing a guideline for managing water resources of the region. Empirical equations are applicable only for the regions for which they were developed. The water balance approach is to solve the difference for streamflow through input, output, and storage components in the hydrologic cycle. First, precipitation (Pt) is used to recharge the soil moisture deficit (qs - qi) and then to supply water required for potential evapotranspiration (PE). The excess of Pt then occurs as streamflow Q. Values of PE can be calculated by those equations given in Chapter 9, part III, and the soil moisture deficit is calculated for the root-zone based on field measurements. Actual water translocation and movement is much more complicated than the generalized model described above. Thus, the water balance approach is more reliable for estimating streamflow of longer duration, such as monthly and annual. In practice, the water balance should be calculated by monthly sequence to account for soil moisture deficit from the previous month and then the monthly runoff summed to yield annual runoff. An example of the calculations is given in Table 10.9.

III. Forest practices and water quantity Forest transpiration is greater than soil evaporation because of the forest’s large canopies, litter floor, deep root systems, and greater energy level (see Chapter 9, parts II and part IV). Since forests do not increase the amount of precipitation for the area, at least in the temperate regions (see Chapter 8, part IV), the greater evapotranspiration loss to the air must compensate for a reduction of runoff in watersheds. Inversely, forest clearcut, or

c

b

9.9 1.5 8.4 37.5 0 8.4

February 9.6 3.3 6.3 37.5 0 6.3

March 8.1 6.4 1.7 37.5 0 1.7

April 8.4 11.2 -2.8 37.5 0 -2.8

May 11.9 15.0 -3.1 34.7 -2.8 -5.9

June 13.7 16.8 -3.1 31.6 -5.9 -9.0

July 13.5 15.5 -2.0 28.5 -9.0 -11.0

August 10.2 10.9 -0.9 26.5 -11.0 -11.9

September 7.1 5.8 1.3 25.6 -11.9 -10.6

October

5.8 2.3 3.3 26.9 -10.6 -7.3

November

9.1 1.5 7.6 30.2 -7.3 0.3

December

24.3

116.2 91.5 24.7

Year

If potential ET is used in the calculation, the estimated runoff will be lower by a value equal to PE-ET. qi = The initial soil moisture content of the month = qi of the previous month + (Pt - ET) of the previous month. If the answer is greater than qs (saturated moisture content), enter qs (= 37.5 cm) as qi. R = rainfall excess (runoff). There is no excess for months with negative values. Sum the positive values to yield annual total.

8.9 1.3 7.6 37.5 0 7.6

Pt aET Pt - ET bq i D = qi - qs cR = P - ET + D t

a

January

Components

Table 10.9 Calculating Runoff (All in cm) Using Water-Balance Approach

194 Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Chapter ten:

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195

converting forests into vegetation of smaller sizes and lower densities, is expected to cause an increase in streamflow. Numerous investigations and studies on the effects of forest and forest activity on water quantity have been conducted under various forest types and climatic, soil, and topographic conditions. These effects are addressed here on water yield, flow timing, extreme flows, and groundwater.

A.

Water yield

Cutting forests in small watersheds generally causes an increase in water yield. However, the increase in water yield gradually decreases with time because of the regrowth of vegetation. The duration of treatment effects has been estimated to be as long as 80 years for the Fool Creek watershed of the Fraser Experimental Forest, Colorado (Troendle and King, 1985), and only 4 years on Leading Ridge III in Pennsylvania (Lynch and Corbett, 1990). Generally, it is shorter in humid regions and in species with deep root systems. Increases in water yield are affected by the intensity of forest cutting, species, amount and timing of precipitation, and soil topographic conditions.

1.

Forest-cutting intensity

Under a given environmental condition, the increase in water yield is affected by cutting intensity and distribution. Clearcutting the entire watershed yields the maximum increase, while thinning yields the minimum. For a complete forest clearing, the increase in the first posttreatment year was about 462 mm (39%) at the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest in Oregon, 427 mm (65%) at Coweeta, North Carolina, and 15 mm (8%) at the Wagon Wheel Gap in Colorado (Table 10.10). However, increases were reported as much as 470 to 600 mm/year in the second to fifth posttreatment year in western Oregon (Harr et al., 1982), the greatest ever reported in the U.S. Table 10.10 Selected Results on the First-Year Increase in Water Yield after Complete Forest Cutting in the U.S. Region The East Coweeta, NC Hot Springs, MS Hubbard Brooks, NH Leading Ridge, PA Fernow, W. VA Bear Creek, AL The Northwest H. J. Andrews, OR H. J. Andrews, OR Coyote Creek, OR The North Marcell Experimental Forest, MN The Rocky Mountains Fool Creek, CO Wagon Wheel Gap, CO The Southwest Beaver Creek, AZ

Forest Type

Mixed hardwoods Shortleaf pine

Water Increase mm %

Reference

Mixed hardwoods Mixed hardwoods Mixed hardwoods Pine-hardwoods

427 370 116 343 137 130 297

65 38 13 40 23 19 60

Hewlett and Hibbert, 1961 Ursic (1991) Hornbeck et al., 1970 Lynch and Corbett, 1990 Reinhart and Trimble, 1962 Betson, 1979

Douglas fir Douglas fir Douglas fir and pine

462 420 360

39 27 39

Rothacher, 1970 Harr et al., 1982 Harr et al., 1979

Aspen-birch

81

39

Hornbeck et al., 1993

Alpine and subalpine Bristlecone pine

94 15

36 8

Troendle and King, 1985 Bates and Henry, 1928

Ponderosa pine

99

63

Baker, 1986

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

These results provide evidence of forest removal as a potential for water yield augmentation. However, the augmentation of water yields in the U.S. is an attainable goal only if: (1) forests cover a significant portion of the entire watershed (Douglass, 1983), (2) average precipitation exceeds 400 to 450 mm/year (Hibbert, 1983), and (3) forest cover reduction is greater than 20% (Stednick, 1996). Since most watershed studies were conducted in headwater areas, how much the downstream users can enjoy the upstream increase is an addressable question. While there is great potential to augment water yield by 10 to 65% through forest cutting, it can impose adverse effects such as nutrient losses, soil erosion, lower water quality, and less aesthetic environments. Watershed managers select a less intensive cutting or a small area of clearcutting to mitigate the environmental problems that might be incurred by a largescale harvesting (Gottfried, 1983; Johnston, 1984). Small openings in the watershed can also benefit timber and wildlife resources (Folliott and Thorud, 1977), are effective BMPs for controlling nonpoint sources of water pollution (Lynch and Corbett, 1990), and can improve stream habitats, consequently increasing the primary productivity of aquatic biota in headwater streams (Bureau of Land Management, 1987; Gregory et al., 1987). The increase in water yield by partial cuttings is less than clearcutting, depending on intensity and distribution of the cutting. In the eastern U.S., increases in water yield for harvest of hardwoods can be estimated by the following equations (Douglass, 1983): Y1 = 0.00224(BA/PI)1.4462

(10.30)

D = 1.5(Y1)

(10.31)

Yi = Y1 + b log(i)

(10.32)

where Y1 = the first year increase in inches for the harvest of hardwoods; BA = the percent basal area cut of the watershed; PI = the annual potential insolation index, in 1 ¥ 10–6 cal cm-2 for the watershed calculated by methods of Lee (1963) or Swift (1976); D = the duration of treatment effect in years; Yi = the yield increase in inches for the ith year after treatment; and b = coefficient derived by solving Equation 10.32 for the year when i = D, and Yi = 0. For example, completely clearcutting an eastern hardwood watershed (BA = 100) in the Appalachian Highland of West Virginia with the PI = 0.3 could increase water yield in the first posttreatment year 9.97 in (25.3 cm). The increase would decline to 4.18 in. (10.6 cm) in the fifth year after treatment and to its pretreatment level in the 16th year. If the watershed is cut by 50% of its basal area (BA = 50), then the first-year increase is reduced to 3.66 in. (9.3 cm), and it takes 6 years for water yield to return to its pretreatment level. In the West, a 67% selection cut in Caspar Creek dominated by redwood and Douglas fir in California caused an average annual increase in water yield of 94 mm or 15% (Keppeler and Ziemer, 1990). A 25% patch cut in Brownie Creek, Utah, dominated by lodgepole pine, increased annual streamflow by 147 mm or 52% (Burton, 1997). Cutting by single-tree selection or thinning does not produce large increases in water yield (Troendle and King, 1987), unless the density is reduced to a basal area of 6.9 m2/ha as it was in Beaver Creek, Arizona (Baker, 1986), or of 9.2 m2/ha as in Workman Creek, Arizona, (Rich and Gottfried, 1976). Small openings in upper slopes can cause a smaller increase in water yield than those in lower slopes or close to stream channels. Riparian vegetation and phreatophytes with root systems extending into the groundwater table or capillary fringe transpire much more

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197

water than mesophytes growing on uplands. Streamflow can be increased with relatively little work by eliminating riparian vegetation through mechanical eradication or transpiration suppression (Ingebo, 1971). However, the treatment of riparian vegetation is effective only if: (1) the water supply exceeds ET loss after treatments, (2) the water table is within reach of the vegetation root systems, and (3) the soils are of sufficient depth to permit the reduction in ET if the deep-rooted vegetation is eliminated. Treatments need to be done with care due to possible soil erosion and water quality problems and in compliance with environmental regulations. However, riparian vegetation management is more effective in the West than in the East (Lynch, 2001).

2.

Species

Plant transpiration rate is different among species due to characteristic canopy, height, and root systems. Generally, conifers have greater total leaf-surface areas and retain foliage all year round; they intercept and transpire more water than hardwoods. Chaparrals are deep-rooted evergreen shrubs with a large biomass above ground. Transpiration and interception losses are greater for chaparrals than for grasses of shallower root systems and longer dormancy period. The lower stem, smoother surface, and light-colored canopy of grasses cause the reflection of solar radiation to be greater, the energy absorption to be lower, and consequently the water consumption to be less than those of woody plants. In other words, deep-rooted evergreen species with large and dark canopies transpire a great deal more water every year than shallow-rooted deciduous species with small and lightcolored canopies. Thus, transpiration rate in general is greatest for conifers, followed by hardwoods, chaparrals, and grasses. Converting species composition in watersheds from higher transpiration rate to lower transpiration rate increases water yield. Many watershed observations have provided evidence on increases in water yield through manipulation of species composition (Table 10.11). In the West, water yields were increased up to 150 mm/year by converting chaparrals into grasses. However, the species conversion is effective only if it is conducted in areas where: (1) the soil depth is more than 1.0 m, (2) precipitation is greater than 400 mm/year, (3) annual ET is less than annual precipitation, and (4) the introduced grasses are shallow-rooted species. A pioneer government project has been initiated to augment water supply through brush control in Texas. There, about 130 million mesquites and 100 million junipers rob west Texas of almost 2.5 km3 of water every year. In 1985, Texas Senate Bill 1083 created the Texas Brush Control Program, which is administered by the Texas State Soil and Water Conservation Board through local soil and water conservation districts, to prepare and adopt a state brush-control plan. A brush-control feasibility study was conducted on the North Concho Watershed at Carsbad in 1997. The results showed that as much as 4132 m-ha of water could be saved per year, or about five times the current flow. In 1999, the House Bill 1592 funded a 2-year, $7 million pilot program for brush-control cost share in the North Concho River Watershed. The success of the brush-control project will provide an attractive approach to mitigating water stress in the West.

3.

Precipitation

Forest manipulation for water augmentation is more effective in humid regions and during wet years. Also, precipitation enhances rapid growth of vegetation, and the duration of treatment effects in humid regions is shorter than that in arid regions. In the chaparral country of California and Arizona, precipitation is the major factor in water-yield response to species conversion. In areas where average annual precipitation is less than 400 mm, there is no potential for increasing water; and for areas with precipitation between 400 and 500 m, the increase is likely to be marginal. On western rangelands of the U.S., the

Precipitation (mm/year)

572 660 480 673 920 620 460 1854 1930 259

Location

Sane Creek, WY Whitespar, AZ Mingus, AZ Three Bar, AZ Mendocino, CA Placer County, CA Beaver Creek, AZ Coweeta, NC Coweeta, NC Boco Mt, CO Sagebrush Chaparral Chaparral Chaparral Oaks Oaks, forb Pinyon, etc. Hardwoods Hardwoods Sagebrush

Original Vegetation Control by 2,4-D Herbicides control To grass by fire To grass by fire 2,4-D to grass 2,4-D to clovers 2,4-D to forbs Cut to fescue Cut to white pine Plow to wheatgrass

Conversion Treatments +11 mm, +69 mm, +10 mm, +148 mm, +39% +113 mm +157% +78 mm -64 mm -9 mm 11 7 5 18 10 3 8 5 4 6 years years years years years years years years years years

Effects on Water Yield (mm or %)

Sturges, 1994 Davis, 1993 Hibbert et al., 1982 Hibbert et al., 1982 Pitt et al., 1978 Lewis, 1968 Baker, 1984 Hibbert, 1969 Swank and Miner, 1968 Lusby, 1979

Reference

Table 10.11 A Few Studies on the Effects of Species Conversion and Brush Control on Average Water Yield (in mm or %) in the U.S.

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mean annual increase in water yield Q in mm was related to mean annual precipitation P in mm by (Hibbert, 1983): Q = –100 + 0.26 (Pt)

(10.33)

in which Pt has to be >385 mm/year for any positive forest treatment effects on Q. At the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest in western Oregon, Harr (1983) showed that increases in water yield due to harvest of Douglas-fir forest in watershed HJA-1 could be estimated by: Qi = 308 + 0.87(Pt) – 18.1 (Yi)

(10.34)

where Qi = the predicted annual increase of water in mm in ith year after harvest, Pt = annual precipitation in mm, and Yi = the ith year after harvesting. Equations 10.33 and 10.34 show that the precipitation effect on yield increase is much greater in the Northwest than in the Southwest of the U.S. Water yield increases about 1 mm for each 1 mm increase in precipitation at watershed HJA-1 and for each 4 mm increase in precipitation in the Southwest. This difference is probably associated with: (1) climatic factors such as temperature and monthly distribution of precipitation, (2) soil topographic factors such as soil depth and the gradient, aspect, shape of slopes, and (3) vegetal factors such as species, age, and treatments.

4.

Soil topographic conditions

Hydrological responses to forest harvests vary among watersheds due to the type and depth of soils along with steepness and orientation of the watershed. Soils of deep and fine textures have a much greater water-holding capacity than soils of shallow and coarse textures, consequently a greater potential for yield increase. Rowe and Reimann (1961) stated that water yield could not be appreciably increased in soils with depth less than about 1 m. Slope aspect affects solar radiation, precipitation, and wind speed, consequently soil and air temperatures, snow accumulation, snowmelt, ET, and vegetation type and growth. Forest transpiration is generally greater in northern than in southern slopes because of denser vegetative cover and deeper soils (Bethlahmy, 1973). Actual observations showed that clearcutting on south-facing slopes caused only about a one-third increase of that measured on north-facing slopes in Idaho (Cline et al., 1977) and at Coweeta, North Carolina (Douglass, 1983).

B.

Timing of streamflow

The seasonal distribution of water yield associated with forest management is not uniform throughout the year. Since increases in water yield caused by forest cutting are attributable to the reduction in canopy interception and transpiration, a large proportion of increased flow must occur during the growing season. However, superimposed on this vegetal effect are precipitation type and seasonal distribution. In areas where precipitation is dominated by rainfall with no significant distribution pattern throughout the year, such as the eastern U.S., most of the flow increases occur in summer and fall. The impact of forest cutting on water yield in winter and early spring is insignificant when both cut and uncut watersheds are saturated and ET is minimum. For an eastern hardwood forest that was cut annually during a 7-year period, Swank and Johnson (1994) showed that 76% of the mean monthly increase in runoff occurred during the low-flow period, July to December.

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In the Rocky Mountain region, where precipitation is dominated by snow and 70 to 80% of the total annual runoff occurs during the summer months, forest clearing reduces ET and enhances snow accumulation and snowmelt. Thus, the greatest increase in water yield occurs during the snowmelt period. The classic study on the Fool Creek Watershed in Colorado showed that increases in runoff were primarily on the rising side of the annual hydrograph with May being the greatest, accounting for more than 50% of the estimated annual increase (Troendle, 1983). However, a 25% harvest of lodgepole-pine forest on a large watershed (2145 ha) in northeastern Utah gave a different perspective. The cutting caused an average increase in runoff of 52% (14.7 cm) per year, but increases occurred primarily on the recession limb of the annual hydrograph (May through August) with little or no change in winter (Burton, 1997). Hydrologic storage is greater in large watersheds, which can have implications for its timing on flow increases different from small watersheds. In areas where summer is dry and the majority of precipitation occurs in fall and winter, the greatest proportion of water-yield increase due to forest cutting occurs during the rainy season. For example, about 80% of annual precipitation in western Washington and Oregon occur between October and March, and major increases occur between December and March when there is plenty of streamflow and no agricultural demand for water. Although large in relative terms, summer increases are small in absolute value when water stress is high. Thus, without storage facilities, water increases in winter seem to be of little economic benefit downstream when water is most needed (Harr et al., 1979).

C.

Flow extremes

For quite some time, forests have been speculatively claimed as streamflow moderators by making high flows lower and low flows higher. Numerous watershed observations and studies in the last century have provided many new perspectives on the speculation of forest–water relationships. If forest clearings do increase water yield in watersheds, as discussed in the previous sections, then the increase must be attributable to quick flows, low flows, or both. Timber harvests have been shown to cause low flows higher in magnitude, shorter in duration, and less frequent in occurrence (Troendle, 1970; Harr et al., 1982; Swank and Vose, 1994). However, the effect on quick (storm) flows is highly variable. It can be an increase (Burton, 1997), no change (Hewlett and Hibbert, 1961), and even a decrease (Harr and McCorison, 1979), depending on the severity of soil disturbance, cutting intensity and distribution, size and distribution of storms, antecedent soil-moisture condition, and precipitation type.

1.

Peak flows

For a given region, peak flows are generally lower in watersheds with a greater percentage of forested area (Reich, 1972; Chang and Waters, 1984). Thus, cutting forests can cause an increase in peak flows. Reported increases include 15% at Coweeta, North Carolina (Swank and Johnson, 1994), 35–122% in coastal Oregon (Harr, 1976), 10–89% in the Horse Creek Watersheds, Idaho (King, 1989), 66% in Brownie Creek, Utah (Burton, 1997), 180% in Upper Bear Creek, Alabama (Betson, 1979) and 340 to 880% on Leading Ridge-2, Pennsylvania (Lynch and Corbett, unpublished report). The causes can be attributable to more saturated soils, soil compaction, road construction, and differences in snow accumulation and snowmelt. However, peak flows can also be decreased or remain unchanged after logging (Thomas and Megahan, 1998), depending on cutting intensity, location in the watershed, regrowth of vegetation, and climatic patterns. As long as the forest floor remains intact, the effect of clearcutting on peak flows could be significantly reduced (Harr et al., 1979). The increase in peak flows occurred generally in the growing season, and quick flows were a small portion of the total water increases. For example, of the average increase

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of 280 mm/year in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire, only 99 mm or 35.4% occurred as quick flows (Hornbeck et al., 1970). In other words, most of the streamflow increase was in the form of base flow. Storm-runoff events occurring after fall recharge of soil moisture and before the start of spring snowmelt were unchanged by clearing. This is a desirable effect because streamflow increase in the form of base flow is of more value than quick flow. Also, the occurrence of peak flows in the growing season poses little danger than if the peak flows occur during the seasons when streamflow is high. Although low peak flows occur in forested watersheds and high peak flows result from forest cutting, it is not necessary to imply that forests can be relied on for flooding prevention. It is true that forests, due to the great amount of transpiration loss and the increase in soil water-holding capacity, are the most effective types of vegetation in reducing streamflow. Flood damage in forested areas is also the smallest among all natural surface conditions due to forests’ control on soil erosion, landslide, and channel stability. However, when the soil is saturated, any additional rainfalls will run off from the watershed whether it is forested or nonforested. Thus, forests can reduce peak flows for storms of short duration and low intensity, but cannot prevent the occurrence of floods that are produced from storms of high intensity and long duration over a large area.

2.

Low flows

The increase in water yield due to timber harvest results basically from increases at low flow levels, especially during the growing season. This has been reported in many regions including Minnesota (Verry, 1972), New Hampshire (Hornbeck, 1973), New York (Satterlund and Eschner, 1965), North Carolina (Swank and Vose, 1994), Pennsylvania (Lynch et al., 1980), western Oregon (Harr et al., 1982), and West Virginia (Patric and Reinhart, 1971). For example, timber harvest resulted in fewer low-flow days in both clearcut and shelterwood cut watersheds in the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon. In 1977, by far the driest year on record in western Oregon, the clearcut watershed had only 8 lowflow days instead of 143 days predicted by the prelogging relationship. For the shelterwood watershed, it had only 2 low-flow days instead of 135 days predicted by the calibration equation (Harr et al., 1982).

3.

Flow duration

Flow duration is often depicted by flow-duration curves. A flow-duration curve is a cumulative curve of the percentage time that a given flow magnitude is equaled or exceeded. Thus, the percent time of occurrence is greater for flows of lower magnitude than for flows of higher magnitude. In West Virginia, forest harvest increased the magnitude of both high and low flows for all frequencies of occurrence (Figure 10.9). Low flows were substantially augmented in both the wet and the dry year (Reinhart et al., 1963). Conversely, the frequency of both high and low flows was significantly reduced when two watersheds were converted from eastern hardwoods to white-pine plantation in Coweeta, North Carolina (Swank and Vose, 1994). By age 24 on one of the watersheds, high flows at 1 and 5% of time were reduced by 33 and 52%, respectively. Flows for other percentage of time were reduced 37 to 60% below predicted values (Figure 10.9). Forty percent of the aforementioned Fool Creek Watershed (290 ha) on the Fraser Experimental Forest, Colorado, was strip clearcut during 1954–1956. Total seasonal flow (1956–1971) increased 40%, peakflow increased 20%, and most detectable changes occurred in May. The increases appeared to be most for the flow durations in the range from 80 to 120% of bankfull; the highest flow durations were not affected (Troendle and Olsen, 1993).

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Figure 10.9 Flow duration curves: (A) predicted for a mature hardwood forest vs. measured from a watershed with 24-year-old white plantation in North Carolina, and (B) predicted vs. measured for a clearcut watershed at Parsons, West Virginia.

D. Groundwater Groundwater is the water percolated from precipitation and accumulated under the surface over time to form a relatively permanent zone of saturation. Thus, groundwater can flow through a column of soil with a velocity governed by the hydraulic conductivity (k) of the soil or rock strata and the difference in pressure head (h1 - h2), and is inversely proportional to the length of the column (L), V = k(h1 – h2)/L

(10.35)

where V is the velocity in cm/sec, k is in cm/sec, and h and L are in cm. Equation 10.35 is called Darcy’s law. The value k refers to the ability of the column material to transmit water and is known as permeability, and the item (h1 - h2)/L is the hydraulic gradient, which causes the flow to occur. Permeability is greatly affected by the size and configuration of pores in a medium. Sandy materials transmit water more efficiently than clays. Groundwater level has been the subject of hectic discussion in forest hydrology. It is defined as the level at which groundwater stands in an open hole under natural potential, expressed either as the distance below the ground surface or a topographic elevation above a standard datum such as mean sea level. Both increase and decrease of water table following deforestation have been reported in many parts of the world. The interactions of soil texture and profile, geological characteristics, local topography, groundwater depth, precipitation type and seasonal distribution, forest type, root system, and other factors may have caused the forest effects to be inconsistent among studies.

1.

Groundwater in steep terrain

Springs, perennial streams, and water in wells are evidence of the existence of groundwater in mountainous regions. The subsurface stratigraphy in these regions is more complicated

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than that of level terrain, which can create a perched groundwater table (isolated zone of saturation) in the soil profile or disrupt the groundwater table. Groundwater in these areas can also be deep under the ground. The ability of forests in these areas to sustain springs and streamflow — and the disappearance of springs after deforestation — have been reported (Zon, 1927; Molchanov, 1963; Pritchett, 1979). On the other hand, increases in groundwater following deforestation have also been cited in many reports (Hamilton and King, 1983). A higher groundwater table under forests than in the open may reflect specific site conditions optimal for infiltration of precipitation. In steep topography, open areas may have greater evaporation and runoff, reducing water entering the ground. In areas where groundwater is shallow, the most immediate effect of forests is the access of their root systems to the water table. Here groundwater is subject to diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in response to transpiration losses (Groeneveld and Or, 1994). The diurnal pattern of fluctuations is most distinct near small headwater streams; it can be used as an estimate of evapotranspiration rate over time. In areas where soils are frozen and precipitation is dominated by snow, forests can increase snow accumulation and delay snowmelt in the spring. This frequently results in an increase of precipitation infiltration and consequently raises the groundwater table to above those groundwater tables in the open (Pereira, 1973).

2.

Groundwater in level terrain

In areas of gently level terrain where the subsurface conditions are more uniform and the horizontal movement of groundwater is slow, forests lower the groundwater table. The forest–groundwater relation is consistent in many studies including those in South Africa (Wicht, 1949), Italy (Wilde at al., 1953), Denmark (Holstener-Jorgensen, 1967), Finland (Heikurainen, 1967), the U.S. (Urie, 1977; Williams and Lipscomb, 1981; Riekerk, 1989), Australia (Borg et al., 1988), and others. Those studies showed that the fluctuations in groundwater tables reflected the differences in transpiration rate caused by seasons, time of the day, hardwoods vs. conifers, clearcutting intensities, and land-use conditions. In low-lying swampy areas where groundwater is excessive, lowering the groundwater table by forest transpiration can be beneficial to economic use of the site. However, water-loving plants and trees (phreatophytes) along streams and canals can be detrimental to water supply in arid and semiarid areas. While clearing phreatophytes is an approach to conserving water resources in arid areas, cutting forests in humid low-lying areas such as the southeast Coastal Plains can bring groundwater to the surface horizons. It then turns the whole area into a water-logged site, creating an anaerobic condition that is harmful to root development, retardatory to tree growth, and very detrimental to forest regeneration. For example, more than 120,000 ha of somewhat poorly drained saline soils support mature loblolly (P. taeda) and shortleaf (P. echinata) pines in central east Texas. Artificial pine regeneration on the clearcut sites of these soils is extremely difficult, with failure in three attempts in some cases. Transpiration and interception reduction raises the groundwater level, which may have brought salt along with it to near the surface. Thus, seedling mortality may have been caused by high water tables, toxic salt concentrations, nutrient imbalance, or combinations of all three (Chang et al., 1994). In western Australia, completely converting a forested watershed into agriculture moved the groundwater table upward more than 2.7 m/year in a 4-year period. This was equivalent to an increase in recharge of 6 to 12% of rainfall (Peck and Williamson, 1987). Wilde et al. (1953) referred to the experience of Trappist monks at the Fontana, near Rome, Italy, on malarial swamplands. Planting a deep-rooted, fast growing species of eucalyptus lowered the groundwater table 1 m and greatly reduced the mosquito population.

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Table 10.12 Mean Concentrations and Yields of Total Nitrogen (N) and Total Phosphorous (P) under Various Cover Conditions in the U.S. Land Cover ≥90% ≥75% ≥75% ≥40% ≥75% ≥90%

forest forest rangeland urban agriculture agriculture

Concentration (mg/l) Total N Total P 0.598 0.643 1.297 1.818 2.702 5.354

0.018 0.024 0.097 0.092 0.140 0.161

Yield (kg/ha/year) Total N Total P 3.47 3.54 1.04 7.30 5.55 9.54

0.091 0.129 0.065 0.347 0.255 0.266

Source: Omernik, J.M., 1976, Nonpoint Source–Stream Nutrient Level Relationships: A Nationwide Study, EPA600/3–77–105, EPA Environ. Res. Lab., Corvallis, OR.

IV. Forest practices and water quality Forested watersheds are generally at high elevations and in remote areas with little development and few disturbances. Forest canopies, floor, and root systems also provide the best mechanisms in nature to protect the watershed from accelerated soil erosion, landslides, and nutrient losses. Coupling these conditions with cooler water temperatures, due either to higher elevation or the shading effect of riparian vegetation, makes the quality of water flowing through forested watersheds better than in other surface conditions (Table 10.12). Since forests are subject to use and management for their various resources, activities in forested areas can destroy the equilibrium of the ecosystem and adversely affect water quality. However, with proper operational techniques and management, the adverse effects can be reduced to insignificant levels.

A.

Water-quality determination

Stream water quality refers to the levels of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of water that can affect aquatic environments and intended water usage. These properties are induced by the concentrations of various substances dissolved in the water and their interactions with the natural environment. The concentration levels of those constituents are minimal and stable when the water–soil–vegetation–atmosphere system within the watershed is in equilibrium. However, the levels can be greatly altered and water quality significantly impaired when human activities or natural actions disturb the watershed equilibrium. The degradation of water quality caused by human activities is often referred to as water pollution. Water pollutants are generally grouped into categories such as sediment, plant nutrients, heat, oxygen-demanding wastes, inorganic chemicals and minerals, disease-causing agents, synthetic compounds, and radioactive substances (Chapter 6, part IV). Sediment. which considered by far the nation’s largest single water pollutant, is discussed in great detail in Chapter 11. This section is more concerned with water chemistry and other pollutants.

1.

Input–output budgets

Elements in a stream are the output components in the watershed chemical budget system. Elements can be deposited to the watershed with precipitation, released from soils through weathering processes, mineralized from organic matter by biological activity, and leached

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from canopies with throughfall and stemflow. These are the input components in available phase. On the other hand, the available elements in the ground can be consumed biologically, volatilized, and lost to evaporation, percolated to the aquifer, leached out of the watershed through surface and subsurface runoff, or stored in soils by ion exchanges, fixation, and mineralization. Thus, the chemical-nutrient budgets of a watershed’s terrestrial-hydrologic system are affected complexly by an array of factors such as precipitation and temperature, type of vegetation, soil and geology, and topography. Elements in precipitation originate from sources including oceanic spray, gaseous and industrial pollutants, terrestrial dusts, and volcanic emissions. Although there is a great variation in water chemistry in precipitation, the input elements from precipitation are an important source for the ecosystem. In the humid Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire, precipitation input supplies about 66, 26, 6, 5, 4, and 1% for the annual uptake of S, N, Mg, Na, Ca, and K, respectively, by green plant biomass (Likens et al., 1977). The element balance between precipitation inputs and streamflow outputs varies among regions. In the southern coastal plain of Mississippi and Tennessee, the annual inputs of TKN (total Kjeldahl nitrogen), TP (total phosphorus), K, HN4-N, and NO3-N in rainfall were 3.5 to 17 times greater than the annual yields of those nutrients in stormflow (McClurkin et al., 1985; Schreiber et al., 1980). However, the annual mean concentrations of Ca, Na, Mg, K, and NO3-N in precipitation were only 10 to 70% of those in streamflow for undisturbed forest watersheds at Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire (Likens et al., 1977) and 1 to 35% on the western side of Olympic National Park, Washington (Edmonds and Blew, 1997). The total ionic strength of stream water was about twice that of precipitation at the Hubbard Brook (0.20 meq liter vs. 0.10 meq liter) and Coweeta, NC (0.12 meq liter vs. 0.06 meq liter; Table 10.13). Measurements at 3200 to 3700 m elevations in the Snowy Range of southern Wyoming showed that Ca, Na, Mg, and K in precipitation were lower, while NH4-N and NO3-N were higher (9 to 34 times) than those in streams (Reuss et al., 1993). These great variations reflect the complexity of the interactions of vegetation uptake, biological activities, soil and rock weathering processes, and runoff generation upon element movements and storage. Water carries particulate matter and elements when it passes through a watershed ecosystem. Thus, elements in water, expressed either in concentrations or in mass per unit area per unit time, are strongly related to the volume of streamflow discharge due to its dilution and leaching effects. The relationships can be properly expressed by a simple linear function for forested, headwater streams. For agricultural or urban watersheds and large drainage areas, power and exponential functions may be more appropriate for describing this relationship (McBroom et al., 1999). Generally, water quality is expected to be better for streams in colder regions because higher temperature reduces dissolved oxygen level, increases chemical reactions, accelerates organic-matter decomposition, stimulates microorganism activities, and encourages growth of algae and aquatic plants. Coniferous litter tends to be low in metallic cations such as Ca, Mg, and K, which can cause the developed soils to be more acidic (Brady, 1990). Studies of stream chemistry in Coweeta, North Carolina, showed that the pine ecosystems are more nutrient conservative for base cations than hardwood ecosystems as a result of lower flow discharge and higher nutrient accretion in vegetation (Swank and Vose, 1994). Nitrate–nitrogen concentrations and yields tend to be highest in northeastern and mid-Atlantic coastal states, while those of total nitrogen are highest in the Southeast and in parts of the upper Midwest. In the Rocky Mountain and Central Plain states, total phosphorous is generally the highest in the nation (Clark et al., 2000).

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Table 10.13 Weighted Mean Annual Concentrations of Dissolved Substances in Bulk Precipitation and Stream Water for Undisturbed Watersheds at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire (1963–1974) and Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, North Carolina (1973–1983) Substances

H+ NH4+ Ca2+ Na+ Mg2+ K+ Al3+ SO42NO3– ClPO43HCO3Diss. silica Diss. org. C pH Total a b

Hubbard Brook, WS #1–6, NHa Precipitation Stream Water mg/l m eq/l mg/l m eq/l

Coweeta WS#2, North Carolinab Precipitation Streamflow mg/l m eq/l mg/l m eq/l

0.073 0.22b 0.16 0.12 0.04 0.07

0.027 0.095 0.194 0.170 0.041 0.094 — 1.59 0.143 0.271 0.013 0.074 0.030

2.9 1.47 0.47 0.008 0.006

72.4 12.2 7.98 5.22 3.29 1.79 — 60.3 23.7 13.3 0.253 0.098 2.4

(4.14)

0.012 0.04 1.65 0.87 0.38 0.23 0.24 6.3 2.01 0.55 0.0023 0.92 — — (4.92)

102.9(+) 97.7(-)

11.9 2.2 82.3 37.8 31.3 5.9 26.6 131 32.4 15.5 0.1 15.1 4.5 1.0

26.64 6.80 9.70 7.38 3.35 2.41 — 33.1 10.2 7.65 0.42 1.21

(4.6) 198.0(+) 194.1(-)

600

Name

Soil Particles Size (mm)

Clay Silt Sand Very fine Fine Medium Coarse Very coarse Gravel

2.00

Source: USDA, 1993, Soil Survey Manual, USDA-NRCS Agricultural Handbook #18, U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

aerating action of wind, currents, and floodwaters; mixing brought about by precipitation; and photosynthesis activities. Low dissolved-oxygen levels can occur in streams due to respiration of aquatic organisms, decomposition of organic matter, and increase in water temperatures due to the exposure of stream surface to direct solar radiation, among other causes. Also, reduced streamflow or stream surface covered by floating mats of aquatic vegetation or leaves affect dissolved-oxygen levels. Some species such as Atlantic salmon require cool, highly oxygenated habitat with dissolved oxygen of at least 7.5 mg/liter, while a minimum concentration of about 4 to 4.5 mg/liter is sufficient for rainbow trout. Concentrations below 3 mg/liter are not satisfactory for many fish in streams (Narver, 1971), but hypoxic conditions (oxygen deficiency in body tissues) for warmwater fish can occur at as low as 2 mg/liter (Rutherford, 2001). d. Sediment. All streams carry particles of various sizes derived either from geologic strata, streamflow erosion, and land-surface runoff, or from anthropogenic sources including agriculture, forestry, grazing, mining, urban development, and other human activities. Transported particles are categorically separated into two groups: suspended load and bedload. Suspended load consists of particles up to 1 mm diameter (coarse sands; Table 10.16), depending on flow-transport capacity. Each stream channel has its own characteristic such as concentrations of suspended sediment and bedload sizes, as do its habitats. Any land-use activities that significantly alter sediment patterns in a stream can damage instream habitats and impact aquatic communities (Henley et al., 2000). Physically, sediment in suspended form reduces light penetration and water clarity in streams. The decline of light penetration leads to decreases in photosynthetic rates of the periphyton community (the primary production of a stream) and to the reduction of invertebrate fauna in the stream. This reduces the abundance of food organisms available to fish. Forested headwater streams depend more on energy inputs from streamside zones (e.g., leaf litter and other organic debris) than on primary production unless the canopy is open due to human activities or naturally derived causes. Thus, clearcutting forests to the stream bank fundamentally changes the nature of energy flow through these ecosystems. Turbid water makes feeding difficult for sight-dependent species such as salmon and trout, all larval fish, basses, sunfish, and most minnows. Also, heat absorption in the surface layer can be increased due to suspended sediment (MacDonald et al., 1991).

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Biologically, high concentrations of suspended sediment can disrupt fish respiration and cause gill damage (Reynolds et al., 1989). When sediment is deposited on the streambed, it can coat fish eggs and larvae, seal interstices, and trap fry (for salmonids) in the gravel. These factors cause oxygen deficiencies in gravel beds, inadequate removal of metabolities (free carbon and ammonia, toxic to aquatic organisms), and starvation of fry (only for salmonids). Recommendations of suspended sediment concentrations were less than 30 mg/liter for a high level and 100 mg/liter for a moderate level of protection. A suspended sediment concentration of 488 mg/liter was fatal to juvenile chinook salmon in Washington (Lloyd, 1987). However, in addition to the concentration level, the duration of exposure is crucial in a stressed environment. Newcombe and MacDonald (1991) showed that the product of suspended sediment concentration and duration of exposure was a much better indicator of effects (R2 = 0.64) than suspended sediment alone (R2 = 0.14). e. Substrate. The substrate, or streambed to hydrologists, of a stream is composed of a variety of particles in various sizes, voids among particles, organic matter, and aquatic animals and plants. It may be predominantly muddy, sandy, stony, or mixed, and may be stable or unstable. In headwater streams, particle sizes are generally larger (except coastal streams in the southeastern U.S.), channels shallower, cross-sectional areas narrower, slopes greater, and surface rougher than those downstream (Morisawa, 1985). Streams with braided channels are unstable, carry a great amount of bedload, and are severe in bank erosion. Streams with bedrock or bedrock-controlled waterways are stable and have less erosion (Rosgen, 1996). In other words, streambeds dominated by large particles tend to be more stable in general than ones dominated by fine particles. Substrate is the most biologically active zone in stream profiles. It is a site for egg deposition and incubation, a source for food supplies, shelter for protection from predators, and habitats for aquatic organisms. However, each aquatic species has its own preferred substrate; variations on species abundance and diversity are great among substrates. A mixed substrate of sand, gravel, and large particles (e.g., rubble, cobble, boulder) usually supports the greatest number of species. Lowland streams with silt and clay beds tend to have less diversity of aquatic animals, but may be a favorable site for aquatic plants and planktonic organisms (Gordon et al., 1993). Salmonids require a substrate with clean, mixed, stable gravel of 1 to 15 cm in diameter, small amounts of fine sediments, and high concentrations of dissolved oxygen (Narver, 1971). Gravel and gravel plus cobble, providing cover for resting and protection of newly hatched larvae, are dominant types of substrate in paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) spawning areas (Crance, 1987). In the Southeast, where there is a lack of large substrates such as boulders and bedrock ledges, woody debris becomes an important habitat component for smallmouth bass and spotted bass (Tillma et al., 1998). A study of population characteristics of smallmouth bass and rock bass in Missouri found that large substrate, undercut banks, and aquatic vegetation were the three most important habitat parameters among 32 parameters studied (McClendon and Rabeni, 1987). f. Pools. Pools are the concave sections along a stream channel where flow velocity is lower, water is deeper, and substrate particles are finer than in adjacent riffles or runs. Thus, when stream channels have no flow in summer, pools can still provide water for fish to survive and serve as sites for escape from intense predation. Deep slowmoving pools are helpful for salmonid survival under harsh winter conditions. Pools can be created by channel erosion and deposition processes, bank undercut, debris dams, beaver dams, logjams, or other events. They are essential habitats for stream fish, especially larger predatory species such as trout, and a variety of pools is required

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to provide habitats for different species and age classes of fish. Thus, species abundance and diversity are often related to the area, volume, depth, number, type, and frequency of pools. Land-use and management activities that cause severe soil erosion and stream sedimentation problems can reduce the depth, volume, and size of pools. Creating adequate pools in streams is a major effort in many programs for rehabilitating and enhancing stream habitat (Reeves and Roelofs, 1982; Seehorn, 1992). Often a pool is followed by a convex streambed section, called a riffle, where current is rapid, water is shallow, and sediment is dominated by coarse particles. Riffles are predominately inhabited by young and small fish. The sequence of pool–riffle along a stream channel provides a great diversity of channel morphology and aquatic habitats. g. Cover. The shading and sheltering effects of cover are essential to stream salmonids and other species. They can be in the form of streamside or submerged vegetation, undercut banks, logs, rocks, floating debris, turbulence, deep water, or turbidity (Bjornn and Reiser, 1991). Fish use cover for protection from disturbance and predation, feeding stations, food sources, wintering, and resting. Streams under overhanging vegetation are cooler in summer and warmer in winter, and have more nutrient input from vegetation. Cooler temperature under the shaded area imply greater dissolved oxygen, a parameter important to fish activities. In Kansas streams, root-wad and undercut bank areas were found to be the two most important habitat components affecting the density and biomass of spotted bass (M. punctulatus) among 34 studied parameters (Tillma et al., 1998). Underwater observations in southern Ontario, Canada, noted that both brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and brown trout (Salmo trutta) preferred holding positions beneath submerged cover structures rather than under above-water structures or uncovered control forms (Cunjak and Power, 1987).

2.

Habitat-rating indexes

Although many parameters can affect the variation of stream habitats (one study involved 43 parameters; Wang et al., 1998), some are more critical than others for a given species or community. Knowing those critical parameters and their impacts on stream biological communities is essential in formulating management, protection, and enhancement programs for aquatic resources. They provide resource managers with adequate information for decision-making without requiring complex data collection in the field. This is an advantage because managers often do not have time and funding to conduct rigorous data collection and analyses. This leads scientists to develop habitat indexes or models involving only a few key and sensitive parameters. Once developed, they can be used for: (1) spatial and temporal comparisons and communication with other streams, (2) constructing habitat maps in poorly sampled areas, (3) evaluating impact scenarios of regulatory alternatives, (4) identifying and prioritizing areas for conservation actions, and (5) predicting or assessing impacts of environmental change (Wang et al., 1998; Brown et al., 2000). Habitat indexes are simple mathematical expressions to relate habitat quality as a function of one or more environmental parameters. Values of environmental parameters used in mathematical calculations may be based either on assigned ranges given by professional judgment (0 to 1, or others, depending on how favorable the range is for survival, growth, and reproduction of a given species) or on actual field observations. The derived indexes result in a single value to represent habitat quality or conditions for a particular species or a life stage, or an entire fish community at a specified geographical scale. Some developed models include: habitat suitability index (HSI) by USEPA (1981) and USFWS (1981), rapid bioassessment protocols (RBP) by USEPA (Plafkin et al., 1989), habitat quality index (HQI) in Missouri (Fajen and Wehnes, 1982), qualitative habitat

Chapter ten:

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evaluation index (QHEI) in Ohio (Rankin, 1989), fish habitat rating system (SHRS) in Wisconsin (Wang et al., 1998), habitat suitability curve (HSC) in Kansas and Oklahoma (Layher and Maughan, 1987), and sediment stress index in British Columbia, Canada (Newcombe and MacDonald, 1991). Geographic patterns can be discerned from applying the indexes and GIS techniques, which provide managers with another tool to help formulate management plans.

B.

Forest practices

Forestry practices have potential impacts on stream habitats and aquatic communities by: (1) altering the structure and composition of the riparian vegetation, (2) allowing more solar radiation to reach stream surfaces, (3) generating more sediment to stream channels, and (4) decreasing the amount of large woody debris in streams. Stream-habitat parameters that are involved in the alteration may include supplies of organic matter, stream temperature, the stability of channel morphology, substrates, sediment, plant nutrients, dissolved oxygen, debris and large woody debris, pools, covers, and others.

1.

On riparian vegetation

The removal of riparian vegetation can affect food supplies of the stream through: (1) cutting down supplies of leaves, needles, twigs, and wood to streams, (2) shifting the composition of organic matter inputs from the more decay-resistant coniferous material to more decomposable deciduous material, and (3) reducing the amount of insects and other animal wastes that drop from canopies. These are of particular importance in smallforested streams where riparian vegetation virtually covers the water surface and the limited aquatic photosynthesis cannot provide the needed energy base for aquatic invertebrates, bacteria, and fungi. Here, as biologist Dr. Fred L. Rainwater (personal communication December 11, 2001) has stated, heterotropic (getting energy and nutrients from other organisms) dominated ecosystem functions in these headwaters. The fish living in this habitat are omnivores (eating both plants and animals) and invertivores (invertebrate eating), and seldom (perhaps a single species) piscivores (fish eating). The reliance of riparian source of organic particulates declines as the stream width increases and the sunlight strikes the stream surface. It then promotes autotropic (organisms making their own food) dominance over heterotropic. The individual sizes of fish increase, and piscivores become more common. Management objectives need to determine the balance between decreases in organic-matter supply and increases in primary and secondary production in the stream. Besides a source of food supplies to streams, riparian vegetation provides falling trees, coarse woody debris, shade, and cover important to stream habitats. In the West, California golden trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita) more often selected undercut bank, aquatic vegetation, and sedge and avoided bare and collapsed banks (Matthews, 1996). Variability of the density and biomass of smallmouth bass and rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris) was also associated with aquatic vegetation in Missouri streams (McClendon and Rabeni, 1987). Of the three cover parameters important to trout habitats, overhead riparian vegetation cover explained a greater amount of variation than rubble-boulder-aquatic vegetation and deepwater areas did in trout population size in southeast Wyoming (Wesche et al., 1987).

2.

On water temperature

a. Variations. Timber-harvesting operations often expose streams in headwater watersheds to direct solar radiation, a factor that can cause significant changes in stream temperature regimes. These changes include higher maximum and minimum tempera-

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

tures in the summer, greater diurnal temperature fluctuations, and longer durations for temperatures to remain above a threshold value (Hewlett and Fortson, 1982; Rishel et al., 1982; Beschta and Taylor, 1988). The effects are most significant in small streams in which streamflows are low and surface areas in relation to flow volumes are large. Studies showed that forest harvesting increased average daily maximum stream temperature 1.2 to 7.2∞C in the eastern U.S. and 0.6 to 8.0∞C in the western U.S. (Stednick, 2000). For summer maximum, increases were reported of more than 10∞C in central Pennsylvania and 16∞C in western Oregon. However, at higher elevations in northern latitudes, winter stream temperatures may be reduced due to the loss of insulation from riparian vegetation and the increase in outgoing longwave radiation from the stream (Beschta et al., 1987). Both temperature increases in summer and decreases in winter have negative impacts on biological communities. b. Management. In small-forested streams, convective, conductive, and evaporative heat-transfer processes at the water surface are insignificant due to very low wind movement (Brown, 1980). This means that solar radiation striking the water surface is the major source of heat for small streams. The energy received from the sun will not be dissipated to surrounding areas. It will be stored in the stream and cause increases in stream temperature. On the other hand, if a zone of riparian vegetation is lifted to shade the stream surface, it prevents stream surfaces from direct exposure to solar radiation, and the stream temperature is not likely to be affected by clearcutting. The length of shadow cast over the stream by riparian vegetation is affected by the height of vegetation, the orientation of stream azimuth in respect to the sun, solar altitude (affected by hour of the day and season), and geographical location. Although not managerial, shadow cast by streambank (especially for trench-typed streams) or topography is as effective as vegetation. Equations 8.11, 8.12, and 8.13 can be used to calculate the length of shadow cast by tree belts or streambank. For estimating the length of shadow required to completely span the stream, or the so called “stream effective width, We,” the following equations can be used (Currier and Hughes, 1980): We = Wa/sin b

(10.36)

Sin b = sin[180 – Ástream azimuth – sun azimuthÁ]

(10.37)

where Wa is the actual stream width and b is the acute angle between stream azimuth and azimuth of the sun. At lat. 40∞N on August 12, the sun’s azimuth at 9 a.m. is 110∞ (Figure 8.4). If the azimuth of a particular stream is 235∞ and the actual stream width Wa = 3 m, then We = (3 m)/[sin (180 - Á 235 - 110 Á)] = 3.66 m, or it requires a shadow of 3.66 m long to cross the stream surface. For actual width to be equal to effective width, it requires sin b = 1, or b = 90∞, meaning that the sun and stream are perpendicular. It is the smallest value of We. As the acute angle b decreases, We increases; We will reach infinity when b = 0, or where the sun and stream lie parallel to each other. Thus, the potential impact of streamside cutting on water temperature is greater for smaller streams because a greater surface area of small streams is more easily shaded by trees. If additional heat DH (in cal cm-2 min-1) is received at the stream surface due to the removal of riparian vegetation, its effect on stream temperature can be calculated by (Brown, 1980): Dt = 0.00017 (DH)(A)/Q

(10.38)

Chapter ten:

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219

where Dt is the increase in stream temperature in ∞C, A is surface area of the stream in m2, Q is stream discharge in m3 sec-1, and 0.00017 is a constant to convert discharge m3 sec-1 into g min-1. The value DH should represent net radiation in which solar radiation, stream reflection, and the exchange of longwave radiation between the stream and the air should all be considered. However, using solar radiation as the substitute for net radiation, DH was sufficient in several small streams in Oregon (Brown et al., 1971). The stream surface (area A) should include only the portion affected by the removal of riparian vegetation. Procedures for shade measurements in the field are given by Bartholow (1989). c. Impacts. Increases in stream temperature due to the removal of riparian vegetation generally stimulate primary production by microbial communities, algae, and invertebrates (Gregory et al., 1987). At the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, North Carolina, invertebrate taxonomic diversity increased in the stream immediately after clearcutting of a forested watershed, and benthic invertebrate abundance was three times higher. Biomass and production were two times higher following 16 years in succession than those of the adjacent control watershed (Swank et al., 2001). Higher production levels in green algae and grazer invertebrates suggest higher levels of food available for fish. However, the elevated temperature is accompanied by: (1) an increase in decomposition rates of organic matter by microbial activities that may lead to a deficiency of organic matter in certain periods of time and (2) a decrease in dissolved oxygen levels that can cause stress, disease, and mortality to fish. Coupling these fast microbial activities with a reduction in organic matter inputs from riparian vegetation may offset the increased primary productivity in streams to a significant degree. In the Northwest, increased summer temperatures could affect salmonids by altering habitat suitability for rearing, upstream migration while increasing susceptibility to disease, reducing metabolic efficiency, and shifting the competitive advantage of salmonid over nonsalmonid species (Beschta et al., 1987). Decreases in winter temperature may slow down egg development and increase the possibility of surface ice formation (Hicks et al., 1991b).

3.

On sediment

a. Variations and impacts. Stream habitat can be impaired by additional sediment induced by forest practices such as forest roads, clearcutting, site preparations, and burning. Annual average sediment concentrations in most forested streams are less than 10 mg/liter, while stormflows are up to 100 mg/liter (Binkley and Brown, 1993). However, maximum increases in sediment concentrations caused by forest practices had been reported to be 56,000 JTU at Fernow Experimental Watersheds near Parsons, West Virginia and 14,949 mg/liter in northern Mississippi in the East and 7,670 mg/liter at Alsea Experimental Watersheds near Toledo, Oregon, in the West (Table 10.17). Average increases in the first posttreatment year ranged from 300 to 900 mg/liter in general and, as an extreme case, from 2127 mg/liter in the control site to over 2800 mg/liter in the treatment in northern Mississippi. The variations reflected soil and topographic conditions of the forest activities, weather conditions during the operations, the intensity of soil disturbances, and with or without prevention measures. Increased sediment in streams can affect stream habitats in several ways. They include: (1) altering channel morphology important to aquatic lives such as pools, riffles, spawning gravel, flow obstructions (barriers to fish migration), and side channels extended from the stream’s edge (Chamberlin et al., 1991), (2) reducing the abundance of food organisms such as benthic invertebrates and periphyton available to the fish (Newcombe and MacDonald, 1991), and (3) degrading gravel quality and strata composition important to spawning and

Conifers

Douglas fir

Douglas fir

Firs, pines

Sitka spruce

Hardwoods

Hardwoods

Shortleaf pine

Loblolly pine

Southern pines

Alsea, OR

H/J Andrews Experimental Forest, OR

Entiat Experimental Forest, WA

Chiachagof Island, AK

Parsons, WV.

Leading Ridge, PA

Hot Springs, MS

Northern Mississippi

Alto, TX

Vegetation

Bull Run, OR

Location

Sheared Control

Control Sheared/bedded

4 1,268 313

Control (above) Logged/burned Control Commercial cutting Control Commercial cutting Control Cutting/roads/yarded 6,000 556 67 14,949 1,260 2,119 90

8 497

2,600 2–6 20–7,670 32–256 1,850

56,000 15 550 25

Sediment mg/l JTU

Control Below road construction

25% cut, roads, burned Control 100% cut, burned Control 25% patch cut/road

Treatment

Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Dec. 1983 5-year mean 5-year mean Max. month 1-year mean 1-year mean 1-year mean

Maximum Peak in July

Maximum Range Range Range Maximum

Measure

Blackburn et al., 1986

Beasley, 1979

Ursic, 1991

Lynch et al., 1975

Reinhart et al., 1963

Stednick et al., 1982

Fowler et al., 1988

Fredriksen, 1970

Brown and Krygier, 1971

Harr and Fredriksen, 1988

Reference

Table 10.17 A Few Studies on the Effect of Forest Practices on the Maximum Concentrations of Suspended Sediment (mg/l) or Stream Turbidity (JTU) in the U.S.

220 Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

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221

rearing habitats (Waters, 1995). Frequently, the majority of sediment delivered to streams comes from one or a few major storms. The excessive runoff not only carries a great deal of sediment from forest management sites to stream channels but also causes severe bank erosion and bed scouring. As a result, channel forms can be altered, deposited sediment redistributed, stream bank destabilized, and original habitats destroyed. b. Buffer strips. Many BMPs have been proposed to reduce sediment production from forest practices. Buffer strips are one of the most effective and have become a standard strategy in forest operations. Buffer strips, or streamside management zones (SMZs), are zones of vegetation left along a stream bank to protect stream sediment and water quality from forest practices. The effectiveness of an SMZ can be illustrated by a study conducted at 57 stations in 50 northern California streams. The study showed that the diversity of macroinvertebrate communities in streams with buffers (≥30 m) could not be distinguished from those at control sites, but were significantly greater than in streams without buffer strips (Newbold et al., 1980). Buffer strips require a width greater than the distance sediment can move downslope. Sediment-travel distance is affected mainly by land slope, overland flow velocity and depth, particle size, slope shape, and surface roughness. Predicting the distance of sediment movement is difficult because of the interactions among variables (Seyedbagheri, 1996). Many federal and state agencies have provided guidelines for the width of SMZ (U.S. Forest Service, 1984; Tennessee Valley Authority, 1990). The guidelines generally recommend widths that range from 10 to 100 m and wider for watersheds of steeper slopes and for protection of municipal water supplies. In the southern Appalachians, minimum SMZ widths for graded and graveled forest roads without brush barriers on the forest floor can be estimated by the equation (Swift, 1986): SMZ = 13 + 0.42 S

(10.39)

where SMZ is in meters and S is slope in percent. If there are brush barriers on the forest floor, the minimum width of SMZ is reduced to: SMZ = 10 + 0.12 S

(10.40)

For a 30% slope with no brush barriers on the floor, the minimum width of the SMZ is 26 m, while a similar slope with brush barriers reduces the width of the SMZ to 14 m. Buffer strips are subject to damage due to wind effect, logging, fire, or disease. Failures of buffer strips jeopardize streamside-management objectives and watershed-management programs. In the Cascade Mountains of western Oregon, a study on 40 streamside buffer strips showed that wind damage accounted for nearly 94% of timber-volume loss (Steinblums et al., 1984). Thus, SMZ needs to be wider in wind-prone regions and for species susceptible to windthrow.

4.

On large woody debris

a. Variations. Riparian trees deliver organic matter and debris continuously to the stream throughout their succession stages. Any woody material with diameter greater than 10 cm and length greater than 1 m is generally considered large wood debris (LWD) (Meehan, 1991). The amount of large woody debris is usually greater in small streams, streams with finer substrates, and streams with greater riparian tree density. However, the length and diameter of LWD increase with stream size. Large pieces of woody debris are difficult to flush out by flows, stay in the channel longer, and have greater impacts on

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stream morphology, flow movement, and habitats for small streams compared to large streams. In the Pacific Northwest, LWD covers as much as 50% of the channel in first- and second-order streams and 25% in third- and fourth-order streams (Sedell et al., 1988). Some coniferous LWD, depending on the transport capacity of streams and the resistance ability to decomposition, breaking, and abrasion, have been in channels of the Pacific Northwest for more than 200 years (Swanson et al., 1976). b. Impacts. Traditionally, LWD has been considered a physical barrier to fish migration, a blockage to floodwater movement, a retainer for sediment deposition, a consumer for dissolved oxygen, and a supplier of certain compounds toxic to stream biota. These negative impacts have led to the removal of LWD from streams and rivers to allow fish migration, to reduce flood hazards, and to improve stream-habitat quality as a general practice through the early 1980s (MacDonald et al., 1993). More recent studies showed that LWD is an important part of the stream morphology–habitat system. LWD affects channel meandering and bank stability, creates a greater variation in stream width and channel gradient, forms pools and waterfalls, and regulates the storage and routing of sediment. However, these impacts on the landscape are variable in degree due to the position, orientation, size, volume, and frequency of LWD in stream channels (Bisson et al., 1987; Sedell et al., 1988). Biologically, LWD provides fish populations with diversified habitats, organic matter and energy required in the aquatic food web, cover, and pools as survival shelters during low flows in the summer. Timber harvesting and logging of riparian trees often cause streams to: (1) decline in the amount and size of LWD, (2) decrease in pool frequency and size, (3) lose important habitat features, (4) reduce fishpopulation abundance, (5) increase in bank instability, (6) decline in insect-community diversity, and (7) have reduced benthic detritus (Bryant, 1980; Bilby, 1984; Carlson et al., 1990; Ralph et al., 1994). In the Pacific Northwest, the removal of riparian forests has reduced sources of LWD to stream channels for several decades, causing LWD abundance in the channel to decline and remain low for 50 to 100 years after logging (Beechie et al., 2000). It then becomes a challenge to forest- and fishery-resource managers to decide how much and what kind of LWD is required to add to the stream as an adequate measure for maintaining fish habitats.

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Taylor, S.E. et al., 1999, What we know — and don’t know — about water quality at stream crossings, J. For., 97, 12–17. Tennessee Valley Authority, 1990, Best Management Practices for Silvicultural Activities on Land, Division of Land Resour., Noris, TN. Texas Forestry Association, 1989, Texas Best Management Practices for Silviculture, Lufkin, Texas. Tiedemann, A.R. et al., 1979, Effects of Fire on Water, USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-10. Tiedemann, A.R., Helvey, J.D., and Anderson, T.D., 1978, Stream chemistry and watershed nutrient economy following wildfire and fertilization in eastern Washington, J. Environ. Qual., 7, 580–588. Tillma, J.S., Guy, C.S., and Mammoliti, C.S., 1998, Relations among habitat and population characteristics of spotted bass in Kansas streams, North Am. J. Fisheries Manage., 18, 886–893. TNRCC (Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission), 1995, Texas Surface Water Quality Standards, Austin, TX. Thomas, R.B. and Megahan, W.F., 1998, Peak flow responses to clear-cutting and roads in small and large basins, western Cascades, Oregon: a second opinion, Water Resour. Res., 34, 3393–3403. Troendle, C.A., 1970, The flow interval method for analyzing timber harvesting effects on streamflow regimen, Water Resource. Res., 6, 328–332. Troendle, C.A., 1983, The potential for water yield augmentation from forest management in the Rocky Mountain region, Water Resour. Bull., 19, 359–373. Troendle, C.A. and King, R.M., 1985, The effect of timber harvest on the Fool Creek watershed, 30 years later, Water Resour. Res., 21, 1915–1922. Troendle, C.A. and King, R.M., 1987, The effects of partial and clearcutting on streamflow at Deadhorse Creek, Colorado, J. Hydro., 90, 145–157. Troendle, C.A. and Olsen, W.K., 1993, Potential Effects of Timber Harvest and Water Management on Stream Dynamics and Sediment Transport, in Sustainable Eco. Systems: Implementing an Eco. Approach to Land Management, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-247, Forest Service Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO, pp. 34–41. Urie, D.H., 1977, Ground Water Differences on Pine and Hardwood Forests of the Udell Experimental Forest in Michigan, Res. Pap. NC-145, USDA Forest Service North Central Forest Exp. Sta., St. Paul, MN. Ursic, S.J., 1991, Hydrologic effects of two methods of harvesting mature southern pine, Water Resour. Bull., 27, 303–315. USDA, 1993, Soil Survey Manual, USDA-NRCS Agricultural Handbook #18, U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. USEPA, 2000, The Quality of our Nation, EPA84 1-S-00–001, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. U.S. Forest Service, 1982, An assessment of the forest and range situation in the United States, Forest Resour. Rep. 22., Washington, D.C. U.S. Forest Service, 1984, Regional Guide for the South, Southern Region, Atlanta, GA. USFWS, 1981, Standards for the Development of Habitat Suitability Index Models for Use with the Habitat Evaluation Procedures, Report 103, ESM release 1–81, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Ecological Services, Washington, D.C. Verry, E.S., 1972, Effect of an aspen clearcutting on water yield and quality in northern Minnesota, in National Sym. on Watersheds in Transition, Fort Collins, CO, Am. Water Resour. Assoc., Minneapolis, MN, pp. 276–284. Wang, L., Lyons, J., and Kanehl, P., 1998, Development and evaluation of a habitat rating system for low-gradient Wisconsin streams, North Am.J. Fisheries Manage., 18, 775–785. Waters, T.F., 1995, Sediment in Streams: Sources, Biological Effects and Control, Am. Fisheries Soc., Bethesda, MD. Wesche, T.A., Goertler, C.M., and Frye, C.B., 1987, Contribution of riparian vegetation to trout cover in small streams, North Am. J. Fisheries Manage., 7, 151–153. Wicht, C.L., 1949, Forestry and water supplies in South Africa, Dept. Agr. South Africa, Bull. 33. Wilde, S.A. et al., 1953, Influence of forest cover on the state of the groundwater table, Soil Sci. Soc. Proc., 65–67. Williams, T.M. and Lipscomb, D.J., 1981, Water table rise after cutting on coastal plain soils, South. J. Appl. For., 5, 46–48.

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Woods, P.F., 1980, Dissolved oxygen in intragravel water of three tributaries to Redwood Creek, Humbold County, California, Water Resour. Bull., 16, 105–111. Zon, R., 1927, Forests and Water in the Light of Scientific Investigation, Forest Service Lake States Forest. Exp. Sta. 106.

chapter eleven

Forests and stream sediment Contents I. Soil-erosion processes .....................................................................................................234 A. Detachment ..............................................................................................................235 1. Acting forces ......................................................................................................235 a. Raindrop (or flow) energy.........................................................................235 b. Storm energy ...............................................................................................236 c. Freezing water.............................................................................................237 d. Soil resistance ..............................................................................................237 2. Detachment rate ................................................................................................238 a. Interrills ........................................................................................................238 b. Rills................................................................................................................239 B. Transport ..................................................................................................................240 1. Rainfall transport ..............................................................................................240 2. Runoff transport................................................................................................240 C. Deposition ................................................................................................................241 II. Watershed gross erosion ................................................................................................242 A. Interrill and rill erosion .........................................................................................242 1. Empirical ............................................................................................................242 2. Factor-based .......................................................................................................242 a. Universal soil loss equation (USLE) ........................................................243 b. The revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) ................................250 3. Physical...............................................................................................................251 B. Ephemeral gully erosion........................................................................................251 1. Processes.............................................................................................................252 2. Estimates ............................................................................................................252 a. On-site visit procedure ..............................................................................252 b. Physical models...........................................................................................254 C. Gully erosion ...........................................................................................................256 1. Formation ...........................................................................................................256 a. Induced by surface runoff.........................................................................256 b. Induced by subsurface runoff...................................................................257 2. Gully types.........................................................................................................258 3. Estimates ............................................................................................................258 D. Mass movements ....................................................................................................259 1. Occurrences........................................................................................................260 2. Estimates ............................................................................................................261 233

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests E.

Channel erosion ......................................................................................................261 1. Stream-bank erosion.........................................................................................261 2. Sediment transport ...........................................................................................262 III. Estimation of sediment yield ........................................................................................264 A. Sediment delivery ratio .........................................................................................264 B. Sediment rating-curve............................................................................................266 C. Modified USLE........................................................................................................267 D. Statistical models ....................................................................................................267 E. Physical models.......................................................................................................268 IV. Vegetation effects.............................................................................................................268 A. Vegetation mechanisms..........................................................................................269 1. Mechanical effects.............................................................................................269 2. Hydrologic effects.............................................................................................270 B. Conservation plants................................................................................................271 C. Forest activity ..........................................................................................................272 1. Forest roads........................................................................................................272 2. Forest cutting and site preparation................................................................272 3. Forest fires..........................................................................................................272 References .....................................................................................................................................274

Stream sediment refers to particles that are transported or deposited in stream channels. These particles are derived from rocks, soil, or biological materials in the watershed and are carried to stream channels through runoff, debris flow, and channel and bank erosion. Particles deposited by wind erosion are less significant in humid areas. Sediment impairs the physical, chemical, and biological properties of streams and is the greatest water pollutant in the U.S. The fluctuation of sediment concentration and sediment yield are good indicators for the effectiveness of watershed management practices.

I.

Soil-erosion processes

Erosion is the movement of soil particles to a new location by raindrop splash, runoff, wind, or other forces. If the erosion is associated with water it is called water erosion. Likewise, it is called wind erosion if wind movement induces it. Erosion, on one hand, is a natural and geological phenomenon in which the loss of soil is a continuous process and occurs at a normal rate. It may, on the other hand, occur at a destructive rate if the surface condition is inproperly disturbed by human activities or other causes. This is called “accelerated erosion” and is a discrete event. Water erosion begins with detachment of soil particles or small aggregates from the bulk of soil mass. The striking force must be greater than resistance forces of the soil to initiate the detachment. Once detached, particles are transported by runoff with a distance controlled by soil properties, topography, runoff energy, and surface conditions. When the flow-carrying capacity of sediment is less than the weight of soil particles, deposition occurs. Thus, water erosion is a three-step process involving detachment, transport, and deposition. A soil particle can get to a nearby creek during a single storm, or can take as long as years, decades, or even centuries.

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Forests and stream sediment

235

Detachment

The initial soil detachment requires sufficient energy to overcome the cohesive force of soil particles. Once detached, the energy required for transport is much less.

1.

Acting forces

For water erosion, the major forces that cause particles to detach from soil mass are striking raindrops and overland flow. Alternate freezing and thawing enhance rock weathering. Its particle-detachment rate is below the geological erosion level. a. Raindrop (or flow) energy. The impact energy of a falling raindrop or flowing water can be calculated by: 1 --E = 2 (M Vt2 )

(11.1)

where E = kinetic energy, ergs (1 erg = force ¥ distance = 1 g ¥ 1 cm sec-2 ¥ 1 cm = 1 dyncm); M = the mass of raindrop or flowing water, g; and Vt = the terminal velocity of raindrop or flow velocity, cm sec-1. The terminal velocity of a raindrop increases with increasing raindrop diameter (Figure 8.2), while the velocity of overland flow increases with the depth of water layer. For a moderate rain of 0.40 cm sec-1, the average raindrop diameter is about 0.10 cm (Table 8.1), and its terminal velocity is 400 cm sec-1. It is rare to have an overland flow with speed exceeding 100 cm sec-1. Thus, the ratio of kinetic energy between raindrops from the moderate storm and an equal mass of overland flow of 100 cm sec-1 is (400/100)2, or 16. Apparently, raindrops are very effective for the detachment of soil particles. The impact energy of raindrops is the major force initiating soil detachment in a rainfall-simulation study of three different soils (Young and Wiersma, 1973). Generally, the size of raindrops increases with rainfall intensity. In the eastern U.S., Laws and Parsons (1943) showed that the median raindrop diameter (D50 , in cm) can be estimated by the rainfall intensity (I, cm/h) by this exponential function: D50 = 0.188(I)0.182

(11.2)

However, Hudson (1995) showed that the median raindrop diameter increases with rainfall intensity up to about 8.0 to 10.0 cm/h, and it is then decreased slightly beyond that intensity. Presumably greater turbulence at greater rainfall intensity makes larger drops unstable and breaks them into smaller drops. Actually, the relationship between median raindrop size and rainfall intensity is different among precipitation types. Therefore a relationship similar to Equation 11.2 should be developed for major climatic regions. At Hot Springs, western Mississippi, McGregor and Mutchler (1977) showed that only about 6% of the rainfall had intensity greater than 10 cm/h and 70% were 2.54 cm/h or less. Before more relationships are developed for different climatic regions, Equation 11.2 is adequate for most applications in the U.S. Raindrop energy is further modified by storm wind and plant canopy. Wind enhances soil detachment by causing inclination of raindrops, which in turn makes the impact energy greater than it does in still air by: Vt 2 1 ------------E = 2 M Ê cos aˆ Ë ¯

(11.3)

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests Table 11.1 Velocities (m/sec) of Various Sizes of Raindrops Falling from Different Heights in Still Air

Rainfall Intensity (cm/h) 1.25 2.50 5.00 10.00 a

Drop Diameter (mm)

0.25

1.00

2.00 2.25 2.50 3.00

2.89 2.93 2.96 3.00

3.83 3.91 3.98 4.09

˙Drop Fall Height, m 2.00 3.00 4.00 4.92 5.07 5.19 5.34

5.55 5.74 5.89 6.14

5.91 6.14 6.34 6.68

6.00

20.00a

6.30 6.63 6.92 7.37

6.58 7.02 7.41 8.06

Values in the column are considered terminal velocities.

Source: Laws, J.O., 1941, Trans Am. Geophys. Union, 22, 709–721.

where Vt/(cos a) is the vectorial velocity and a is the angle of raindrop inclination calculated by: Vh – 1 -----a = tan Ê V t ˆ Ë ¯

(11.4)

where Vh is the horizontal wind speed in cm sec-1, and Vt is already defined in Equation 11.1. Thus, for a raindrop of 0.10 cm diameter (Vt = 400 cm sec-1), a 500 cm sec–11 wind will cause an inclination of raindrops 51.34∞ from the vertical and make the kinetic energy of the inclined raindrops (1/cos 51.34∞)2 = 2.56 times greater than that in the calm air. Lyles (1977) showed that a storm with winds of 100 cm sec-1 detached soil particles about 2.7 times more than it did in still air, regardless of percent mulch cover. Plant canopies intercept falling raindrops and make the raindrops falling from the canopy have terminal velocities less than those from free fall. The reduction in fall velocity is dependent upon the height of the canopy. Raindrops falling from a height ≥20 m have a velocity equal to the free fall (or the terminal velocity), but the fall velocity is greatly reduced if the height is less than 20 m (Table 11.1). For a 3 mm raindrop falling from a canopy of 4 m above the ground, its kinetic energy is reduced by 6.682/8.062 or 69% compared to falling in the open or from a canopy of 20 m or taller. If the canopy is in direct contact with the soil, the fall velocity is zero because the intercepted raindrops have no remaining fall height to the ground. This means that grasses and litter are more effective in dispersing raindrop energy and consequently reducing soil detachment than plants with canopies high above the ground. However, the intercepted raindrops could be accumulated on the canopy and drip to the ground with diameters larger than those in the open (Chapman, 1948), although storm intensity is lower under the canopy. b. Storm energy. The kinetic energy of a storm is a function of storm intensity and duration along with mass, diameter, and velocity of raindrops. Based on Equation 11.2, Wischmeier and Smith (1958) developed the following empirical equation to estimate the kinetic energy of a storm rainfall: E = 210 + 89 log i

(11.5)

where i is the rainfall intensity in cm/h and E is the kinetic energy in metric ton-meters per hectare per centimeter. This means a storm with intensity of 1 cm/h would have enough energy to lift 210 metric tons of soil 1 m high in every hectare of land and in every

Chapter eleven:

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237

1 cm of rainfall. If this storm lasts only 30 minutes and the total rainfall is 0.50 cm (storm intensity still = 1 cm/h), then the E value is equivalent to 105 metric tons of soil 1 m high per hectare. Equation 11.5 applies to i £ 7.6 cm/h. For i > 7.6 cm/h, E = 289 t-m/ha-cm of rain. Other rainfall indices that relate kinetic energy to rainfall intensity or amount can be obtained from McGregor and Mutchler (1977), Morgan (1986), and Lal and Elliot (1994). Estimating total kinetic energy of a storm requires the sequential progress of rainfall depth vs. time, such as observations on a recording raingage chart. The storm is then broken down into segments of uniform intensity. Calculate the kinetic energy of each segment by the product of Equation 11.5 and the total rainfall in the segment, and finally sum the kinetic energy of all segments to yield the total kinetic energy (see part II). In forested areas, total kinetic energy needs to be modified by considering percent forest canopy coverage and the height of the canopy in this form: M th V th 2 -------- ------Ê Ee = E ( 1 – F ) + F M o ˆ Ê V o ˆ Ë ¯Ë ¯

(11.6)

where Ee = the effective kinetic energy of rainfall; E = the kinetic energy in the open, calculated by Equation 11.5; M = rainfall mass; v = raindrop velocity; and F = fraction of canopy coverage. Subscripts th and o, respectively, refer to throughfall and gross rainfall in the open. If the forest is taller than 20 m, then (Vth/Vo)2 = 1.0 and is omitted from the equation. c. Freezing water. Water expands as it freezes. The volume at -10∞C is 0.187% greater than at 4∞C, the smallest volume of water at any thermal condition. Such volume expansion exerts a pressure equivalent to about 146 kg cm-2. Thus, alternate freezing and thawing cause disintegration of rock, mineral, and soil aggregates. d. Soil resistance. Soil particles are bound to hold together due to cohesion, internal friction, and organic colloids. The force that holds particles together is often referred to as shear strength, and the ability of soil structural units to withstand the forces of raindrop impact and surface flow is called detachability. Generally, soil detachability decreases with increasing organic-matter content and infiltration rate, and increases with increasing particle size up to about 0.5 mm (Figure 11.1). Organic matter stabilizes soil structure by binding soil particles together. It forms an organo-mineral complex that can resist microbial degradation in soil for many years. The complex determines the duration and effectiveness in stabilizing soil particles (Barry et al., 1991). For a given volume of soil, the total surface area for small particles is much greater than for large particles, which causes an increase in particle contact and cohesive force and consequently a greater resistance to detachment. However, the weight of particles overcomes the surface attraction if the size is larger than about 0.5 mm. It then requires a great force to move the particles as the size increases. An interrill-erosion study conducted on 18 soils with a wide range of textures showed that the silt and silt loam soils were most erodible, the high-clay soils were least erodible, and the loam and sandy loam soils were intermediate (Meyer and Harmon, 1984). Shear strength is commonly determined by a series of (three or four) triaxial compression tests at different confining pressures carried to failure stresses in the laboratory and is defined by the Mohr-Coulomb equation (Parker et al., 1980): tc = C + sn tan f

(11.7)

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Figure 11.1 Erosion, transport, and sedimentation as a function of particle size. (Adapted from Hjulstrom, F., 1939, Transportation: transportation of detritus by moving water, in Sym. Recent Marine Sediments, Trask, P.D., Ed., Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, OK, pp. 5–31.)

where tc is the shear strength (gcm-2), sn is the effective normal stress (gcm-2), and C and f are empirical parameters, analogous to soil cohesion (g/cm-2) and the angle of internal friction, respectively. Cruse and Larson (1977) showed that soil detachment due to raindrop impact was significantly decreased with increasing shear strength in a second-degree polynomial regression function.

2.

Detachment rate

The detachment rate of soils (D) is determined by the relative magnitudes between kinetic energy of raindrops or surface flow (E) and soil shear strength (tc) modified by surface and topographic conditions. A number of studies had estimated soil detachment related directly to parameters such as raindrop energy (Bubenzer and Jones, 1971), the product of rainfall kinetic energy and maximum 30-minute intensity (Free, 1960), rainfall and soil characteristics (Ellison, 1944), rainfall and water depth (Martinez et al., 1980), and runoff energy and topographic parameters (Meyer and Wischmeier, 1969). a. Interrills. The USDA’s (1995) Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) hillside computer model breaks down erosion into interrill erosion and rill erosion. Rill erosion is the erosion that occurs in numerous small channels on hillsides by normal tillage, while erosion that occurs in areas between rills is called interrill erosion, formerly known as sheet erosion. Detachment on interrill areas is due to raindrop impact, and the detached particles are transported to the rills by raindrop impact and surface runoff. Soil detachment in the interrill areas (Di, kg/sec-1 m-2) is estimated by: Rs ----Di = (Ki)(I 2)(C)(G) Ê w ˆ Ë ¯

(11.8)

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239

where Ki is interrill erodibility (kg-sec m-4), I is effective rainfall intensity (m sec-1), C is the effect of canopy on interrill erosion (0–1), G is the effect of ground cover (0–1), Rs is the spacing of rills (m), and w is the computed rill width (m). Values of Ki for cropland soils with 30% or more of sand are estimated by the equation: Ki = 272800 + 19210000 (vfs)

(11.9)

and use the following equation if the sand is less than 30%: Ki = 605400 – 5513000 (clay)

(11.10)

where vfs and clay are the fraction of very fine sand and clay in the surface soil, respectively. The enormous coefficients in Equations 11.9 and 11.10 are due to the large unit of rainfall intensity used in the model. The estimated values from these two equations are then adjusted to account for various site effects, including canopy cover, ground cover, roots, slope, freeze-thaw cycles, and sealing and crusting. Meyer and Harmon (1984) showed that interrill soil erodibilities were negatively correlated with percent dispersed clay ( 3 in./h, E = 1074 foot-tons per acre per inch of rainfall. Equation 11.26 is Equation 11.5 in British unit. The conversion of the universal soil loss equation from British units to SI metric units was given by Foster et al. (1981) in great detail. The calculation of R for a single storm requires rainfall intensity data (depth vs. time) such as that shown in a recording raingage chart. First, a storm is broken down into segments of uniform intensity. Calculate the E value for each segment first per in. of rainfall using Equation 11.26 (or per cm of rainfall using Equation 11.5), and then multiply the E/in. of rainfall (or E/cm of rainfall) by the total rainfall in inches (or in cm) in the segment to obtain the total E value for that segment. Sum the total kinetic energy of each segment to yield total E value for the entire storm. Finally, multiply the total storm energy E with the maximum 30-minute storm intensity in in./h (or in cm/h) and divide the product by 100 to yield the R factor for the storm. The calculation procedure is given in Table 11.2. Average annual R-values for the conterminous U.S., in hundreds of ft-ton-in./acre-h-year, are given in Figure 11.2 (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978). To convert R in the British units to metric units in hundreds of t-m-cm/ha-h-year or to SI units in MJ-mm/ha-h-year, multiply by the factor 1.735 or 17.02, respectively.

2300 2400 0130 0200 0350 0400 0500 0600 1400 1500 1745

31-8

0 60 90 30 0 10 60 60 480 60 165 1015

Duration min 0.00 2.68 6.23 3.36 0.00 0.68 0.13 0.84 0.13 3.28 0.32 17.65 0.00 1.06 1.63 2.65 0.00 0.27 0.05 0.33 0.05 1.29 0.13 6.95

Rainfall cm in. 0.00 2.68 4.15 6.72 0.00 4.08 0.13 0.84 0.02 3.28 0.12 0.00 1.06 1.63 2.65 0.00 1.61 0.05 0.33 0.01 1.29 0.05

Intensity cm/h in./h 0.0 248.1 265.0 283.6 0.0 264.3 131.1 203.3 58.8 255.9 128.0 0.0 664.9 1651.0 952.9 0.0 179.7 17.0 178.8 7.6 893.4 41.0 4524.3

E, m-t/ha Per cm Segment

a

Calculations of R Factor of the USLE for Two Single Storms

0.0 924.4 986.2 1056.1 0.0 984.5 485.4 756.6 254.0 952.6 485.4

0.0 979.8 2416.3 1394.0 0.0 265.8 24.3 249.7 12.7 1228.9 63.1 6634.6

E, ft-ton/acre per in. Segment

b

b

a

Using Equation 11.5. Using Equation 11.26.

Note: In metric units: I30 = 6.72 cm/h; R = (EI30)/100 = 4524.3 ¥ 6.72/100 = 304.01(m-t-cm/ha-h). In British units: I30 = 2.65 in./h; R = (EI30)/100 = 6634.6 ¥ 2.65/100 = 175.8 (ft-ton-in./acre-h)

Total

01-9

Time

Date

Table 11.2

244 Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Forests and stream sediment

Figure 11.2 Values of the R factor (ft-ton-in./acre-h-year) of the USLE for the conterminous U.S. (Wischmeier, W.H. and Smith, D.D., 1978, Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses, a Guide to Conservation Planning, USDA Agr. Handbook No. 537.)

Chapter eleven: 245

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

The calculation of R values illustrated above is laborious and requires rainfall intensity data that may not be available for the location in question. Many efforts have been made in different parts of the world to estimate the R values based on monthly or annual precipitation data (Roose, 1977; Arnoldus, 1980; Simanton and Renard, 1982; Lo et al., 1985). Although reasonable estimates can be obtained by those substitute methods, their application is limited to areas where they were developed. Perhaps the largest applications in area are the models Renard and Freimund (1994) developed in the U.S. Based on 132 stations throughout the U.S. (except for locations in western Washington, western Oregon, and northern California), one of the models appeared as: R = 0.1922 (Pt)1.61

(11.27)

where R is in 100s of t-m-cm/ha-year-h, and Pt is mean annual precipitation in cm. The equation seems to overestimate R-values in the North and the Northeast, and underestimate those in the other regions. K, the soil erodibility factor, describes both soil detachability and transportability due to various soil properties such as texture, structure, organic matter, density, compaction, and biological characteristics. These properties in turn affect soil infiltration and percolation, water-holding capacity, and surface runoff, parameters of the utmost importance to soil-erosion processes. The K value in Equation 11.24 is the average soil loss per unit value of RLSCP, or: K = A/(RLSCP)

(11.28)

Assuming the land is bare, 9% slope, 22.13 m (72.6 ft) long, continuously plowed up and down the hill, and undergoing no conservation practices, all the LSCP values are equal to 1 and the equation becomes K = A/R. Field observations for a wide range of soil types showed that percent silt and very fine sand, percent of sand, percent of organic matter, soil structure, and permeability are most significant to the variation of K. The K value for a particular soil can be obtained from the NRCS’ county soil survey report. If the information for the five soil properties is available, it can be read directly from Figure 11.3, or solved by the following equation: 100 K = 2.1M1.14 (10–4)(12-a) + 3.25 (b-2) + 2.5 (c-3)

(11.29)

where M = (silt + very fine sand %) (100 - clay), a = percent organic matter, b = the soil structure code used in soil classification, and c = the profile permeability class. Equation 11.29 and Figure 11.3 give K in British units (ton/ac/EI), or 1 K in British unit = 0.342 K in metric unit (t/ha/EI in metric units). Values of K typically range from about 0.10 to 0.45 in British units. Soils with high clay or sand content have lower K values, while soils with high content of silt have higher K values. The LS factor in Equation 11.24, describes the effects of topography: as the slope length increases, runoff per unit area decreases, but the accumulation (concentration) of runoff increases, resulting in greater soil loss per unit area. On the other hand, steep slopes cause lower infiltration rate, greater surface runoff, higher flow velocity, longer splash distance, and more soil detachment and transport. The relationship between soil loss and slope length (l) has generally been described with the exponential function, soil loss = c (l)a where soil loss is in mass or mass/area, l has units of distance, and c and a are constants.

Chapter eleven:

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247

Figure 11.3 Nomograph for solving the K value (in British unit) of the USLE. (Wischmeier, W.H. and Smith, D.D., 1978, Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses, a Guide to Conservation Planning, USDA Agr. Handbook No. 537.)

Exponent a, depending on soil loss unit, soil type, and slope, varies greatly from 0 to 1.6 (Truman et al., 2001). In USLE, the two topographic factors are estimated by: l a ------------LS = Ê 22.13ˆ (0.065 + 0.0454s + 0.0065S2) Ë ¯

(11.30)

where l is slope length in m, a is 0.5 for slope ≥ 5% and 0.3 for 1 to 3%, and s is slope steepness in percent. Comparatively, the effect of slope steepness on soil erosion is greater than that of slope length. A 10% error in slope steepness results in about a 20% error in computed soil loss, but a 10% error in slope length gives computed soil loss with 5% error (Renard et al., 1991). The C factor refers to the ratio of soil loss between an area with specified cover and vegetation management and an area with continuous tillage under identical conditions. Thus, soil-loss observations between treated and tilled plots can be used to evaluate various effects of species, cover density, cropping stage and rotation system, productivity, length of growing season, tillage practices, and residue management by:

C=

A ( with treatments ) -------------------------------------------------------A ( with clean tillage )

(11.31)

For agricultural land, values of C are given in USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 537 (Wischmeier and Smith, 1965) for various crop-rotation systems and for crops at five growing stages. Because the USLE is for average annual soil losses, the C values used should consider long-term changes in the cover and management conditions among

248

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests Table 11.3 C Values for Permanent Pasture, Range, and Idle Land Vegetative Canopy Type and Heighta % Coverb

No appreciable canopy Tall weeds or short brush with average drop fall height 6 m

25

50 75 Appreciable brush or brushes, with average drop fall height of 2 m

25

50 75 Trees, but no appreciable low brush, average drop fall height of 4 m

25

50 75

Typec

Cover that Contacts the Soil Surface 0 20 40 60 80

95

G W G

0.45 0.45 0.36

0.20 0.24 0.17

0.10 0.15 0.09

0.042 0.091 0.038

0.013 0.043 0.013

0.003 0.011 0.003

W G W G W G

0.36 0.26 0.26 0.17 0.17 0.40

0.20 0.13 0.16 0.10 0.12 0.18

0.13 0.07 0.11 0.06 0.09 0.09

0.083 0.035 0.076 0.032 0.068 0.040

0.041 0.012 0.039 0.011 0.038 0.013

0.011 0.003 0.011 0.003 0.011 0.003

W G W G W G

0.40 0.34 0.34 0.28 0.28 0.42

0.22 0.16 0.19 0.14 0.17 0.19

0.14 0.08 0.13 0.08 0.12 0.10

0.087 0.038 0.082 0.036 0.078 0.041

0.042 0.012 0.041 0.012 0.040 0.013

0.011 0.003 0.011 0.003 0.011 0.003

W G W G W

0.42 0.39 0.39 0.36 0.36

0.23 0.18 0.21 0.17 0.20

0.14 0.09 0.14 0.09 0.13

0.089 0.040 0.087 0.039 0.084

0.042 0.013 0.042 0.012 0.041

0.011 0.003 0.011 0.003 0.011

Note: Assumes that the vegetation and mulch are randomly distributed over the entire area. a

The height is measured as the average fall height of raindrops from the canopy to the ground. Canopy effect is inversely proportional to drop fall height and is negligible if height exceeds 10 m. b Portion of total-area surface that would be hidden from view by canopy in a vertical projection. c G: Cover at surface is grass, grasslike plants, decaying compacted duff, or litter of ≥5 cm deep. W: Cover at surface is mostly broadleaf herbaceous plants (such as weeds with little lateral-root network near the surface) or undecayed residues or both. Source: Wischmeier, W.H. and Smith, D.D., 1978, Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses, a Guide to Conservation Planning, USDA Agr. Handbook No. 537.

years, seasons, and duration. For permanent pasture, range, and idle land, the C values are in Table 11.3. USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 537 (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978) also provides a few values of the C factor for forested land under three canopy densities, three littercoverage groups, and two management statuses. However, these values were largely based on experienced judgment with limited field observations. A set of observed C values, along with other proposed values, under six forest conditions in east Texas are given in Table 11.4. Also, Wischmeier (1975) developed a procedure to estimate the C factor for forested lands. In his method, C values are a product of three forest effects: canopy (type I), ground cover (type II), and root and residues (type III). Later, the three types of effects were expanded into nine subfactors: amount of bare soil, canopy, soil reconsolidation, organic content, fine roots, steps, residual binding effects, on-site storage, and contour tillage, known as the USFS procedure (Dissmeyer and Foster, 1984). A proper value is assigned to each of the subfactors, multiplied together to obtain factor C.

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Table 11.4 Two Proposed and One Observed Sets of C Values of the USLE under Six Forested Site Conditions A

B

0.0001–0.001

0.002–0.004

0.001–0.0034

0.00014 a

0.00019

Forested Site Conditionsa C D

Reference E

F

0.003–0.009

0.03

0.11–0.17

0.0003–0.0100

0.001–0.022

0.004–0.028

0.023–0.068

0.00165

0.00325

0.0242

0.097

Wischmeier and Smith, 1978 Dissmeyer and Stump, 1978 Chang et al., 1982

A = undisturbed mature forests; B = thinned to 50% density; C = clearcut, merchantable timber removed but no site preparation; D = clearcut, roller chopped; E = clearcut, sheared, root raked and windrowed; F = clearcut, clear tilled, and continuous fallow.

Table 11.5 Recommended Values for the P Factor in the USLE Land slope (%) 1 to 2 3 to 5 6 to 8 9 to 12 13 to 16 17 to 20 21 to 25 a

Contouring

Contour Stripcroppinga

Terrace and Stripcropping

0.60 0.50 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90

0.45 0.38 0.38 0.45 0.52 0.60 0.68

0.30 0.25 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45

For 4-year rotation of 2 years row crop, winter grain with meadow seeding, and 1-year meadow.

Source: Wischmeier, W.H. and Smith, D.D., 1978, Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses, a Guide to Conservation Planning, USDA Agr. Handbook No. 537.

The different methods of obtaining C values introduced above require field tests for their applicability. One of such tests used C values estimated from three methods: (1) USDA Agricultural Handbook No. 537 (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978), (2) USFS procedure, and (3) field calibrations (Chang et al., 1982) to test against two annual and 51 single storms of soil-loss data observed under three forest conditions in east Texas (Chang et al., 1992). Soil losses in disturbed forests were found more difficult to estimate than those in undisturbed forests, and the estimates were more accurate for medium- and large-sized storms than for small storms. All three sets of C values provide reasonable estimates for annual as well as single storms for the undisturbed forest. However, the USDA’s C values estimated annual and single storm soil losses 3 to 51 times greater than those observed at the two disturbed forests (commercial cut and clearcut with stumps sheared and windrowed). Errors in estimating soil losses by the two other sets of C values for the two disturbed forests ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 times the observed values, much closer to those estimated by the USDA’s C values. P, the conservation practice factor, is the ratio of soil loss with conservation practices to the soil loss with up- and downhill cultivation under the same environmental conditions. This is the factor that describes human activities such as contouring, terracing, and buffer stripcroping, that can modify slope length and steepness, surface roughness, runoff movement, and sediment transport. A land with no conservation practices has a P = 1.0, otherwise P < 1.0 as recommended in Table 11.5.

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Example 11.1 Determine the average annual soil loss on an idle land under the conditions given below. If it is required to keep the soil loss under 12 t/ha/year, what treatments do you recommend to achieve that goal? Location: Nacogdoches, Texas Soil: Woodtell series with 18% of clay, 46% of silt plus very fine sand, 5% organic matter, fine granular (structure code 2), and very slow permeability (class 6). Topography: 100 m long and 15% slope. Land use: Idle land with 25% coverage of brush less than 4 m on average height, 20% of the land surface covered by grass; no conservation practices. Solution: a. Determination of the average annual loss by USLE, A = RKLSCP: R = 400, from Figure 11.2 in British units = 400 x 1.7 = 680 (in t-cm/ha-h-year) K = 2.1[46 ¥ (100-18)]1.14(104)(12-5) + 3.25(2-2) + 2.5(6-3); from Equation 11.26 = 0.25 (in British units) = 0.25 ¥ 0.342 = 0.0855 (in t/ha-year-EI in metric units) 100 0.5 ------------LS = Ê 22.13ˆ (0.065 + 0.0454 ¥ 15 + 0.0065 ¥ 152), from Equation 11.29 Ë ¯ = 4.69 C = 0.19, from Table 11.3 P = 1.0 (No conservation practices) A = 680 (EI in metric units) ¥ 0.0855 (t/ha-year-EI in metric units) ¥ 4.69 ¥ 0.19 ¥ 1.0 = 52 t/ha-year b. Potential reduction of soil losses The tolerated soil loss of 12 t/ha-year is only 12/52 or 23% of the predicted value. Of the six environmental factors used in the USLE, the most feasible factors for reducing soil losses are C and P. The current C value is 0.19, and it must be reduce to 0.19 ¥ 0.23 = 0.044 to achieve that goal. If grass coverage on the land is increased from the current 20% to 60% or greater, then C = 0.041 (Table 11.3) and the total soil loss = 680 ¥ 0.0855 ¥ 4.69 ¥ 0.041 ¥ 1.0 = 11.18 (t/ha-year), which is below the tolerated level. b. The revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE). Although the USLE is a powerful tool that is widely used for estimating soil erosion in the U.S. and other countries, research and experience have brought new information and improvements to the application of the technology since the 1970s. In late 1987, ARS and SCS began to update the USLE by incorporating new information into the technology given in the USDA Agricultural Handbook No. 537 (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978). It results in a revised procedure called RUSLE and is documented in the USDA’s Agricultural Handbook No. 703 (Renard et al., 1994; 1997). Basically, the RUSLE is a computerized technology for the determination of individual factors and calculations of the original USLE. Major changes include: • New isoerodent map for the western U.S., based on rainfall data from more than 1200 locations • Corrections for high R factor areas with flat slopes to adjust for splash erosion with raindrops falling on ponded water in the eastern U.S.

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• Development of a seasonable K factor to account for seasonable variation • Use of a five-subfactor approach to account for prior land use, crop canopy, surface cover, soil moisture, and surface roughness for calculating the C factor • The capacity to calculate LS factor for slopes of various shape, and a reduction of LS values by almost half for slopes greater than 20% • A new P value as the product of P subfactors for individual practices such as contouring, stripcropping, buffer strips, terracing, subsurface draining, and for rangelands

3.

Physical

It is impossible to develop an empirical or semiempirical model that can estimate soil loss for all land uses with different management practices, on all topography and soil types, and under all weather conditions. Generally, empirical or semiempirical models were designed to predict long-term soil losses, not to present soil erosion as a dynamic process at different scales of time and space. Physically based models intend to overcome the empirical models’ limitations, but no physical models as yet can be satisfactorily applied to all purposes due to the difficulties in quantifying certain physical processes. Most physical models are developed under certain assumptions and for a particular environment. Continuous refinement and calibration is a necessity for improving their applicability. Once validated, a physical model is a powerful and flexible tool for conservation management and planning. Physical models for estimating upland soil erosion are based on soil detachment and transport processes. Meyer and Wischmeier (1969) developed perhaps the first model by breaking the whole process into four components: (1) detachment by rainfall, (2) detachment by runoff, (3) transport capacity by rainfall, and (4) transport by runoff. If total detached soil is less than transport capacity, then soil is carried downslope and there is no soil deposition (Figure 11.4). Later, the four processes are applied separately to interrill and rill areas, and the sum of the soil losses from interrills and rills is the total soil loss (Foster and Meyer, 1975). The dynamic of each component can then be described by fundamental hydraulic, hydrologic, meteorological, edaphic, topographic, and vegetative interreactions. Many models, including ANSWERS (Beasley et al., 1980), CREAMS (Knisel, 1980), EPIC (Williams et al., 1983), and WEPP (USDA, 1995), have been developed for estimating upland soil erosion. Although time scales and space scales along with methods for estimating each process or parameter may be different among models, basic processes and principles remain the same.

B.

Ephemeral gully erosion

Overland flow often converges into a few major waterways or swales before leaving the fields. The concentrated flow makes most sediment in the field drain out through these waterways. Erosion from these waterways is called ephemeral erosion, megarill erosion, or concentrated flow erosion, a new type of erosion that was overlooked until the 1980s. Assessment of ephemeral gully erosion rates has been shown to be as high as 274% of interrill and rill erosion rates in the U.S. (Bennett et al., 2000). Ephemeral gullies are larger than rills but smaller than gullies (Figure 11.5). Although plowing and tillage may be across ephemeral gullies, they recur in the same location each year, while rills may change locations from year to year. Flows in rills are characterized by overland runoff, but they are channelized in ephemeral gullies. Characteristics of rill, ephemeral gully, and (classic) gully erosion are given in Table 11.6.

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Figure 11.4 Simulating the processes of soil water erosion (Meyer, L.D. and Wischmeier, W.H., 1969, Trans. ASAE, 12, 754–758, 762, reproduced by permission of ASAE).

1.

Processes

Erosion in ephemeral gullies is initiated and carried by channelized flows. Flow detaches soil particles and transports the sediment load downstream. The detachment rate is proportional to the difference between the shear stress of flow and the soil’s critical shear strength. Sediment load in flow is limited either by transport capacity of the flow or by sediment available for transport. Two sources contribute to sediment load, one from interrill and rill erosion from adjacent areas and the other from detachment in upstream ephemeral gullies. This causes sediment load to be greater downstream. Transport capacity is greater downstream because of greater discharge. As the sediment load is greater than the transport capacity of the flow, the fraction of sediment that is greater than transport capacity is deposited to the bottom. In this case, transport capacity is equal to sediment load. Unless transport capacity is increased due to an increase in either discharge or flow velocity, no additional sediment is carried by the flow.

2.

Estimates

Ephemeral-gully erosion can be estimated based on an empirically based on-site visit procedure (Thorne and Zevenbergen, 1990), or on physically based models (Watson et al., 1986; Woodward, 1999). They are described below: a. On-site visit procedure. The field-visit method is based on an analysis of field topography including slope, contributing area, and the vertical curvature across the natural drainage way (planform). These topographic parameters are then used to determine a Compound Topographic Index (CTI) as a prediction for the intensity (or streampower) of concentrated surface runoff and the cross-sectional area voided by the ephemeral gully. Thorne and Zevenbergen (1990) reported that ephemeral gullies usually do

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Figure 11.5 Interrill and rill erosion (top), ephemeral gully erosion (middle) and gully erosion (bottom).

not form at sites where the planform is less than a critical CTI value; they gave the following procedures: 1. Identify locations of ephemeral gullies, swales (topographic lows), and drainage divides along with each gully head in the field. 2. Based on local topography and size, select representative reaches along each ephemeral gully and flag intermediate point in each reach. Measure the following topographic parameters from the gully head downstream to each flag (Figure 11.6): Stake height (H, m), Left swale width (A, m), Right swale width (B, m), Local slope (S, m/m), Upstream area (Area, m2), Distance downstream from gully or swale head (L, m) 3. Calculate the compound topographic index (CTI), for each point by: CTI = (Area)(S)(PC)

(11.32)

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where PC, the planform curvature of the swale, a control on the convergence of surface runoff and hence the concentration of erosive streampower per unit bed area, is given by: PC = 200(H)/[(A)(B)]

(11.33)

4. Calculate the CTIcrit as the average of CTI value for all gully head points. Point CTI values less than the CTIcrit are excluded from further analysis because they would not have an ephemeral gully in an average year. 5. Calculate the gully cross-sectional area for all points with CTI > CTIcrit by the experimentally derived equation: Cross-sectional area, m2 = 0.03365(CTI)0.25

(11.34)

6. Calculate the eroded volume for each reach from the cross-sectional area and the reach length. The cross-sectional area in each reach represents a distance halfway to its upstream and downstream reaches. Summing the eroded volume in each reach yields the annual ephemeral gully erosion for the field. Multiply the volume by soil bulk density to yield total annual soil erosion in mass and then convert the mass into mass per unit area. b. Physical models. Physical models use two components relating hydrology and the erosion process. The hydrology component estimates peak discharge and runoff volume by use of SCS curve number, drainage area, watershed flow length, watershed slope, and 24-h rainfall and standard temporal distribution. The estimated peakflow and discharge volume drive the erosion component, a combination of physical-process equations and empirical relationships to estimate the width and depth of the ephemeral gully. Finally, the mass of soil erosion is calculated using the volume voided and the soil bulk density. A basic equation relating soil detachment from gully boundaries to flow hydraulics (Woodward, 1999) is: De = Kch(1.35t – tc)

(11.35)

where De = detachment rate (g m-2 sec-1), Kch = channel erodibility factor (g sec-1 N-1), t = average shear stress of flowing water (N m-2), tc = critical shear strength of soil (N m–2), and the constant 1.35 is to represent maximum stress at the channel bottom. The amount of detachment is balanced with the sediment transport capacity of the flowing water by the equation: De/Dc + D/Tc = 1

(11.36)

where De = detachment rate, Dc = maximum detachment capacity, D = sediment, and Tc = sediment transport capacity. The erosion process begins with a gully of initial width We. Depending on the duration of runoff, channel slope, and hydraulic roughness, the gully will continue to deepen until an erosion-resistant layer is reached. At that time further deepening ceases and the channel begins to widen toward the ultimate width, Wu. If the flow ceases after the channel reaches the erosion-resistant layer but before the ultimate width is attained, it results in a width of W between We and Wu. Regression equations used to estimate

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Table 11.6 Characteristics of Different Types of Erosion Interrill and rill erosion

Ephemeral gully erosion

Occurs on smooth side slopes above drainageways.

Occurs along shallow drainageways upstream from incised channels or gullies. May be of any size but are usually larger than rills and smaller than classic gullies. Usually form a dendritic pattern along water courses beginning where overland flows, including rills, converge. Flow patterns influenced by tillage, rows, terraces, man-made features. Cross sections usually are wide relative to depth. Sidewalls not well defined. Headcuts not readily visible; do not become prominent because of tillage. Temporary feature, usually removed by tillage; recur in the same place. Soil removed along narrow flow path, to tillage depth if untilled layer is resistant to erosion, or deeper if untilled layer is less resistant. Area may or may not be visibly eroding. Detachment and transport by flowing water only.

May be of any size but are usually smaller than concentrated flow channels. Flow pattern develops many small disconnected parallel channels which end at concentrated flow channels, terrace channels, or in depositional areas. Cross sections usually are narrow relative to depth.

Normally removed by tillage and do not recur in the same place. Soil removed in thin layers or shallow channels. Soil profile becomes thinner over entire slope. Low erosion rates not readily visible. Detachment and transport by raindrops and flowing water.

Gully erosion Generally occurs in welldefined drainageways. Usually larger than concentrated flow channel and rills. Dentritic pattern along natural water courses. May occur in nondendritic patterns in road ditches, terrace or diversion channels, etc. Cross sections usually narrow relative to depth. Sidewalls are deep. Headcut prominent. Eroding channel advances upstream. Not removed by tillage.

Soil may erode to depth of profile, and can erode into soft bedrock.

Erosion readily visible. Detachment by flowing water and slumping of unstable banks; transport by flowing water.

Source: Laflen, J.M., 1986, Ephemeral gully erosion, in Proc. Fourth Federal Interagency Sediment Conference, March 24–27, 1986, Las Vegas, NV, Vol. I, Sec. 3, pp. 29–37.

Figure 11.6 Field measurements of H, A, and B for ephemeral gully erosion. (Adapted from Thorne, C.R. and Zevenbergen, W., 1990, Prediction of ephemeral gully erosion on cropland in the southeastern United States, in Soil Erosion on Agricultural Land, Boardman, J., Foster, I.D.L., and Dearing, J.A., Eds., John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 447–460.)

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equilibrium gully width (We , m), equilibrium erosion rate (E, g m-2 sec-1), and ultimate gully width (Wu , m) are: We = 2.66 (Q0.396)(n0.387)(S–0.16)(tc)–0.24

(11.37)

Wu = 179 (Q0.552)(n0.556)(S0.199)(tc)–0.476

(11.38)

E = 34.42 Kch(Q0.811)(n0.80)(S0.77)(tc)–0.48

(11.39)

where Q = peakflow rate (m3 sec-1), n = Manning’s roughness coefficient, S = channel slope, and tc and Kch are defined above. Procedures used to calculate W and the amount of soil erosion for a single storm as well as annual average were given in a model and computer program, called Ephemeral Gully Erosion Estimator (EGEE), by Watson et al. (1986). The EGEE was later modified to become the Ephemeral Gully Erosion Model (EGEM) to meet the needs of the Natural Resources Conservation Service (Merkel et al., 1988; Woodward, 1999). However, the average annual concept of the model has not been validated yet with field data, and the empirical relationships need to be adjusted as more data from a variety of field conditions become available.

C.

Gully erosion

When eroded channels reach a size large enough to restrict vehicular access or where it cannot be smoothed over by normal tillage operations, it is termed gully or gully erosion. Gullies are permanent channels unless they are filled with soils by heavy equipment; they are an advanced stage of water erosion. All soils above the bottom in the gully channel have been washed out by the concentration and high velocity of runoff water. If no conservation and control measures are taken, gullies will continue to expand and grow. The results are deeply incised gullies (ephemeral channels) along depressions and discrete landscape along hillside slopes. Deep gullies may extend to the watershed divide and ultimately convert the watershed into badlands. Gullies divide lands into small pieces, completely remove portions of fields from production, and largely reduce the efficiency of farm equipment. Moreover, failure of reservoir-embankment dams and earth spillways often occurs due to head cutting and gully development.

1.

Formation

Gully erosion is developed mechanically by two major processes, down cutting and head cutting. Down cutting causes gully bottoms to be wider and deeper, while head cutting advances channels into headwater areas and expands tributary nets of the gully. a. Induced by surface runoff. The surfaces of hillsides are never uniform due to the variation of land configuration, soil texture, rock distribution, plant root exposure, and debris and branches. This makes runoff different in depth and velocity over a surface. Some runoff may converge in small depressions, forming a small concentrated flow. As the flow in a small surface channel passes an abrupt drop in slope, such as roots or rocks, a small waterfall is created. The energy of a waterfall is much greater than the same amount of water flowing on a uniform slope. As a result, the channel at the foot of the waterfall is deepened, and the banks are caved in from being undermined. Alternate freezing and thawing or landsliding may also result in massive collapse of the exposed gully bank. Thus, the head-cut induced by the sudden change in elevation advances the growth of gully length, while down-cut (scour) induced by concentrated flow or bank

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Figure 11.7 Formation of gully erosion.

flow makes gullies wider and deeper (Figure 11.7). Overgrazing, fire, or other land abuses such as poor road layout and construction often accelerate gully development. b. Induced by subsurface runoff. Most water in the forest is removed by subsurface flow through pipes and tunnels formed by macropores. Those pipes and tunnels under the ground can undergo soil erosion due to subsurface runoff. When a forest is cleared, a great amount of water is flushed out of the soil, causing severe erosion to underground tunnels and pipes, the subsidence of ground surface, and the exposure of the pipe and tunnel network as gullies (Morgan, 1986). This problem is especially serious in areas where a sandy soil on the surface overlies a compact, relatively impermeable soil in the profile. Heede (1976) stated that piping soils, which may cause the formation of gullies, have a significantly higher exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). Sodium enhances clay dispersion, eliminates the macropores, and makes the soils largely impervious to water infiltration. Chang (1997) reported that severe gully erosion could be developed on a fine sandy loam soil underlain by a sandy clay loam soil by subsurface runoff within a few years due to improper land management. Two 2.8-ha forested tracts lie side-by-side (east–west) on a 4 to 8% slope in east Texas. The top soil is fine sandy loam, 75 cm deep with a permeability about 1.5 to 5.0 cm/h, underlain by a sandy clay loam at 75 to 125 cm deep with permeability as low as 0.15 to 0.015 cm/h. In 1990, the soil on the downslope tract was excavated to convert the entire area into a level ground. The excavation exposed a vertical embankment about 1.20 to 1.50 m high and 275 m long. Following the excavation, a landscape-timber retaining wall was installed along the cut-off bank to control the soil erosion. The wall was about 15 cm higher than the ground surface and neither drainage tiles nor anchors were installed under the ground. Without the soil excavation and retaining wall, the fine sandy loam soil at the surface enhances water percolation and the percolated water is accumulated at the top layer of the sandy clay loam soil. Now, the retaining wall blocked the surface runoff and turned the runoff water to scour the cut-off bank longitudinally and vertically along the retaining wall. Also, the excavation of soil altered water pressures and water balance under the ground, causing the accumulated water along with soils in the soil profile in the upper slope to gush out through the cut-off bank (Figure 11.8). As a result, severe water erosion appeared as depressions, sinkholes, and hollows under the ground; gullies occurred along the cut-off bank and its upslope areas. Within 5 years, 17 gullies or hollow sites were developed along the retaining wall with the longest site extending 25 m long, 5 m wide, and 1.5 m deep. Down-cutting erosion occurred at about 15 to 30 cm/year on many sites. The erosion and gully development also demonstrated that downslope activities could impose impacts upslope.

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Figure 11.8 Soil erosion caused by subsurface runoff. (After Chang, M., 1997, Improper soil management causing severe water erosion problems, Proc. Conf. 28th, at Nashville, Tenn. on Feb. 25–28, 1997, International Erosion Control Association, pp. 495–501.)

2.

Gully types

In loessial regions and alluvial valleys where soil resistance to erosion is small, U-shaped gullies with vertical walls can develop. On the other hand, a V-shaped gully is more likely if the subsoil is more resistant to erosion. Within a watershed, gully networks can be categorized as continuous, discontinuous, or mixed (Heede, 1978). In a continuous network, many gullies are connected together. The gullies always start high up on the mountainside beginning with many small rills. They quickly reach gully depth and maintain the depth approximately to the gully mouth. There, depth decreases rapidly in the lowest segment and the shallower depth in turn widens the channel and causes more sediment deposition. The discontinuous network is signified by an abrupt headcut in the gully head with depth decreasing rapidly downstream. The bottom gradient is gentler than that of the original valley floor. It forms an alluvial fan at the intersection with the valley. A chain of discontinuous gullies can be fused into a single continuous gully network. If the fan is too steep, a headcut and a new discontinuous gully may form. Uphill advancement of headcuts may fuse the discontinuous gullies to form or join a continuous gully, but some may still be fully independent to make the entire gully network a mix. Thus, gully head (headcut) and gully mouth are the two critical locations important to the development of a discontinuous gully.

3.

Estimates

Erosion processes in a gully include headcut advancement, sidewall undercutting, bank collapse, and cleanout of sloughed material. Flow in the gully may produce some erosion, but it may not be significant (Heede, 1975). In many cases, headcuts and mass wasting of gully banks are the prime erosion processes, not tractive force (shear stress) and power of the streamflow (Piest et al., 1975). Although there is an increasing interest in gully erosion in recent years (Robinson and Hanson, 1996; Bennett and Alonso, 2000), parameters governing the processes of gully growth are still not well defined. In estimating gully erosion, both headcut erosion and bank erosion need to be considered. Because of the ambiguity of gully growth process and inadequacy of field observational data, no physical models have been developed yet for predicting gully growth and the generated soil losses. Changes in gully geometry are often used as a basis for quantitative estimates of soil loss in the past. They can be done by comparing old and new aerial photos, doing field inspections, and consulting local people. Once the rates of headcutting and bank erosion, width, and depth are estimated, the volume of voided soil can be converted into mass by multiplying by an appropriate soil bulk density. However,

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the estimated past erosion may not be a good indication of future erosion because of differences in gully development stage, climatic conditions, vegetation cover, land management, and other factors. Some empirical models have been developed for estimating future gully advancement. For example, Beer and Johnson (1963) developed a logarithmic regression model to estimate changes in gully surface area in western Iowa using five physical parameters. These parameters included surface runoff, level terraced area, initial gully length, gully length from upper end to watershed divide, and deviation from normal precipitation. By use of field measurements of 210 gullies scattered around the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, Thompson (1964) showed that the rate of head advance could be estimated using drainage area, slope, precipitation, and soil in a linear-regression model with 77% of its variation explained. The statistical approach for gully-growth prediction is valid at best for the watersheds used in the study and may be for different watersheds of the same region. Variations in soil properties, rainfall intensity, geology and topography, land use and vegetation cover, and gully stages limit the application of these empirical models greatly. The U.S. Soil Conservation Service (1977) used the following equation to estimate the future rate of gully headcut advancement: Gh = Rp (Ar0.46) (P 0.20)

(11.40)

where Gh = computed future average annual rate of gully head advance for a given reach in m/year, Rp = past average annual rate of gully head advance in m/year, Ar = ratio of the average drainage area of a given upstream reach to the average drainage area of the reach through which the gully has moved, and P = ratio of the expected long term average annual cm of rain from 24-h rainfalls of 1.27 cm or greater to the average annual cm of rain from rainfalls of 1.27 cm or greater for the period, if less than 10 years, in which the gully head has moved. Equation 11.40 is a combination of the past growth of gully and the result of new statistical analysis using Thompson’s (1964) field measurement data. Using Rp as the past average annual rate of gully undercut, Equation 11.40 can also be employed to estimate the future rate of gully undercut until equilibrium or base level is established. Beyond this stage, no deepening will occur. Gully widening can be estimated based on the average width–depth ratio of existing gullies within the area. It may use the general relationships observed from a large number of gullies that the width–depth ratio is about 3.00 for cohesive materials and 1.75 for noncohesive materials. The total volume of gully void can be computed once information on headcut advance, width, and depth is available.

D. Mass movements Slope failures or mass movements refer to the downhill movement of large volumes of soil mass, rocks, and other materials under the direct influences of gravity, such as land creep, landslides, mudflows, debris flows, avalanches, and falling rocks. They can occur anywhere with steep slopes and weak geological structures and often are triggered by intense and prolong rainfall, snow accumulation and snowmelt, convergence of overland flows and seepage, earthquake, forest harvesting, animal tramping, engineering earthworks, and even thunder. Mass movements can cause death and injury, disrupt highway transportation, damage private property and public facilities, cause loss of productive lands, and degrade aesthetic environment. The quantity of sediment delivered into rivers and reservoirs by mass movements far exceeds the contributions by interrills, rills, ephemeral gullies, and gullies.

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Figure 11.9 Forces acting on soil block of a hillside slope.

1.

Occurrences

Based on limit equilibrium theory, the stability of soil mass on a slope depends on the balance between shear forces (stress, t) pulling the soil mass sliding down on a critical surface and shear strength along the surface to resist the downward movement (tc). When the shear stress is greater than or equal to the shear strength, the mass is unstable and failure occurs. Thus, the ratio between tc and t is often referred to as the factor of safety (FS) for a given slope, or: FS = (tc)/(t)

(11.41)

The slope is stable if FS > 1, and instability exists if FS £ 1. Neglecting friction, a soil mass on a slope is accelerated down by a force (shear stress) equivalent to the tangential component of its total weight (Figure 11.9), or: t = (Ws + Wt) sin(a)

(11.42)

where Ws and Wt are soil mass and tree mass, respectively, and a is the slope angle in degrees. Shear strength that resists downhill movement is equal to a force due to the normal component of (Ws + Wt) plus the cohesion of soil (Cs) and root systems (Cr), or: tc = (Cs+ Cr) + (Ws + Wt) cos(a) tan (f)

(11.43)

where f is the angle of internal friction of the soil (an expression of the degree of interlocking of individual grains at which under gravity sliding would occur). When tc = t, the angle a = f. The soil is unstable and gravity would induce movement along the joint plane, if a > f. On the other hand the slope could stand up to 90∞ if a < f. The factor of safety of a slope decreases with an increase in shear stress t or a decrease in shear strength tc. The t may be increased as a result of increased water content of the soil mass, snowpack, wind stresses transferred to the soil through root systems, impacts of people, animal, or transportation, seepage pressure from upslopes, or earthquake. Factors leading to a decrease in shearing resistance can include increase in water content, materials with low internal cohesion, and higher groundwater table as a result of increased

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precipitation, deforestation, and dam construction. In any case, slope instability is seldom a single-cause event; it usually results from a series of events that lead to mass movements. Forest vegetation tends to maintain more-secure slopes by mechanisms transferred through its canopy and root systems. They include: 1. Mechanical reinforcement of root systems that transfers shear stress in the soil to tensile resistance in the roots 2. Depletion of soil moisture by interception, transpiration, snow accumulation, and snowmelt that limit the buildup of positive water pressure 3. Increasing soil organic matter content that strengthens the cohesion of soil 4. Buttressing or soil arching action between trunks and stems that counteracts downslope shear forces Thus, forest harvesting and related activities on steep terrain often cause slope instability and mass movements. Perhaps the most significant effect of vegetation removal is on root reinforcement. Studies showed that landslides were most frequent 4 to 10 years after logging (Gray and Megahan, 1981). The time of occurrence of maximum landslide hazard seems to be affected by the relative rates of root decay and new root growth. In southwestern Oregon, the rates of mass erosion from debris slides in disturbed areas were on average five times greater than in undisturbed forest sites. Mass erosion was more than 100 times greater in disturbed road rights-of-way areas than on undisturbed natural slopes (Amaranthus et al., 1985). Road construction was also the most likely cause of accelerated landslide activity in the Idaho Batholith area. Combining road construction with logging and forest fires accounted for 88% of total landslides, and the removal of vegetation accounted for 9%. Only 3% of the landslides occurred on slopes with no disturbance (Megahan et al., 1978).

2.

Estimates

Because of its size and site specificity, mass erosion is usually estimated based on volumetric measurements made in the field or through aerial-photo interpretations. Modern technologies such as geographic information systems (GIS) and geographic position systems (GPS) can also be employed for large-scale digital mapping and data analysis. Combining these technologies with field reconnaissance and calibration provides more reliable estimates. Once the voided volume of mass movements is available, multiplying the volume by soil density yields the total mass of landslides.

E.

Channel erosion

Channel erosion applies to channels in the lower end of headwater tributaries with water flowing all year around, while gully erosion refers to those channels in the upper ends of headwater tributaries with water flowing during or immediately after storms. Channel erosion consists of soil erosion on stream bank and sediment transport in the stream channel.

1.

Stream-bank erosion

Erosion on stream bank is caused by raindrop splash, surface runoff, the scouring and undercutting of water by the processes of corrosion (chemical reaction of water and rocks), corrasion (grinding action of sediment), cavitation (kinetic and potential of the stream, wave actions), and gravitation. Frequently, stream-bank erosion is accelerated by the removal of vegetation, grazing, tillage near the bank, and stream crossing by vehicles and animals. However, the continuous movement (kinetic energy) of water is mainly respon-

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Figure 11.10 Total sediment load in a stream profile.

sible for the cave-in of banks and washout of sediment, resulting in channel widening and deepening, shifted courses, deposition, and alluvial terraces. The resistance of bank to cave-in and gravitation drop-off is provided by W cos a tan f, where W is the weight of bank materials, a is the angle of bank slope, and f is the angle of repose of the material. If erosion forces are greater than this erosion resistance, erosion occurs.

2.

Sediment transport

Sediment in streams is transported by suspension (no contact with the stream bed), saltation (bouncing along the stream bed), and bedload movement (rolling along the stream bed). Suspended sediment includes the wash load of fine particles such as silts and clays ( Agriculture:

Agriculture > Forest:

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Grazing dominant: S = 0.002(Q)2.74

(11.55)

The greatest sediment occurs in grazed watersheds where vegetation cover and soil structures are destroyed, soil compaction and bulk density are increased, and infiltration rate is reduced. All these lead to an increase in concentrated flows and more flow energy for detachment and transport. For Q = 200 mm/year, the estimated S = 17.9, 15.5, 44.5, and 1834.5 in t/km2/year, in that order.

B.

Conservation plants

All seed plants in certain types of trees, shrubs, herbaceous forbs, and grasses are useful for control of soil erosion. However, since each plant grows in a specific environment (habitat) and evolves a unique set of morphological characteristics and life cycle, the effectiveness on soil conservation is not the same among species. Growing plants in an unsuitable environment can affect the plant’s survival, growth, and development. Thus, some species are more effective at a particular site, while many others may not be suitable at all. Plants that are particularly useful for control of soil erosion and land reclamation can be referred to as conservation plants. The selection of a conservation-plant species is based on: (1) intended purpose, (2) cause of the erosion problem, (3) site conditions, including soil, topography, and microclimate, and (4) plant characteristics. In other words, the selected plants should have plant characteristics that meet the other three considerations, i.e., intended purpose, the erosion problem, and site conditions. Plant characteristics that need to be examined for possible adoption should cover three aspects: morphological, physiological, and managerial. Some plant characteristics in each of the three aspects are listed in Table 11.11. In general, plants growing on sites similar to the problem area provide a good choice for adoption, and native species are a better choice than exotic species. N-fixation species such as alder and black locust provide additional benefit to soil fertility levels and consequently enhance plant growth. They should be the preference, if available. Frequently, a combination of more than one species such as mixtures of legumes with nonlegumes, pioneer (nurse) species with host plants, cold-season with warm-season grasses, and grass with woody plants provides compensation for the shortages of a single species, which in turn makes the revegetation program more effective. However, the selection of species in these mixtures should be done with care to avoid adverse competition for soil moisture and light. Table 11.11 Plant Characteristics Relevant to Species Selection for Erosion Control Physiological

Morphological

Growth rate, vigorousness Tolerance to drought, soil pH, flooding, grazing, and extreme temperatures Regrowth ability Method of generation Adaptability to the sites Productivity of forage, litter Species competition N-fixation ability Palatability to wildlife Evergreen or deciduous

Canopy density Shape of plants, individual, clump, creeping, vine, etc. Height of clean stems (height below the canopy) Root systems

Managerial Availability of plant Environmental nuisance Harmful effects to man and animals Plant sources

272

C.

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Forest activity

The USLE estimates that interrill and rill erosion for a forested site, as described by the C factor, can be less than for a cleared site by a factor of more than 1000. Any forest activities that reduce canopy coverage and disturb forest floor and soils will lead to an increase in gross erosion and sediment yield. The increase in sediment production in a forest activity depends on the degree of forest and soil disturbances.

1.

Forest roads

Forest roads are recognized as a major source of erosion and can account for as much as 90% of all sediment production in forested watersheds (Swift, 1984). This is due to: (1) a low permeability of the road surface, (2) the alteration of natural surface drainage paths, (3) the creation of concentrated overland flow by ditch systems and relief culverts, (4) the susceptibility of cut-slopes and fill-slopes to soil erosion, and (5) the construction and maintenance of stream crossings in developing a forest road system. Damaging roads that result from water-drainage problems can trigger mass movement (Gucinski et al., 2001). Studies have showed that sediment yield is related to road gradient, surface density, the diameter of materials, slope-length factor, percentage of forest cover over the fill, and road density (EPA, 1975; Burroughs and King, 1985; Campbell and Stednick, 1983; Brake et al., 1997). The primary issues in controlling erosion on forest roads are adequate planning, overland runoff management, topography, and revegetation. Runoff diversion from the road surface or eroding ditch to the forest and a reduction of road gradients are used as primary practices in existing road systems. In humid Alabama, vegetation treatments reduced more than 90% of sediment production and have shown the greatest potential for mitigation of soil erosion on forest road side-slopes (Grace, 2000).

2.

Forest cutting and site preparation

Clearcutting followed by mechanical site preparation is a common practice for enhancing forest regeneration in the southern U.S. Because of the intensity of site disturbance, mechanical site preparation caused soil erosion in the first post-treatment year as much as 12.8 metric t/ha/year in northern Mississippi (Beasley, 1979). The average erosion rates for forest harvesting followed by site preparation in the southeast U.S. were estimated to range from 0.05 to 10 t/ha (Table 11.12). A plot study conducted in east Texas showed that the sediment production generated from two consecutive storms, a 17.65-cm storm with 16-h, 55-min duration followed by a 0.98-cm storm 22 h later, was quite different under six forest conditions (Table 11.13). Under the full forest cover, sediment production was only 1.4 kg/ha, but it increased to 1250 kg/ha for the harvested and sheared plot, 244 times higher. The cultivated plot generated 1250 kg/ha sediment, 3.7 times greater than the sheared plot.

3.

Forest fires

The effects of forest fire, either naturally induced or prescriptively burned, on erosion and sedimentation depend on the frequency and severity of fires, soil conditions, cover type, topography, and weather conditions of the postfire period. Generally, the effects are greater in the drier West than in the humid East, on fine-textured soils than on sandy soils, for brush lands than for coniferous forests, and in plantations than in mixed forests. A tremendous amount of sediment can be generated if a severe fire that destroys most of the vegetation is followed by high-intensity rainfall. In the Sierra Nevada, a single storm produced 880 kg/ha of sediment from a 98-ha watershed with vegetation and forest floor

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Table 11.12 Differences in Erosion Rates for Forest Clearcutting Followed by Various Site-Preparation in the Southeastern U.S. Treatment

Recovery time (years)

Annual Erosion (t/ha)

— 3 2 3 4 4 4

0.00–0.05 0.10–0.50 0.05–0.70 0.05–0.25 0.15–0.40 0.20–0.24 2.50–10.00

Natural Logged and roads Burned Chopped Chopped and burned Windrowed Disked

Source: Burger, J.A., 1983, Physical impacts of harvesting and site preparation on soil, in Maintaining Forest Site Productivity, Proc. of the First Regional Technical Conf., Jan. 27–28, Myrtle Beach, SC, Appalachian Soc. Am. Foresters, Clemson, SC, pp. 3–11.

Table 11.13 Surface Runoff and Sediment Generated from Two Consecutive Storms (31 August to 2 September, 1981) under Six Forest Site Conditions near Nacogdoches, Texas Variable Rainfall, cm Runoff, cm Runoff and rainfall Sediment, t/ha a

A

B

14.58 1.26 0.086 0.0014

15.32 1.40 0.091 0.0011

Forest Site Conditionsa C D 17.45 1.45 0.083 0.0051

18.63 3.82 0.189 0.0965

E

F

18.63 5.47 0.294 0.3412

18.63 15.49 0.831 1.2504

A = undisturbed mature forest; B = 50% thinned forest; C = commercial cutting without site preparation; D = clearcut, roller chopped; E = Clearcut, sheared, root raked, slashed, and windrowed; F = clearcut, tilled, continuous fallow, cultivated up- and downhill.

Source: Chang, M. and Ting, J.C., 1986, Applications of the universal soil loss equation to various forest conditions, in Monitoring to Detect Changes in Water Quality Series, Proc. Budapest Sym., July 1986, IAHS Publ. No. 157, pp. 165–174.

completely destroyed by wildfire. Nearby unburned watersheds produced only trace quantities of sediment (Copeland, 1965). Prescribed burning is commonly employed as a management tool in forestry to mitigate vegetation competition and fire hazard, and to prepare sites for regeneration. If burning is properly executed, impacts on soil erosion can be insignificant. A 3-year study was conducted to assess the effects of three low-intensity prescribed burns and harvesting on sediment and nutrient losses in watersheds dominated by loblolly pines in the South Carolina Piedmont (Van Lear et al., 1985). During the calibration period, sediment loss from the treatment watersheds was 58 kg/ha/year, about 2.2 times greater than the control watersheds. The sediment loss was increased to 151 kg/ha/year in the first posttreatment year, almost eight times greater than the control watersheds. However, the magnitude and duration of these increases were relatively insignificant when compared with those effects of intensive site preparation. Prescribed burning should not be conducted on fine-textured soils and steep terrain, along stream channels, and in seasons with high potential of fire hazard. Fire lanes are important potential sources of suspended sediment in streams because they usually are: (1) created by bulldozers with severe site disturbances, (2) constructed in urgent circumstances without adequate stream-protection measures, and (3) difficult to revegetate due to the removal of top soils. Seeding with application of fertilizers is considered an effective way to resume vegetation cover (Landsberg and Tiedemann, 2000).

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Renald, K.G., 1980, Estimating erosion and sediment yield from rangeland, in Sym. Watershed Management 1980, Vol. l, ASAE, New York, pp. 164–175. Renard, K.G. et al., 1997, Predicting Soil Erosion by Water: A Guide to Conservation Planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), USDA-ARS Agricultural Handbook No. 703. Renard, K.G. et al., 1991, RUSLE: revised universal soil loss equation, J. Soil Water Conserv., 46, 30–33. Renard, K.G. and Freimund, J.R., 1994, Using monthly precipitation data to estimate the R-factor in the revised USLE, J. Hydrology, 157, 287–306. Renard, K.G. et al., 1994, The revised universal soil loss equation, in Soil Erosion Research Methods, 2nd Ed., Lal, R., Ed., Soil Water Conserv. Soc., Ankeny, IA, pp. 105–124. Renfro, G.W., 1975, Use of erosion equations and sediment delivery ratios for predicting sediment yield, in Proc. of Sediment-Yield Workshop on Present and Prospective Tech. for Predicting Sediment Yields and Sources, USDA, ARS-40, pp. 33–45. Robinson, K.M. and Hanson, G.J., 1996, Gully headcut advance, Am. Soc. Agr. Eng., 39, 33–38. Roehl, J.E., 1962, Sediment Source Areas, Delivery Ratios and Influencing Morphological Factors, International Assoc. Hydro. Sci., Publ. No. 59, pp. 202–213. Roose, E., 1977, Erosion et Ruisselement en Afrique de l’ouest — vingt annees de measures en petites parcelles esperimentales, Travaux et Documenys de l’ORSTOM No. 78, ORSTOM, Paris. Rosgen, D.L., Knapp, K.L., and Megahan, W.F., 1980, Total potential sediment, in An Approach to Water Resources Evaluation of Non-Point Silvicultural Sources (A Procedural Handbook), EPA600/8–80–012, U.S. Environ. Protection Agency, pp. Vl.1–43. Shields, N.D., 1936, Anwendung der Ahnlichkeit Mechanik und der Turbulenzforschung auf die Geschiebelerwegung, Mitt. Preoss Versuchanstalt für Wasserbau und Schiffau, 26. Sidle, R.C., Pearce, A.J., and O’Loughlin, C.L., 1985, Hillslope Stability and Land Use, Am. Geophy. Union, Water Resour. Monog. Series 11. Simanton, J.R. and Renard, K.G., 1982, The USLE rainfall factor for southwest U.S. Rangelands. in Proc. Workshop on Estimating Erosion and Sediment Yield from Rangelands, USDR-ARS Agr. Reviews and Manuals, ARS-W-26, Tucson, AZ, pp. 50–62. Swift, L.W., Jr., 1984, Soil losses from roadbeds and cut and fill slopes in the southern Appalachian Mountains, South. Appl. For., 8, 209–215. Thompson, J.R., 1964, Quantitative effect of watershed variables on rate of gully-head advancement, Trans. ASAE, 7, 54–55. Thorne, C.R. and Zevenbergen, W., 1990, Prediction of ephemeral gully erosion on cropland in the southeastern United States, in Soil Erosion on Agricultural Land, Boardman, J., Foster, I.D.L., and Dearing, J.A., Eds., John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 447–460. Truman, C.C. et al., 2001, Slope length effects on runoff and sediment delivery, J. Soil Water Conserv., 56, 249–256. USDA, 1995, USDA Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP), User Summary, NSERL Rep. No. 11, USDA-ARS-MWA, National Soil Erosion Research Laboratory, West Lafayette, IN. UNESCO, 1982, Sedimentation problems in river basins, Proj. 5.3 of the International Hydrological Programme, United Nations Edu. Sci. and Cultural Organ, Paris. UNESCO, 1991, The Water-Related Issues and Problems of the Humid Tropics and Other Warm Humid Regions: A Programme for the Humid Tropics, Division of Water Sciences, UNESCO. Paris. U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1977, Procedure for determining rates of land damage, land depreciation and volume of sediment produced by gully erosion, in Guidelines for Watershed Management, FAO, Rome, pp. 125–142. Van Lear, D.H. et al., 1985, Sediment and nutrient export in runoff from burned and harvested pine watersheds in the South Carolina Piedmont, J. Environ. Qual, 24, 169–174. Walling, D.E., 1974, Suspended sediment and solute yields from a small catchment prior to urbanization, in Fluvial Processes in Instrumented Watersheds, Gregory. K.J. and Walling, D.E., Eds., Institute of British Geographers, London, pp. 169–192. Walling, D.E., 1994, Measuring sediment yield from river basins, in Soil Erosion Research Methods, Lal. R., Ed., Soil Water Conserv. Soc., Ankeny, IA, pp. 39–80. Watson, D.A., Laflen, J.M., and Franti, T.G., 1986, Estimating Ephemeral Gully Erosion, Paper No. 86–2020, Summer Meeting, ASAE. St. Joseph, MI.

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Williams, J.R., 1975, Sediment-yield prediction with universal equation using runoff energy factor in Present and Prospective Technology for Predicting Sediment Yields and Sources, U.S. Agr. Res. Ser., ARS-S-40, pp. 244–252. William, J.R., 1977, Sediment delivery ratios determined with sediment and runoff models, in Erosion and Solid Matter Transport in Inland Waters, IAHS Publ. No. 122, Willingford, England. pp. 168–179. Williams, J.R., Renard, K.G., and Dyke, P.T., 1983, A new method for assessing the effect of erosion on predictability — the EPIC model, J. Soil Water Conserv., 38, 381–383. Wischmeier, W.H. and Smith, D.D., 1958, Rainful energy and its relationship to soil loss, Trans. Am. Geophy. Union, 39, 285–291. Wischmeier, W.H., 1975, Estimating the soil loss equation’s cover and management factor for undisturbed areas, in Present and Prospective Technology for Predicting Sediment Yields and Sources, USDA Agr. Res. Service, ARS-S-40, pp. 118–124. Wischmeier, W.H. and Smith, D.D., 1978, Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses, a Guide to Conservation Planning, USDA Agr. Handbook No. 537. Woodward, D.E., 1999, Method to predict cropland ephemeral gully erosion, CATENA, 37, 393–399. Yang, C.T., 1972, Unit stream power and sediment transport, J. Hydrau. Div. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., 98, 1805–1827. Young, R.A., and Wiersma, J.L., 1973, The role of rainfall impact in soil detachment and transport, Water Resour. Res., 9, 1629–1636. Zingg, A.W., 1940, Degree and length of land slopes as it affects soil loss in runoff, Agr. Eng., 21, 59–64.

chapter twelve

Research in forest hydrology Contents I. Research issues ................................................................................................................281 A. Objectives .................................................................................................................281 1. Cause and effect................................................................................................281 2. Prediction ...........................................................................................................281 3. Management ......................................................................................................282 B. Subjects .....................................................................................................................282 1. Water functions .................................................................................................282 2. Forest functions .................................................................................................282 3. Watershed functions .........................................................................................282 II. Principles of field studies ..............................................................................................283 A. Control ......................................................................................................................283 B. Randomness.............................................................................................................283 C. Replication ...............................................................................................................283 III. Research methods ...........................................................................................................284 A. Experimental watersheds ......................................................................................284 1. Paired-watershed approach ............................................................................284 a. Watershed selections ..................................................................................284 b. Calibration methods ...................................................................................285 c. Treatment methods .....................................................................................286 d. Duration of calibration and treatment periods......................................286 e. Treatment effects .........................................................................................288 f. Criticisms of the approach ........................................................................289 2. Single-watershed approach .............................................................................289 3. Replicated-watershed approach .....................................................................290 B. Upstream–downstream approach ........................................................................291 C. Experimental plots..................................................................................................291 D. Regional analysis ....................................................................................................292 E. Watershed simulation ............................................................................................293 IV. Example of calibration and analyses: the Wagon Wheel Gap study .....................295 A. Hydroclimatic data .................................................................................................295 B. The calibration equation........................................................................................296 C. Assessment of treatment effects ...........................................................................296 1. How much effect?.............................................................................................296 a. Preliminary assessment .............................................................................297 b. Based on the calibration equation............................................................298 279

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c. Based on the double-mass analysis .........................................................298 2. Is the effect significant? ...................................................................................299 a. Covariance analysis ....................................................................................299 b. The paired t-test ..........................................................................................301 References .....................................................................................................................................302

Research is systematic investigation to confirm or refute hypotheses and theories. Two of the earliest research studies in forest hydrology were an 1862 precipitation-interception study in Germany (Friedrich, 1967) and an experimental-watershed study in Czechoslovakia (N˘emeck et al., 1967). The first U.S. watershed study — a joint effort by the Forest Service and the Weather Bureau – began in 1911 at Wagon Wheel Gap in Colorado. The importance of understanding forest hydrology is demonstrated by the scale of research and number of experimental watersheds dedicated to this issue. Figure 12.1 plots 441 major experimental watersheds located at 49 different sites throughout the U.S. that are engaged to study the interactions between water and forests under a variety of environmental and forest conditions. Lists of many watershed studies can also be found in reports by Forest Service (1977), Callaham (1990), and Binkley (2001).

Figure 12.1

Major experimental watersheds in the U.S.

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Research issues

Forest hydrology is a pure as well as an applied science and therefore consists of both basic and applied types of research. An example of basic research might be a study of how channel roughness influences average streamflow velocities. An example of applied research might be a study of how large-wood removal from channels during harvesting affects peak flows. Yet, the results of the basic research and a hypothesis derived from them can be used to explain the expected peakflow-response found in the applied research. Similarly, the results from the applied research can be used to confirm the patterns predicted by the basic understanding of watershed processes. Forest-hydrology research continues to refine our understanding of water in forests. Issues in forest-hydrology studies can be discussed in terms of research objectives or research subjects. Research objectives can be separated into three categories: (1) cause and effect of plant–water–watershed relationships, (2) predictions of hydrologic consequences caused by changes in weather conditions, in vegetation communities, or in man’s activities, and (3) management of watershed natural resources and hydrological conditions to serve man’s best interests and needs. Subject issues can also be separated into three categories: (1) water functions, (2) forest functions, and (3) watershed functions.

A.

Objectives 1.

Cause and effect

Cause-and-effect studies are the fundamental studies in forest hydrology. The objectives of cause-and-effect studies are to comprehend the hydrological cycle in forested watersheds, to explain variations in hydrological phenomena among watersheds, and to find physical laws that govern forest–water–climate–soil–topography relationships (Douglas, 1967; Haupt, 1979; Riekerk, 1989; Keppeler and Ziemer, 1990; Ursic, 1991a). Studies for these purposes may involve evaluations of watershed water-balances, energy budgets, runoff processes, rainfall–runoff relationships, roles of forests in the hydrological cycle, topographic effects, soil-water movements, etc. They require long-term watershed observations over a wide range of environmental conditions. Such requirements are intended to explain the effects of temporal and spatial variations, and to avoid biased interpretations that are due to unrepresentative data.

2.

Prediction

Prediction is a major task of all sciences. Based on knowledge learned in cause-and-effect studies, many studies are conducted to develop methodology and models for predicting consequences induced under various management activities and environmental conditions. In the forest–water interface, those predictions include evaporation from soil and water (Idso et al., 1979; Penman, 1956; Shuttleworth, 1993), forest transpiration (Stewart, 1984), evapotranspiration (Abtew, 1996), interception loss (Massman, 1983), effects of land use on runoff generation (Douglas, 1983), climate changes and water resources (Cooter et al., 1993; McNulty et al., 1997), snow accumulation and snowmelt (Rango and Martinec, 1995; Stegman, 1996), sediment movement and yields (Clayton and Megahan, 1997), nutrient transport (Bakke and Pyles, 1997), and other events. The developed models must be calibrated, tested, and validated using data observed in experimental watersheds (Lee, 1970; Galbraith, 1975). Predictions provide a basis for management, control, and adjustment. Besides on-site and downstream effects, forest and land activities can have impacts upslope as well (Chang, 1997). Up-site, on-site, and down-site impacts should all be considered in prediction studies.

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3.

Management

Management studies are designed to seek or develop methods that can be used to augment water supply, reduce watershed deterioration, stabilize watershed conditions, improve timing of streamflow, enhance multiple use of watersheds, or increase economic benefits to land owners. Management must be based on either cause-and-effect or prediction capability and must be evaluated in terms of economic feasibility and environmental integrity (Gary, 1975). Frequently, conventional management approaches need to be revised and reassessed to meet standards set up by new environmental regulations or executive orders.

B.

Subjects 1.

Water functions

The water molecule’s polarity gives water many unique properties, and it performs many functions important to the environment and human society. Water functions are discussed in Chapter 2 and water properties in Chapter 4. How are water properties affected in different environments? What is the spatial and temporal variation of water properties? What are the interrelations between water properties and the functions of water? What governs the distribution and occurrence of water? How do we establish and confirm waterquality standards for different uses? How are water pollutants generated and routed in watersheds and how do they interact with one another and the environment? What are the impacts of climate changes and wet deposition on water resources?

2.

Forest functions

Forest functions and functional forests are discussed in Chapter 7. Forest environmental functions are directly affected by the morphological and physiological characteristics of individual species, species composition, and forest density. Thus, studies on plant and forest characteristics will lead to a better understanding of forest performance in the hydrological environment. Topics such as measurements and predictions of leaf area index, vapor diffusion on the stoma–ambient air interface, the distribution of raindrop diameter and rainfall intensity under forest canopies, evapotranspiration variations among species, the climatic impact on forest growth and distribution, and forest adoption to the environment are some areas important to modeling and management. For example, with the increasing concern over global warming, carbon sequestration in forests is of great interest to foresters and environmentalists. The root system is an area that has had little attention in forest function study. The horizontal and vertical distribution of root systems plays an important role in soil erosion (especially on mass movement and bank erosion). Root patterns may also be important in subsurface runoff modeling and peakflow assessments. However, our knowledge of the growth and decay of root systems in different soils; the distribution, density, and shear strength among species; and the effect on soil water movement and uptake are so limited that the reliability of hydrological modeling and the efficiency of watershed management have been hindered.

3.

Watershed functions

The functions of a watershed include collection and storage of precipitation; discharge of surface and groundwater; support of water chemistry and habitat niches; attenuation of nutrients and pollutants (Black, 1997); storage of water, nutrients and sediments; and dissipation and transfer of solar radiation. However, the ultimate function of a watershed is to serve as a system to convey water, sediment, and nutrients to lower areas such functions result from. The integrated effects of climate, soil, topography, and vegetation

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acting upon a watershed system. Studies of the integrated effects of environmental factors on watershed functions, the variation among watersheds, cumulative effects, riparian and aquatic ecosystems, human impacts, ecosystem management, watershed restoration and remedies, nutrient budgets, and sediment losses are some subjects that have drawn much attention. Studies are needed on the application of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) for archiving silvicultural activities, manipulating watershed information, and modeling hydrologic processes (Swanson, 1998). Improvement in fundamental measurements in the dynamic processes of storm rainfall and subsurface flow pathway across diverse landscapes is increasingly needed in watershed modeling (Beschta, 1998). A 10% error in precipitation input can cause a 20% error in streamflow output. Also, studies on how to extrapolate results of small-watershed studies to larger watersheds, to downstream reaches, and to watersheds with insufficient hydrologic data are particularly valuable to watershed managers.

II. Principles of field studies Forest-hydrology studies often involve field-data collection, land and vegetation treatments, and data analyses and interpretations. They are conducted to test new hypotheses, to verify other study results, or to discover new relationships among parameters. All measurements are subject to a certain degree of error due to (1) the heterogeneous nature of the study material, (2) the accuracy problem of instruments, and (3) human factors. Three principles of experimental design are control, randomization, and replication. They are used to reduce study errors.

A.

Control

All studies require a control or reference standard for assessment of treatment effects. The control can be set up by theoretical considerations, existing standards, specific targets, or levels defined by the National Bureau of Standards. Since it is impossible to have two watersheds with identical vegetation and hydrological conditions over time, an experimental watershed study requires not only a control watershed but also a calibration period. The calibration period is used to establish a reference relationship on streamflow between treatment and control watersheds for later assessment of treatment effect. However, if the size of the study area is reduced from a watershed scale to a small-plot scale relatively uniform in soils, topography, and vegetation conditions, then the calibration period can be omitted without considerable errors, provided the assumption of environmental similarity is valid.

B.

Randomness

Randomization improves a study’s accuracy by reducing subjectivity and personal preference in conducting the study. It is the basis for obtaining a valid estimate of treatment effects and error variation. Absolute randomness is difficult to achieve because not all watersheds are suitable for hydrological studies for a specific purpose. Researchers usually establish certain criteria for site selections, group the study sites into blocks in accordance with certain characteristics, and then randomly arrange the treatments in each block.

C.

Replication

Replication means the repetition of the basic watershed experiment at more than one study site. It provides for a more accurate estimate of experimental error, and it enables

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researchers to obtain a more precise estimate of the mean effect of the study (Ostle and Malone, 1988). Usually three or four replicas are used to cover sample variations; these replicas are randomized to avoid any subjectivity. Replication also makes the collected data more representative. The entire study may need to be repeated by other researchers to validate the results, and to be tested in different climatic conditions to assess its applicability.

III. Research methods Numerous studies have been conducted to investigate the forest–water yield relationship. The methods employed can be grouped into five categories: (1) experimental watersheds, (2) upstream-downstream approach, (3) experimental plots, (4) regional analysis, and (5) watershed simulation. Experimental watersheds, including the paired-, single-, and replicated-watershed approaches, are referred to as the hydrometric method, while experimental plots are referred to as the gravimetric method. Regional analysis and watershed simulation are known as the statistical (empirical) and physical methods, respectively.

A.

Experimental watersheds

In this method, one or multiple representative watersheds are selected to study hydrological processes utilizing streamflow-gaging stations and other hydro-climatic instruments. It has been employed as a principal means of monitoring baseline data on long-term hydro-climatological phenomena, evaluating hydrological impact of various land uses and management activities, and serving as databases for calibrations and validations of hydrological or ecological models. There are three approaches: paired-watershed, singlewatershed, and replicated watersheds.

1.

Paired-watershed approach

The paired-watershed approach chooses two or more watersheds to be gaged for study. One of them is designated as the control watershed and the other(s) as the treatment watershed(s). The whole study is divided into two periods, a calibration period and a treatment period. The purpose of the calibration period is to establish a reliable hydrological relationship (calibration equations) between the control and treatment watersheds through statistical analysis. It is used as a reference base to assess treatment effects on streamflow in the treatment watersheds during the treatment period. After each pair of watersheds is satisfactorily calibrated, then the treatment watershed is treated as designated. The treatment effects are calculated between the predicted (from the calibration equation) and observed values and are evaluated for significance through statistical tests. Details are discussed below. a. Watershed selections. All watersheds selected for the study must be representative of the region in question so that the results are transferable to ungaged watersheds. Also, the paired watersheds must be close to each other to ensure similarity with respect to vegetation cover, soil types, topographic characteristics, and climatic conditions. Since environmental variability is much greater in watersheds of large size and the hydrological behaviors of large watersheds are much different from those of small watersheds, it is important that the control and treatment watersheds be comparable in size. Watersheds with potential water leakage due to geological structures should not be used in the study. Valid results are based upon the assumption that all runoff (surface and subsurface) merges at the gaging stations.

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Figure 12.2 A stream-gaging station consisting of a 3-ft H-flume, a 2-ft Coshocton wheel, a stilling well equipped with stage-recording potentiometer, an ISCO runoff sampler, and a data logger installed at the Alto Experimental Watershed, Texas.

The experimental watersheds used for water-augmentation studies in the U.S. are mostly first-order or other low-order streams. They range in size from 1 ha (Ursic and Popham, 1967) to more than 500 ha (Schneider and Ayer, 1961; TVA, 1961; Troendle and King, 1985), but are seldom larger than 1000 ha. Watersheds of less than 100 ha are the most common size used in hydrologic studies. If the experimental watershed is too small, it tends to oversimplify its environmental conditions, making the transferability of results to other areas questionable. Furthermore, smaller watersheds frequently have watershedleakage problems, causing serious errors in water measurements and water-balance computations. On the other hand, it is more difficult to estimate areal precipitation, to measure streamflow accurately, and to control treatments on large watersheds (Bosch and Hewlett, 1982). b. Calibration methods. Once experimental watersheds are selected, streamflowgaging stations (Figure 12.2) and a network of climatic instruments are then installed to monitor hydroclimatic conditions in each watershed for a sufficient period of years (I will discuss the sufficient period later). Inventories and analyses of forests, land use, soil, and topography are conducted to provide information necessary for applying treatments and analyzing and interpreting results. The hydroclimatic data are used to calibrate a reliable relationship between the treatment and the control watersheds. This calibrated relationship serves as a reference standard for evaluation of treatment effects. The most common calibrated relationship between the paired watersheds is based on annual streamflow in a simple linear-regression analysis. It appears as: yx = a + b(x)

(12.1)

where yx is estimated annual streamflow for the treatment watershed, x is observed streamflow for the control watershed, and a and b are regression constants. Once a satisfactory relationship is achieved between the paired watersheds, the vegetation (or other considerations) on the treatment watershed is then treated to its designated degree of intensity. This launches the beginning of the “treatment period,” and all the hydro-climatic data collection proceeds as in the previous period.

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Although linear regressions are most commonly used in the calibration, curvilinear regressions may fit the streamflow better if it is under the influence of extreme climatic conditions or if the physiographic conditions of the paired watersheds are not similar. This led Rich and Gottfried (1976) to use the second-order polynomial regression to calibrate the Workman Creek experimental watersheds in central Arizona. They fit the equation: yx = a + b1(x) + b2(x)2

(12.2)

Another version of the analysis is to use streamflow of the control watershed, and precipitation differences (Pt - Pc) between treatment and control watersheds, to calibrate streamflow of the treatment watershed (Reinhart, 1967). Its mathematical expression appears as: yx = a + b1(x) + b2(Pt – Pc)

(12.3)

The term (Pt - Pc) should be relatively small or approaching zero if the two watersheds lie side by side (Hewlett, 1970). Using Equation 12.1 in the treatment assessment has been criticized for not considering precipitation variation between the two watersheds. Muhamad and Chang (1989) proposed a calibration of runoff coefficient (runoff/rainfall, Q/P) instead of annual streamflow in the simple regression analysis, or: (Q/P)t = a + b(Q/P)c

(12.4)

where subscripts t and c refer to treatment and control watersheds, respectively. By using runoff coefficient (Q/P), it considers precipitation variation between the two study watersheds and it provides a more reliable result if the two watersheds are located where there is considerable climate variation or where distance is small but aspect and position to storms are different. The treatment effects on streamflow are calculated as the product of the estimated runoff coefficients, Q/P, and precipitation. All calibration methods mentioned above are based on annual streamflow. The same methods can be applied to calibrate experimental watersheds based on seasonal and monthly streamflows, peak flows, lowflows, or even stream sediments and other water quality data. Breaking down annual streamflow into seasonal or monthly streamflows increases sample points in the regression analysis, but because of auto-correlation problems, reliance may not be placed upon analysis of data by months (Reinhart, 1958), due to antecedent flow effects. c. Treatment methods. The most common methods used for vegetation treatments are mechanical (Pond, 1961), prescribed burning (Hibbert et al., 1982), and chemical (Kochenderfer and Wendel, 1983; Davis, 1993). In order to minimize the adverse effects on stream sediment and water quality, precautionary measures need to be applied in these treatments. Such measures include using a mosaic treatment pattern (Davis, 1993), leaving a buffer strip along stream channels, using a ridgeline treatment (Hibbert et al., 1986) and partial cutting (Troendle and King, 1987), or using progressive or alternative strips (Hornbeck et al., 1987). d. Duration of calibration and treatment periods. The calibration period generally lasts about seven or more years, depending on weather conditions during the study period, data variability, and the level of precision desired. Studies have taken as long as 23 years

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Figure 12.3 Graphic solution for the Wilm (1949) equation to determine the minimum length of calibration and treatment periods.

in the Holly Springs National Forest in northern Mississippi (Ursic, 1991a) and 15 years in Workman Creek Experimental Watershed in central Arizona (Rich and Gottfried, 1976), and as short as 5 years in Coweeta Experimental Watershed (Hoover, 1944). If too short a period is used, the experiment may not cover sufficient climatic variations and the results may be questionable. Besides, there may not be enough data points to define a clear relationship. On the other hand, if the calibration period is longer than necessary, it increases experimental costs and delays the results. Wilm (1949) has presented an analytical method, based on standard error of estimates and an assigned value of smallest treatment effect (difference expected as a result of treatment), to determine the minimum length of calibration and treatment periods. The graphical solution of Wilm’s equation, prepared by Kovner and Evans (1954), is given in Figure 12.3. It is a family of curves for values of N2 (length of treatment period) with Fvalue at the 0.95 probability level. The vertical axis is the squared ratio: standard errors of estimate (Sy.x) divided by the smallest worthwhile difference (d, treatment effect). Values of standard errors of estimate are calculated using the data already collected in the calibration period, while values of d must be assigned based on experience. Usually, 5 or 10% of the mean yield for the calibration period of the watershed is chosen as the smallest difference expected as a result of treatment. In other words, if the d value is not reached, the investigator is willing to forego determination of its significance. By way of example for use of Figure 12.3, if the error of variance, Sy x,2 for an 8-year calibration period is 5.00 cm, the mean yield is 50.00 cm, and the smallest worthwhile difference d is 5% of 50.00 cm, or 2.50 cm, then Sy x2/d2 = 5.0/2.52 = 0.80. With N1 = 8 and Sy x2/d2 = 0.8, the point intersected in Figure 12.3 shows that 11 years would be required in the treatment period (N2). When Figure 12.3 is used for the determination of calibration period, it is necessary to use Wilm’s (1949) successive approximations by taking N1 = N2. The value Sy x2/d,2 as calculated previously, is entered on the vertical scale and moved horizontally along this ordinate until the curve is intersected at N1 = N2. Bethlahmy (1963) suggests a storm-hydrograph method for calibrating watersheds with a maximum period of 2 to 3 years. This method computes a simple regression line

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on maximum stage rise and time to peak obtained from storm hydrographs between the two watersheds for the pretreatment year and a regression line for the posttreatment years. Pretreatment and posttreatment regression lines are then compared for statistical significance of the treatment. In this method, only storms that cover both watersheds may be used in the analysis. Calibration and analysis based on individual runoff events is particularly useful in watersheds where changes in overland flow are of primary concern. Ursic and Popham (1967) showed that the accumulation of 30 consecutive runoff events is sufficient to define a reliable relationship. In the southern Coastal Plain, storms occurring in a given year may not be fully representative, but 2 or 3 years should be sufficient. e. Treatment effects. The differences in streamflow between the observed and the predicted (for the conditions as if the watershed had not been treated) values calculated by calibration equations such as Equation 12.1 are the treatment effects, Dq = y - yx. To determine statistical significance of the treatment effects, a posttreatment regression on streamflow between the control and treated watersheds can be developed. The posttreatment regression is then compared to the pretreatment (calibration) regression on their slopes and adjusted means (elevations) by covariance analysis for statistical significance at a preselected alpha level (Li, 1964; Troendle and King, 1985; Bent, 1994). A numerical example for the statistical tests is given in part IV. It is advisable, however, that the periods before and after treatment be as close to the same length as possible so that they have an equal opportunity to be exposed to variations in climate and other environmental factors (Wilm, 1949). Also, a difference between the observed and estimated streamflow can be considered statistically significant if the deviation exceeds a preselected (usually 95%) confidence interval about the regression line (Harr et al., 1979; Hornbeck et al., 1987). As was explained earlier, deforestation is generally expected to cause an increase in streamflow. The magnitudes of increase, although highly variable, seem to be positively affected by annual precipitation and are gradually reduced to levels at the pretreatment period due to regrowth of vegetation (Bosch and Hewlett, 1982; Troendle and King, 1985). Thus, a two-step analysis was used to study the effect of forest understory cutting and regrowth on streamflow at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, North Carolina (Johnson and Kovner, 1954). First, the increase in annual streamflow was estimated using a simple linearregression model similar to Equation 12.1 developed for the calibration period. Then the estimated treatment effect in annual water yield (Dq) was regressed with annual precipitation (P) and a time factor in the following fashion: Dq(T) = a + b1(P) + b2(T)

(12.5)

where T is the time since treatment in years; P is annual precipitation; and a, b1, and b2 are regression coefficients. The time factor (T) and streamflow from the control watershed (x) were also used together in the following multiregression model to evaluate treatment effects (Schneider and Ayer, 1961; Baker, 1986): Dq(T) = a + b1(x) + b2(T)(x)

(12.6)

The technique of double-mass analysis (Merriam, 1937; Chang and Lee, 1974) has also been applied to evaluate the significance of treatment effects (Anderson, 1955; Chang and Crowley, 1997). This method plots the accumulated annual streamflow of the control watershed against the accumulated annual streamflow of the treatment watershed. The plot appears as a straight line with minor variations if there was no treatment effect or

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Figure 12.4 A plot of double-mass analysis for the watershed study at Wagon Wheel Gap, Colorado.(Data source: Bates, C.G. and Henry, A.J., 1928. Forest and Streamflow Experiments at Wagon Wheel Gap, Colorado, U.S. Weather Bureau No. 30.)

the treatment effect was insignificant. A definite break in slopes on the plotted trend line indicates the effects of treatment and the magnitude of treatment effect is evaluated by the proportionality between these two slopes (Figure 12.4). f. Criticisms of the approach. Though the paired-watershed approach is the most reliable form of watershed investigation on forest–water relationships, it is still subject to a number of criticisms (Reigner, 1964; Muller, 1966; Hewlett et al., 1969; Hewlett, 1971): • The time required to produce the results is excessively long. • It is difficult to locate paired watersheds ideal for the study; they are often unrepresentative. • It is expensive, especially because of the additional costs for maintaining the control. • A fire or insect infestation can alter the watershed character. • The vegetation on the control watershed can change after the calibration. • The procedure does not take into account the effects of climatic variation between the control and treatment watersheds, especially the temporal variations in weather between watersheds. • It is difficult to transfer results obtained from experimental watersheds to other areas. • The integrated results obtained from experimental watersheds conceal hydrological processes. • The approach can be confounded in regions where small convective storms cause events in one watershed and cloudburst events in an adjacent watershed. As watersheds get larger, it becomes more difficult to characterize weather patterns and match watersheds to a pair.

2.

Single-watershed approach

The single-watershed approach also involves two study periods: a calibration period and a treatment period. It uses only one watershed in the whole study; no control watershed is required. During the calibration period, streamflow is related statistically to climatic variables through multiple-regression analysis. The developed hydroclimatic model is

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then used to estimate streamflow for the treatment period. The treatment effects on streamflow are calculated by the differences between observed and estimated values. By way of example, the following equation was developed to estimate streamflow for the 1964–1972 period of the forested La Nana Creek watershed in east Texas (Chang and Sayok, 1990): Q = –396.16 + 194.23(P)/(T2)

(12.7)

where Q and P were annual streamflow and precipitation, respectively, in mm, and T was annual air temperature in ∞C. Equation 12.7 was then employed to estimate streamflow for the 1973–1984 period, in which the lower portion of the watershed went through a rapid and intensive urbanization. Comparing the observed streamflow to that estimated by Equation 12.7, urbanization in the lower section of the 80 km2 watershed increased streamflow by 85.2 mm year-1. The treatment effect can also be evaluated by plotting the accumulated values of precipitation against accumulated runoff in a double-mass analysis (Potts, 1984). A break in slopes on the double-mass curve indicates the effect of land-use treatments and is calculated by the difference in slopes between these two periods (Bernt and Swank, 1970; Betson, 1979; Potts, 1984). However, the use of double-mass curves is rather crude and provides no measure of random error (Reigner, 1964). In northern California, Pitt et al. (1978) used runoff/precipitation ratio as a criterion to evaluate the effects of converting woody vegetation into brush and weather patterns on streamflow among three study periods on a single watershed. They found that grassy watershed released 39% more total runoff than did woody vegetation. Thornthwaite’s water-balance model has also been employed to evaluate treatment effects in four single watersheds in New York (Muller, 1966). The model is based on the concept of potential evapotranspiration (PE) computed by mean air temperature and by a temperature-based heat index. By using monthly PE and actual evapotranspiration and precipitation, the monthly distribution of water deficit, soil water utilization, soil moisture recharge, and surplus water can be characterized for the area (Thornthwaite and Mather, 1955; Thornthwaite and Mather, 1957). The method takes into account much of the monthly and seasonal variation of the hydroclimatological elements in the analysis. However, the evaporation equation used in this method fails to explain the difference in the plant cover on the watersheds (Hewlett et al., 1969). The single-watershed approach requires a calibration period longer than the pairedwatershed approach, and hence is subject to additional costs and greater environmental risks. This may be due to two reasons. First, it is more difficult to estimate streamflow from climatic variables than from streamflow of a nearby watershed because of data variability. Second, because of budget constraints and the consideration of site accessibility, the climatic data used in the watershed study are usually collected from a single site near the stream-gaging station or even out of the watershed. In this case, the climatic data are most likely not representative of the climatic conditions of the entire watershed. In the paired-watershed approach, if forests in one watershed are destroyed due to natural or man-made disasters, study of the other watershed can proceed using the singlewatershed approach.

3.

Replicated-watershed approach

The results obtained from the paired- and single-watershed approaches refer to the specific site conditions. Measurements made at a single site may not be representative of the entire area, and its experimental errors are difficult to assess. This leads to the use of the

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replicated-watershed approach (Blackburn et al., 1986; Ursic, 1991b). Replication, randomization, and control are the three basic principles of experimental design. However, this approach is not common in watershed studies partly due to the variation of watershed environmental conditions. Ideal watersheds for replication are very difficult to find. Replication is general practice in small-plot studies (Shahlaee et al., 1991). Careful design of a replicated watershed study does not preclude a calibration period as was discussed in the paired-watershed approaches. Replication allows researchers to evaluate whether the treatments have caused a significant effect or not. It does not reveal the magnitude of the treatment effects. Without such information, watershed-modeling studies cannot be validated.

B.

Upstream–downstream approach

The upstream–downstream approach is often used in studying water quality, habitat quality, and aquatic organisms as affected by existing land-use conditions, land treatments, or natural disasters. It selects two sampling sites along a reach for study, one above and one below the project area. The upstream site is a control for the detection of changes due to downstream treatments. Differences in concentrations or other quality parameters between downstream and upstream are attributable to the conditions of the project (treatment) area. Key elements of this approach are the similarity and simultaneous monitoring of the two sampling sites. They should be located as close to the project area as practicable so that the confounding differences between the two sites can be minimized (MacDonald et al., 1991). However, the upstream control site should be far enough from the downstream treatment effect. The method generally does not use a calibration period; measurements from an untreated reach are adequate for comparisons if the site is properly located (Gluns and Toews, 1989; EPA, 1997). The approach is often criticized for streamflow autocorrelation between the upstream and downstream sites. If practicable, three to four replicates should be established in the same area for statistical inference.

C.

Experimental plots

Experimental plots are blocks of undisturbed soil surrounded by bricks, concrete blocks, or even plywood installed in the field. The lower end of each plot is equipped with instruments or containers to monitor surface and subsurface runoff and to catch sediment under various forest conditions (Figure 12.5). Since these plot watersheds are relatively small — 0.01 to 0.1 ha in size — it is possible to install them on relatively homogeneous conditions with sufficient replicas with respect to soils, topography, vegetation, and climatic conditions. Such homogeneous plots, with sufficient replicas, allow the effects of vegetation manipulation on runoff to be monitored directly from these plot watersheds without need for a calibration period. Compared to the paired- and single-watershed approaches, the costs and time required in plot studies are largely reduced. Lysimeters are another version of the plot-study approach. A lysimeter is a whole block of soil (bottom and sides) completely sealed from its surroundings. Usually a scalebalance and drainage pipes are installed below the block; evapotranspiration (ET) of the block can then be calculated by the loss in weight, and soil water percolation can be completely collected, between two consecutive periods. A design like this is referred to as a weighing lysimeter (Harrold and Dreibelbis, 1958; Kirkham et al., 1984). Sometimes the whole soil block is in an inner tank that floats on an outer tank filled with liquid and installed in the soil. ET of the soil tank is evaluated by the fluctuation of water level in the water tank through Archimedes’ principle. This type of tank is called a floating lysimeter (Chang et al., 1997). Since the hydrologic components can be measured and calculated precisely, lysimeters are a common tool in ET and soil-percolation studies. It is

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Figure 12.5 The layout of a plot-watershed. (Adapted from Chang, M. and Ting, J.C., 1986, Applications of the universal soil loss equation to various forest conditions, in Monitoring to Detect Changes in Water Quality Series (Proc. of the Budapest Sym, July 1986), IAHS, pp. 165–174.)

important that the soil in a lysimeter be undisturbed, that it be installed to simulate natural conditions, and that the sensitivity of the weighing device be adequate to detect a change in weight of water equivalent to 0.5 mm. If small plots (i.e., 0.1 to 10.0 ha in size) are used to measure snow accumulation and snowmelt (Gary and Troendle, 1982) or to measure water use by various plants through soil moisture changes (Veihmeyer, 1953), no soil boundary is required. Since small plots are homogeneous and can be isolated under relatively controlled conditions, they can be used to obtain basic understanding of certain hydrological processes. Plot studies are often used as a first step in testing a hypothesis relating to watershed management, or to complement watershed studies (Ward, 1971). Because of the difficulty of relating study plots to watershed conditions, a follow-up study using experimental watersheds is often recommended if results from plot studies are promising.

D. Regional analysis The regional-analysis approach develops models for a region based on streamflow records from existing stream-gaging stations and information on vegetation, topography, and climatic characteristics in each watershed. It is applicable to a region where streamflow records and climatic observations are available over a wide area of coverage. This creates a set of data with streamflow as the dependent variable and watershed topographic, climatic, and land-use characteristics as the independent variables for statistical analyses. The statistical techniques employed include correlation coefficients; simple, multiple, and curvilinear regressions (Chang and Boyer, 1977; Kennedy and Neville, 1986); multivariate analysis (DeCoursey and Deal, 1971); and covariance analysis (Muda, Chang, and Watterston, 1989). Once quantitative effects of vegetation and physio-climatic parameters on streamflow are established through statistical analyses, management application can be made to watersheds in the region. By using this method, Lull and Sopper (1967) analyzed streamflow of 137 watersheds with areas of less than 259 km2 in the northeastern U.S. Of the 14 environmental parameters

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analyzed, annual streamflow was found to be positively affected by annual precipitation, percent of forest cover, and elevation, and was negatively affected by mean maximum temperature for July. About 61% of annual streamflows were accounted for by the four parameters. The positive effect of percent forest area on annual streamflow, which seems to be contradictory to the central concept discussed earlier, is due to the forest environment of the region. In the Northeast, forest cover generally increases with elevation, which in turn is associated with greater precipitation, steeper slopes, shallower soils, cooler temperatures, and lower evapotranspiration. These environmental factors may result in greater streamflow. In forested east Texas, Chang and Waters (1984) developed the following equation with a standard error of estimate 11.8% of the observed mean to estimate annual streamflow for 19 unregulated, natural streams: Q = –2018 + 4.16(Ps) + 50.91(T) – 1.98(FO)

(12.8)

where Q and Ps are annual streamflow and spring precipitation (March + April + May), respectively, in mm, T is annual air temperature in ∞C, and FO is percent forest area. The results show that a reduction of watershed forested area by 20%, other things being equal, would increase water yield about 40 mm/year-1, and the difference in annual streamflow between full forest cover and bare watersheds could be as much as 200 mm. This difference was much less than that reported in western Oregon (Harr, 1983) and Coweeta, North Carolina (Hewlett and Hibbert, 1961), about the same as that in West Virginia (Kochenderfer and Aubertin, 1975), and greater than that in Arizona and New Mexico (Hibbert, 1981). Clearcutting followed by site preparations is a common practice for forest regeneration in east Texas. The effect of forest clearcutting on the first year streamflow could be evaluated by Equation 12.8.

E.

Watershed simulation

Experimental watershed studies are costly, time consuming, weather dependent, and difficult to replicate. Hydrologic simulation provides an alternative approach for rapidly assessing forest practices and other land management. It is a means of predicting watershed response to various weather conditions and management strategies. The simulation can be for estimating streamflow, sediment, and water quality. The time frame of the estimates can be for (1) single rainfall-runoff event and routing programs, (2) continuous simulation programs, or (3) long-term averages. First, a conceptual hydrologic-balance model needs to be used. Then various physioclimatic models are developed to estimate components of the conceptual model in the hydrologic processes. The input component of precipitation can be based first on observations for calibration and verification of the developed model and later based on predetermined scenarios for management purposes. The effects of forest cover and other management activities on streamflow can then be simulated by computing these various component models and summing all components to solve the conceptual model. It is important that physical laws governing runoff processes are fully understood before reliable data can be simulated. By way of example, Figure 12.6 is the conceptualization of a watershed monthly hydrologic model developed by Allred and Haan (1996). The model, “SWMHMS — small watershed monthly hydrologic modeling system,” simulates monthly runoff from a small nonurban watershed. The rainfall input in the model is partitioned into three components: (1) surface and vegetation interception loss, (2) soil infiltration and soil-water reservoir, and (3) surface runoff. Soil water is first subject to ET loss and then to soil percolation as interflow and groundwater if the excess soil water is above field capacity. Base flow from

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Figure 12.6 The hydrologic conceptualization of SWMHMS (Allred, B. and Haan, C.T., 1996, Water Resour. Bull., 32, 465–473, reproduced by permission of AWRA). Note that rectangle means calculations and diamond means decision-making.

the interflow and groundwater reservoir is then added to surface runoff to become the total runoff. All components of the model are calculated on a daily basis and are summed to obtain monthly values. The first major hydrologic model to simulate the whole phase of the hydrologic cycle of a watershed was the Stanford Watershed Model developed in the 1950s (Crawford and Linsley, 1966). Since then, many computer models have been developed to estimate watershed response to rainfall events. Some of them include: • AGPNPS, Agricultural Nonpoint Source (Young et al., 1987) • ANSWERS, Areal Nonpoint Source Watershed Environmental Response Simulation (Bealsey et al., 1980) • BASINS, Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (Whittemore and Beebe, 2000) • CREAM, Chemicals, Runoff, and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems (Knisel, 1980) • EPIC, Erosion/Productivity Impact Calculator (Williams et al., 1985) • ERHYM-II, Ekalaka Rangeland Hydrology and Yield Model (Wight, 1987) • GLEAMS, Groundwater Loading Effects on Agricultural Management Systems (Leonard et al., 1987) • HSPF, Hydrological Simulation Program-Fortran (NCASI, 2001) • PRMS, Precipitation/Runoff Modeling System (Leavesley et al., 1983) • SPUR, Simulation of Production and Utilization of Rangelands (Wight and Skiles, 1987) • SWRRB, Simulator for Water Resources in Rural Basins (Williams et al., 1984) • SWAT, Soil Water Assessment Tool (Arnold et al., 1995) • WEEP, Water Erosion Prediction Project (Foster and Lane, 1987)

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These models were developed for agricultural, rangeland, or urban watersheds; they were not developed in forested environments. Several models have been developed to simulate watershed-management practices and their effects on the hydrologic system. These include: • The subalpine water balance model (Watbal) for the snow dominated region of Colorado (Leaf and Brink, 1975) • The fundamental watershed hydrology model (APSCON) to measure the effect of vegetative changes due to the succession of grass-forb to aspen and conifer in the Rockies Mountains (Jaynes, 1975) • The deterministic model to predict annual timber growth and water yields for lodgepole pine watersheds in the Colorado Rockies (Betters, 1975) • The physical model to simulate the effects of forest cover and its removal on subsurface water (Hillman and Verschuren, 1988) • The distributed hydrology–soil–vegetation model to simulate changes in forestry land use and the resultant change in streamflows (Wigmosta et al., 1994) Using studies and models developed over a period of 15 years, the Tennessee Valley Authority Hydrologic Simulation Model (TVA-HYSIM) was formulated for land-use planning studies, continuous hydrologic simulation, rainfall generator, and erosion estimates (Betson et al., 1980). The model has been calibrated for the region roughly bounded between lat. 34 to 37°N and between long. 82 to 89°W.

IV. Example of calibration and analyses: the Wagon Wheel Gap study Experimental-watershed studies require watershed calibration and assessment of treatment effects. The analysis methods depend on whether it is a paired-watershed, a singlewatershed, or a replicated-watershed study. This section uses the data collected from Wagon Wheel Gap Experimental Watersheds in Colorado (Bates and Henry, 1928), the first paired-watershed study in the U.S., as an example to illustrate the procedures in watershed calibration and treatment assessment. Objective: Testing the effect of forest clearcutting on annual runoff Location: Rio Grande basin, Mineral County, southern Colorado, U.S. Methodology: A simple paired-watershed study consisting of a control and a treatment watershed, a calibration period, and a treatment period Watershed: Control watershed = 90 ha; treatment watershed = 81 ha, located side by side Soils: Clay loam texture, well drained, quite permeable, derived from augite-quartalatite Elevation: 2700 to 3350 m Vegetation: About 49 and 61% were occupied by aspen on the control and treatment watersheds, respectively. Other species include Douglas fir and bristlecone pine Duration: Calibration: 1912–1918; treatment: clearcutting, July 1919–1920

A.

Hydroclimatic data

The annual precipitation (P) and runoff (Q) data for the two experimental watersheds during the entire study period are given in Table 12.1.

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1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918

B.

Calibration Period Treatment Control Watershed Watershed Q P Q P 21.3 12.1 14.3 13.6 14.2 24.5 08.1

54.2 47.4 47.7 50.7 57.7 58.1 48.0

21.3 13.2 14.1 13.7 14.1 25.0 09.0

54.6 49.9 48.6 50.4 58.8 57.9 47.9

Year

1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926

Treatment Period Control Treatment Watershed Watershed Q P Q P 15.4 20.0 17.5 17.3 15.5 18.0 10.8 11.1

53.7 57.1 57.6 54.5 61.8 43.2 55.6 46.4

15.2 21.7 21.1 22.3 18.2 20.4 12.6 12.8

53.7 55.3 57.1 52.1 60.5 42.6 56.9 45.9

The calibration equation

During the calibration period, a calibration equation should be developed that mathematically relates runoff in the treatment watershed to runoff and other hydro-climatic parameters in the control watershed. In this example, we shall calibrate the two watersheds based on annual runoff in a simple linear relationship as depicted in Equation 12.1, the most popular approach. The simple linear equation is written as: y x = y + b ( x – x ) = ( y – bx ) + bx = a + bx

(12.9)

– where yx = estimated runoff for the treatment watershed y = runoff mean for the treatment watershed, b = regression coefficient (slope), and x and –x = runoff and runoff mean for the control watershed, respectively. The derived equation appears as: yx = 15.77 + 0.97 (x – 15.44), or yx = 0.79 + 0.97(x)

(12.10)

All calculations for developing the equation and the statistic for testing the significance of the regression coefficient b are summarized in Table 12.2. The F-test shows that the regression slope 0.97 is significantly different from zero at the probability greater than 99%. This means that the annual runoff in the treatment watershed can be satisfactorily estimated by runoff from the control watershed if there are no alterations in either watershed. Now the watershed is ready for treatments.

C.

Assessment of treatment effects 1.

How much effect?

During and after treatments, the collection of hydrologic data in the two watersheds continued as usual. Posttreatment monitoring lasted for 8 years in the Wagon Wheel Gap study. The treatment effect is first assessed here by a preliminary comparison based on simple ratios of hydrologic data between the treatment and control watersheds during the calibration and treatment periods, then by the standard procedure based on the calibration equation and the double-mass analysis.

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Table 12.2 Summary of Computations and Developing a Calibration Equation for the Wagon Wheel Gap Experimental Watersheds, Colorado, U.S. Control Watershed (x) Statistic Value Calibration Period n= 7 Âx = 108.10 (Âx)2 = 11,685.61 (Âx)2/n = 1,669.37 Âx2 = 1,857.05 –2= SSx = Â(x – x) 187.68

Control (x) ¥ Treatment (y) Statistic Value

Treatment Watershed (y) Statistic Value

n Ây (Ây)2 (Ây)2/n Ây2 –2= SSy = Â(y – y)

7 110.40 12,188.16 1,741.17 1,919.24 178.07

n (Âx)(Ây) (Âx)(Ây)/n Â(xy) – = SP = Â[(x – –x)(y – y)]

7 11,934.24 1,704.89 1,886.98 182.09

Derivations for a Calibration Equation 1. Regression coefficient: b = SP/SSx = 182.09/187.68 = 0.97 – = Ây/n = 110.4/7 = 15.77 2. Mean of the treatment watershed: y 3. Mean of the control watershed: x– = Âx/n = 108.1/7 = 15.44 Correlation coefficient: r = SP/ ( SS x ) ( SS y ) = 182.09/(187.68 ¥ 178.02)0.5 = 0.996 – 2 = (SP)2/SS = 182.09/187.68 = 176.67 Regression SS (sum of squires) = Â(yx – y) x Residual SS = Â(y - yx)2 = SSy - Regression SS = 178.07 - 176.67 = 1.40 Estimated variance S2 = (Residual SS)/(n - 2) = 1.40/(7 - 2) = 0.28 Test of hypothesis b = 0: F = Regression SS/S2 = 176.67/0.28 = 630.96 with 1 and 5 degrees of freedom (d.f.) Critical F @ 1 and 5 d.f.; 1% probability (one-tail) = 16.258, Since F > critical F, the hypothesis is rejected and b π 0. – = 15.77 + 0.97(x - 15.44) 9. The derived calibration: yx = y– + b(x– x)

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Treatment Period n= Âx = (Âx)2 = (Âx)2/n = Âx2 = –2= SSx = Â(x – x)

8 125.60 15,775.36 1,971.92 2,046.80 74.88

n Ây (Ây)2 (Ây)2/n Ây2 –2= SSy = Â(y – y)

8 144.30 20,822.49 2,602.81 2,714.43 111.62

n (Âx)(Ây) (Âx)(Ây)/n Â(xy) – = SP = Â[(x – –x)(y – y)]

8 18,124.08 2,265.51 2,350.58 85.07

– 2 = Âx2 - (Âx)2/n; Â[(x – –x)(y – y)] – = Â(xy) - (Âx)(Ây)/n; y = estimated y. All values are in cm Note: Â(x – x) x except N in years.

a. Preliminary assessment. First, the means of annual runoff, precipitation, and runoff/precipitation ratios are calculated for each of the two watersheds during the calibration period and the treatment period. Also, the three hydrologic variables in each study period were expressed as ratios between treatment and control watersheds (T/C ratio). All these values are given in Table 12.3. The effect of forest clearcutting on streamflow can be examined preliminarily by comparing the differences in means of these ratios between the two study periods. Precipitation ratios between the treatment and control watersheds (T/C ratio) were virtually the same during the two study periods, 1.01 vs. 0.99. Thus, any increase in runoff in the control watershed during the treatment period could not be attributed to the difference in precipitation. The runoff ratio between the treatment and control watersheds (T/C ratio) was 1.03 in the calibration period and 1.15 in the treatment period. When runoff is expressed as a fraction of precipitation (runoff coefficient), the ratio between treatment and control watersheds was 1.17 in the treatment period and 1.02 in the calibration period. The higher values of runoff and runoff as a fraction of precipitation during

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Variable

Runoff Precipitation Runoff/Precipitation

15.44 51.97 0.29

15.77 52.59 0.30

Treatment Period Control Treatment T/C (C) (T) Ratio

1.03 1.01 1.02

15.70 53.74 0.29

18.04 53.01 0.34

1.15 0.99 1.17

the posttreatment period, by 12 and 15% respectively, than those during the calibration period, must be attributable to the watershed treatment. b. Based on the calibration equation. Equation 12.10 can be used to predict annual runoff in the treatment watershed for the conditions as if the watershed had not been treated. Therefore, differences between the observed and predicted annual runoff in the treatment watershed must be the treatment effects (Dq), assuming precipitation patterns between the two watersheds stay the same as in the past, or: Dq = y – yx = y – (0.79 – 0.97x)

(12.11)

where y is the observed annual runoff for the treatment watershed during the treatment period. The results showed that forest clearcutting caused a negative effect (-0.5 cm) on annual runoff in the treatment year, 1919, and a positive effect thereafter. Streamflow was increased from 1.5 cm in the second year (1920) to a peak 4.7 cm in the fourth year (1922); it then gradually decreased to 1.2 cm in the eighth year (1926), the last year of the study. The treatment started in the middle of 1919; its impact on runoff was expected to be minimal or insignificant. Overall, the average increase (1919–1926) in annual streamflow due to forest clearcutting was 2.0 cm/year, or about 12.2% of the predicted mean (Table 12.4). c. Based on the double-mass analysis. The technique of double-mass analysis was originally developed for testing data consistency and consequently making adjustments. It is often applied to test the significance of environmental changes within a watershed or between two watersheds over a period of years. In the current application, the accumulated annual runoff of the entire record of the treatment watershed is plotted against the accumulated annual runoff of the control watershed. The plotted graph shows a definite break on slopes and trend at year 1919, the beginning of the treatment period (Figure 12.4). It is therefore interpreted that the clearcutting caused significant effects on streamflow during the posttreatment period. Interpreting the plotting shows that the slope for the calibration period is about dy/dx = 1.00, while the slope for the treatment period Table 12.4 Computations, Based on the Calibration Equation, for the Treatment Effect of Annual Runoff (cm) Watersheds

1919

1920

1921

1922

1923

1924

1925

1926

Mean

Control (x) Treatment y (Obs.) yx (Pred.) Dq % Change

15.4

20.0

17.5

17.3

15.5

18.0

10.8

11.1

15.7

15.2 15.7 -0.5 -3.2

21.7 20.2 1.5 7.4

21.1 17.8 3.3 18.5

22.3 17.6 4.7 26.7

18.2 15.8 2.4 15.2

20.4 18.3 2.1 11.5

12.6 11.3 1.3 11.5

12.8 11.6 1.2 10.3

18.0 16.0 2.0 12.2

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is about dy/dx = 1.14. Thus, the forest clearcutting caused an average 14% increase in runoff during the posttreatment period. Since the average runoff in the treatment watershed was 18.04 cm/year during the posttreatment period, the increase in runoff was 18.04(1 - 1/1.14) = 2.22 (cm/year). The double-mass analysis is a graphical technique; it is rather subjective because the significance of the slope break is based on visual judgment. To overcome the weakness, the significance of the slope break can be tested by the analysis of covariance (Searcy and Hardison, 1960). Furthermore, using a computerized stepwise technique and making a subsequent data adjustment can help reduce the subjectivity (Chang and Lee, 1974). The results of the three methods are very competitive: 2.16 cm/year (12%) by runoff ratios, 2.00 cm/year (12.2%) by the calibration equation, and 2.22 cm/year (12.3%) by the double-mass analysis.

2.

Is the effect significant?

Two common techniques are employed here to test whether the treatment effect is significant or not. a. Covariance analysis. The covariance analysis tests the homogeneity of the two regression lines between the calibration period and treatment period. First, it tests the significance of the two regression coefficients. If the hypothesis that the two regression coefficients are equal is rejected at a selected probability level, then the treatment effect is significant. An acceptance of the hypothesis means that the two regression lines are parallel to each other. The analysis needs to proceed with a test for the elevations of the two regression lines. If the test shows that the two elevations also have no significant difference, then the two lines are virtually identical and there are no significant effects of the treatment. Otherwise, the runoff in one watershed is always higher or lower than runoff in the other watershed by a value equal to the difference in elevation between the two regression lines. This may be due to treatments, watershed precipitation, soils, topography, or other reasons. There is no need to test the regression elevations if two regression coefficients are significantly different. Test for two regression coefficients. The two regression lines, one for the calibration period and one for the treatment period, are plotted in Figure 12.7. The statistic used in testing the hypothesis that two population (k = 2) regression coefficients are equal is:

F=

among regression coefficient SS/(k – 1) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------pooled residual SS/(S n – 2k)

(12.12)

with (k - 1) and (Â n - 2k) degrees of freedom (DF). All calculations required in solving Equation 12.12 are given in Table 12.5. Thus, 1.48/1 -----------------------------------F = 21.37/(15 – 4) = 0.76 with 1 and 11 DF in a one-tailed test. The critical F for 1 and 11 DF and 95% probability is 4.84 (from an F-distribution table in any statistical textbook). Since the calculated F is smaller than the critical F, the hypothesis that the two coefficients are equal is accepted.

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Figure 12.7 Simple-regression lines on annual runoff between the treatment and control watersheds.

Sample Calibration Treatment Sum Pooled Difference (SS

n 7 8 15

Table 12.5 Test of Homogeneity of Regression Coefficients Regression y– SSx SP SSy b SS DF 15.77 18.04

187.68 74.88

182.09 85.07

178.07 111.62

0.97 1.14

16.98 among b)

262.56

267.16

289.69

1.02

176.67 96.65 273.32 271.84 1.48

1 1 2 1 1

Residual SS DF 1.40 19.97 21.37

5 6 11

Notes: Regression SS = SP2/SSx Residual SS = SSy - regression SS Pooled y– = Â (n –y)/Â n – Pooled b = b = Â [(SSx)(b)]/Â SSy) – SS among regression coefficient b =Â [(SSx)(b – b)2] = (SPx1)2/(SSx1) + (SPx2)2/(SSx2) - Â (SP)2/ÂSSx = SS among sample mean = Â[n(y– – y)2]

Test for the two regression elevations. The acceptance for the test for the two regression coefficients leads to the test for regression elevations. The statistic used is: residual SS among sample/(k – 1) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------F = residual SS within sample/(S n – 2k)

(12.13)

with (k - 1) and (Ân - 2k) degrees of freedom. All computations required to perform the test for the Wagon Wheel Gap are given in Table 12.6, and the F value of Equation 12.13 is: F = 14.99/1.62 = 9.25 with 1 and 11 degrees of freedom in a one-tailed test. Since the calculated F is larger than the critical F = 4.84 at the 95% probability level, the hypothesis is rejected and the elevation of the regression line in the treatment period is significantly higher than that in the

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Table 12.6 Test for Elevation on the Two Regression Lines Source of Variation

SSx

Between sample Within sample Total

0.24 262.56 262.80

SP

SSy

DF SS

2.17 267.16 269.33

19.17 289.69 308.86

1 12 13

14.99 17.85 32.84

Residual DF MS 1 11 12

14.99 1.62

F 9.25

Note: SSx between sample = [Â(x12)/n1 + [Â(x22)/n2] - (Âx)2/n = [1669.37 + 1971.92] - 233.702/15 = 0.240 SSx within sample = Â(x)2 - [Â(x12)/n1 + [Â(x22)/n2] = 3903.85 - [1669.37 + 1971.92] = 262.56 SP between sample = [(Âx1Ây1/n1) + (Âx2Ây2/n2)] - ÂxÂy/n = [(108.10)(110.40)/7 + (125.60)(144.32)/8] - (233.7)(254.7)/15 = 2.17 SP within sample = Âxy - ÂxÂy/n = 4,237.56 - (233.7)(254.7)/15 = 267.16 Residual SS (total) = SSy - SP2 /SSx = 308.86 - 269.332/262.80 = 32.84 Res. SS (between) = Total residual SS - within-sample residual SS = 32.84 - 17.85 = 14.99 Residual MS = Residual SS/DF Subscripts 1 and 2 = Calibration period and treatment period, respectively x, y, n = the data or the number of years for the entire study period (i.e., n = n1 + n2)

calibration period. Thus, the average treatment effect (Dq) of forest clearcutting on streamflow can be calculated by: Dq = ( y 2 – y 1 ) – b p ( x 2 – x 1 ) = (18.04 – 15.77) – 1.02(15.70 – 15.44) = 2.00 (cm)

(12.14)

where y– and –x are the mean streamflow for the treatment watershed and control watershed, respectively, subscripts 1 or 2 refer to the calibration period or treatment period, and b p is the pooled (common) regression coefficient (Table 12.5). The average 2.00 cm/year increase in streamflow from the covariance analysis is identical to the result calculated by the calibration equation (Table 12.4).

b. The paired t-test. The Paired t-Test. Assuming the samples of annual runoff in the study are drawn independently from a normal population, then the observed vs. predicted annual runoff can be tested for the difference in population means being equal to 0, or the treatment does not increase the annual runoff, by the paired t-test. Using the predicted and observed annual runoff as a pair, the statistic used in the test is: 2

t = D/ ( S /n )

(12.15)

where the quantity t follows Student’s t-distribution (a sample distribution described in most statistical text books) with (n - 1) degrees of freedom, n is the number of pairs (years) – in the treatment period, D and S2 are the mean of the differences of all pairs (observed predicted values, Di) and the variance of the population of differences, respectively, or: – D = [Â (observed – predicted)]/n = Â Di/n

(12.16)

– S2 = [(Â (Di – D)2]/(n – 1)

(12.17)

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The denominator [S2/n]0.5 is referred to as the standard error of the average difference. Data required to solve Equation 12.15 for the Wagon Wheel Gap experimental watersheds are: Di = Dq in Table 12.4,`D = Â Di/n = 2.00, S2 = 2.40, N = 8, and t = 3.65. The calculated t = 3.65 is larger than the critical t = 3.00 at the 99% probability level with 8 DF (use a one-tailed test). The hypothesis is rejected and the average increase in annual runoff 2.00 cm/year due to forest clearcutting in the treatment watershed is significant at the 99% probability level.

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Harr, R.D., Fredriksen, R.L., and Rothacher, J., 1979, Changes in streamflow following timber harvest in Southwest Oregon, Res. Paper PNW-249, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Forest Service. Harrold, L.L. and Dreibelbis, F.R., 1958, Evaluation of Agricultural Hydrology by Monolith Lysimeters, U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. #1179,U.S. Govern. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Haupt, H.F., 1979, Effects of Timber Cutting and Revegetation on Snow Accumulation and Melt in North Idaho, Res. Paper INT-224, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Ogden, UT. Hewlett, J.D., 1970, Review of the catchment experiment to determine water yield, Proc. Joint U.N. Food Agr. Organ. — USSR, Intern’l Symp. Forest Influences and Watershed Management, Moscow, USSR. August – Sept., 1970, pp.145–155. Hewlett, J.D., 1971, Comments on the catchment to determine vegetal effects on water yield, Water Resour. Bull., 7, 376–377. Hewlett, J.D. and Hibbert, A.R., 1961, Increases in water yield after several types of forest cutting, Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydro. Bull., 6, 5–17. Hewlett, J.D., Lull, H.W., and Reinhart, K.G., 1969, In defense of experimental watersheds, Water Resour. Res., 5, 306–316. Hibbert, A.R., 1981, Opportunity to increase water yield in the southwest by vegetation management, in Interior West Watershed Management, Symp. Proc., Washington State University, Pullman, WA, pp. 223–230. Hibbert, A.R., Davis, E.A., and Knipe, O.D. 1982, Water yield changes resulting from treatment of Arizona chaparral, in Proc. of Sym. on Dynamic and Management of Mediterranean-Type Ecosystems, June 22–26, 1981, San Diego. Cal., General Tech. Rep. PSW-58, U.S. Forest Service, Pacific SW Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Berkeley, CA, pp. 382–389. Hibbert, A.R., Knipe, O.D., and Davis, E.A., 1986, Streamflow response to control of chaparral shrubs along channels and upper slopes, in Proc., Chaparral Ecosystems Research Conference, May 16–17, 1985, Santa Barbara, Cal., University of California, Davis, Rep. No. 62, pp.95–103. Hillman, G.R. and Verschuren, J.P., 1988, Simulation of the effects of forest cover, and its removal, on subsurface water, Water Resour. Res., 24, 305–314. Hoover, M.D., 1944, Effect of removal of forest vegetation upon water yields, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 26, 969–975. Hornbeck, J.W. et al., 1987, The northern hardwood forest ecosystem: ten years of recovery from clearcutting, USDA, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Exp. Sta., NE-RP-596. Idso, S.B., Reginato, R.J., and Jackson, R.D., 1979, Calculation of evaporation during three stages of soil drying, Water Resour. Res., 15, 487–488. Jaynes, R.A., 1975, A hydrologic model of aspen-conifer succession in the western United States, Res. Paper INT-213, Intermountain For. and Range Exp. Sta.,Ogden, UT. Johnson, E.A. and Kovner, J.L., 1954, Increasing water yield by cutting forest vegetation, Georgia Miner. Newsl., 7, 145–148. Kennedy, J.B., and Neville, A.M., 1986, Basic Statistical Methods for Engineers and Scientists, 3rd ed., Harper & Row, New York. Keppeler, E.T. and Ziemer, R.R., 1990, Logging effects on streamflow: water yield and summer low flows at Caspar Creek in northwestern California, Water Resour. Res., 26, 1669–1679. Kirkham, R.R., Gee, G.W., and Jones, T.L., 1984. Weighing lysimeters for long-term water balance investigations at remote sites, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J, 48, 1203–1205. Knisel, W.G., 1980, CREAMS: a Field-Scale Model for Chemicals, Runoff, and Erosion from Agricultural Management Systems, Conserv. Res. Report No. 26, USDA Sci. and Education Admin. Kochenderfer, J.M. and Aubertin, G.M., 1975, Effects of management practices on water quality and quantity: Fernow Experimental Forest, West Virginia, in Municipal Watershed Management, Symp. Proc., U.S. Forest Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-13, pp. 14–24. Kochenderfer, J.N. and Wendel, G.W., 1983, Plant succession and hydrologic recovery on a deforested and herbicided watershed, For. Sci., 29, 545–558. Kovner, J.L. and Evans, T.C., 1954, A method for determining the minimum duration of watershed experiments, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 35, 608–612.

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Appendix A

Precipitation measurements Contents I. Precipitation gages ..........................................................................................................308 A. Nonrecording gages ...............................................................................................308 B. Recording gages ......................................................................................................309 C. Storage gages...........................................................................................................310 II. Accuracy ...........................................................................................................................310 A. Sources of error .......................................................................................................310 B. Wind effects .............................................................................................................311 C. “True” Precipitation................................................................................................311 III. Measurements..................................................................................................................311 A. Gage installation .....................................................................................................311 B. Improvements..........................................................................................................312 1. Shielded gages...................................................................................................312 2. Pit gages .............................................................................................................313 3. Tilted gages ........................................................................................................313 4. Lysimeters ..........................................................................................................313 5. Wind-speed adjustment ...................................................................................313 6. Spherical gages..................................................................................................313 7. Globoscopic pictures ........................................................................................315 References .....................................................................................................................................316

Measurements of precipitation are conventionally made by precipitation gages installed at specific sites (point measurements), and measurements from single gages are then employed to estimate average precipitation for the watershed. Thus, the reliability of watershed-precipitation estimates depends on the accuracy of point-precipitation measurements and the areal representativeness of each measurement. Precipitation gages provide the prime data used in watershed hydrologic studies. Other modern techniques such as radar observations (Creutin et al., 1988), satellite (Weng et al., 1994), and underwater ambient noises (Nystuen, 1986) are used to estimate areal precipitation from 1 km2 to the entire continent and beyond. However, these techniques require ground validation and are generally used for weather and flood forecasts. This appendix discusses only the technique and accuracy of point-precipitation measurements. 307

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Precipitation gages

The first known measurement of rainfall in history is believed to be in India, where bowls as wide as 18 in. (45.72 cm) were set in the open to catch rainfall as a basis for land taxation as early as 400 B.C. (Kurtyka, 1953). In China, local county officers were asked to report the amount of rainfall measured between the vernal equinox (March 21) and the autumnal equinox (September 23) to the monarchal government during the East Hann dynasty, about 25 A.D. In the South Sung dynasty (1127–1279), a network of rain gages was set up at cities in all provinces. Several designs of rain gages were reported in 1241. One of the rain gages measured 2 to 3 chih (old Chinese length scale, close to a foot) for the orifice diameter, 1.2 chih for the bottom diameter, and 1.8 chih in depth (Liu, 1983). The Chinese rain gages were earlier than the first rain gage designed by B. Castelli in 1639 in Europe (Kurtyka, 1953) by as much as 400 years. Precipitation gages in use today are of three types: nonrecording, recording, and storage gages.

A.

Nonrecording gages

The basic design of nonrecording precipitation gages is an open cylinder with a sealed bottom installed in the open. Precipitation falling into the cylinder is collected and manually measured in terms of depth. However, the diameter of opening (orifice), the depth of cylinder (collector), the gage height above the ground, and the way that precipitation depth is measured are different among countries. Sevruk and Klemn (1989) listed 50 different types of nonrecording precipitation gages in use around the world today. A few gages are given in Table A.1. Nonrecording gages are generally accepted as the standard in precipitation measurements. Table A.1 A Few Standard Nonrecording Rain Gages in Use around the World Country

Australia Brazil Canada China France Germany Israel Israel Malaysia Mexico New Zealand U.K. U.S. Russia Sweden Switzerland

Gage Name

Manual 1508 Ville Paris Nipher China SPIEA MN Hellman Small Amir S 203 DRG Mexican Nylex 1000 Mark 2 WB-8-inch Tretjakov SMHI Tognini

Material

Orifice Area (cm2)

Collector Depth (cm)

Gage Height (cm)

Galvanized iron Stainless steel Copper Galvanized iron Fiberglass Galvanized iron Hardened PVC Hardened PVC Brass Galvanized iron Plastic Copper Copper and steel Galvanized iron Aluminum Aluminum

324 400 127 314 400 200 7 100 324 400 81 127 324 200 200 200

7.0 13.0 50.0 22.0 14.0 27.0 4.5 8.0 14.0 15.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 24.0 15.0 27.0

30.0 63.0 52.0 59.0 44.0 43.0 12.0 50.0 38.0 36.0 35.0 30.0 68.0 40.0 35.0 43.0

Source: After Sevruk, B. and Klemn, S., 1989, Types of standard precipitation gages, in Precipitation Measurements, Sevruk, B., Ed., WMO/IAHS/ETH Workshop, St. Moritz, Switzerland, pp. 227–232.

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Figure A.1 The U.S. National Weather Service standard nonrecording 8-in. rain gage including an orifice (1), funnel (2), measuring tube (3), outer container (4), and measuring stick (5).

The standard nonrecording precipitation gage used in the U.S. consists of five parts. They include (1) an 8-in. (20.32-cm) diameter orifice as the sensor, (2) a funnel as the transmitter to direct rainfall catch from the orifice to the measuring tube, (3) a measuring tube (inner cylinder) as the amplifier, (4) an overflow can (outer cylinder) for storage of rainwater overflowing from the measuring tube, and (5) a measuring stick as the recording device (Figure A.1). The cross-sectional area of measuring tube is exactly one-tenth that of orifice, or 2.53 in. (6.43 cm) diameter. Thus, a 0.1-in. (0.254-cm) rainfall will fill the tube to a depth of 1 in. (2.54 cm), making the smallest measurable rainfall to be 0.01 in. (0.025 cm). The measuring stick is graduated to directly read water in the measuring tube in rainfall depth. Rainwater collected in the measuring tube is read by inserting the measuring stick into the tube. The measuring tube has a capacity of 2 in. (5.08 cm) of rainfall. Water will overflow from the measuring tube into the outer cylinder if rainfall exceeds 2 in. The overflow rainwater needs to be poured into the measuring tube for measurement. Total storm rainfall is then obtained by summing up all measurements from the measuring tube. When freezing temperatures or snow are likely to occur, the rain-gage receiver (the orifice and funnel, 1 and 3) and measuring tube should be removed, leaving the overflow can (4) for catching snowfall.

B.

Recording gages

In many cases, total depth of rainfall for a given storm obtained from nonrecording gages is not sufficient in hydro-climatological applications, so recording gages are used to provide additional information on time of occurrence, duration, and intensity. They have a mechanical, electrical, or electronic device to convert weight or volume of the collected rainfall into depth over time. There are two main types of recording rain gages in the U.S.: weighing-type and tipping-bucket. The weighing-type recording gage consists of an orifice of 8-in. (20.32-cm) diameter through which precipitation is funneled into a bucket (collector) mounted on a weighing mechanism (Figure A.2a). The weight of the catch is recorded on a clock-driven chart with a capacity of 12 in. (30.48 cm) in 192 hours. There is another type of weighing gage called “Fisher & Porter Punched Tape Precipitation Gage,” in which the weight of collected rainfall is converted to a code disk position. This code disk position is recorded on punched paper tape in a standard binary-decimal code at selected intervals. The tipping-bucket rain gage has two small buckets under the orifice (Figure A.2b). Each bucket has a fixed capacity equivalent to 0.01 in. (0.254 mm) or 1 mm (0.04 in.) rain. A full volume of water will tip down to empty the bucket and push the other adjoining bucket up to catch rain. Each tip closes a circuit and the pulse is recorded on a counter.

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Figure A.2 The weighing-type recording rain gage (a) and tipping-bucket rain gage (b).

For data consistency, recording gages should have an orifice diameter, material, and gage height above the ground identical to those of the standard nonrecording gage.

C.

Storage gages

In mountainous areas or remote sites where accessibility and frequent visits are a major problem, precipitation gages are designed to have a collector large enough to last for a month, a season, or even a half-year. For example, the Octapent gage used in Britain has a capacity of 1270 mm (50 in.). The Fisher & Porter Precipitation Gage-Recorder used in the U.S. can accommodate 25 in. (635 mm) of precipitation, but the recording apparatus is limited to 0 to 19.5 in. (495.3 mm). Storage gages require antifreeze such as a mixture of 24 oz of ethylene glycol and 8 oz of oil to prevent damage from freezing and to retard evaporation (National Weather Service, 1972). However, recent developments in technology have given automatic rainfall monitoring systems the capability to digitize temporal rainfall distribution, power the system through solar energy, perform data management and acquisition, and have data accessed from a central station. This system may gradually replace traditional storage gages for monitoring rainfall in mountainous areas.

II. Accuracy A.

Sources of error

Precipitation gages are intended to measure the “true” amount of precipitation at the gage sites as if the gages were not there. However, the presence of the gage can cause errors due to gage geometry, site exposure, and wind effect. A classic study reviewing more than 1000 references dating back to the 1600s showed that measurement error caused by evaporation, adhesion, color, inclination, and splash are usually ±1% each, while error caused by gage exposure alone, which is mainly wind effect, ranges from -5 to -80% (Kurtyka, 1953). More recent studies showed that wind-induced losses of precipitation can be up to 35% (Kreuels and Breuer, 1986) and errors caused by wetting to be 2% (Sokollek, 1986). Differences in precipitation catch between south (windward) and north (leeward) slopes can be as much as 100% in West Virginia. Errors in precipitation measurements are either random or systematic in nature. Random errors are caused by precipitation sampling as reflected by differences in gage exposure and site representativeness. They can include the variation due to topography, surrounding vegetation, aspect, altitude, and human sources. Systematic errors are associated

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with factors such as wind effects, wetting, evaporation, splash, gage inclination, and other geometry of the gage. Random errors can be kept to a minimum through the use of standard installation practices and careful site selection. Among systematic errors, wind effect is the most critical and difficult issue to address.

B.

Wind effects

Wind affects precipitation catch in two ways. First, precipitation gages are designed to catch raindrops falling in a vertical trajectory. However, the sky in stormy weather is generally not calm, and raindrops are blown away by wind from vertical trajectories into an angle of inclination. The inclined raindrops make the effective gage-orifice smaller than if the drops had come in vertically. This results in catch deficiency. Let Vh = horizontal wind speed in cm/sec and Vt = terminal velocity of raindrop in cm/sec. Then the angle of raindrop inclination a due to wind effect can be calculated by: a = tan–1(Vh/Vt)

(A.1)

d,% = (1 – cos a)100

(A.2)

and catch deficiency in percent d is:

Thus, the observed precipitation Po can be adjusted to correct the wind effect by: Pa = (Po)/cos a

(A.3)

where Pa is the adjusted precipitation due to wind effect. The terminal velocity of raindrops is a function of raindrop diameter or rainfall intensity, which can be obtained using Table 8.1 and Figure 8.2. Equation A.1 shows that a increases with wind speed and decreases with raindrop size. Consequently, the wind effect is greater for soil precipitation than for liquid precipitation and smaller for precipitation of high intensity than of low intensity. Second, the presence of precipitation gages in the field interferes with the general wind pattern and movement. It causes eddies and turbulence around the gage orifice. These eddies, updrafts, and downdrafts within and around the gage orifice carry away precipitation particles that would otherwise dump into the gage, causing a deficiency in catch. Coupling the turbulence created by the rain gage with raindrop-inclination effects of wind makes point-precipitation measurements always deficient.

C.

“True” precipitation

Because of wind effects, “true” precipitation at a station is the amount of catch by a gage as if the gage were not there, or wind is calm and other error sources had no effect on precipitation measurements. This is the amount of precipitation actually reaching the ground surface. With special gage designs and under certain environmental conditions, “true” precipitation for point measurements may be attainable. However, “true” precipitation for a watershed is an immeasurable quantity because of precipitation distribution, intrinsic variation of storm systems, topography, vegetation, and gage density. The average density of nonrecording raingage-networks in the conterminous U.S. is about 1.39 gages / 1000 km2 (Chang, 1981), or the ratio of represented area to sampled area is 2.12 ¥ 1010 to 1. Apparently, many convective storms with diameters less than 30 km are never

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recorded. Thus, point accuracy and areal representativeness are two critical factors affecting watershed precipitation estimates.

III. Measurements A.

Gage installation

When installing a gage, one should bear in mind that wind is the most critical factor in precipitation measurements, and wind speed increases with height above the ground and is lower on the leeward of a belt of trees or shrubs. Thus, wind-prone sites such as hilltops or wind-blown alleys should be avoided. Proper protection from surrounding vegetation can reduce wind effects on precipitation measurements. On the other hand, a gage located too close to surrounding objects or in a deep valley can cause a catch deficiency due to precipitation interception and rain-shadow effect. It is advantageous to keep the gage orifice as low as possible to reduce wind effects, but high enough to reduce raindrop splash into the gage, snow cover, and animal intrusion. As a general rule in rural areas, a gage should be located at a distance equal to about twice the height (2H) of the surrounding objects above the gage. The requirement of 2H diameter is impractical in forests, and Wilson (1954) suggested that a diameter equal to the height of a tree (1H) in forest clearing would be sufficient. Each country has a standardized installation procedure including gage height above the ground and proper exposure from the surroundings as a reflection of its physical environment, experience, or tradition. Those procedures should be followed closely to make the collected data consistent with others. Also, it is important that the gage be upright and the orifice be level. An orifice inclined 20∞ from the vertical would cause a deficiency in catch of about 6% compared to a level gage.

B.

Improvements 1.

Shielded gages

A set of windshields is often attached to the gage at the orifice height to reduce the effects of eddies, drafts, and turbulence on precipitation catch. However, windshields generally are not effective for wind speed greater than 32 km/h (Larson and Peck, 1974). Two types of windshields are in general use today: Nipher (rigid) and Alter (flexible) (Figure A.3). The Nipher shield is less effective for snowfall measurement because snow tends to build up on the flat top of the shield. A gage equipped with windshields increases rainfall catch

Figure A.3 Rain gage equipped with (A) Alter shield and (B) Nipher shield.

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313

Figure A.4 A pit gage.

less than 5% in general (Chang and Flannery, 1998) and has been reported with no significant differences at all (Larson, 1971).

2.

Pit gages

Since wind speed decreases to a minimum level as it approaches the ground surface, a gage placed in a pit with its orifice at ground level is expected to have the least amount of wind effect (Figure A.4). Precipitation measured by a pit gage is considered the most accurate, and it has been employed as a reference standard in precipitation studies (De Bruin, 1986). However, pit gages require special effort on installation, and they can be clogged with leaves and other debris or disturbed by animals. The redistribution of snow on the ground surface makes them questionable for snowfall measurements.

3.

Tilted gages

Installing 19 gages perpendicular to the slope caught an average precipitation 15% greater than 19 vertical gages did in the San Dimas Experimental Forest, southern California (Hamilton, 1954). Some gages have stereo orifices with funnels of rectangular or elliptical cross section cut off parallel to the slope (Sevruk, 1972). Tilted gages have been suggested for use in mountainous areas (Ambroise and Adjizian-Gerard, 1989). Wind changes speed and direction with time and space. Tilted gages are effective only when facing toward the incoming storm direction and the angle of inclination. The hillside slope and direction need not be perpendicular to the incoming storm direction. During the period when downslope winds dominate, stereo orifices can result in a reduction of precipitation catch due to the shadow effect of the higher side of the receiver (Hibbert, 1977).

4.

Lysimeters

The lysimeter is a ground-level soil tank with devices to measure changes in weight of the whole tank. It can be employed to study plant transpiration and soil percolation under natural conditions as well as to detect the gain in weight due to precipitation. The catch in precipitation by a lysimeter represents the actual amount of precipitation at the ground surface without the effect of eddies and turbulence created by a gage. Studies showed lysimeter catch to exceed rain gage catch by 7 to 9% (McGuiness, 1966; Kurtyka, 1953). Unfortunately, lysimeters are difficult to install, expensive, mechanically fallible, highmaintenance, and inadequate for snow measurements. All these disadvantages cause lysimeters to be limited in widespread applications.

5.

Wind-speed adjustment

Wind causes raindrops to fall at an angle of inclination, making the effective diameter of the gage orifice smaller than the raindrops that would fall vertically into the gage. The result is a reduction in precipitation catch. If information on rainfall intensity and

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wind speed during the storm is available, then the wind effect on precipitation catch by a standard gage can be corrected by the procedures given in Equations A.1, A.2, and A.3. Applying this procedure to 59 storms in east Texas, Chang and Flannery (1998) showed that the catch deficiency of the standard gage was reduced from 11 to 6% of the referenced pit gage. Although oversimplified, the approach is easy to apply. The effectiveness of this approach depends on the accuracy of wind-speed measurements and the angle-of-inclination estimates. The most effective wind speed is at the gage height and around the gage orifice. Also, since the effect of wind speed on catch deficiency is not linear, adjustments base on an average angle of inclination for the entire storm probably is not as those based on several angles of distribution of rainfall intensity.

6.

Spherical gages

Because wind causes the effective orifice of the rain gage to be smaller than its actual orifice, a gage orifice must always face the incoming direction of raindrops to keep the effective orifice the same as its original. This can be done if the orifice of a rain gage is spherical in shape. A spherical orifice always has the same effective diameter regardless of wind speed and direction (Figure A.5). Chang and Flannery (2001) developed two spherical and two semispherical orifices to be mounted on top of the standard gage and others in use today (Figure A.6). Designs of these gages are described in Flannery’s (2000) work. The semispherical orifices, installed side by side with a standard gage, correct 50% of catch deficiencies made by the standard gage (Figure A.5). Based on 115 storms, the four gages recorded rainfall with an average deficiency ranging from -1 to 4% than a pit gage and more rainfall than the standard gage

Figure A.5 Wind effects on rainfall catch on (A) the standard gage, (B) semi-spherical gage, and (C) spherical gage (adapted from Chang, M. and Flannery, L.A., 2001, Hydrologic Precesses, 15, 643–654).

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Figure A.6 Side views of (A) spherical orifice with cylinders, (B) spherical orifice with vanes, (c) semispherical orifice with cylinders, and (D) semispherical orifice with vanes and cylinders. (adapted from Chang, M. and Flannery, L.A., 2001, Hydrologic Precesses, 15, 643–654).

with an average catch increase ranging from 8 to 16%. The spherical orifice with cylinders (Model 1), recorded about 10% more rainfall than the standard gage and about 1% less than the pit gage, and is the most effective and accurate among the four devices. These gages seem to be very promising for rainfall measurements. Their adoption does not abandon the current gages, alter rain gages in use today, or change the way rainfall depth is recorded. They are simple, inexpensive, easy to operate, and suitable for large-scale applications. However, these gages have been tested only in a humid area, and they tend to overestimate a smaller amount of rainfall than the pit gage under strong wind conditions. Additional tests need to be conducted in different environments such as in arid climates, cold and frigid regions, and areas with high wind speed, high rainfall intensity, or misty weather.

7.

Globoscopic pictures

Chang and Lee (1975) employed an optographic technique to evaluate the gage exposure and consequently make adjustments for wind effect on point precipitation. The technique involves (1) taking globoscopic pictures above the orifice of a rain gage, (2) obtaining wind speed in eight compass directions at the study site, and (3) developing equations to estimate the effect of shelter-belt density on wind speeds and catch error by wind speed in eight directions. The globoscopic pictures (Figure A.7) are stereographic projections of the hemisphere above the orifice of a rain gage. They are used to determine shelter belt density (three categories) around the gage site and distance from the gage to shelter belt, in all eight directions. These data obtained from the globoscopic picture were used in conjunction with the developed equations to estimate catch error caused by gage exposure and wind effect. The design of the globoscope was described in Lee’s (1978) work. It is a photographic device consisting of a paraboloidal mirror at the base of the instrument and a camera mounted above the mirror to record a polar stereographic image of the gage site, sky, and

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Figure A.7 The globoscope and a globoscopic picture.

surroundings (Figure A. 7). The linear distance, D, of any point on the picture from the center (gage site) is given by: D = r tan Z

(A.4)

where r = the radius of the projection and Z = the zenith distance in degrees, read from a grid system of concentric circles. The distance of a rain gage to surrounding obstructions has been suggested to be 1H (Leonard and Reinhart, 1963), 2H (National Weather Service, 1972), and 4H (Brooks, 1938) of the height (H) of the obstruction. In fact, the proper distance between a gage and the surrounding obstruction is affected by wind speeds and the density of surrounding obstructions, which vary with seasons. This can cause a fixed distance appropriate in one season and inappropriate in other seasons. This seasonal exposure problem can be improved by the optographic technique because of its objectivity and its ability to make corrections due to various exposures (distances). However, the procedure is tedious and complicated, and its general application is therefore limited.

References Ambroise, B. and Adjizian-Gerard, J., 1989, Test of a trigonometrical method of slope rainfall in the small Ringelbach catchment (High Vosges, France), in Precipitation Measurement, Sevruk, B., Ed., WMO/IAHS/ETH Workshop, St. Moritz, Switzerland, pp. 81–86. Brooks, C.F., 1938, Need for universal standards for measuring precipitation, snowfall, and snow cover, I.U.G.G. Bull., 23, 7–58. Chang, M., 1981, A survey of the U.S. national precipitation network, Water Resourc. Bull., 17, 241–243. Chang, M. and Flannery, L.A., 1998, Evaluating the accuracy of rainfall catch by three different gages, J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc., 34, 559–564. Chang, M. and Flannery, L.A., 2001. Spherical gages for improving the accuracy of rainfall measurements, Hydrologic Processes, 15, 643–654. Chang, M. and Lee, R., 1975, Representativeness of Watershed Precipitation Samples, Bull. 4, Water Resour. Inst., West Virgina University, Morgantown, WV.

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Creutin, J., Delrieu, G., and Lebel, T., 1988, Rainfall measurement by raingauge–radar combination: a geostatistical approach, J. Atm. Ocean. Technol., 5, 102–115. De Bruin, H.A.R., 1986, Results of the international comparison of rain gauges with a reference pit gauge, part A: basic stations, in Correction of Precipitation Measurements, Sevruk, B., Ed., ETH/IAHS/WMO Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, pp. 97–100. Flannery, L.A., 2000, Evaluating the Accuracy of Rainfall Measurements and Developing New Gages for Improvements, Unpublished MS Thesis, College of Forestry, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX. Hamilton, E.L., 1954, Rainfall Sampling on Rugged Terrain, USDA Technical Bull. No. 1096. Hibbert, A.R., 1977. Distribution of precipitation on rugged terrain in Central Arizona, Hydrology Water Resour. Arizona and the Southwest, 7, 163–173. Kreuels, R.K. and Breuer, L.J., 1986, Wind influenced rain gage errors in heavy rain, in Correction of Precipitation Measurements, Sevruk, B., Ed., ETH/IAHS/WMO Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, pp. 105–107. Kurtyka, J.C., 1953, Precipitation Measurements Study, Annual Report of Investigation No. 20, State Water Survey Division, Urbana, IL. Larson, L.W., 1971, Shielding Precipitation Gages from Adverse Wind Effects with Snow Fences, Water Resour. Series 25, Water Resour. Res. Inst., University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, pp. 1–161. Larson, L.W. and Peck, E.L., 1974, Accuracy of precipitation measurements for hydrologic modeling, Water Resour. Res., 10, 857–863. Lee, R., 1978, Forest Microclimatology, Columbia University Press, New York. Leonard, R.E. and Reinhart, K.G., 1963, Some observations on precipitation measurement on forested experimental watersheds, Res. Note NE-6, U.S. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Exp. Sta., Upper Darby, PA. Liu, T.M., 1983, The inventories of meteorological instruments and observational equipment in ancient China, in The History of Chinese Technology, Vol. II, Wu, T.L., Ed., The Natural Sciences and Cultural Enterprises, Inc. Taipei, pp. 149–161. (In Chinese.) McGuinness, J.L., 1966, A comparison of lysimeter catch and rain gage catch, USDA Agr. Research Service ARS 41–124. National Weather Service, 1972, Substation Observations, Supersedes Circular B, U.S. Dept. Commerce, NOAA, Washington, D.C. Nystuen, J.A., 1986, Rainfall measurements using underwater ambient noise, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 79, 972–982. Sevruk, B., 1972, Precipitation measurements by means of storage gauges with stereo and horizontal orifices in the Baye De Montreux Watershed, in Distribution of Precipitation in Mountainous Areas, Vol. II. WMO/OMM No. 326. Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 86–95. Sevruk, B. and Klemn, S., 1989. Types of standard precipitation gages, in Precipitation Measurements, Sevruk, B., Ed., WMO/IAHS/ETH Workshop, St. Moritz, Switzerland, pp. 227–232. Sokollek, V., 1986, Problems of precipitation measurement for water budget studies in the Highlands of Hessen, in Correction of Precipitation Measurements, Sevruk, B., Ed., ETH/IAHS/WMO Workshop, Zurich, Switzerland, pp. 89–94. Weng, F., Ferraro, R.R., and Grody, N.C., 1994, Global precipitation measurements using DMSP F10 and F-11 Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) data, J. Geophys. Res., 99: 7423–7435. Wilson, W.T., 1954, Analysis of winter precipitation observations in cooperative snow investigation, Mon. Weather Rev., 82, 183–195.

Appendix B

Streamflow measurements Contents I. River stage ........................................................................................................................320 A. Manual......................................................................................................................320 B. Automatic.................................................................................................................320 II. Flow velocity....................................................................................................................322 A. Velocity variation ....................................................................................................322 B. Site selection ............................................................................................................322 C. Methods....................................................................................................................322 1. Floats ...................................................................................................................322 2. Velocity head .....................................................................................................323 3. Current meters ..................................................................................................324 4. Others..................................................................................................................324 a. Tracers...........................................................................................................325 b. Hot-wire anemometers ..............................................................................325 c. Electromagnetic method ............................................................................325 d. Acoustic flowmeters ...................................................................................326 e. Acoustic Doppler current profiler............................................................327 III. Discharge ..........................................................................................................................327 A. Volumetric and gravimetric methods..................................................................327 B. Velocity-area method..............................................................................................328 C. Slope-area method ..................................................................................................328 IV. Stage–discharge relation ................................................................................................329 A. Channel hydraulic geometry ................................................................................329 B. The rating equation ................................................................................................331 C. Precalibrated devices..............................................................................................332 1. Weirs....................................................................................................................333 a. Features.........................................................................................................333 b. Types of weirs .............................................................................................333 c. Flow rates.....................................................................................................334 2. Flumes.................................................................................................................335 a. Parshall flumes ............................................................................................335 b. Hs, H, and HL flumes................................................................................336 3. Orifices................................................................................................................338 References .....................................................................................................................................339 319

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The measurement of streamflow basically consists of: (1) river stage, (2) flow velocity, (3) water discharge, and (4) the stage–discharge relationship. These measurements are then extended to various streamflow characteristics by incorporating time factors. This appendix covers only the basic measurements.

I.

River stage

River stage refers to the elevation of water surface at a given site relative to a reference datum, usually mean sea level. The data are required for navigation, river-sport activities, floodplain management, flood forecasting, calibration of stage–discharge relationships, river-fluctuation studies, sediment-transport studies, and many others. River stages can be measured by manual or automatic instruments, depending on the type of data required, degree of accuracy, and the frequency of measurements.

A.

Manual

River stages can be measured directly with a rod while the investigator wades in the stream, or with a wire-weight gage and chain gage lowered from a bridge or a boat to the stream. When these options are impractical, a bucket can be suspended along a cable installed across the stream and the investigator lowers a graduated tape with weight from the bucket to the water surface for measurements. A staff gage is commonly installed on a streambank, or painted on a bridge pier or wall for periodical observations at a permanent site. To cover the full range of floodwaters, it may be necessary to install sectional staff-gages, i.e., more than one staff gage at various elevations. The manual readings on staff gages often miss data at higher stages, especially for small streams in times of severe storms and flash floods. Also, if on-site visits are required for several sites in a watershed study, the lag time in visiting each site can cause the data collected not to be comparable. In such cases, using automatic methods may become necessary. For information on crest stages, a water-sensitive substance, such as fluorescein and potassium permanganate, can be painted on a permanent structure. The paint will change color when it gets wet, and the highest crest is so identified. In many cases, examining watermarks, soil stain, or debris on rocks, walls, tree trunks, or banks can help identify the maximum river stage.

B.

Automatic

The automatic method, either mechanical or electrical, allows the continuous monitoring of river stages. The mechanical method uses a float as the sensor sitting on the water surface, and the float is attached by chain to mechanisms including a stage ratio gear, a time clock, and a recording device (Figure B.1). The vertical movement of the float, triggered by the water-level fluctuation and a counterweight attached to the other end of the chain, is continuously recorded by an ink trace on a chart. The float is housed in a stilling well to prevent erratic measurements from wave action of the flow movement. Water level in the stilling well is connected to the stream by pipes (Figure B.2). Some instruments digitally record electrical signals triggered by a small change of water level in the stilling well. The electrical signals are stored and converted into depths in a data-logger and can be accessed or downloaded by a laptop computer for data management and analyses. Others use pressure (bubbler) or ultrasonic sensors instead of floats and stilling well. The bubbler uses a small compressor to pump air into a reservoir. The air is released slowly into a small flexible tube submerged in the stream. As the water level in the stream increases, the amount of air pressure required to force the bubble from

Appendix B: Streamflow measurements

Figure B.1

321

The mechanical FW-1 water-level recorder.

Figure B.2 A typical stream-gaging station used on the Coweeta Hydrological Laboratory near Otto, North Carolina. (U.S. Forest Service, 1984, Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory: A Guide to Research Program,. SE Forest Exp. Sta., Asheville, NC.)

the tube also increases. A pressure transducer along with electronic circuitry and computer software converts the pressure into streamflow depth above the air tube. Flow meters that use an ultrasonic sensor to detect water level do not need to contact the stream. The sensor is installed above the stream, and the transmitted sound pulse will be reflected when it reaches the water surface. The elapsed time between sending a pulse and receiving an echo determines the water level of the stream.

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Figure B.3 Velocity distributions as depicted by lines of equal velocity in a channel’s cross-section (a) and over a vertical profile (b).

II.

Flow velocity

A.

Velocity variation

Affected by the character of the streambank, stream bed, and channel configuration, flow velocity varies with time, along a stream channel, across a cross-section, and throughout a vertical profile. In general, velocity tends to increase as channel slope increases, and decreases as resistance to water movement increases. Thus, the flow velocity in a stream with rocky beds is lower than in one with earth beds. In a cross-section, velocities are lower near the banks and the bottom. The maximum velocity tends to occur around the center of the stream and below the water surface (Figure B.3a). The mean flow velocity for a stream must be obtained by estimating mean velocities for different segments across the stream. In practice, the mean flow velocity in a vertical stream column is often estimated at 0.6 (60%) depth from the surface for streams less than 1 m deep and by the average reading at 0.2 and 0.8 depth for streams 1 to 3 m deep (Figure B.3b). More than two measurements may be required to estimate mean velocity for streams deeper than 3 m.

B.

Site selection

An ideal site for determining flow velocity in mountainous streams is: (1) straight reach of about 20 m above and below the measuring site, (2) uniform channel in terms of width, bank materials, vegetation, and profile, (3) stable with respect to bank erosion and crosssection profile, (4) free from back flow caused by downstream tributaries or the damming effect of rocks, logs, debris, and other materials, and (5) far below the mixing effect of upper tributaries. For a permanent gaging station, a site with all flows contained within the banks will make measurements more reliable, although the maximum stage of severe floods often exceeds the channel capacity.

C.

Methods

1.

Floats

Flow velocities can be determined approximately by timing the travel of a float over a known distance. It is the simplest method, but it is not recommended unless other methods are not feasible or practical. Two types of floats, surface floats submerged one-fourth or less of the flow depth and rod floats submerged more than one-fourth the depth but not touching the bottom, can be used. The measurement should be conducted on windless days and the cross-section should be divided into at least three, preferably five, sections

Appendix B: Streamflow measurements

Figure B.4

323

A velocity rod (left) and a pitot-static tube (right).

of equal width. Several measurements should be made in each section and all measurements summed to get the average value. However, the float method gives only surface velocity and must be multiplied by a correction factor of 0.7 for streams of 1 m depth and 0.8 for streams of 6 m or deeper to estimate the average velocity for the column (Bureau of Reclamation, 1981).

2.

Velocity head

The total energy level on a cross-section of stream can be expressed in terms of the sum of elevation head, pressure head, and velocity head. The pressure head is the energy due to water depth, while velocity head (h, m) is a function of flow velocity (V, m/s): h = V2/(2g)

(B.1)

where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.80 m/sec2). Accordingly, if the velocity head in streams is measured, then the flow velocity can be obtained by: V = (2gh)0.5

(B.2)

V = 4.427 (h)0.5

(B.3)

or

Velocity heads can be measured using a velocity rod or a pitot tube (Figure B.4). The rod is used to measure flow velocity in streams where wading is possible. It is a regularly graduated rod with a sharp edge and a flat edge on its cross-section. When the sharp edge faces upstream, it measures the depth of stream. Facing the flat edge upstream, it measures the depth plus velocity head (or hydraulic jump) of the stream. The difference in readings between flat edge and sharp edge is the velocity head. Using a velocity rod, the calculated V from Equation B.3 needs to be multiplied by a correction factor 0.85 as an estimate for the mean velocity for the column of water (Wilm and Storey, 1944). The simplest form of a pitot tube is a transparent tube with a right-angle bend. The tube is submerged in the stream to a desired depth with the bend pointing upstream, and the rise of water in the tube is the velocity head due to flow velocity. However, velocity heads in the simple form of pitot tube are difficult to read when flow velocities in the

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Figure B.5

A Pygmy current meter on wading rod.

open channel are low. A pitot-static tube that consists of an inner tube with opening in the longitudinal direction and an outer tube with holes in the vertical direction greatly improves the measurement (Figure B.4). When pointing upstream, the inner tube receives the impact pressure from the flow, while the outer tube is exposed only to the local static pressure. The difference in pressures between the tubes is due to velocity head and is directly converted into flow velocity by connecting to a pressure transducer and a manometer or other devices for electronic data processing. Pitot tubes give satisfactory measurements at drops, chutes, or other stations with fairly large velocity heads and are common in pipe-flow measurements (Bureau of Reclamation, 1981; Bradner and Emerson, 1988; Vogel, 1994). The use of pitot tubes in forestry is rare.

3.

Current meters

Properly calibrated, current meters provide reliable measurements sensitive to velocity changes. A current meter may use four to six cups rotating around a vertical axis, or a propeller spinning on a horizontal axis, as the sensor. In practice, the meter is submerged in the stream to a desired depth. The number of revolutions of the cups is signaled by a battery-operated buzzer, which is detected by the observer through an earphone or is directly recorded by a digital counter. Flow velocities (V, m/sec) are calculated based on the number of revolutions per second (N) by: V = a + b(N)

(B.4)

where a and b are constants specifically calibrated for each instrument. Each current meter has a velocity-detection range for reliable measurements. In small, forested streams, the Pygmy meters, which measure flows with velocities up to 1.3 m/s and are the smallest commercial instrument available, are often used. The meter is fastened to a graduated wading rod, and the flow velocity at various depths in the stream can be measured by adjusting meter position on the rod (Figure B.5). For streams with high flow velocities or greater depth where wading is not possible, measurements can be made from a boat, bridge, or cableway. In such streams, a sounding weight, ranging from 7 to 136 kg in size, is suspended below the current meter to keep it stationary in the water.

4.

Others

The three methods mentioned above are the most common techniques used in watershed studies. Other methods include:

Appendix B: Streamflow measurements

325

a. Tracers. In shallow, braided, or rocky streams, or streams with high flow velocities, turbulence, and poor accessibility in which a current meter is impossible or difficult to use, various tracers can be employed to measure flow velocities or discharge directly. Common tracers include salts (Spence and McPhie, 1997), dyes, and radioactive materials, although handling problems have limited widespread use of radioactive tracers in flow measurements (Kilpatrick and Cobb, 1985). The two approaches to the use of tracers in flow measurements are trace-velocity and trace-dilution. The salt-velocity method is based on the addition of salts causing an increase in the electrical conductivity of water. Thus, flow velocity is the time required for salts (usually sodium chloride) to travel between two sites along a channel as detected by electrodes. In the salt-dilution method, a concentration (C1) of salt solution is added to a stream channel at a given rate (q). The stream discharge (Q) can be calculated by measuring the natural salt concentration (Co) of the stream and the new concentration (C2) at a downstream site where the added salt is completely mixed with the stream: Q(Co) + q(C1) = (Q + q)(C2) Q = q(C1 – C2)/(C2 – Co)

(B.5)

Mean velocity of the stream is then equal to the stream’s discharge divided by the stream’s cross-section area (A), or V = Q/A. As in the float method, colored dye such as fluorescein (a red powder that becomes a green color when dissolved in slightly alkaline water) can be poured into the stream. The time between the instant the dye is added and the instant the center of the mass of the colored water passes the downstream station is determined. The average time required for the dye to pass the course is the mean velocity of the stream. Since detecting the position of the center of the mass of the colored water is not easy, especially in highvelocity flows, the observed velocity may be just the surface velocity rather than the mean velocity. b. Hot-wire anemometers. In a hot-wire anemometer, constant AC voltage heats a thermopile. When the thermopile is submerged in a flowing fluid, its temperature is cooled and resistance changed. The degree of cooling, as indicated by the thermopile voltage output, is related to the flow velocity. Hot-wire anemometers are widely applied in airflow measurements, but have some difficulties in streamflow measurements because of hysteresis effects and frailty of the thin wire (Gordon et al., 1993). c. Electromagnetic method. Water is an electrical conductor. Based on the Faraday law of electromagnetic induction, a conductor will induce a voltage when it flows across a magnetic field. The magnitude of this induced voltage is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and the average velocity of the flow (WMO, 1980). A typical electromagnetic flowmeter (Figure B.6) uses an electromagnetic coil that generates the magnetic field as a sensor and a pair of electrodes as a detector to measure the voltage produced by the movement of the flow conductor. When water flows across the sensor, the direction of the flow, the magnetic field, and the induced voltage are mutually perpendicular to one another. The output voltage, detected by the electrodes, is processed by the electronics to give a direct reading of flow velocity in m/sec or ft/sec.

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Figure B.6 A Marsh-McBirney electromagnetic flowmeter mounted on a depth-gage rod (topsetting wading rod).

Figure B.7

Ultrasonic method for velocity measurements.

d. Acoustic flowmeters. Acoustic flowmeters operate on the principle that the difference in arrival time of two simultaneously created sound pulses traveling in opposite directions through the water can be related to flow velocity. Two special transducers that transmit and receive sound pulses are installed in or on the channel side-slopes, one in an upstream direction and the other across the river in a downstream direction (Figure B.7). In the downstream direction from X to Y, the effective speed of an acoustic pulse is the flow path velocity Vp plus the speed of sound C, or Vp + C, and the time (T1) of a pulse to travel within this distance L is (WMO, 1980; Laenen, 1985): T1 = L/(Vp + C)

(B.6)

On the other hand, the effective speed of an acoustic pulse in the upstream direction (from Y to X) is C - Vp, and the time (T2) of a pulse to travel within this distance L is: T2 = L/(C – Vp)

(B.7)

Appendix B: Streamflow measurements

327

Thus, if the difference in transit time of the two simultaneously created pulses is known, or: DT = T1 – T2 = L/(C + Vp) – L/(C – Vp) = 2L Vp/(C2 – Vp2 )

(B.8)

Since C2 is much greater than Vp2 , Equation B.8 can be simplified as: DT = (2LVp2 )/C 2

(B.9)

Vp = DTC2/(2L)

(B.10)

or

The average flow velocity (V) at a given depth can be corrected by the inclined angle of the path line (a): V = Vp/(cos a)

(B.11)

e. Acoustic Doppler current profiler. The acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) system is a modern technique developed by the U.S. Geological Survey to monitor horizontal and vertical water velocities at 1 m vertical intervals from a moving vessel. The ADCP transmits acoustic pulses into the water column. Part of the transmitted acoustic energy is reflected back toward the transducers by particulate matter in the water that is assumed to move with the water. The Doppler effect causes the frequency of these reflected signals to shift, and the magnitude of the frequency shift is a function of the speed of the particulate matter along the acoustic beam. The frequency shifts are then converted into water speeds by the computer software and hardware of the ADCP system. The system is designed to overcome the difficulty, time consumption, and dangers associated with discharge measurements in large rivers and estuaries (Simpson and Oltmann, 1993). Note that the Doppler effect, named after the Austrian physicist Christian J. Doppler (1803–1853), describes our experience of the relative motion between the source and the observer. When the source and observer are moving toward each other, the frequency heard by the observer is higher than the frequency of the source. On the other hand, when they are moving away from each other, the frequency heard by the observer is lower than the frequency of the source. Some of the common applications of the Doppler effect include the measurements of rainfall intensity, ocean waves and currents, flow velocity, and automobile speed.

III. Discharge A.

Volumetric and gravimetric methods

In volumetric and gravimetric methods, the entire flow in a stream is collected in a container over a given time period. Sometimes it is necessary to build an artificial control so that all the flows can be diverted into a calibrated container of known volume or weight. Discharge (Q, m3 or l/sec) is calculated by the time (T, sec) required to fill a known volume (v, m3 or l) of flow read directly from the container or calculated indirectly by placing the container on a weighing scale:

328

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests v = (W2 – W1)/W

(B.12)

Q = v/T

(B.13)

where W2 = weight of water and container (kg), W1 = weight of empty container (kg), and W = weight of water (1000 kg/m3). The container can be graduated so that the depth of water can note volume increments. For continuous measurements, a tipping bucket gage operated with datalogger is often employed for overland runoff studies. The two buckets in the gage are used to sense runoff and send an electrical signal to the datalogger. The size of the two buckets needs to be modified to meter a volume of runoff equivalent to a known depth generated from the study plot. Possible applications of these methods are at a spring, V-notch weir, overfall, pipe, overland runoff collector, drainage ditch, or at the deep pool behind a broad-crested weir where water on the crest is too shallow and water in the pool is too slow to be measured by a current meter. These methods are considered the most accurate methods for measurements of small flows (Gordon et al., 1993).

B.

Velocity-area method

The velocity-area method estimates discharge (Q, m3/sec) as the product of flow velocity (V, m/sec) and cross-sectional area (A, m2), or: Q = (V)(A)

(B.14)

Since flow velocity in a cross-sectional area varies with location and depth, the method in practice breaks the cross-sectional area into several segments (15 to 20 are common; 25 to 30 are adequate even for extremely large channels) with no more than 10% of the total flow in each segment. However, the ideal measurement would be that no partial section contains more than 5% of the total flow (USGS, 1980). Few sections may be used for channels with a smooth cross-section and good velocity distribution. Measurements are then made on the flow velocities, width, and depth of each segment. These data are then used to calculate the discharge in each segment by Equation B.14, and the total discharge (Q) for the cross-sectional area is the sum of discharges for all segments (Sqn), or: Q = Sqn = (v1)(a1) + (v2)(a2) + (v3)(a3) +…+ (vn)(an)

(B.15)

where v and a refer, respectively, to the mean velocity and area of segments 1 through n. The discharge calculation for each segment can be made in several ways. The meansection method and mid-section method are the most common ones. These are illustrated in Figure B.8, and an example of the calculation of these two methods is given in Table B.1.

C.

Slope-area method

The slope-area method provides an “after the fact” estimate for peak discharges or an indirect estimate for flood flows in which direct discharge measurements are impossible. It uses physical characteristics of the stream channel to estimate mean flow velocities and multiply the estimated flow velocity by the cross-sectional area to yield flood discharges. The most popular equation to estimate flood velocities in the U.S. is the Manning equation. Use of the Manning equation for estimating flood discharges is given in Equation 10.29 and its subsequent discussion.

Appendix B: Streamflow measurements

Figure B.8

329

Streamflow measurements and discharge calculations using two different methods.

IV. Stage–discharge relation The streamflow measurements described above are tedious and time consuming. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to apply these procedures to measure streamflow at both low and high flow stages in a drainage system. Since streamflow volume and stage height are affected by the hydraulic geometry of the stream channel, the measurement procedure can be simplified by relating discharge volume to stage height alone through a calibration procedure conducted in the field or laboratory.

A.

Channel hydraulic geometry

The measurement of streamflow (Q) is based on: Q = AV = WDV

(B.16)

where the cross-sectional area A is calculated by the channel width W and the average depth D. Accordingly, for a given value of Q, a decrease in D at a cross-section will cause an increase in V and most likely a corresponding decrease in W. The hydraulic geometry of streams can be expressed by a series of empirical equations: W = aQx

(B.17)

D = bQy

(B.18)

V = cQz

(B.19)

WDV = Q = abc(Q)(x+y+z)

(B.20)

0.756

1.024

1.321

1.568

1.422

1.025

0.814

0.607

2.0

5.0

8.0

11.0

14.0

29.0

32.0

35.0

b

a

0.0

0.104

0.175

0.206

0.512

0.563

0.405

0.286

0.152

0.0

Velocityb vn , m/sec

0.052

0.140

0.191

0.538

0.484

0.346

0.219

0.076

(vn-1 + vn)/2

0.304

0.711

0.920

1.495

1.445

1.173

0.890

0.378

2.5

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.0

2.0

Mean-Section Method (dn-1 + dn)/2 (wn - wn-1)/2

0.019

0.299

0.527

2.413

2.098

1.218

0.585

0.057

qn

0.0 15.805

2.75

3.00

3.00

3.00

3.00

3.00

2.50

0.0

0.0 16.054

0.174

0.427

2.184

2.648

1.605

0.879

0.287

0.0

Mid-Section Method (wn+1 - wn-1)/2 qn

Having the same width is the easiest approach, but in the field widths of segments would vary based on depth and velocity of water in a channel (Dr. Don Turton, personal communication). Mean flow velocity of each segment may be based on one measurement at 0.6 d or two measurements at 0.2 depth and 0.6 depth from the surface.

37.5 0.0 Total discharge (m3/sec)

0.0

Depth dn , m

Table B.1 An Example for Velocity-Area Discharge Calculations Using the Two Methods Illustrated in Figure B.8

0.0

Width wn , m

a

330 Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Appendix B: Streamflow measurements

331

Table B.2 Some Averages of Hydraulic Geometry Exponents Derived from Studies in the U.S. and Europe and for Streams in the Midwest of the U.S. Condition Width (X) At a station Among stations

U.S. and Europe Depth (y) Velocity (z)

0.20 0.50

0.40 0.40

0.40 0.10

Width (x)

Midwest Depth (y)

Velocity (z)

0.26 0.50

0.40 0.40

0.34 0.10

where a, b, c, x, y, and z are empirical constants, and they must be: abc = 1

(B.21)

x+y+z=1

(B.22)

Some average values of the exponents x, y, and z derived for streams in the U.S. Midwest (Leopold et al., 1964) and from studies in the U.S. and Europe (Lee, 1980) are given in Table B.2. In general, depth seems to change more rapidly than width at a station, but width changes more rapidly than depth in a downstream direction. Velocity generally increases with depth as depicted by the Manning equation. But, for a given Q, an increase in channel slope or a reduction in channel width will cause a consequent increase in velocity. This is the general principle used to induce a critical or supercritical state of flow in the design of flumes for discharge measurements. The occurrence of critical or supercritical flow in the flume allows the calibration of a definitive head–discharge relationship, and measurements can be based on one head reading. Note that the state of flow is generally described by three conditions: subcritical, critical, and supercritical. The conditions are separated by a dimensionless parameter, the Froude number (F) defined as the ratio of inertial force to the force of gravity: F = V/(gD)0.5

(B.23)

where V is the mean flow velocity (m/sec), g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.80 m/sec2), and D is the hydraulic depth (m). The inertial forces describe the compulsive ability of water, while the gravitational forces pull water downhill. If F < 1, the flow is in subcritical condition — low invelocity, tranquil, and tame — where the flow is predominated by the gravity. If F = 1, the flow is in critical condition, where the specific energy is minimum for a given discharge. If F > 1, the flow is in supercritical condition — high in velocity, turbulent, and torrential — where the flow is dominated by the inertial forces.

B.

The rating equation

The rating equation makes stream discharge Q a function of channel depth D (an inverse relationship of Equation B.18), or: Q = mDn

(B.24)

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Figure B.9

Stage–discharge rating curves.

where m and n are constants specifically calibrated for the site in question. They are derived by a least-squares fit using the measured Q vs. mean stages D. For stations where Q is not zero when D = 0, a correction stage d should be included in the calibration: Q = m(D ± d)n

(B.25)

where d = stage reading at zero flow. Once Equation B.24 or B.25 is calibrated, discharges can be obtained by measuring only stream stages. Traditionally, streamflow discharges are plotted against the corresponding mean stream stages on graph paper, and a curve is fitted visually through the plotted points. The fitted curve, approximately parabolic, is called the rating curve, relating discharges Q to stages D through graphical solutions. If a log–log paper is used, then the fitted curve appears as a straight line, making interpretations of the line easier. It is important that the plotting procedure include some measurements at high flood stages to depict most flow conditions. The result may produce more than one curve as a reflection of the physical effects of channel and floodplain on flow movements. Two rating curves, a curve for low to intermediate flows and a curve for intermediate to high flows, are common for most gaging stations (Figure B.9). Two rating equations may be required to provide more reliable estimates at higher stages.

C.

Precalibrated devices

The rating equation and the rating curve described above are valid only if the channel cross-section is relatively stable over time. Should the shape of the channel cross-section be altered due to flood flows or forest harvesting, then the calibrated stage–discharge relationship is no longer applicable to the new cross-section. This leads to an attempt to improve the reliability of the discharge–stage relationship by artificial control of the streamflow. If flows in the stream channel are controlled by a rigid, permanent structure of special shape and characteristics, then there is no need to worry about the alteration of the channel cross-section, and the stage–discharge relation can be standardized and tested in the laboratory. There are many hydraulic devices of special shape and characteristics whose discharge–stage relations are precalibrated for measurements in relatively small creeks, shallow rivers, and open channels. These hydraulic devices may be categorized into three

Appendix B: Streamflow measurements

333

types: weirs, flumes, and orifices. Weirs and flumes are used in open channels, while orifices are associated with submerged sluices, regulated or unregulated gates, and pipe flows. The use of weirs and flumes depends on stream size, flow range, channel gradient, and sediment load. When orifices are not submerged, they may act as a weir.

1.

Weirs

a. Features. A weir is a dam built across an open channel for flow measurements. Weirs are barriers on the bottom of stream channels that cause the overflow of water to accelerate. Components of a weir include: 1. A crest of specific shape, usually high above the bottom of the stream channel, for water-head determination 2. A bulkhead to form a water pool behind the weir 3. An approach section long enough to allow water approaching the weir with a minimum velocity free from turbulence 4. Two side walls to ensure that all overland and subsurface runoff passes through the weir 5. A stilling well, equipped with an electrical water-level recorder, installed a few feet behind the weir 6. An opening beneath the crest of the weir bulkhead to sluice accumulated sediment The discharge rate of the channel is determined by measuring water head above the weir crest. The head can then be converted into discharge rate by a standard equation specifically calibrated for the shape and size of the weir. Weirs are not suitable for installations in channels with flat slopes or carrying excessive solid materials and sediment (Grant, 1992). Accordingly, openings beneath the crest are a mechanism to clean the accumulation of sediment, and the crest must be kept free from fibers, stringy materials, and other articles. If installed properly, weirs are the most reliable structures for measuring water in canals and ditches. b. Types of weirs. Weirs can be classified in several ways. By the shapes of crest, they can be rectangular, triangular (V-notch), and trapezoidal (Cippoletti). By the contact of flows to the crest, they can be sharp-crested (thin-plate weirs) and broad-crested weirs. A sharp-crested weir has a vertical flat plate with a sharpened upper edge installed along the crest so that water does not contact any part of the weir structure downstream. Broadcrested weirs have a solid broad section of concrete or other material such that water flows over the entire surface of the crest. Broad-crested weirs are not as popular as sharpcrested weirs, which can be rectangular, triangular, and trapezoidal, and are often existing structures such as dams or levees. Discharges are obtained by a calibration procedure in the field. Classified by the crest length of the rectangular weir in respect to the channel crosssection, there are weirs without end contractions (suppressed weirs) and weirs with end contractions (contracted weirs). A suppressed weir extends the weir’s crest length to the full span of the channel, while a weir with its crest length less than the width of the channel is said to have end contractions. Classified by the downstream water level below the weir’s crest, weirs are referred to as free or critical and submerged or subcritical. The sheet of water passing the weir crest is called the nappe. When the water level downstream from the weir is low enough to allow free air movement beneath the nappe, the underside of the nappe or water jet is exposed to the atmospheric pressure and the flow is referred to as free or critical. This

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Figure B.10 The shapes and dimensions of weirs.

means that the weir is under free discharge conditions, which is the best condition for weir operations. If the downstream water level rises to a height at which air does not flow freely beneath the nappe, and the nappe is not ventilated, the discharge can increase due to the low pressure beneath the nappe. When the water level downstream is above the crest, the flow is considered submerged or subcritical. This can affect the discharge rate and is not desirable for standard operations. The determination of discharge rate under submerged conditions requires measurements of both upstream and downstream heads and use of submerged weir tables. c. Flow rates. Weirs with sharp crests and free discharge conditions are the most popular devices in streamflow measurements. The dimensions of four sharp-crested weirs, as suggested by Grant (1992), are given in Figure B.10; their discharge equations are summarized below for illustration. Detailed derivations and discussions of these equations along with flow rates for other types of weirs can be obtained from standard texts and specialist reference books. For free-discharge, sharp-crest, rectangular weirs with end contractions, Q = K(L – 0.2H)(H1.5)

(B.26)

where Q is flow rate, L is crest length of weir, H is head of the weir, and K is constant depending on units of measurements. In SI units, L and H are in meters, K is 1.838 to give Q in m3/sec. In British units, L and H are in feet, K = 3.330, and Q is in ft3/sec. For free-discharge, sharp-crested, rectangular weirs without end contractions: Q = K(L)(H1.5) As in equation B.26, K = 1.838 in SI units and 3.330 in British units.

(B.27)

Appendix B: Streamflow measurements

335

For free-discharge, sharp-crested triangular (V-notch) weirs, Q = K(H2.5)

(B.28)

where K is constant, depending on the angle of notch (a) and the unit of measurement. In SI units, K = 0.3730, 0.7962, and 1.3794 for weirs with a = 30, 60, and 90∞, respectively. In British units, K = 0.6760, 1.443, and 2.50, in that order. For free discharge, sharp-crested trapezoidal weirs, Q = KL(H1.5)

(B.29)

where Q = flow rate (m3/sec or ft3/sec), L = crest length of weir (m or ft), H = head on the weir (m or ft), and K = 1.8589 in SI units and 3.367 in British units.

2.

Flumes

Unlike weirs, which cause a considerable loss of head by damming water across a stream channel, flumes are specifically shaped devices of flow section that are installed along a stream channel for discharge measurements. The head loss of flumes is smaller than that of weirs, an advantage for channels where the available head is limited. Thus, flumes are used in channels where the use of weirs is not feasible. a. Parshall flumes. The Parshall flume is particularly suitable for flow measurement in irrigation canals, sewers, and industrial discharges. It consists of three sections: (1) a level, converging section upstream, (2) a constricted, downward-sloping throat section in the middle, and (3) an upward diverging section downstream (Figure B.11). The narrow, upstream, converging section of the flume accelerates the entering water, eliminating the effect of sediment deposition on measurement accuracy. The throat section induces greater flow velocity and a differential head that can be related to discharge. A downward-sloping floor in the throat gives the flume its ability to withstand relatively high degrees of submergence without affecting the flow rate. The diverging section below the throat assures lower water level in the downstream section than in the converging section.

Figure B.11 The configuration of Parshall flumes. (Reproduced from Kilpatrick, F.A. and Schneider, V.R., 1983, Use of flumes in measuring discharge, in Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, U.S. Geological Survey, Chapter A14, Book 3.)

336

Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests Table B.3 Dimensions (m) and Capacities (m3/sec) of Standard Parshall Flumes Axial Lengths (m)

Widths (m) WT

WC

WD

LC

LT

LD

0.152 0.305 1.524 3.048 6.096

0.396 0.844 2.301 4.755 9.144

0.393 0.610 1.829 3.658 7.315

0.610 1.344 1.945 4.267 7.620

0.305 0.610 0.610 0.914 1.829

0.457 0.914 0.914 1.829 3.658

Gage Points (m) WT

D

C

HC

HT , a

HT , b

0.152 0.305 1.524 3.048 6.096

0.610 0.914 0.914 1.219 2.134

0.719 1.372 1.981 2.743 4.267

0.415 0.914 1.320 1.829 2.844

0.051 0.051 0.051 — —

0.076 0.076 0.076 — —

Vertical Distance Below Crest (m) N K 0.114 0.229 0.229 0.341 0.686

0.076 0.076 0.076 0.152 0.305

Free-Flow Capacity (m3/sec) Minimum Maximum 0.001 0.003 0.045 0.170 0.283

0.110 0.456 2.422 8.490 37.922

Note: H located 2/3 C distance from crest for all sizes; distance is wall length, not axial. Flume size 0.076 through 2.438 m have approach aprons rising at 25% slope and the following entrance roundings: 0.152 m, radius = 0.405 m; 0.305 m, radius = 0.509 m; 1.524 m, radius = 0.610 m. WT = throat width, WC = width of upstream end, WD = width of downstream end, LC = axial length of converging section, LT = axial length of throat section, LD = axial length of diverging section, N = vertical distance below crest, dip at throat, K = vertical distance below crest at lower end of flume, D = wall depth in converging section, C = converging wall length, HC = gage point located at wall length upstream of crest, HT = head at the throat section. Source: Kilpatrick, F.A. and Schneider, V.R., 1983, Use of flumes in measuring discharge, in Techniques of WaterResources Investigations, U.S. Geological Survey, Chapter A14, Book 3.

The size of Parshall flumes is designated by the throat width (WT), and standard dimensions are given by the USGS for sizes ranging from 2.54 cm (1 in.) to 15.24 m (50 ft) (Kilpatrick and Schneider, 1983). A few sizes with their dimensions corresponding to the letters in Figure B.11 are given in Table B.3. The determination of discharge rate depends on flow conditions. For free-flow conditions in which there is insufficient backwater depth downstream to reduce the discharge rate, only one head reading at the upstream gaging location (HC) is needed to measure and use this head reading to determine discharge rate from standard tables or equations. Hydraulic jumps or standing waves occurring downstream from the flume are an indicator of the free-flow condition. The standard equations for three throat sizes are given in Table B.4, in both British and SI units. For submerged flows in which the water surface downstream from the flume is high enough to cause a backflow and a reduction in discharge rate, the determination of flow rate requires both depth measurements at upstream gaging site (HC) and in the throat (HT). The ratio of the downstream depth to the upstream depth (HT/HC) is used to determine the two flow conditions and to make a correction from standard nomographs and equations (USDA, 1979; Bureau of Reclamation, 1980). b. Hs, H, and HL flumes. These flumes were developed by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service in the 1930s to measure runoff from small watersheds and experimental plots. They have a flat bottom; the vertical sidewalls are converged toward the control opening, and the converging sidewalls slant upward from the lip of the outlet to form a trapezoidal shape for the opening and the sidewalls (Figure B.12). The flat bottom allows a better passage of sediment than weirs, the converging sidewalls accelerate flow velocity, and the trapezoidal opening (narrow at the bottom and wide and pitched toward

Appendix B: Streamflow measurements

337

Table B.4 Discharge Q as a Function of Throat Width WT and Flow Head HC for Parshall Flumes under Free-Flow Conditions Throat Width 0.15 m (6 in.) 0.30–2.44 m (1–8 ft) 3.05–15.24 m (10–50 ft)

SI Units (m, m3/sec) Q = 0.381(HC)1.580 Q = 4[0.3048] (2-1.57X)[WT HC1.57X] Q = [2.2927WT + 0.4738]HC1.6

British Units (ft, ft3/sec) Q = 2.060 (HC)1.580 Q = 4(WT)(HC)1.52X Q = [3.6875WT + 2.5]HC1.6

Note: X = WT(exp 0.026) = WT0.026

Figure B.12 The HS, H, and HL flumes (side views and front views).

upstream at the top) provides a capacity to measure the full range of a flow event. Thus, they combine the sensitivity and accuracy of sharp-crested weirs with the self-cleaning features of flumes. The three H-type flumes are designed to measure different flow capacities. The HS flumes are for relatively small flows (maximum flow rates less than 0.0232 m3/sec), the H flumes for medium flows (maximum flow rates ranging from 0.0099 to 0.8773 m3/sec), and the HL flumes for larger flows (maximum flow rates ranging from 0.5858 to 3.3111 m3/sec). Each of the flumes is described for its maximum depth (head) attainable in the flume. A 3-ft (0.9144-m) H flume has a maximum head of 3 ft, and its maximum flow rate is 30.70 ft3/sec (0.8688 m3/sec). The standard dimensions for each type of flume and the rating tables relating water heads in the flume to discharge rates are given in USDA (1979). On installation, each flume is attached with a stilling well for water-level measurements. The approach section (channel) should have the same depth and width as the flume and a length three to five times the depth of the flume. The water entering the flume must be subcritical with no turbulence, and the water leaving the flume should be free in falling downstream.

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Figure B.13 The velocity for a submerged orifice.

3.

Orifices

An orifice used for discharge measurements is a sharp-edged opening in a wall, bulkhead, or barrier in a stream through which flow occurs under pressure; it can be a hole in a detention pond as outlet controls (Figure B.13). Orifices can be used to measure flow rate when the size and shape of the openings and the heads acting upon them are known. The discharge of water from the orifice can be either free into the air or submerged under the water. The submerged orifice causes no head loss in installation and is therefore used where there is insufficient fall for a weir, the cost is unjustifiable for a Parshall flume, or there is a need for small or controlled discharges. If a small opening is made under a water tank 1 m below the water surface, water will spout from the opening with a velocity of 4.427 m/sec, equal to the terminal velocity of a free-falling rock from 1 m in the air. It would be 6.261 m/sec if depth were 2 m below the surface. The velocity (V, m/sec) increases with depth H by this relationship: H = V2/(2g)

(B.30)

where g is acceleration due to gravity (9.80 m/sec2) and H is measured from water surface to the center line of an orifice in m. With flow velocity V (m/sec) and orifice area A (m2), the discharge Q (m3/sec) for a submerged orifice under approach-velocity–negligible condition can be calculated by: Q = AV = Cd A (2gH)0.5

(B.31)

where Cd is discharge coefficient due to water viscosity and orifice characteristics such as shape, size, and edge. Values of Cd range from 0.5 to 1.0, and a value of 0.60 is used for most applications in the U.S. If the velocity of approach is significant (V1 in Figure B.13), the head due to velocity of approach (h) should be included in the calculation, or: Q’ = C A [2g(H + h)]0.5 d

(B.32)

The h is obtained first by calculating velocity of approach v [v = Q/A¢, where Q is from Equation B.31 and A¢ is cross-sectional area of approach pipe in m2; then using v to calculate h [h = v2/(2g)]. The value h is then used in Equation B.32 to solve for Q¢.

Appendix B: Streamflow measurements

339

References Bradner, M. and Emerson, L., 1988, Flow measurement, in Fluid Mechanics Source Book, Parker, S.P., ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 203–221. Bureau of Reclamation, 1981, Water Measurement Manual, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Denver, CO. Gordon, N.D., McMahon, T.A., and Finlayson, B.L., 1993, Stream Hydrology, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Grant, D.M., 1992, ISCO Open Channel Flow Measurement Handbook, 3rd ed, Isco, Inc., Lincolin, NE. Kilpatrick, F.A. and Cobb, E.D., 1985, Measurement of discharge using tracers, in Techniques of WaterResources Investigations, U.S. Geological Survey, Chapter A16, Book 3. Kilpatrick, F.A. and Schneider, V.R., 1983, Use of flumes in measuring discharge, in Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, U.S. Geological Survey, Chapter A14, Book 3. Laenen, A., 1985, Acoustic velocity meter systems, in Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, U.S. Geological Survey, Chapter A17, Book 3. Lee, R. 1980, Forest Hydrology, Columbia University Press, New York. Leopold, L.B., Wolman, M.G., and Miller, J.P., 1964, Fluival Processes in Geomorphology, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco. Simpson, M.R. and Oltmann, R.N., 1993, Discharge-Measurement System Using an Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler with Applications to Large Rivers and Estuaries, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2395. Spence, C. and McPhie, M., 1997, Streamflow measurement using salt dilution in tundra streams, Northwest Territories, Canada, J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc., 33, 285–291. Vogel, S., 1994, Life in Moving Fluids, the Physical Biology of Flow, 2nd ed., Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. USDA, 1979, Field Manual for Research in Agricultural Hydrology, U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handbook No. 224. U.S. Forest Service, 1984, Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory: A Guide to Research Program,. SE Forest Exp. Sta., Asheville, NC. USGS, 1980, National Handbook of Recommended Methods for Water-Data Acquisition, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Reston, VA, pp. 1–130. Wilm, H.G. and Storey, H.C., 1944, Velocity-head rod calibrated for measuring streamflow, Civil Eng., 14, 475–476. WMO, 1980. Manual on Stream Gauging, Operational Hydrology Rep. No. 13, WMO- N0. 519, World Meteorological Organization.

Appendix C

Measurements of stream sediment Contents I. Suspended sediment.......................................................................................................342 A. Sediment variation..................................................................................................342 B. Sampling...................................................................................................................342 1. Site selection ......................................................................................................342 2. Number of verticals..........................................................................................343 3. Sampling frequency..........................................................................................343 4. Types of samples...............................................................................................344 5. Procedures for depth-integrated samplers ...................................................344 a. The EDI method..........................................................................................345 b. The ETR method .........................................................................................346 6. Procedures for point-integrating samplers...................................................346 C. Measuring devices ..................................................................................................346 1. Hand-operated samplers .................................................................................346 2. Automatic samplers .........................................................................................348 a. Mechanical samplers ..................................................................................348 b. Electrical pumping samplers ....................................................................349 c. Optical turbidity systems ..........................................................................349 d. Acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) ............................................350 e. Radioactive turbiometric gages ................................................................351 D. Calculations .............................................................................................................351 1. Suspended-sediment load for a cross section..............................................351 2. Mean suspended-sediment concentration ....................................................351 3. Suspended-sediment load for a runoff event ..............................................352 II. Bedload .............................................................................................................................352 A. Bedload variation....................................................................................................352 B. Sampling...................................................................................................................353 C. Measuring devices ..................................................................................................355 1. Bedload samplers..............................................................................................335 a. Basket-type samplers..................................................................................355 b. Tray samplers ..............................................................................................355 c. Pressure-difference samplers ....................................................................355 d. Sediment traps.............................................................................................355 2. Tracers.................................................................................................................356 3. Acoustic and ultrasonic measurement ..........................................................357 D. Calculations .............................................................................................................357 References .....................................................................................................................................358 341

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Stream sediment, or fluvial sediment, refers to the fragmental material and particles that are retained and transported in stream channels. These materials are derived primarily from the physical and chemical disintegration of rocks and delivery to stream channels via various erosion phases including raindrop splash, interrill, rill, gullies, channel, and mass movement. Sediment information is required for: (1) evaluation of land-use management, (2) the design of hydraulic structures, (3) water-quality management, (4) water utilization, and (5) aquatic-life management. Sediments in streams appear as washload, suspended load, and bedload. Washload and suspended load are those fine sediments that are transported in streams with no direct contact with the streambed for an appreciable length of time, while bedload consists of those particles rolling and bouncing along the streambed. In measurement, sediments in suspended load and washload are separated from bedload.

I.

Suspended sediment

Suspended sediments are supported by the fluid and carried along above the layer of laminar flow. They have settling velocities less than the buoyant velocity of the flow and stay in suspension in the water for an appreciable length of time. Suspended sediments in the stream are measured in terms of sediment concentration in mg/l (mass per unit volume of streamflow), based on water samples collected in the field and gravimetrically determined in the laboratory. The sediment concentration is then weighted by the flow rates measured simultaneously to obtain sediment yield (or discharge) in t/day (or other units in mass per unit time). Finally, the sediment yield in mass/time is divided by the watershed area to give the result in mass/time/area for comparisons with other studies.

A.

Sediment variation

The concentration of suspended sediment varies with depth, velocity, turbulence, particle size and shape, channel geometry, physical and chemical properties of water, watershed size and topographic characteristics, climatic conditions, and time. The variation is greater in small watersheds than in large watersheds because of small watersheds’ sensitivity to storm characteristics. For a given cross section, the greatest concentration is near the bed and decreases to minimum at the surface. It is more concentrated in the segments where velocity is high and depth is low. During high flows, total suspended sediment can be greater than that in low flows by a factor of more than 1000 (Bonta, 2000). Consequently, the majority of annual sediment yield can be attributable to only a few major storms. A 200 km2 watershed in Wisconsin (U.S.), cited by Garde and Ranga Raju (1985), generated 90% of the total sediment load of a 15-month period in 10 days, or 2.2% of the time. Likewise, a 7-year study on the River Creedy in Devon, U.K. showed that 80% of the sediment load was carried in 3% of the time (Walling and Webb, 1981).

B.

Sampling 1.

Site selection

Sampling sites are selected with consideration of the data needs and the nature of the flow and channel conditions. Because streamflow discharge is also required in most sediment measurements, existing stream-gaging stations are logical sites for sampling suspended sediments. At such stations, samples should be taken upstream of still ponds (Gordon et al., 1992). If no suitable gaging station already exists, then the sampling site

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343

should be located in the middle section of a straight reach of length at least four times the width of the channel, but no less than 150 m (Singhal et al., 1981). In mountainous regions where straight reaches are difficult to find, a length of 50 m should be acceptable. Flow conditions at sites such as those downstream or upstream from the confluence of two streams can be disturbed by unusual water-surface slopes, lateral flows, back flows, and mixing effects. These conditions will likewise affect the normal movement of sediment and may require additional sediment measurements. Also, sites should not be adjacent to hydraulic structures. A measuring section at a bend should be avoided because of uneven distribution of stream energy. Likewise, sites with unstable cross sections, such as active bank erosion, silting, and scouring, should not be used for measurements. Because more samples are required during periods of high flows, it is imperative that sites be accessible during times of flooding. If samples are required for the assessment of land-treatment effects, then the sampling sites are obvious. They should be close to the treatments, both upstream and downstream locations. Locating too far from the treatment sites can cause the dilution effect of streamflow to be significant. Changes in hydraulic and channel conditions between sites increase with distance.

2.

Number of verticals

The number of verticals required in sampling suspended sediment along a stream’s cross section depend on the type of information needed, the degree of accuracy required, and the physical aspects of the river. It may be determined based on statistical approaches or field experience. The number has ranged from a single vertical for small streams to more than 15 verticals for streams with great sediment variations. If only the smaller fractions such as silts and clays are of concern, then one grab sample taken near the water surface in the center of the stream is considered sufficient (Gordon et al., 1992). Sampling at a single vertical is also adequate if a stream’s cross section is stable and its lateral suspendedsediment distribution is rather uniform. If the distribution of sediment concentration or particle size across the stream is important, then samples are needed at several verticals. For sand-bed streams, the bed configuration can vary significantly across and along the stream, as can the sediment concentration. Such streams may require more sampling verticals to estimate the sediment concentration of the cross section. Samplings at 6 to 12 verticals are usually sufficient to produce a reliable estimate of discharge-weighted suspended sediment for most small streams (USDA, 1979).

3.

Sampling frequency

Suspended-sediment concentration in a given stream is highly variable with time. It is often much higher during floods, on the increasing discharge during a flood (the rising limb of the hydrograph), and for storms preceded by a long, dry period (MacDonald et al., 1991), but is lower for runoff generated from snow storms than from rain storms. Suspended-sediment sampling is therefore required more frequently during these high-concentration periods and for streams with greater sediment variations. Because of the great temporal variation of suspended sediments in streams, an adequate sampling program may need three different schemes: 1. A routine scheme for sampling baseflows 2. A special scheme for sampling storm runoff 3. A stratification scheme to adjust the other two schemes for meeting special conditions and needs

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The routine sampling scheme is commonly on a weekly basis, but may be as short as a day or other longer intervals. This scheme is set up in compliance with the general monitoring program of the region, flow conditions, and the available resources. However, the routine sampling is a bias estimate of stream sediment and may cause underestimates up to 50% (Ferguson, 1986). This requires addition of a special, intensified scheme to sample sediments during floods. The sampling frequency should be short enough to take samples along the rising limb, at or near the crest, and in the recession limb of the flood hydrograph. In general, more samples should be obtained on and near the crest, and the time intervals should be shorter on the rising stage than on the recession stage and in small streams than in large streams. If automatic water samplers are used for the sampling, the sampler can be programmed to pump water samples based on increments of flood stage, discharge rate, or time intervals. The stratification scheme of sampling improves the accuracy of the sediment estimates by adjusting the frequencies used in the routine and flood sampling schemes for special environmental conditions. For example, in regions where snowstorms dominate for an extended period of time, or hurricane season often brings substantial amounts of intense rainfall, it becomes necessary to set up sampling programs to reflect different sampling frequencies or initial baseflow stages between seasons.

4.

Types of samples

There are five types of samples taken from streams for sediment-concentration analyses: (1) depth-integrated samples, (2) point-integrated samples, (3) grab samples, (4) discrete samples, and (5) composite samples. Depth-integrated samples, most common in routine suspended-sediment measurements, are the samples integrated from the water surface to about 10 cm above the streambed by use of a depth-integrating sampler. The sample covers the total suspended sediment over the entire vertical, except the 10-cm layer near the bottom that cannot be reached due to the height of the sampler. Point-integrated samples are water-sediment samples that are collected by a point-integrating sampler at a specific depth in the stream. Usually, a number of point-integrated samples are collected to define the sediment concentration distribution in a vertical. If the velocity distribution in the vertical is measured simultaneously, then the sediment concentration vs. flow-velocity profile can be defined, and sediment load can be calculated. The point-integrating method is slow and is therefore used in large streams where water is too deep or too swift for use of the depth-integrating sampler. In small headwater streams where sediment is well mixed and dominated by clays and silts, water samples can be grabbed by lowering an open container into the water. The grab sample represents an instantaneous sample at one point in the stream. If sand is in suspension, the grab sampler must lower to near the streambed (UNESCO, 1982). A discrete water sample is the sample collected on a specific time during a storm runoff event. The combination of a few discrete samples collected during a storm runoff event, in same quantity, into a single sample is called a composite water sample. Also, depthintegrating samples from the same stream cross section can be combined into a single sample for laboratory analyses if they are collected in the same transit rate at all verticals of equal width.

5.

Procedures for depth-integrated samplers

In this method, the sampler is lowered from the water surface to the streambed and raised to the surface at a uniform speed. This makes the sampling rate at any point in the vertical proportional to the stream velocity and produces a sample whose concentration is velocity weighted throughout the entire depth. The location of the sampler in the cross section

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345

Table C.1 Size Schedule for Coshocton-Wheel Runoff Samplers Model

N-1 N-2 N-3

H flume (m)

Wheel Diameter (m)

Capacity to Sample Peak Runoff (m3/s)

Headroom Requirement (m)

Aliquot (%)

0.152 0.305 0.457

0.305 0.610 0.914

0.0094 0.0566 0.1557

0.457 0.762 1.143

1.0 0.5 0.3

Source: Parsons, D.A., 1954, Coshocton-Type Runoff Samplers, Laboratory Investigations, USDA, Soil Conservation Service, SCS-TP-124.

Figure C.1

The determination of verticals’ locations and boundaries in the EDI method.

depends on the number of verticals. If only one vertical is used in the measurement, it is located either at midstream or at the point of greatest depth. If multiple verticals are used, then the location of each vertical is determined either by the equal-discharge-increment method (EDI) or by the equal-transit-rate method (ETR). a. The EDI method. The EDI method first determines the number of verticals required in the measurement. The entire cross section is then divided into verticals of equal discharges and the boundaries (locations) of each vertical are identified. Water samples are obtained at the centroid (50% discharge rate) of each vertical. Thus, some knowledge of the streamflow discharge distribution is required in this method, and the channel cross section is preferably uniform and stable. If prior knowledge of stream discharge is not available for the use of the EDI method, it needs to make sequential discharge measurements across the stream. The water discharges are then accumulated from the initial point of measurement to the other side of the stream. Next, the accumulated discharges of each sequential measurement are expressed as a percentage of the total discharge and plotted against distance from the initial point on a graph. The plotting can be used to determine the locations of each equaldischarge vertical along the stream’s cross section (Guy and Norman, 1970). Based on data given in Table B.1, Figure C.1 is a plot of the cumulative discharges expressed as percentages of the total against distances from the initial point. If four verticals are used in the measurements, each vertical should have 25% of the total discharge, and the three boundaries separating these four verticals are located at approximately 2.5 m,

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3.6 m, and 4.4 m from the initial point. Water samples are taken in the median discharge of each vertical, or at 12.5, 37.5, 62.5, and 87.5% of the total discharge located at 1.8, 3.1, 4.0, and 5.0 m from the initial point, respectively. b. The ETR method. The ETR method, more widely used than the EDI method, obtains samples at equally spaced verticals with a volume proportional to the amount of discharge at each vertical. The transit rate of the sampler should be at a uniform speed within a vertical and among all verticals. This gives a discharge-weighted sample for the flow cross section, and all samples from a cross section can be composited to form a single sample for laboratory analyses.

6.

Procedures for point-integrating samplers

Point-integrating samplers are equipped with a valve that can open and close to trap a sample at a specific depth in the stream. The sampling process also requires a measurement of the stream velocity at the sampling point so that the sediment discharge can be calculated. This method is generally used in streams which are too deep (>5 m) or too turbulent for use of a depth-integrating sampler. Both the EDI and ETR methods can be used for point-integrating samplers to determine the location of verticals on the cross section. The number of points taken in each vertical has used one-point, two-point, three-point, and five-point methods. In the onepoint method, the sample is taken at the surface or at 0.6 times the depth below the surface (0.6 d). One-point sampling may be sufficient in small streams or necessary during high flood stages. Singhal et al. (1981) stated that the average suspended-sediment concentration (ppm) in India lies at 0.5 d in rivers and 0.54 d in canals, and is about 2.353 times the sediment concentration at the surface. When streams are shallow, samples are taken at two points in the vertical, i.e., 0.2d and 0.8 d from the surface. For deep streams, three points (at surface, bottom, and middepth) or five points (at surface, 2, 6, 8 d, and bottom) may be required in routine measurements. It is a common practice to determine the number of points required in the sampling through a trial procedure. A sufficient number of points is sampled so that the vertical distribution of sediment concentration at various flow stages can be defined. Once the vertical-distribution profiles of the suspended sediment are available, the most practical ways to estimate the mean sediment concentration in the vertical can be determined.

C.

Measuring devices

All devices for sampling the suspended-sediment concentration can be separated into either hand operated or automatic. The techniques of remote sensing used to estimate suspended sediment are beyond the scope of this book.

1.

Hand-operated samplers

Hand-operated samplers are of two types: depth-integrating and point-integrating. These samplers are operated by hand either for wading measurements in streams or for measurements by a hand line suspended from a bridge or from a reel on a cable car. The most common depth-integrating samplers used in the U.S. are the US DH-48 (Figure C.2), the U.S. D-49, and the US DH-59, while the point-integrating samplers are the U.S. P-61 (Figure C.3) and the U.S. P-63. They were all developed by the Federal InterAgency Sedimentation Project, St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory in Minnesota (USDA, 1979). The depth-integrating samplers have an open nozzle pointing upstream

Appendix C: Measurements of stream sediment

Figure C.2

The U.S. DH-48 depth-integrated, suspended-sediment sampler.

Figure C.3

The U.S. P-61 point-integrated, suspended-sediment sampler.

347

and a one-pint milk bottle for sample collection. Air is exhausted from the samplecollection bottle to admit the water–sediment mixture at stream velocity. The sampler is lowered from the water surface to the streambed and raised back to the surface at a uniform rate, and the collected sample is velocity-weighted throughout the entire vertical. The point-integrating samplers are similar to the depth-integrating samplers in design, except the nozzle is equipped with an electric remote-controlled valve. Thus, the samplers can collect point-integrated samples at a designated depth in the stream by controlling the valve; they can collect depth-integrated samples if the nozzle is left open continuously. Hand-operated samplers can provide a satisfactory estimate of the suspended-sediment concentration in a cross section, if sampled properly. But it is very difficult for on-site visits to cover the wide range of flow conditions, and they cause significant underestimates of sediment yields. Although the timing problem can be overcome by automatic samplers, they too have weaknesses (Thomas, 1985).

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Figure C.4

2.

Coshocton N-1 runoff sampler.

Automatic samplers

a. Mechanical samplers. Two major types of automatic samplers use mechanical principles to collect water samples: the Coshocton-wheel runoff samplers and the risingstage samplers. The Coshocton-wheel runoff samplers were developed by the former Soil Conservation Service in the 1950s to sample runoff from experimental plots and small watersheds. They are installed, slightly inclined, below an H flume. The discharge jet from the H flume falls on the slightly tilted wheel, causing the sampler to rotate automatically. As the wheel passes the flow jet, the elevated slot mounted on the wheel extracts a small fraction of runoff, and the aliquot sample is routed through the base of the wheel to a storage tank (Figure C.4). The sampler aliquot is the ratio between the slot width (w) and the circumference (2pr) of the wheel at any radius (r), or: k = w/(2pr)

(C.1)

where k is the aliquot, independent of the average turning rate of the wheel. Thus, the slot width w can be calculated for a given k value designated for different models. Three basic models, N-1, N-2, and N-3, have been designed for use with the 0.5-, 1.0-, and 1.5-ft (15.2-, 30.5-, and 45.7-cm) H flumes. The diameter, maximum peakflow capacity, and aliquot of the three models are given in Table C.1. Model N-1 has been used extensively in plot studies, while model N-2 is popular for studies in small creeks. The single, rising-stage suspended-sediment sampler, developed by the Federal InterAgency Sedimentation Project, operates on the siphon principle to collect water samples automatically from small streams and at remote sites. The sampler consists of a 1-pt glass bottle to sample at only one depth level, or several bottles mounted vertically on a suitable support to collect samples at several stages as the water rises. Each bottle is fitted with a two-hole stopper, one hole for intake tubing and the other for air-outlet tubing. The intake tubing is connected to a board and pointed into the flow at a designated elevation, which must be higher than the sampler. When water rises to the designated elevation, the siphon effect causes water to flow into the sampler. Since samples are taken at the water surface, the sampler is suitable for sampling suspended sediment finer than 52 mm (silts and clays). It is inadequate for sampling larger particles because they are more concentrated at the lower levels, and the intake velocities

Appendix C: Measurements of stream sediment

Figure C.5

349

A simple setup to keep the strainer always at 0.5 d of the vertical.

are not the same as the flow velocities. The intake tubing is also susceptible to plugging by debris near the surface. b. Electrical pumping samplers. For flash floods in small streams, peak flows in large streams, and streams in remote areas where on-site visits are not readily available, pumping-type samplers are often used to obtain water samples from one fixed point in the stream cross section. The major components of these samplers include an intake nozzle or strainer located in the stream, a power supply, a pumping and purging system, a sample handling system, and a control unit. The sampler is usually activated by a float-controlled switch, or by a water-pressure sensor, when the water stage reaches a predetermined elevation (or volume). Samples are pumped into containers (usually 473 ml [1-pt milk bottle], 500 ml, or 1000 ml) at regular, predetermined time intervals. The sampling stops when the water level (or volume) recedes or the capacity of the sample handling system is reached, usually 28, 24, or 12 bottles. Before a sample is pumped in, the intake system is purged a few flushes to clear the line of any debris and sediment that may have accumulated in the system. Since the sample strainer (intake nozzle) is often located at one depth (point) near a stream bank, the correlation between the point measurement and the mean concentration of the cross section must be calibrated by conventional measurements at different flow stages. To maintain sampling point at 0.5 d as the mean concentration of the vertical, a free-swinging rod with length equivalent to the full depth of the stream can be secured to the streambed on one end and attached a float to the other end. The strainer is fastened firmly in the middle of the rod. As the water stage rises, so does the rod with float. This enables the strainer to keep at the 0.5 d (Figure C.5). To relate measurements from one vertical to the cross section, a calibration procedure must be taken so that a more appropriate location can be identified or a collection factor can be applied. Several electrical samplers have been developed by the Federal Inter-Agency Sedimentation Project. They are discussed in the Agricultural Handbook No. 224 (USDA, 1979). Some private industries also have developed models that combine a pumping sampler and flow meter into a compact, single unit with computer-processing capability. Those models can be programmed, based on water stages, flow volume, and time intervals, to monitor discharge rates and pump water samples simultaneously following the progress of a storm-runoff hydrograph. c. Optical turbidity systems. In optical turbidity systems, a light is scattered, absorbed, and transmitted as it passes through water. The scatter and absorption of light in water, due to the presence of fine suspended particles and other materials, such as organic matter, plankton, and microorganisms, cause the water to be cloudy and turbid. Other factors, such as the shape and color of particles and air bubbles entrained in the

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water also significantly affect light absorption and scattering. Thus, turbidity refers to the relative amount of light that is scattered or absorbed by a fluid. It is an optical property of the fluid and can be measured by turbidity meters on water samples or monitored continuously by a turbidity system. Historically, the determination of turbidity has been based on the Jackson candle turbidimeter. It is a measure of the ratio of the light transmitted through the water sample in a straight line to the incident light in Jackson turbidity units (JTU). However, the Jackson turbidimeter is unable to detect turbidity below 25 JTU and dark-colored particles. This has led to the widespread replacement of Jackson candle turbidimeters with photoelectric nephelometers since the 1970s (MacDonald et al., 1991; APHA, 1989). The nephelometer measures the ratio of intensity of light scattered at right angles by the water sample to the intensity of light scattered by a standard reference suspension under the same conditions, in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). Formazin polymer is used as the turbidity standard suspension for calibrations. A higher amount of suspended matter will cause the intensity of scattered light to be higher and gives a higher value of turbidity. Because of the differences in measurement techniques, there is no valid basis for the calibration between NTUs and JTUs (APHA, 1989). A continuous turbidity-monitoring system usually consists of a pumping and recirculating system for water samples from the stream, sedimentation chamber, and detector and recording devices (Grobler and Weaver, 1981; WMO, 1981). Some turbidmeter systems are able to link a number of sensors into a high-level, two-way communications network that provides real-time monitoring from a central station (Hach, 1998). Also, multiparameter instruments with submersible sondes that can accommodate a turbidity sensor, commonly referred to as water-quality probe or turbidity probe, can be used in conjunction with a datalogger for in situ measurements. Most multiparameter instruments are microprocessor-based, with the calibration parameters stored in instrument memory. The standards for turbidity are user-selectable in some probes, but are internally established in some others that cannot be changed. Detailed information on turbidity measurements is given by the USGS (Wilde and Radtke, 1998). Turbidity is relatively easy to measure in the field or laboratory, whereas suspended sediments require lengthy procedures in the field-sample collection and laboratory analysis. Also, suspended sediments are not easy to collect in small mountainous watersheds where suspended-sediment concentrations and streamflow can change rapidly. Because suspended sediment is the most important factor affecting stream turbidity (Beschta, 1980), a logical assumption is that suspended-sediment concentration can be estimated by turbidity. Studies have showed that meaningful relationships can be established in some areas (Kunkle and Comer, 1971), but not in all areas (Weigel, 1984), and that such relationships vary by site, within storms, and between storms (Beschta, 1980). In the Pacific Northwest, MacDonald et al., (1991) stated that about 80% of the variability of the suspended-sediment concentration is attributable to turbidity. The variation in sediment–turbidity relationships is probably due to the nature of turbidity and its contributing sources. Other factors such as particle shape, organic compounds, algae, color, and phytoplankton also affect the scattering and absorption of light in water. Organic substances in streams vary in seasons, between the rising and recession stages in runoff events, within a watershed, and among watersheds. Prediction equations should therefore be developed on a site-by-site basis. d. Acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP). With the ADCP, sound bursts are transmitted into the water column; echoes are produced when the sound bursts hit suspended particles carried by water currents. The ADCP senses simultaneously in four orthogonal directions in which particles moving toward the instrument record greater frequencies than those moving away from the instrument. The lag times and frequencies

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of these echoes due to the Doppler shift are detected by the monitoring system to estimate suspended-solids concentration. ADCPs have the ability to measure flow velocities and suspended-solids concentrations throughout the water column and across the stream channel. e. Radioactive turbiometric gages. In streams with sediment concentrations in excess of 100g/l, nuclear gages are the most suitable means for in situ measurements. These gages can monitor a wide range of sediment concentrations and resist bedload transport consisting of boulder-size material. They are fully automatic, are independent of the color and diameter of the suspended particles, and practically do not disturb the fluid (Tazioli, 1981). Nuclear suspended-sediment gages measure the attenuation of radiation intensity (gamma rays) either back scattered or absorbed by the water–sediment mixture. An artificial source of radiation (137Cs, 60Co, 109Cd, or 241Am) is emitted to the water, and its attenuation, due to the sediment concentration, is detected by a counter installed in the downstream side of the gage or in a separate rod. Counts are converted directly into sediment concentrations by comparison to reference samples in a precalibration procedure. The volume of measurements, varying from a few liters to several m3, depends on the source–detector distance, the radiation energy, and the time interval in counting. Gages developed in China have shown excellent agreement with the conventional method of sampling for sediment concentration from 15 to 500 kg/m3 in the Yellow River (Lu et al., 1981).

D. Calculations The collection of suspended-sediment water samples and the measurement of flow discharge are often conducted simultaneously in a few verticals along a stream cross section. The collected water samples are brought to the laboratory for sediment-concentration determinations and are expressed in mass/volume (mg/l). The suspended-sediment concentration and discharge rate are then used to calculate the suspended load.

1.

Suspended-sediment load for a cross section

The suspended-sediment concentration (cs) in each vertical is multiplied by its mean discharge rate (q, m3/sec) to obtain suspended-sediment load, or yield, (qSL) in mass/time for that vertical. In common practice, cs is in mg/l, q in m3/sec, and qSL in t/d calculated by: qSL = 0.0864(q)(cs)

(C.2)

The constant 0.0864 converts the units from mg/sec to t/d, assuming q and cs stay the same for the day. Summing up all values of qSL in each vertical yields the total suspendedsediment load for the cross section, MSL, or: QSL = (qSL)1+ (qSL)2+ (qSL)3 + ◊◊◊ + (qSL)n

2.

(C.3)

Mean suspended-sediment concentration

For the mean suspended-sediment concentration (Cs) of the entire cross section, all values of cs need to be weighted by each corresponding discharge rate as a percent of the total discharge rate for the entire cross section, or: Cs = [(cs)1 (q1) + (cs)2 (q2) + (cs)3 (q3) + ◊◊◊]/[q1 + q2 + q3 + ◊◊◊]

(C.4)

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where the numerical subscripts 1, 2, 3, etc. refer to the different sampling verticals. They also can refer to different time intervals if mean concentrations for a day or other periods of time are needed.

3.

Suspended-sediment load for a runoff event

Often more water samples are collected during a major runoff event. In a runoff event, water samples are usually not collected at an equal time interval along the rise and fall of the discharge hydrograph, and the sediment load sampled at time 1 needs to be averaged with sediment load sampled at time 2 for that time interval. Thus, averages of sediment load are calculated for all time intervals for the entire runoff event. The summation of the averages of the suspended-sediment load for all time intervals is the total suspended-sediment load for the runoff event. In equation form, QSL = Â[[(cs)1 (q1) + (cs)2 (q2)](t1–2)/2 + [(cs)2 (q2) + (cs)3 (q3)](t

2–3

)/2 + ◊◊◊]

(C.5)

where the numerical subscripts 1, 2, 3, etc. refer to the sampling period at time 1, 2, 3, etc. Thus, t1-2 is the time interval between periods 1 and 2.

II. Bedload Bedload is the sediment transported downstream by sliding, saltation, and rolling along the streambed. The transported material remains in contact with the streambed. For practical purposes, particles with a diameter greater than 1.0 mm are transported as bedload, while diameters less than 0.1 mm are transported as suspended load, and diameters between 1.0 and 0.1 mm can be transported either as bedload or suspended load, depending on the hydraulic conditions (MacDonald et al., 1991). Particles that are less than 0.0625 mm in diameter will be carried in suspension by the stream as washload and may never settle out. Bedload transport can be further differentiated into sand transport (1 to 2 mm) and coarse bedload transport (2 mm to boulders). Sand transport is more controlled by the hydraulic conditions and can be initiated in ordinary flows, while coarse bedload is usually limited to high flows that occur less frequently (Bunte, 1996). The amount and size of bedloads are important factors affecting channel morphology, streambed configuration, reservoir storage capacity, and aquatic habitat. Generally, fine material tends to fill up the interstitial spaces between large particles, causing less habitat space to be available for juvenile fish and macroinvertebrates, and lower dissolved-oxygen levels for benthic communities and salmon spawning.

A.

Bedload variation

Bedload transport depends greatly on stream discharge, but not in a predictable way. It moves in irregular waves and sheets due to the streambed configuration and the variation in shear stress of the flow. Thus, the transport varies considerably with time and across the section. In fact, bedload generally occurs in part of the stream cross section only, except during floods. It tends to be higher during the recession stage than at the rising stage of a runoff event, and the majority is transported during the very few largest flows in a given year. There is no consistent relationship between bedload and discharge or between bedload and suspended load (Williams, 1989). As an example of the temporal variation, Figure C.6 is a plot of bedload-transport rate sampled consecutively with a Halley-Smith sampler in a 3-minute interval between samples on a sand-bed stream in western Tennessee (Carey, 1985). These samples were

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Figure C.6 Temporal variability of bedload-transport rates consecutively collected by a HelleySmith sampler from the Fork Obion River in western Tennessee. (Carey, W.P., 1985, Water Resour. Bill., 21, 39–48; reproduced by permission of AWRA.)

collected during a period of essentially constant peak discharge. The data show that bedload transport changed from 1.15 to 0.02 lb/sec/ft (1.72 to 0.03 kg/sec/m) between two consecutive samples, a drop of more than 57 times. Individual rates compared to the overall mean varied from about zero to four times, and 60% of the sampled rates were equal to or less than the mean. Since the bedload transport is expected to be in equilibrium with the flow conditions, the extreme fluctuation of bedload transport must be indicative of the inherent variability in the transport process. The large variation requires many observations to establish an accurate estimate of the mean rate at a given location.

B.

Sampling

Bedload is measured by the amount of sediment trapped in a sampler, or other devices, located at one or more points on the streambed. The sampled bedload is dried and weighed in the laboratory. The dried-sample weight is then divided by time for which the sampler was left on the streambed and by the width of the sampler to obtain the bedload discharge per unit stream width per unit time at the gaging station. Finally, the average value is converted into the total bedload discharge for the entire cross section. The measurement of bedload transport is more difficult than that of suspended sediment. First, unless continuous monitoring devices with high temporal resolutions are used (Bunte, 1996), the great temporal and spatial variation in bedload transport makes it very difficult for the sampling schedule to provide a representative spectrum with conventional samplers. The majority of bedload in most streams often occurs during the two to three largest flows in a given year (MacDonald et al., 1991). Sampling bedload in a stream with great depths and swift velocities is difficult, if not impossible. UNESCO (1970) suggests that samples be taken in all velocity verticals of the gaging station no fewer than ten times a year, including at flood periods. Perhaps one should start with a biweekly schedule with additional measurements for severe storms. The sample frequency is then properly reduced if the data variation is permissible. The USGS (1978) suggests that the initial number of positions in a cross section be no fewer than 20, but WMO (1981)

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Figure C.7 Arnhem sampler and VUV sampler. (Reproduced from Hubbell, D.W. et al., 1987, Laboratory Data on Coarse-Sediment Transport for Bedload-Sampler Calibrations, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2299.)

states that 3 to 10 sampling points should be sufficient. All these suggestions reflect the complexity of sampling problems. Placing a sampler on the bed is problematic. As a sampler is lowered into the water, it is dragged downstream by the flow, but the drag decreases as the velocity decreases downward. The sampler will then move in the upstream direction by the weight of the sampler and the elasticity of the suspended cable. As a result, some bed material will be scooped up unless the upstream motion is stopped properly. Upon the presence of the sampler on the streambed, the general pattern of water and sediment movements is disturbed, and the transport rate and distribution of sediment upstream from the sampler are altered. This causes the sampler to be less efficient than if the sampler were not there. The geometry of the sampler, the hydraulic conditions of flow, and the size of particles are the major factors affecting the efficiency of a sampler. No samplers are efficient enough to sample bedload in full spectrum (size range), and the selection of an appropriate sampler becomes important. Generally, the Dutch Arnhem sampler (Figure C.7) is used for sand-bed rivers, while the Helley-Smith sampler (Figure C.8) and the VUV sampler (Figure C.7) are for sizes between coarse sand and coarse gravel (WMO, 1981). Many ripples, dunes, and bars are formed on the streambed by the moving sediment. This causes the bed configuration to be irregular, sediment transport to be variable, and the sampler’s position to be inconsistent and unstable. In other words, the sampler’s position may be upward, downward, or level in respect to whether the front edge of the sampler is on the crest or in the trough of a dune. Also, the turbulence of flow and drag force can cause the sampler to move back and forth and scoop up bed material. The scooping is most likely if the sampler is lowered into a trough in the bed (Hubbell, 1964). Thus, a single measurement of bedload sample is unrepresentative. The experience of USGS shows that systematic traverses of the riverbed have to be repeated several times and averaged. The integrated result is close to that obtained by the direct trapping across the entire river (Bagnold, 1977). The sampling time is usually 5 to 10 minutes (WMO, 1981), but can be as short as 15 seconds (Ferguson et al., 1989) or 30 seconds (Carey, 1985), depending on the size of the sampler and the transport rate. It should last long enough to collect at least 50 g (UNESCO, 1970), but not to fill the sampler in excess of 30% (Garde and Ranga Raju, 1985). The efficiency of samplers decreases rapidly after the sampler is 30% full. Since bedload samplers do not provide an estimate to the true value, it is necessary to know the sampler efficiency so that the true value of the transport rate can be calculated. The sampler efficiency can be calibrated in the laboratory (Hubbell et al., 1987) or in the field (Emmett, 1980).

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355

Measuring devices

Many devices have been developed for estimating bedload transport in streams; none of them is completely satisfactory for sampling large particles and fine particles with the same efficiency. Devices that are briefly introduced here include bedload samplers, sediment traps, tracers, and ultrasonic measurement.

1.

Bedload samplers

Direct bedload samplers are of three main types: box or basket, pan or tray, and pressure difference. a. Basket-type samplers. This type of sampler, made of wire mesh material in a rectangular shape attached to a rigid steel frame, is suspended on a cable for operation. The mesh has small openings sufficient for suspended particles, but not bedload material, to pass through. The front end is completely open, which allows bedload material to enter into the sampler. They are the oldest types of samplers, suitable for measuring coarse particles because of their large capacity. The average efficiency is about 45%, varying between 20 and 90% depending on the particle size and discharge of the bedload. b. Tray samplers. Tray samplers are wedge-shaped along the longitudinal direction with a slot or slots open to the top and located at the downstream end of the sampler. The bedload is trapped into the slot when it rolls and slides from the tip of the wedge to the end of the sampler. They are best suited for sand material and have average efficiencies of 38 to 75%. c. Pressure-difference samplers. In the basket and tray samplers, the flow velocity at the entrance is reduced due to the flow resistance of the sampler, causing some diversion or deposition of sediment at the entrance. The pressure-difference sampler is designed to maintain the flow velocity and the entrance velocity at the same level by constructing the sampler walls diverging toward the rear and producing a pressure drop at the exit of the sampler. Introduced in 1971 by modifying the then-popular Arnhem sampler, the Helley-Smith sampler has become a standard for direct bedload measurement. The sampler has a stainless-steel nozzle leading to a mesh bag (0.25 mm mesh, 46 cm long) and three steelplate tail fins held together by solid-steel frames to maintain a 30 kg total weight (Figure C.8). The sampler’s nozzle has several models, such as 7.62 cm ¥ 7.62 cm, 15.24 cm ¥ 15.24 cm, and 30.48 cm ¥ 30.48 cm (Hubbell et al., 1987). Smaller ones are operated by hand, while larger ones can be operated by a backhoe from a bridge. A field calibration shows that the 7.62-cm square-orifice Halley-Smith sampler has a near perfect sediment-trapping efficiency for particle sizes between 0.50 and 16.00 mm (Emmett, 1980). d. Sediment traps. In this type of device, samplers are installed under the streambed with orifices on the top of the sampler to trap bedload sediment moving in contact with the bed. They can be a few individual pit-samplers (Georgiev, 1990) or a long trough installed across the stream. Pit samplers have been used to determine the size distribution of bedload or the bedload discharge by measuring the time required for a pit of known volume to fill. The conveyor-belt bedload sampler installed in 1973 across the East Fork River in the Wind River Range of Wyoming (Klingeman and Emmett, 1982) is a unique example of trough trap sampler. It is constructed with a concrete trough across the stream, normal to the flow and 0.4 m wide by 0.6 m deep with its lip at the streambed surface. The trough

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Figure C.8 Helley-Smith sampler. (Reproduced from Emmett, 1980, A Field Calibration of the Sediment-Trapping Characteristics of the Helley-Smith Bedload Sampler, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1139.)

has a slot 0.25 m wide and 14.6 m long with eight individually hydraulic control gages each 1.83 m long. Bedload material falling into the open slot is removed by an endless rubber belt installed along the bottom of the trough to a sump constructed in the riverbank. The system can accommodate loads as much as 150 kg/min and has been used to calibrate other samplers in the field (Emmett, 1980). Using the principle of pressure lysimeters, the Birkbeck bedload sampler is a continuous device that records both flood hydrographs and the combined pressure heads due to trapped bedload material and water (Reid et al., 1980). The sampler consists of an inner box and a concrete liner installed in a pit opening on the streambed. The inner box is placed on top of a rubber pressure-pillow so that it is free to move up and down in response to the changing mass of both the trapped sediment and the water column. The fluid pressure of the pillow is transmitted to a transducer and to a mechanical recording device. Also, a synchronous record of stream water-stage provides an independent measure of the pressure changes due to stage rises and falls alone. Differences in pressure head between the trapper and the stage level are related proportionally to the mass of trapped sediment. The sampler is designed mainly for small streams. It is sensitive and robust, but requires periodic clearing out of the accumulated sediment and the prevention of particles from settling onto the pressure pillow. Trough trap-samplers provide the most direct method for bedload measurements; their efficiency is virtually 100%, but the cost is high, the installation is difficult, and the maintenance is cumbersome. Except for sampler calibration and sediment research, the installation of this sampler for general use is limited.

2.

Tracers

In this technique, sediment grains are marked or injected by luminescent (Shteinman et al., 1998), magnetic (Ferguson et al., 1996), iron, radio (Schmidt and Ergenzinger, 1992), or radioactive (Shteinman et al., 2000) substances and are placed onto the streambed. The movement of the treated tracers is repeatedly sampled or detected for subsequent analysis. In Italy, for example, permanent magnets were cemented into holes drilled in cobbles and were introduced into the river. When the artificially magnetic cobbles pass over a detector consisting of iron-cored coils of wire, a measurable electrical current is generated and transmitted to an amplifier, filter, and recorder. The count rate can be converted to a masstransport rate by relating the mass, size, and magnetic field intensity of the particles in

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the sample to signals produced from the detector through a precalibration procedure, (Ergenzinger and Conrady, 1982). This technique can also obtain information such as the movement of tracer particles in relation to various hydraulic conditions. There are many streams in andesitic and basaltic terrain or with geologic formations around the world that have natural sources of magnetic material. Ergenzinger and Custer (1983) showed that the technique also could be applied to estimate bedload transport by using naturally magnetic tracers in Montana. More recent developments in the magnetic tracer technique are given by Spieker and Ergenzinger (1990).

3.

Acoustic and ultrasonic measurement

In sand-bed streams where the movement of bedload characteristically forms many welldefined dunes, the ultrasonic technique can be used to monitor changes in vertical depth along a selected cross section of the stream. Thus, data on the profile of the dunes and the velocity of their movement can be obtained. The sand-dune profile can be used to compute the sand-dune area, and multiplying the area by the mean velocity of the sanddune movement gives the bedload discharge per unit width of the stream channel (WMO, 1981). Ultrasonic gages have also been used to monitor the height and volume of bed load material transported to an open storage area along the stream channel (Lenzi et al., 1990). In coarse-grained streams, the moving and colliding particles cause clicking noises when they hit an acoustic (hydrophonic) detector consisting of a metal sheet installed on the streambed. A microphone is built into the detector to amplify the noises, which are transmitted to a headphone or a magnetic-tape recorder. The frequency of noises gives some qualitative information on the intensity of bedload movement (Banziger and Burch, 1990) and can help to select bedload sampling points along a cross section.

D. Calculations Measurements for bedload discharge by a sampler are made at several verticals of the stream cross section. Bedload discharge at each measurement point is calculated by: M -----qBL = Ê wtˆ (e) Ë ¯

(C.6)

where qBL M w t e

= bedload discharge in mass per unit width per unit time = mass of the bedload caught by the sampler = orifice width of the sampler = sampling duration at the measuring point = efficiency of the sampler

Total bedload discharge (QBL, in mass/time) for the cross section is calculated by: QBL = Â[(qBL1 + qBL2)(d1–2)/2 + (qBL + qBL)(d2–3)/2 + ◊◊◊]

(C.7)

where qBL1 = bedload discharge at measuring point 1 calculated by Equation C.6, and d1–2 = distance between measuring points 1 and 2.

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References APHA, 1989, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 17th ed., Amer. Public Health Assoc., Washington, D.C Bagnold, R.A., 1977, Bed load transport by natural rivers, Water Resour. Res., 13, 303–312. Banziger, R. and Burch, H., 1990, Acoustic sensors (hydrophones) as indicators for bed load transport in a mountain torrent, in Hydrology in Mountainous Regions, IAHS, pp. 207–214. Beschta, R.L., 1980, Turbidity and suspended sediment relationships, in Sym. Watershed Management, Vol. I, ASCE, pp. 271–282. Bonta, J. V., 2000, Impact of coal surface mining and reclamation on suspended sediment in three Ohio watersheds, J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc., 36, 869–887. Bunte, K., 1996, Analyses of the Temporal Variation of Coarse Bedload Transport and its Grain Size Distribution, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-288, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Exp. Sta. Carey, W.P., 1985, Variability in measured bedload-transport rates, Water Resour. Bull., 21, 39–48. Emmett, 1980, A Field Calibration of the Sediment-Trapping Characteristics of the Helley-Smith Bedload Sampler, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1139. Ergenzinger, P.J. and Conrady, J., 1982, A new tracer technique for measuring bedload in natural channels, Vatena, 9, 77–90. Ergenzinger, P.J., and Custer, S.G., 1983, Determination of bedload transport using naturally magnetic tracers: first experiences at Squaw Creek, Gallatin County, Montana, Water Resour. Res., 19, 187–193. Ferguson, R.I., 1986, River loads underestimated by rating curves, Water Resour. Res., 22, 74–76. Ferguson, R. et al., 1996, Field evidence for rapid downstream running of river gravels through selective transport, Geology, 24, 179–182. Ferguson, R.I., Prestegaard, K.L., and Ashworth, P.J., 1989, Influence of sand on hydraulics and gravel transport in a braided gravel bed river, Water Resour. Res., 25, 635–643. Garde, R.J. and Ranga Raju, K.G., 1985, Mechanics of Sediment Transportation and Alluvial Stream Problems, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Georgiev, B.V., 1990, Reliability of bed load measurements in mountain rivers, in Hydrology in Mountainous Regions, IAHS, pp. 263–270. Gordon, N.D., McMahon, T.A., and Finlayson, B.L., 1992, Stream Hydrology, An Introduction for Ecologists, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Grobler, D.C. and Weaver, A. van B., 1981, Continuous measurement of suspended sediment in rivers by means of a double beam turbidity meter, in Erosion and Sediment Transport Measurement, Proc. of the Florence Sym., IAHS, pp. 97–104. Guy, H.P. and Norman, V.W., 1970, Field methods for measurement of fluvial sediment, in Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, U.S. Geological Survey, Chapter C2, Book 3, Applications of Hydraulics. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. HACH, 1998, Products and Analysis, HACH Company, Loveland, CO. Hubbell, D.W., 1964, Apparatus and Techniques for Measuring Bedload, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1748. Hubbell, D.W. et al., 1987, Laboratory Data on Coarse-Sediment Transport for Bedload-Sampler Calibrations, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2299. Klingeman, P.C. and Emmett, W.W., 1982, Gravel bedload transport processes, in Gravel Bed River. Fluvial Processes, Engineering and Management, Hey, R.D., Bathurst, J.C., and Thorne, C.R., eds., John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 141–179. Kunkle, S.H. and Comer, G.H., 1971, Estimating suspended sediment concentration in streams by turbidity measurements, J. Soil Water Conserv., 26, 18–20. Lenzi, M.A., Marchi, L., and Scussel, G.R., 1990, Measurement of coarse sediment transport in a small alpine stream, in Hydrology in Mountainous Regions, IAHS, pp. 283–290. Lu, Z. et al., 1981, The development of nuclear sediment concentration gauges for use on the Yellow River, in Erosion and Sediment Transport Measurement, Proc. of the Florence Sym., IAHS, pp. 83–90.

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MacDonald, L.H., Smart, A.W., and Wissmar, R.C., 1991, Monitoring Guidelines to Evaluate Effects of Forestry Activities on Streams in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska, EPA/910/9–91–001. Parsons, Reid, I., Layman, J.T., and Frostick, L.E., 1980, The continuous measurement of bedload discharge, J. Hydraulic Res., 18, 243–249. Schmidt, K.H. and Ergenzinger, P., 1992, Bedload entrainment, travel lengths, step lengths, set periods, studied with passive (iron, magnetic) and active (radio) tracer techniques, Earth Surf. Process. Landforms, 17, 147–165. Shteinman, B.S. et al., 1998, A modified fluorescent tracer approach for studies of sediment dynamics, Isr. J. Earth Sci. 46, 18–31. Shteinman, B., Wynne, D., and Kamenir, Y., 2000, Study of sediment dynamics in the Jordan RiverLake Kinneret contact zone using tracer methods, in The Hydrology-Geomorphology Interface: Rainfall, Floods, Sedimentation, Land Use, IAHS, pp. 275–284. Singhal, H.S.S., Goshi, G.C., and Verma, R.S., 1981, Sediment sampling in rivers and canals, in Erosion and Sediment Transport Measurement, Proc. of the Florence Sym., IAHS, pp. 169–175. Spieker, R. and Ergenzinger, P.J., 1990, New developments in measuring bedload by the magnetic tracer technique, in Erosion, Transport, and Deposition Processes, IAHS, pp. 171–180. Tazioli, G.S., 1981, Nuclear techniques for measuring sediment transport in natural streams — examples from instrumented basins, in Erosion and Sediment Transport Measurement, Proc. of the Florence Sym., IAHS, pp. 63–81. Thomas, R.B., 1985, Measuring suspended sediment in small mountain streams, Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-83, U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Sta. UNESCO, 1970, Representative and Experimental Basin, an International Guide for Research and Practice, Toebes, C. and Ouryvaev, V., Eds., UNESCO, Paris. UNESCO, 1982, Sedimentation Problems in River Basins, Proj. 5.3 of the International Hydro. Programme, UNESCO, Paris. USDA, 1979, Field Manual for Research in Agricultural Hydrology, Agr. Handbook No. 224, U.S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D.C. USGS, 1978, National Handbook of Recommended Methods for Water-Data Acquisition, 1–100. Walling, D.E. and Webb, B.W., 1981, The reliability of suspended sediment load data, in Erosion and Sediment Transport Measurement, Proc. Florence Sym., IAHS, pp.177–194. Weigel, J.F., 1984, Turbidity and Suspended Sediment in the Jordan River, Salt Lake County, Utah, USGS Water-Resour. Invest. Rep. 84–4019. Wilde, F.D. and Radtke, D.B., Eds., 1998, National Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality Data, U.S. Geological Survey. Williams, G.P., 1989, Proportion of bedload to total sediment load in rivers, Eos, 70, 1106. WMO, 1981, Measurement of River Sediments, World Meteoro. Organ. Operational Hydrology Rep. No. 16, WMO-No. 561, Geneva, Switzerland.

Index A Ablation, 151 rates, 141 Absolute density, 39 Absolute humidity, 132 Acceleration, gravity and, 42 Acid deposition, 127–128 Acid mine drainage, 100 Acoustic Doppler current profiler, 327, 350–351 Acoustic flowmeters, 326–327 Adhesion, molecular, 45 Aerodynamic resistance, 137 Agricultural Disaster Assistance, 97 Agricultural irrigation, 17. See also Irrigation crop efficient, 166 Agricultural Research Service, 243 Agriculture Hydrology, 29 Agroforestry, 124 Agrohydrology, 31 Air pollution, 127–128 thermal conductivity, 41 Albedo, 155, 156 of natural surfaces, 156 Alcohol, 50 Algae, 219 Alluvial fan, 258 Alter shield, 312 Amazon Basin, 146 Amazon River, 62 Anemometers, hot-wire, 325 Angiospermae, 111 Annual potential insolation index, 196 Antarctic regions, 60 Antitranspirants, 87 Aquatic ecosystems, 6 Aquatic plants, 34 Aquifer recharge, 6 Archimedes' principle, 44, 291 Arctic Ocean, 59 Arctic regions, 60 Arnhem sampler, 354 Assyria, 2 Ataturk Dam, 16

Atlantic Ocean, 59 Atmosphere, 58, 119 heat balance, 71–72 longwave radiation from, 51 moisture, 132–133 magnitude, 132 measures, 132–133 saturation deficit, 133 solar radiation from, 51 thermal conductivity, 41 Avalanches, 3, 122, 259

B Babylon, 2 Baobab trees, 86 Baseflow, 176 Bay estuaries, 19 Benthos, 8 Berghaus, Heinrich, 26 Bernoulli equation, 43 "Best Available Technology," 102 "Best management practices," 101, 124 "Best Practical Technology," 102 Bifurcation ratio, 265 Biochemical oxygen demand, 99 Biodiversity, 3 Biological disaster, 122 Biomass, 110, 114 Biosphere, 58, 120, 162 Birkbeck bedload sampler, 356 Blackbody, 155 Blue Nile, 16 Blue whales, 6 Boiling points, 50 Bowen ratio, 161 Brackish water, 84 Brine water, 84 Brush control, 197, 198 Bubbler, 320 Buffer strips, 221 Buoyancy, 44–45 Bureau of Land Management, 14 Bureau of Land Reclamation, 2

361

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

Bureau of Mines, 19

C C factor, 249 soil erosion and, 246 California's aqueduct, 84 Calorie, defined, 12 Capillary attraction, 178 Capillary fringe, 61, 196 Capillary rise, 45–46 Car lifts, 42 Carbon dioxide, 3, 125 Carbon sequestration, 125, 282 Carbon sinks, 3, 112 Caspian Sea, 59 Catchment, 33, 85 efficiency, 311, 314 Caterpillar Inc., 12 Cavitation, 261 Channel-bank stabilization, 47 Channelization, 47, 94. See also Stream channels Chaparrals, 197 Chattahoochee River, 15 Chemical reactions antagonism, 100 potentiation, 100 synergism, 100 water in, 9 Chin Shihuang, 24 China, 1, 351 Chittenden, Hiram M., 27 Chlorophyll, 171 Chungungo, Chile, 1 Clean Water Act (1977), 103, 207 Clear Water Act (1977), 28 Clear Water Restoration Act (1970), 28 Clearcutting, 110, 207–208 Climate changes, 281 Cloud seeding, 83 Cloudbursts, 135 Coalescence of water droplets, 134 Coalescence processes, 66 Codensation, 39 Coefficient(s) diffusion, 152 roughness, 191, 192 runoff, 189, 191, 286 test for two regression, 299 Cohesion, molecular, 45 Cold front, 135 Colorado River, 10 Colored dye, 325 Compound Topographic Index, 252 Compressor, 320 Condensation, 10, 152 nuclei, 31 Conductive heat, 157, 159, 161 Conductivity, 53–54 Conservation plants, 271

Continental Divide, 15 Continuous turbidity-monitoring system, 350 Contour cropping, 102 Convection, 157 forced, 157 free, 157 Cooling processes, 18 Corps of Engineers, 14 Corrasion, 261 Corrosion, 261 Coshocton wheel, 285 runoff samples, 345, 348 Covariance analysis, 299 Cover crops, 102 Coweeta, North Carolina, 27 Creative Act, 105 Critical stress, 47 Cryology, 29 Crystallization, 39 Current meters, 324 Cuticles, 154

D Dam(s), 12 criticism, 94 Nueces River Basin, 2 world's oldest, 25 Danube River, 14 Darcy's law, 202 Data-logger, 320 Davy Crockett National Forest Park, Texas, 161 Daytime duration, 165 "Decree of Waters and Forests," 26 Deforestation, 26, 125, 126 floods and, 27 mass movements and, 261 rainfall and, 146 springs and, 203 Density, 42 absolute, 39 defined, 42 vapor, 39 water, 39 Deposition, 241–242 acid, 127–128 precipitation, 66 Desalination, 84 Desert(s), 79 hydrology, 29, 32 Detachability, 237 Dew point, 133 Dewpoint, 66 Diffusion coefficient, 152 Diseases, waterborne, 13 Dissolution, 9 Doppler, Christian J., 327 Doppler effect, 327 Double mass analysis, 288 Drag force, 47

Index Drought, 74 forecast, 88 Midwest, 144

E Earliest research, 280 "Eco-hydrology, 31 Ecological-management concepts, 212 Ecosphere, 120 Ecosystem(s), 6–7 management, 124 Electric conductivity, 53 Emperor Yau, 24 Endangered species, 122, 212 Energy dissipation, 157–162 kinetic, 12, 40 plantations, 124 sources, 155–163 Energy Policy Act (1992), 86 Energy-sink, 39, 67 Engineering hydrology, 29, 33 study parameters, 33 depth-area-duration, 33 evapotranspiration, 33 frequency of hydrologic events, 33 hydrograph readings, 33 rain-runoff relations, 33 risk analysis, 33 streamflow simulation, 33 Ephemeral Gully Erosion Model, 256 Erosion accelerated, 234 bank, 258 channel, 261–264 control, 3, 26 vegetation and, 268–273 ephemeral gully, 251–256 estimates, 252–254 processes, 252 gully, 256–259 advancement, 259 estimates, 258–259 formation, 256–257 network, 258 types, 258 V-shaped, 258 headcut, 258 interrill, 238, 242 level, geological, 235 megarill, 251 rill, 238, 242 soil, 25, 234–241 particle size and, 238 soil water, simulation of, 252 stream-bank, 261–262 types of, 255 wind, 3, 121, 234 Estuaries, 2

363 contamination, 19 Euphrates River, 2, 15–16 cradle of civilization, 23 Eutrophication, 98, 99 Evaporation, 23 reduction, 86–87 Evapotranspiration, 18, 33, 65 actual, 166–168 soil-moisture depletion and, 167–168 daily rates, 170, 171 defined, 151 measurement, 44 potential, 163–164, 166 Hamon (1963) model, 164 Penman (1948) model, 164, 166 Penman-Monteith model, 166 Thornthwaite (1948) model, 163–164 Exchangeable sodium percentage, 257

F Factor of safety, 260 Fecal coliform, 207 Fecal streptococcus, 207 Federal Crop Insurance Program, 97 Federal Emergency Management Agency, 96 Federal Insurance Administration, 96 Write Your Own program, 97 Federal InterAgency Sedimentation Project, 346 Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1948), 28 amendments, 101 Field studies, 283–284 assessment of treatment effect, 283 calibration period, 283 experimental error, 283 reference standard, 283 site selections, 283 Fires, 127, 209, 272–273 Fish and Wildlife Service, 2 Fish farming, 19 Fisher & Porter Precipitation Gage-Recorder, 310 Flash flood, 48 Floating lysimeters, 44 Floats, 322–323 Flood(s), 1, 10 blessings of inundation, 93 causes, 89–91 coastal, 90–91 control, 6, 93–97 history, 24 measures, 93–95 damages, 91–92, 201 watershed size and, 92 defined, 89 deforestation and, 27 disaster aids, 97 flash, 48, 89 forecasting, 95 forests and, 27 forms, 89–91

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

nature of, 91 prevention, 201 river, 89–90, 95 urban, 90 watershed size and, 91 Flood Disaster Protection Act (1973), 96 Floodplains, 2, 89 zoning, 95–96 Flow meters, 321 acoustic, 326–327 Marsh-McBirney electromagnetic, 326 Flumes, 335–338 H-type, 336–337 Parshall, 335–336 Fluorescein, 320, 325 Fluvial processes, 29 Fog-collection system, 86 Fog drip, 85, 139 Food chains, 122 Fool Creek Watershed, 21 Fords, 208 Forest(s) air pollution and, 127–128 areas, 118–119 biological function, 122–123 boreal, 117 canopies, 111–113, 120 biological and environmental functions, 113 condensation, 138–139 density, 2 interception, 3, 136 potential evaporation, 137 resistance, chlorophyll and, 171 shape of, 112 storage, 137 carbon dioxide emission, 121 characteristics, 110–111 clearcutting, 110, 272 climatological function, 120–121 as common property, 111 coniferous, 116 defined, 110 destruction, 26 distribution, 3, 115–119 control, 115 horizontal, 116–117 ecological functions, 3 ecosystems, 31 effect on water quality, 3 environmental functions, 2–3, 109 control of wind erosion, 3 landslide and avalanche prevention, 3 prevention of reduction of biodiversity, 3 protection of riparian zone, 3 protection of sand dune, 3 sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide, 3 stream bank stabilization, 3 ever-green broad-leaved, 117 fires, 127, 209, 272–273 floods and, 27, 201 functional, 123–126

grazing, 124, 126–127 groundwater and, 203 harvesting, 218 mass movements and, 261 hydrological function, 120 interception, 66 litter floor, 2, 120 mechanical function, 121 Mediterranean, 116 microclimate, 2 nonrenewable vs. renewable source, 110 practices, 217–222 on large woody debris, 221–222 on riparian vegetation, 217 on sediment, 219–221 on water temperature, 217–219 precipitation and, 27, 144–146 preservation, 125–126 production, 123–124 protection, 124–125 public, 126 renewable vs. nonrenewable source, 110 root systems, 2, 113–114, 120 screening effect, 120 societal function, 123 spectrum, 2–3 Temperate Zone, 3 threats, 111, 126–128 air pollution, 127–128 deforestation and grazing, 126–127 fires, 127 trees, 111–115, 169–171 daily evapotranspiration rates, 170, 171 length of shadow cast by, 142, 143, 218 root systems, 113–114, 270 stems, 114–115, 120 tensile strength, 270 tropical (See Tropical forest(s)) vertical distribution, 117–118 water-holding capacity, 3 "Forest bath," 123 Forest-groundwater relation, 203 Forest Hydrology, 29 Forest interception, 136. See also Forest(s), canopies Forest Reserve Act, 105 Forest roads, 208, 272 Forest-water relationships, 200 Fraser Experimental Forest, Colorado, 27, 186 Freezing, 237, 256 Freezing points, 50 Freshwater, 59–62 Frostilization, 39 Froude number, 331

G Ganges River, 14 Genetic engineering, 88 Genetic pools, 3, 125 Geomorphology, 29, 32

Index Geosphere, 119 Glacier, 29 Glaciology, 29 Global warming, 3, 112, 125 Globoscope, 316 Golan Heights, 16 Grand Canal of China, 13, 24 Grand Canyon, 10 Gravitation, 261 Gravity, acceleration and, 42 Great Bear Lake, 62 Great Lakes, 9 precipitation, 135 Great Manmade River Project, 84 Greek philosophers, 28 Green-Ampt model, 179–182 Greenland, 60 Grey bodies, 155 Groundwater, 30, 106, 202–203 confined vs. unconfined, 61 contamination, 98, 101 forests and, 203 level, 202 in level terrain, 203 perched, 203 seasonal fluctuations and, 203 in steep terrain, 202–203 table, 61 Gulf Coast, 82 Gymnospermae, 111

H H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest, 141 H. J. Andrews Watersheds, Oregon, 27 Halley, Edmund, 28 Hazard Mitigation Grant program, 97 "Head" of water, 12 Heat, 40 Heat balance, earth's surface and atmosphere, 71–72 Heat capacity, 40 Heat island, 31 Heat of fusion, 39 Heat of vaporization, 39 Heat storage, 51 Helley-Smith sampler, 352, 356 Herbal medicine, 123 Hillslopes, soil loss, 242 Hippotamus, 6 Ho-Moo-Du, 24 Hot springs, 8 Hot-wire anemometers, 325 Huang Ho. See Yellow River Hubbard Brook, New Hampshire, 28 Humidity, 132 Hydration, 9, 50 Hydraulic conductivity, 153, 180 Hydraulic debarker, 19 Hydraulic gradient, 180 Hydraulic head, 43, 180

365 Hydraulic jacks, 19, 42 Hydraulic jump, 323 Hydraulic radius, 47, 48, 239 Hydrobiology, 29 Hydrodynamics, 41 Hydrogeology, 29 Hydrograph, 183–184 analysis, 188 discharge, 352 prominent features, 183 peak flow, 184 recession limb, 184 rising limb, 183 Hydrokinetics, 41 Hydrologic cycle, 30, 65–71 energy budget, 70–71 hydrologic budget, 67–70 processes, 66–67 Hydrologic simulation, 188 Hydrology, 28 disciplines, 28–34 groundwater, 30 Hydrolysis, 6, 9, 50 Hydrometeorology, 29 Hydrometry, 29 Hydroponics, 18 Hydropower, 12 Hydrosphere, 119 Hydrostatics, 41 Hydrotherapy, 8–9 Hyetology, 30

I Ice, thermal conductivity of, 38 Iceberg harvesting, 86 Icecaps, 59 Indian Ocean, 59 Inertial forces, 46, 47 Invertebrates, 219 Invertivores, 217 Irrigation, 17 efficiency, 87 system, 24 Israel, 16

J Jackson turbidity units, 54, 350 Johnstown Flood (1899), 10 Jordan River, 14, 16 Julian day, 162

K Kinetic energy, 12 total, 40

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

L La Nana Creek watershed, 290 Lake(s), 7–8, 62 compensation depth, 7 life zones, 7 limnetic, 7 littoral, 7 profundal, 7 Lake Baikal, 62 Lake Mead, 84 Lake Superior, 62 Lake Tana, Ethiopia, 16 Lake Victoria, Tanzania, 16 Laminar flow, 46, 240 Land areas, 119 forested vs. nonforested, 168–171 Land drainage, 94 Land use, 186–187 sediment yield and, 270 types, 270 water quality and, 207 Landslides, 3, 10, 114, 211, 259 Large woody debris, 221–222 timber harvesting, 222 Latent heat, 157 Latitudes, 115 Leaching, 44 Leaf area index, 113, 137, 169 Lenticles, 154 Libya, 84 Limnology, 29 Lithosphere, 119 Litter interception, 136, 137–138 Lo Lan, 25 Longwave radiation, 51 Lysimeters, 167, 291, 313 floating, 44, 167, 291 percolation, 167 pressure, 356 weighing, 167, 291

M Macroorganisms, 114 Manning equation, 190–193, 328 Marsh-McBirney electromagnetic flowmeter, 326 Mass movements, 259–261 buttressing and, 261 deforestation and, 261 forest harvesting and, 261 occurrences, 260–261 road construction and, 261 Medical hydrology, 34 Mediterranean Sea, 28, 84 Melting points, 49, 50, 57 Menes, 30 Mercury, 50 Mesophytes, 197 Mesquite, 87

Meteorology, 30 Microbial communities, 219 Microorganisms, 114 Mineral Wells, Texas, 8 Mississippi River flood (1927), 10 Mississippi River flood (1993), 1, 10, 93 Missouri River flood (1993), 1, 10 Mohenjo Daro, Pakistan, 26 Monteith-Penman equation, 137 Moore, Willis L., 27 Mulches, 102, 154 Multiple-Use and Sustained Yield Act (1960), 123 Musgrave equation, 242

N Nappe, 333 National Bureau of Standards, 283 National Flood Insurance Program (1968), 96 National Flood Insurance Reform Act (1994), 96 National Forest Management Act (1976), 123 National forests, 14, 105 National parks, 14, 105, 126 National Pollutants Discharge Elimination System, 103 National Weather Service, 95 National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968), 125 National Wilderness Preservation System, 125 National wildlife refugees, 105 Natural Resources Conservation Service, 182, 188 Nekton, 8 Nephelometric units, 54, 350 Net radiation, 70, 155–156 Nile River, 2, 16 flood, 25 as "life blood" of Egypt, 93 Nilometer, 25 Nipher shield, 312 Nitrification process, 209 Nitrogen, 204 Kjeldahl total, 204 North American Great Lakes, 62 physical features, 65 North American Water and Power Alliance, 84 Nutrient concentrations, 205, 206

O Oceanography, 29 Oceans, 8, 59 Octapent gage, 310 Olympic Mountains, 82 Omnivores, 217 Optical turbidity systems, 349–350 Organic Act (1897), 105 Orographic effects, 117 Outlines of Medicinal Plants, 123 Oxford, Mississippi, 28 Oxidation, 50 Oxygen

Index dissolved, 8, 51–52, 213–214 saturated concentration, water temperature and, 8, 52 Oxygen demand, biochemical, 52

P Pacific Ocean, 59 Paleohydrology, 29, 32 Panama Canal, 13 Parsons, West Virginia, 28, 156 Percent possible sunshine for U.S. cities, 160 Percolation, 44, 67, 70, 167, 178 Periodic regression function, 159 Peripheral Canal, 15 Permeability, 202 Perrault, Pierre, 28 pH, 52–53 Pharmaceutical pools, 3, 125 Phosphorus, 204, 205 Photosynthesis, 6, 52, 111 Phreatophytes, 87 Physical oceanography, 29 Phytoplankton, 7 Pinchot, Gifford, 27 Piping soils, 257 Pisciivores, 217 Pit gage, 313 Pitot tube, 323 Plankton, 8 Plantations, 110 Poiseuille, 46 Polar regions, 59 Polynomial regression, 286 Ponds, 7–8 compensation depth, 7 life zones, 7 limnetic, 7 littoral, 7 profundal, 7 Potamology, 29 Precipitation, 23, 65 adjusted, 311 chemistry, 205 convective, 134–135 cyclonic, 135 delay, 140 deposition, 66 description, 66 dissolved substances in bulk, 206 effective, 136 factors affecting, 66 forests and, 27, 144–146 formation, 133–134 condensation nuclei, 133, 146 cooling mechanisms, 133 growth of water droplets, 133–134 moisture convergence, 134 gages, 308–310 distance to surrounding, 316

367 globoscopic pictures and efficiency of, 315–316 improvements, 312–316 installation, 312 non-recording, 308–309 orifice, 308 pit, 313 recording, 309–310 semispherical orifices, 314 shielded, 312–313 spherical, 314–315 tilted, 313 tipping-bucket, 310 weighing-type recording, 310 wind-speed adjustment, 313–314 gradient, 134 gross, 136 horizontal, 138, 145 measurements, 307–316 accuracy, 310–312 areal representatives, 307 catch deficiency and, 311 errors, 310–311 history, 308 point-precipitation, 307 radar observations for, 307 random vs. systematic errors in, 310–311 satellite for, 307 systematic vs. systematic errors in, 310–311 techniques, 307 underwater ambient noises for, 307 wind effects and, 311 mechanical barriers, 139–140 net, 136 occult, 138 orographic, 134 processes, 132–135 R values based on monthly or annual, 246 true, 311–312 types, 134–135 Pressure defined, 42 head, 43 lysimeters, 356 saturation vapor, 39 transducer, 321 Protoplasm, 6 Psychrometrc constant, 154 Psychrometric constant, 161 Pygmy meters, 324

R Radiation balance at ground surface, 155, 156 diffuse, 155 extraterrestrial, 157, 162–163 longwave, 51 net, 70, 155–156 absorption, 155 reflection, 155

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solar constant, 155 transmission, 155 sky, 155 solar, 9, 51, 121 terrestrial, 70, 155 Rain. See also Rainfall coalescence of droplets, 134 gages, 310 (See also Precipitation, gages) harvesting, 85–86 terminal velocity and diameter of drops, 135, 139 Rain-shadow, 82 Raindrop diameter, 235 energy, 235, 240 terminal velocity, 235, 269, 311 Rainfall. See also Precipitation, Raindrop channel, 182 deforestation and, 146 depth-area-duration, 177 effective, 177 intensity, 176, 235 percolation capacity and, 176 soil infiltration and, 176 intensity-duration-frequency atlas, 189 intensity-duration-return, 177 splash action and, 240 terminal velocity, 235, 236 transport, 240 velocity, 235, 236 Rainmaking, 83 Rainwater-catchment systems, 85 wind and efficiency of, 311, 314 Rangeland ecosystems, 30 Rangeland Hydrology, 29 Regression elevations, test for two, 300 Relative humidity, 132 Research, 281–283. See also Field studies applied, 281 assessment of treatment effects, 296–302 basic, 281 calibration in, 295–296 cause and effect studies, 281 methods, 284–295 (See also Watershed(s), experimental) experimental plots, 291–292 gravimetric, 284 hydrometric, 284 upstream-downstream approach, 291 objectives, 281 prediction in, 281 subjects, 281 forest functions, 281 water functions, 281 watershed functions, 281 Reynolds number, 46–47 Riffle, 216 Rio Grande, 15, 17 Riparian zone, 3, 51, 104–105, 196 removal, 217 treatment, 197 River(s), 8, 62

dissolved oxygen, 8 River stage defined, 320 measurement, 320–321, 320–322 automatic, 320–321 manual, 320, 321 Rivers and Harbors Act (1899), 28, 103 Road drainage, 208 Rocks fragments, 214 porosity, 61 Rocky Mountains, 81, 200 Roughness coefficient, 191, 192 Roughness Reynolds number, 264 Runoff, 33, 65, 67 coefficient, 189, 191, 286 curve number, 188, 189 defined, 176 direct, 182 duration, 184 generation, 176–183 rainfall intensity and, 176–178 soil infiltration and, 178–182 groundwater, 176 laminar flow vs. turbulent flow, 240 mechanics, 182–183 samples, 345 subsurface, 176, 257 surface, 67, 176, 256 turbulent flow vs. laminar flow, 240

S Sahara Desert, 79 Saline water, 58–59, 84 Salinization, 18 Saltcedar, 87 Salted water, 84 Sand-dune, 3 stabilization, 25 Saturation, 152 deficit, 133 vapor pressure, 39 Sea water, 41, 84 contamination, 98 Secchi disk, 8 Sediment(s), 54–55 bed-load, 54, 262, 263 particle diameter, 352 sampling, 353–357 (See also Sediment(s), sampling) variation, 352–353 concentration, 54, 342 control, 6 delivery ratio, 264–265 flow-carrying capacity, 234 forest practices on, 219–221 load, 54 rating-curve, 266, 267 saltation, 54

Index sampling, 342–352, 353–357 acoustic and ultrasonic measurement, 357 acoustic Doppler current profiler for, 350–351 automatic devices, 348–351 basket-type, 355 calculations for, 351–352, 357 composite, 344 depth-integrated, 344 depth-integrating devices for, 346, 347 devices, 346–351, 355–357 discrete, 344 efficiency, 354 electric pump for, 349 equal-discharge-increment method, 345–346 equal-transit-rate method, 346 frequency, 343–344 grab, 344 hand operated devices, 346–348 number of verticals, 343 optical turbidity systems for, 349–351 point-integrated, 344, 346 point-integrating devices for, 346, 347 pressure-difference, 355 radioactive turbiometric gages for, 351 rising stage devices, 348 site selection, 342–343 tracers for, 356–357 trap, 355–356 tray, 355 stream habitats and, 219 suspended, 54, 342–352 sampling, 342–352 (See also Sediment(s), sampling) transport, 47, 238, 262–264 turbidity and, 350 variation, 342 yield, 54, 234, 342 estimation of, 264–268 land use and, 270 physical models, 267–268 statistical models, 267–268 watershed area and, 265 Seine River, 28 Sensible heat, 157 Sewer leakage, 98 Shear strength, 114, 237, 260 Shear stress, 46, 47, 239, 260 critical, 263 Shearing force, 47 Shelterbelt, 122, 139, 140 Shielded gage, 312–313 Simple linear equation, 296 Sinkholes, 257 Site preparation, 210 "Six-Day War," 16 Sky emissivity, 155 Slope stabilization, 270 Snow accumulation, 85, 140–144 ablation rates, 141 clearcut size, 141–143 forest effects, 140–141

369 water yields, 143–144 slope gradient and, 143 wind effects, 141 Snow hydrology, 29 Snowmelt, 140 Snowpack management, 29 Soil(s) angle of internal friction, 260 bulk density, 179, 258 cohesion, 260 conservation, 33 detachment, 235–240 capacity, 239 rate, 240 erodibility, 246 erosion, 25, 234–241 (See also Erosion) C factor and, 246 LS factor and, 246 physically based model, 251 rate of, 121 shear stress and, 47 granulation, 114 groups, 189 heat flux, 159 infiltration capacity, 179–182 Green-Ampt model, 179–182 SCS RCN approach, 182 moisture profile, 179 particles, 214 size, 238 porosity, 114, 178 saline, 203 vapor diffusivity, 153 water, 61 internal, 61 juvenile, 61 storage, 67, 70 water-holding capacity, 114, 167, 178 Soil Conservation Service, 182, 188, 242 Solar altitude, 218 Solar system, 57 radiation, 9, 51, 121 (See also Radiation) total daily, 158 Sounding weight, 324 South Fork Lake, Pennsylvania, 10 Southeast Anatolia Project, 16 Specific conductance, 207 Specific gravity, 12 Specific humidity, 132 Spherical gage, 314–315 Springs, 202 Staff gage, 25, 320 sectional, 320 Statistical analysis, 188 Stemflow, 136, 138 Stephen-Boltzmann constant, 155 Stokes's law, 241 Stomata, 154 Storm energy, 236–237 Stream(s), 8 azimuth, 218

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

channels, 176 hydraulic geometry, 329 exponents, 331 crossings, 208 current meters, 324 discharge, 327–328 flumes for measurement of, 335–338 (See also Flumes) gravimetric method for measurement of, 327–328 orifices for measurement of, 338 precalibrated devices for measurement of, 332–338 rating curve, 332 rating equation, 331 slope-area method for measurement of, 328 velocity-area method for measurement of, 328 volumetric method for measurement of, 327–328 weirs for measurement of, 333–335 (See also Weirs) dissolved substances in, 8, 206, 213–214 effluent, 67 first, 221, 285 flow velocity, 322–327 measurement, 322–327 acoustic Doppler current profiler for, 327 acoustic flowmeters for, 326–327 electromagnetic method, 325 hot-wire anemometers for, 325 methods, 322–327 salt-dilution method for, 325 site selection, 322 tracers for, 325 variation, 322 food supplies, 217 headwater, 215 perennial, 202 power, 48 profile, 261 second order, 221 sediment, 10, 25, 31, 214–215, 234 suspended, 342–352 (See also Sediment(s), suspended) temperature, 207, 213 warmwater, 213 water quality, 204 Stream-bank, 3 storage, 177 Stream-gaging station, 285 Stream habitat, 212–216, 219 cover, 216 fish rating system, 217 parameters, 213–216 pools, 215–216 qualitative evaluation, 217 quality index, 216 rapid bioassessment protocols, 216 rating indexes, 216–217 rearing, 213 sediment and, 219

stress index, 217 substrate, 215 suitability curve, 217 suitability index, 216 Stream order, 212 Streamflow, 213. See also Watershed(s), discharges chemistry, 205 crest, 183 critical condition, 331 estimation, 188 hydrograph analysis, 188 hydrologic simulation, 188 Manning equation, 190–193 rational equation, 188–190 SCN RCN model, 188 statistical analysis, 188 time-series analysis, 188 extremes, 200–201 low flows, 201 peak flows, 200–201 flow-duration curve, 201 subcritical condition, 331 supercritical condition, 331 timing of, 199–200 Streamside management zones, 221 Strip cropping, 102 Strip-mining, 100 Sublimation, 38, 39, 141 Suez Canal, 13 Summer solstice, 143 Sun azimuth, 218 Sun-path diagram, 142 Surface detention, 177 Surface tension, 45–46, 137 Swiss Central Experimental Station, 27

T Taiwan, 79 Temperate forests, 3, 115, 116–117 Temperature mean annual air, 118 optimum, 51 scales, 12, 50 vertical gradient, 117 water, 51 Temperature-cooling mechanisms, 66 Terracing, 102 Terrestrial ecosystems, 6 Terrestrial radiation, 70 Texas State Soil and Water Conservation Board Texas Water Commission, 2 Thawing, 256 Thermal conductivity, 38 air vs. water, 41 defined, 41 water vs. air, 41 Thermal stratification, 42 Throughfall, 136, 138 Tidal power, 12

Index Tigris River, 2, 15–16 cradle of civilization, 23 Tillage, 154 Tilted gage, 313 Timberline, 30 Time-series analysis, 188 Tortuosity factor, 153 Total kinetic energy, 40 Tractive force, 47 Transducer, 356 Transpiration, 3, 67, 281 reduction, 87, 139 stomatal resistance and, 171 Transport, 47, 238, 240–241 capacity, 240 rainfall, 240 runoff, 240–241 Tree(s), 111–115, 169–171 baobab, 86 daily evapotranspiration rates, 170, 171 length of shadow cast by, 142, 143, 218 root systems, 113–114, 270 stems, 114–115, 120 Tropic of Cancer, 116 Tropic of Capricorn, 116 Tropical forest(s), 3, 115, 116 area, 114 as genetic pools, 3, 125 as pharmaceutical pools, 3, 125 savanna, 116 scrub, 116 seasonal, 116 Tropical rain forests, 110, 116 Tropical storms, 90 Trough trap sampler, 356 Tsunamis, 91 Tukianguien irrigation system, 24 Tundra, 115 Turbidity, 350 measurement of, 350 Turbulent flow, 46, 240 Turkey, 16

U Ultrasonic sensors, 320, 321 Underground tunnels, 257 United States, 62–65, 68–69 major rivers, 63 streamflow for, 65 seasonal precipitation, 82 total volume of water, 62 water supply, 80–82 water withdrawals, 79, 80, 81 Universal Soil Less Equation, 243–246 modified, 267 P factor, 249 R factor, 244–246 revised, 250–251 Urban Hydrology, 29

371 Urbanization, 90 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 95 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 95 U.S. Forest Service, 27, 76, 78 U.S. Geological Survey, 76, 78, 95 U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 8 U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service, 95, 182, 188 U.S. Water Resources Council, 76, 78 USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 537, 248

V Vadose water, 61 Vapor density, 39, 132 gradient, 39, 152 Vapor diffusion, 39–40 Vapor pressure gradient, 137, 152 Vaporization, 39, 67 from bare soils, 153–154 defined, 151 heat of, 70 processes, 152–154 from vegetative soils, 154 from water surfaces, 152–153 Vegetation alpine, 117 control, 87–88 limitations, 88 hydrologic effects, 270–271 mechanical effects, 269–270 timberline, 117 tundra, 117 vertical distribution, 118 Velocity gradient, 46 Velocity head, 43, 323 Vernal equinox, 142 Vertical temperature gradient, 117 Virgin Islands, 85 Viscosity, 46, 137 absolute, 46 dynamic, 46 kinematic, 46 Viscous forces, 46, 47 VUV sampler, 354

W Wagon Wheel Gap, 27, 295–302 Warm front, 135 Washload, 342 Water absorption of solar radiation, 9 atmospheric, 62 augmentation, 83–86, 139, 197 biological functions, 6–9 boiling point, 38, 50 chemical functions, 9 chemical reactions, 49–50

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Forest Hydrology: An Introduction to Water and Forests

in chemical reactions, 9 conservation, 31, 86–88 for cooling processes, 18 cutting power, 10 demand, 75 density, 38 destruction caused by, 10 diffusion resistance, 139 diseases associated with, 13 dissolved oxygen, 8, 51–52 distribution, 2 erosion, 234, 252 formation, 49 freezing, 237 freezing point, 50 fresh, 59–62 frost line, 38 harvesting, 31 heat of fusion, 39, 49 heat of vaporization, 39 in history, 23–28 Asian, 23–25 European, 26–27 Middle Eastern, 25–26 United States, 27–28 household conservation, 86 hydraulic drop, 12 latent heat, 38 melting point, 49, 50 molecular diffusion, 152 molecules, 9, 38, 48 covalent bonds, 48 hydrogen bonds, 48 pH, 9 physical functions, 9–13 pollution (See Water pollution) potential, 154 power, 12 price control, 88 properties, scientific standard for, 12 purification, 26, 32 quality (See Water quality) rights (See Water rights) saline (See Saline water) sediment-carrying capacity of flowing, 240 shortages, 1 socioeconomic functions, 13–17 soil, 61 specific gravity, 12 specific heat, 12, 40 specific weight, 43, 239 spectrum, 1–2 states, 38 steam line, 38 storage capacity, 89 surface tension, 9 temperature, 51, 217–219 thermal capacity, 9, 12 thermal conductivity, 41, 157, 159 triple point, 38 vadose, 61

vapor condensation, 10 molecular weight, 153, 161 vertical distribution, 61 viscosity, 9 withdrawals, 17, 75, 79, 80 Water-based fuel, 12 Water consumption global, 75 trends, 76, 77 United States, 75–76 Water Erosion Prediction, 238 Water-jet perforator, 19 Water-level recorder, 321 Water mill, 12 Water pollution, 1, 74 agents of, 98–100 acid mine drainage, 100 classification, 204 disease-causing, 99 heat, 98–99 oxygen-demanding wastes, 99 stream sediments, 98 legislation, 28, 101 nonpoint sources, 101, 212 point sources, 100–101 Water quality, 97–103 control, 101–103 flowing through forested watersheds, 204 forests and, 3 land use and, 207 legislation, 28, 103 standards, 102, 206, 207 Water Quality Act (1965), 28 Water Quality Act (1987), 28 Water Quality Improvement Act (1970), 28 Water reclamation, 84–85 Water rights, 15, 74, 103–106 diffused water, 104 hybrid doctrine, 105 prior appropriation, 105 reserved-rights doctrine, 105 riparian, 104–105 surface water, 104–106 Water-sensitive substance, 320 Water supply, 78–82 global, 78–80 Water translocation, 83–84 Water working, 18 Water yield, 195–199 cutting small areas and, 196 in eastern U.S., 196 forest-cutting intensity and, 195–196 precipitation and, 197, 199 soil-topographic conditions and, 199 species and, 197 Waterlogging, 18 Watershed(s), 27–28, 33, 69–70 chemical-nutrient budgets, 205 cumulative effects, 211–212 discharges, 183–193 (See also Stream(s), discharge)

Index climate and, 185 factors affecting, 185–187 topography and, 185–186 topography land use and, 186–187 experimental, 284–291 calibration, 284, 285 paired approach, 284–289 criticisms, 289 replicated approach, 290–291 selection process, 284–285 single approach, 289–290 treatment effects, 288 United States, 280 forested, 92–93, 182 quality of water flowing through, 204 gross erosion, 242–264 hydrologic, 293 input-output budgets, 204–205 leakage, 69 rangeland, 182 research, 280 (See also Research; Watershed(s), experimental) plot, 292 sediment loss and, 54 simulation, 293 size floods and, 91, 92 hydrology and, 185 sediment yield and, 265 small, 70, 94 storage, 67, 89, 177 Watershed Management, 29, 33 Weathering processes, 204 Weeks Act (1911), 27 Weirs, 333–335 contracted, 333 critical, 333 defined, 333 features, 333 free, 333

373 subcritical, 333 submerged, 333 suppressed, 333 types, 333–335 Wells, Middle Eastern, 25 Wetland(s), 6–7, 31 lacustrine, 32 riverine, 32 Wetland Hydrology, 29, 32 Wetted perimeter, 47, 192 Wex, Gustave, 26 White Nile, 16 Wilderness, 123 Wilderness Act (1964), 125 Wind drag velocity, 121 erosion, 3, 121, 234 precipitation measurement and, 311 velocity, 122 Windbreak, 139 Winter solstice, 142, 143 World's population, 3 Write Your Own program, 97

Y Yangtze River, 25 flood (1996), 92 Yellow River, 351 flood-1931, 2, 89 Yellowstone National Park, 126 Yu, the Great, 24

Z Zone of aeration, 61, 67 Zoning, floodplains, 95–96